{"page": 1, "printed_page": null, "text": "This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized\nby Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the\ninformation in books and make it universally accessible.\n\nhttps://books.google.com\n\n"}
{"page": 2, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 3, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARY\n\nMichigan State\nUniversity\n\n"}
{"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "L\n\nMICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES\n\nL\n3 1293 00836 5094\n\nPICK.1988\n\nROOM USE ONLY\n\n"}
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{"page": 6, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n\n"}
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{"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nJOURNAL\nOF\n\nPROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES\n\nSESSION OF THE YEAR 1895\n\nHELD AT\n\nDENVER, COLORADO\n\nPUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION\n\nST . PAUL\n1895\n\n"}
{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n6\n7\n6\n1\n\n1895\n\nPRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPIONEER\n\nPRESS Co. ,\n\nST. PAUL, MINN.\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS .\n\nPAGE.\n1\n\nConstitution,\nBy-Laws,\nAct of Incorporation,\nCalendar of Meetings,\nOfficers for 1894-95,\n\n4\n\n5\n6\n7\n\nOfficers for 1895-96,\n\n10\n\nTreasurer's Report,\nReport of Emergency Fund,\nReport of Trustees-1894,\n\n15\n\n13\n\n16\n\nGENERAL SESSIONS .\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\n\n17\n\nReport of Committee on Amendments to Constitution,\nReport of Committee on Resolution,\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors,\nMinutes of Adjourned Meeting of Board of Directors ,\nMinutes of Meeting of New Board of Directors ,\nAddresses of Welcome,\n\n23\n31\n38\n42\n\n45\n53\n\nResponses,\nAddresses,\nPhysical Training,\n\n59\n\nWhat Knowledge is of Most Worth ?\nNext Step in the Education of the Indian,\nPrinciples Upon Which Co-ordination of Studies Should Proceed,\n\n69\n80\n\nWhat Has Been Accomplished in Co-ordination in Natural Science,\n\n97\n\nWhat Has Been Accomplished in Co-ordination in History and Literature.\n\nDiscussion,\n\n65\n65\n\n87\n\n104\n109\n\nEducation According to Nature,\n\n114\n\nEducation of Public Opinion,\n\n126\n\nNew Standards of Patriotic Citizenship,\n\n134\n\nStudy of American History as a Training for Good Citizenship,\n\n139\n\nEthical Element in Patriotism ,\nDiscussion,\n\n142\n\nEffect of the Theory of Evolution on Education,\n\n149\n\nScience and Education,\n\n161\n\n147\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\niv\n\nInstruction and Improvement of Teachers-\n\nPAGE.\n165\n\nBy Teachers' Institutes,\nBy Teachers' Classes ,\nBy Teachers' Reading Circles,\n\n173\n179\n\n184\n\nDiscussion,\nRelation of Geography and History ,\nEducational Values,\nMemorial Addresses-Report of Committee on Necrology,\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\n( Cleveland\n\n192\n197\n204\n\nMeeting) .\n\n213\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\n\nReport of Committee on Resolutions,\nHow to Test the Quality of a Teacher's Work,\nDiscussion,\nReport of Committee of Fifteen,\nReport of Sub-Committee on the Training of Teachers,\n\n216\n218, 222\n224\n232\n\n238\n253\n\nDiscussion,\n\nChanges-Wise and Unwise-in Grammar and High Schools,\n\n259\n\nRecent Improvements in Primary School Work,\nReport of Sub-Committee on the Correlation of Studies in Elementary Education,\n\n279\n\nDissents from Majority Report,\n\n333\n\nDiscussion,\n\n287\n\n343\n\nPowers and Duties of State Superintendents,\nDiscussion,\n\n350\n\n357\n\nHistory Teaching in Schools ,\n\n360\n\nTeaching of Political Economy in Secondary Schools,\nReport of Sub-Committee on Organization of City School Systems.\nDissents from Majority Report,\n\n375\n\n370\n\n388\n\n389\n\nDiscussion,\n\n398\n\n/ Individualism\nDiscussion,in Mass Education,\n\n406\n\nChild Study-Systematic and Unsystematic,\n\nNATIONAL\n\n412\n\nCOUNCIL.\n\nConstitution,\nOfficers for 1894-95,\nOfficers for 1895-96,\nList of Members ,\n\n430\n\n434\n434\n434\n\nHonorary Members,\n\n435\n\nList of Members Deceased,\n\n435\n\nStanding Committees,\n\n436\n\nSecretary's Minutes ,\nRecord of Attendance,\nPapers and Discussions ,\n\n442\n\nMoral Instruction in Elementary Schools Discussion ,\nReport of Committee on Elementary Education-Economy in Elementary\nEducation ,\n\nDiscussion,\n\n439\n\n443\n443\n\n447\n\n453\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS.\n\nV\n\nPAGE.\n\nReport of Committee on State School Systems-Ungraded Schools,\n\n459\n472\n\nDiscussion,\n\nRound Table Report on Influence of Herbart's Doctrine,\n\n475\n478\n\nDiscussion,\n\nReport of Committee on Pedagogics- Laws of Mental Congruence and Energy ,\n\n482\n497\n\nDiscussion,\n\nReport of Committee on Normal Education-The Kind and Amount of Prac501\n\ntice\n-Work,\nKINDERGARTEN DEPARTMENT .\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\nOpening Address,.\n\n510\n\nSocial Settlement and the Kindergarten,\nWork of the Pestalozzi-Froebel Haus ,\nKindergarten and the Home,\nDiscussion,\nMothers' Meetings-How to Conduct Them,\nMothers' Meetings Among the Poor,\nComparison of Theories of Froebel and Herbart ,\n\n514\n\nDiscussion,\nFaculty and Ministry of Song,\n\n545\n\n512\n\n525\n531\n533\n533\n535\n538\n\n551\n557\n\nDiscussion,\n\nKnowledge of the Kindergarten Indispensable to Primary Instruction,\nELEMENTARY\n\n557\n\nDEPARTMENT .\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\nSubstitution of the Teacher for the Text-Book,\n\n561\n\n562\n570\n\nDiscussion,\n\nNature Study and Literature,\nDepartmental Teaching in Grammar Grades,\nSECONDARY\n\n570\n572\n\nDEPARTMENT.\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\nRecommendations of Head Masters' Association of Boston,\nPresident's Address,\n\n579\n\nShould Electives in High Schools be by Courses or by Subjects ?\nDiscussion,\nProspects for a Federal Educational Union,\nDiscussion,\n\n586\n\nBiology in the First Year of Secondary Schools,\nPhysical Geography-Its Possibilities and Difficulties,\n\nDiscussion,\nEthical Instruction Through Sociology,\nDiscussion,\nAddress of Committee of Twelve of American Philological Association,\nHIGHER\n\n580\n582\n\n592\n594\n600\n604\n615\n620\n624\n632\n\n632\n\nDEPARTMENT .\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\nOrganization of the University of Toronto,\n\n636\n638\n\n"}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nvi\n\nPAGE.\n\nFuture Organization of Higher Education in the United States,\nDiscussion,\n\n645\n653\n\nA Conservative View of College Electives-Discussion,\nStandard of Admission to Professional Schools,\nRelation of a College Course to Professional Schools,\n\n657\n661\n\n665\n\nNORMAL DEPARTMENT .\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\nPsychology for Normal Schools,\n\n672\n\nReal Province of Method,\n\n674, 681\n689, 694\n\nOrganization of Training Schools and Practice Teaching,\nCorrelation of Studies in Normal School,\n\n709, 714\n\nMANUAL\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\n700,707\n\nDEPARTMENT .\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\nPresident's Address-Philosophy of Manual Training,\n\n718\n720\n\n✓Modifications of Secondary School Courses Most Demanded by the Conditions of To-day,\nIndustrial Education a Necessity of the Times ,\nDiscussion,\n\n731\n741\n746\n\nEffects of Manual Training,\nPlea for the Systematic Extension of Industrial Training,\nIndustrial Education as Applied to Indian Schools,\nDiscussion ,\n\n748\n753\n759\n\n764\n\nMUSIC DEPARTMENT .\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\nPresident's Address,\n\n765\n\nPurpose of Music Study in the Public Schools,\nHow Pupils Learn to Know and Do in Music.\n\n771\n\nCourse of Music in Public Schools ,\nMusic in Relation to Other Studies ,\nDiscussion ,\n\n785\n\nChildren's Voices ,\n\n790\n\nSongs for Children,\nMind and Music,\nVocal Harmony,\n\n795\n\n767\n\n778\n\n788\n790\n\n793\n\n802\n\nART\n\nDEPARTMENT.\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\n\n808\n\nPresident's Address ,\n\n810\n\nArt in Magazines,\nDiscussion,\nPictorial Drawing in Primary and Grammar Grades,\nPlace of Art Education in General Education,\n\n814\n\nDiscussion,\nRound Table Discussion-Methods of Teaching,\n\n821\n822\n830\n846\n\n859\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS.\n\nvii\n\nBUSINESS DEPARTMENT.\n\nPAGE.\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\nTreasurer's Report,\nPresident's Address,\nExchangeable Value of the Alliance of Business Educators' Association with\nNational Educational Association,\nGuaranteeing Positions, or Fraudulent Advertising,\n\n862\n\nShorthand and Typewriting,\nEthical Side of Business Training,\n\n882\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n865\n866\n\n873\n879\n\n890\n\nDEPARTMENT.\n891\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\nReport of Child StudyIn Iowa,\nIn Minnesota,\n\n893\n895\n\nIn New York,\n\n899\n\nOn Pacific Coast,\n\n902\n\nAt University of California,\nIn Indiana,\nIs Child Study Practicable for the Teacher?\n\n904\n\nP'unishment as Seen by Children,\n\n914\n\nMethod and Scope of Child Study,\nChild Study With the Co-operation of the Parents,\n\n924\n\nReport on School Hygiene,\n\n931\n\nReport on Ventilation and Heating of Schools,\n\n934\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n905\n906\n\n929\n\nDEPARTMENT .\n\n944\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\nObject of the New Department,\nPhysical Training in Public Schools,\nThe New Department,.\nVoice and Body,\n\n946\n946\n949\n949\n\nSCIENCE DEPARTMENT\n\n951\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\nRound Table,\n\n952\n\nHERBART\n\nCLUB.\n\n959\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nAT\n\nATLANΤΑ .\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\nAddresses of Welcome,\n\n961\n\nAdvancement of the South .\n\n966\n\nResponse,\nTraining of Teachers,\n\n969\n\n963\n\n968\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "viii\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nPAGE.\n\nRelation of Normal to Public Schools,\n\n973\n\nHigher Education in the South,\n\n979\n\nIdeals of Educational Work,\n\n987\n\nEducational Pride and Prejudice,\nProgress in Primary Education,\n\n999\n1004\n\nRural Schools,\n\n1010\n\nWhat the South is Doing for Education and What Education Is Doing for\nthe South,\nEducational Press Association ,\nList of Volumes of Proceedings,\nList of Life and Active Members ,\n\n1021\n\nIndex of Active Membership,\n\n1078\n\nColorado List of Members for 1895 ,\n\n1085\n\n1031\n1032\n1033\n\nSummary of Attendance,\n\n1092\n\nGeneral Index,\n\n1093\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nPREAMBLE.\n\nTo elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in\n\nthe United States, we whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt\nthe following :\n\nCONSTITUTION.\nARTICLE I.-NAME .\n\nThis association shall be styled the National Educational Association.\n\nARTICLE II.-DEPARTMENTS .\n\nSection 1. It shall consist of fifteen departments : The first, of School Superintendence; the second, of Normal Schools ; the third, of Elementary Schools; the\nfourth, of Higher Instruction; the fifth, of Industrial Education; the sixth, of Art\nEducation; the seventh, of Kindergarten Instruction; the eighth, of Music Education; the ninth, of Secondary Education; the tenth, of Business Education ; the\neleventh, of Child Study; the twelfth, of Physical Education; the thirteenth, of\nNatural Science Instruction;\n\nthe fourteenth, of School Administration ;\n\nand a\n\nNational Council of Educatioc .\n\nARTICLE III.-MEMBERSHIP.\n\nSection 1. There shall be three classes of members, namely, active, associate,\nand corresponding.\nSec. 2. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of\n\neducational institutions, including libraries and periodicals, may become active\nmembers. All others who pay an annual membership fee of two dollars may become\n\n"}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n2\n\nassociate members. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by\nthe Directory to be corresponding members. The number of corresponding members\nshall at no time exceed fifty.\nSec. 3. All persons who have been members of the association for any two\n\nyears previous to or including 1895 may be admitted to active membership without\npayment of the enrollment fee. Any person eligible may become an active member\nupon application indorsed by two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year.\n\nAll active members must pay annual dues of two dollars, and will be entitled\nto the volume of proceedings without \"coupon\" or other conditions. If the annual\ndues are not paid within the fiscal year, membership will lapse, and may be restored\nonly on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the\ncurrent year.\n\nAssociate members may receive the volume of proceedings in accordance with\nthe usual \"coupon\" conditions as printed on the membership certificate.\nCorresponding members will be entitled to the volume of proceedings without\nthe payment of fees or other conditions.\nSec. 4. The names of active and corresponding members only will be printed in\nthe volume of proceedings, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses, to be revised annually by the Secretary of the association.\nARTICLE IV.-OFFICERS .\n\nSection 1. The officers of this association shall consist of a President, twelve\nVice Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, a Board of Trustees, and an Executive Committee, as hereinafter provided.\nSec. 2.\n\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of the President of the National\n\nEducational Association, First Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, Chairman of\nthe Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or\ndistrict, to be elected by the association for a term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of such Life Directors as are now (July 10, 1895,) in office.\nThe President of the National Educational Association, First Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, and Chairman of the Board of Trustees shall constitute the\nExecutive Committee.\nSec. 3. The elective officers of the association shall be chosen by ballot, unless\n\notherwise ordered, on the third day of each annual session, a majority of the votes\ncast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of\nthe annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are\nchosen, except as hereinafter provided.\nSec. 4. Each department shall be administered by a President, Vice President,\nSecretary, and such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs ;\nbut no person shall be elected to any office of any department, or of the association , who\nis not, at the time of the election, a member of the association.\nSec. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the association and of\nthe Board of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding officer. In his absence, the first Vice President in order who is present shall\npreside; and in the absence of all Vice Presidents a pro tempore Chairman shall be\nappointed on nomination, the Secretary putting the question.\nSec. 6. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings\nof the general meetings of the association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, and shall conduct such correspondence as the Directors may assign, and shall\nhave his records present at all meetings of the association and of the Board of\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION.\n\n3\n\nDirectors. The Secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the\nduties usually pertaining to his office, keep a list of the members of his department.\nSec. 7.\n\nThe Treasurer shall receive and under the direction of the Board of\n\nTrustees hold in safe-keeping all moneys paid to the association; shall expend\nthe same only upon the order of said board; shall keep an exact account of his re-\n\nceipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter, which accounts, ending the\nfirst day of July each year, he shall render to the Board of Trustees, and, when approved by said board, he shall report the same to the Board of Directors. The\nTreasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge of his duties as may be\nrequired by the Board of Trustees; and he shall continue in office until the first\n\nmeeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the association next succeeding that for which he is elected.\n\nSec. 8. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their\nown body; shall have in charge the general interests of the association, excepting\nthose herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees ; shall make all necessary arrange-\n\nments for its meetings, and shall do all in its power to make it a useful and honorable institution. Upon the written application of twenty members of the association for permission to establish a new department, they may grant such permission. Such new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights\nand privileges as the others. The formation of such department shall in effect be\na sufficient amendment to this constitution for the insertion of its name in Article\n\nII. , and the Secretary shall make the necessary alterations .\nSec. 9. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the\nBoard of Directors for a term of four years, and the President of the association,\nwho shall be a member ex- officio during his term of office. At the election of the\n\nTrustees in 1886, one Trustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years, one\nfor three years, and one for four years ; and annually thereafter at the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the association,\none Trustee shall be elected for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in\nsaid Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the\nBoard of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a Trustee from\ntwo consecutive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership therein.\nThe Board of Trustees thus elected and constituted shall be the executive financial\n\nofficers of the association, as a body corporate, as conferred by the certificate of\nincorporation under the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third,\nof the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, dated the 24th day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C., and recorded in Liber No. 4, \"Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia.\"\n\nSec. 10. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trustees to provide for safe-keeping and investment of all funds which the association may receive from donations ;\nand the income of such invested funds shall be used exclusively in paying the cost\nof publishing the annual volume of proceedings of the association, excepting when\ndonors shall specify otherwise. It shall also be the duty of the board to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Direct-\n\nors, or by the President and Secretary of the association acting under the authority\nof the Board of Directors; and, when practicable, the Trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding one hundred dollars that may remain in the hands of the\n\nTreasurer after paying the expenses of the association for the previous year.\nARTICLE V.- MEETINGS .\n\nSection 1. The annual meeting of the association shall be held at such time\nand place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors .\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "4\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five\nDirectors .\n\nSec. 3. Any department of the association may hold a special meeting at such\ntime and place as by its own regulations it shall appoint.\nSec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold their regular meetings at the place\nof, and not less than two hours before, the assembling of the association.\n\nSec. 5. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the\nboard or the President shall determine.\n\nSec. 6. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election. At its\nfirst meeting a Committee on Publication shall be appointed, which shall consist\nof the President and the Secretary of the association for the previous year and one\nmember from each department.\nARTICLE VI.-BY- LAWS.\n\nBy-Laws not inconsistent with this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds\nvote of the association.\n\nARTICLE VII.\n\nAMENDMENTS .\n\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the\n\nunanimous vote of the members present; or by a two-thirds vote of the members\npresent, provided that the alteration or amendment has been substantially proposed\nin writing at a previous meeting.\n\nBY- LAWS .\n1. At each regular meeting of the association there shall be appointed a Com-\n\nmittee on Nominations, one on Honorary Members, and one on Resolutions.\n2. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills\napproved by the Board of Directors.\n3. Each paying member of the association shall be entitled to a copy of its\nproceedings .\n\n4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the association or any\nof its departments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or\naddress be published in the volume of proceedings without the consent of the association, upon approval of the Executive Committee.\n\n5. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the association to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the\nPermanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the\ncondition of the said fund, shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees .\nADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS .\n\nThe establishment of a special fund from surplus receipts, after\nthe expenses of the association have been paid, to be known as the\n\"Emergency Fund,\" was recommended by the Board of Trustees, submitted to the Board of Directors at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July\n12, 1892, and the following resolution was adopted :\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT OF INCORPORATION.\n\n5\n\nResolved, That there be established, as soon as the current expenses of the\nassociation will warrant, an Emergency Fund not to exceed $4,000. Said fund\nshall be subject to expenditure by the Board of Trustees in accordance with votes\nof the Board of Directors at any regularly called meeting. The said fund may be\nused for the purpose of meeting deficiencies of income of the association, and for\n\nsuch additional investigations and publications as may be determined by said Board\nof Directors.\n\nACT OF INCORPORATION.\n:\n\nAt a meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Educa-\n\ntional Association, held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 14, 1885,\nthe following resolution was passed:\nResolved, That a committee of three be appointed to secure articles of incorporation for the National Educational Association, under United States or state\nlaws, as speedily as may be.\n\nN. A. Calkins of New York, Thomas W. Bicknell of Massachu-\n\nsetts, and Eli T. Tappan of Ohio were appointed such committee.\nUnder the authority of the resolution quoted above, and with the\napproval of the committee, and by competent legal advice, the Chairman obtained a\nCERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION.\n\nWe, the undersigned, Norman A. Calkins, John Eaton, and Zalmon Richards,\ncitizens of the United States, and two of them citizens of the District of Columbia,\ndo hereby associate ourselves together, pursuant to the provisions of the Act of\nGeneral Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of\nColumbia, under the name of the \"National Educational Association,\" for the full\nperiod of twenty years, the purpose and objects of which are to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to promote the\n*\nTo secure the full benecause of popular education in the United States. *\nfit of said act, we do here execute this our certificate of incorporation as said act\nprovides.\n\nIn witness whereof, we severally set our hands and seals this 24th day of Feb-\n\nruary, 1886, at Washington, D. C.\nNORMAN A. CALKINS\nJOHN EAΤΟΝ.\nZALMON RICHARDS .\n\n[ L. S. ]\n[L. S. ]\n[L. S.]\n\nDuly acknowledged before Michael P. Callan, notary public in and for the District of Columbia, and recorded in Liber No. 4, Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia.\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR OF MEETINGS.\nNATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION.\n1857.-PHILADELPHIA. PA.\n\n(Organized. )\n\nJAMES L. ENOS, Chairman.\nW. E. SHELDON, Secretary.\n1858.-CINCINNATI, OHIO.\n\nZ. RICHARDS, President.\nJ. W. BULKLEY, Secretary.\nA. J. RICKOFF, Treasurer.\n\n1859.-WASHINGTON, D. C.\nA. J. RICKOFF, President.\nJ. W. BULKLEY, Secretary.\nC. S. PENNELL, Treasurer.\n\n1865.- HARRISBURG, PA.\nS. S. GREENE, President.\nW. E. SHELDON, Secretary.\nZ. RICHARDS, Treasurer.\n1866.-INDIANAPOLIS , IND.\nJ. P. WICKERSHAM, President.\nS. H. WHITE, Secretary.\nS. P. BATES, Treasurer.\n1867.-No session.\n\n1860.-BUFFALO , N. Y.\n\nJ. W. BULKLEY, President.\nZ. RICHARDS , Secretary.\nO. C. WIGHT, Treasurer.\n1861, 1862.-No session.\n1863.- CHICAGO, ILL.\nJOHN D. PHILBRICK, President.\nJAMES CRUIKSHANK, Secretary .\nO. C. WIGHT, Treasurer.\n1864.-OGDENSBURG, N. Y.\nW. H. WELLS, President .\n\nDAVID N. CAMP, Secretary.\nZ. RICHARDS, Treasurer .\n\n1868.-NASHVILLE , TENN.\nJ. M. GREGORY, President.\nL. VAN BOKKELEN, Secretary .\nJAMES CRUIKSHANK, Treasurer.\n1869.-TRENTON , N. J.\n\nL. VAN BOKKELEN, President\nW. E. CROSBY, Secretary.\nA. L. BARBER, Treasurer.\n1870.-CLEVELAND, OHIO.\nDANIEL B. HAGER, President.\nA. P. MARBLE, Secretary.\nW. E. CROSBY, Treasurer.\n\nNAME CHANGED TO\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n1871.-ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJ. L. PICKARD, President.\nW. E. CROSBY, Secretary.\nJOHN HANCOCK, Treasurer.\n1872.-BOSTON, MASS.\nE. E. WHITE, President .\nS. H. WHITE, Secretary.\n\nJOHN HANCOCK, Treasurer.\n1873.-ELMIRA, N. Y.\nB. G NORTHROP, President.\nS. H. WHITE, Secretary .\nJOHN HANCOCK, Treasurer .\n- DETROIT, MICH.\n1874.\nS. H. WHITE, President.\nA. P. MARBLE , Secretary.\nJOHN HANCOCK, Treasurer.\n\n1875.-MINNEAPOLIS , MINN.\nW. T. HARRIS, President.\nW. R. ABBотт, Secretary.\nA. P. MARBLE, Treasurer.\n1876.-BALTIMORE , MD.\nW. F. PHELPS, President.\nW. D. HENKLE, Secretary.\nA. P. MARBLE, Treasurer.\n1877.-LOUISVILLE , KY.\nM. A. NEWELL, President .\nW. D. HENKLE , Secretary .\n\nJ. ORMOND WILSON, Treasurer.\n1878. No session .\n1879.-PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJOHN HANCOCK, President.\nW. D. HENKLE, Secretary .\nJ. ORMOND WILSON, Treasurer.\n1880.-CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y.\nJ. ORMOND WILSON, President.\nW. D. HENKLE, Secretary.\nΕ. Τ. TAPPAN, Treasurer.\n1881 -ATLANTA, GA.\nJAMES H. SMART, President .\n\nW. D. HENKLE, Secretary.\nE. T. TAPPAN, Treasurer.\n1882 -SARATOGA SPRINGS , N. Y.\nG. J. ORR, President.\nW. E. SHELDON, Secretary.\nH. S. TARBELL, Treasurer.\n\n1883.- SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nΕ. Τ. TAPPAN, President.\n\nW. E. SHELDON, Secretary .\nN. A. CALKINS , Treasurer.\n\n1884.-MADISON, WIS .\nTHOMAS W. BICKNELL, President.\nH. S. TARBELL, Secretary .\nN. A. CALKINS, Treasurer.\n1885.- SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nF. LOUIS SOLDAN, President.\nW. E. SHELDON, Secretary.\nN. A. CALKINS, Treasurer.\n1886.- TOΡΕΚΑ, ΚΑΝ.\nN. A. CALKINS, President .\nW. E. SHELDON, Secretary .\nE. C. HEWETT. Treasurer.\n1887.-CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. SHELDON, President.\nJ. H. CANFIELD, Secretary.\nE. C. HEWETT, Treasurer.\n1888.- SAN FRANCISCO , CAL ,\nAARON GOVE, President.\nJ. H. CANFIELD, Secretary .\nE. C. HEWETT, Treasurer.\n1889.-NASHVILLE, TENN.\nALBERT P. MARBLE, President.\nJ. H. CANFIELD , Secretary.\nE. C. HEWETT, Treasurer.\n1890.-ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJAMES H. CANFIELD, President .\nW. R. GARRETT, Secretary .\nE. C. HEWETT, Treasurer.\n1891.-TORONTO , ONTARIO .\nW. R. GARRETT, President.\nE. H. COOK, Secretary .\nJ. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer.\n1892.-SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nЕ. Н. Сооk. President.\nR. W. STEVENSON, Secretary .\nJ. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer.\n1893.-CHICAGO , ILL.\n(International Congress of Education.)\nALBERT G. LANE, President.\nIRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary\nJ. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer.\n1894.-ASBURY PARK, N. J.\n\nALBERT G. LANE, President.\nIRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary .\nJ. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer .\n1895.-DENVER, COLO.\nNICHOLAS M. BUTLER, President.\nIRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary .\nJ. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nOF THE UNITED STATES .\n\nOFFICERS FOR 1894-95 .\n\nGENERAL ASSOCIATION .\n\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER.. Paterson, N. J\n(Address, Columbia College, New York City.)\nIRWIN SHEPARD .\n\nWinona, Minn....\nKansas City, Mo .......\n\nJ. M. GREENWOOD\n\nVICE\n\nPresident.\n\nSecretary.\nTreasurer.\n\nPRESIDENTS .\n\nA. G. LANE, Chicago, Ill. ,\nG. M. PHILIPS, West Chester, Pa.\nL. E. WOLFE, Jefferson City, Mo.\nW. H. BARTHOLOMEW, Louisville, Ky .\nW. F. Slaton, Atlanta, Ga.\nD. B. JOHNSON, Columbia, S. C.\n\nH. A. WISE, Baltimore, Md.\nW. E. SHELDON, Boston, Mass.\nS. S. PACKARD, New York City.\nW. R. MALONE, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nD. L. KIEHLE, Minneapolis, Minn.\nF. A. FITZPATRICK, Omaha, Neb ,\n\nBOARD OF TRUSTEES .\nN. A. CALKINS ..\n\nChairman\n124 E. 80th St., New York City.\nSecretary ..\n1301 Corcoran St. , Washington, D. C.\nNew York City ..\nTerm expires July, 1898.\nProvidence, R. I ......\nTerm expires July, 1897.\nTerm expires July, 1896.\nWashington, D. C ............\nNormal, Il11 .\nTerm expires July, 1895.\nEx-Officio.\nPaterson, N. J.......\n....\n\nZALMON RICHARDS.\nN. A. CALKINS .\nH. S. TARBELL ..\n\nZALMON RICHARDS\nE. C. HEWETT..\n\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER ......\n\n(Address, Columbia College, New York City. )\n\"The Board of Trustees shall be the executive financial officers of this association as a\n\nbody corporate. \"-Art. IV. , Secs. 9 and 10, of the Constitution .\nEXECUTIVE COMMITTEE .\n\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER Columbia College, New York City President.\nIRWIN SHEPARD ....\nJ. M. GREENWOOD .\nA. G. LANE ...\nN. A. CALKINS.\n\nWinona, Minn ....\nKansas City , Mo .........\nChicago, Ill ..\nNew York City\n\nSecretary.\nTreasurer .\nFirst Vice President.\n\nChairman Board of Trustees.\n\nBOARD OF DIRECTORS.\n\nDirectors Ex- Officio.\nSee Art. IV., Sec. 2, of the Constitution .\nBAKER, JAMES H. , Boulder, Colo.\nMEHAN, J. M., Des Moines, Iowa.\nPACKARD, S. S. , New York City.\nBARTHOLOMEW, WM. H., Louisville, Ky.\nPHILIPS, G. M., West Chester, Pa.\nBOOTH, E. R. , Cincinnati, Ohio.\n\nBRYAN, WM\n. L. , Bloomington, Ind.\nBUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY, Paterson, N. J.\nCALKINS, N. A. , New York City.\nCARTER, CHAS. M., Denver, Colo.\nFITZPATRICK, FRANK A. , Omaha, Neb.\nGREEN, J. M., Trenton, N. J.\n\nGREENWOOD, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHEWETT, E. C., Bloomington. Ill.\nJOHNSON, D. B. , Columbia, S. C.\nKIEHLE, D. L. , Minneapolis, Minn.\nLANE, A. G. , Chicago, Ill.\nMALONE, W. R., Salt Lake City, Utah.\nMAXWELL, W. H. , Brooklyn, N. Y.\n\nRICHARDS, ZALMON, Washington, D. C.\nROUNDS, C. C. , Plymouth, Ν. Η.\nSHELDON, W. E., Boston, Mass.\nSHEPARD, IRWIN, Winona, Minn.\nSLATON, W. F. , Atlanta, Ga.\nSMILEY, W. H., Denver, Colo.\nSTEWART, N. C., Cleveland, Ohio.\nTARBELL, H. S., Providence, R. L\nTREUDLEY, F., Youngstown, Ohio.\nWHEELOCK, LUCY, Boston, Mass.\nWISE, H. A. , Baltimore, Md\n\nWOLFE, L. E., JeffersonCity, Mo\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "8\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nLife Directors .\nBROWN, LEROY D. , Santa Monica, Cal .\nDOUGHERTY, NEWTON C. , Peoria, I11.\n\nDAY, L. W. , Cleveland, Ohio .\nFAIRCHILD, GEORGE T. , Manhattan, Kan.\nGREENWOOD , J. M. , Kansas City, Mo.\nGOVE, AARON, Denver, Colo.\nHUNT, MARY H., Boston, Mass.\n\nJEWETT, A. V. , Abilene, Kan.\nMARSHALL, T. MARCELLUS, White Cloud, Kan.\nPARKER, CHARLES I., South Chicago, III .\nPIKE, J. , Jerseyville, Il1.\nRICKOFF, ANDREW J. , New York City.\nSTRATTON, C. C. , University Park , Ore.\n\nTAYLOR, A. R. , Emporia, Kan .\nHALL, CALEB G. , New Berlin, N. Y.\nDirectors by Election .\nNorth Atlantic Division .\n\nMaine ..\n\nW. J. CORTHELL .\n\nGorham.\n\nNew Hampshire\n\nC. C. ROUNDS ....\n\nPlymouth.\n\nVermont .\n\nG. P BEARD..\n\nSt. Albans.\n\nMassachusetts .\n\nRAY GREENE HULING ...\n\nCambridge.\n\nRhode Island ..\n\nTHOMAS B. STOCKWELL\n\nProvidence.\n\nConnecticut .\n\nVIRGIL G. CURTIS ...\n\nNew Haven.\n\nNew York ..\nNew Jersey\n\nC. W. BARDEEN,\n\nSyracuse.\n\nA. B. POLAND .\n\nTrenton.\n\nSouth Atlantic Division .\n\nPennsylvania .\n\nE. O. LYTE ..\n\nMillersvile.\n\nDelaware ..\n\nA. N. RAUB,\n\nNewark.\n\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia ..\nWest Virginia .\nNorth Carolina .\nSouth Carolina .\nFlorida ..\n\nJOHN E. MCCANN\n\nBaltimore.\n\nWILLIAM T. HARRIS .\n\nWashington.\n\nJOHN E. MASSEY .\n\nRichmond.\n\nW. H. ANDERSON .\n\nP. T. BRODIE\n\nWheeling.\nRaleigh.\nSpartanburg.\n\nW. N. SHEATS .\n\nTallahassee.\n\nC. B. DENSON ,\n\nSouth Central Division .\n\nKentucky\n\nC. H. DIETRICK .\n\nHopkinsville.\n\nTennessee .\n\nFRANK GOODMAN\n\nNashville.\n\nGeorgia .\nAlabama.\nMississippi.\n\nOTIS ASHMORE\n\nSavannah.\n\nJ. H. PHILLIPS\nDABNEY LIPSCOMB .\n\nBirmingham.\nAgricult. Coll.\n\nLouisiana .\n\nG. J. RAMSEY .\n\nClinton.\n\nTexas ..\n\nH. C. PRITCHETT ,\n\nOklahoma\n\nD. R. BOYD ,\n\nHuntsville.\nNorman.\n\nJUNIUS JORDAN\n\nPine Bluff.\n\nArkansas .\n\nNorth Central Division.\nOhio .\n\nJ. A. SHAWAN .....\n\nColumbus .\n\nIndiana\n\nJESSE H. BROWN ..\nORVILLE T. BRIGHт .\n\nMichigan.\nWisconsin\n\nE. A. STRONG ,\n\nIndianapolis.\nEnglewood.\nYpsilanti.\n\nS. A. HOOPER .\n\nMilwaukee.\n\nIowa....\n\nJ. T. MERRILL .\n\nCedar Rapids.\n\nMinnesota .\n\nC. B. GILBERT .\n\nSt. Paul.\n\nMissouri .\n\nJOHN T. BUCHANAN\n\nNorth Dakota\n\nLEWIS B. AVERY\n\nKansas City.\nMaysville.\nPierre.\n\nIllinois\n\nSouth Dakota\n\nMRS. EDWARD P. FARR .\n\nNebraska ..\n\nJAMES H CANFIELD\n\nLincoln.\n\nKansas .\n\nJOHN MACDONALD ..\n\nTopeka.\n\nMontana ..\n\nR. G. YOUNG ....\n\nWyoming .......\n\nWM. MARQUARDT ..\n\nWestern Division.\nHelena.\nLaramie\n\nColorado.\n\nWARREN E. KNAPP .\n\nDenver.\n\nNew Mexico ..\nArizona .\n\nHIRAM HADLEY .\nF. J. NETHERTON\n\nAlbuquerque.\n\nUtah.\nNevada .\n\nELLA M. DUKES.\n\nIdaho ....\n\nORVIS RING ..\nF. B. GAULT .\n\nWashington\n\nF. J. BARNARD .\n\nOregon.\nCalifornia ..\n\nE. B. MCELROY\nEARL BARNES\n\nMesa.\n\nSalt Lake City\nCarson City.\nMoscow.\nSeattle.\nSalem.\n\nStanford Univ.\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "9\n\nOFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION.\n\nDEPARTMENT OFFICERS .\nNational Council .\nC. C. ROUNDS\n\nPresident\n\nE. ORAM LYTE ....\n\nVice President ..\n\nN. C. DOUGHERTY\n\nSecretary and Treasurer .\n\nPlymouth, N. H.\nMillersville, Pa.\nPeoria, Ill.\n\nKindergarten .\nMISS LUCY WHEELOCK ..\n\nPresident ....\n\nBoston, Mass\n\nMISS MARY C. MCCULLOCH\n\nVice President\n\nSt. Louis, Mo.\n\nMISS AGNES MACKENZIE\n\nSecretary ....\n\nLondon, Ont.\n\nElementary .\nF.\n\nPresident\n\nTREUDLEY .\n\nMISS N. CROPSEY\n\nVice President....\nSecretary ..\n\nW. G. WARFIELD .\n\nYoungstown, Ohio\n.\nIndianapolis, Ind.\nCovington, Ky.\n\nSecondary.\nW. H. SMILEY..\n\nPresident\n\nMISS HARRIET L. KEELER\nC. H. THURBER\n\nVice President ....\nSecretary\n\nJAMES H. BAKER ..\n\nPresident\n\nJOHN F. CROWELL ..\n\nVice President\n\nHORACE GOODHUE ..\n\nJOHN B. KIEFFER .\n\nSecretary..\nExecutive Committee..\nExecutive Committee ...\nExecutive Committee ....\n\nJ. M. GREEN\n\nPresident..\n\nZ. X. SNYDER\n\nVice President ....\nSecretary...\n\nDenver, Colo.\nCleveland, Ohio.\nHamilton, N. Y.\n\nHigher .\n\nJOHN F. BRADLEY .\nWM. F. KING ..\n\nBoulder, Colo.\nNew York City.\nNorthfield, Minn.\nJacksonville. Ill.\nMt. Vernon, Iowa.\nLancaster, Pa.\n\nNormal .\n\nC. C. VANLIEW\n\nTrenton, N. J.\nGreeley, Colo.\nNormal, Ill.\n\nSuperintendence .\nW. H. MAXWELL ..\n\nPresident\n\nO. T. CORSON ..\nJAMES M. CARLISLE\n\nFirst Vice President .......\nSecond Vice President ......\nSecretary ....\n\nE. R. BOOTH\n\nPresident\n\nΑ. Ν. ΕΒAUGH\nCHAS. D. LARKINS\n\nVice President ...\nSecretary.\n\nCHAS. M. CARTER ..\n\nPresident\n\nMISS SARA FAWCETT .\n\nVice President .\n\nMISS WILHELMINA SEEGMILLER..\n\nSecretary ....\n\nN. COE STEWART ..\n\nPresident\n\nGEORGE CAROTHERS YOUNG ...\nMISS MARY E. GRANDY ..\n\nVice President .....\nSecretary ..\n\nJ. M. MEHAN ..\n\nPresident\n\nA S. OSBORN\n\nFirst Vice President ........\n\nWM. F. FOX\n\nBrooklyn, N. Y.\nColumbus, Ohio.\nRichmond, Va.\nAustin, Tex.\n\nIndustrial .\nCincinnati, Ohio.\nBaltimore, Md.\nBrooklyn, N. Y.\n\nArt.\nDenver, Colo.\nNewark, N. J.\nAllegheny City, Pa.\n\nMusic.\nCleveland, Ohio.\nSalt Lake City, Utah.\nSioux City, Iowa.\n\nBusiness.\n\nMRS\n. E. E. CHILDS\n\nSecond Vice President .....\n\nJ. E. KING .\nW. E. MCCORD\n\nThird Vice President .......\nSecretary and Treasurer ....\n\nDes Moines, Iowa.\nRochester, N. Y.\nSpringfield, Mass.\nRochester, N. Y.\nNew York City.\n\nFRANK GOODMAN\n\nChairman Executive Com...\n\nNashville, Tenn.\n\nChild Study.\nWM. L. BRYAN ..\nTHOMAS P. BAILEY, JR ..\nMISS SARA E. WILTSE ....\n\nPresident...\n\nVice President.........\nSecretary\n\nBloomington, Ind.\nBerkeley, Cal.\nBoston. Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nOF THE UNITED STATES .\n\nOFFICERS FOR 1895-96.\n\nGENERAL ASSOCIATION .\nNEWTON C. DOUGHERTY\nIRWIN SHEPARD ...\n\nPresident.\n\nPeoria, Ill.....\nWinona, Minn ....\nKansas City, Mo ......\n\n........\n\nI. C. MCNEILL ......\n\nVICE\n\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nPRESIDENTS .\n\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, New York City. E. B. MCELROY, Eugene, Ore.\nMRS. A. J. PEAVEY, Denver, Colo .\nW. H. BARTHOLOMEW, Louisville, Ky.\nN. C. SCHAEFFER, Harrisburg, Pa.\nW. N. SHEATS, Tallahassee, Fla.\nHENRY SABIN, Des Moines, Iowa .\n\nC. G. PEARSE, Omaha, Neb.\nHENRY R. PATTENGILL, Lansing, Mich .\nR. H. HALSEY, Oshkosh, Wis .\nT. B. LEWIS, Ogden, Utah .\nMISS ESTELLE REEL, Cheyenne, Wyo.\n\nBOARD OF TRUSTEES .\n\nSee Art . IV. , Secs . 9 and 10, of the Constitution .\nN. A. CALKINS ..\n\nChairman\n\nZALMON RICHARDS .\n\n..\nSecretary .........\n\nA. G. LANE ...\nN. A. CALKINS .\n\nChicago, Ill .....\nNew York City\nProvidence, R. I ...\n\nH. S. TARBELL .\n\n124 E. 80th St. , New York City.\n1301 Corcoran St., Washington, D. C.\nTerm expires July, 1899.\n\nTerm expires July, 1898.\nTerm expires July, 1897.\n\nZALMON RICHARDS\n\nWashington, D. C ..............\n\nTerm expires July, 1896.\n\nNEWTON C. DOUGHERTY.\n\nPeoria, Ill ....\n\nEx- Officio.\n\nEXECUTIVE COMMITTEE .\n\nSee Art. IV., Sec. 2, of the Constitution.\nNEWTON C. DOUGHERTY\n\nPresident.\n\nPeoria, Ill\n\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER Columbia College, New York City First Vice President.\nIRWIN SHEPARD .....\n\nI. C. MCNEILL ......\nN. A. CALKINS\n\nWinona, Minn....\nKansas City , Mo ......\nNew York City.\n\nSecretary.\nTreasurer.\n\nChairman Board of Trustees .\n\nBOARD OF DIRECTORS .\n\nDirectors Ex- Officio .\nSee Art . IV., Sec. 2, of the Constitution .\nDOUGHERTY, NEWTON C., Peoria, Ill.\n\nSHEPARD, IRWIN, Winona, Minn.\n\nBUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY, Columbia Col- MCNEILL, I. C., Kansas City, Mo.\nlege, New York City.\n\nCALKINS, N. A. , New York City.\nLife Directors .\n\nBROWN, LEROY D. , Santa Monica, Cal.\n\nJEWETT, A. V., Abilene, Kan.\n\nDAY, L. W., Cleveland, Ohio ,\nDOUGHERTY, NEWTON C., Peoria, Ill .\nFAIRCHILD, GEORGE T. , Manhattan, Kan,\nGRAHAM, H. A. , Ontonagon, Mich ,\n\nMARSHALL, T. MARCELLUS, West Charleston,\n\nGREENWOOD, J. M. , Kansas City, Mo.\nGOVE, AARON, Denver, Colo.\nHALL, CALEB G. , New Berlin, N. Y.\nHUNT, MARY H., Boston, Mass.\n\nW. Va.\n\nPARKER, CHAS. I. , South Chicago, Ill.\n\nPIKE, J. , Jerseyville, Ill.\nRICKOFF, ANDREW J. , Berkeley, Cal .\nSTRATTON, C. C. , University Park, Ore.\nTAYLOR, A. R. , Emporia, Kan.\nWHITE, CHAS. G., Lake Linden, Mich.\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION.\n\n11\n\nDirectors by Election.\nNorth Atlantic Division .\nMaine.\n\nNew Hampshire .\nVermont ....\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island..\nConnecticut ......\nNew York\n\nNew Jersey\n\nDover.\n\nF. C. FERNALD .\nC. C. ROUNDS ..\n\nPlymouth\n\nALFRED TURNER.\nRAY GREENE HULING .\nHORACE S. TARBELL ..\nGEORGE B. HURD ....\nCHARLES R. SKINNER ..\nJ. M. RALSTON ..\n\nRutland\n.\n\nCambridge\nProvidence.\n\nNew Haven.\nAlbany.\nAsbury Park.\n\nSouth Atlantic Division .\nPennsylvania .\n\nCHARLES DE GARMO .\n\nSwarthmore.\n\nDelaware ..\n\nA. N. RAUB ....\n\nNewark.\n\nMaryland..\n\nE. B. PRETTYMAN .\n\nBaltimore.\n\nDistrict of Columbia.\n\nZ. RICHARDS ..\n\nVirginia..\nWest Virginia ..\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\n\nE. C. GLASS ..\nROBERT A. ARMSTRONG ..\n\nWashington\nLynchburg.\nMorgantown.\nRaleigh.\n\nFlorida ..\n\nB. SMEDES\nD. B. JOHNSON\nOSCAR CLUTE .\n\n.\n\nColumbia.\n\nLake City.\n\nSouth Central Division .\n\nKentucky\nTennessee ..\n\nGeorgia .\nAlabama\n\nMississippi ...\nLouisiana..\nTexas..\n\nOklahoma.\nArkansas ..\n\nJAMES MCGINNISS ..\nFRANK GOODMAN\nOTIS ASHMORE\n\nOwensboro .\n\nF. M. ROOF ..\nR. B. FULTON\nWARREN EASTON\n\nBirmingham.\nUniversity.\n\nH. C. PRITCHETT .\nD. R. BOYD ..\nJUNIUS JORDAN\n\nNashville.\nSavannah.\n\nNew Orleans .\nHuntsville.\nNorman.\nLittle Rock.\n\nNorth Central Division .\nOhio.\nIndiana\nIllinois\n\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa..\nMinnesota..\nMissouri ..\n\nNorth Dakota ..\nSouth Dakota ..\nNebraska.....\nKansas .\n\nW. J. WHITE .....\nD. K. Goss ...\n\nDayton.\nIndianapolis .\n\nJOHN W. COOK .....\nS. EMORY WHITNEY\n\nNormal .\nDetroit.\n\nD. D. MAYΝΕ ......\nF. B. COOPER ....\n\nJanesville.\n\nC. B. GILBERT .\nJOHN R. KIRK ..\nEMMA F. BATES ...\nGEORGE M. SMITH\nW. H. SKINNER..\nJOHN MACDONALD .\n\nDes Moines .\nSt. Paul.\n\nJefferson City .\nBismarck.\n\nVermillion .\nNebraska City .\nTopeka.\n\nWestern Division .\nMontana .\n\nWyoming\nColorado .\n\nNew Mexico\n\nJAMES M. HAMILTON\nA. L. PUTNAM\n\nMissoula .\nNewcastle.\n\nJ. H. VAN SICKLE ...\n\nDenver.\n\nCHARLES E. HODGIN\n\nAlbuquerque.\n\nArizona .\n\nT. D. COMSTOCK .\n\nTucson.\n\nUtah...\n\nW. R. MALONE .\nJ. E. STUBBS...\nF. B. GAULT...\nF. J. BARNARD\n\nNevada....\nIdaho...\n\nWashington.\n\nOregon.\nCalifornia .\n\nJ. H. ACKERMAN\nEARL BARNES ..\n\nSalt Lake City.\nReno.\nMoscow.\nSeattle.\nPortland.\n\nStanford Univ .\n\nDEPARTMENT OFFICERS .\nNational Council .\nH. S. TARBELL .\nEARL BARNES\nMISS BETTIE A. DUTTON\nCHARLES DE GARMO\nD. L. KIEHLE .\nJ. R. PRESTON\nJAMES M. GREEN.\n\nPresident\n\nProvidence, R. I.\n\nVice President ..\nSecretary\nExecutive Committee ....\n\nStanford Univ., Cal.\nCleveland, Ohio.\nSwarthmore, Pa .\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nJackson, Miss .\nTrenton, N. J.\n\nExecutive Committee ....\n\nExecutive Committee..\nExecutive Committee ......\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n12\n\nKindergarten .\nMISS AMALIE HOFER .\n\nPresident .\n\nMRS. S. H. HARRIMAN.\n\nVice President .\n\nMISS WILHELMINA T. CALDWELL .\n\nChicago, Ill.\nProvidence, R. L.\nDenver, Colo .\n\nSecretary ....\nElementary .\n\n.S. T. DUTTON\nJ. K. STABLETON .\n\nMISS HENRIETTA B. AYRES .\n\nPresident\n\nBrookline, Mass.\nLexington, Neb.\nDenver, Colo.\n\nVice President ......\nSecretary ...\n\nSecondary .\nCleveland, Ohio.\nDetroit, Mich.\nMorgan Park, IIL\n\nE. L. HARRIS\n\nPresident\n\nF. L. BLISS ..\n\nVice President .\n\nC. H. THURBER .\n\nSecretary .\n\nJAMES H. BAKER.\n\nPresident .\n\nBoulder, Colo .\n\nDABNEY LIPSCOMB\n\nVice President .\n\nJOSEPH SWAIN\n\nSecretary .\n\nAgricult. College, Miss .\nBloomington, Ind.\n\nJOHN W.COOK .\n\nPresident .\n\nGEO. R. KLEEBERGER..\n\nVice President\n\nHigher.\n\nNormal .\n\nA. G. BOYDEN ..\n\nSecretary ..\n\n..\n\nNormal, Il1.\nSt. Cloud, Minn.\nBridgewater, Mass.\n\nSuperintendence .\nL. H. JONES\n\nPresident\n\nCleveland, Ohio.\n\nJ. H. PHILLIPS\n\nFirst Vice President ..\n\nBirmingham, Ala.\n\nCHAS. W.COLE\n\nSecond Vice President ......\nSecretary\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\nDuluth, Minn .\n\nR. E. DENFELD ..\n\nManual and Industrial .\nCHAS. H. KEYES\n\nPresident ...\n\nW. H. MAGRUDER .\n\nMISS ABBY L. MARLATT\n\nVice President ...\nSecretary ..\n\nWALTER S. GOODNOUGH ..\n\nPresident\n\nMRS. M. E. RILEY .....\n\nVice President ....\n\nMISS MYRA JONES .\n\nSecretary.\n\nC. H. CONGDON\n\nMusic.\nPresident\n\nP. C. HAYDEN .\n\nVice President ......\n\nSt. Paul, Minn .\nQuincy, Ill.\n\nMISS LYNN M. HAWN...\n\nSecretary ..\n\nEast Saginaw, Mich .\n\nPasadena, Cal.\nAgricult. College, Miss\nProvidence, R. I.\n\nArt.\nBrooklyn, N. Y.\nSt. Louis , Mo.\nDetroit , Mich.\n\nBusiness .\nFRANK GOODMAN\n\nPresident\n\nD. W. SPRINGER.\n\nFirst Vice President .......\nSecond Vice President ......\n\nW. A. WOODWORTH.\nC. H. PIERCE ..\nJ. W. WARR..\nMRS . SARA A. SPENCER .\n\nNashville, Tenn.\nAnn Arbor, Mich .\nDenver, Colo.\nThird Vice President\n... Evansville, Ind.\nSecretary and Treasurer .... Moline, Ill.\nChairman Executive Com ... Washington, D. C.\n\nChild Study .\nEARL BARNES\n\nPresident ....\n\nO. T. BRIGHT.\n\nVice President.\n\nE. R. SHAW\n\nSecretary ..\n\nStanford Univ. , Cal .\nChicago, Ill .\nNew York City.\n\nPhysical Training .\nMISS R. ANNA MORRIS\n\nPresident\n\nED . F.\n\nMISS N. D. KIMBERLIN.\n\nVice President .\nSecretary\n\nCHAS. E. BESSEY\n\nPresident ..\n\nWILBUR S. JACKMAN .....\n\nVice President\n\nLincoln, Neb.\nEnglewood, Ill .\n\nSecretary ......\n\nBoulder, Colo.\n\nHERMANNS .\n\n..\n\nCleveland, Ohio.\nDenver, Colo.\nDetroit, Mich.\n\nScience.\n\nCHAS . S. PALMER\n\nSchool Administration.\nGEORGE R. FOWLER .\n\nPresident\n\nD. R. CAMERON ..\n\nVice President.\n\nJ. B. MORETON ..\n\nSecretary\nChairman Executive Com ...\n\nWM. GEO . BRUCE .\n\nBoston, Mass .\nChicago, 111.\nSalt Lake City, Utah.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": "SUMMARY OF TREASURER'S REPORT\nTO THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\nJULY 1, 1894, TO JULY 1, 1895.\nMEETING AT ASBURY PARK, N. J. , 1894.\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,* Treasurer, in Account with the National Educational\nAssociation.\n\nDr.\n\nTo balance in treasury from 1893 as per Treasurer's report, July, 1894......\nTo membership fees, at meeting Department of Superintendence, Richmond,\n\n$234.19\n\n239.00\n\n1894\n\nTo membership fees, 1894, received per Acting Treasurer at Asbury\nPark\n\n$2,356.90\n36.00\n\nTo membership fees per Buel T. Davis .\nTo membership fees per A. B. Poland .\n\n262.00\n\n2,654.90\n9,590.50\n\nTo membership fees per railroad officials .\n$7.50\n\nFor volume 1893, J. M. G .....\nFor volume 1893, I. S ....\n....\nFor volume 1893, N. A. C ......\n\n283.86\n\nFor volume 1894 .\n\n$18.00\n\n161.10\n\n452.46\n\n74.59\n\nFor volumes sold by Z. R ......\n\n92.59\n\nTo two life directorships, C. G. White, Lake Linden, Mich. , Н. А.\n200.00\n\nGraham, Ontonagon, Mich .\nTo interest on Permanent Fund ...\n\n2,058.96\n\nTo use of plates, report of Committee of Ten (Emergency Fund) ..\nTo net profits on reports of Sub-Committee of Fifteen (Emergency\nFund)\n\n$106.25\n137.02\n243.27\n\nTotal\n\n... $15,765.87\nCr.\n\nBy preliminary expenses in connection with meeting at Asbury Park, N. J. , 1894President A. G. Lane ...\n\n$295.15\n\nSpecial services of Irwin Shepard by instructions of President\nLane\n\nStenographer and typewriter.\nExpenses of Secretary ..\n\n300.00\n50.00\n310.96\n\n$956.11\n\nBy expenses incurred during the meeting at Asbury ParkStenographer for reporting the proceedings of the general meetings and meetings of the Board of Directors .\nSpecial typewriter during meetings .\nTelegrams , Secretary and Treasurer .\nPrinting\nMessenger service .\n\n$122.00\n69.50\n32.31\n6.25\n\n25.00\n\nJ. M. Greenwood resigned as Treasurer of the National Educational Association. March 1, 1895,\nand turned the accounts and funds over to Assistant Treasurer, I. C. McNeil, who acted as Treasurer\nGuring the remainder of the year.\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": "14\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\nSpecial expense for Arion Quartette of Chicago .\nSecretary Shepard for traveling and other expenses .\nService and expenses of Acting Treasurer. I. C. McNeill......\nService of Chief Clerk of Treasurer .\nService of nine clerks of Treasurer .\n\n$75.25\n39.30\n228.50\n125.00\n129.00\n$872.11\n\nBy general expenses of the association during 1894-Printing membership certificates .\nPrinting blank orders for Treasurer for railroad tickets, etc ...\n\nStationery, printing, postage, telegrams, and express ..\n\n$83.50\n19.25\n143.77\n246.32\n\nRefunded to life members, etc., for railroad coupons of membership\n\nExpenses of Treasurer and clerk at Richmond meeting of\nDepartment of Superintendence ....\nEditing and supervising the distribution of proceedings of 1894\n\n40.00\n\n60.00\n\n$500.00\n\nComposition, paper, printing, and binding 3,000 copies, 1,072\npages\n\n3,920.06\n\nPaid United States Express Company for delivering proceedings\nto members\n\n652.23\n\nPrinting 500 copies (special) proceedings meeting Department\nof Superintendence at Richmond .\n\n85.00\n\n5,157.38\n\nReprinting 725 copies volume 1893, World's Congress .\n\n583.50\n\nBy expenses of State Managers-\n\nAlabama, $15; Arkansas, $ 10; Iowa, $20 ; Missouri , $20 ; Ohio , $17; Virginia,\n$6.25; West Virginia, $17.35 .\nBy expenses of the departmentsKindergarten, $14.87; Manual Training and Industrial Education, $5.50;\nNormal Instruction, $ 2.50 ; Music, $ 10 ; Secondary Education, $6.50 ;\nBusiness Education, $ 15; Art Education, $ 8.80 ; Superintendence, $61.65\n\n105.60\n\n124.82\n\nBy expenses of Secretary-\n\nStationery, $24.10 ; printing, $33.25; telegrams, $6.19; express and freight,\n$7.87; postage, $34.61; traveling expenses to June 1, 1895, $ 11........\nExtra services of Secretary for National Educational Association during\nthe past year .......\nBy expenses of TreasurerClerical assistance .\n\n117.02\n\n500.00\n\nCollecting membership coupons of 1894 .\n\n$15.00\n95.50\n\nRent of safe in vault .......\n\n10.00\n120.50\n\nRent and care of depository in Washington, D. C .......\nExpenses custodian of depository-postage, express, freight, etc.\nRent of safe vault for Board of Trustees .\n\n$150.00\n49.75\n25.00\n\nExpenses for stationery, postage, telegrams, messengers , etc. ,\nfor Board of Trustees ..\n\n57.20\n\nExpress and postage on volume of proceedings sent to purchasers\n\nFor typewriting for Board of Trustees .\nPremium on bonds for the Permanent Fund .\n\n19.28\n14.47\n166.00\n\nEmergency Fund on account of plates (report of Sub- Committee\nof Fifteen) ...\n\nRoyalty and net profit entered in Emergency Fund .\n\n95.64\n243.27\n820.61\n\nTransfer to Emergency Fund as per vote of the Board of Directors, July 12, 1894, Committee of Fifteen .\n\n$1,000.00\n\nTransfer to Permanent Fund as per Article IV., section 10,\nfund of two life directorships ( White and Graham) ........\nTransfer to Permanent Fund as per Article IV. , section 10,\nfrom surplus funds of 1894 .\n\n200.00\n\n4,800.00\n6,000.00\n\nTotal\n\nBalance in treasury for account of 1895 .\n\n$15,704.17\n61.70\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": "15\n\nSUMMARY OF FUNDS.\n\nSUMMARY OF FUNDS OF NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, JULY 1, 1895.\n$45,000.00\nPermanent Fund (interest only usable) .\n615.39\nEmergency Fund (subject to use in accordance with vote of Board of Directors)\n61.70\n\nBalance from account of 1894 .....\n\nTotal amount of National Educational Association funds , July 1, 1895 ..\n\n$45,677.09\n\nThe Treasurer's report for the year ending July 1, 1895, has been examined and approved.\nN. A CALKINS,\nH. S. TARBELL,\nEDWIN C. HEWETT,\nZ. RICHARDS,\nALBERT G. LANE,\nTrustees of the National Educational Association .\n\nSECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF THE EMERGENCY FUND .\n$88.06\n\nBalance on hand June 30, 1894 ......\nAdditions made to fund during the year-\n\nAppropriated by the Board of Directors on account of the Committee\n1,000.00\n\nofFifteen ..\n\n106.25\n\nFrom royalty on report of Committee of Ten .....\nNet profits of sale of reports of Sub- Committee of Fifteen .\nTotal...\n\n137.02\n\n$1,331.33\n\nDisbursements on account of Committee of Fifteen and plates .\n\n715.94\n\nBalance on hand June 30, 1895 .\n\n$615.39\n\nIn behalf of the Board of Trustees,\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nN. A. CALKINS,\nChairman.\n\nNEW YORK CITY, JULY 1, 1895.\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "16\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nNINTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES .\n\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association:\nAt the close of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894, the amount of the Permanent Fund was forty thousand dollars ($40,000), of which the sum of thirty-eight\n\nthousand seven hundred dollars ($38,700) was invested, leaving thirteen hundred\ndollars ($1,300) uninvested.\nDuring the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895, securities to the amount of nine\nthousand two hundred and sixty-three dollars ($9,263) matured and were paid, making the total sum to be reinvested ten thousand five hundred and sixty-three dollars\n\n($10,563) . Of this amount, the sum of ten thousand five hundred dollars ($10,500)\nwas invested between Oct. 1, 1894, and March, 1895, as good securities could be\nobtained on favorable terms.\n\nOf the above ten thousand five hundred and sixty-\n\nthree dollars ($ 10,563), only sixty-three dollars ($63) still remain uninvested.\nSince April 1, 1895, additions have been made to the Permanent Fund as follows : By two life directorships, two hundred dollars ($200) ; by transfer from\nsurplus fund of the receipts on account of the meeting at Asbury Park, N. J. , 1894,\n\nas per Article IV., section 10, of the constitution, the sum of four thousand eight\nhundred dollars ($4,800), making the amount of the Permanent Fund June 30.\n1895, forty-five thousand dollars ($45,000) .\nThe amount of interest received from the Permanent Fund during the year\nending June 30, 1895, was two thousand and fifty-eight and 96-100 dollars\n($2,058.96), which sum is included in the report of the Treasurer from July 1, 1894,\nto June 30, 1895, as a part of the receipts for that period.\nRespectfully submitted,\nN. A. CALKINS,\nH. S. TARBELL,\n\nEDWIN C. HEWETT,\nZ. RICHARDS ,,\n\nALBERT G. LANE,\nTrustees National Educational Association .\nCERTIFICATE ATTACHED TO THE REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES .\n\nThis is to certify that I have examined the securities of the Permanent Fund\n\nbelonging to the National Educational Association, now held by the Board of\nTrustees , and that I found the said securities to consist as follows :\n\nA first mort-\n\ngage on real estate in the city of Providence, R. I., for three thousand dollars\n($3,000) , with a policy for fire insurance for the same amount; of school district\nbonds, to the amount of fourteen thousand seven hundred and thirty-seven dollars\n\n($14,737) , with proper coupons attached ; of municipal bonds-county, township,\nand city-to the amount of twenty-two thousand two hundred dollars ($22,200) ,\nwith coupons attached ; making the total amount of said securities June 30. 1895,\nthirty-nine thousand nine hundred and thirty-seven dollars ($39,937) . Since that\ndate an investment of three thousand dollars ($3,000) has been made in city bonds\n\nof Concordia, Cloud county, Kansas, making the total sum now invested forty-two\nthousand nine hundred and thirty-seven dollars ($42,937) . The balance of the fund\nnow uninvested is two thousand and sixty-three dollars ($ 2.063) . The securities are\nkept in the safe deposit vault of the Nassau Bank.\nROBERT H. TILESON .\nNEW YORK, Oct. 8, 1895.\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTHIRTY - FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\nDENVER, COLO., JULY 9-12, 1895.\n\nFIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS.\n\nFIRST SESSION.\n\nTUESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 9тн.\n\nThe association was called to order at 2:30 p. m., Tuesday, July 9,\n1895, in the Central Presbyterian church, corner of Seventeenth and\nSherman avenues, Denver, Colo., by Supt. Aaron Gove, Chairman of\nthe local Executive Committee.\n\nThe Rev. John M. Freeman, pastor of the Central Presbyterian\nchurch, Denver, offered an invocation.\nMr. Gove opened the meeting by a short address of welcome, after\nwhich he introduced His Excellency, Lieut. Gov. Judson L. Brush of\n\nColorado, Hon. Thomas S. McMurray, Mayor of Denver, and Mrs.\nA. J. Peavey, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, who welcomed the association to Colorado and Denver.\n\nMR. GOVE: And now, Mr. President, we have given you the state;\nyou have authoritatively received the keys to the city ; you have\n\nheard something about the enterprises and improvements which we\nhave adopted.\n\nIt now becomes my duty, in the name of the local Executive Committee, to present to you the gavel of authority, and assure you and\nthe association that we are at your service so long as you choose to\nremain with us.\n2\n\n"}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "18\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nPresident Butler responded to the addresses of welcome and\ndeclared the sessions of the association formally opened.\nSecretary Shepard also responded to the addresses of welcome.\nPresident Butler introduced Col. Francis W. Parker of the Cook\n\nCounty Normal, Englewood, Ill., who made a brief address.\nPRESIDENT BUTLER: I now have the honor to present a gentleman who has worthily won and who worthily wears the proud title\nof the \"Educational Governor of the South,\" ex-Governor Northen of\nthe State of Georgia.\n\nGovernor Northen spoke briefly and eloquently in behalf of the\nteachers of the South.\n\nMusic by the Apollo Club of Denver.\nGen. John Eaton, ex-United States Commissioner of Education :\nMR. PRESIDENT : In our time of congratulation there is absent one very dear\n\nto each of us, and we all recognize the fact that our friend is necessarily absent\nbecause he bears so many burdens for our cause. He has gone to regain strength\n\nfor future service, and I know that each of us misses him. He will be in Edinburgh\nto-night and to-morrow morning.\nI therefore move that the following cable message of congratulation be sent,\n\nsigned by the President of this association in behalf of those who are present :\nCommissioner Harris, Royal Hotel, Edinburgh :\nThe assembled representatives of 400,000 teachers greet you, our honored\nleader, asking for you health and a safe return.\n\nMR. BUCHANAN (Missouri) : I think we should include his traveling\n\ncompanion, the Treasurer of this association, J. M. Greenwood of\nKansas City, Mo.\n\nThe amendment was cordially accepted by General Eaton, and\nthe motion was unanimously adopted.\nPRESIDENT BUTLER: State Superintendent Skinner of New York\nhas courteously assented to my suggestion, that his address on \"Education of Public Opinion\" be delivered on Wednesday evening instead\nof at this time.\n\nThe chair regrets to announce, that, because of serious illness in\nhis family, Dr. Edward M. Hartwell of Boston is unable to be present.\nWe shall, however, have the pleasure of listening to a short address\non \"Physical Training,\" which will precede a practical demonstration\nof exercises suited to the schoolroom by Mr. Jacob Schmitt of Denver.\nThis address will be delivered by Prof. Edward F. Hermanns, Princi-\n\npal of High School No. 2, Denver, Colo., who has kindly consented, on\nshort notice, to take this place on the program.\nPrincipal Hermanns addressed the association on the subject of\n\"Physical Training.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.\n\n19\n\nThe platform was then cleared, and Prof. Jacob Schmitt, Director\n\nof Physical Training, Denver, Colo., gave an interesting exhibition of\nphysical training, by classes from various grades of the city schools.\nPRESIDENT BUTLER: Secretary Shepard has some important\nannouncements.\n\nSECRETARY SHEPARD : Notice is hereby given, in accordance with\nthe provisions of the constitution, that to-morrow-Wednesday morn-\n\ning-amendments will be offered, dealing with the qualification of\nmembers and with regulations for voting and representation in the\nassociation. These amendments have been drawn by a committee\nappointed for the purpose by the Board of Directors at Saratoga,\n\nN. Y., July 14, 1892. The amendments have been submitted to the\npresent Board of Directors, and will be reported to the association\nfor action, with their approval.\nPRESIDENT BUTLER: The substance of this announcement will\n\nalso appear in the daily press, which should be consulted with reference to the various entertainments that are provided for our instruction.\n\nI desire to announce, that, immediately upon the closing of this\nsession, an adjourned meeting of the Board of Directors will be held\nupon this platform. A full attendance is requested.\nAn overflow meeting has been held this afternoon and addressed\nby Col. F. W. Parker, President John W. Cook, Supt. A. P. Marble,\nand Dr. Charles De Garmo, in the high school building. Further\noverflow meetings will be held from time to time during the session,\nas occasion may require.\nMusic by the Euterpe Quartette of Denver.\nAdjourned to 8 p. m.\n\nSECOND SESSION.\n\nTUESDAY EVENING, JULY 9тн.\n\nThe session was called to order by Vice President A. G. Lane of\nChicago.\nChorus by the choir of the Central Presbyterian church of Denver.\n\nVice President Lane, in opening the meeting, said :\nThe members of the National Educational Association appreciate the hearty\nand generous reception which has been given to them. During this week the schoolmaster is to rule Denver.\n\nFor some years past thousands of teachers have been taking annual pilgrimages\nto different sections of this country, stopping at the cities to which they have been\n\ninvited, enjoying the hospitality of the people, reviewing the great educational work\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": "20\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nwhich has been carried on, discussing new movements and solving new problems\nwhich are from time to time presented. The common school, the secondary school,\nand the university have entered into a union to set up the highest possible standards for the education and training of the young.\nThe National Educational Association honored itself at its session at Asbury\n\nPark a year ago by electing as its President a man who chose this great educational work as a life-work, and it gives me great pleasure to introduce to you tonight one who has set aside some of the allurements to the other professions and\nhas chosen to enter the educational field. In presenting to you Dr. Nicholas Murray\nButler of Columbia College, New York, we have a representative of the very highest standard of education in this country.\n\nIt gives me great pleasure to introduce to you the President of this association,\nwho will speak to you to-night on \"What Knowledge Is of Most Worth ?\"\n\nDr. Nicholas Murray Butler of Columbia College, President of\nthe National Educational Association, delivered the presidential ad-\n\ndress on the subject, \"What Knowledge Is of Most Worth ?\"\nVICE PRESIDENT LANE : Mrs. Jay Robinson of Denver will now\nspeak to you in song.\nAnnouncements by the Secretary.\nVice President Lane then intrduced Dr. W. N. Hailman, Superintendent of Indian Schools, Washington, D. C., who spoke on the subject, \"The Next Step in the Education of the Indian.\"\nAdjourned to 9:45 a. m., July 10th.\n\nSECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS .\nTHIRD SESSION.-WEDNESDAY MORNING, JULY 10TH.\n\nThe morning session was opened with prayer by Chancellor Wm.\nT. McDowell of the University of Denver.\nMusic by the Principals' Male Quartette of Chicago.\n\nUnder instructions from President Butler, the Secretary announced the following committees :\nCOMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY .\n\nC. W. Bardeen of New York.\nJ. L. Pickard of Iowa.\nW. R. Garrett of Tennessee.\n\nC. C. Rounds of New Hampshire.\nJ. R. Preston of Mississippi.\n\nCOMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS.\n\nOrville T. Bright of Illinois.\nD. L. Kiehle of Minnesota.\n\nR. H. Halsey of Wisconsin.\nJoseph Baldwin of Texas.\nHorace S. Tarbell of Rhode Island.\n\nChas . R. Skinner of New York\nW. N. Sheats of Florida.\nWm. F. Slocum of Colorado .\nElmer E. Brown of California.\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nAlabama .\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\n\nDistrict of Columbia .\nFlorida\n\nGeorgia\n\n.\n\nIdaho\nIllinois\n\nIndiana\nIowa ..\nKansas\n\nKentucky .\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS .\n\nE. W. Cor of Ohio, Chairman.\n.... J. H. Phillips, Birmingham.\nJ. H. McNaughton, Tucson.\nW. H. Rivers, Helena.\nEdward T. Pierce, Los Angeles.\nAaron Gove, Denver.\nVirgil G. Curtis, New Haven.\nIsaac T. Johnson, Wilmington.\nW. B. Powell, Washington.\n..Arthur Williams, Lakeland.\nR. J. Guinn, Atlanta.\nF. B. Gault, Moscow.\nAlbert G. Lane, Chicago.\nJoseph Swain, Bloomington.\nWilliam F. King, Mount Vernon.\nA. S. Olin, Lawrence.\n\nLouisiana\n\nMcHenry Rhoads, Frankfort.\nGeorge J. Ramsey, Clinton.\n\nMaine\n\nJohn S. Locke, Saco.\n\nMaryland\n\nHenry A. Wise, Baltimore.\n\nMassachusetts\n\nCharles C. Ramsay, Fall River.\nMiss N. D. Kimberlin, Detroit.\n\nMichigan\nMinnesota\n\nMississippi\n\nC. B. Gilbert, St. Paul.\nJ. R. Preston, Jackson.\n\nMissouri\n\n.J. T. Buchanan, Kansas City.\n\nMontana\nNebraska .\n\nR. G. Young, Helena.\nW. H. Skinner, Nebraska City .\n\nNew Hampshire .\nNew Mexico .......\n\nJohn A. Russell, Plymouth.\nHiram Hadley, Albuquerque.\n\nNew York ..\n\nA. S. Downing, Albany.\n\nNew Jersey\n\nJames M. Green, Trenton.\nCharles D. McIver, Greensboro .\nMiss Emma F. Bates, Bismarck.\n\nNorth Carolina .\nNorth Dakota .\n\nOhio ..\n\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati.\n\nOklahoma\n\nD. R. Boyd, Norman.\nJ. H. Ackerman, Portland.\nE. Oram Lyte, Millersville.\nWalter B. Jacobs, Providence.\n\nOregon ........\nPennsylvania ....\nRhode Island .\nSouth Carolina .\nSouth Dakota .\nTennessee\n\nTexas ..\nUtah\nVermont\n\nD. B. Johnson, Columbia.\nFrank Crane, Yankton.\nW. H. Payne, Nashville.\nW. S. Sutton, Houston.\n..J. F. Millspaugh, Salt Lake City.\nAlfred Turner, Rutland.\n\nVirginia\n\nE. C. Glass, Lynchburg.\n\nWashington\n\nF. J. Barnard, Seattle.\n\nWest Virginia .\n\nW. H. Anderson, Wheeling.\nLeo A. Williams, Fond du Lac.\nMiss Estelle Reel, Cheyenne.\n\nWisconsin ....\n\nWyoming\n\n21\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "22\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nEx-Commissioner of Education General Eaton of Ohio :\nI am compelled to leave town, and desire consent to offer a series of resolutions,\nto be referred to the Committee on Resolutions, touching matters of a national\ncharacter. You are a national body, and we are here representing the whole\ncountry, and we want to touch the nerves that affect the whole country in return.\nFor instance, the Bureau of Education is not decently housed at Washington. It\nhas a museum which has been struggling since 1876 to maintain a national exist-\n\nence-a museum of education-but it is packed away in a loft. It has a library\nthat excels all other libraries in the world, but has no place for it to be housed, and\nit has to be stowed away in different rooms. Your National Commissioner of Education, be it confessed with shame, has not a decent salary, and here I desire to\noffer some resolutions touching these points.\n\nThe resolutions of General Eaton were referred to the Committee\n\non Resolutions without reading or debate.\nPresident Butler then introduced President Charles De Garmo of\n\nSwarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa., who addressed the association upon the \"Principles upon which Co-ordination should Proceed.\"\nProf. Wilbur F. Jackman, Cook County Normal School, Engle-\n\nwood, Chicago, Ill., delivered an address on \"What has been Accomplished in Co-ordination in the Field of Natural Science.\"\n\nProf. Charles A. McMurry of Normal University, Normal, III., addressed the association on \"\nWhat has been Accomplished in Coordination in the Field of History and Literature.\"\nThe papers on co-ordination were discussed by Dr. B. A. Hinsdale\n\nof the University of Michigan ; Edward D. Farrell, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, New York City ; Levi Seeley of the State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.; Dr. F. Louis Soldan of St. Louis, Mo., and\nCol. Francis W. Parker of the Cook County Normal, Englewood, III.\nAnnouncements by the Secretary.\nPRESIDENT BUTLER: It is reported to this chair that some fifteen\nhundred of our members have found themselves unable to obtain ad-\n\nmission to this hall this morning. The substance of this program\nwill, therefore, be repeated to-night for their benefit in the assembly\nroom of the high school.\nThe order of business upon the table of the Secretary consists of\na series of three amendments to the constitution of this association .\n\nThe primary order for the consideration of amendments is, that\nunanimous consent is required for their presentation without notice.\nThese amendments having been presented on due notice, a vote of\ntwo-thirds of those present is requisite for their adoption. These\namendments will be presented under that rule, as stated in the notice\ngiven yesterday. They come from the Board of Directors, and secured, at two meetings of that board held yesterday, unanimous approval. They were formulated by a committee apointed at Saratoga\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.\n\n23\n\nin 1892, consisting of Mr. Gove of Colorado, Mr. Calkins of New York,\nMr. Shepard of Minnesota, Mr. Greenwood of Missouri, and Mr. Canfield\nof Nebraska. The report of the committee to the Directors covered\nmore points than are now submitted. The action of the Directors\nupon the report of their committee having been of this character, four\npropositions were discussed, and with slight amendments, were\nunanimously adopted for recommendation to this body. They are important recommendations. Some of those not presented seemed to\nrequire more time for their formulation, and they were referred back\nto the committee, with certain suggestions, and that committee is\ncontinued, and will, at some future time, a year hence or thereafter,\nreport again to the Board of Directors on those points.\nThe Secretary will read to the association the provisions contained in the report of the committee. The report has been printed,\nand will be circulated for your consideration.\n\nThe Secretary read the following recommendation of the committee:\n\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association,\nGENTLEMEN: Your committee, appointed July 14, 1892, to report recommenda-\n\ntions for reorganizing the administration of the National Educational Association,\nbeg leave to submit the following report:\nWe recommend that the constitution of the association be amended as follows :\nArticle III.: Strike out sections 1, 2, and 3 and substitute as follows :\n\nSection 1. There shall be three classes of members, namely, active, associate,\nand corresponding.\n\nSec. 2. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of\n\neducational institutions, including libraries and periodicals, may become active\nmembers. All others who pay an annual membership fee of two dollars may become associate members. Eminent educators not residing in America may be\nelected by the Directory to be corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at no time exceed fifty.\n\nSec. 3. All persons who have been members of the association for any two\nyears previous to or including 1895 may be admitted to active membership without payment of the enrollment fee. Any person eligible may become an active member upon application indorsed by two active members and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars.\n\nAll active members must pay annual dues of two dollars, and will be entitled\nto the volume of proceedings without \"coupon\" or other conditions.\n\nIf the annual\n\ndues are not paid within the fiscal year, membership will lapse, and may be restored only on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars.\n\nAssociate members may receive the volume of proceedings in accordance with\nthe usual \"coupon\" conditions, as printed on the membership ticket.\nCorresponding members will be entitled to the volume of proceedings without\nthe payment of fees, or other conditions.\nSec. 4. The names of active and corresponding members only will be printed\nin the volume of proceedings with their respective educational titles, offices, and\naddresses, to be revised annually by the Secretary of the association.\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "24\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nPresident Butler explained the scope of the old constitution and\nthe effect of the proposed amendment.\n\nMR. SEELEY of New Jersey: I move the adoption of the amended\nArticle III. , as read by the Secretary.\nSeconded by Mr. Cook of Illinois.\nThe amendment was discussed by Mr. McDonald of Kansas, Mr.\nRichards of Washington, and was thereafter unanimously adopted.\nPresident Butler announced the vote as follows :\n\nThe chair hears no negative. The necessary two-thirds vote having been cast in the affirmative, the amendment is adopted.\nSecretary Shepard read the proposed amendment to Article IV.,\nas follows :\n\nAmend Article IV. by striking out section 1 and inserting the following :\nSection 1. The officers of this association shall consist of a President, twelve\nVice Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, a Board of Trustees, and an Executive Committee, as hereinafter provided.\n\nPresident Butler explained the old constitution and the effect of\nthe proposed amendment.\nOn motion of Mr. McDonald of Kansas, seconded by Mr. Buchanan\nof Missouri, the amendment was unanimously adopted.\nPresident Butler announced the result of the vote as follows :\n\nThe chair hears no negative. The necessary two-thirds vote having been given in the affirmative, the amendment is adopted as read.\nSecretary Shepard read the following proposed amendment :\nFurther amend Article IV. by striking out section 2 and inserting the following :\nSec. 2.\n\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of the President of the National\n\nEducational Association, First Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, Chairman of\nthe Board of Trustees, and of one additional member from each state, territory , or\n\ndistrict, to be elected by the association for a term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of such Life Directors as are now (July 12, 1895,) in office.\nThe President of the National Educational Association, First Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, and Chairman of the Board of Trustees shall constitute the Executive Committee.\n\nPresident Butler explained the scope of the old constitution and\nthe effect of the proposed amendment.\nOn motion of Mr. Baldwin of Texas, seconded by Mr. Phillips of\n\nAlabama, the proposed amendment was unanimously adopted.\nPresident Butler announced the result of the vote as follows :\n\nThe chair hears no negative. The required two-thirds vote having been cast in the affirmative, the amendment is adopted.\n\nSecretary Shepard then read the following proposed amendment :\nFurther amend Article IV., section 3, by striking out the word \"second\" in the\nsecond line of the section and inserting the word \"third.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS,\n\n25\n\nPresident Butler explained the scope of the old constitution and\nthe effect of the proposed amendment.\nOn motion of Mr. Bright of Illinois, seconded by several members,\nthe proposed amendment was unanimously adopted.\nPresident Butler announced the result of the vote as follows :\n\nThe chair hears no negative. The required two-thirds vote having been cast in the affirmative, the amendment is adopted.\n\nOn motion, the recommendations of the Board of Directors, as\nseverally adopted, were unanimously approved.\nAdjourned to 8 p. m.\n\nFOURTH SESSION.- WEDNESDAY EVENING, JULY 10TH.\n\nThe association was called to order by President Butler.\nMusic by the Principals' Male Quartette of Chicago.\nAnnouncements by the Secretary.\nPRESIDENT BUTLER: His Excellency ex-Governor Northen of\nGeorgia is present as the official representative of the board of management of the Cotton States and International Exposition, which is\nto open at Atlanta in the month of September. In connection with\nthe exposition, it is proposed to hold a series of educational congresses and an educational exhibit. I take pleasure in introducing to\n\nyou ex-Governor Northen, who will address us briefly on the features\nof the exposition.\n\nEx-Governor Northen spoke as follows :\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Convention:\n\nWhilst I profoundly appreciate the courtesy shown me by the President, I am\nat this juncture just a little regretful that I am interrupting the most pleasant part of your exercises. I desire to say, however, that I will not trespass upon\nthe courtesies shown me by using more than eight or ten minutes of your time.\nI ask to call your attention briefly to the Cotton States and International Exposition to be held in Atlanta.\nI happen to be one of the directors of the exposition. The management has done\nme the very great honor to make me chief of the Department of Education, and\nthey have conferred upon me the distinguished honor to bear to this assemblage\nof educators an invitation, not only to be present and look upon the material development of the Southern States as it will be largely displayed on that occasion,\nbut especially to invite this association to hold an adjourned session of your organization during the time that we shall devote to the congresses of educators at\nAtlanta. I desire to extend to you, under the direction of the management, a twofold invitation. It has already been indicated to you by the President that we are\nto have an educational display at the exposition. The invitation I bear, therefore,\nis extended to you as the representatives of your individual institutions of learning, beginning with the common schools and extending to the high schools, the\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "26\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nacademies, the colleges, the universities, and, indeed, all institutions of learning\nthat are engaged in the great cause you represent-teaching whatever makes for\nusefulness in citizenship and prepares students for the duties and obligations that\ndevolve upon them as citizens of their respective commonwealths.\nAs a great aid to the work we have undertaken, you are invited, earnestly and\ncordially, to make displays of your school work, your systems and methods of\nteaching, and whatever else may occur to you as desirable to give out to the world,\nand especially to the people of the Southern States, a full, thorough, and complete\nunderstanding of your educational systems.\nIt may be proper for me to say, there will be no charge for space for any exhibit or display that is properly an exhibit of school work. Of course, parties who\ncome for the purpose of advertisement and make display for the purpose of sale\nwould be charged for the space they occupy.\n\nIt is hardly necessary, I am sure, for me to tell you of the comprehensiveness\nof this exposition. You can gather information as to this from the literature that\nI have left at the office of the association at the Brown Palace Hotel.\n\nIt is suf-\n\nficient to say, that there will be displays from many foreign countries, in addition\nto those made by the States, and the general interest manifested has far exceeded\nour most sanguine expectations.\n\nNow, as to the other part of the invitation, I want to say to you that it is\nmost cordial. I am urged to present it with all the earnestness I can express. We\ninvite you to come to Atlanta in a body and take part in the Congress of Education to be held during the exposition. The general management of the congress\nwill be under the direction of the Commissioner of Education of the United States,\nDr. Harris. I have had frequent correspondence with Dr. Harris, and he is in\nhearty sympathy with the movement. I would like, therefore, that the Program\nCommittee, or your President, or whatever authority or department of this convention has this matter in charge, would aid Dr. Harris in making a program\nfor at least three days of the congress. The time of the congress will be extended\nover six days and I desire that this convention shall occupy three of these days, or\ntwo, at least, in the discussion of educational matters that pertain, mainly, to these\ninterests at the South.\n\nI know it will not be in order that you should take action\n\nupon this matter this evening. I present the subject, however, for your consideration at the proper time, and I trust it will be your pleasure to give the invitation\nyour favorable action. I present it at this time because my personal business compels me to return to my home at once.\n\nI have had a most delightful experience since I have been here, and I have\nthoroughly enjoyed my visit to Denver. I shall carry from this place the most\npleasant recollections of the people I have met and their kind and cordial words.\nI shall be more than glad to repeat them to my people when I return to Georgia.\nI trust that your President will see fit to give such direction to this matter as\nwill bring every one of you to Atlanta on the 25th of October, that you may enjoy\na most cordial welcome from the people of my city and from the people of the\nSouth. I thank you.\n\nPRESIDENT BUTLER: It gives me great pleasure to express to Governor Northen the high appreciation in which we hold his cordial invitation. In order that it may receive the recognition which is its\ndue, it will be referred for appropriate action to the Committee on\nResolutions, and further, to the Board of Directors at their next session. In that way the attitude of this association toward the\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.\n\n27\n\nproposed exposition will be declared and such administrative steps\nas are necessary to participate therein will be entered upon in an\norderly manner. We are indebted to Governor Northen for his presence, and we wish him a pleasant and safe return to his home.\nIt gives me great pleasure to present to this association one of its\nmost honored members, Chancellor Payne of the University of Nashville.\n\nChancellor Payne addressed the association on \"Education According to Nature.\"\nViolin solo by Miss Genevra D. Waters of Denver.\nAnnouncement by Chairman of the Committee of Colorado State\nTeachers' Association concerning a reception.\n\nPRESIDENT BUTLER: The concluding address of the evening will be\ndelivered by State Supt. Charles R. Skinner, a gentleman who has\ncome to his high position with the unanimous approval of the teachers of the great State of New York.\n\nState Superintendent Skinner spoke on the \"Education of Public\nOpinion.\"\n\nMusic by the Euterpe Quartette of Denver.\nAdjourned to 9:45 a. m., July 11th.\n\nTHIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS.\n\nFIFTH SESSION.\n\nTHURSDAY MORNING, JULY 11TH.\n\nThe fifth session was called to order at 9:45 a. m. by President\nButler.\n\nOrgan recital by Mr. Henry Houseley.\nInvocation by the Rev. Dr. Myron Reed of Denver.\nPRESIDENT BUTLER : The constitutional order for consideration at\n\nthis time is the report of the Committee on Nominations, which will\nbe presented by the Chairman, Mr. E. W. Coy of Ohio.\nMr. Coy of Ohio presented the following report :\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS .\n\nThe Committee on Nominations unanimously recommend the following persons\nfor officers of the association for the ensuing year :\nPresident.....\nFirst Vice President\nSecond Vice President ..\nThird Vice President.\n\nFourth Vice President .....\nFifth Vice President .\n\nNewton C. Dougherty , Peoria, III.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York City.\nMrs. A. J. Peavey, Denver, Colo.\nW. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky.\nN. C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa.\nW. N. Sheats, Tallahassee, Fla.\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n28\n\nSixth Vice President ........\n\nHenry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa.\n\nSeventh Vice President .\n\nE. B. McElroy, Eugene, Ore.\nC. G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb.\nHenry R. Pattengill, Lansing, Mich .\nR. H. Halsey, Oshkosh, Wis.\nT. B. Lewis, Ogden, Utah.\nEstelle Reel, Cheyenne, Wyo.\n\nEighth Vice President .\nNinth Vice President.\nTenth Vice President .\nEleventh Vice President\n\nTwelfth Vice President .\nSecretary .\nTreasurer\n\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nI. C. McNeill, Kansas City, Mo.\nDIRECTORS.\n\nAlabama\n\nF. M. Roof, Birmingham.\n\nArizona\n\nT. D. Comstock, Tucson.\n\nArkansas\n\n.. Junius Jordan, Little Rock .\nEarl Barnes, Stanford University.\n\nCalifornia\nColorado\n\nJ. H. Van Sickle, Denver.\n\nConnecticut\nDelaware\n\nDistrict of Columbia .\n\nGeorge B. Hurd, New Haven.\n.. A. N. Raub, Newark.\n\nZ. Richards, Washington.\n\nFlorida\n\nOscar Clute, Lake City.\n\nGeorgia\n\nOtis Ashmore, Savannah .\n\nIdaho\n\nF. B. Gault, Moscow.\n\nIllinois\n\nJohn W. Cook, Normal.\nD. K. Goss, Indianapolis.\nF. B. Cooper, Des Moines.\nJohn Macdonald, Topeka.\n\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\n\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\n\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\n..\n\nMichigan\n\nJames McGinniss , Owensboro.\nWarren Easton, New Orleans .\nF. C. Fernald, Dover.\nE. B. Prettyman, Baltimore.\n\nRay Greene Huling, Cambridge.\n\nMinnesota\n\nS. Emory Whitney, Detroit.\nC. B. Gilbert, St. Paul.\n\nMississippi .\n\nR. B. Fulton, University.\n\nMissouri\n\nJohn R. Kirk, Jefferson City.\nJames M. Hamilton, Missoula.\n\nMontana\n\nNebraska .....\nNevada .\n\nNew Hampshire .\nNew Mexico .....\nNew York ..\n\nW. H. Skinner, Nebraska City.\nJ. E. Stubbs, Reno.\nC. C. Rounds, Plymouth.\n\nOklahoma\n\nCharles E. Hodgin, Albuquerque.\nCharles R. Skinner, Albany.\nJ. M. Ralston, Asbury Park.\nBennett Smedes, Raleigh.\nL. B. Avery, Mayville.\nW. J. White, Dayton.\nD. R. Boyd, Norman.\n\nOregon ...\n\nJ. H. Ackerman, Portland.\n\nNew Jersey .\nNorth Carolina .\nNorth Dakota .\nOhio\n\nPennsylvania\n\nCharles De Garmo, Swarthmore.\n\nRhode Island ...\nSouth Carolina ....\n\nHorace S. Tarbell , Providence.\nD. B. Johnson, Columbia.\n\nSouth Dakota .\n\nGeorge M. Smith, Vermillion.\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.\n\nTennessee\nTexas\n\nUtah.\nVermont\n\nVirginia.\nWashington\n\nWest Virginia .\n\n29\n\nFrank Goodman, Nashville .\nH. C. Pritchett, Huntsville.\nW. R. Malone, Salt Lake.\nAlfred Turner, Rutland.\nE. C. Glass, Lynchburg.\nF. J. Barnard, Seattle.\n\nWisconsin.\n\nRobert A. Armstrong, Morgantown.\nD. D. Mayne, Janesville.\n\nWyoming\n\nA. L. Putnam, Newcastle.\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nE. W. COY,\nChairman.\n\nPRESIDENT BUTLER: The report of the Committee on Nominations\nis received, and it is before the association for action. Every active\nmember is entitled to participate in that action. The chair recognizes Mr. Bartholomew of Kentucky.\nMR. BARTHOLOMEW: I move, sir, that the Secretary be instructed\nto cast the ballot for the election of the officers named in the report\njust submitted by the Chairman of the Committee on Nominations.\n\nMR. RAMSEY of Louisiana : Mr. President, believing, sir, that the\nassociation will be as unanimous as was the nominating committee\nin the selection of officers for this association for the following year,\nI heartily second the motion of Mr. Bartholomew.\n\nPRESIDENT BUTLER: It is moved by Mr. Bartholomew of Ken-\n\ntucky, seconded by Mr. Ramsey of Louisiana, that the Secretary be\ninstructed to cast the ballot of this association for the election of the\n\nnominees of the Committee on Nominations.\n\nThat motion requires\n\na unanimous vote.\n\nOn vote the same was unanimously adopted, and President Butler\ndeclared the vote as follows :\n\nThe chair hears no negative.\nretary is so instructed.\n\nThe vote is unanimous. The Sec-\n\nSECRETARY SHEPARD : The ballot has been cast, as directed, for\nthe nominees of the Committee on Nominations .\n\nPRESIDENT BUTLER: The Secretary reports that the ballot has\nbeen cast, and I declare that the persons named in the report of the\nNominating Committee are duly chosen as the officers of this association for the ensuing year.\nAnnouncements by the Secretary.\n\nPresident Butler introduced Mr. George H. Martin, Supervisor\nof Schools, Boston, Mass., who addressed the association on the subject of \"New Standards of Patriotic Citizenship.\"\n\nPRESIDENT BUTLER: Another phase of this subject will be presented, and that is, \"The Study of American History as a Training\nfor Good Citizenship.\" The chair learned but forty-eight hours ago\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "30\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nof the necessary absence of Mr. C. B. Denson, President of the North\n\nCarolina Teachers' Assembly, whose name appears on the program\nat this point. The address on this subject will be delivered in his\nstead by one of our most distinguished and eminent members, Dr.\n\nJoseph Baldwin, Professor of Pedagogy in the University of Texas.\nDr. Baldwin then spoke on \"The Study of American History as a\nTraining for Good Citizenship.\"\nSupt. A. P. Marble of Omaha, Neb., was introduced, and read an\naddress upon \"The Ethical Element in Patriotism.\"\nThe subject of the \"Duty and Opportunity of the Schools in Promoting Patriotism and Good Citizenship\" was then discussed by W. H.\nBartholomew, Principal of the Female High School, Louisville, Ky.;\nC. B. Gilbert, Superintendent of Schools, St. Paul, Minn.; State Supt.\nJ. R. Preston of Jackson, Miss., and Dr. J. Baldwin of Texas.\nThe exercises were closed with the singing of \"America\" by the\naudience.\n\nAdjourned.\n\nSIXTH SESSION.-THURSDAY EVENING, JULY 11TH.\n\nThe meeting was called to order by Vice President Bartholomew\nof Kentucky at 8 p. m.\nChorus by the choir of the South Broadway church, Denver, led\nby Mr. W. J. Whiteman, Professor of Music, District No. 2, Denver.\nAnnouncements by the Secretary.\nC. W. Bardeen of New York, Chairman of the Committee on Necrology, submitted the report of that committee, which was ordered\nprinted in the proceedings.\nProf. Joseph Le Conte, University of California, addressed the association on the \"Effect of the Doctrine of Evolution upon Educational Theory and Practice.\"\nAlto solo by Mrs. W. J. Whiteman of Denver.\n\nProf. W. L. Bryan of the University of Indiana, Bloomington, addressed the association on \"Science and Education.\"\n\nMeeting adjourned to 9:45 a. m., July 12th.\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.\n\n31\n\nFOURTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS.\n\nSEVENTH SESSION.-FRIDAY MORNING, JULY 12TH.\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Butler.\n\nInvocation by the Rev. Thomas Nelson Haskell of Denver.\nSoprano solo by Miss Addie Beardsley of Denver.\nAnnouncements by the Secretary.\nPresident Butler introduced Prof. Arvin S. Olin of the chair of\n\npedagogy in the State University, Lawrence, Kan., who addressed the\nassociation on \"The Instruction and Improvement of Teachers now\nat Work in the Schools by Teachers' Institutes.\"\nProf. Earl Barnes of Stanford University, California, addressed\nthe association on the \"Improvement of Teachers by Teachers'\nClasses.\"\n\nL. H. Jones, Superintendent of Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio,\nspoke on the \"Improvement of Teachers by Teachers' Reading Circles.\"\n\nMrs. A. J. Peavey, State Superintendent of Public Education,\nDenver, Colo., opened the discussion of the morning's subject.\nThe discussion was continued by Dr. James M. Green of the State\n\nNormal School, Trenton, N. J.; N. C. Schaeffer, State Superintendent\nof Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.; John R. Kirk, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Jefferson City, Mo., and Col. Francis\n\nW. Parker, Principal of the Cook County Normal School, Chicago, III.\nAnnouncements by the Secretary.\nAdjourned to 8 p. m.\n\nEIGHTH SESSION.\n\nFRIDAY EVENING, JULY 12TH.\n\nThe association was called to order at 8 p. m. by President Butler.\nMusic by the Apollo Club of Denver.\n\nOrville T. Bright of Illinois, Chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, submitted the report of that committee :\nResolved, That we return our hearty thanks to the board of directors of the Cot-\n\nton States Exposition for the cordial invitation extended by their representative,\nex-Governor Northen of Georgia, to the members of the National Educational Association to attend the Congress of Education to be held in Atlanta in October ;\nand we recommend,\n\nFirst-That the members of the National Educational Association, so far as\npossible, attend the Congress of Education at Atlanta.\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n32\n\nSecond-That the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association\n\nmake suitable provision, so far as practicable, to secure a representative educational exhibit at the Cotton States Exposition.\nThird-That to this end a committee be appointed at this meeting to co-operate\nwith the United States Commissioner of Education.\n\nResolved, That, recognizing the growing greatness and grandeur of our country,\nconscious of a closer union among all our people, the National Educational Association heartily indorses the general movement throughout the country in the direction of education for American citizenship. In the firm belief that our schools must\nmake our citizens, we commend the spirit which finds expression in placing the national flag upon our schoolhouses, in the increased attention to school exercises\nwhich tend to a greater love and veneration for the flag, and in the observance of\nnational holidays in our schools. We regard this movement as not inculcating an\neducation or preparation for war, but as inspiring a deeper love of country, a\nreadier obedience to established law and order, a firmer respect for our institutions. As the interests of the whole nation are more carefully regarded, as sectional feeling dies away, we recognize the great opportunity afforded to and obligation resting upon our schools to place a higher value upon patriotic citizenship, and\nwe recommend a systematic course of instruction which shall give a broader view\nto patriotism and morality, a higher regard for the rights of citizenship, of society,\nof property, of the security and sacredness of human life. In this connection we\ncommend the great work which has been accomplished by the various organizations\nthroughout our country, which, while having their foundations in patriotic purposes, exert their efforts for the maintenance of peace and for the settlement of international disputes through arbitration. We recommend to our historians the\nimportance of placing before the people of our country fuller history of what has\nbeen accomplished by arbitration to secure peace throughout the world.\n\nResolved, That the National Bureau of Education, through the personal influence of its head and by the dissemination of most valuable information, has made\nitself indispensable to the general advancement of education.\nThat, with this assured permanence of this department, we hereby earnestly\nrecommend to our representatives in Congress that more adequate provision be\nmade for a much needed and increased efficiency in a reasonable provision of buildings for its offices, its library, and its museum, and for the libera! preparation and\npublication of educational information.\n\nResolved, First-That this association commends the fidelity of its officers under\nwhose management so large a fund of money, safely invested, has been accumulated, amounting, with the proceeds of this meeting, to over $50,000.\nSecond-That we further recognize that this is an educational rather than a\nfinancial organization, and that the warrant of its existence must be found in its\nability to discover great ends of usefulness and to expend its accumulations wisely\nrather than in hoarding them; and, therefore,\n\nThird-That we heartily recognize the wisdom of the association in the appropriations already made to the two Committees of Ten and of Fifteen for the ex-\n\npenses incurred in the conduct of their inquiries and for the presentation of their\nreports, and we hereby bear witness to the widely extended influence which these\nreports have already exercised upon the educational part of the country.\nFourth-That we also recognize the opportunity of a more extended usefulness\n\nof the association in a more liberal publication and distribution of its reports and\ndiscussions and in prosecuting with thoroughness important lines of educational inquiry.\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.\n\n33\n\nFifth-That we cordially approve the action of the National Council in the appointment of a special committee to investigate the condition of the rural, schools\n\nof this country, regarding their organization, their conduct, and their support, and\nto report upon the most feasible plans for their improvement in these respects,\nwhereby the youth of the country may enjoy, in reasonable measure, the advantages that are common in cities and villages; and in support of this action the re-\n\nquest of the council for an appropriation to meet the necessary expenses of this\ncommittee is approved.\nResolved, First-That we heartily appreciate the efforts of our government to\nbring every Indian child under appropriate instruction in the elements of conduct,\nindustry, and letters, and to free the Indian school service from the evils of partisan influence; that we emphatically approve its efforts to systematize Indian education under professional leadership; that we cordially sympathize with Superintendent Hailman's appeal to the teachers of the land for active interest on their\npart in the civilization of the Indians and for a concerted effort to bring the Indian under the same law with the white man in the several states of the Union.\n\nSecond-That we heartily approve the efforts to educate Alaskans, and especially in the care and use of reindeer as an industry and as a means of saving them\nfrom starvation, and affording them food, raiment, shelter, and transportation; and\nthat we believe Congress should extend to Alaska aid in settling the questions of\n\nproductive industry by experiment stations, as it now aids in the other territories\nand in the several states by its appropriations for agricultural stations.\n\nResolved, That all intelligent pedagogy demands that we should recognize as\nfully as possible the nature of the children for whom the school exists. Every\nmethod which can prove itself profitable to this end should be encouraged. All\nsciences touching the physical or mental development of children should be drawn\nupon for whatever help they can afford. Teachers everywhere should have wise\ndirection in the common sense observation of the children under their charge. There\n\nshould be throughout our public school system renewed and profound consideration of all things touching the physical and mental health of children, and training in school hygiene should constitute part of the professional education of\nteachers.\n\nResolved, That, while we recognize with unbounded satisfaction the splendid provision made by the different states of the Union, without exception, for the education of the children of this country, in primary, grammar, and high schools, and by\nmany of them in state universities, we also recognize the fact that while we find\nthe thousands in the first grade of the primary schools, we find the hundreds in\nthe eighth grade of the grammar schools, the tens in the high schools and the ones\nin the state universities; hence, we urge the necessity of employing all means possible to increase the efficiency of the instruction of the thousands.\nTo this end we hail with joy the advent of the kindergarten, and we urge the\nlegislatures of the several states to make such provision in their school laws as will\n\nrender it possible to make the kindergarten an integral part of the public school\nsystems of the United States.\n\nResolved, That since we believe that the intelligent teaching of children can be\nsecured only by the intelligent training of teachers, we heartily commend the efforts made in all parts of the country, by means of round tables, teachers' institutes, and summer schools, to increase the efficiency of the force already in the\nfield. But, at best, the training acquired by these means, in the nature of things,\nmust be inadequate. Hence, we urge upon the legislatures of the several states,\nthat they make provision for the establishment of thoroughly equipped normal\nschools in sufficient numbers to make it possible that all of the teachers of the pub\n3\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "34\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nlic schools may receive such training as the transcendent interests committed to\ntheir charge imperatively demand, so that in the near future none but well-trained\nteachers shall be permitted to enter upon the work of instructing children. In this\nconnection, we congratulate our friend and co-worker, Supt. W. H. Maxwell of\n\nBrooklyn, upon the enactment into law of the bill drawn by him so many years ago\nand for which he has so long and faithfully labored. We also congratulate His\nExcellency Governor Morton that he has risen to his high privilege of signing this\n\nbill, and thus making it a law that \"no person shall be employed or licensed to teach\nin the primary and grammar schools of any city of the state who has not had successful experience in teaching for at least three years, or, in lieu thereof, has not\ncompleted a three years' course in, and graduated from, a high school or academy\nhaving a course of study of not less than three years, approved by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, or from some institution of learning of equal or\n\nhigher rank, approved by the same authority, and who, subsequently to such graduation, has not graduated from a school or class for the professional training of\nteachers having a course of study of not less than thirty-eight weeks, approved\n\nby the State Superintendent of Public Instruction.\"\n\nWe congratulate the Empire\n\nState that it has such loyally true men to stand for the welfare of its children.\n\nResolved, That we make grateful and sincere acknowledgment to our retiring\nPresident and honored friend, Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, for the untiring zeal,\nthe unvarying courtesy, the resistless energy, and the rare genius for organization, which he has displayed in administering the affairs of the National Educational Association.\n\nWe congratulate him on the wonderful success that has at-\n\ntended this session not only in point of attendance, but more especially on the unequaled interest shown at all of the meetings, general and sectional, and upon the\nextraordinary excellence of the program of exercises.\n\nWe assure Dr. Butler of our\n\nwarmest appreciation of this culmination of his splendid services to the National\nEducation Association, and that our hearty esteem and good wishes will accompany\nhim while life remains .\n\nResolved, That we heartily acknowledge the courtesy and liberality of the various railroad managements of the United States which have, without exception, extended every facility in their power to make our journey to and from Denver the\npleasantest possible, and also to provide numberless attractive excursions; and all\nat most reasonable rates.\n\nResolved, That the thanks of this association are due Messrs. Wyckoff, Seamans\n& Benedict of New York City for the continuance of the gratuitous typewriter\n\nservice which has been so generously furnished this year as in the past, and especially to Misses Orr and Meineke, the expert operators who have for several years\nperformed this service, and who, by their efficiency and courtesy, have placed under special personal obligation to them the many who have received their valuable\naid.\n\nResolved, That we return sincere thanks to Mrs. A. J. Peavey, State Superintendent of Public Instruction of Colorado, for the aid and counsel which she has\n\nafforded during the preparations for and the conduct of this meeting.\nResolved, That the thanks of the assembled teachers are due to the press of\nColorado, but more particularly to the press of Denver, for the reports, admirable\nin accuracy and in fullness, which they have published, of the proceedings of this\nmeeting.\n\nResolved, That we extend our heartfelt thanks to the citizens of Denver for their\nunbounded hospitality during the session of the National Educational Association.\nThis hospitality has met us in all quarters of the city, from all classes of citizens ;\nin short, we have everywhere met a genuine Denver reception.\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.\n\n35\n\nWe especially acknowledge our obligations to Supt. Aaron Gove and his able\nassistants ;\n\nto the Executive Committee having in charge arrangements for the\n\nmeeting, and the various subcommittees who have labored so tirelessly in carrying\nout those arrangements; to the Board of Education and Common Council, whose\nsplendid liberality has supported every effort of the Executive Committee; to His\nHonor the Mayor, for his cordial efforts in our behalf and the heartiness of his\n\nwelcome; to His Excellency Gov. Albert W. McIntire and to Lieutenant Governor\nBrush, for the pleasant reception tendered the teachers at the capitol on Wednesday evening; to the Woman's Club of Denver, for their untiring courtesies at their\nparlors in the high school building during our entire session; to the police and fire\n\nboards, for the exhibition of their departments on Thursday; to the park commissioners, for their kind provision for band concerts at the city parks; to the Colorado\nState Teachers' Association, for the splendid reception tendered the members of\nthe National Educational Association at the Brown Palace Hotel on Thursday\nevening; to the Apollo Club and the Euterpe Quartette of Denver, the Chicago\n\nPrincipals' Male Quartette, and the various other musical organizations and individuals, for their delightful services of song.\nWe beg to assure the good citizens of Denver, one and all, that their kind efforts in our behalf are most sincerely appreciated and acknowledged, and that the\nmemories of this delightful visit will be cherished as long as we shall live.\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nORVILLE T. BRIGHT,\nD. L. KIEHLE,\nR. H. HALSEY,\nJOSEPH BALDWIN,\nHORACE S. TARBELL,\n\nCHARLES R. SKINNER,\nW. N. SHEATS,\nWILLIAM F. SLOCUM,\nELMER E. BROWN,\nCommittee on Resolutions .\n\nOn motion of Mr. Baker of Colorado, seconded by Mr. Richards of\nWashington, the report was received and the resolutions were unanimously adopted.\nPresident Butler introduced Prof. Edward Channing of Harvard\n\nUniversity, Cambridge, Mass., who addressed the association on the\nsubject, \"The Relation of Geography to History.\"\nOrgan recital by Prof. John Gower of Denver.\nPresident Butler introduced Dr. James H. Baker, President of the\nUniversity of Colorado, Boulder, who spoke on \"Educational Values.\"\nPresident Butler appointed the following committee to represent\nthe National Educational Association at the Congress of Education\n\nat the Cotton States Exposition, Atlanta, in the fall of 1895 :\nN. C. Dougherty of Illinois, Irwin Shepard of Minnesota, I. C. McNeill of Missouri, Charles R. Skinner of New York, L. H. Jones of Ohio, W. F. Slaton of\nGeorgia, C. B. Denson of North Carolina, J. M. Carlisle of Texas, Aaron Gove of\n\nColorado, Miss Ella C. Sabin of Wisconsin. Miss Estelle Reel of Wyoming. Geo.\nJ. Ramsey of Louisiana, J. H. Phillips of Alabama, Major S. T. Black of Califor\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n36\n\nnia, James McGinniss of Kentucky, Ray Greene Huling of Massachusetts, E. Oram\nLyte of Pennsylvania.\n\nPRESIDENT BUTLER: Fellow Teachers , Ladies and Gentlemen: The thirty-fourth meeting of our association draws to its close. It becomes my pleasant duty to return to\n\nyou thanks for the co-operation which has made this great meeting possible and\nsuccessful , and to transfer to my successor, your unanimous choice, the gavel\nwhich is the symbol of authority and dignity. You will permit me, before taking\nthat formal step, to say to you how profoundly I am indebted for the thousand and\none courtesies and for the uniform consideration with which members of this as-\n\nsociation have treated the occupant of the chair.\n\nThere has been no incident that\n\nhas in the least marred the happiness or the success of our year. You will permit\nme, in your presence, to say to you, Dr. Shepard, and to you, Mr. McNeill, that\nthis association may never know the extent and the character of your labors in its\n\nbehalf. It is perhaps a pleasant privilege of the President to be the only person to\nknow how difficult, how exacting, and how faithfully performed is the work of\nthese two great executive offices. Nor may I close without saying to Mr. Gove that\nthe incidents of this meeting have forged new bonds of affection and respect, to be\nadded to those that have bound him to us so long and so closely. His associates\nupon the local Executive Committee, his lieutenant generals at the head of the\nvarious committees that constituted the most effective local organization that has\n\never greeted us, his major generals, his colonels, and his private soldiers, each and\nall, are entitled to the thanks, not only of this association but of the chair and\nhis colleagues in executive office, and these richly earned thanks are cordially and\nheartily extended.\n\nAnd now, Mr. Dougherty, it becomes my privilege to hand to you this gavel.\nI received it, sir, one year ago, at the hands of my distinguished predecessor, a citizen of your own state, and it is with peculiar pleasure that I transmit it to the\ngentleman whose intimate personal friendship I have long enjoyed. It is particularly\ninteresting for me to remember that it was through your invitation, when President\nof our Department of Superintendence, that I first became a member of this association. I wish for you, sir, a successful and happy administration. I tender to\nyou this gavel as an expression of our unanimous confidence and respect, and we\nare, sir, until the meeting of 1896 is adjourned, your faithful and loyal servants.\nPRESIDENT- ELECT DOUGHERTY : Ladies and Gentlemen and Members of the National\n\nEducational Association: I am deeply conscious of the high honor conferred in my\nelection to the presidency of this association, the largest and grandest organization\nof teachers the world has ever known. I cannot hope, I dare not aspire, to fill the\nvacant place of my distinguished predecessor, whose administration we all agree is\npeerless in the history of this association. But I can and I do promise here and\nnow to faithfully administer the duties of this high office to the best of my ability.\nThere never was a time in the history of man when this nation so much needed the\n\nbest and highest teaching, and so much of it, as it does to-day. We belong to the\nAnglo-Saxon race, whose mission I believe it is to educate the people, and lead all\nother races in this great work; a race whose very foundation of belief is that the\n\nmore perfect the culture of a people the greater is the individual freedom, the individual happiness, and the higher the grade of manhood in the people. These are\nthe ideals which we as teachers seek to establish and maintain. It is for this purpose we have been organized. Our object is to exalt the vocation of the teacher,\nto hold up the noble banner, to foster a professional spirit, and generate professional\nenthusiasm . How well we are accomplishing this mission I think the meeting in\nDenver demonstrates; and it is my pleasure to say, here and now, that the meet\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.\n\n37\n\ning of the succeeding year will be continued upon the same lines and for the same\nlofty purpose.\n\nAnd now, fellow teachers, the time has come for us to bid farewell to Denver,\nthis beautiful city of the mountains. I am sure we all realize more deeply than\never before that the cause which has been intrusted to us is the most precious\nwhich belongs to society, and I am equally sure, as we recall the experiences of the\nweek, the hospitality which has met us upon every side, the work which has been\ndone by the citizens and teachers of this great and almost imperial city, that there\ncomes up within the heart of each one thankfulness for what has been received\nand for the kindness that has been manifested toward us. As we leave this beauti-\n\nful city at the foot of the Rockies, we carry with us feelings of the profoundest\ngratitude. I but express the feeling of each of the 10,000 teachers who have been\nin your midst, when I say, God bless Denver, and God bless her noble teachers.\nAnd now we shall close the session with the singing of \"America.\"\n\nThe audience arose and joined in \"America,\" and President\nDougherty declared the association adjourned until such time and\nplace as the Executive Committee may indicate for the next meeting\nof the association.\n\nAdjourned sine die.\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER,\nPresident.\n\nIRWIN SHEPARD,\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF THE\n\nMEETINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS .\n\nDENVER, Colo., July 9, 1895.\nThe board was called to order at the East Denver High School,\n\n19th and Stout streets, Denver, Colo., at 11 a. m., July 9, 1895, by\nPresident Butler.\n\nOn call of the roll by Secretary Shepard, the following Directors\nwere present :\nJames H. Baker, Colorado ; W. H. Bartholomew, Kentucky ; E. R. Booth, Ohio ;\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York; Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Nebraska; D. L. Kiehle,\nMinnesota; A. G. Lane, Illinois ; J. M. Mehan, Iowa ; C. C. Rounds, New Hampshire ; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; W. H. Smiley, Colorado ; N. C. Stewart, Ohio ;\nH. S. Tarbell, Rhode Island; F. Treudley, Ohio ; L. E. Wolfe, Missouri ; Aaron\n\nGove, Colorado; J. Pike, Illinois; A. R. Taylor ; Kansas ; C. W. Bardeen, New\nYork; E. Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania; A. N. Raub, Delaware ; W. H. Anderson, West\nVirginia; C. H. Dietrick, Kentucky ; Frank Goodman, Tennessee ; J. H. Phillips,\nAlabama; G. J. Ramsey, Louisiana ; H. C. Pritchett, Texas ; Jesse H. Brown, In-\n\ndiana; S. A. Hooper, Wisconsin; C. B. Gilbert, Minnesota; John T. Buchanan, Missouri ; Lewis B. Avery, North Dakota; John MacDonald, Kansas ; R. G. Young,\nMontana; Warren E. Knapp, Colorado ; Hiram Hadley, New Mexico ; Earl Barnes,\nCalifornia.\n\nOn motion of Director Kiehle, the reading of the minutes of the\nlast meeting of the Board of Directors was dispensed with, and the\nminutes as printed in the volume of the proceedings for 1894 were\napproved.\n\nAaron Gove of Colorado, Chairman of the committee appointed at\nSaratoga in 1892 to consider and report amendments to the constitution of the National Educational Association relating to conditions\nof membership, etc., submitted the report of that committee, as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF MEETINGS OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS.\n\n39\n\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association,\n\nGENTLEMEN : Your committee, appointed July 14, 1892, to report recommendations for reorganizing the administration of the National Educational Association,\nbeg leave to submit the following report :\nWe recommend that the constitution of the association be amended as follows :\n\nArticle III.: Strike out sections 1, 2, and 3, and substitute as follows :\nSection 1. There shall be three classes of members, namely, active, associate,\nand corresponding .\n\nSec. 2. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management\n\nof educational institutions, including libraries and periodicals, may become active\nmembers. All others who pay an annual membership fee of two dollars may become associate members. Eminent educators not residing in America may be\nelected by the Directory to be corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at no time exceed fifty .\n\nSec. 3. All persons who have been members of the association for any two\nyears previous to or including 1895 may be admitted to active membership without\npayment of the enrollment fee. Any person eligible may become an active member\nupon application indorsed by two active members and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars .\n\nAll active members must pay annual dues of two dollars, and will be entitled\nto the volume of proceedings without \"coupon\" or other conditions. If the annual\ndues are not paid within the fiscal year, membership will lapse, and may be restored\nonly on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars.\nAssociate members may receive the volume of proceedings in accordance with\nthe usual \"coupon\" conditions as printed on the membership tickets.\nCorresponding members will be entitled to the volume of proceedings without\nthe payment of fees or other conditions .\n\nSec. 4. The names of active and corresponding members only will be printed in\nthe volume of proceedings, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses, to be revised annually by the Secretary of the association.\nAmend Article IV. by striking out section 1 and inserting the following :\nSection 1.\n\nThe officers of this association shall consist of a President, twelve\n\nVice Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, a Board of Trustees, and an Executive Committee, as hereinafter provided.\nFurther amend Article IV. by striking out section 2 and inserting the following:\nSec. 2. The Board of Directors shall consist of a President, First Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, Chairman of the Board of Trustees, of ten additional\nmembers to be elected by the association for a term of one year, or until their sue-\n\ncessors are chosen, and of such Life Directors as are now (July 12, 1895,) in office. The President, First Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, and Chairman of\nthe Board of Trustees shall constitute the Executive Committee.\n\nFurther amend Article IV., section 3, by striking out the word \"second\" in the\nsecond line of the section and inserting the word \"third.\"\nFurther amend by inserting as\nARTICLE V.-REPRESENT ATION\n\nSection 1.\n\nAND\n\nVOTING.\n\nEach state and territory shall be entitled to one vote in the meet-\n\nings of the association, and to one additional vote for each twenty active members,\nor major fraction thereof, enrolled at the previous annual meeting. These votes\nshall be cast by delegates elected for the purpose by the several State Teachers'\nAssociations. In case any State Teachers' Association shall fail to elect delegates\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "40\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nin accordance with the provisions of this section, it shall be the duty of the President of the association to issue a call for a meeting of the active members from\n\nsuch state in order to elect the delegates to which their state is entitled. Said\nmeeting shall be held at the time and place of the meeting of the National Educa-\n\ntional Association. No person shall be elected a delegate from any state or territory who is not an active member of the association. State delegations are empowered to fill vacancies in their number.\n\nSec. 2. It shall be the duty of the Secretary of the association to notify the\nPresident of each State Teachers' Association each year of the number of delegates\nto which said state is entitled. Delegates shall bear proper credentials addressed\nto the Secretary of the association.\nTo further amend as follows :\nArticle V. shall be numbered Article VI.\n\nArticle VI . shall be numbered Article VII.\nArticle VII . shall be numbered Article VIII .\n\nThe committee further report that they deem it of great importance that sections 7, 8, 9, and 10, Article IV., be revised to more perfectly define the relations of\nthe Treasurer of the association to the Board of Trustees ; but at this time the\ncommittee are unable to formulate recommendations, in the absence of the certificate of incorporation and other data essential to such action. They, therefore,\nrecommend that action on this question be deferred until a subsequent meeting.\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nAARON GOVE, Chairman.\nIRWIN SHEPARD ,\n\nJ. M. GREENWOOD,\nCommittee.\n\nOn request of President Butler, Mr. Gove explained the necessity\nfor the proposed changes as indicated in the report of his committee.\nThe report was discussed by Directors Kiehle of Minnesota, Bu-\n\nchanan of Missouri, Ramsey of Louisiana, Fitzpatrick of Nebraska,\nBardeen of New York, Lyte of Pennsylvania, Goodman of Tennessee,\nBarnes of California, Smiley of Colorado, MacDonald of Kansas, Bartholomew of Kentucky, and Pritchett of Texas.\n\nOn motion of Director Anderson of West Virginia, the report was\nordered taken up section by section.\nSecretary Shepard read the first section of the report.\nPresident Butler read the sections of the old constitution which it\n\nwas proposed to amend and explained the effect of the change.\nDirector Gilbert moved the adoption of that portion of the report\nas read by the Secretary.\nMotion seconded by Directors Treudley of Ohio and Goodman of\nTennessee.\n\nIn answer to a question by Director MacDonald, President Butler\nruled that the proposed change would not affect life membership as\nnow constituted, but would abolish the provisions for future additions to life membership in the association.\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF MEETINGS OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS.\n\n41\n.\n\nThe motion that the report of the committee, recommending an\namendment to Article III., sections 1, 2, and 3, as submitted, and as\nread by the Secretary, be adopted was unanimously carried.\nSecretary Shepard then read the portion of the committee's report amending section 1 of Article IV. of the constitution.\nPresident Butler read the provision of the constitution as now in\nforce and explained the effect of the change.\n\nThe report was discussed by Directors Fitzpatrick of Nebraska,\nTreudley of Ohio, Gove of Colorado, Buchanan of Missouri, Kiehle of\nMinnesota, and Booth of Ohio.\n\nWhereupon the report of the committee was unanimously adopted.\nSecretary Shepard then read the recommendation to the committee proposing to amend section 2 of Article IV. of the constitution.\nDirector Goodman of Tennessee moved that the word \"ten\" be\n\nstricken out, and the words \"no more than one from each state, ter.\nritory, or district\" be substituted in lieu thereof.\nThe amendment of Mr. Goodman was duly seconded and unanimously adopted.\n\nThat portion of the report as thus amended was adopted, as follows:\nFurther amend Article IV. by striking out section 2 and inserting the following :\nSec. 2.\n\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of the President of the National\n\nEducational Association, First Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, Chairman of\nthe Board of Trustees, and not more than one additional member from each state,\nterritory, or district, to be elected by the association for the term of one year, or\nuntil their successors are chosen, and of such Life Directors as are now (July 12,\n1895,) in office. The President of the National Educational Association, First Vice\nPresident, Secretary, Treasurer, and Chairman of the Board of Trustees shall constitute the Executive Committee .\n\nSecretary Shepard read that portion of the report of the committee amending section 3, Article IV., of the constitution, which\nproposed amendment was unanimously approved.\nSecretary Shepard then read the remaining portion of the report\nof the committee, suggesting an amendment to Article V. of the constitution, entitled \"Representation and Voting,\" etc.\nDIRECTOR LANE:\n\nThere is so much involved in this feature of the\n\nreport that I move it be laid over and referred to the incoming Board\nof Directors, without recommendation.\n\nMotion seconded by Directors Ramsey of Louisiana, Bartholomew\nof Kentucky, and Pritchett of Texas.\n\nThe proposition was discussed by Directors Treudley of Ohio, Fitzpatrick of Nebraska, and Buchanan of Missouri.\nThe motion of Mr. Lane, to refer to the incoming Board of Directors, was lost by a vote of fourteen ayes and seventeen nays.\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "42\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nDirector Lane of Illinois moved a recess until immediately after\nthe close of the general session in the afternoon.\nSeconded.\n\nPresident Butler directed the report to be printed and delivered\nto the members at the adjourned meeting of the board.\nDirector Lyte of Pennsylvania moved that the chair officially\nnotify the association of the proposed changes in the constitution of\nthe association at the general session to be held this afternoon.\nSeconded and carried.\n\nWhereupon Director Lane's motion to adjourn until immediately\n\nafter the close of the general session of the afternoon was put, and\nthe Board of Directors adjourned to meet at the time and place indicated in the motion .\n\nMINUTES OF ADJOURNED MEETING.\n\nThe Board of Directors met pursuant to adjournment at the close\n\nof the afternoon general session in the Central Presbyterian church,\nDenver, at 5 o'clock p. m., Tuesday, July 9, 1895.\nPresident Butler in the chair.\n\nFurther consideration of the report of the Committee on the Revision of the Constitution was taken up and discussed by Directors\n\nMacDonald of Kansas, Buchanan of Missouri, and Hadley of New\nMexico.\n\nDirector Taylor of Kansas offered the following :\nResolved, That the conduct of the business and affairs of this association shall\nbe intrusted to a Board of Directors consisting of the President of the National\nEducational Association, First Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, Chairman of\nthe Board of Trustees, as ex-officio members, one active member from each state and\nterritory of the United States, and one from the District of Columbia, to be designated by the active members of the National Educational Association from each of\nthe said states, territories, and from the District of Columbia, at its headquarters,\non the second day of each session, at 5:30 p. m. The Director for each state, or\nsome one designated by him or her, shall act as temporary Chairman of such meeting, and no one shall be entitled to vote who does not hold a certificate of active\n\nmembership for that particular session of the National Educational Association ;\nand it is further\n\nProvided That each state or territory may elect one additional member of the\nBoard of Directors in case its enrollment at the preceding annual meeting of the\nNational Educational Association reached or exceeded 500 active and associate\nmembers.\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF MEETINGS OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS.\n\n43\n\nThe officers of the general association shall be elected by the members of the\nBoard of Directors elected, as above provided, at 4:30 o'clock p. m. on the last\nday of the general association meeting.\n\nSeconded by Director Tarbell of Rhode Island.\nOn motion of Director Gilbert of Minnesota, seconded by Directors\n\nRounds of New Hampshire and Bright of Illinois, the resolution of\nDirector Taylor was laid upon the table for future action.\nDIRECTOR GILBERT :\n\nI move that this whole matter be referred\n\nback to the committee with instructions to consider the proposed\namendments that have been offered, and that a copy of their revised\nreport be placed in the hands of each member of the Board of\nDirectors .\n\nSeconded by Director Treudley of Ohio.\nOn a vote, that portion of the report of the committee proposing\nto amend Article V. of the constitution concerning \"Representation\nand Voting,\" with the resolution of Director Taylor, was referred\nback to the Committee on Revision of the Constitution, with instructions to consider the proposed amendment and present the same at\nthe next annual meeting. That, in the meantime, a copy of their report, as revised, be forwarded to each Director of the association.\nDirector Rounds moved the following declaratory resolution, for\nthe guidance of President Butler during this session of the National\nEducational Association, which was unanimously adopted :\nResolved, That, at this meeting, the basis of voting on proposed amendments to\nthe constitution, election of officers, and other matters of business submitted to the\nhouse, shall be active membership; \" active members\" being construed to mean\n\nthose who are duly enrolled this year, having paid the fee and wearing the necessary badge.\n\nOn motion of Director Richards, seconded by Director Lane of\nIllinois, the recommendation of the committee dealing with the\nfinancial administration was referred to the incoming Board of Directors.\n\nApreliminary report of the Treasurer, submitted by N. A. Calkins,\nChairman of the Board of Trustees, was read by the Secretary, and\non motion of Director Lane was referred back to the Chairman of\n\nthe Board of Trustees with instructions to complete the report and\npublish the same in the next volume of proceedings.\nDirector Tarbell reported the present status of the Emergency\nFund, which report was ordered referred to the new Board of Directors .\n\nSecretary Shepard read the following petition for the establishment of a new department in the association, to be known as the Department of Physical Education :\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "44\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nWe respectfully petition the Board of Directors of the National Educational\nAssociation to create, as a branch of that body's work, a Department of Physical\nEducation.\n\nL. H. JONES, Superintendent of Cleveland, Ohio .\nL. W. HUGHES, Principal Normal, Cleveland, Ohio.\nE. L. HARRIS, Principal High School, Cleveland, Ohio .\n\nJOSEPH KRUG, Superintendent of German, Cleveland, Ohio.\nBUEL T. DAVIS, Superintendent of Schools , Winona, Minn.\nFRANK B. COOPER, Superintendent of Schools , Des Moines , Iowa.\nW. M. BEARDSHEAR, President Iowa State College, Ames , Iowa.\nJ. W. SEAVER, Professor Yale College, New Haven, Conn.\nW. G. ANDERSON, Professor Yale College, New Haven, Conn.\n\nFRANCIS W. PARKER, President Cook County Normal, Chicago, Ill.\nFRANCIS STUART PARKER, Teacher Cook County Normal, Chicago, Ill.\nL. J. KOCH, Director Physical Education , Normal School, Chicago, Ill.\nW. P. BOWEN, Director Physical Education, Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich .\nFRANCES C. BURTON, Assistant Physical Education , Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich\nR. G. BOONE, Principal State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nEVA D. KELLOGG, Editor \" Primary Education,\" Boston, Mass.\nA. B. POLAND, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Trenton, N. J.\nJ. M. GREEN, President State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.\nW. C. WARFIELD, Superintendent of Schools, Covington, Ky.\nH. R. BLAIDELL, Covington, Ky.\nW. A. BELL, State Director National Educational Association, Indianapolis, Ind.\nNATHAN C. SCHAEFFER, Superintendent of Public Instruction , Harrisburg, Pa.\nHENRY HOUCK, Dept. Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\nJOHN I. STEWART, Dept. Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\nGEO. W. PECKHAM, Superintendent of Schools , Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nDirector MacDonald of Kansas moved that a Department of\nPhysical Education be established. Seconded by Director Stewart\nof Ohio.\n\nDIRECTOR LANE:\n\nI think it would be a mistake to increase the\n\nnumber of departments .\n\nThe subject was discussed by Directors Buchanan of Missouri,\nRichards of Washington, D. C., and, upon invitation, by Miss R. Anna\nMorris of Cleveland, Ohio, and the department was ordered established by a vote of twenty-two to ten.\nPRESIDENT BUTLER: There being no further business before this\n\nBoard of Directors, it passes out of existence, to be succeeded by another board on Friday afternoon. I desire to return to the board my\nsincere thanks for their assistance at Asbury Park and here in promoting the business of the association. This board stands adjourned\nsine die.\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\nOF THE\n\nMEETINGS OF THE NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS.\n\nDENVER, Colo, July 12, 1895.\nThe meeting was called to order in room 3, East Division High\nSchool, Denver, Colo., July 12, 1895, by President-elect Dougherty of\nthe National Association. On the call of the roll by the Secretary\nthe following Directors responded :\nDirectors Gove of Colorado, Dougherty of Illinois, Pike of Illinois, Taylor of\nKansas, White of Michigan, McNeill of Missouri, Comstock of Arizona, Barnes\nof California, Van Sickle of Colorado, Richards of District of Columbia, Clute of\nFlorida, Cook of Illinois, Goss of Indiana, Cooper of Iowa, MacDonald of Kansas,\nMcGinniss of Kentucky, Easton of Louisiana, Prettyman of Maryland, Whitney\n\nof Michigan, Gilbert of Minnesota, Fulton of Mississippi, Kirk of Missouri, Hamilton of Montana, Skinner of Nebraska, Stubbs of Nevada, Rounds of New Hampshire, Hodgin of New Mexico, Skinner of New York, Avery of North Dakota, Boyd\nof Oklahoma, Malone of Utah, Mayne of Wisconsin.\n\nCertain Directors were represented by proxy, and the chair\nannounced that they would be recognized in the discussion by unanimous consent, but that such proxies could not vote.\nOn the call for new business, the Chairman recognized Prof.\nJoseph Le Conte of California, who offered the following petition,\nsigned by the requisite number of members, for the establishment of\na department of the National Educational Association, to be known\n\nas the Department of Science Instruction, and, on motion of Professor Le Conte, the department was ordered established by a unanimous vote :\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association:\n\nWe, the undersigned members of the National Educational Association and\nteachers of the natural sciences in colleges and high schools, hereby respectfully\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n46\n\npetition you for the privilege of organizing a Department of Natural Science Instruction in accordance with the constitution of the National Educational Association.\n\nJOSEPH LE CONTE,\nCHARLES C. BESSEY,\n\nALBERT G. BOYDEN,\nWILBUR S. JACKMAN,\nCHAS. S. PALMER,\nCHAS. J. LING,\nOTIS ASHMORE,\n\nSIDNEY T. SKIDMORE,\nIRWEN LEVISTON,\nROLAND W. Guss,\n\nWM. C. STRONG,\nGEO. F. ATKINSON,\nSIDNEY F. SMITH,\nGEO. M. TURNER,\nG. L. CANNON,\nAARON GOVE,\nJAMES H. BAKER,\nWILLIAM F. MCDOWELL,\nWM. H. SMILEY,\nC. H. THURBER,\n\nand fifty-seven others.\n\nDirector Mayne of Wisconsin offered the following petition, signed\nby the requisite number of members, for the establishment of a department of the National Educational Association, to be known and\ndesignated as the Department of School Administration, and, on\nmotion, the same was unanimously granted and the department established.\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association ,\nGENTLEMEN: The undersigned active members of the National Educational\n\nAssociation respectfully petition your honorable body to establish a Department of\nSchool Administration.\n\nIn view of the success and strength attained by several state organizations con-\n\nsisting entirely of the members of school boards, the lasting benefits to education\nderived from such organization in the closer co-operation of school boards and\nsuperintendents, we are prompted to ask a favorable consideration of this petition.\nS. A. HOOPER, Milwaukee High School.\nA. F. NIGHTINGALE, Superintendent Chicago High Schools.\nA. P. MARBLE, Superintendent of Schools , Omaha, Neb.\nJ. F. MILLSPAUGH, Superintendent of Schools, Salt Lake City.\nD. R. AUGSBURG, Superintendent of Drawing, Salt Lake City.\nW. H. BARTHOLOMEW, Principal Girls' High School, Louisville, Ky.\nJ. L. HOLLOWAY, Superintendent of Schools , Fort Smith, Ark .\nLEVI SEELEY, Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, Trenton , N. J.\nCHARLES DE GARMO, President Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania.\nCHAS. M. JORDAN, Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis. Minn.\nEDWARD D. FARRELL, Assistant Superintendent of Schools . New York City.\nEDWARD R. SHAW, Dean School of Pedagogy, New York City.\nJOHN A. HANCOCK, Superintendent of Schools, Durango Colo.\nB. A. HINSDALE, Professor of Pedagogy, University of Michigan .\nO. T. CORSON, Commissioner of Education . Columbus Ohio.\n\nF. TREUDLEY, Superintendent of Schools. Youngstown Ohio.\n\nJNO. T. BUCHANAN, Principal Kansas City ( Mo.) High School.\nFRANCIS W. PARKER, Principal Cook County Normal School, Chicago.\nM. V. O'SHEA, Professor of Pedagogy, Mankato , Minn\nZ. X. SNYDER, Principal State Normal School, Greeley, Colo.\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF MEETINGS OF NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS.\n\n47\n\nThe President called for communications from the National Council as to the Committee of Nine.\n\nDirector Sabin of Iowa submitted the following report of the\ncommittee appointed to report on the subject of investigating the\ncondition of the rural schools and of recommending reforms therein :\nThe committee appointed to report on the subject of investigating the condition of the rural schools and of recommending reforms therein, submits to the\nCouncil the following recommendations :\n\nResolved, That there be undertaken under the auspices of the Council an investigation of the subject of rural schools, embracing such topics as revenues and expenditures, the constitution, organization, and duties of boards of management and\ncontrol, and the provision of suitable teachers. More definitely, said investigation\nshall be conducted in general on the lines laid down in the report of the Committee\n\non State School Systems submitted to the Council at its present session.\n\nResolved, That a Committee of Nine be appointed to conduct this investigation,\nsaid committee to consist of the following persons : Henry Sabin of Iowa, D. L.\nKiehle of Minnesota, A. B. Poland of New Jersey, C. C. Rounds of New Hampshire, J. H. Phillips of Alabama, B. A. Hinsdale of Michigan, S. T. Black of California, W. F. Sutton of Texas, and L. E. Wolfe of Missouri.\nResolved, That the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association\nbe urgently requested to appropriate, at some session to be held during the course\nof the present annual meeting, the sum of $2,500, or such part thereof as may be\n\nnecessary, to defray the expenses of this investigation, including the publication\nof the report of the committee.\nResolved, That the committee shall report within the period of two years in\nsuch form as it may determine, and that it be authorized to publish its report.\nRespectfully submitted,\nB. A. HINSDALE,\nGEORGE P. BROWN,\nD. L. KIEHLE,\n\nJ. R. PRESTON,\nEARL BARNES ,\nCommittee.\n\nDIRECTOR BUTLER: Mr. President, I desire to offer a resolution to\ncarry into effect the recommendation of the Council of Education\nsimilar in form to the resolution that constituted the Committee of\n\nTen or Committee of Fifteen. The gentlemen will remember-those\nwhose memories go back to the Saratoga meeting-that we then\nentered on this policy of investigation and report, some of us with\nmisgivings and some of us with confidence. The outcome of that\npolicy has been one which has met the unqualified indorsement of\nthe teachers and people of the country, which has done more than\nany other one thing to strengthen and develop the National Association. The financial method of administration adopted then was the\ncreation of an Emergency Fund under the control of the Board of\nDirectors, to which was transferred a sum of money from the receipts\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n48\n\nfrom the current year, to be drawn upon, subject to the order of the\nChairman of the authorized committee, by the Board of Directors.\nI therefore move the adoption of the following resolutions :\nResolved, That the Board of Trustees be authorized to place in the Emergency\n\nFund the sum of $2,500, should such sum remain after all expenses incurred by\nthe National Educational Association in connection with the meeting at Denver\nin 1895 have been met.\n\nResolved, That, should the Emergency Fund permit, the Board of Trustees are\nhereby authorized to audit and pay bills presented over the signature of the Chairman of the Special Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools, appointed by the National Council of Education at Denver, July 9, 1895, for the purpose of investigating problems connected with the rural schools of the country, their financial support, the organization of boards of management, the provision of teachers, etc.;\n\nProvided, That the total bills for this purpose shall not exceed the sum of $2,500,\nnot more than $1,500 of which shall be drawn during the year 1895-96; and, also,\n\nProvided, That all such bills be for expenses actually incurred with the approval\nof the Chairman, and that no portion of the fund be drawn upon for compensation\nto any member of the committee or any officer thereof;\n\nProvided further, That the sum of $2,500 may be drawn upon, if necessary, and\nif it is found sufficient, to defray the expense, in whole or in part, of the publication\n\nof the report of said committee, the method and manner of publication to be subject to the approval of the President of the National Educational Association.\n\nThe adoption of the resolution was seconded by Director MacDonald of Kansas .\n\nDIRECTOR JONES of Ohio : I merely suggest that some confusion\nmight arise over the designation of this committee.\nDIRECTOR BUTLER: I understood Director Sabin to say that three\n\nhad been added to the committee, viz., Charles R. Skinner of New\nYork, Lawton B. Evans of Georgia, and United States Commissioner\nof Education Wm. T. Harris, and I have therefore changed the designation of the committee.\n\nDIRECTOR SABIN: As Chairman of that committee, I think I would\nrather have it called the Committee on Rural Schools.\n\nDIRECTOR SKINNER: I suggest the words \"Rural Schools\" be added\nafter the word \"Twelve\" in the report of Director Sabin.\nPRESIDENT DOUGHERTY: It will be so inserted unless there be\nobjection.\n\nOn a vote, the resolution of Director Butler was unanimously\nadopted.\n\nDIRECTOR JONES of Ohio: I have a matter left in my hands by\nDirector Tarbell, which he asked me to present. It is a series of\nresolutions, with reference to the relationship of the Treasurer of\nthe National Association to that body, which seem to have been\nmade necessary by certain changes that have been made in the constitution and by-laws. They are as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF MEETINGS OF NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS.\n\n49\n\nResolved, That the Treasurer be instructed to make all future reports so as to\ninclude all revenues received by the association, from whatever sources, and that\nthe reports show receipts by calendar years, and not by meetings.\n\nResolved, That the Treasurer be instructed to ask that all bills for all purposes\nbe paid by him out of funds in his hands, except those chargeable to the Emergency Fund, orders for the same from the Board of Trustees to be exacted for\nevery payment.\n\nResolved, That the Treasurer shall give a bond for ten thousand (10,000) dollars, the same to be made by a surety company, the fee for the same to be paid by\nthe National Educational Association.\n\nActing for Mr. Tarbell, I move the adoption of these resolutions.\nSeconded by Director Butler.\nThe resolutions as read were unanimously adopted.\nOn the roll call of states as to the place of holding the next annual\nmeeting of the association, Edward T. Pierce presented an invitation\nfrom Los Angeles, Cal., with the accompanying documents. Communications were also read by the Secretary in connection with this\ninvitation.\n\nState Superintendent Black of California and others indorsed the\ninvitation of Los Angeles.\nSecretary Shepard read an invitation from Indianapolis; also, one\nfrom Boston, Mass., inviting the association to meet in New England\nnext year; also, a communication from Detroit, Mich., inviting the\nassociation to assemble at that place in 1896.\n\nDirector Gilbert presented an invitation from the city of Duluth,\nMinn., and read and filed certain documents .\nMiss Harris, Director Lane, and the Nebraska delegation indorsed the petition of Duluth.\nDirector Rounds presented the claims of New England.\nMr. Green of New Jersey invited the association to meet at Asbury\nPark, N. J., and filed written communications with the Secretary.\nA delegation from Oregon seconded the claims of Los Angeles.\nDirector Goodman of Tennessee invited the association to meet\n\nat Chattanooga, and read and filed a written invitation.\nSecretary Shepard read a communication from the Superintendent\nof Schools at Seattle, inviting the association to hold its next meeting\nat that place.\n\nPresident Dougherty appointed Directors Gilbert of Minnesota\nand Kirk of Missouri to act as tellers.\n\nThe ballots were cast on the cumulative system, and the tellers\nannounced the following result :\n4\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "50\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nTotal.\nFirst Second\nChoice. Choice.\n11\n9\n\nDuluth ........\n\nAsbury Park .\nLos Angeles ....\nIndianapolis .\nBoston .\n\nFirst\n\nBallot.\n26\n\nSecond\nBallot.\n9\n\n7\n\n8\n\n7\n\n22\n\n7\n\n13\n\n3\n\n4\n\n20\n\n12\n\n1\n\n2\n\n3\n\n..\n\n1\n\n1\n\n2\n\n4\n\n..\n\n2\n\n5\n\n7\n\n3\n\n5\n\n8\n\nDetroit .......\n..\n\nChattanooga .\n\nThird\n\nChoice.\n6\n\n..\n\n..\n\n..\n\nOn motion of Director Butler, the question of selecting the place\nof holding the next annual meeting of this association was referred to\n\nthe Executive Committee of the association, with full power to act.\nSecretary Shepard read the annual report by Dr. N. A. Calkins,\nChairman of the Board of Trustees, who was unavoidably absent.\nDirector Gove moved that the communication be received, and\nthat, when the report is completed and signed by all the Trustees,\nit be printed in the report of the proceedings.\nSeconded and carried.\n\nDirector Butler nominated Albert G. Lane of Illinois as Trustee,\nvice Edwin C. Hewett of Illinois.\nSeconded.\n\nOn motion of Director Goodman, seconded by Director Gove, the\nSecretary was authorized to cast the ballot for Mr. Lane.\nThe ballot was so cast and Albert G. Lane of Illinois was there-\n\nupon declared duly elected as Trustee of the National Educational\nAssociation, vice Edwin C. Hewett.\nPresident Dougherty appointed Directors Skinner of New York,\nMalone of Utah, Rounds of New Hampshire, Carlisle of Texas, and\nFaston of Louisiana as a committee to recommend names for mem-\n\nbers of the National Council.\n\nSaid committee subsequently reported\n\nthe following :\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association ,\nGENTLEMEN: Your committee find the following vacancies in the membership\nof the National Council to be filled by the appointment of this board, viz.:\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N. J ....\n\nA. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan .\nJ. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss .\nHenry M. Leipziger, New York City ..\n\nTerm expired 1895\nTerm expired 1895\nTerm expired 1895\nTerm expired 1895\n\nW. R. Garrett, Nashville, Tenn .....\n\nTerm expired 1895\n\nH. K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Neb .......\n\nVacant by absence\nVacant by absence\n\nCharles W. Elliott, Cambridge, Mass ...\nOscar H. Cooper, Galveston, Tex ....\n\nVacant by absence\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF MEETINGS OF NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS.\n\n51\n\nYour committee nominate the following to fill the above-named vacancies :\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N. J. (to succeed himself) .......... Term expires 1901\n\nA. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan. (to succeed himself) . .......... Term expires 1901\nTerm expires 1901\nJ. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss. (to succeed himself) .......\nTerm expires 1901\nA. S. Downing, Albany, N. Y. (to succeed Mr. Leipziger) .\nTerm expires 1901\nW. H. Payne, Nashville, Tenn. (to succeed Mr. Garrett) .\nJ. F. Millspaugh, Salt Lake City, Utah (to succeed Mr. Wolfe) .. Term expires 1896\nJ. G. Schurman of New York (to succeed Mr. Elliot) .......... Term expires 1897\nThomas G. Harris of Texas (to succeed Mr. Cooper) .. ........ Term expires 1900\n\nOn motion of Director Butler, the report of the committee was\n\nreceived, the recommendation of the committee concurred in, the\ncommittee discharged, and the names respectively were declared duly\nqualified members of the National Council of Education.\nDIRECTOR JONES :\n\nMr. President and Gentlemen:\n\nAs President of\n\nthe Department of Superintendence of the National Association, I\nhave been asked to make arrangements for a meeting at Jacksonville\nnext February. It is in the judgment of the department very desirable that I be authorized by this Board of Directors to use about\none hundred dollars more than the authorized amount for that meet-\n\ning, and I simply make the request.\nDIRECTOR GILBERT : I move the request of the President of the\nDepartment of Superintendence be granted.\nSeconded by Director Gove.\nDIRECTOR BUTLER: I desire to ask the attention of the Directors\n\nfor a moment, while I offer two resolutions that I deem important.\nIt may seem to some of you that the presence of twelve or fifteen\nthousand members of this association in this city is a simple matter,\nbut during the time of my experience in the office which I shall resign\nto my successor this evening.\n\nI have come to know how much\n\nminute labor and attention it requires and how much skilled assistance of one sort and another is necessary. It has been usual at this\ntime for some officer, usually the retiring President, to offer to this\nboard a resolution providing for the printing of the volume and compensation for the preparation thereof.\n\nInstead of offering the resolu-\n\ntion which precedent would dictate, I desire to offer two resolutions,\nwhich I will read together, and ask that they be considered sepa-\n\nrately, as they stand on their own individual merits, and place this\nquestion of paying assistants upon what I believe to be the broad\nground of common sense. Those of us who have been through the\nmill feel from our experience that this is necessary. I will read the\n\nresolutions, and if some gentleman will, as a matter of courtesy,\nsecond them, I shall be able to speak to them.\nfollows:\n\nThe resolutions are as\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "52\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nResolved, That an annual appropriation of $750 be and is hereby authorized to\nbe paid to the Treasurer of the National Educational Association, in equal semiannual payments, for the purpose of securing clerical assistance in the discharge\nof the duties of his office and for such other miscellaneous expenses as are neces-\n\nsarily connected therewith.\nResolved, That for the year 1895-96 an appropriation of $1,500 be and is hereby made to the Secretary of the National Educational Association, the same to be\npaid in three equal installments, as compensation for the performance of the duties\nof his office, which duties shall include the editing of the volume of proceedings\nand the arranging and perfecting of the roll of active members as established\n\nby the newly adopted constitutional amendments.\n\nI offer these resolutions, and move their adoption.\nSeconded by Director Gilbert of Minnesota.\nDIRECTOR GOVE :\n\nI trust this second resolution will be followed\n\nnext year or the year after, or very soon, by an arrangement for a\npermanent Secretary who will be allowed a sufficient salary to devote\nhis entire time to our interests.\n\nThe resolutions as offered by Director Butler were then unanimously adopted.\nOn motion, the Directors adjourned sine die.\nNEWTON C. DOUGHERTY,\nPresident .\n\nIRWIN SHEPARD,\n\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION.\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME.\n\nAARON GOVE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , DENVER, COLO ., AND\n\nCHAIR-\n\nMAN OF THE LOCAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.\n\nMr. President and Members of the National Educational Association:\n\nBy invitation of the chamber of commerce and board of trade,\nseconded and supplemented by the city and state authorities, you are\nabout to open the thirty-fourth annual meeting of your association,\n\nin Denver. It is my privilege and pleasure to pronounce a word of\nwelcome, and to introduce those high in authority who will appropriately address you. Denver and Colorado are complimented by\nyour presence. We believe the interests that you represent to be so\nintimately connected with our country's welfare that their encouragement and promotion is a necessity for national existence. The program for your deliberation has been made with skill and care. It\ncovers the broad field of current educational effort, with provisions\n\nfor expansion by scholarly representatives of the profession, and the\nprogram affords opportunity for free and unlimited discussion. You\nhave come up from the lowlands to meet on a level with the summit\nof Mount Washington and above the Alleghenies. From this point\nyou have the privilege of viewing the entire country, westward and\neastward to the ocean, and southward to the gulf. The waters of\nColorado flow to every sea. From such an eminence a man should\nbe above bigotry, intolerance, enmity, or prejudice. The heart should\nbe full of charity for all mankind. I trust the volume of proceedings\nof this meeting will exceed in value any that have preceded it, and\nthat, when this association has adjourned, you are to remain with us\nseveral weeks for recreation; that you will find a welcome on the\nplains or in the mountains, and that for whatever expenditure is\nrequired I am sure you will be glad to learn that silver coin is the\nestablished and accepted currency of our people.\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "54\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nAnd now, Mr. President, it having been intimated to me by your\nadministration that long speeches at this time would be quite unnecessary, I beg to abruptly close.\n\nHON. JUDSON L. BRUSH, LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR OF COLORADO.\n\nMr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen of the National Educational Association :\n\nI regret very much that I have to announce the absence of Governor McIntire, by unavoidable delay in St. Louis. As acting governor\n\nof the State of Colorado, I extend to you a hearty and cordial welcome, not only extending the right hand but both hands and both\nThe freedom of the state is yours and the fullness thereof.\nThe people of the state are yours to command.\nThe people of the State of Colorado appreciate very highly your\nmeeting among us, feeling that we cannot come in contact with the\neducators of the United States without being largely benefited\nthereby. We invite you to visit the city of Denver, a city that every\narms.\n\nColoradian is proud of, her schools and church buildings, her places\nof resort. We invite you to visit our mountain scenery, which is unsurpassed in the world-the Switzerland of America.\n\nWe ask you\n\nto go down into the bowels of the earth and examine the resources\n\nof Colorado in her mineral wealth, and then ascend her lofty peaks\nlooking down upon the mystic clouds below. We then ask you to go\n\nwith us and visit her coal fields, which, when developed, will surpass\neven those of Pennsylvania; also, her marble quarries, which for\ntexture and beauty surpass those of all the country. We will\nthen ask you to go to our valleys and traverse 12,000 miles of irrigating canals, covering 2,000,000 acres of agricultural lands unsurpassed\nin the United States. We then ask you to visit our schools, commencing with our little schoolhouses and advancing to our state\ninstitutions, which all and each are the pride of Colorado, out of\nwhich is evolved the one great principle of equal suffrage. We ask\nyou to investigate the workings of equal suffrage in Colorado and\n\nWyoming, believing that, if you do, you will all go to your homes\nstrong advocates of it. One word more,-I have had the privilege of\nseeing in convention the statesmen of this country; I have had the\npleasure of participating with many of the business men of the country; I have had the opportunity of looking upon the deliberations of\nthe manufacturers of the country, and also many other conventions\n\nrepresenting various lines of activity; but I wish to say, without any\nappearance of fulsomeness, that I have never seen so much intelli\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nADDRESSES OF WELCOME.\n\n55\n\ngence, scholarship, and culture represented in an association. In\nno other calling is there so much given in what goes to make up\nhuman life for the money. There are many persons here working\nfor salaries who in other lines could make five or six times as much.\n\nMay you have a pleasant and profitable meeting, and may success\nattend each and all of you. May your paths of life be strewn with\n\nflowers, and may you have a safe return to your homes. God bless\nyou all.\nHON. THOS . S. McMURRAY, MAYOR OF DENVER.\n\nI desire to join with the governor in extending to each and all of\nyou a cordial welcome. We welcome you, not only as you come to us\nas individuals, and you are all welcome as individuals, but we welcome you as part of our national life. We also welcome you in your\nrepresentative capacity, representing the great educational system\nof America. We feel that you have a right to all that is good, all\nthe best that we may have. The public school system of our country\nwas founded away back in the infancy of the nation, and from that\nday to this it has held a firm hold upon the hearts of our people. As\nyou come to us we welcome you, and we trust that your stay among us\nwill be pleasant to each of you; that you will find recreation and\npleasure everywhere. We also trust that we may derive profit from\nyour sojourn among us. At the same time, ladies and gentlemen, addressing an audience of this kind, representing those\nthat are teaching, those that have committed to their care the\nrising generation, we feel that you do not believe that commencement day is the end of study, and so we say to you, as you\ncome among us and as you go around this state and city, we believe\nthat you are desirous of obtaining profit and instruction as well as\n\npleasure and recreation. If you are fond of painting, you will find\nfit subjects all through this country-such landscapes as you may\nnever have seen before. Are you fond of the study of botany? In\nno other state will you find such a flowery kingdom as you will see\nin Colorado. Are you fond of geology ? As you go through the\nmountains and see strata after strata, you will find material for new\nlessons in that study. The beauty which you will find here is simply\nthe beginning. Throughout the length and breadth of this great\nstate you will find things that will charm you. I take great pleasure\nin extending to you the freedom of the city. All that we have is\nyours. We ask you to examine our public buildings, of which we are\nproud. Go throughout the length and breadth of our city. Go\naround through our drives and parks. Visit the canons and look at\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n56\n\n[General\n\nthe city from the mountain peaks. Make yourselves at home, and\nsee to it that you get out of this all the recreation and pleasure that\n\nyou can. It is all laid out before you, and the very best is at your\ndoor.\n\nAnd now, ladies and gentlemen, permit me again, as before, to\nsay, on behalf of this city, that it is an honor to welcome you as its\nguests, and permit me to extend to you the sincere and heartfelt\nwelcome of the city of Denver.\n\nMRS . A. J.\n\nPEAVEY,\n\nSTATE SUPERINTENDENT OF\n\nPUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\n\nCOLORADO .\n\nMembers of the National Educational Association\nFELLOW TEACHERS AND FRIENDS:\n\nAfter the words of welcome\n\nwhich have already been spoken it would seem quite superfluous for\nme to attempt to add anything, but I may perhaps be permitted to\ngive the emphasis of a woman's voice and heart to what has been\nsaid, and so fling open a little wider the gates of entrance to our\nbeautiful city and the glories of our mountain state. Thus, I trust\nthat the hospitality of deed will be found to outmatch the hospitality\nof words, and that you may be so impressed with our purpose and act\nthat the long journey you have taken in order to come to us shall\nlose its aspect of weariness in the enjoyment of the present and passing hours. I think I have a special reason, however, for giving you\nwelcome. You come to a state which has recognized the political\nequality of women, and has seen its way clear to give the full right\nof supervision to those upon whom it has laid responsibility. Whatever personal opinion you may entertain on the question of woman\nsuffrage, you need have no doubt of its purpose in this state to stand\nfor all that is noblest and best in the sacred and honorable work\n\nto which you have given your life and strength. If there is one thing\nthat definitely marks the progress of education more than another, it\nis the position which woman has taken and held for the past few years\nin relation to it. A great deal of cheap wit has been expended upon\n\nher efforts and some sharp criticism has been flung at her accomplishments, but these things cannot rub out the fact, that, in her own\npersonal education and in her work as a teacher and director in the\nschools, colleges, and universities of the land, she has contested for\nthe palm with her brother, and in the contest has not been left behind. She may not be able to compete with him in a bicycle race.\nor in a rowing match, but her record in Vassar, and Wellesley, and\nSmith, and Holyoke, and Bryn Mawr, and in such co-educational\ninstitutions as Madison University, and Ann Arbor, and Oberlin, not\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nADDRESSES OF WELCOME.\n\n57\n\nto speak of many others, shows that she is a workwoman that needeth not to be ashamed. Perhaps the chief influence which she has\nexerted may be spoken of as individualistic. It is certain that her\nrise in power furnishes the best antidote to those socialistic tendencies whose aim is to level all men down to a minimum rather than\n\npermit that natural exaltation which is the reward of personal integrity and laudable ambition. We realize the peril of greatness,\nand the danger that besets every one who makes his merit known ;\nwe know that every quickened aspiration is liable to be touched with\nself-love, and that success in any enterprise is often marred by an\nunsymmetrical development of life; but we still claim, that it is the\nprivilege and duty of every one to have respect unto his divine\nheredity and to make the very best of that which God has made. It\nis this claim and full assertion of it, with such limitations as must\nsurround every virtuous endeavor, that marks the educated woman\nof to-day. She has given a tremendous impetus to high culture by\nholding steadily to the moral and spiritual purposes it is destined\nto serve. I think I may say without undue boasting that she has\ndone more to elevate the work of teaching into a definite profession\nthan any other agency. Think for a moment of the advance which\nthe science or art of teaching has made within the past quarter of a\ncentury. Twenty-five years ago we knew the names of a few great\nteachers. When we had mentioned Arnold of Rugby, Taylor of Andover, Emma Willard of Troy, Mary Lyon of Holyoke, our list was\nnearly exhausted, but there are hundreds of men, and more than\nhundreds of women, to-day who rank far above these in everything\npertaining to their profession except the reverence which attaches\nto antiquity. Now we have a professional literature on this subject\nwhich begins to take rank with other professional literature. We\nhave professional schools, in which the art is taught with system,\nand these are daily increasing in efficiency. With this rise into the\ndignity of a definite science the old methods are sure to pass away.\nThe time is coming when admission to this work will no longer be regarded as a makeshift, or a temporary expedient, or the means of\n\ngetting without earning a livelihood, nor even the means of paying\na political debt. This elevation of the standard of this profession\nis due more to the individualism of woman, through the opportunities\nand privileges of education which she has grasped and firmly held,\nthan to any other cause. She has stepped to the front, and by the\nabsolute merit of her performance has obtained a recognition which\na few years ago was impossible. It is only necessary in proof of this\nto point to the increasing number of women who are taking their\n\ndegrees in science and philosophy, and who are manifesting their\npedagogical and executive ability in the best institutions of learning\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "58\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nin all the land, and who are also making a most practical and successful use of their talents as bread-winners in the field of professional\nand industrial life. I take great pride in what the women of Colorado have accomplished in this direction, and my word of welcome\nis made the more emphatic by the consciousness I have that you, our\nhonored and distinguished guests, will truly appreciate their endeavors and their successes .\n\nAssociations like these are not only valuable for the work they do\nbut for the quickening of the esprit de corps. Here we are at full\n\nliberty to idealize our profession. Looking, then, at the various agencies which are influential for good in the world, we must place the\nteachers in the highest position of honor. As public servants they\nhave done more for the country than presidents, or senators, or representatives, more than the financial managers of great corporations,\nmore than any who contribute to our political and material welfare,\n\nfor day by day and year by year they have been training, molding,\nand developing the immortal lives of those who are bound to us in\nGod-given mysteries and eternal affections. With the world in view\nthey have looked into the future far as human eye can see, and they\nhave set in motion powers whose dynamic energies will not cease\neven when the heavens be no more. They have initiated possibilities\nof companionship and helpful experiences which will fill our lives\nwith hope and cause them to abound in realized anticipations. They\nhave submitted to painful anxieties and carried weighty responsibilities in order that others may see of the travail of their souls and\n\nbe satisfied. They have heard complaints, been humiliated by aspersions, and sometimes confounded by awful depths of ignorance,\nbut they have maintained their dignity and fulfilled their duty, inde-\n\npendent of the gross stupidities of a fractious and foolish criticism.\nThey have evolved order out of chaotic imaginations, reduced to\nsymmetry uncouth habits, compelled respectful attention to lawful\nauthority, awakened dull souls out of sleep, controlled the vanities\nand self-conceits of the quick-witted, rebuked the idle and untruthful,\npraised the industrious and honorable, and out of manifold discords\nthey have brought a well-pleasing and harmonious rhythm.\nIt is thus that the profession you represent is estimated in the\nminds of thoughtful and understanding men and women. It is to\nmake this picture real in all respects that the women of my state\nare ready to lend and give their influence and their newly acquired\n\npower. As representing them, unworthily it may be, but with truth\nof heart and sincerity of purpose, I bid you, men and women of the\nNational Educational Association, thrice welcome.\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nRESPONSES.\n\n59\n\nRESPONSES.\n\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK CITY, PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION.\n\nIt is with sincere pleasure that I accept, on behalf of this vast\nbody of teachers, the cordial expressions of welcome and good will\nwith which you have greeted us. Our annual meetings are constantly\n\nincreasing sources of pleasure and of profit to us, and we come together at this time on the crest of the continent to renew our old\n\nfriendships, to make new ones, and to counsel together, as best we\nmay, in behalf of the great human interests that society has committed to our care. Never in our history as an association have we\nbeen more heartily welcomed, never have more complete and efficient\narrangements been made for our care, and never have we assembled\nin a city and a state that offered more to interest and to instruct us.\nWe come from every nook and corner of this great Union and from\nCanada, and if any state or territory is wholly unrepresented, that\nfact has escaped my attention.\nTo many of us these vast plains and towering mountains are new\nrevelations of the wonders of nature, and on every side there abound\nevidences of the marvelous ingenuity and power of man. The Centennial State has attracted us like a magnet, and it is believed that\nthe largest attendance at any previous meeting of our body will be\nexceeded here. We anticipate a meeting of unusual value, both to\nourselves and to the educational interests of our common country,\nand we are of one mind in assuring you that nothing that Denver\nand Colorado could do to promote our comfort and our welfare has\nbeen left undone. No representative of Colorado can truthfully say,\n\"Silver and gold have I none,\" but such as you have you have certainly\ngiven us with ample generosity. On behalf of the National Educa-\n\ntional Association, I tender you hearty thanks for this warm reception, and accept, Mr. Chairman, this gavel from your hands, and\ndeclare the sessions now formally opened.\nIRWIN SHEPARD , WINONA , MINN ., SECRETARY OF THE ASSOCIATION.\n\nSeven years ago we passed through your city three thousand\n\nstrong, following your honored superintendent, then president, Aaron\nGove, to the Pacific coast, to that great and memorable meeting at\nSan Francisco. We stopped on our way to enjoy for a time-all too\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "60\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nshort-your beautiful city and its scenic surroundings, and while we\ntarried we hoped that the association would soon be called to meet\nin Denver. The call has come, and we are here. Your cordial welcomes, so eloquently spoken, find in our hearts a glad response which\nwords can but feebly express.\n\nAt our state meetings at Christmas\n\ntime, we received by telegraph greetings from the chairman of your\nexecutive committee which said to the teachers of New England:\n\"Come in July and see our snow-capped peaks, that show a thousand\nwelcome face in a thousand hours;\" to the Pacific coast:\n\n\"The crest\n\nof the continent to the Golden Gate-greeting. Come in July.\" Montana and Idaho received the message :\n\n\"Mountains to the mountains\n\n-greeting. Come in July.\" The teachers of the South were invited to \"Come from the land of ever-blooming flowers to see the\nwonders wrought in the heart of the great American Desert.\" While\nall over this broad land the welcome ran, to \"Come and rest among\nThe hills\nRock- ribbed and ancient as the sun-the vales\n\nStretching in pensive quietness between.\"\n\nEver since, we have read in the daily press and in the \"Official Bulletin,\" of the large preparations which were making for our entertainment and comfort, not only in Denver but throughout the entire State\nof Colorado. To-day all the pleasant hopes which your forerunning\nwelcomes had aroused are more than fulfilled in the eloquent words\n\nto which we have listened, in the cordial hand-clasp, in the spoken\ngreetings, and in the thoughtful, courteous attentions by which we\nhave been surrounded since the moment of our arrival .\n\nIt has been my personal privilege during the past months, and\nespecially during the past ten days, to note the work of your local\nexecutive committees, and through their zeal, their largeness of plan,\nand efficiency of execution, to measure the hospitality of your people.\nThis is not alone a visit to Denver for social pleasure and physical\nrecreation, but for intellectual and professional re-creation as well.\nWe have gathered to consider the most important questions which\nconcern the people of this great nation, namely, the complete and\nthe right education of the children of all the people. Nearly every\nphase of this great problem has been presented to you. Most prominent among the topics of the general program, and occupying the\ncentral place around which all others cluster, you will find this topic,\n\"The Duty and Opportunity of the Schools in Promoting Patriotism\nand Good Citizenship.\"\n\nThe Grand Army of the Republic once saved our country from\ndisunion and gave it to posterity united more firmly than ever and\nforever free. This grand army of the past has nearly finished its\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nRESPONSES.\n\n61\n\nwork, and, looking about for a most fitting place whereon to set the\nbanner they love and for the organization best suited to perpetuate\nthe freedom they won, have planted \"the flag,\" forever to remain, on\nthe common school house ; and have intrusted to the common school\nteachers of the country-that Grand Army of the Future Republicthe task, not only of preserving the spirit of '76 and '61 but of creating\nthat new and still loftier patriotism which teaches, that, noble as\nit may be to die for one's country, it is still nobler to live for one's\ncountry.\n\nYou will also note by the program that the departments open\nwith the kindergarten, and, running through the entire range of all\nthe various grades of school organization, return in an all-embracing\ncircle to the point of starting in the Department of Child Study, thus\nbeginning and ending with the child.\nAgain we thank you for your cordial welcome, and in turn wel-\n\ncome you to join with us in our convention deliberations, concerning\nhow we may best educate this child which has been set in our midst.\n\nCOL. FRANCIS W. PARKER, PRINCIPAL OF COOK COUNTY NORMAL SCHOOL,\nENGLEWOOD, ILL.\n\nMr. Chairman and Fellow Teachers :\n\nIt is indeed a great honor to represent in any way the teachers of\nthis great nation.\n\nLadies and gentlemen, never on earthly footstool was camped\nsuch an army; not in the Crusades, under the banner of the Holy\nCross; not by Alexander, Cæsar, or Napoleon, was there ever mar-\n\nshalled such an army, so potent for good as this which is within your\nborders to-day-this army, the army that battles with the sword of\nthe spirit for the freedom of the human race. The common school\nsystem of America is the most divine institution that ever sprang\nfrom the heart of man, inspired by the eternal God. It means life\n\nand character to every child under the flag, yea, under the shining\nThis army comes to camp here on this high ground. I am glad\nDenver has always taken such \"high ground.\" We come to receive\nyour generous wealth. We behold your clean streets-we of Chicago\nsun.\n\nwhere woman has at last taken the broom.\n\nWe come from the far\n\ndistant New England, from Maine, from Massachusetts, and I may\nsay that all Massachusetts teachers have fallen in love with nature,\nsuch as it appears in your mountains. We come from the Northern\n\nStates, from the glorious land of the palm and the pine, and from the\nMother of Presidents ; from the great states that bear the mighty\n\nMississippi to the sea ; from all over this broad land, binding with\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n62\n\n[General\n\nits fertile acres and manifold interests the states of this great Union\n\ninto one; from the Pacific coast, and from the Golden Gate, that land\nof bounteous gifts and limitless generosity; from the newest of the\nstates, Utah-God bless her and bring her into this great Union, for\nshe is a rainbow of promise. We clasp hands-no longer over the\nbloody chasm, for that is closed forever by the influence of the teacher\nand the common school, and over its tomb has arisen again, in a new\nresurrection, the spirit of the life of the Master. We clasp hands\nunder the old flag, and swear fealty again to the interests of this\ngreat republic. With all the progress, and with all the signs of the\nprogress, that we bring to you, there is a new spirit coming; the common school system has witnessed its organization, the work of mighty\nmen and women, and now it is moving on in a spirit of study and\nresearch. It has taken from the old world all it could get, and that is\nmuch. It has received from Germany its philosophy and psychology\nand its methods, but there is one thing we never can get from anywhere on the face of this earth, and that is an educational system\nadapted to the evolution of pure democracy. The future public school\nis to solve this question, and the ideal school is to be the ideal community. The child is not in school for knowledge. He is there to\nlive, and to put his life, nurtured in the school, into the community.\nThis question is to be solved in the public schools of America.\n\nEX-GOV. W. J. NORTHEN, ATLANTA, GA.\n\nHis Excellency the Lieutenant Governor of Colorado; His Honor the Mayor\n\nof Denver; Mrs. Peavey, the Superintendent of Education of this State;\nLadies and Gentlemen of the Association:\n\nLike the distinguished gentleman who has immediately preceded\nme, I have been puzzling my brain somewhat, since I reached this\ncity, to determine why the president of this association did me the\nhonor to invite me to represent the teachers of the South upon this\noccasion.\n\nI am not now a teacher. The only answer that I have been able to\nmake to the inquiry is, that the president desired to present to the\nconvention a man who could be induced by the allurements of\npolitical office and its doubtful compensations to abandon the loftiest\nprofession known among civilized men.\nIn confirmation of my opinion of your calling, I was more than\npleased, Mr. President, when I reached Kansas City yesterday, to\nread an editorial in a leading paper, from which I quote something\nlike this :\n\n\"The teacher constitutes an important element of our\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nRESPONSES.\n\n63\n\ncivilization and our society. There is no profession among men that\nstands higher in its usefulness, or brighter in its possibilities, and\nmore comprehensive in the great good possible in its accomplishment,\nthan that one that is adorned by the people who are now very soon\nto assemble in the city of Denver. \" In this presence; I am sorry to\nsay, I am not, now, a teacher. I wish I were. But I am here to\nspeak in part for the teachers from the South.\nThe teachers from the South are here in large force. They came,\n\nmay it please your excellency, because they were assured that a\ncordial, hearty welcome would be extended to them. Whilst there\nmay have been differences among us in the past ; whilst there may\nhave been dissensions among the great people of this country that\nresulted in bloodshed and disaster in the past, thank God, there are\nnone now. Whilst we of the South may be Southern in our manner,\nand Southern in our ideas of social interests and social advancement,\nwe are, in every particular, essentially and thoroughly American.\nWe came to Denver because we knew we would have the hearty\n\ngreeting that has been so cordially extended to us. We came again,\nas teachers, because we are proud of the record we have made at the\nSouth in the great cause you advocate. Representing the South and\nthe teachers of the South, I have great gratification to say, in this\npresence, that the distinguished commissioner of education for the\nUnited States has recently published to the world that there has been\ngreater advancement in educational interests at the South, within the\npast recent years, than in any other section known to the civilized\nworld.\n\nWe come, again, because we are profoundly interested in every\npurpose, every policy, and every plan that will be inaugurated and\ncarried to completion by this National Educational Association for\nthe advancement of our common interests. We come, furthermore,\nto say to you who do not know, as we do, that the South is, in all\nparticulars, the best portion of this great country of ours ; to say that\nwe want every citizen of Denver and of Colorado, and every citizen\nof all this great West, to come down South and know us better than\nyou have in the past.\nWe have reputations abroad, you know, that are sometimes\nunpleasant and many times untrue. We are here to correct some of\nthose impressions. We have the reputation down South, you know,\nof voting not only early and often, but sometimes outside of our districts and sometimes outside of our states. I have actually voted in\nColorado. A newspaper man approached me this morning, and said,\n\"\nI want your vote on universal suffrage,\" and I voted, of course. I\nwant to take occasion here and now to say,\nay, if the returning board\nhas already made a report, that I did not vote; and if the board has\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "64\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nnot made report, it is my purpose to see that my vote shall be cast\n\nfor universal suffrage. I say this especially since I have heard the\nsplendid address delivered by Mrs. Peavey, the superintendent of education for this State.\n\nIn conclusion, I may say, I am here, Mr. President, not as a\nteacher, but as the chief of the department of education for the Cotton States Exposition. I am not going to make you a speech on that\nmatter now, but I desire to make this announcement : We want\nevery teacher and every school on the continent of America to make\nan exhibit at the Cotton States Exposition in Atlanta, beginning the\n18th of September and concluding on the 31st of December. We\nwant, furthermore, that this association shall have an adjourned\nsession at Atlanta during the exposition, so as to meet with the\ncongress of educators to be held at that time. We invite you to the\nSouth that you may know us better and more favorably; that you\n\nmay understand the great-heartedness and warm hospitality of a\nSouthern invitation and a Southern welcome, just such as we will\nextend to you in Georgia when you come to see us next fall.\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESSES.\n\nSessions. ]\n\n65\n\nADDRESSES.\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING.\n\nBY EDWARD F. HERMANNS, PRINCIPAL OF HIGH SCHOOL, DISTRICT NO. 2,\nDENVER, COLO .\n\n[STENOGRAPHIC REPORT.]\n\nYou have been informed by the president that I was selected\nonly yesterday to fill a vacancy caused by the unavoidable absence\nof Dr. Hartwell from this meeting; and this, together with the fact\nthat I am limited to fifteen minutes, will account for what I have to\nsay being rather fragmentary and showing a lack of the preparation\nwhich such an important subject deserves.\nIt is a source of wonder that we Americans, who are noted for\nbeing able to recognize a good thing when we see it, and for having\nthe energy to use it for all it is worth, have not made a systematic\neffort to make physical training an essential factor in our public\nschool education. It is true, that, in some cities, and in some schools,\ngreat results have been attained in this direction, but nevertheless\nthese cases are isolated.\n\nIt is also true that there has been a great\n\ninterest in the so-called athletic sports, but I doubt whether these\ncan take the place of systematic instruction in physical culture, as\ntheir object is, not the harmonious, methodical development of the\nbody but the gaining of a victory, for which purpose, I am informed,\nsometimes the bodily welfare is to a certain extent sacrificed. The\n\nGermans, who have investigated educational questions, perhaps not\nwith more intelligence but certainly with more patience and thoughtfulness than any other people, have arrived at the conclusion, that\neducation is not complete-cannot be complete without physical\ntraining. The great impetus was given to instruction in physical\nculture in Germany, when, during the Napoleonic wars, the Turner\nsocieties formed such an important and potent factor in shaking off\n\nfrom that country, which was then in its deepest degradation, the\n\nyoke imposed by Napoleon. We have a strong illustration of the\nrelation that exists between physical culture and national life in the\n\nfact, that, during our own Civil War the Turner regiments, as they\nwere called, recruited from the Turner societies, not waiting to be\n5\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "66\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\ndrafted into the service, hurried into the ranks, and were among the\nbest and first into the field, thereby demonstrating conclusively that\nthey had transferred, fully and without reservation, their loyalty and\n\ntheir patriotism to the country of their adoption.\nPhysical training is necessary, first, of course, for the body itself ;\nsecondly, for the full development of the intelligence. There are\nother advantages that come along with it. As civilization advances,\nwith all modern conveniences, there is a tendency to a degeneration\nof the body. There is a lessening of the necessity for that activity\nof the body which is indispensable to its perfect health. I can speak\nfrom experience on this point. When I was a boy I was puny and\nsickly; the professor of medicine in the University of Bonn, after\nexamining me, informed my mother that I should die before I reached\nthe age of manhood. No one can tell what anguish that poor woman\nsuffered for seven years after receiving this information. I was subjected to all sorts of treatment, took all kinds of medicine, until I\nfinally fell into the hands of a physician who had that best of all\nscience, common sense, and who ordered at once that physic should\nbe thrown to the dogs, and that I should go in swimming, should ride\non horseback, and join the Turner school conducted by the Turner\nsociety at Milwaukee, where physical education, I believe, is carried\nas far as in any other city of the Union. The result was satisfactory,\nand I did not die, as predicted. The consumption I suffer from now\nis easily cured. It may be unnecessary to state, also, that I did not\ncome to Colorado for my health. I am inclined to think that Superintendent Gove suggested my name to the president of this association to fill this vacancy for the purpose of showing this audience\nwhat the glorious Colorado climate will do for a thin man.\nThe necessity of training the body, on account of health, although\nperhaps the last in rank, is not for that reason the least important.\nIf it were on this score alone, it would become the duty of the state\nto furnish such training on the same ground on which it furnishes\nany kind of education; that is, of producing efficient citizenship. I\nam not quite sure whether I believe to the fullest extent the doctrine,\n\"A sound mind in a sound body,\" if it means that a sound mind cannot dwell in an imperfect body, when we all know of such cases as\nthose of the blind Milton, the lame Byron, Napoleon, whose body\nwas covered with a rheum, which at times caused him intense torture,\n\nand others who, in spite of their physical condition, displayed great\nintellectual activity. These cases prove that there are some minds\nso strong that they can conquer the imperfections of the body; but\nsuch minds are few, and it is a recognized fact that the influence of\nthe body upon the mind is so great that it cannot be ignored. With\nall our intellectual advancement, the time will never come when we\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING.\n\n67\n\nshall not admire physical culture and physical courage; physical\ncourage that arises out of the assurance that every part of the body\nwill perform its function when called upon.\n\nAnd it is wonderful how\n\nthis faith in physical power leads the child to have faith and confidence in the power of the mind, which is almost without limit. It\nis power that we all want, but there are even now some people who\ndo not realize or appreciate their own powers. There are a great\nmany geniuses lost to the world because that sense of power is\nabsent, because it has never been cultivated. The most important\nbenefit, however, in my opinion, that is to be derived from physical\nculture, is the ethical effect. The accuracy of movement, the prompt\nobedience to the word of command, the feeling of responsibility in\nregard to the perfection of the operation to be performed, all these\nhave their moral effects, and this training of the body furnishes one\nof the most important agencies in moral teaching. Experience, I\nbelieve, has shown that good morals can be inculcated only to a\nlimited extent by instruction. If preaching were sufficient to make\npeople moral, you and I should be almost perfect in that respect. No.\ngood morals and ethics must be taught by the doing of them-if\nnecessary, by the employment of the motive of compulsion-until the\ndoing of right becomes a matter of habit, so that higher motives may\nbe employed in the development of the moral nature.\nI want to state, that I am not by any means a specialist on the\nsubject of physical training, but perhaps it is not without profit to\ndiscuss this matter from the standpoint of general education, rather\nthan that of the specialist, since we know that our friends, the specialists, whether their favorite branches are science, or drawing, or\nmusic, or physical culture, are very apt to demand the whole terrestrial globe, surrounded by a strong inclosure, for their own specialties.\nThis is as it should be. Their enthusiasm, their energy will furnish\na motive power that will accomplish success, if the check-valve of\nproper supervision is applied. The question as to what kind of\nphysical culture we need I should like to leave to the expert and the\nspecialist. If you ask me whether I am an advocate of the German\nsystem, or of the Swedish system, or of the Delsarte system, I shall\nanswer that I advocate none, or all, just as you please to have it.\nThey all have good in them, and I propose to take that good, so long\nas it can be made useful.\n\nI believe that the advocates of the different\n\nsystems are doing harm to the good cause, by making war upon other\nsystems than their own. I think it is possible to take the good fea-\n\ntures of all and combine them. The chief requisite, in my opinion,\nfor instruction in physical training, is a teacher ; one who is endowed\n\nwith good common sense, knows the nature and laws of the body, and\nrealizes that there are some other things in education that are of as\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "68\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nmuch importance as physical training. When we can show good\n\nresults from physical training, it will press its own way forward. I\nshould never employ as a teacher of physical culture one who could\nnot in himself exemplify the good results of the work. A lady who\nwill complain of fatigue if she has to ascend the stairs two or three\ntimes a day, certainly is out of place as a teacher of physical culture.\nExercises ought to be properly adjusted to the physical condition\nof the pupil. They certainly ought not to be carried to excess ; the\nsafety- valve must be applied. The selection of exercises from the\ndifferent systems will depend somewhat on the objects you want to\nattain. While I believe that there are many physical exercises which\nare as well adapted to the girls as to the boys, I do not believe that\nco-education in this regard can be carried out to the fullest extent.\nThe boys should take some exercises that the girls cannot-and vice\nversa, probably; and great care should be used in selecting exercises\nfor the different sexes. It may be a little old-fashioned for me to say\nthat, while welcoming women to all professions (and I think they can\ndo good work in a great many of them), while rejoicing with them\nover the gaining of suffrage in this and other states, and while holding that all opportunities of education ought to be open to them that\n\nare open to men, I still believe that the spheres of women and of men\nare not exactly the same; that if they were to fulfill the same functions, Almighty God, in his wisdom, would have found some way of\nmaking them the same, and that, if we make, or attempt to make,\nmen out of women, the latter will soon become what they are not\nnow, the weaker sex. I believe that it would be a misfortune, if, by\n\nphysical or mental education, we should take the femininity out of\nwoman, and neglect or extinguish that grandest, most sacred of all\ninstincts, the instinct of motherhood, upon which not only the welfare\nbutAnd\nthe very\nthe nationIdepends.\nnow, existence\nladies andofgentlemen,\nwish to give way to Mr. Schmitt,\nwho will bring before you a class, or several classes, from the schools\nof Denver, to show what can be done in the schools in the way of\n\nphysical culture. It will not be possible, on account of the briefness\nof time, to show the methods used in teaching ; we can show you only\nthe results. He will also present some members of a Turner society\nunder his instruction, in order to show you what can be done in the\nway of training the body by men who are not professionals, but follow the ordinary walks of life in different callings. I hope to see the\ntime come when every school will be furnished with a gymnasium,\nwhich will enable our boys, especially, to go through the exercises\nwhich these gentlemen will exhibit to you. I thank you for your\nkind attention.\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nWHAT KNOWLEDGE IS OF MOST WORTH ?\n\n69\n\nPRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.\n\nWHAT KNOWLEDGE IS OF MOST WORTH?\n\nBY NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, COLUMBIA COLLEGE , NEW YORK CITY.\n\nThe student of history is struck with the complexity of modern\nthought.\n\nFrom the dawn of philosophy to the great revival of learn-\n\ning, the lines of development are comparatively simple and direct.\nDuring that period one may trace, step by step, the evolution of the\nmain problems of thought and action, and discover readily how the\ntheories of the seers stood the test of application by the men of\ndeeds. At Athens, during the great fifth century, the inner life was\nthe chief part of life itself. In that age of the world life was simple ;\nand often, because of its refinement and independence, more reflective\nthan with us. Men's ideals were more sharply defined and more\neasily realized. They did not doubt that the world existed for them\nand their enjoyment. Even that advanced stage of human culture\nof which Dante is the immortal exponent, believed, as Mr. John Fiske\nsays, * that \"this earth, the fair home of man, was placed in the center\nof a universe wherein all things were ordained for his sole behoof ; the\nsun to give him light and warmth, the stars in their courses to preside over his strangely checkered destinies, the winds to blow, the\nfloods to rise, or the fiend of pestilence to stalk abroad over the landall for the blessing, or the warning, or the chiding, of the chief among\nGod's creatures, Man.\" With such a conception as this, theory and\npractice could be closely related. In the ancient world it was not\nusual to find the thought of the disciple guided implicitly by the\nmaxim of the master. Γνῶθι σεαυτόν and Nil admirari were preached\nby the early philosophers in the confident belief that they could be\npracticed by him who would.\nIn these modern days all this is changed. Man has come to doubt,\nnot only his supremacy in the universe, but even his importance.\nHe finds that, far from dwelling at the center of things, he is but \"the\ndenizen of an obscure and tiny speck of cosmical matter quite invisible among the innumerable throng of flaming suns that make up our\n\ngalaxy.\" A host of new knowledges has appealed to human sympathy\nand interest, and has taxed them to the utmost.\n*\"The Destiny of Man.\"\n\n(Boston, 1893, p. 12. )\n\nGalileo with his\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "70\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\ntelescope has revealed to us the infinitely great, and the compound\nmicroscope of Jansen has created, as out of nothing, the world of the\ninfinitely small. Within a generation or two biology has been cre-\n\nated, and physics, chemistry, and geology have been born again.\nThe first wave of astonishment and delight at these great revelations\n\nhas been succeeded by one of perplexity and doubt in the presence of\nthe wholly new problems that they raise. The old self-assurance is\nlost. Men first stumble, blinded by the new and unaccustomed light,\nand then despair.\n\nThe age of the faith and assured conviction of\n\nAquinas was followed by the bold and cynical skepticism of Montaigne ; and this in turn--for skepticism has never afforded a resting-\n\nplace for the human spirit for more than a moment-has yielded to\nthe philosophy of disenchantment and despair of a Schopenhauer and\n\nthe morbidly acute and unsatisfying self-analysis of an Amiel.\nAlready it is proclaimed by Nordau and his school that we are in an\nage of decadence, and that many of our contemporary interpreters\n\nof life and thought-Wagner, Tolstoi, Ibsen, Zola, the pre-Raphaelites\n-are fit subjects for an insane asylum. Mankind is divided into warring camps, and while electricity and steam have bound the nations\nof the earth together, questions of knowledge and of belief have split\nup every nation into sects.\n\nFrom all this tumult it is difficult to\n\ncatch the sound of the dominant note. Each suggested interpretation seems to lead us further into the tangled maze, where we cannot\nsee the wood for the trees .\n\nStandards of truth are more definite than\n\never before, but standards of worth are strangely confused, and at\ntimes even their existence is denied.\n\nAmid all this confusion, however, a light has been growing steadily brighter for those who have eyes to see. In our own century two\ngreat masters of thought have come forward, offering, like Ariadne\nof old, to place in our hands the guiding thread that shall lead us\nthrough the labyrinth-the German Hegel and the Englishman\nHerbert Spencer. And as the century closes, amid the din of other\nand lesser voices we seem to hear the deeper tones of these two\ninterpreters swelling forth as representative of the best and most\nearnest endeavors, from two totally different points of view, of our\nhuman seekers after light. Each has taken the whole of knowledge\nfor his province, each has spread out before us a connected view of\n\nman and his environment, and each would\nassert Eternal Providence\n\nAnd justify the ways of God to men.\n\nThese great teachers typify the catholicity and the scientific method\nthat are so characteristic of the best expressions of our modern civilization. Whatever of insight we have gained into history, into phi\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nWHAT KNOWLEDGE IS OF MOST WORTH?\n\n71\n\nlosophy, into art, and into nature, they have incorporated in their\nsystematic thinking and have endeavored to illumine with the light\nof their controlling principles. Hegel, schooled in the teachings of\nKant and Fichte, and coming early to an appreciation of the seedthought of Plato and Aristotle, Bruno and Spinoza, has taught us in\n\nunmistakable language that independent, self-active being is the\nfather of all things. Spencer, feeling the thrill of that unity which\nmakes the cosmos one, and receiving from Lamarck and von Baer\nthe hint that led him to see that the life of the individual furnishes\n\nthe clue to the understanding of the life of the aggregate, whether\nnatural or social, has formulated into a single and irrefutable law\nof progress the terms of that development, or evolution, which has\nbeen more or less dimly before the mind of man since thought began.\nThe German with his principle of self-activity, and the Englishman\nwith his law of evolution, offer us a foothold for our knowledge and\nour faith, and assure us that it will safely support them. From the\none we learn the eternal reasonableness of all that is or can be, while\nthe other teaches us the character of the process by which the visible\nuniverse, that every day presents new wonders to our gaze, has been\nbuilded out of the primeval star-dust. At their hands the two sublime and awe-inspiring verities of Kant-the starry heavens above\nand the moral law within-find their places in the life of the Spirit,\nand together testify to its eternity and its beauty.\nDespite the fact that our age is one of unexampled scientific and\nindustrial progress, yet nothing in all our modern scientific activity\nis more striking than the undisputed primacy of thought-thought\nnot in antagonism to sense, but interpretative of the data of sense.\nIdealism, shorn of its crudities and its extravagances, and based on\nreason rather than on Berkeley's analysis of sense-perception, is conquering the world. What Plato saw, Descartes, Leibniz, Kant, and\nHegel have demonstrated.\n\nThe once-dreaded materialism has lost\n\nall its terrors. Science itself has analyzed matter into an aggregate\nof dynamical systems, and speaks of energy in terms of will. The\nseemingly inert stone that we grasp in our hand is in reality an aggre-\n\ngate of an infinite number of rapidly-moving centers of energy. Our\nown will is the only energy of whose direct action we are immediately conscious, and we use our experience of it to explain other\nmanifestations of energy to ourselves. Modern mathematics, that\n\nmost astounding of intellectual creations, has projected the mind's\neye through infinite time and the mind's hand into boundless space.\nThe very instants of the beginnings of the sun's eclipses are predicted\nfor centuries and cons to come. Sirius, so distant that the light\nfrom its surface, traveling at a rate of speed that vies with the light-\n\nning, requires more than eight and one-half years to reach us, is\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n72\n\n[General\n\nweighed and its constituents are counted almost as accurately as are\nthe bones of our bodies.\n\nYet in 1842 Comte declared that it was\n\nforever impossible to hope to determine the chemical composition or\n\nthe mineralogical structure of the stars. An unexpected aberration\nin the motions of Uranus foretold the existence of an undiscovered\n\nplanet at a given spot in the sky, and the telescope of Galle, turned\nto that precise point, revealed to the astonished senses what was\ncertain to thought. A discrepancy in the weight of nitrogen extracted\nfrom the air we breathe but yesterday led Lord Rayleigh, by an inexorable logic, to the discovery of a new atmospheric constituent, argon.\nThe analytical geometry of Descartes and the calculus of Newton and\nLeibniz have expanded into the marvelous mathematical methodrmore daring in its speculations than anything that the history of\nphilosophy records of Lobachevsky and Riemann, Gauss and Sylvester. Indeed, mathematics, the indispensable tool of the sciences,\ndefying the senses to follow its splendid flights, is demonstrating\nto-day, as it has ever been demonstrated before, the supremacy of\nthe Pure Reason. The great Cayley-who has been given the proud\ntitle of the Darwin of the English school of mathematicians\n\nsaid a\n\nfew years ago : *\"I would myself say that the purely imaginary\nobjects are the only realities, the ὄντως ὄντα in regard to which the corresponding physical objects are as the shadows in the cave; and it is\nonly by means of them that we are able to deny the existence of a\n\ncorresponding physical object; and if there is no conception of\nstraightness, then it is meaningless to deny the conception of a perfectly straight line.\" The physicist, also, is coming to see that his\nprinciple of the conservation of energy in its various manifestations,\nis a new and startling proof of the fundamental philosophical principle of self-activity. Energy manifests itself as motion, heat, light,\n\nelectricity, chemical action, sound. Each form of its manifestation\nis transmutable into others.\n\nThe self-active cycle is complete.\n\nBut it is not from the domain of natural science alone that illus-\n\ntrations of the all-conquering power of thought can be drawn. The\ngenius of Champollion has called to life the thoughts and deeds of\nAmenotep and Rameses, and what appeared to sense as rude decorative sketches on the walls of temple and of tomb are seen by the\nunderstanding to be the recorded history of a great civilization in the\nvalley of the Nile. The inscrutable Sphinx, that watchdog of the\nPyramids, \"unchangeable in the midst of change,\" which sat facing\nthe coming dawn for centuries before the storied siege of Troy, now\nlooks down on modern men who write the very words of its builders\nin the language of Shakespeare and of Milton. The cries of savage\n*Presidential Address, British Association for the Advancement of Science, Southport, 1883 .\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nWHAT KNOWLEDGE IS OF MOST WORTH?\n\n73\n\nman, the language-symbols of the early Aryans, and the multiform\nand complicated tongues of modern Europe, all so seemingly diverse\nto the ear and to the eye, have been the foundation for the sure laws\nof comparative philology that the labors and insight of Bopp and\nGrimm and Verner have built upon them. All these, and the many\n\ntriumphs like them, are victories of insight; each marks a new stage\nin the conquering progress of the reason, by which it finds itself in\nevery part and phase of the cosmos and its life.\n\nI regard this insight as to self-activity and the primacy of reflect-\n\nive thought as the profoundest that philosophy has to offer; and,\ninstead of being urged, as in centuries past, in antagonism to the\nteachings of science, it is now becoming the joint conclusion of\nphilosophy and science together. It pulsates, too, in the world's\ngrandest poetry and most exquisite art. It is the very soul of the\nverse of Homer and of Dante, of Shakespeare and of Goethe. It\nmakes the marble of Phidias glow with life, and it guides the hand\nof Raphael and Michael Angelo as they trace their wondrous figures\nwith the brush. It gives immortality to the most beautiful of temples, the Parthenon, that\nfriend to man, to whom thou sayest,\n\n\"Beauty is truth, truth beauty-that is all\nYe know on earth, and all ye need to know.\"\n\nIt is also the inspiration of that superb medieval architecture that\nbears the name of the conquerer of Rome, which has given to North-\n\nern Europe its grandest monuments to the religious aspiration and\ndevotion of the Middle Ages.\n\nWhat, then, does this insight signify, and what is its bearing upon\nour educational ideals ? Obviously the possession of an insight such\nas this, wrested from nature by the hand of science and from history\nby that of philosophy, must serve in many ways to guide us in estimating the importance of human institutions and educational instruments. We cannot accept either of these without question from the\n\nhands of a tradition to which our modern philosophy and our modern\nscience were wholly unknown; nor can we blindly follow those believers in a crude psychology who would present us with so many mental\nfaculties to be trained, each by its appropriate formal exercise, as if\nthey were sticks of wood to be shaped and reduced to symmetry and\n\norder. Mental life, as Wundt so forcibly says,* \"does not consist in\nthe connection of unalterable objects and varying conditions.\n\nIn all\n\nits phases it is process ; an active, not a passive, existence ; development, not stagnation. \"\n\nHerein is the mental life true to nature.\n\nLike nature, it is not fixed, but ever changing. This unceasing\n*Lectures on Human and Animal Psychology (New York, 1894), p. 454.\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "74\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nchange, necessary to both growth and development, gives to life its\nreality' and its pathos. It gives also to education its unending character, and the clew to its wisest 'processes.\nThe question that I am asking, What knowledge is of most worth?\nis a very old one, and the answers to it that have been handed down\nthrough the centuries are many and various. It is a question that\neach age must put to itself, and answer from the standpoint of its\ndeepest and widest knowledge. The wisest philosophers have always\nseen, more or less clearly, the far-reaching character of the question\nand the great importance of the answer. Socrates and Plato, Augustine and Aquinas, were under no illusions as to it; but often in later\nyears the deeper questions relating to educational values have been\neither lost sight of entirely or very superficially dealt with. Bacon\nclothes in attractive axiomatic form some very crude judgments as\nto the relative worth of studies. Rousseau risks his reputation for\nsobriety of judgment in outlining an educational program. Herbert\nSpencer turns aside for a moment from his life-work to apotheosize\nscience in education, although science is, by his own definition, only\npartially unified knowledge. Whewell exalts mathematics in language only less extravagant than that in which Sir William Hamilton decries it. In similar fashion, others, holding a brief for some\nparticular phase or department of knowledge, have come forward crying, Eureka ! and proclaiming that the value of all studies must be\nmeasured in terms of their newly-discovered standard. The very\nlatest cry is that studies and intellectual exercises are valuable in\nproportion as they stimulate enlarged brain areas ; thus making the\nappreciation of Shakespeare, of Beethoven, and of Leonardo da Vinci\nsolely a function of the circulation of the blood.\n\nBut to sciolists of this type philosophy and science can now make\ncommon answer. If it be true that spirit and reason rule the universe, then the highest and most enduring knowledge is of the things\nof the spirit. This subtle sense of the beautiful and the sublime\nwhich accompanies spiritual insight, and is part of it, is the highest\nachievement of which humanity is capable. This sense is typified,\nin various forms, in the verse of Dante and the prose outpourings of\nThomas a Kempis, in the Sistine Madonna of Raphael, and in\nMozart's \"Requiem.\" To develop this sense in education is the task\nof art and literature, to interpret it is the work of philosophy, and to\nnourish it the function of religion.\n\nBecause it most fully represents\n\nthe higher nature of man, it is man's highest possession, and those\nstudies that directly appeal to it and instruct it are beyond compare\nthe most valuable. This has been eloquently and beautifully illustrated by Brother Azarias, that profound scholar who was taken\nfrom us all too soon. \"Take a Raphael or a Murillo,\" he says. * \"We\n*Phases of Thought and Criticism\" (New York, 1892), pp. 57, 58.\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nWHAT KNOWLEDGE IS OF MOST WORTH?\n\n75\n\ngaze upon the painted canvas till its beauty has entered our soul.\nThe splendor of the beauty lights up within us depths unrevealed,\nand far down in our inner consciousness we discover something that\n\nresponds to the beauty on which we have been gazing. It is as\nthough a former friend revealed himself to us.\n\nrecognition.\n\nThere is here a\n\nThe more careful has been our sense-culture, the more\n\ndelicately have our feelings been attuned to respond to a thing of\nbeauty and find in it a joy forever, all the sooner and the more\nintensely do we experience this recognition. And therewith comes\n\na vague yearning, a longing as for something. What does it all mean ?\nThe recognition is of the ideal. \"\n\nToward the full recognition and\n\nappreciation of this insight into the great works of the Spirit, whether\nrecorded in literature, in art, or in institutional life, higher education\n\nshould bend all its energies. The study of philosophy itself, or the\ntruly philosophic study of any department of knowledge-however\nremote its beginnings may seem to be will accomplish this end.\nThe ways of approach to this goal are as many as there are human\ninterests, for they are all bound together in the bonds of a common\n\norigin and a common purpose. The attainment of it is true culture,\nas Mr. Matthew Arnold has defined it, * \"the acquainting ourselves\n\nwith the best that has been known and said in the world, and thus\nwith the history of the human spirit.\"\nWe now come in sight of the element of truth and permanence\nin that humanism which Petrarch and Erasmus spread over Europe\n\nwith such high hopes and excellent intentions; but which Sturm, the\nStrassburg schoolmaster, reduced to the dead, mechanical forms and\nthe crude verbalism that bound the schools in fetters for centuries.\n\nOf Humanism itself we may say, as Mr. Pater says of the Renaissance\nof the fifteenth century, that† \"it was great rather by what it designed\nthan by what it achieved. Much which it aspired to do, and did\nbut imperfectly or mistakenly, was accomplished in what is called\nthe éclairissement of the eighteenth century or in our own generation; and what really belongs to the revival of the fifteenth century\n\nis but the leading instinct, the curiosity, the initiatory idea.\" Many\nof the representative humanists were broad-minded men whose sympathies were with learning of every kind. Erasmus himself writes\nwith enthusiasm of other branches of knowledge than literature.\n\"\nLearning,\" he says, \"is springing up all around out of the soillanguages, physics, mathematics, each department thriving. Even\ntheology is showing signs of improvement.\" But unfortunately this\nbroad sympathy with every field of knowledge was not yet widespread. The wonders and splendor of nature that had brought into\n*Preface to \"Literature and Dogma\" (New York, 1889), p. xi .\n†Pater, \"The Renaissance\" (New York, 1888), p. 34.\nFroude, \" Life and Letters of Erasmus\" (New York, 1894), p . 186.\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "76\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nexistence the earliest religions and the earliest philosophies were\nnow feared and despised as the basis of paganism; and on wholly\nfalse grounds a controversy was precipitated as to the relative worth\nof literature and of science that in one form or another has continued\n\ndown to our own day.\n\nThe bitterness with which the controversy\n\nhas been carried on, and the extreme positions assumed by the\npartisans of the one side or the other, have concealed from view the\ntruth that we are now able to perceive clearly-the truth that the\nindwelling Reason by whom all things are made is as truly present,\nthough in a different order of manifestation, in the world of nature\nas in the world of spirit. One side of this truth was expressed by\nSchelling when he taught that nature is the embryonic life of spirit,\nand by Froebel when he wrote,* \"The spirit of God rests in nature,\nlives and reigns in nature, is expressed in nature, is communicated\nby nature, is developed and cultivated in nature.\" The controversy\nas to the educational value of science, so far, at least, as it concerns\neducational standards and ideals, is, then, an illusory one. It is a\nmimic war, with words alone as weapons, that is fought either to\nexpel nature from education or to subordinate all else in education\nto it. We should rather say, in the stately verse of Milton,\nAccuse not Nature; she hath done her part;\nDo thou but thine.\n\nAnd that part is surely to study nature joyfully, earnestly, reverently, as a mighty manifestation of the power and grandeur of the\nsame Spirit that finds expression in human achievement. We must\nenlarge, then, our conception of the humanities, for humanity is\nbroader and deeper than we have hitherto suspected. It touches the\nuniverse at many more points than one; and, properly interpreted,\nthe study of nature may be classed among the humanities as truly\nas the study of language itself.\nThis conclusion, which would welcome science with open arms\ninto the school and utilize its opportunities and advantages at every\nstage of education, does not mean that all studies are of equal educational value or that they are mutually and indifferently interchangeable, as are the parts of some machines. It means rather that\nthe study of nature is entitled to recognition on grounds similar to\nthose put forward for the study of literature, of art, and of history.\nBut among themselves these divisions of knowledge fall into an\n\norder of excellence as educational material that is determined by\ntheir respective relations to the development of the reflective reason.\nThe application of this test must inevitably lead us, while honoring\nscience and insisting upon its study, to place above it the study of\n*\"Education of Man\" tr. by W. N. Hailmann, New York, 1888), p. 154.\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nWHAT KNOWLEDGE IS OF MOST WORTH ?\n\n77\n\nhistory, of literature, of art, and of institutional life. But these\nstudies may not for a moment be carried on without the study of\nnature or in neglect of it. They are all humanities in the truest\nsense, and it is a false philosophy of education that would cut us off\nfrom any one of them or that would deny the common ground on\nwhich they rest. In every field of knowledge which we are studying\nis some law or phrase of energy, and the original as well as the highest energy is Will. In the world of nature it is exhibited in one series\nof forms that produce the results known to us as chemical, physical,\nbiological; in the history of mankind, it is manifested in the forms\nof feelings, thoughts, deeds, institutions. Because the elements of\nself-consciousness and reflection are present in the latter series and\nabsent in the former, it is to these and the knowledge of them that\nwe must accord the first place in any table of educational values.\nBut education, as Mr. Froude has reminded us,* has two aspects.\n\"On one side it is the cultivation of man's reason, the development\nof his spiritual nature. It elevates him above the pressure of material interests. It makes him superior to the pleasures and pains of\na world which is but his temporary home, in filling his mind with\nhigher subjects than the occupations of life would themselves provide him with.\" It is this aspect of education that I have been considering, for it is from this aspect that we derive our inspiration\nand our ideals. \"But,\" continues Mr. Froude, \"a life of speculation\nto the multitude would be a life of idleness and uselessness. They\nhave to maintain themselves in industrious independence in a world\n\nin which it has been said there are but three possible modes of\nexistence-begging, stealing, and working ; and education means also\nthe equipping a man with means to earn his own living.\"\n\nIt is this\n\nlatter and very practical aspect of education that causes us to feel\nat times the full force of the question of educational values. Immediate utility makes demands upon the school which it is unable\nwholly to neglect. If the school is to be the training ground for\ncitizenship, its products must be usefully and soundly equipped as well\nas well disciplined and well informed. An educated proletariat-to\nuse the forcible paradox of Bismarck-is a continual source of disturbance and danger to any nation. Acting upon this conviction\nthe great modern democracies\n\nand the time seems to have come\n\nwhen a democracy may be defined as a government, of any form,\nin which public opinion habitually rules are everywhere having a\n\ncare that provision be made for the practical, or immediately useful,\nin education. This is as it should be, but it exposes the school to a\nnew series of dangers against which it must guard. Utility is a\nterm that may be given either a very broad or a very narrow mean\"Short Studies on Great Subjects\" (New York, 1872), II; p. 257.\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "78\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\ning. There are utilities higher and utilities lower, and under no\ncircumstances will the true teacher ever permit the former to be\nsacrificed to the latter. This would be done if, in its zeal for fitting\nthe child for self-support, the school were to neglect to lay the foundation for that higher intellectual and spiritual life which constitutes\nhumanity's full stature. This foundation is made ready only if\nproper emphasis be laid, from the kindergarten to the college, on\nthose studies whose subject-matter is the direct production of intelligence and will, and which can, therefore, make direct appeal to man's\nhigher nature. The sciences and their applications are capable of\nuse, even from the standpoint of this higher order of utilities, because\nof the reason they exhibit and reveal.\n\nMan's rational freedom is the\n\ngoal, and the sciences are the lower steps on the ladder that reaches\nto it.\n\nSplendid confirmation of this view of science is found in the great\nBelfast address in which Professor Tyndall stormed the strongholds\nof prejudice one-and-twenty years ago. Said Professor Tyndall: *\n\"Science itself not unfrequently derives motive power from an\nultra-scientific source. Some of its greatest discoveries have been\nmade under the stimulus of a non-scientific ideal.\n\nThis was the case\n\namongst the ancients, and it has been so amongst ourselves. Mayer,\nJoule, and Colding, whose names are associated with the greatest of\nmodern generalizations, were thus influenced. With his usual\ninsight, Lange at one place remarks that it is not always the objectively correct and intelligible that helps man most, or leads most\n\nquickly to the fullest and truest knowledge. As the sliding body\nupon the brachystochrone reaches its end sooner than by the\nstraighter road of the inclined plane, so through the swing of the\nideal we often arrive at the naked truth more rapidly than by the\nmore direct processes of the understanding.' Whewell speaks of\nenthusiasm of temper as a hindrance to science; but he means the\nenthusiasm of weak heads. There is a strong and resolute enthusiasm in which science finds an ally ; and it is to the lowering of this\n\nfire, rather than to the diminution of intellectual insight, that the\nlessening productiveness of men of science in their mature years is\nto be ascribed.\n\nMr. Buckle sought to detach intellectual achieve-\n\nment from moral force.\n\nHe gravely erred; for without moral force to\n\nwhip it into action, the achievements of the intellect would be poor\nindeed.\n\n\"It has been said that science divorces itself from literature ; but\nthe statement, like so many others, arises from lack of knowledge.\n\nA glance at the less technical writings of its leaders--of its Helm\n*Presidential Address, British Association for the Advancement of Science, Belfast, 1874.\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nWHAT KNOWLEDGE IS OF MOST WORTH ?\n\n79\n\nholtz, its Huxley, and its Du Bois-Reymond-would show what\nbreadth of literary culture they command. Where among modern\nwriters can you find their superiors in clearness and vigor of literary\nstyle ? Science desires not isolation, but freely combines with every\neffort toward the bettering of man's estate. Single-handed, and supported not by outward sympathy but by inward force, it has built\nat least one great wing of the many-mansioned home which man\nin his totality demands. And if rough walls and protruding rafter\nends indicate that on one side the edifice is still incomplete, it is\nonly by wise combination of the parts required with those already\nirrevocably built that we can hope for completeness. There is no\nnecessary incongruity between what has been accomplished and\nwhat remains to be done. The moral glow of Socrates, which we\nall feel by ignition, has in it nothing incompatible with the physics\nofAnaxagoras which he so much scorned, but which he would hardly\n*\n\n*\n\nscorn to-day.\n\n\"The world embraces not only a Newton, but a Shakespeare ; not\nonly a Boyle, but a Raphael; not only a Kant, but a Beethoven; not\nonly a Darwin, but a Carlyle. Not in each of these, but in all, is\nhuman nature whole. They are not opposed, but supplementary ;\nnot mutually exclusive, but reconcilable. And if, unsatisfied with\nthem all, the human mind, with the yearning of a pilgrim for his\ndistant home, will still turn to the Mystery from which it has\nemerged, seeking so to fashion it as to give unity to thought and\nfaith-so long as this is done, not only without intolerance or bigotry\nof any kind but with the enlightened recognition that ultimate fixity\nof conception is here unattainable, and that each succeeding age\nmust be held free to fashion the mystery in accordance with its own\nneeds-then, casting aside all the restrictions of materialism, I would\naffirm this to be a field for the noblest exercise of what, in contrast\n\nwith the knowing faculties, may be called the creative faculties of\nman.\"\n\nThe actions of the lower animals are conditioned by sensations\nand momentary impulses. Man, on the other hand, is enabled to\nraise himself above fleeting sensations to the realm of ideas, and in\nthat realm he finds his real life. Similarly, man's will gradually frees\nitself from bondage to a chain of causes determined for it from with-\n\nout, and attains to a power of independent self-determination according to durable and continuing ends of action. This constitutes character, which, in Mr. Emerson's fine phrase, is the moral order seen\nthrough the medium of an individual nature. Freedom of the will\nis not, then, a metaphysical notion, nor is it obtained from nature\nor seen in nature. It is a development in the life of the human soul.\nFreedom and rationality are two names for the same thing, and their\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "80\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nhighest development is the end of human life. This development is\nnot, as Locke thought, a process arising without the mind and acting upon it, a passive and pliable recipient. Much less is it one that\ncould be induced in the statute of Condillac and Bonnet.\n\nIt is the\n\nvery life of the soul itself.\n\nThere is a striking passage in \"The Marble Faun\" in which Haw-\n\nthorne suggests the idea that the task of the sculptor is not, by carving, to impress a figure upon the marble, but rather, by the touch of\ngenius, to set free the glorious form that the cold grasp of the stone\nimprisons. With similar insight, Browning puts these words into\nthe mouth of his Paracelsus :\nTruth is within ourselves; it takes no rise\nFrom outward things, whate'er you may believe,\nThere is an inmost center in us all,\nWhere truth abides in fullness ; and around,\nWall upon wall, the gross flesh hems it in,\nThis perfect, clear perception.\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\n* * And, to know,\nRather consists in opening out a way\nWhence the imprisoned splendor may escape,\nThan in effecting entry for a light\nSupposed to be without.\n\nThis is the poetical form of the truth that I believe is pointed to\nby both philosophy and science. It offers us a sure standing-ground\nfor our educational theory. It reveals to us, not as an hypothesis\nbut as a fact, education as spiritual growth toward intellectual and\nmoral perfection, and saves us from the peril of viewing it as an\nartificial process according to mechanical formulas. Finally, it assures us, that, while no knowledge is worthless (for it all leads us\nback to the common cause and ground of all), yet that knowledge is\nof most worth which stands in closest relation to the highest forms\nof the activity of that Spirit which is created in the image of Him\nwho holds nature and man alike in the hollow of His hand.\n\nTHE NEXT STEP IN THE EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN.\n\nBY DR. W. N. HAILMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF INDIAN SCHOOLS , WASHINGTON, D. C.\n[STENOGRAPHIC REPORT .]\n\nThe next step in the education of the Indian can hardly be taken,\nbecause the first one is not yet complete. This task has been relegated to the government, and the American people have given them\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nNEXT STEP IN THE EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN.\n\n81\n\nselves over to a culpable lethargy and indifference to this work which\nhas well-nigh ruined it; and I trust that my words to-night, addressed\nto those who are leaders of the hearts and hands of the people that\nare to come, will cause them to enlist with me in the effort to solve\nthis question.\n\nThe Indian problem is not the Indian's problem. It is the white\nman's problem. The Indian hasn't brought it about. We have\nbrought it about. The Indian question doesn't trouble the Indian,\nbut it should and does trouble the white man.\n\nThe Indian question\n\nis, upon our body politic, a sore spot, which has gradually poisoned\nthe blood of the nation, which is doing an injury to you and to us\nall, and it is necessary, for our sake and for the sake of our dear\ncountry, that something should be done by the American people to\nget rid of this disease. It will always be an injury, when in a nation\nthere are races, smaller bodies of people, that are not subject to the\nsame laws that govern the bulk of the nation, but whose habits and\ntraining are entirely different. This is the case with the Indians.\nThe Indians are subject to no law. They are not amenable to the\nlaw of the land. They have practically no laws among themselves.\nThere is practically an organized, legalized lawlessness among them,\nand this lawlessness will breed much mischief. Until perhaps a\nquarter of a century ago, the only means that were used for solving\nthe Indian question were the few philanthropic men and women\nmissionaries working among them, and after a long time they gradually stepped aside, and the schoolmaster stepped in, or rather the\nschoolmistress stepped in, and she has accomplished now in a shorter\ntime and in a far better way what the bullet could not accomplish\nduring all the years that had passed. Yet the work of the schoolmistress is beset with untold difficulties. It has until lately been\nbeset by difficulties which upset all the good that was sought to be\naccomplished on this line, through the wiles of the selfish politician ;\nbut the schoolmaster is now practically free and untrammeled. It\nnow remains for us to take the next step ; that is, the one that can\nbring full success, which is the education of the Indians. There can\nbe no doubt that an education which inculcates the tastes and establishes the ideals of current American civilization constitutes the\n\nproper first step in the work of civilizing the Indians. This work is\nbeing fairly well done both in the schools for the Indian youth and\nby the influences brought to bear on older Indians at the agencies.\n\nThere are perhaps 250 of these schools, scattered through the land,\nattended by perhaps 25,000 children, and all of these under the\ndirection of the government. In addition to this, there are many\nschools conducted by missionary societies and philanthropic associa-\n\ntions,6in which large numbers of Indian children are being educated,\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "82\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nbut these schools must not be thought of as being of exactly the\nsame character as our schools. The Indian does not rest upon tradition. He has been in contact with an entirely different social\norganization, with entirely different ideas from those with which\nour children are familiar. The Indian school must, of necessity,\ndiffer widely from the school for the white man, because, very\nnaturally, the Indian has little taste for literary refinement or liter-\n\nary enjoyment. In fact, he hasn't yet learned to take the first step\ntowards independent life or self-activity, which is the art of selfdependence, taking care of himself, and making his own livelihood.\nThe Indian must first learn self-activity, independence. The next\nstep leads to interesting him in industrial pursuits in the farming\n\ndistricts; in the cattle-raising districts, to herding cattle; and in\ndistricts where perhaps manufacturing may be carried on, to manufacturing. In all the districts, it leads to teaching the girls sewing\nand cooking, and to interesting them in all the work about these\nboarding schools. Gradually the next step will accustom the Indian\nto the white man's way of living, teaching him a life of cleanliness and\na life of order, leading him to subordinate the various selfish instincts\nand cultivating the refinements of life, mutual trust, consideration,\ncourtesy, politeness, and so on. I merely wish to impress this one\nfact upon you, that there is a difference between the Indian and any\nother class of people with which educators have to deal. It is equally\nevident that it is practically impossible to cultivate these tastes and\nto hold fast these ideals under the conditions and influences of tribal\n\nlife on reservations. The recognition of this impossibility has led the\ngovernment to the policy of allotments, by which tribal life is to be\nbroken up and the Indian brought into the habits of industry and\nthrift incident to a life of individual responsibility and self-dependence.\nTribal life is based simply upon the desire to continue the tribe.\nThe traditions of the past are adhered to. The idea of individual\ndevelopment, of which we make so much, does not exist in the typical\ntribe. There is not the same free government, based upon the development of the individual, as with us ; but there is a half-despotic, a halfanarchic government there, which subordinates the individual to\nthe traditions of the tribe, to its customs, etc., and disregards all else.\nWe know these conditions, and upon returning to such conditions\nthe Indian student, who has been taught the ideals of the white man\nat some of the different Indian schools, has little opportunity to make\nuse of these things in his life. We hear superficial observers, sometimes hostile critics, say, that the Indian student, on his return to\n\nthe reservation, relapses into the former state of half savagery.\nWhat would a student of Harvard or Yale, or perhaps a student of\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nNEXT STEP IN THE EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN.\n\n83\n\na less elevated institution, do, if, after coming from one of those\ninstitutions, which sought to lift him upon a higher plane-what\nwould such a student do, if, taken from the slums, he were returned\nto the slums, and had no chance to get out of the slums? What\ngood would it do to impress these higher ideals upon him, if, day after\nday, back among his old associates in the slums, he was constantly\nbeing ridiculed? Is it any wonder that the Indian sometimes\nrelapses ? What does he need in many cases ? Why, he absolutely\nneeds that you people, leaders of the people, should bring the nation\nto see that the Indian can never prosper so long as he remains upon\nthe reservation. Remove that trouble by legislation, and leave the\nIndian free to go. The reservation must go, and it can go only\nthrough you, and unless the reservation does go we shall always\nhave with us the serious white man's question about the Indian-\n\nnot the Indian's question. The specific Indian school must go ; must\nyield to ordinary common school education. There must be one\nlaw for all ; the Indian must be made one of us.\n\nThere must be one\n\neducation for him and for us. He must be educated by the side of\nour children.\n\nHe must be assimilated.\n\nFor the older Indians, however, the transition is too sudden, and\na great number of them find themselves unable to succeed and therefore turn with feelings of hostility against the new institutions and\ncling stubbornly to their old ways of living. They learn to look with\ndistrust upon education, and labor in many ways, by fear, cajolement,\nand ridicule, to regain the young educated Indian for the old ways\nof Indian life. Much wretchedness, therefore, comes to these young\npeople who find among their own folk little or no opportunity to\ncultivate their new tastes and to hold fast their new ideals.\n\nWith\n\nthe breaking down of the tribal relations the leadership of the older\nIndians will have passed away, and a new order of things will follow\n\nupon this education of the Indian. There, of course, will at first\nbe constantly the old Indian on the one side, exerting his influence ;\nand on the other will be the comforts of civilized life-the new life\nfree to him. But when an Indian student returns from one of our\n\nEastern schools to the reservation, he is distrusted; and without help\nand encouragement, it is a wonder if he succeeds. At one time there\nwas a young Indian educated at one of our schools. He returned to\nthe reservation, and there he sickened and died, and they have a\nstory that after his death his soul went to heaven, and there he\napplied for admission to the white man's heaven. Heaven seemed\nto have, in the minds of these Indians, departments. But the poor\nIndian was refused admission to the white man's heaven, because\nhe was an Indian. He applied afterwards to the red man's heaven,\nand there also he was refused admission, because he was an edu\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "84\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\ncated Indian. And so you see the unfortunate soul had no place to\nwhich it could go. That illustrates, very often, the future of the\neducated Indian who does not die. There is no place for admission\ninto the white man's life.\n\nLet the Indian knock at the white man's\n\ndoor for work, or something to do, and he will be told, \"You are an\nIndian; we don't want you.\" Then he goes back to his red people,\nand he says, \"I have come back to you; let me be one of you again.\"\nBut there he is not trusted, because he is educated, and they are\n\nafraid that he might in some way break up the tribe.\nIt is needful that we should look these things squarely in the face.\nFrequently it is not the best white men that come in contact with\nthe Indians upon the reservation. They speculate in the blankets,\nand shoes, and coats, and other things which the government so\nlavishly bestows upon the Indians. It is a profitable piece of business, you know, buying articles of clothing and other supplies which\nthe government has issued to the Indians. Out of all this, of course,\nthe Indian has come to distrust the white man, and this, you see,\nmust be so just so long as there is this relation between the two\nraces, and so long as the Indian reservation is maintained.\n\nThis condition of affairs is complicated by the attitude of the\nwhite population near the Indian reservations and settlements and\nin the states inhabited by the Indians. While with many good people this attitude is one of helpfulness, confidence, and respect, it is\n\npossibly with the greater number one of hostility, distrust, contempt,\nand, in many cases, one of direct abuse and overreaching cupidity.\nIn Wisconsin there is a tribe of Indians, traveling from place to\nplace, who have no regular marital relations, among whom a sort of\npolygamy prevails, with whom the woman is still the slave; but yet\nthe cultured people of Wisconsin look on indifferently, and say, \"It\nis not our business.\" It is a disgrace to a civilized community to\nhave that condition of things, which is poisoning our youth and\nbringing demoralization to our community, and bringing shame upon\nus, but still the people say, \"It is none of our business; it is the government's business.\"\n\nI go through the beautiful State of Iowa as I come here to this\nconvention, and right in the center of that beautiful state I find\n\n400 Indians who have purchased from the white people 3,000 acres\nof land, and who are permitted to live there in a state of bigamy\nand polygamy, in all sorts of relations which are absolutely unlawful\nfor the white man, giving an abominable example of the indifference\nwith which we regard these important things and our relations and\n\nduties to the Indians. And yet the good people of the State of Iowa\n\nsay, \"It is not our business ; it is the government's business.\" And\nso we American people go on and continue in a state of indifference\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nNEXT STEP IN THE EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN.\n\n85\n\nand lethargy. Are we going to allow this condition to continue? Is\nIowa never going to be stirred to realization of her sense of duty,\nand to ask the government to give her the right to educate and care\nfor these Indians ? It is the duty of those states to ask the government to let them assume the great responsibility of the care and\ndevelopment of these wards of the nation. Will not Wisconsin, and\nIowa, and New York follow the example which has been tried in a\nhelpless sort of a way by the government for some time past? Will\nnot the other states where Indians are being held back take this\nsame step ? That is also a necessary next step in the work of civilizing the Indians.\n\nThis condition of affairs is further complicated by the fact that\nthese states, as states, are relieved by the general government of all\nresponsibility concerning the care and civilization of Indians. These\nare therefore apt to be looked upon as burdensome foreigners, and\nare practically excluded from the benefits of state institutions\naccorded to actual and prospective citizens. The necessary next\nstep in the work of civilizing the Indians is, therefore, to remove\nthese obstacles and to bring about conditions which may afford the\nIndians opportunities to engage in the pursuits of civilized life and to\nreap the fruits of their efforts as full citizens of the states which\n\nthey inhabit.\nMuch may be done in this direction by missionary and other\nphilanthropic associations interested in the welfare of the Indian ;\nby efforts to secure for young educated Indians employment in families and communities, on the farms, and in the workshops of the\nstates in which these Indians have their homes ; and possibly, also,\nby the establishing of suitable industrial enterprises at or near\nIndian reservations and settlements.\n\nPermanent good, however, will come only when the respective\nstates shall realize their responsibility with reference to the Indians\nwithin their borders, and will claim from the general government\nthe right to assume this responsibility, and with it, possibly under\nthe supervision of the general government, the burden of carrying\nout the various treaty stipulations by which the consent of the\nIndians to become American citizens has been purchased.\nAnd again, how much wretchedness comes to the Indian girls, if\nthey are compelled to return to the reservation. After having learned\nsome of the refinements of civilized life, and after having admired the\nbeauties of life among the white people, they are thrown back upon\nthe reservation, to be treated as chattels and to be sold to be some\nman's wife, or rather, some one's slave; to be, perhaps, an Indian's\nslave in the household.\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "86\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nFor all of these reasons I would appeal to you to do something\nto arouse an intelligent interest in this great problem.\nI have nothing to say for the Indian as such. For him I do not\n\nplead. But I honor and respect the man in him-the possible American citizen. With this downtrodden part of him I sympathize deeply.\nTo this and to the child of God in him I would ask you to extend the\nhelping hand. In head and heart possibilities he is in no way inferior to his more favored white brother, who has learned to turn his\nface away from the past and to seek the better, higher future. Like\nhis white brother, he loves freedom and his children, respects truth\nand integrity, unselfish devotion and forceful achievement. He sees\nas clearly, interprets as accurately, and reasons as cogently as his\nwhite brother. His soul is stirred by gratitude and good-will, is\nlifted by worshipful faith in the Father, as is the soul of his white\nbrother. What he needs for fuller fellowship is but to turn\naway his face from the traditions of a past that has become barren\nand dead, and, like his white brother, to look upward to brighter and\nbetter things.\n\nA superficial criticism sees in the Indian only his failures, and\nthese, because of a false policy pursued by his white brother in\nmutual dealings, are sadly numerous and painfully wretched. But a\nkindlier wisdom and truer justice looks for the true Indian, not in\nhis failures but in his successes. Indians have attained respectable\nskill as physicians and lawyers, as preachers and teachers, as farmers\nand artisans, as nurses of the sick, as philanthropic dispensers of\nmaterial and spiritual good. It is these successes that reveal to us\nthe true Indian. One such success teaches more real, fundamental\ntruth than a thousand failures ; and it is because such successes are\n\nmany that I appeal to you.\nYou are the teachers of dawning public opinion. You, as instructors of the nation's youth, are the fountain-head of the nation's\nprogress towards a broader humanity and a deeper Christianity. To\nyou the future looks for whatever of patriotism, truth, justice, and\nhigher benevolence may be its portion. To you, therefore, I appeal,\nthat you give this matter earnest thought in order that you may\ndirect rising generations aright.\n\nThe Indian reservation must be abolished, kindly but firmly;\nspecific Indian education must yield to equal patriotic public education; from our Indian brother the Indian must be eliminated, that\nthe brother may be seen and loved. The several states, as the strongest and most compact political organizations of our land, must see\ntheir duty and responsibility in this weighty work, and yours it is\nto reveal this to them.\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nPRINCIPLES OF CO- ORDINATION OF STUDIES.\n\nTHE PRINCIPLES\n\n87\n\nUPON WHICH THE CO- ORDINATION OF\n\nSTUDIES SHOULD PROCEED.\n\nBY DR. CHARLES DE GARMO , SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, SWARTHMORE, PA.\n\nIf of old it was considered unwise to put new wine into old bot-\n\ntles, so to-day must it be pronounced difficult to adjust old words to\nnew ideas. Co-ordination, correlation, concentration of studies-who\nhas defined their likeness or distinction ? They are used almost\ninterchangeably for an idea whose vagueness is evinced by the ety-\n\nmological diversity of its symbols. During the debate at Cleveland\nover the report on the correlation of studies, we have Dr. Harris\ndeclaring that the term has no right to the meaning ascribed to it\n\nby his critics, while they, in turn, charged that he had borrowed the\nterm correlation for his report on the time-worn subject of educational values. From this fact we are at liberty to conclude, not that\none party was right and the other wrong but only that there was\nworld-wide diversity of meaning ascribed to the word correlation.\nTo determine clearly the significance of this new idea would, therefore, appear to be the first duty of a paper that presumes to discuss\nthe principles upon which a co-ordination of studies should proceed.\nThere is little or no help for us in etymology antecedent to an\nexamination of the scope of the idea itself.\n\nTo co-ordinate is to\n\nplace in the same rank, to establish in the relation of equality ; to\ncorrelate is to bring into relation, perhaps of equality, perhaps of\ninequality; to concentrate is to bring to a focus at a center, but how,\nto what end, or to what center in the case of the studies does not\nappear in the etymology. The symbol failing us, we must turn perforce to the thing symbolized.\nThe condition that confronts us is slow evolution of race-ability\nand rapid evolution in knowledge. The boy of to-day is probably but\nlittle, if any, abler than his prototype of a thousand years ago, but\neven within the memory of the youngest person here to-day knowledge has advanced so rapidly and in so many directions that not\neven the ablest man in the longest life could hope to master even\nthis margin of advance. How shall this new condition of things be\nreflected in the school? Will the antique course of study suitable\nto primitive civilization suffice to fit the child for his new environment? Nobody believes it; yet we are overwhelmed when we contemplate the demands that may be made upon us if we admit the\nneed of fitting for life as it is. Our only hope lies in such a unifying\norganization of studies as shall, with the greatest economy of time\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "88\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nand labor, most efficiently equip the child for his function as a future\ncitizen of the present highly developed civilization. How to bring\nabout this organization is the problem that bears the various names\nco-ordination, correlation, concentration of studies.\nThe man who has the first right to be heard upon the significance\nof the term correlation is our bonored commissioner of education,\nDr. Wm. T. Harris. It was he who prepared that part of the report\nof the committee of fifteen which pertains to the correlation of\n\nstudies.\n\nThe prevailing conceptions of that are, first, that the pur-\n\npose of school education is to fit the child for his environment as a\n\ncitizens, by enabling him to master its elements one by one as they\nare presented in the studies ; and, second, that each study has a value\nor function in thus educating the child.\n\nThe inevitable consequence\n\nof such a position is that the report should be what it is, a critique\nof educational values, each study, though standing alone, being\nreflected and completed in the others. The best illustration of this\nconception is our national government, which has three departments,\n\nthe legislative, the executive, and the judicial. These departments\nare separate and independent, yet they are perfectly correlated, since\neach has a distinct function in effecting the common purpose of the\nthree, namely, government. Legislation implies judicial approval and\nexecution, so likewise the executive department implies and reflects\nthe other two. With this image before him, Dr. Harris can easily\nmaintain that each of the studies, history, literature, mathematics,\nnatural science, and the like, has a specific function to perform in\neffecting the purpose of the school, and that there is the same sort of\ncorrelation existing among them that we find in the departments of\ngovernment, since each influences the other, without which it would\nhave small significance. Impelled by this conception of correlation,\nDr. Harris has presented a masterly exposition of the rational\ngrounds of our present choice of studies.\nIt is indeed good for us to be doubly certain that history, literature, grammar, and arithmetic should be taught in the public schools,\nyet we may fairly ask what new impulse this report may be expected\nto give in our educational progress. Taken by itself this view of\ncorrelation is so foreign to the problem of correlation as it appears\nin the daily work of the schoolroom that those who expected other\nthings of the report may be excused for not having classified the\nestimation of educational values under the head of correlation of\n\nstudies at all. The whole consideration is static and a priori; it does\nindeed give us logical reasons for what we are already doing, just as\n\nKant investigates the presuppositions of the experience that everybody has.\n\nSuch knowledge is for some purposes by no means useless,\n\nbut this (Hegelian) exposition of the reasons for teaching the common\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nPRINCIPLES OF CO- ORDINATION OF STUDIES.\n\n89\n\nbranches does not touch the real problem involved in their correlation. The function of studies is something that in the nature of the\ncase can never appeal to the consciousness of the pupil himself. Just\nas, until in his maturity he studies Dr. Harris' \"Introduction to Philosophy,\" he will be totally unconscious of the fact that he uses the\nsecond figure of the syllogism every time he recognizes his father in\nthe distance, so he must wait until he reads Dr. Harris' report on\n\nthe correlation of studies to know the philosophical reason why he\nstudied grammar and arithmetic. This functional correlation, furthermore, gives no hint as to the place and sequence of topics in the\n\nstudies. Shall natural science be introduced in the primary or in the\nhigh school? The category that explains the function of science in\neducation gives no answer. Beyond the fact that this consideration\nshows us that all the conventional studies must be put in, no man is\nassisted by the report in making his program. It is true the report\nexpresses an opinion on this subject, but the opinion has no organic\nconnection with the remainder of the report. These categories,\nvoiceless as to the place and sequence of topics, are likewise dumb\nwhen interrogated as to methods of teaching. But the most depressing aspect of Dr. Harris' report on correlation appears when in an\nunhappy moment it gives the impression, that, like the separate\ndepartments of government, each study should be kept in strict\nisolation from the others. This idea, suggested by the effort to demolish a man of straw, viz., the fear that all studies are to lose their\nidentity in a synthesis that shall teach everything at once, is a most\nunnecessary, illogical, and unfortunate one. Nor is the mischief\ngreatly mitigated by Dr. Harris' more recent declaration, that what\nhe said is not to be thus interpreted. It implies that the studies shall\n\nnot help one another, but that they shall proceed in carefully isolated\nunderground tunnels. The pupil discovers only at the end of his\nschool career, if ever, the bearing that one has on the other in fitting\nhim for his life-work. There is probably no fault so monumental\nin all our school and college education as this systematic isolation\nof the departments of knowledge. Life stimulates a man to focus\nall his power and knowledge upon every line of conduct. If he loses\nmoney in the market because he did not think of something he knew\nperfectly well, he does not forget a second time ; but the school, giving\nthe pupil a thousand advantages in the way of knowledge, thoughtpower, and culture, often through this very isolation of knowledge\ntracts renders him helpless in competition with one who knows but\nlittle but who has learned to co - ordinate what he does know.\n\nWe\n\nhave ascribed to Latin and Greek too much of the non-practical\nresults of school and college education. The difficulty lies deeper.\nIts root is to be found in this very ingrained habit of non-correlation\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "90\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nwhereby the school helps to cancel the very advantages it furnishes\nby refusing to give, even in principle, the kind of discipline to be\nfound in life.\n\nAll honor, then, to Dr. Harris for the contribution of his analysis.\n\nIt is probably the best one ever made, and will clarify the thought of\nevery man who reads it; but let us not delude ourselves with the\nidea that this static philosophic analysis of studies according to their\neducational function really solves any one of the important problems\narising from the need of an economical organization of studies. There\nis something else. Correlation is not exhausted by the static demands of civilization, which affect the destiny but not the consciousness of the pupil. It extends to the daily work of the schoolroom\nas it appeals to the child's mind, to his capacity to grasp and assimilate knowledge; it includes the formation of his mental habit,\n\nwhereby conduct becomes the resultant of correlated knowledge, not\nthe effect of isolated impulse. There is, in short, a correlation resting upon psychological grounds, which does for the studies what\ncivilization does for individuals, rendering them mutually helpful to\none another, enabling each to be helpful to all and all to each. This\nis a correlation whose investigation is the end and aim of all our\nstudy of the child. It may be confidently affirmed, therefore, that\nthe most practical, interesting, important, and even vital phases of\ncorrelation come under the head of psychological rather than of\nsocial or civil considerations. Do we ask what the organization of\nthe curriculum should be, that we may best economize time, that we\nmay most effectively appeal to the pupil's natural love of learning,\nthat we may secure the quickest and most permanent assimilation\nof knowledge, that we may most compactly present the essentials\nof modern learning, and that we may promote the greatest possible\nfacility in the concentration of thought upon conduct? The answer\nto all these inquiries must be found in the correlation of studies upon\nthe basis of the nature of the child.\n\nThere is no present need of another critique upon educational\nvalues; that work has been sufficiently well done for our day and\ngeneration. Progress lies in the other direction. Of the two aspects\nof correlation, the first, that urged by Dr. Harris, has indeed all the\nvalidity that naturally belongs to an estimation of the educational\nvalue of studies, but as a guide to their real organization and their\npresentation to the children, it is like the moon, bright but barren ;\nwhereas the other, that based upon the nature of the child, is rich\nwith the possibilities of life and progress. In it the teacher finds a\nsource of infinite suggestiveness, through it he has a means for touching all the springs of activity in the child, and by its agency he is\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nPRINCIPLES OF CO- ORDINATION OF STUDIES.\n\n91\n\nenabled to secure in each child the highest possible attainments in\nthe application of knowledge to conduct.\n\nThe ground having now been cleared, and the two kinds of correlation set clearly before us, we may proceed rapidly to the consideration of the principles that must dominate the co- ordination of studies\nin the psychological sense.\nWe need, first of all, to distinguish between a correlation that\nhas its roots deep in the inherent relations of studies and that\n\ntransient association of topics that springs from a desire to give\nvivacity and color to the instruction.\n\nThe former teaches the pupil\n\nto discover the relations that are abiding and important, and helps\nhim to form the habit of focusing his knowledge upon his conduct ;\nthe latter tickles his fancy, claims his passing attention, but leads to\nno permanent interests and develops but small tendency to search\nfor the really true and essential relations among things.\nWe could, of course, associate butter with butterflies, and cows\nwith cowslips, but though such associations might indicate ingenuity,\nthey would never be an index of wisdom.\n\nIf the correlations are to\n\nbe productive of good results for interest and conduct, they must be\nfounded on essential rather than accidental relations.\n\nAny arrangement of studies, therefore, that might just as well\nhave been otherwise, hardly belongs to correlation in the scientific\nsense; it should be classified rather with educational devices for\nenlivening instruction.\n\nThe first and in many respects the most imperative need of correlation is a better articulation of the parts of what are now recognized\nas departments of education, such as natural science, geography,\n\nlanguage, history, etc. To take but a single illustration: It has been\nthe custom of the schools to separate geography into several isolated\n\nparts, such as political, mathematical, commercial, and physical, and\nto present each part separately in a series of facts and definitions,\nno series having any appreciable connection with the others in the\nmind of the child. Not only is geography isolated from other related\nstudies, but its most intimately related parts are rigidly isolated from\none another.\n\nThe result is unfortunate alike for knowledge and for\n\nmental habit. Geography is a concrete epitome of civilization, and\nthrough a study of its elements of difference, as overcome and utilized\nfor the benefit of man through productive industry, business, com-\n\nmerce, government, newspapers, education, and society, the pupil\nmay comprehend, as in no other way, the essential conditions of good\ncitizenship and of personal prosperity and happiness. Along with a\n\nstudy of the elements of difference in lands, climates, productions,\nand peoples, there should be the study of their harmonious utilization\nthrough human industry and institutions.\n\nUnder these conditions\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "92\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nalone does geography attain its true value as an instrument for the\neducation of the people.\nThe first principle, therefore, upon which the co-ordination or correlation of studies should proceed is, that the various topics in each\ngreat department of knowledge should be articulated in accordance\nwith their true and abiding relations, restricted and guided always\nby the child's capacity to understand ; for, then, in the mind of the\nchild, the knowledge of these constituent elements will be no longer\ncharacterized by the inertness that is inevitable to isolation. Coordination among the elements of study is antecedent to correlation\namong the departments themselves, since, other things being equal,\nthe educational value of a correlation depends upon the closeness and\nimportance of the relations to be established, and it seems to lie in\nthe nature of the case that the elements of geography, for instance,\nhave more intimate and important relations to one another than geography can possibly have to literature, mathematics, or any other\nstudy. It is our first duty, therefore, to re-examine each of our leading studies, like history, language, geography, science, mathematics,\nin order, in the light of the child's capacity, to discover, at each stage\nof advance, the most effective correlation possible among its various\n\nelements. The principle that must govern each of these correlations\nmust, after the child's comprehension has been taken into account,\nbe the end to be subserved by the study. Every subject of instruction has some essential function in fitting the child for life, in revealing to him some phase of the future relations that should exist\nbetween him and his organized fellow-men, and it is this ultimate\npurpose, exhibited so forcibly in Dr. Harris' report, that must show\nhow the correlation is to be made. In the case of geography, the\nprevailing unifying idea is the economic and social utilization of the\nelements of difference as they exist in the world of nature and of\nman.\nIt is this idea, therefore, that, in geography, must determine\nthe process of correlation.\nIt must not be assumed, however, that the co-ordination of each\nseparate department is altogether a separate problem, for the compactness and unity of the whole course and the utilization of the intimacy of the cross-relations existing among the studies depend, in a\nlarge measure, upon the observance of common principles of sequence\nin the organization of the various departments.\n\nIf each subject had a principle of sequence differing essentially\nfrom that of every other, the correlation of studies would thereby\nbe practically prohibited. The complexity of this subject of sequence\nmakes it the most difficult part of the whole problem of correlation.\nIn its solution, at least three factors must be taken into considera-\n\ntion, two pertaining chiefly to the child, and one to the subject-matter.\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nPRINCIPLES OF CO- ORDINATION OF STUDIES.\n\n93\n\nI would point out, first, that in the early stages of the instruction\nin all branches, the past experience of the child and the experience\neasily obtainable from his natural and social environment, is an\nimportant factor in the determination of a proper sequence. But\n\nthis influence is a perpetually changing one, and is alike in no two\nschool neighborhoods. The environment in the city differs vastly\nfrom that of the country, while different cities, different parts of the\nsame city, and different rural neighborhoods present widely varying\naspects. Imperative though it is that we take environment seriously\ninto account in the determination of the choice and sequence of top-\n\nics, yet, on the whole, it seems in itself more of a disorganizing than\nan organizing principle. It is only by isolating and emphasizing\ncertain of its elements that the teacher can make environment con-\n\ntribute to unity of studies.\nThe second psychological factor that I would mention is a formal\nand constant one, holding to a large extent for all children alike.\nIt pertains to the various stages of mental development, observable\nin all children. The advantage of such a principle is easily perceived,\nsince, if children have common stages of development, we can, by\ngrading them properly, easily adapt the work of each study to the\nclass, and, using a common principle of selection for the various\ntopics in the different branches, we can bring them into important\nperceivable relations. This fact explains why the Herbartians lay\nso much stress upon the so-called culture epochs as a guide to\nsequence. The value and limitations of the principle are discussed\nin Dr. Van Liew's masterly exposition to be found in the new \"YearBook of the Herbart Society for the Scientific Study of Teaching.\"\nThe limits of the present paper preclude further discussion of this\npoint.\n\nThe third factor in determining sequence is the logical unfolding\nof the studies themselves as completed systems of thought. This\norder, though of undoubted significance, is not the one in which these\nsubjects were actually developed, and it is often at sad variance with\nthe child's understanding and interest. It did very well as a principle of sequence so long as the child was left out of the calculation,\nbut taken by itself is now quite inadequate to a solution of the\nproblem.\n\nThis whole problem of sequence is so new, so complicated, so\nfundamental, that its adequate discussion is quite beyond the range\nof a limited paper like the present.\nWe come now to the co-ordination of studies in the wider sense\n\nof discovering and bringing to consciousness the still intimate relations that actually exist among the various departments of learning.\nHistory has relations to geography, geography to science, science to\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "94\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nnumber, and literature to all of these. How can these natural relations be utilized to enhance the interest and insight of the pupil and\nto aid in forming the desirable habit of bringing all pertinent knowledge to bear on conduct ?\nIt is here that we come for the first time to the conventional\n\npedagogical use of the word \"concentration.\" It originated with\nZiller, and signified with him that about the culture studies, history,\nand religion, all other branches should be concentrated, or related\nin such a way as to take the principle of their selection and sequence\nfrom the two leading subjects, the sequence in these being determined by the so-called culture epochs. The reason for this arrangement is, that the end of education is conceived to be moral training\nthrough instruction, and the assumption is made that biblical and\nprofane history are par excellence the studies that reveal the moral\norder of the world. The validity of the very groundwork of Ziller's\nscheme must, however, be questioned, at least on this side of the\nAtlantic; for, in the first place, we can hardly teach Biblical history\nin schools at all, and, in the second place, it would not be difficult\nto show that geography, as suggested in this paper, literature, and\nperhaps mathematical science, are quite as potent instruments as\nhistory for revealing the moral order of the world. At any rate, they\ndo reveal relations that are quite as important. It is questionable\nwisdom, therefore, to subject these studies to principles of selection\nand sequence that arise from the needs of alien subjects. Ziller's\nreasons for thus attempting to fuse all the ideas of the child into a\nmass whose center is an ethical conception, are founded on two\nassumptions, as follows :\n1. That the whole effort of instruction must be to turn the mind\n\ndirectly and constantly to the good, the influence of indirect moral\nteaching being denied or ignored.\n\n2. That interest and volition grow in strength as ideas are unified\nand concentrated.\n\nNeither of these assumptions is well sustained by psychology\nor experience.\n\nTo keep continually harping on the strings of sensibility, to point\na moral to every tale, to preach a perennial sermon in the school-\n\nroom, is to make moral prigs or moral rebels. As Dr. Harris well\nsays in his report, \"The child protects his inner individuality against\neffacement through external authority by taking an attitude of rebellion against stories with an appended moral. \" If this is true of\nliterature, which has a distinct moral content, what must be the\n\nresult of constantly trying to arouse the moral sense through the\nagency of non-moral subjects like mathematics and science ? Ziller's\nidea of moral training seems to be a pietistic attempt to dissolve the\nsoul in sentiment ; but all such efforts quickly reach their limit,\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRINCIPLES OF CO- ORDINATION OF STUDIES.\n\nSessions. ]\n\n95\n\nespecially in an age like the present, in which sentimentality is\nmostly confined to those who are not in contact with the active realities of life.\n\nNot less defective is his second assumption, that interest and\nvolition are proportional to the amount of association to be found\namong the ideas, for both interest and volition are checked by irrelevant, accidental, or opposing associations as much as they are\nassisted by pertinent and natural ones. We must, indeed, be able\nto focus the resources of the mind upon each line of conduct; but\nno two lines are likely to demand the same combination of ideas.\nIt follows, therefore, that associations must be founded upon natural\nand important relations, not upon artificial or subjective ones.\nHowever suggestive we may find Ziller's scheme of concentration,\n\nespecially in the primary grades, the conclusion from this argument\nis, that for American schools it must be rejected in principle.\nThe ablest exposition and defense of this form of correlation\nthough it must be confessed much modified by American conditions,\nexperience, and common sense, is that from the pen of Dr. Frank\nMcMurry in the \"Herbart Year-Book,\" referred to a moment ago.\nAnother form of so-called concentration has been attempted in\n\nthe United States, which places science at the center and which\nmakes the ultimate unity of natural law the basis of correlation.\nThis plan obliterates in principle the lines of investigation that gave\nus departments of study. Each concrete science blends with the\nothers, while linguistic and mathematical form studies have only a\nborrowed validity, being merely modes of expression or judgment\nfor the uttering of intrinsic thought. Philosophy does not question\nthe existence of this ultimate synthesis of these fields of knowledge\nthrough a network of intertwining relations; but education may well\nquestion the advisability of adopting the step-by-step method of\nmastering knowledge, such as is pursued when we attack it along the\n\nlines of study indicated by near, closely connected, and obvious relations.\n\nWhere cross-relations between different studies are close and\n\nmore important than those determining the sequence in the individual studies themselves they may be utilized in correlation, but to\nset a child in the maze of recorded knowledge without the guidance\nof definite lines of study would be like abandoning him in a pathless\nforest.\n\nThis form of concentration which sacrifices all specific departments of study to an ideal philosophic unity, like that of Ziller, which\nsubordinates most studies to a few, cannot, therefore, be unconditionally accepted as a guide to the correlation of studies in the American\n\npublic schools.\nIt has been claimed in this paper, that, in order to effect the correlation of studies, violence should not be done to the integrity of\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "96\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nany one of the great departments by making its choice and sequence\nof parts depend upon the convenience of alien branches, yet a word\nmay be spoken concerning those studies in which the logical sequence\nis of the least and the psychological of the most importance. To\nthis class belong, especially, literature, geography, and science. No\nless an author than Professor Huxley failed, even in the high school\ngrades, when he attempted to teach biology strictly in accordance\nwith the logical order of evolution in nature.\n\nHe found it better to\n\nfollow the lead indicated by experience, environment, and interest.\nThe biologist now emphasizes the study of the types that lie nearest\n\nto the experience and interest of his pupils. This being true, there is\nno good reason evident why the correlationist may not, in the early\ngrades at least, determine the order of the types that the child shall\nstudy somewhat in accordance with the interests of other subjects.\nYet, nevertheless, science must remain science ; it must not be dissolved in literature, history, or geography.\nLiterature, again, has no necessary logical sequence. The theory\nof culture epochs gives us many hints as to the types best adapted\nto the mind of the child at the various epochs of its development.\nBut, after granting that literature for the child shall be childlike\n(not childish), we are free to determine as we will the order in which\nwe shall take it up. Nor should we lose sight of the purpose for\nwhich we correlate literature to other subjects. There is a literature\nof nature, of society, of history, of industry, and its function in all\nthese cases is to idealize facts; it is to cast a glow of feeling over\nhard realities, to bring the æsthetic and moral into juxtaposition\nwith the material and prosaic. Literature, therefore, is a natural\ncorrelating agency, serving to unite in the child's mind the ideal and\nthe real. Knowledge must not be dissolved in literature, but there\nis no reason why the hardest of material facts should not be softened\nand idealized by the glow of her transcendent beauty.\nGeography, as has been said, unites man and nature through\nindustry and commerce, yet after a few elementary ideas have been\nacquired, we are free to choose any field of geographical knowledge\nthat may be made desirable by the demands of history or science.\nI think it consonant with truth and sound educational doctrine to\n\nmake these concessions to the ably defended position taken by my\nfriend, Dr. Frank McMurry, in the \"Year-Book\" of the Herbart\nSociety.\n\nFinally, I have not deemed it prudent to discuss at length that\nform of correlation known as the relation of form to thought studies.\n\nNo topic has of late years attracted so much attention from live\nteachers, and especially from the courageous work and writings of\nCol. F. W. Parker, whose example we seek to emulate, and whose\nnoble contributions on this subject we are proud to honor.\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nCO- ORDINATION IN NATURAL SCIENCE.\n\n97\n\nWHAT HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHED IN CO- ORDINATION IN\nTHE FIELD OF NATURAL SCIENCE.\n\nBY WILBUR S. JACKMAN, COOK COUNTY NORMAL SCHOOL,\nENGLEWOOD, ILL.\n\nThe great activity in the educational movement of the present\n\ntime has resolved itself almost wholly into a search for fundamental\nprinciples. The times are distinctively scientific. We are entering\nupon an era that will be dominated by a belief in the supremacy of\nnatural law. This creed, the simplest, the most comprehensive that\nthe world has ever known, and the only one that all peoples can adopt,\nis to be from now henceforth the great rallying center, the great harmonizing influence, in every field of human thought. The debt of\nour age of science is not, alone, for the direct results, attained through\nscientific study and research; it is chiefly for that respect for natural\n\nlaw, daily growing more profound, which her achievements have\nengendered in every intelligent being.\nAll study is an investigation of relations for the purpose of finding\nthe natural law by which they are determined. In a course of study,\nphilosophically planned, the so-called different subjects of study must\nbe so arranged that their natural and mutual relations shall most\n\nreadily appear. The subject-matter of all study appears to be reducible to that which presents itself to us under the conception of energy.\nIt is through the fundamental conception of energy that the essential\nunity of all subjects of study appears, and they, then, present themselves simply as varying aspects of the one all-embracing subject.\nThe region of human study includes the human being itself; it\nembraces the student himself among the things to be studied, all\nalike being subject to the same unyielding law. The human student\nhimself is a means for the transfer and transformation of energy, not\n\nmore divine in either his origin or destiny than the so-called brute,\n\nthe plant, the cloud, or the sunbeam. The mutual and irreversible\nrelations which the mind perceives to exist among the different sub-\n\njects of study, and through which they become organized into a\nunified whole, may be termed, for convenience, logical relations ; those\nthrough which the different subjects naturally unfold themselves to\nthe mind of the student may be termed the psychological relations .\nIf one may correctly judge by the nature of the different curriculums\nprepared in the past and at the present time, there is this fundamental difference between the old and the new education : the former\n\nplaced the greater stress upon the logical relations of subject-matter\nand the latter places the emphasis upon the psychological relations.\n7\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "98\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nThe psychological presentation of all the varied subjects in such\nan order that their logical and mutual relations shall most readily\nappear may be taken to be the essential meaning of correlation.\n\nIt\n\nis with this idea in mind that schoolmen are now, in this country,\nattempting to formulate courses of study which shall be rational in\nconception and practical in application, and by which an effective\npolicy of public instruction may be developed. The practical character of the results of research in the fields of natural science, and\ntheir wide application through inventions to the actual affairs of life,\nhave given to even the average mind a powerful stimulus to study in\nthat direction; and allured by the infinite outlook into the universe,\nwhich she presents to the contemplative mind, Science has drawn to\nher service a vast host of followers that includes in its numbers the\n\nmost enthusiastic, open-minded, cultured, and conscientious men and\nwomen of the time.\n\nThe innovations in human belief and action produced in the past\nthirty- five years by the strides of science have at last reached the\nheart's core of the schools with revolutionary effect. The introduction of nature study into the common schools has made it obvious to\nthe most obtuse that complete reorganization of the course of study\nis imperative.\n\nIn the work of reforming the curriculum of the primary and grammar schools nature study is playing the leading part. Its strength\n\nat present lies chiefly in its fulfillment of the public demand for that\nwork which will acquaint the pupil with the conditions of modern\nlife and at the same time best develop his native ability. Ultimately,\n\nit will take that high place which will be determined by the acquirements, the culture, and the liberality of mind that it can so richly\ngive.\n\nThe entrance of nature study into the grammar school from the\nside of the high school was a misfortune; it should have come from\nthe kindergarten. The high school teacher seeks wisdom in his subject; the kindergartner, in the child. As a result of the specialization, as well as the isolation, of subjects in the high schools, each\nbranch of natural science had its champion who entered the lists\ndetermined to place his subject at the head or center of the grammar\nschool course. There is not a subject whose cause was not urged\nwith untiring vigor. Books were written, and, until quite recently,\nthe educational journals were filled with the clamor of these airbeating knights of the various subjects, each seeking the immortality of a first place. The immediate effect of this spirited contention was chaotic confusion, and the luckless primary and grammar\nteachers were plunged into the depths of despair.\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nCO- ORDINATION IN NATURAL SCIENCE.\n\n99\n\nThe work of the first epoch, therefore, in the earliest serious\nattempt at correlation was directed to the misguided efforts to make\nsome one subject the organic center of the course, to which all others\nshould be tributary. Nature study was doubly unfortunate; with it\nthe struggle was twofold. On one hand, it was rent by internecine\nstrife each separate branch endeavoring to assume the function of\nan organizing center for all the others; on the other hand, it was\ninvolved in a dispute regarding a more important question as to\nwhether the organizing center for the entire course should be an\n\nhistoric or a scientific one. The first step towards a reconciliation\nof the conflicting interests was taken by a general recognition of\nthe pedagogical principle, that subject-matter of whatever kind must\nbe selected and arranged in all cases from a psychological standpoint,\nregardless of its logical relations. It has been actually demonstrated\nin scores of schoolrooms that every branch of science presented to the\npupil, under normal conditions of life, some aspect of subject-matter\nwhich is psychologically near to the child. A human being is never\ntoo young to escape the influences of the natural forces which focus\nupon him, and it is but reasonable to expect that his early unconscious reaction should very soon develop a conscious and lively interest in them. The common experience of teachers upon this point\nhas brought about a change of base in their efforts at correlating\nthe different branches of science. It is evident that no subject can\n\nbecome an organic center of the course of study, but that all must be\nallowed to respond with equal freedom to the actual psychological\nnecessities of the child. Under this conception of the arrangement\nof a course of study, the heat of the early discussions respecting the\nrelative value of subjects has gradually cooled down, personal prejudices are fast disappearing, and a second most decided step in advance has been taken towards rational correlation.\n\nNature study found the grammar school course utterly povertystricken from the standpoint of actual thought material. The children were in a state of intellectual starvation. The only resource\nthat remained within the reach of the teacher for preserving even\na semblance of interest lay in the claptrap of device. Almost the\nwhole attention of both teacher and pupil was devoted to the study\n\nof empty form. The wealth of material offered by the subject of\nnature study was a godsend. It was like sunlight breaking through\ngloomy clouds. The fields of thought opened up to hungry minds\nwere entrancing. It is small wonder that a movement began which\nclosely resembled a stampede. It actually seemed as though the\nthree R's were about to lose their grip. In educational journals\nthe question was gravely discussed as to how much of the old could\n\nbe entirely discarded to make room for the new, and for a second\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "100\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\ntime the work of the grammar school teacher was reduced to a state\nof apparently hopeless confusion.\n\nFrom this struggle in the dark, the majority of teachers in the\ncountry have hardly, as yet, begun to emerge. The curriculum is\n\nstill the subject of much aimless experimentation, and is too frequently the prey to whim. The half-educated and poorly-trained\nteacher, distinguished by his great enthusiasm for one favorite subject, is still abroad in the schools, crowding this way and that to the\nutter discomfiture of childhood and the disgust of public intelligence. This is the present condition of the school question, in the\nyear of grace, eighteen hundred and ninety- five.\nNature study, with the proper correlation of its several departments fairly understood, holds at least a tentative place in the course\nof study for the primary and grammar grades. It has made a host\nof friends amongst the teachers. The permanency of its place, however, and its ultimate usefulness depend upon a still further step in\ncorrelation-that involving its natural relations to the already longestablished subjects of study. The work yet remaining to be done in\nfurther correlation presents itself under two aspects, each of which\ninvolves a disputed question. The first may be broadly stated from\na pedagogical standpoint as follows : Can the form studies-making,\nmodeling, drawing, painting, reading, spelling, writing, form, and\nnumber-be well and sufficiently taught as a direct result of the natural demand of the thought-work that is presented in the subjects\nof science and history ? The second and more difficult question is,\nIs there a natural basis for the correlation of science and history ?\n\nIn the first question, science and history have a common interest in\nthe result. This paper, however, must deal chiefly with the relations\nof science. In the second question is involved the place of each in\nthe curriculum.\n\nAssuming what is generally conceded, that the subjects of science\nand history, with their various subdivisions, comprise the thought\nstudies, it remains to consider specifically what demands the former\nsubject has made for the various means of expression. Doubtless\nthere are many teachers present who are better qualified to speak of\nwhat has been done in the country at large; but the writer will\nconfine himself to what has been accomplished in the school with\nwhich he is connected.\n\nMaking is chiefly valuable in a preparation of conditions for study;\nthat is, in the construction of apparatus. As a rule, the pupils have\nbeen so little accustomed to manual labor of this kind they are not\nskillful enough to entirely supply the demand. The interest is so\ngreat, however, that skill is rapidly acquired. No one has yet been\nable to plan a series of models or pieces of apparatus, probably, that\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nCO ORDINATION IN NATURAL SCIENCE.\n\n101\n\nwould be accepted by the sticklers in manual training for the logical\n\ndevelopment of the subject. Yet, irregular as the work, as a rule,\nmay be, its educational advantage is beyond question and the material is all that can possible be used.\nUnder the old regime, there was scarcely any attempt to give the\npupils just conceptions of form through modeling in clay. Form was\nnot studied. The subject-matter of nature study strongly appeals\nto the pupil through form, and much of the significance of what is\nstudied depends upon this accurate conception which modeling is\nbest fitted to give.\n\nThe material is abundant and marvelous skill\n\nis rapidly acquired. Color as a study had no place whatever in the\nold schools. Through nature study it now mounts to a conspicuous\nand honorable position. The growth of the pupil's expression through\nthe use of brush and color is strong and beautiful. The teacher's\nignorance of the principles underlying this mode of expression has\nlong hindered the children. It is not with the single leaf, the single\nfruit, or small object that the child should begin, but with the great\nirregular mass of the tree or landscape. This insures from the first\nthe enlistment of the æsthetic sense, and it develops from the beginning an artistic touch. A similar elevation has been given the subject of drawing.\nBut it is concerning the relations of nature study to reading,\nwriting, and number that the gravest apprehensions have been felt.\nThe relation of reading to observation is close and organic. By it the\npupil obtains new views of the subject he has himself studied, and he\nmay avail himself of information respecting other allied subjects.\nThe mind, to study, must reflect, and expression by writing is the\nhandmaid of reflection. The mind thinks in judgments ; but the\nindefinite judgments of childhood can become definite and accurate\nonly through a determination of numerical relations.\nAs before mentioned, prior to the comparative recent advance\nof nature study the great drawback to school work was poverty of\n\nthought-material. Reading was nothing more than a struggle with\nwords ; institutes and educational journals wasted their energies in\nlearned babble about methods, and, in the end, the schools did less\nfor the pupils than they could have done for themselves had they\nbeen turned out upon the streets.\n\nWriting was a prolonged and tedious wrestle with hieroglyphics,\nwhile the Great Sahara of arithmetic was scarcely even attempted.\n\nA few points respecting these subjects have been demonstrated.\nFirst, by a judicious and rational use of the thought-material furnished by the subject-matter of nature study and by means of the\nschool printing-press, beginning with the first sentence that is presented to the child upon entering school, the subject of reading may\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "102\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nbe made to appear to him what it really is, namely, a means of\nenlarging his own thought through study. That correlates it naturally with observation. It should be here added, that, in this work,\nthe subject-matter of history and literature, including the myth, is\na valuable support and ally. It has been shown that the idiotic\ncompilations of the majority of the reading charts and early readers,\nfor the sake of stocking up a vocabulary, are absolutely unnecessary.\nThe child may be taught to read from precisely the same motive that\nwill actuate him as an adult to continue his reading, namely, the\ndesire to enlarge his field of thought.\n\nHe can be so taught that the\n\nprinted word shall never appear in his consciousness above the level\nof a purely incidental thing; as merely a means of his mind to further\nthought, as the window-pane is a medium through which his eye\nreaches the landscape expanse.\n\nAnd, finally, within the first three years of school life, not only\nmay the mechanics of reading be mastered but a cultivated taste and\na refined literary habit can be established which will have a beneficent effect upon all subsequent life, no matter how unfortunate the\nconditions may be.\nThe proper presentation of subject-matter involves a demand for\nan amount of written expression that puts the matter of formal train-\n\ning in this subject of writing beyond the shadow of a doubt. The\nmechanical difficulties are not conquered quite so early as in reading, on account of the later development, physiologically, of the\norgans concerned; but the final and timely mastery on the same plan\nis certain. From the first sentence written, the feeling grows with\nthe pupil that writing, like reading, is simply a necessary means to\nhis thinking.\n\nIn determining the relations of number work to nature study,\nless definite, because less persistent, work has been done. This work\n\nseems to most teachers especially hopeless. Definite judgments\nrespecting the mathematical relations of matter and force are comparatively late in appearing in children, and in many teachers they\nhave not appeared at all. But the full significance of form can only\nbe understood when its proportions are definitely known ; the value\nof force can only be known when it is accurately measured, and\nnumber work in nature study is therefore clearly implied. Suffice\nit to say, that, without the aid of mathematics, the grandest conception of nature possible to man must forever remain hidden from\nsight. As teachers more clearly realize this, more demand for number work will be made, and it is safe to venture the prediction, that\nthe day is not distant when nature study will be regarded as sound\na basis for arithmetic as it is now for other form studies.\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nCO- ORDINATION IN NATURAL SCIENCE.\n\n103\n\nIt may be said, in conclusion, that, at the present time, there is a\nfair agreement among teachers who have studied the question as\nto the basis upon which science may be correlated with all other\n\nsubjects except one, namely, its yokefellow, history, including literature.\n\nThe writer has discussed elsewhere (\"Educational Review,\" for\n\nMay, 1895,) at length, the basis for the correlation of these subjects,\nand only a mere mention of the points can be made here. The attempts at the correlation of the two subjects, thus far, have been\nbut little more than efforts to find for the jingling words in one, appropriate rhyming companions in the other. So long as teachers relate\nnature study to the intellectual side of the mind, and history and\nliterature to the moral side, it is evident that a chasm will exist\nbetween the two subjects.\n\nIt is here submitted that a rational corre-\n\nlation can take place only on two conditions. First, that it can be\nshown that nature study does directly influence the moral character\nof the pupil; and, second, that the events of history be taken out of\nthe domain of chance or whim and be referred for interpretation\nto the operation of natural law. When the importance of these two\nfundamental points is understood and the requirements of the two\nconditions are conceded, the mystery and difficulty attending correlation will rapidly disappear.\nThe teachers of the country will understand the principles of\ncorrelation long before they acquire sufficient skill to apply them in\nactual practice. It is safe to predict that we shall have to pass\nthrough an epoch of miserably poor teaching. The chief blunders\nand miseries of this stage will be due to the efforts to \"make over\"\nold methods for new purposes. Inventive genius is not called for\nmore in mechanics to-day than in the schoolroom. If teachers could\nbut learn this lesson and forget the making-over process, years of\neffort might be saved. Nevertheless, the teachers of this generation\nare called upon to begin the new work, and, beginning, they must\nexpect to blunder. If we can do no more, we can at least transmit\nto posterity these blunders as evidence of our sincere desire for better things and as proofs of our courage in trying to attain them.\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "104\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nWHAT HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHED IN CO- ORDINATION IN\nTHE FIELD OF HISTORY AND LITERATURE.\n\nBY CHARLES A,\n\nMCMURRY, NORMAL\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nNORMAL,\n\nILL.\n\nI. The effort to co-ordinate history and literature with the other\nstudies has led, first of all, to a serious effort to determine the rank of\n\nhistory and literature among studies. This has led to valuable\npractical results. Chief among these results is the fact, that the\nhighest quality and function of history and literature as culture\nforces have been brought prominently to light. The culture influence\nwhich these studies may exert upon the deeper thought and character\nof children until recently has been little understood or thought of.\nBut the awakening along this line is bringing a rich treasure of\nculture and inspiration into our school course.\nWe are beginning to use some of our best American and English\nmasterpieces with full appreciation of their educative power and\nvalue. For example, the \"Courtship of Miles Standish,\" which we\nuse in its complete form in reading classes of the sixth grade, has\nbecome an important link in the chain of culture influences which\nwe wish to make effective with children.\n\nFor them to take up with\n\nand appreciate the life and character of that plain and hardy Plymouth folk is to imbue them with one of the strongest and best sentiments that American history and civilization have yet manifested to\nthe world. As a preparation for this sort of reading in the history\nlessons of fifth or beginning sixth grade, let children study the narrative of Puritan hardship and virtue as given in Nina Moore's \"Pilgrims and Puritans.\" Then let them take Longfellow's \"Miles Standish\" in the regular reading lessons, and enter fully into its spirit.\nThe fact, still more than the historian, will lay hold of their affections\nand sympathy. Most of us, no matter what our study of history,\npeople the Plymouth shore with the forms of John Alden, Priscilla,\nand Miles Standish as Longfellow thought them. The poet has\nacquired complete ascendency. And well it is, for deep under this\nPuritan poem is the Puritan faith and grit which have entered into\nthe backbone of our nation.\n\nAnd there is no other source from\n\nwhich children can better absorb this strong sentiment into their\nown spiritual life. This sort of literature has vigorous educative\npotency. It has been looked upon too much as a luxury, as an ornamentation, as an æsthetic charm for leisure hours ; but it contains\nthe fiber and strength of the oak. The true poet is no fair-weather\nprophet, no holiday entertainer. He abides with us through the\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nCO- ORDINATION IN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.\n\n105\n\nstorms of life. He touches the profounder chords of thought and\nfeeling with a magic hand. In the hours of deepest national distress\nand danger the voices of Bryant, and Whittier, and Lowell have rung\nout in bugle notes of no uncertain sound, inspiriting the nation to\nits best effort. Our cherished poets and writers have more and better to teach us, and they know better how to teach and inspire than\n\nanybody else. Their lessons, in such graphic form as \"Evangeline,”\n\"Snow Bound,\" \"Vision of Sir Launfal,\" and \" Thanatopsis,\" contain\nthe essence and strength of our culture. They furnish the meat\nrather than the condiments of a strong ideal education. In measuring and estimating the value and rank of studies this sort of literature is coming distinctly to the front.\n\nII. But co-ordination sets out, not only to determine the rank and\nvalue of studies but also their inter-relations and interdependence\nupon each other, just as the three co-ordinate departments of our\ngovernment are of equal rank yet stand in close relation and dependence upon each other. The notion is, that, if children see the important relations and connections of history and literature to other\nbranches, the combined effect of the studies as correlated will be\nmuch greater than if each is to exercise its influence separately. The\nstudies, if linked together by casual and rational relations, re-enforce\neach other. In their union is strength; in their isolation and dismemberment is weakness .\n\nAmong teachers the conviction is becoming widespread that history and reading, as well as other studies, have been too much\nisolated from each other. Each study has stood by itself and been\nlooked upon as complete in itself and in its influence. But the outcome of education is now sought in a strong mental unit, a character\nwith a center toward which all educative influences converge.\n\nIt\n\nmust be built upon a simple framework of principles which control\n\nand harmonize all acquired habits, experience, and knowledge. If\nthis character which the school studies help to form has a distinct\ncenter and unity, then the school studies themselves must have a\nunifying rather than a divergent and scattering tendency. It is\nimpossible longer to satisfy teachers with that permanent isolation\nof studies which has thus far been the rule. We may well isolate\neach topic in a study for the purpose of a clear and distinct grasp of\nits central idea, but it should be at once linked back to related topics\nin its own and other branches. There is an important sense in which\nevery study should be isolated and its important ideas kept apart,\nbut to isolate a whole study and keep it apart by destroying or\nignoring its necessary relations to other studies, is to break the\norganic connection of thought and to disregard the close practical\nassociations which are ever apparent in real life.\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n106\n\n[General\n\nIII. It is a fact that many school principals and superintendents\nare now rearranging and reorganizing the course of study, and the\nidea of co-ordination is having considerable influence with them both\nin the order and adjustment of studies and in the method of handling\nthem in classes.\n\n1.\n\nOne influence of co-ordination in laying out school courses is\n\nseen in the effort to select parallel series of important topics in\ndifferent studies and in so devising and arranging the parallel series\nas to keep in mind the mutual helpfulness of history and literature\nto each other and to the other branches. Thus, in several grades,\nthe reading, history, geography, natural science, and language stand\nrelated to each other much like the strands of a well-made rope.\n\nThe literary series used in first, second, and third grades, namely,\n\"Folk Lore Stories,\" \"Robinson Crusoe,\" and \"Greek Myths,\" are a\ndistinct and positive aid and preparation for the reading exercises\nin the same grades. The \"Wonder Book Stories,\" for oral narrative\nand discussion in third grade, supply also the best of reading for\nfourth grade. They provide, also, for the best incidental language\ndrill, and suggest many suitable objects for natural science lessons.\nAgain, American history stories, beginning in fourth grade and\ncontinuing through the periods of exploration, colonial life, and the\nRevolution, for fifth, sixth, and seventh grades, not only give the\nchildren a lively and hearty introduction to the instructive part of\nAmerican history for them but also open up the fields of literature\nand geography in such a natural and interesting sequence that a\nprofitable partnership between the studies is manifest even to the\nchildren.\n\nIn the fifth grade, for illustration, a group of studies has been\nselected in parallel lines, so that they render valuable support to\neach other. The history stories of Hudson, Champlain, Penn, Washington, Columbus, Raleigh, and other explorers, dealing with the\nfirst survey and settlement along the Atlantic coast, run closely parallel with the geography of the Atlantic States in the same grade.\nBut this history and geography of the Atlantic coast become an\nintroduction to much of the literature used in the regular reading\nlessons of fifth and sixth grades. These literary materials are both\nAmerican and European, just as the history stories of Raleigh, Hudson, Columbus, and Champlain are a link of connection between\nEurope and America.\n\nThe reading matter for fifth and sixth grades includes Higgin-\n\nson's \"American Explorers,\" Hawthorne's \"Grandfather's Chair,\"\nLongfellow's \"Courtship of Miles Standish,\" \"The Autobiography of\nBenjamin Franklin,\" Rolfe's \"Tales from English History,\" \"The\nStory of Ulysses,\" and \"The Lays of Ancient Rome.\" The books just\nmentioned are only a spirited introduction to the body of myth, tradi\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nCO- ORDINATION IN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.\n\n107\n\ntion, historical narrative, and poetic masterpieces which embody in\nstrong educative potency those ideas and characters and episodes\nin history which the master minds of literature have deemed best\nworthy of preserving. Such, also, are \"Evangeline,\" Irving's \"Sketch\nBook,\" \"Snow Bound,\" \"Hunting of the Deer,\" \"Lady of the Lake,\"\n\"\nLay of the Last Minstrel,\" \"Tales of Chivalry,\" the stories of\nWaverley, etc.\nAlong the lines just mentioned, history, literature, geography,\nand language are of strong mutual service to each other. These connections between studies are not artificial but natural. The early\nhistory stories are unintelligible without geography. Literary works\nlike \"Evangeline,\" \"Miles Standish,\" \"Hiawatha,\" \"Lady of the Lake,\"\n\"Tales of a Grandfather,\" and \" Sketch Book\" are so full of geograph-\n\nical picture and suggestion that considerable geographical detail and\nsurvey are necessary to their comprehension. On the other hand,\nnothing is able to contribute more interest to geography than stories,\ntraditions, and poems which find their setting among these objects\nand places.\n2. A second idea which the effort to co-ordinate literature and\n\nhistory with other branches has accentuated is, the setting out in\n\neach study of the distinct units of thought which form, as it were,\nthe nerve ganglia of that subject. Before real co-ordination can begin\nwe must have distinct centers of thought to which labor and effort\n\ncan be directed. In history, for example, we are taking a few choice\nbiographies, episodes, and epochs as the chief centers of study. In\nliterature we are selecting the best complete masterpieces and treating them as wholes.\n\nThe emphasis which is being placed upon the relations between\nstudies is leading to a clearer grasp of the necessary conditions for\nco-ordination. A few important topics in a study, fully treated, will\ngive far better opportunity to trace relations than a multitude of\nfacts in one study learned only in those relations.\nWe have been wont to look upon the facts of history or geography\nas a mass of material to be learned in its historical or geographical\nsequence. Under the influence of co-ordinating tendencies, we are\nseizing upon a few central topics in a study, and from each one as\na central stronghold we sally out into the adjacent country and bring\nit under tribute. If it is a geographical topic, we find that the\nadjacent country furnishes historical and literary associations that\n\nstand in close and vital relations to the geography and need to be\ndrawn into the discussion. As men have actually developed in\n\nsociety, we find history, geography, and literature, not distinct forces,\neach operating as a unit by itself, but combined and intermingled in\na close network of mutual relations and dependencies. If our education is to be natural, practical, and according to the facts as apparent\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "108\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nin life, it must see these close and vital relations, or the children may\nstudy the facts in the schoolbooks and not recognize them again\nwhen they see them in life.\nThe selection and setting out or isolation of a few leading topics\n\nin each study is one of the important conditions or preliminaries to\na right treatment of studies.\n\nFrom this vantage ground we may\n\nsee the powerful effect that a study of co-ordination is already having, and is destined to exert in still greater degree, upon the original\nselection and arrangement of topics in each study and upon the\nmethod of handling topics in classroom exercises.\n\nIf this doctrine is accepted by our schools and teachers, it is sure\nto effect a wide and radical change in the whole business of teaching.\nLet us consider one other reason for attributing importance to\nthis theory of the value of cross-relations between the studies.\n\nThe\n\nsignificant and vital relations of a topic are often found, not in its\nconnection with other topics in the same branch of study but in the\ndeeper root connections with other studies. In the study of the oak\ntree, for example, the pure botanist would examine the leaf, flower,\nstem, and root, and classify and relate to other trees and plants on\nthat basis.\n\nBut these relations of the tree to other plants are not so\n\nimportant, either for the plant or for the child, as its relations to\nother things outside of botany. The tree gets its food from the soil\nand air, and its growth is influenced by water and sunshine, and these\nthings belong to geology, physics, and astronomy. The circulation\nof the sap in the tree and the changes in the leaf-cells belong to\nphysics and chemistry. For favorable environment and food, for the\nprocesses of internal development and growth, the tree is totally\ndependent upon these other sciences outside of botany. The crossfertilization of the flowers by insects, the gall nuts and worms living\n\nupon the oak, are a part of its relation to zoology. Moreover, if the\nchild is to get a legitimate and proper understanding of the oak\ntree, he must see it in these living and intimate relations. They are\nits dependence for life and growth. The artificial connections emphasized by our text-books are important for science and eventually for\nchildren, but if they are to understand these things as they exist in\nthe outside world, they must see these vital causal relations .\nThe more we look into this matter the more we see that all\n\nappreciative and instructive study into nature is based upon an effort\nto follow up and understand these vital relations which are really\ncross- sections between the sciences. The person, therefore, who\naccuses the Herbartian pedagogy at this point of emphasizing superficial and accidental relations shows plainly that he has no proper\nunderstanding of the meaning of this educational movement.\n\nBut the same deeper connection of studies may be seen in the\nrelations of history to other branches. Many things in history are\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "109\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nSessions.]\n\nbetter understood by seeing the relations to geography and literature\nthan by a rigid tracing of chronological connections.\n\nIf you wish to understand Burgoyne's invasion, study the geography of New York and Canada, as well as Washington's movements\n\nand the plans of the British cabinet. If you wish to appreciate\nSchiller's masterpiece, \"Wilhelm Tell,\" look into the traditions and\ngeography of Switzerland. The geography of Scotland, of Italy, or\nof Greece will be threefold more attractive and suggestive of thought\nif we travel through these lands under the lead of the heroes of\nmyth, tradition, and history who have made the mountains and valleys to echo with battle song and with the fame of great deeds. Not\nthat geography, and history, and literature are to be mixed or confused. Our fundamental requirement is, that the topics in each\nstudy stand out clear and distinct.\n\nTo trace important and numer-\n\nous lines of connection between studies does not destroy the distinct\nidentity of each any more than numerous railroad lines between\ncities impairs their corporate individuality.\n3. A third idea which co-ordination is laboring specifically to\nwork out in history and literature is a method of treatment of these\ncentral topics which will weld the links of connection with other\nstudies.\n\n4. A fourth idea that is practically operative is a constant tendency to estimate every topic from the standpoint of the children\nand their experience, thus bringing into relation and unity the school\nand home influences .\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nDR. B. A. HINSDALE, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. The three papers\nthathave been read open up a very wide field of discussion. As a matter of course,\nit is wholly impossible for any speaker to do more than comment upon two or three\npoints that may have impressed themselves upon his mind as having been particularly important.\n\nI shall try to illustrate the meaning of the term concentration by\n\nfocalizing the most of my remarks upon the first of the three papers.\nFirst, however, I wish to call your attention for a moment to a single paragraph\nin Professor Jackman's paper that I have transcribed. He tells us, that, prior to\nthe comparatively recent advent of nature studies in the school, the great drawback\nto school work was poverty of thought-material.\n\nThis is true.\n\nHe tells us further\n\nthat reading was nothing more than a struggle with words. This is very largely\nfalse. He declares that institutes and educational journals wasted their energies\nin learned babble about methods.\n\nThis contains a measure of truth and also a\n\nmeasure of falsehood. The paragraph concludes with the declaration that the old\nschool did so little for the children that they would have been better off if they\nhad been turned out upon the streets. Now, sir, I have been accustomed to extreme\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "110\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nand radical statements in the discussion of educational topics, but I must confess\nthat this last declaration has taken my breath quite away. I have no knowledge\n\nof any school that is more artificial and mechanical than the Chinese school, but\nI am willing to commit myself to the declaration that the Chinese children who\nattend it are better off then they would be without any school at all. When I say\n\nthat the declarations which I have quoted are wholly or partly false, of course nobody here understands me as reflecting upon my friend Jackman in any ethical\nsense. What I mean to say is that his statements are very largely mistaken, that\nthey are gross exaggerations. I shall take leave of this subject with observing\nthat we teachers of the present generation are become very self-conscious and extremely self-complacent; so much so, in fact, that if Job were to return to the\nearth he would not taunt us by saying, \"No doubt but you are the people and wisdom shall die with you !\" but he would taunt us by saying, \"No doubt but you are\nthe people and wisdom was born with you !\"\nAs respects Dr. De Garmo's paper, I have to observe, in the first place, that\nthe term \" co-ordination\" was unfortunately chosen as its title. It seems to me\n\nrather that it should have been \"concentration,\" because concentration is distinctly\nthe culmination and climax of the argument.\n\nIn the second place, we have reason to congratulate ourselves that Dr. De\nGarmo has opened his discussion with definitions of his leading terms. I shall call\nattention to his definitions, especially to one of them. My first observation is,\nthat I have been a little at a loss to know what he means. Referring to the syl-\n\nlabus that I hold in my hand, his expressions are \" correlation shall be used,\" \"concentration shall be used,\" etc. This smacks of fiat language, which I cannot suppose the doctor intends to use. On the other hand, he can hardly mean that the\n\ndefinitions which he sets down here are accepted definitions ; because, in one instance, at least, this is decidedly not the case. I am, therefore, compelled to conclude that when he gives us these definitions he gives them as definitions that he\n\nthinks should be attached to these terms, and I shall, for the most part, say what\nI have to say about them on that basis.\nI have no objection or criticism to urge to his definition of \"correlation,\" except to say that originally it was limited to two things-two facts or ideas; but\nthe term has been so extended in meaning, that, no doubt, it is now used in the\nbroad and comprehensive sense in which he has employed it.\nSecondly, I do not object to his use of the term \"co-ordination,\" because it is\nundoubtedly used as he has used it.\nI shall next refer to his definition of the third term. He says : \" Concentration shall be used to denote that certain primary studies shall form the center or\n\nnucleus of the curriculum to which the other studies, conceived as secondary, shall\nbe related as subordinated to the principal. It is not etymology but the usage of\nrepresentative schoolmen, like Ziller and Parker, which justifies this meaning.\"\nNot only is this not etymology but it is not even the dictionary.\n\nI am acquainted\n\nwith no dictionary that defines the term in that way. Now, it is perfectly competent for Dr. De Garmo, or anyone else, to say that the term should be so defined;\nbut to assume that such is the established usage of the word in the English language is certainly a mistake. I do not know or suppose that the doctor intends to\nsay that such is the case.\n\nI am merely calling attention to the fact that his defini-\n\ntion has yet to be established, and also suggesting, that, in my judgment, it will\nnever become established until he is able to bring forward authorities in addition to\nthose that he has mentioned. Ziller and Parker alone are insufficient.\nProfessor De Garmo next tells us, that, when it comes to the choice of educational material or agents, there are two points of view from which the subiect may\n\nbe considered. There is, first, the standpoint of civilization; and, secondly, the\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\n111\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nstandpoint of psychology. He puts the subject to us with such directness and\nclearness that we have no difficulty in understanding that it may be looked at from\neither one of these two points of view. He contends that one is right and that the\nother is wrong. I am not about to enter upon the discussion of that question. I\nwish rather to give the discussion a somewhat different turn. I shall seek to give\n\nit that turn by asking a question. How far, under the conditions that surround us,\nare we left to practically the same conclusion, no matter whether we view the sub-\n\nject, abstractly considered, from the one point of view or the other? Last evening\nthe subject of Indian education was brought before us. We were told that the\nmaterials for educating the Indians cannot be found within their own culture or\n\ncivilization; that the teacher who has to lead them forward must go outside of that\nculture or civilization. And I suppose we should all agree that this is the truth\n\nwith respect to all the barbarous and semi-civilized peoples of the world. To a\ngreat degree, they must be educated out of their present civilization if they are to\nbe brought up to our standard.\n\nI assume that there will be no difference of opin-\n\nion among us so far as that point is concerned. With this remark I shall throw\neverything out of the account, except the great progressive nations of the present\nday, those that are in a condition of vital, growing, or expanding culture or civilization.\n\nHere the question is, Does it make any great difference which one of the two\n\npoints of view is chosen? One guide says we should go to psychology; another that\nwe should resort to civilization.\n\nBut if the most advanced civilizations are psycho-\n\nlogical developments; if they are, in the main, movements along the proper course\nor track of human development (which does not seem a violent assumption), the\ntwo views are practically merged into one. I have no time to argue the question,\nbut only to state it, and to avow my own conviction that those who contend for\npsychology and civilization, respectively, as suggesting educational ideals, will ultimately find that this question suggests a common standing-ground .\n\nDr. De Garmo\n\nsays we should find the educational ideal in the mind itself; Dr. Harris says we\nshould seek it in civilization rather; but if the two men should sit down together\n\nto work out a practical scheme of school study, how far would they differ? Not\nwidely, I am thinking. And if I am right in so saying, it is because the psychological point of view is the culture point of view, and vice versa.\n\nEDWARD D. FARRELL, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, New York City.After proving by copious extracts that concentration has never been used as the\nequivalent of correlation, and that correlation was brought into the resolution creating the committee of fifteen as a substitute for co-ordination, Dr. Harris remarked that there would have to be more word-study on the subject of correlation\nbefore points of agreement could be reached. So we are not surprised to find Presiden De Garmo resorting to definitions as a means of establishing the claims of concentration.\n\nOur language abounds in Latin words which are made to vary from time to\ntime both in meaning and use.\n\nThe lens is the instrument of concentration.\n\nThe\n\nmovement of forces is towards a center. What is generally known as radiation is\nnow called concentration.\n\nLatitude and longitude are co-ordinate measurements-\n\nalways distinct but both necessary for exact knowledge. They seem to illustrate\nhow thought and form studies in the elementary schools may follow separate lines\nand still accomplish educational work.\nThe prism makes known the correlation of colors forming sunlight. The bands\nof color illustrate Dr. Harris' determination of the educational value of the various subjects. No matter where the color-band is unrolled the individual colors are\n\nfound in the same relations. They are parallel; they blend; they harmonize. This\nharmony and mutual relation of studies shines forth in Dr. Harris' report. It may\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n112\n\n[General\n\nbe objective correlation mainly, but its fruits may be seen in the individuals constituting the extraordinary gathering of teachers now present in Denver.\nPresident De Garmo presents correlation as the general term, and co-ordination\nand concentration as particulars. If this presentation be accepted by the educational world, harmony among the leaders may be secured by substituting co-ordination for correlation in the title of Dr. Harris' report, and declaring that this meeting is discussing correlation and not co-ordination of studies. As the headings now\nstand, President De Garmo's word-study prevents him from discussing one for the\nother, since he makes the terms mutually exclusive. We are glad to see, however,\nthat he does not feel bound to respect the limitations of his own definitions.\nThe principal speakers show that there are two methods by which the leading\nstudies may be correlated. One is by arranging them in parallel lines; the other, in\nradiating lines-a thought-study, either physical or moral, being the center, and the\nformal studies occupying ever-increasing areas of the circle of education.\nThe difficulty of the latter plan consists in expecting pupils and teachers to\nleave the attractive central subject and move off in the direction of studies that can\nonly be mastered by a strong effort of the will.\n\nUpon entering school the pupil must be possessed of sufficient mental power to\ntake hold of instruction. Without the co-operation of the will, this thought-power\ncan never be directed to the accomplishment of that work which is an absolute\nnecessity for progress .\n\nRadiation goes hand-in-hand with diffusion and results in the dissipation of\nenergy. At best the child's energy radiates along lines of least resistance. Desire\nsuggests his mode of expression, and he neglects those studies which have not yet\nawakened his interest. Desire leads to passionate fondness or to unreasoning\nrepugnance, and the strong will of the teacher must be invoked sooner or later to\novercome the resistance of an unwilling mind.\n\nIt sounds well to place Nature on the throne and let the little ones gather\nround her for instruction. To one she says :\n\n\"I manifest myself in form and color:\n\nrepresent me as you see me;\" to another, \"Life is action; notice my variations,\ncount my movements, number my children;\" and to a third, \"You shall not know\nme until you read the wisdom which is treasured up in books.\"\nHow shall the teacher force nature to inspire each little one with the same\nthought, so that there shall be class-work instead of individual instruction ? In\ncenters of dense population how shall nature be studied by children, who are\nwalled in by the artificial life of a great city, where the sky is not visible, where the\ndin of commerce replaces the music of nature, and where the only growing thing in\nsight are the children themselves ?\nAt the threshold of the school the child is confronted with the three most dif-\n\nficult problems of school life. These are the symbolism of language, number, and\nform.\n\nThey are imposed upon the schools by the authority of the state. They\n\nmake self-instruction possible in after life. They are indispensable qualifications\nfor intelligent citizenship, and the vicissitudes of life warn us that the children\n\nmost in need of school training must receive the instruments of learning at the\nearliest moment.\n\nThe presentation of these subjects taxes the ingenuity of the ablest teachers.\nThe work can only be done in the allotted time by close study and rigid isolation of\nparticulars. The subjects must not be isolated, they are to one another as the\ncolor-bands of the rainbow, but from time to time attention may be fixed on salient\npoints so as to secure subjective correlation of things and thinking.\nWhile mastering the elements the child is not poverty- stricken, neither does he\nsuffer from deprivation. He carries with him into the school a store of knowledge.\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n113\n\nIt is made up largely of facts related to nature studies. It is rich in home experiences. Hope and fear, love and hate, have already worked themselves into his\nmoral nature.\n\nIn his chance-education may be found the beginnings of two strands that will\nreach from the cradle to the grave. As the new strand is spun out and then twisted\nwith the others into a life-rope, the contents of the head and heart undergo unconscious modifications. Old things take new forms, remembered facts become knowledge, and judgments upon right and wrong engender a love for noble deeds and\nhigh ideals.\n\nHence it is, that concentration upon formal studies during the initial period of\nschool life seldom works injury. The child can live for a time upon the food with\nwhich the image-making power has enriched the memory. Here is the place, and\nthe first and second school years the time, to present the abstractions of form, reading, and figures, that they may become a part of the child's equipment for progressive school work.\n\nAfter this is accomplished, the child may be led to review the products of\nchance-education, and correlate them with the elements of systematic nature studies\n\non the one hand and history and literature on the other. While these two groups\nof thought-producing studies are developing by the chemistry of the teacher's art,\ninstruction in the formal branches may be made incidental, and school work will\nhenceforth animate the mind, touch the heart, and direct the will along the paths\nof right living.\n\nI know that this is possible from personal experience, and I believe that the\nadmirable papers of Professors Jackman and McMurry unfold successful plans for\nthe rearrangement of school programs in the middle and higher portions of the\nelementary schools. Experiments below are dangerous. My fear is, that children\nmay be allowed to drift into the world without learning to read and write.\n\nOne\n\nhundred new pupils entered a well-established city school at the beginning of the\nterm. At the end of three years eighteen remained. These may be extreme figures,\nbut they indicate the danger of substituting thought studies for the instruments of\nlearning at the first stage of education.\n\nPROF. LEVI SEELEY, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.-In the first place, concentration seeks to bring together a vast number of subjects which are now crowded\n\ninto our curriculum and bring them into common usage. Not many years ago\narithmetic, reading, and writing were the principal things in the common schools,\nbut in later days there has been crowded in upon us a variety of branches-science,\ngeography, grammar, and a thousand and one other subjects and the end is not\nyet. This work, inaugurated by the Herbartians (I think we must give them the\ncredit) , has had a tendency to bring these together.\nThe other remark which I wish to make is this: You and I have often brought\n\nour pupils to the threshold of comprehension or apperception of a subject, and have\nleft them there, because we had not properly brought the subject into correlation\n\nwith other subjects or other knowledges which they possessed. The proper working of this principle will bring together these things so there will not be such a\nwaste of time in the subject presented, so that the children brought in contact with\nsubjects shall view them, not simply from the threshold but shall enter into a comprehension of them.\nPROF. F. LOUIS SOLDAN of St. Louis, Mo.-Being in sympathy with the new\nmovement, and having been identified with it, I wish to say a word for the old.\n\nThe Latin saying is, \"If you put two pupils to doing the same thing, the two are\nnot doing the same thing.\" I shall apply this in attempting to teach things, in a\n8\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "114\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[General\n\ndisconnected way, with the studies separated, as it were, by iron walls. Those\nthat attempt it do not teach things separately, distinctly, and disconnectedly. There\nis an element of co-ordination to which I wish to draw attention for a moment.\n\nIt\n\nis that inevitable co-ordination that is going on, independent of the will of the\nteacher and pupil, in every human soul. Goethe says, in a certain place, that the\nthinking mind is wonderful in itself; like the weaver's loom, one activity sets in\nmotion thousands of others. It is a mistake to suppose that the child in his soul\nbuilds up walls that separate facts from facts.\n\nThere is a further element of co-\n\nordination which the American schools have, and which the German schools, especially the city schools, lack altogether. In the German city schools, the teacher\nwho teaches arithmetic in the primary schools goes from one room to the other\nand teaches that subject in five or six classes . The teacher of other branches does\nthe same thing, as far as his time allows . Now, with us the case is different.\n\nThere is an element of co-ordination, if you please, in the fact that the same\nteacher in America teaches grammar and history; and I should like to see the man\nor woman who is so artificially constructed, and is such a rare specimen of human-\n\nity, that she or he can teach geography or history on the old plan, entirely separate from each other.\n\nI wish to add one other point. I do not speak against the attempted co-ordination. I do not know what noun to use for the idea, that there should be a center of\ninstruction-concentric instruction. Is not the old plan such a center of instruction ?\nIs not the fact that all along language is a common center in itself? We speak of\n\nnatural science. I want natural science taught in every school in the land, from\nthe first year; but, on the other hand, we say that the child should be educated for\nlife. You have been listening to-day for two hours and a half to speeches-deep,\nthoughtful utterances and 15,000 words perhaps have been spoken. Point out a\nsingle word so far, in the ideas expressed, that is taken from botany, or zoology,\nor physical science, or chemistry. There is a broad field in humanity, which lies\noutside of the mind-training which natural science gives . Still, I am in favor of\nteaching natural science. While I think there may be defects in our schools in\nthat direction, I should not like to see the humanities replaced, as the center of the\nwork, by natural science study .\nFRANCIS W. PARKER of the Cook County Normal School, Illinois.-Does anybody in this world propose any such a thing as Dr. Soldan implies, viz., to replace\nthe humanities by science ?\n\nEDUCATION ACCORDING TO NATURE.\n\nBY WILLIAM H. PAYNE, UNIVERSITY OF NASHVILLE , NASHVILLE, TENN.\n\nHe would do the world no mean service who would write an\n\nimpartial history of fads, showing the rise, progress, termination,\nand results of each.\n\nSuch a history would doubtless discover to us\n\nthe fact, that even the thinking world is addicted to hobby-riding,\nand that successive fads are the rungs of a ladder on which thought\nascends from lower conceptions to higher, and thus gains wider and\nwider horizons of truth.\n\nWhat were nominalism and realism but\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nEDUCATION ACCORDING TO NATURE.\n\n115\n\nphilosophical fads, engrossing men's thoughts for a season, kindling\nthe controversial spirit up to the fighting-point, then waning in inter-\n\nest, and finally giving place to other fads ? Phlogiston, Malthusianism,\nDarwinianism, the nebular hypothesis, phrenology, and probably free\ncoinage, Christian science, and hypnotism are phenomena of the same\nsort. These are all \"guesses at truth.\" Their devotees, indeed,\nregard them as truth itself, but successive thinkers finally separate\nthe grains of pure metal from the larger volume of alloy, garner the\nprecious residue into the general storehouse of science, and then\nmake a venture at new guesses. The line of Sherman's march to\nthe sea is now marked by abandoned forts, exploded shells, and halffilled trenches. So the triumphal march of thought is marked by\nabandoned hypotheses, exploded theories, and empty conjectures.\nThe same phenomenon is observable in the special science to which\nwe are addicted. Men of my years have lived through a succession\nof educational fads, and our predecessors, near and remote, were\ndoomed to traverse a similar route. Within our own time objectteaching rose in the East, if not as the sun, at least as a star of the\nfirst magnitude, but its distinctive light has been lost in its passage\nacross the horizon. Then appeared other lights, from time to time,\ngreat and small, to which we did homage, such as manual training\nand the inductive method ; and now the suns or meteors that are\n\nbeginning to blaze on our pedagogic firmament are concentration and\n\"a pot of green feathers.\"\n\nWe are not to forget that the monitorial system swept over the\ncountry eighty years ago like an epidemic, and that it took such a\nstalwart as De Witt Clinton clean off his feet.\n\nThe head that could\n\nproject the Erie canal could also utter such a wild prophecy as this :\n\"\nI recognize in Lancaster the benefactor of the human race. I con-\n\nsider his system as creating a new era in education-as a blessing\nsent down from heaven to redeem the poor and distressed of this\n\nworld from the power and dominion of ignorance.\"* Returning to\nthe figure just employed, Lancastrianism was a blazing comet, creating a profound sensation at the time of its appearance ; but it\n\nspeedily burned out, leaving hardly as much as a poor cinder by way\nof remembrance.\n\nIn place of fad I might have used the word craze, or hobby, but\nfad is the newer term, and I use it to denote a wide class of phenomena, social, political, philosophical, educational, and even relig-\n\nious. I use the term in a more serious sense than the ordinary, to\nindicate a phrase of thought, that, while serious, is at the same time\n\npartial and shallow, and, in its appearance and disappearance, epidemic.\n\n* S. S. Randall, \"History of the Common Schools of New York, \" p. 28.\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "116\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[General\n\nIt will be readily guessed that I include \"Education according to\nNature,\" or \"Follow Nature,\" among educational fads. In the sense\njust stated, I do ; only \"Nature\" must be considered as the most\n\nrespectable of these fads, by reason of its antiquity and longevity ;\nthough sometimes, as in the case of Joseph Payne and other imitators of Mr. Spencer, the whole treatment is little better than cant\n-shallow and offensive.\n\nThe precept, \"Follow Nature,\" is prevalent in ethics, in education,\nand in medicine, where Nature is set up as a criterion of right and\nwrong, of true and false. A practice that is supposed to be in con-\n\nformity with Nature is thereby proved to be right, or true; while a\npractice that can be shown to be contrary to Nature is assumed to\nbe wrong, or false. Thus, Aristotle defends slavery because it is\n\"natural,\" some men being born to rule, others to serve, some being\nstrong, others weak; while he condemns usury, or the taking of interest, because it is \"unnatural.\" Flocks and crops springing from the\nsoil are wealth proper, and for convenience they may be converted\ninto money ; but to produce money from money, a dead thing from\na dead thing, is unnatural, and therefore wrong.* Our modern temperance reformers use the same argument. Alcohol is an evil,\nbecause it is produced by the decay or rotting of a natural product,\nas corn, rye, or wheat; though just why vinegar should escape condemnation is not at all clear.\nPeter the Great suffered a similar delusion when he ordered his\n\nnaval cadets to use sea water for drinking purposes. Is not the sea\nthe natural domain of the sailor, just as the land is the natural\ndomain of the soldier ? The sailor must therefore adapt himself to\nhis environment; he must draw his sustenance from the elements\non which he lives. Had Peter taken wise counsel before giving this\norder, he might have been reminded that it was a scientific error to\n\ninclude sailors and salt-water fish in the same category; but he was\nfollowing Nature, as he supposed, and his cadets had to perish.\nThe same false analogy betrayed John Locke into his \"hardening\nprocess.\" Men in a \"state of nature\" wear no shoes, and though\ntheir clothing is very scant, even in winter, they adapt themselves to\nrigors of temperature without harm; my young gentleman should\ntherefore follow Nature, rather than art, in the matter of clothing,\nand so should wear no shoes ; but as he is compelled to live in society,\nwe will strike a compromise, and he may wear shoes, provided they\nare plentifully supplied with holes.\nThe phrase \"Education according to Nature\" at once suggests the\n\nname of Rousseau, for it was he who, in his \"Émile,\" fairly set the\n\"Down to the Norman conquest the Britons had living\nmoney,' the former being slaves and cattle, the latter metal.\"\n\nmoney'\n\nand\n\n'dead\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nEDUCATION ACCORDING TO NATURE.\n\n117\n\nfashion for subsequent writers on education, great and small. Mr.\nSpencer adopts the new fashion, and his pages are overshadowed\nwith capital N's. He accepts the new mythology, writes out a new\ncreed, and virtually founds a new school of theorists. No theologian\nwas ever more dogmatic. He postulates Nature as an infallible\nguide, and then deduces educational processes with almost mathematical precision. Whatever will not fit into his system, as history,\nhe conveniently rejects.\nRousseau was essentially a pessimist, placing the Golden Age in\nthe distant past rather than in a distant future. Civilization, socalled, was full of perversions and defilements ; the arts and sciences\nwere instruments of corruption; and the only salvation for the race\nwas a return to primitive simplicity and purity. As the main principle of political philosophy was the assumption that society was retrograding because it was receding from Nature, he readily adopted the\nconception that the salvation of society lay in a new system of education, whose purpose should be to bring men back to Nature, and\nthus to purity and to peace. The myth Nature dominated Rousseau's\nthought, or rather his feeling; for he felt rather than reasoned. Every-\n\nthing must be \"natural,\" even his children.\n\nLike Mr. Spencer, though\n\nin another manner, Rousseau was a rhetorician, enamored of the\n\nsound of his own voice; and such rhetoric is always fatal to logic.\nHe carries conviction, as the advocate or the orator does, by enlisting\nthe feelings on his side of the controversy. Hence, his \"Emile\" is a\nromance, and the characters that appear in it are as unreal as any\nthat one may find in modern fiction. And yet it is not a contradiction\nto say of it what Rousseau himself said of the \"Republic\" : \" C'est le\nplus beau traité d'éducation qu'on a jamais fait. \"\nThough Rousseau nowhere defines Nature, it is not difficult to\nunderstand the general sense in which he uses this term.\n\nHis whole\n\ncreed is virtually contained in the opening paragraph of the \"Émile\" :\n\"Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Author of\nNature; but everything degenerates in the hands of man. He forces\none country to nourish the productions of another ; one tree to bear\nthe fruits of another. He mingles and confounds the climates, the\nelements, the seasons ; he mutilates his dog, his horse, and his slave ;\nhe overturns everything ; he loves deformity, monsters; he will have\nnothing as Nature made it, not even man; like a saddle-horse, man\nmust be trained for man's service; he must be made over according to\nhis fancy, like a tree in his garden.\" *\nIn other terms, restore the world to the condition it was in before\nit began to be modified by man's agency, and we have it in its ideal\nstate, \"the state of Nature.\" Relieve a modern garden from human\n*\"Émile, \" bk. I., p. 1.\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "118\n\nNATIONAL EducatIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\ninterference, and it will soon revert to a state of nature.\nfruit is better than fruit that has been cultivated.\nis the wild horse.\n\nNatural\n\nThe ideal horse\n\nThe ideal man is the red Indian.\n\nEducation is\n\nnot an ascent from wildness, but a return towards wildness.\n\nRous-\n\nseau admits men to his state of Nature provided they make no\nattempt to refashion one another or to modify their environment.\nThe moment they begin to do this, perversion sets in, and art usurps\nthe place of Nature. This perversion of Nature by art has gone to\nthe greatest length in cities. Hence, relatively, we return to Nature\nwhen we go from the city into the country, as from Paris to the woods\nof Montmorency.\n\nHow much of this is rhetoric, and how much sober conviction, it\nis doubtless impossible to tell with any exactness. In construing\nRousseau's theory we must make some allowance for temperament,\nand also for the extravagances into which reformers invariably fall.\nOver-statement is an element in a reformer's outfit, whether it takes\nthe form of a satire, as in Rabelais and Dickens, or of fiction and\nfancy, as in Rousseau.\n\nAll an interpreter can do is to trace the main\n\nlines of the argument and show the limitations of the theory by\ntypical examples. This I will attempt to do in the sequel.\nThe practical application of Rousseau's theory is well exhibited\nin his doctrine of discipline by natural consequences. Through will-\n\nfulness, Émile breaks the windows of his chamber. His father\nreplaces them, but the boy again breaks them. The transgressor is\nthereupon turned over to the relentless laws of Nature. The windows\nare not replaced, but the boy is confined to his room, where the cold\nwind blows on him by day and by night, thus exposing him, not only\nto discomfort but to danger; he might take a severe cold and die of\npneumonia. The great danger of this exposure occurs to Rousseau,\nbut he promptly replies that it is better to die of a cold than to be a\n\nfool! In the case of Émile, however, matters do not come to this\nsad pass, but he is finally conquered by suffering the disagreeable\nconsequences of his own folly and reforms in a manner befitting the\nauthor's theory.\n\nThe application of this doctrine is extended still further.\n\nTo cure\n\nÉmile of his vanity and forwardness, he is allowed to compete with\na professional juggler, who readily makes him the laughing-stock\nof a jeering crowd. To teach him worldly wisdom and caution, he\nis allowed to fall into the hands of sharpers and cheats, who fleece\nhim in fine fashion ; and, finally, to make him virtuous, he is allowed\nto fall into vice-he is drawn through the mire in order that he may\nafterward be washed and experience the sensation of being clean.\n\nIn outline, this is Émile's course in experimental ethics.\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nEDUCATION ACCORDING TO NATURE.\n\n119\n\nThough Rousseau, as before noted, does not define Nature, he\nmakes it quite easy for us to infer what he means by the term, and\n\na proximate definition would stand about as follows : The material\nworld affected by physical forces (gravity, heat, light, electricity, etc.,)\nand inhabited by uncivilized men.\n\nFor purposes of right education, Émile is to be pushed as far\nback as possible into this primitive and uncorrupted world; and soci\nety itself, in order to be rescued from growing corruption, must make\na return toward this primitive simplicity and perfection. This was\nRousseau's ideal education and his ideal state of society; but he had\nthe sense to know that these ideals were impracticable, and so he\naccepts a compromise. He uses consummate art to reproduce a quasi\nstate of nature, but this more than Herculean effort involves him in\ncountless contradictions, absurdities, and follies.\nMr. Spencer personifies Nature, and thus carries the myth to\nits most perfect development. With him, Nature is physical force\n\npersonified, and education is experience, or contact with environment. His general theory may be summarized as follows : The individual of to-day must be educated just as the race was educated his-\n\ntorically; the race was self-instructed through experience; the individual must therefore rely on his personal experience for his knowledge and training. As Nature was the tutor of the race, so Nature\nmust be the tutor of each individual of the race. Of course, in\n\naccordance with this theory, the knowledge that is of most worth is\nscience, for science has grown out of the experiences of the race; is,\nin the Aristotelian sense, a natural product; and is knowledge that\ncan be reproduced and verified by each succeeding generation of\nlearners. Past experiences constituting what is commonly known\nas history cannot be thus reproduced and verified, and therefore history is not knowledge proper. And as literature-a play of Shakespeare, for example-cannot be rediscovered or reproduced according\nto the Spencerian dogma, there is no natural place in this system for\nliterature and kindred subjects. Literature is too much tainted with\nart to fit into a scheme of education according to Nature.\n\nLike Rousseau, Mr. Spencer is clearest when he applies his\nhypothesis to moral education. Prior to experience, an infant, if permitted, will put its little fingers in the flame of a candle. Let it do\nthis, advises Mr. Spencer, even though a painful blister is the consequence. According to the same method the child may lay hold of hot\nfire-bars and spill boiling water on its tender skin. In this fashion\nthe infant is being educated through experience by its godmother,\nNature. This is a reappearance of Rousseau's doctrine of consequences. From this point of view education may be defined as expe\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n120\n\n[General\n\nrience coming from contact with matter and with physical force, or,\nin shorter phrase, with one's environment.\nIt may be urged against Rousseau and his disciples that the\nGolden Age of society is not in the remote past, but in the futurethat humanity is making a forward movement, slow, perhaps, but\nsure ; that what we call civilization will not be abandoned for sav-\n\nagery; that cities, Rousseau's especial abomination, are both a product and an agent of civilization ; and that his assumption of the nobility of primitive man is an unsupported fiction. The untutored savage, as seen and described by travelers, is Nature's handiwork, a fair\nspecimen of what she can do in the way of educating when unassisted\nby human art. It has not been observed, however, that men are\nmade either happier or better by being allowed to revert to a state of\nnature.\n\nAgain, a proper conception of Nature will include man, his endowments, and his works. Is not man as natural a product as a beaver\nor a horse ? If instinct is a natural endowment of the beaver, why\nare not reason, imagination, and language also natural endowments\nof man ? Why make a radical distinction between the defenses built\nby beavers and the defenses built by men? Why is it less natural\nand right for men to live in communities than for bees and ants ?\n\nWhy is not a poem as natural a product as a bird's nest ?\n\nWhen Mr. Spencer asserts that \"humanity has progressed solely\nby self-instruction,\" he either falls into an obvious error or he uses\nterms in an extraordinary sense. It would be as true to assert that\nhumanity has progressed solely by capitalization. Men capitalize\ntheir experiences in labor-saving machines and in proverbs. One\ngeneration invents a snare, a trap, or a hook; the next generation is\nspared the effort of making these inventions, but simply accepts and\nuses them, and devotes the time and effort thus saved to the making\nof other inventions. Experience begets wisdom, this wisdom is\nembodied or capitalized in proverbs, and then these proverbs serve\nother men for warning and guidance in place of wasteful experience.\nHumanity has never squandered its time in reinventing and rediscovering. The \" genesis of knowledge in the race\" takes place through\ncapitalization and discovery, and thus understood, it is quite true\nthat the individual must follow the same course.\n\nMr. Bain is evi-\n\ndently right in declaring that the assumption that the child's education is to be in the main a process of discovery or of rediscovery is a\n\"bold fiction.\" In some subjects, as mathematics and physical science, rediscovery is conceivable, but, in the main, impracticable ;\nwhile in others, as history and literature, it is impossible, if not\ninconceivable. Mr. Spencer's hypothesis of Nature as the true guide\n\"Education,\" p. 125.\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nEDUCATION ACCORDING TO NATURE.\n\n121\n\nin human education easily runs into the reductio ad absurdum . Let\nus see where this specious hypothesis will land us :\nThis Nature is simply brute matter or brute force, absolutely\ndivested of feeling, without sympathy and without pity; the teacher\nshould therefore be the personification of brute, unfeeling force.\nIn her distribution of pains and penalties Nature never distinguishes between innocence and deliberate transgression-the same\npunishment falls on the infant as on the hardened criminal ; the\nteacher is therefore to take no account of motive, but must regard\nthe fact of transgression only.\nNature makes no distinction between a block of wood that falls\nfrom the roof of a house and a child that tumbles from a chamber\n\nwindow-for her use they are merely two pieces of matter, which she\ntreats in the same manner, or, if she makes any distinction at all,\nshe favors the block of wood, life and feeling here being at a discount;\nchildren should therefore be manipulated, shaped, and governed as\nthough they were inert, senseless matter.\nThere are no gradations in Nature's lessons; she deigns no explanation, she is as silent as a sphinx. The graded school is therefore\nunnatural, and the teacher should be merely a stern and silent\nmonitor.\n\nI call attention to these absurdities, not because they are sanetioned by Rousseau and Spencer but because they show the near\nlimitations of this specious doctrine of Nature. Both these writers\nset up Nature as a criterion and guide, and they quote her in a free\nand easy way as standard authority for certain educational processes .\nTheir argument runs in this wise : \"Nature does so and so; therefore\nwe should do so and so.\" But, evidently, this Nature does some\nthings that no sane or moral man should ever think of doing.\n\nMr.\n\nSpencer allows a little child of three or four years to lay hold of\nhot fire-bars with his little hands, but objects to his playing with\nan open razor. It is plain, therefore, that Nature is not to be followed at all lengths. Who is to decide how far, or in what cases,\n\nwe are to follow Nature? Some who have had larger experience in\nthe management of children than Mr. Spencer has probably had,\nwould stop short of the fire-bars and the boiling water. It is a reasonable presumption, therefore, that we are not here dealing with\nscience, but with opinion; and that it is an open question, not only\nhow far we should follow Nature but whether we should follow her\n\nat all; seeing how unnatural she sometimes is and how questionable\nsome of her proceedings are.\n\nInstead of accepting the poetical fiction, that Nature (still using\nthe term in the Spencerian sense) is our goddess and our guide, some\nof us who have not the fear of the new mythology before our eyes\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "122\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nwould respectfully maintain that this same Nature, in some of her\nwork, should be disinfected, deodorized, and otherwise prevented\nfrom doing her worst. Only give her a fair chance, and Nature, in\nthe form of scarlatina, diphtheria, or cholera, will decimate whole\nvillages and cities. In such and all similar cases Nature is a remorseless, relentless fury, who is to be pursued, captured, and thrown headlong into the sea and miserably drowned. In other terms, and drop-\n\nping the figure, the joint work of Christianity, science, and civilization\nis to subdue Nature, to make her man's servant rather than man's\n\nmaster, to make her minister to his joys rather than to his sorrows.\nThere is to be a new earth, rescued from Nature and transformed by\n\nhuman art, and it is to be peopled by a race re-created by education\nand the gospel; and throughout this secular process the dominant\nforce is to be the human intelligence and the human will. The Nature\nthat we are to follow is \"Nature humanized,\" or \"Nature informed\n\nwith humanity,\" to adopt the happy phrase of Richard Grant White.\nSo far, the treatment of my theme has been negative, in the main ;\nthe purpose being to show that the hypothesis of Nature as a faultless paragon is subject to grave limitations ; that this general doctrine is very far from being safe and wholesome ; and that, like all\nother fads, it seizes upon a fraction of a truth, fancies that it is the\nwhole truth, and then proclaims the new marvel to the world with a\ncackling of delight.\nI will now venture on a more positive treatment of this theme,\nand, putting entirely aside whatever is mystical or mythical, will try\nto state in plain prose some of the things that seem to be implied in\neducation according to Nature. I hope my hearers will do me the\nfavor to remember that my purpose in this discussion is not contro-\n\nversy, but the discovery of truth. I aim at nothing more than interpretation. The writers who invoke Nature so persistently and so\nfreely make no attempt whatever to define the term; they leave their\nreaders to interpret the word for themselves.\nIn dealing with the precept \"Follow Nature,\" the task of the interpreter is twofold : (1) To determine what Nature is and what she\ndoes; and (2) to determine whether it is wise to follow her in\nthe cases stated. At this stage of educational science it is high\ntime to disregard fiction, myth, and personification, and to give to\nthis vague term an articulate meaning. My interpretation of the\nterm Nature may not be the correct one, but it is an honest effort to\nreach the truth. Those who reject any given interpretation owe it\nto the cause they are attempting to serve to state in plain terms their\nown interpretation .\n\nThe one word that most nearly interprets Nature, as it seems\nto me, is experience ; and to follow Nature is to make experience the\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nEDUCATION ACCORDING TO NATURE.\n\n123\n\nsole or the main source of our knowledge and discipline. It is usually said that there are two sources of knowledge-experience and\nlanguage; but the precept \"Follow Nature\" forbids the intervention\nof language as a source of knowledge, and makes the process of\nlearning a course in personal experience. Experimental knowledge,\nit is claimed, is the only real knowledge; all we truly know is included\nwithin the circle of our personal experiences, of our sensations, and\n\nof the inferences we draw from them. Rousseau sequesters Émile,\nso far as possible, from the society of men, in order that he may be\ntutored by Nature; that is, by experience. Instead of the mother,\nMr. Spencer makes the candle-flame, the fire-bars, and boiling water\nthe teachers of the child. Primitive man, we are told, had no teacher\nbut experience; the successive generations of men have gained their\nknowledge in the same way; experience is therefore the typical process of human education, the only royal road to learning.\nA few tests applied to this theory would seem to show its general\nunsoundness. Is history knowledge ? On the hypothesis that the\nreal test of knowledge is experience, there can be no such thing as\n\nhistorical knowledge, for we cannot be brought into personal relations with the events which have given rise to history. This high\ndoctrine has been maintained on the floor of this association . *\n\nIs our knowledge of geography limited to what we have learned\nby travel ? May we be said to know anything of the countries we\nhave never visited? I once had a pupil who was a thorough convert\nto the Spencerian doctrine that there could be no knowledge where\nthere was no personal experience. \"Have you ever been abroad ?\"\nI asked. \"No.\" \"Then do you know that there is such a city as\nLondon ?\" \"No. \" \"How would you gain this knowledge?\" \"I would\n\ngo there.\"\n\n\"How would you know when you reached there?\"\n\nSo\n\nauthority confronts us on every hand-the new theory broke down\nat this point.\nAgain, on this hypothesis, what is the function of books ? Possibly Mr. Spencer may have learned all his philosophy from his\nown observations and reflections; but, on his own hypothesis, why\ndoes he write so many books for other men to read? Scholarship\nand culture have always meant and will ever mean a loving devotion\nto good books.\n\nI venture to say that the following statements are substantially\ntrue :\n\nThe process we call civilization is the triumph of art over Nature,\nand is a mark of human progress. Men will not renounce the essential concomitants of civilization and revert to a state of Nature in\n\npursuit of happiness or moral good. The men of each new generation\n*At the meeting in Madison, Wis. , in 1884, by Hon. John W. Dickinson.\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "124\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nwill start forward from the vantage ground secured for them by their\npredecessors on the earth. They will accept and use the labor-saving\nmachines which they inherit from the past, and, without wasting\ntime and strength in the effort to reinvent, they will capitalize their\nown experience and wisdom in some other or better labor-saving\ndevices.\n\nThe knowledge gained by experience and experiment is capitalized and transmitted in books, and the great mass of men in each\nnew generation will gain their knowledge by the interpretation of the\nbooks left by the wise and the good. The pretense lately set up, that\nstudents in science are to gain their knowledge inductively, by personal research in the way of rediscovery, is a shallow fad. It would\nbe just as reputable to counsel men to construct their own almanacs.\nTry to imagine a class of even university students attempting to\nrediscover the atomic weight of chlorine, or even the specific gravity\nof iron! If we commit ourselves to such folly at all, why not be\nradically and consistently foolish, and set about reinventing the apparatus of the modern laboratory ? Students should certainly have\nsome training in physical manipulation and experiment, not on the\npretense of rediscovery but rather as a means of initiation into the\nprocesses of modern scientific research. The culminating absurdity\n\nof this doctrine of rediscovery is vivisection, which, as practiced in all\nordinary cases, is nothing less than a crime.\nCan virtue, in an intelligible sense, be capitalized, transmitted,\nand taught, so that in the moral life each generation may start from\na higher vantage ground ; or must we be remanded to an experimental ethics, as our reformers would remand us to experimental\nscience ? This question cannot be argued at this time, but a little\nreflection will show that the world can grow better only on the\nhypothesis that the attainment of virtue is made somewhat easier\nfor each succeeding generation. In other words, virtue can be taught;\neach child is not to construct a code of ethics out of his own expe-\n\nriences, but is to accept the highest code of ethics that humanity has\nbequeathed to him.\n\nInterpreting Nature in the sense of experience, or contact with\nenvironment, which is the prevailing sense in which Rousseau and\nSpencer use this term, and, speaking only for myself, I find but little\nthat is really helpful in the stock precept \"Follow Nature,\" save this :\nIt serves to keep alive the fact that learners are ever in danger of\nmistaking words for things, and so guards us against an education\nthat is purely \"livresque,” as it has been styled. Thomas Hobbes\nuttered the same caution when he declared that \"words are wise\n\nmen's counters, but the money of fools.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nEDUCATION ACCORDING TO NATURE.\n\n125\n\nI find much more help in a side-conception which appears in the\n\"Emile\" as a sort of undertone-that there is an imminent tendency\n\nın civilization toward a distracting and unwholesome complexity, and\nthat the need of the age is a return to simplicity. Rousseau's illustration of his meaning is very happy. Speaking of teaching children\nto read, he says : \"We no longer know how to be simple in anything.\nLook at the machines we invent for teaching children to read-cabinets, charts, and what not-all useless lumber. We do everything\nsave the one thing essential, creating in the child a desire to read;\ndo this, and all methods are good.\" As I interpret this phase of\nRousseau's educational philosophy, it is this : Follow main routes ;\nabandon bypaths ; strike at creative motives ; occupy strategic or\ndominant positions. Educate as artists paint. Begin with broad\nstrokes, leaving details for after consideration. Imitate the unity\nof Nature, and, instead of reducing a child to fractions, treat him as\nan integer, making his education wholesome and humane.\nThe stress we put on training is the symptom of a general unsoundness. A trained horse or a trained pig is not a normal and\nwholesome horse or pig, but an animal artifically shaped and fashioned into a fraction or fragment. A thin glaze of book-keeping converts an ignorant boy into a writing or adding machine, and unfits\nhim for the functions of a man proper. Teachers are now being\ntrained rather than educated, and these fractions tend to perpetuate\nfragments. The one great merit of the kindergarten is, that it keeps\nchildren whole and allows them to grow by an organic process into\nsymmetrical units. The danger of the graded school, and even of\nthe college, is stratification-the deposition of knowledge in layers by\nspecialists ; and the remedy for this and kindred evils is a return\nto a wholesome simplicity of Nature to an education according to\nNature.\n\nIn a more specific sense, we follow Nature when we adapt our\ninstruction to the organic mode of the mind's activities.\n\nThe mind\n\nis an organism having its own predetermined mode of activity. This\nconstitutes its nature ; and, when we respect this order of procedure\nin the presentation of knowledge, we may with scientific accuracy be\nsaid to follow Nature. When the mind works naturally-that is, in\naccordance with the laws of its organization-it proceeds from aggregates to parts, from the vague to the definite, and, in childhood, from\nthe concrete to the abstract ; and the teacher follows Nature when he\n\nallows the mind to elaborate its knowledge in this order.\nIn conclusion, I venture to offer this bit of advice to those who\nare trying to make of their teaching a rational art : In your thinking\n\nand writing never allow yourself to personify the term Nature, but\nleave the mythologist, the poet, and the novelist in sole possession\nof this deity.\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "126\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nTHE EDUCATION OF PUBLIC OPINION.\n\nBY CHARLES R. SKINNER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC INSTRUC-\n\nTION, ALBANY, N. Y.\n\nWhat is public opinion ? How shall it be educated? Clamor is\nsometimes mistaken for public opinion; the shouts of a mob for\npublic sentiment ; an aroused passion for the voice of the people.\nInquiry as to what public opinion is finds itself confronted with the\nfrequent belief that there does not exist any real standard of public\n\nopinion. In religion, in politics, in society, and in education, there is no\nguide which can be implicitly followed which will be invariable under\nall conditions. We may accept, as the most satisfactory definition,\nthat public opinion is the united judgment of few or many citizens\nwhich dominates the community. But this judgment may not express\n\nthe opinion of the majority. A person with a strong will, personal\nmagnetism, and popularity may so influence a community that his\nindividual opinion will be accepted for public opinion. But for the\ncommunity this is not an educated public opinion. It is acquiesence.\nEducation may teach such followers that they do not express a real\nopinion. Communities are often too confiding and too careless. To\nsave the trouble of investigating public questions, the opinion of a\nleader is accepted without further thought.\nSometimes a political leader makes known his opinions and\nexpects his party followers to fall into line, and to accept his views\nas a test of personal or political loyalty. The opinions of one man\nhave been known to control a school board, who sit still, say nothing,\nand ratify ; in religion, the opinion of the minister finds the door\nopen to belief; in society, the leaders set the fashions, and no questions are asked; in journalsim, the views of the editor with a strong\n\nindividuality are accepted as conclusive; in education, the schoolmaster's opinions are the guide of those who have faith in them.\nSometimes it seems as if there were no opinions behind these strong\nmen and women who impress themselves and their ideas upon the\npeople.\n\nCountries, states, and communities illustrate the lack of an\naccepted standard of public opinion. That which is considered\northodox in one country may be heresy in another. That which is\nbelieved to be blasphemy in one state is considered moral over the\nline. That which one state permits by law another state prohibits.\nThat which one city embraces as right another city rejects as wrong.\nThat which one community would fight to build up another community would struggle as hard to tear down. The changes in public\nopinion are well illustrated by the thermometer. They vary with lo-\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nEDUCATION OF PUBLIC OPINION.\n\n127\n\ncality. Zero and summer heat may change places under changing\nconditions. The mercury touched by public opinion indicates its force\nat different altitudes. When the mercury of public opinion rises to\na certain point in one city, we will find justified the Sunday ball\ngame, the opening of public gardens, the Sunday liquor selling ; in\nanother city public opinion will close all its saloons and business\nplaces and stop the street railways. There is a different moral\nstandard. In one state public opinion justifies lynch law; in another\nevery criminal is guaranteed a fair trial. In one state, trial and\nconviction means swift punishment, in another the law's delay. One\nstate may cling to the established whipping post, while in another\nits advocates are denied the courtesy of a hearing, and are escorted\nfrom the halls of legislation as offensive lobbyists. That which\nwould satisfy Oklahoma would not be accepted in New England.\nIn many of our Eastern States public opinion seems to believe\nthat a single gold standard would be best for the business interest\n\nof our country ; while here public opinion, by a large majority,\nbelieves that financial safety lies only in silver, sixteen to one, and it\ndoes not hesitate to express itself.\n\nWhat is public opinion on the great question of the relative\nvalues of silver and gold-a question which may yet confuse all the\nold political parties ? How shall it be determined ? How shall we\nreach an agreement as to what is best for the greatest prosperity\n\nof all our people? So we find that public opinion is a constantly\nvarying quantity. How shall it be educated on all public questions,\nso that all citizens may stand upon common ground, and that ground\nsafe and strong?\n\nPublic opinion will surely work its way when rightly educated.\nIn New York's capital city is a fine high school in which for many\nyears every national holiday has been observed by patriotic exercises\nunder the lead and inspiration of the soldier principal, whose love\nof country took him through the war and whose interest in education has brought him with us here. This spirit of patriotism has\nspread its influence over many communities. It has been caught\n\nup by the Grand Army of the Republic, and to-day we have a new\nlaw which places the American flag on every schoolhouse in our\nstate. Public opinion sustains this law. Public opinion in favor of\ncleanliness, and health, and decency has given us laws which slowly\nbut surely will secure better schoolhouses and pleasanter school\ngrounds. Public opinion sustains Arbor day, and surrounds our\nchildren with trees and flowers, in the belief, that, if we would have\n\nthem lovers of the beautiful in life, we must give them glimpses of\nthe beautiful in our schools.\n\nFor many long years there were no fixed standards of qualification for our teachers, or they were low and worthless. Efforts to\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "128\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nengraft a better system into law were futile for awhile, but public\nopinion became aroused; the cry went up from the people, \"Put none\nbut qualified teachers on guard,\" and we have to-day a system\nfounded on both law and public opinion, by which only qualified\nteachers may enter our schools ; a system which has done more to\nuplift the cause of education with us and to increase professional\nspirit among our teachers than any other influence felt in a halfcentury. Public opinion approves and applauds, and under the influence of such approval New York has just added a law which increases\nthe qualifications of the teachers in our cities and villages to a point\nwhich exceeds the expectations of the most zealous friends of education in our state.\n\nSometimes public opinion seems a plant of slow growth; but when\nthat opinion is pure and strong and the soil is right it is bound to\ngrow.\n\nSo a general sentiment of public approval and interest may come\nto any community, or state, or country which persistently and faithfully strives for what is best. As public opinion has come to approve\nand sustain in most generous manner the efforts for greater care in\n\nthe selection of our teachers, why may it not some day demand similar tests of men and women who sit upon our school boards ; of men\n\nwho compose our boards of aldermen in our cities ? Why may it not\ndemand increased educational qualifications of those who make our\nlaws in state legislatures and in congress ? Who knows but public\nopinion will one day be educated to insist upon higher standards in\nlaw-making ?\n\nBut what of the education of this variable public opinion? Education itself is variable, and admits of an infinite number of values in\nthe same expression. It may mean teaching youngsters to be expert\npickpockets, after Fagan's method in \"Oliver Twist.\" It may mean\nso much mathematical, classical, and other study, fitting young men\nand women to be teachers, principals, and professors. It may represent the technical study necessary to become a painter or a sculptor,\nor the training which prepares young men to become merchant\nprinces and presidents of banks and railroads. It may include the\n\neducation in culture, refinement, and purity needful in preparing men\nfor the ministry. It may, and should, embrace whatever is indispensable in life and character in the highest types of American citizenship.\n\nSo we find both public opinion and public education are alike\nvariable. We are met by an equation. What, then, is public opinion\nplus or minus public education equal to ? The equation must change\nwith the different values given the variables. Out of the infinite\nnumber of values in the same expression which shall we select ?\nWhat combination of values shall we make? No question will more\nseverely tax the patience and wisdom of the strongest and best citi\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nEDUCATION OF PUBLIC OPINION.\n\n129\n\nzens than how rightly to educate public opinion. No graver problem\nconfronts us, and there is no greater force in the solution of the\nproblem than this great association and the mighty army of teachers\nand educational thinkers and workers which it represents.\n\nI. The education of public opinion is a right inherent in every\ncitizen. He is a member of the body politic. Whatever concerns the\ncommonwealth concerns him as an individual. Citizenship is the\nhighest privilege of an American; higher than any office the state\nor nation can confer. Proud as was an Athenian in the days of\nPericles of his privileges as a member of the state, exultant as any\nRoman could be \"in the most high and palmy state of Rome,\" in the\nlofty place his country held and the honor conferred upon him, the\nAmerican citizen outranks all in the privileges enjoyed. His right is\nmore absolute, his place more secure than that which any Athenian\nor Roman ever enjoyed. If the study of American history means\nanything, if it is studied aright, it means that it is a grander thing to\nbe anAmerican now than to have been a Roman two thousand years\nago. Wherever he is, he may exert every power to impress his views\nupon others, in the making of opinion to stir the masses. By word\nand pen, on the platform, in the pulpit, in the schoolroom, and\nthrough a free and untrammeled press, he may do all possible to educate public opinion to his views, so long as he does not teach treason\nnor rebellion.\n\nII. The education of public opinion is a duty devolving upon every\ncitizen. Every right enjoyed or privilege conferred brings upon its\npossessor recognized obligation. Here, if anywhere, the state has a\nright to exact the best from every citizen. This can never be given un-\n\nless each individual exerts the wisest and best influence possible upon\nthe other; unless he strives to have every other individual obedient\nto law and anxious to better his condition. In a country where each\nindividual is part of the state, it is a duty resting upon each to help\nform public opinion; to help form it on the basis of individual and\n\nnational right; to uphold the honor and dignity of the country at\nhome and abroad. Self-interest, as well as loyalty to his country,\nmakes it the duty of the citizen to seck the highest glory and the best\nwelfare of the state.\n\nIII. The education of public opinion is a necessity urging every\ncitizen to action.\n\nThe welfare and safety of the individual are bound up in that of\nhis country. If the country is thriving, so are its people. If it is\n\ndepressed, the people are cast down. In the long run, public happiness and prosperity are measured by public adherence to truth and\njustice, equity and honor.\nWhen a people have been grasping and over-reaching, the penalty\nalways follows. The history of many European nations demonstrates\n9\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "130\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nthis. Because of the inevitable penalty exacted, sooner or later, for\nnational mistakes and national crimes, it behooves a people to take\nheed and set the nation on the right track through the force of a\n\nsound public opinion.\nThe condition of the public in larger or smaller divisions affects\nthe individual. Take, for example, a community where no religious\nadvantages are enjoyed-no open church ; no worship ; no reverence\nfor law and order, human or divine ; no love for truth-how long can\nan individual, going among such surroundings with exactly opposite\nconvictions and training, remain without being affected and contaminated by the malign influences around him ? Or, let a man go\nfrom a town where school facilities are excellent and the tone of\n\nsociety is literary and refining into a place without a school, without\nthe uplifting power of rightly educated men and women, what is\nmore natural or more probable than deterioration and decay ?\nInsensibly, perhaps, the man becomes like his neighbor in manner\nand spirit. Like the lizard on the rock, he becomes of the color of the\nrock itself.\n\nIs there not a necessity, then, urging men and women to educate\npublic opinion-to form in the minds of people everywhere right\nviews of character and of life, setting before them high ideals, lifting\nthem up to noble conceptions of the possibilities inherent in every\nhuman being ?\n\nHow shall this education be secured ? Certainly not by leaving\neducation to work its own way in a country like ours.\nIf public opinion be accepted, then, as the united judgment of\nindividuals which dominates the community, then the education of\nthat opinion involves the education of that judgment. This, in turn,\ndemands the segregation of the individual, so that the judgment of\neach shall be educated. If, then, education is worth anything to\n\npublic opinion, it is worth everything to individual opinion.\nIt is only as the opinion of each is modified, uplifted, purified,\nennobled, that the opinion of the many takes on coherence, symmetry,\n\nbeauty, and force, and makes itself an impelling power in the community and state. It is important that this education should begin\nearly; that the child should be trained to feel that his highest aim\nis, not to prepare for business nor a profession but for life; for place\nand work among men, for his own good and for the advantage of\nothers. As an integral part of the commonwealth, he is more or\nless affected by others, who, in turn, he must also affect. The\naction is reciprocal. The question is, How shall we make education\nmutually beneficial and uplifting ? Answer that, and our problem is\nsolved.\n\nThe education insisted upon will never be gained by regarding\n\npublic opinion as right because sanctioned by a majority.\n\nLaw is\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nEDUCATION OF PUBLIC OPINION.\n\n131\n\nnot always the answer to public opinion, and public opinion is not\nalways able to create a law to express that opinion. A score of\nbusy, earnest men may visit our legislatures and their committees\nand procure legislation which a great wave of public opinion would\nbe powerless to obtain. Again, a legislature or a congress may, and\noften does, resist public opinion, and legislate contrary to every\npublic demand or public expectation.\n\nIt has been well said, that no community can be great and good\nwithout the force of opinion, and that opinion must be on the side\nof the great and good.\n\nPresident Lincoln stood on that platform, the only one upon\nwhich an honest citizen can safely stand.\n\nIn reply to an address\n\nfrom a deputation of clergymen during the war, in which they said,\n\"Mr. Lincoln, we believe the Lord is on our side,\" Mr. Lincoln replied,\n\"Gentlemen, I think we are on the Lord's side.\" It is said that he\nwho has God on his side is always in the majority. Public opinion\nmay be on that side, or it may not. Much depends upon the time and\nthe locality.\nThe one essential element in the variable education must be the\n\nelement of right, whatever the latitude, whatever the majority. As\napplied to public opinion, education must always seek to bring\nit over on the side of what is right, of what is good, of what is great,\nand then to keep it there. The effort to accomplish any other result\nis unworthy the name of education.\nEducation always insists that prejudice and passion be not taken\nfor public opinion. Prejudice is an unreasonable judgment formed\nor held under the influence of some other motive than the love of\n\ntruth. It is true that public opinion is often swayed from the truth\nby prejudice. Prejudice has so influenced public opinion as to carry\nelections without regard to right. The anti-masonic craze in New\nYork elected a legislature and a governor as the result of sudden\nprejudice against that organization ; and the Anti-Renters of that\nstate also elected their candidates for office through an adverse\n\npublic opinion caused by prejudice. But the public conscience which\nmeans to be right becomes aroused and in time makes itself felt in\nthe correction of political mistakes. Politicians sometimes make a\n\nmistake when they forget, that, after all, the people have a conscience.\n\nPassion has also played its part. More sudden in inception,\nand perhaps less durable in effect, it surely warps judgment and\noverthrows reason. Mobs ruled by passion are the result of\nprejudice. Passion led the weavers of England to destroy, in their\nfury, the first improved machinery introduced into the mills. Passion\nhas induced railroad employes, in their senseless strikes, to burn cars,\nruin locomotives, and destroy property indiscriminately, to the\namount of millions of dollars in value.\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "132\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nAn old writer has said: \"All passions are good or bad according\n\nto their objects. Where the object is absolutely good, there the\ngreatest passion is too little ; where absolutely evil, the least passion\nis too much; where indifferent, a little is enough.\"\nIt is the solemn duty of education to see that the passions are\n\nfixed upon objects absolutely good; to so impress the mold of the\nchild's intellect, affections, and will that purity, truth, and love shall\nbe stamped there forever. As teachers we can do our country no\nnobler service than to educate up to this standard.\n\nExactly as our\n\nchildren are thus educated, so will public opinion be fashioned into\nnoble and inspiring forms.\nTrue education for the individual must always be progressive and\nuplifting. Its reach is above the stars, beyond time. True education\nrespects the personality of each pupil. While it aims to expand and\n\nennoble, it always honors the individuality of each. What the child\nholds as its peculiar gift from God, educators must carefully guard\nand form. Conformity to particular pattern, mode, and method can\nnever take rank in right education above liberty and obedience to the\nlaws of life. Individuality must always be held sacred, and devoutly\nstudied and encouraged. If we lose a child's individuality, we may\nlose its soul.\n\nEducation, to be worth anything to society and the world, must\nalways write on the tablet of human consciousness the lessons of\ninfinite wisdom. Education teaches that every grand idea comes\nfrom God. If truth comes to one mind, it comes for all minds. Each\nreceiver and lover of truth becomes through the power of right education a moral lighthouse, diffusing everywhere glorious beams to\ncheer and lighten others.\n\nLet us carry away with us from this great national gathering of\neducators a fixed resolve to educate, educate, educate ; educate for\nhome and society, for citizenship and country, for life, for eternity.\nLet us educate, not only the children but the fathers and mothers of\nthe children.\n\nLet us send the influences of the schoolrooms into the\n\nhomes of our beloved country. Let us arouse the people to the glories\nand benefits of education. Let us draw all the people into our schools\nor within their influence. We touch the people's pockets in the liberal support given our public school system. Let us touch the people's\nhearts and lives and arouse their interest.\n\nMan is never at his best\n\nuntil education brings him there. If our education is a mere form,\nit is a hollow mockery. We must have education with a heart in it.\nThrough the child we must reach the parent. If the child's heart is\n\nright, if the parents' hearts are right, education becomes a living\nforce a vital element.\nand right living.\n\nIt refines the gold which makes character\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nEDUCATION OF PUBLIC OPINION.\n\n133\n\nWhy not an educational revival throughout our land, which shall\narouse our people to the mighty power of education-which shall\nmean better teaching, better study, better schoolhouses, better men\nand women, better states, and better country ? We have religious\nrevivals to fill our churches with Christians; we have political\nrevivals which agitate our country from shore to shore. Why not\nan educational revival, to fill our homes with educated fathers and\nmothers, as well as educated children ? Education will make every\n\nChristian a better Christian, will make politics dignified and honorable politics-which look to the formation and preservation of good\n\ngovernment, and not altogether to the control of caucuses and conventions. Let us ever plead for a closer relationship between the\npublic and the schools, a better understanding between the people\nand the teachers, an elevated public opinion which shall comprehend\nall. That which uplifts one, uplifts the other; that which uplifts\nboth uplifts the community and the state.\nEvery political and social reform that is worth having must come\nthrough an educated public opinion. We must constantly reach for\nhigher standards if we would have a public opinion strong enough to\nwin victories.\n\nIn our country the people themselves are the source, not only\nof power but of moral and political forces which erect high standards. They can and will have just as high ideals of social and\npolitical and educational life as they are willing to insist upon and\nwork for.\n\nTeachers, the work is ours to elevate in our schools these standards of action and of life. Through our pupils we must work upon\n\nthe parents, if we would lay the foundations of public opinion broad\nand deep. If there is now no standard of public opinion in our country, let us agree upon one and work faithfully and constantly toward\nit. Once anchored in our schools and our homes, an enlightened\n\npublic opinion will work its own way into our politics and into our\ngovernment and bless our country with its ennobling influence. If\nwe would make public opinion, we must have opinions ourselves,\nright, and strong, and constant. If we would educate public opinion,\nwe must throw education into it. It will not come in a day, but,\nlike the silvery waters that find their way down these grand moun-\n\ntains, it will make its path over the firmest rock. Little by little,\nfaithful work will tell at last. Teachers, superintendents, principals,\nprofessors, presidents, from the kindergarten to the university, this\ngreat work is largely yours, of educating the people, of educating\npublic opinion.\n\n\"Seek ye first the education of the people, and all other political\nblessings will be added unto you.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n134\n\n[General\n\nNEW STANDARDS OF PATRIOTIC CITIZENSHIP.\n\nBY GEORGE H. MARTIN, SUPERVISOR OF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBOSTON ,\n\nMASS.\n\nFive hundred years of history have become crystallized in our\nAmerican notion of patriotism-five hundred years of passionate\nstruggles for liberty, of breaking chains and abolishing formulas.\nOppressive forces, organized into institutions, deep-rooted and\ntenacious of life, have been resisted and overcome. Feudalism, villanage, serfdom, chattel slavery, and constitutional absolutism have,\none after another, gone down in fight. Successively, free towns, free\nmen, and free states have come into being. During this entire half\nmillennium the whole Western world has been a militant host.\n\nBlazing across its sky, as the cross blazed before the army of\nConstantine, has been the legend, \"The Rights of Man.\" To secure\nand maintain these rights men have sacrificed and endured; they\nhave died by thousands-in battle, in prison, at the stake, by the\nassassin.\n\nSpeak of patriots, and we think of William Tell, and William the\nSilent, and Cromwell, and Lafayette, and Mirabeau, and Touissant,\nand Bolivar, and Kossuth, and Garibaldi, and Washington-all men\nwith swords in their hands. The common thought has found expression in proverbs, \"Rebellion to tyrants is obedience to God;\" and it\nhas revived an ancient saying, \"It is sweet to die for one's country.\"\nIn the opening chapter of his \"French Revolution,\" Carlyle wrote :\n\"Borne over the Atlantic to the closing ear of Louis, king by the\ngrace of God, what sounds are these-muffled, ominous, new in our\ncenturies ?\n\nBoston harbor is black with unexpected tea; behold a\n\nPennsylvanian congress gather; and, ere long, on Bunker Hill, Democracy announcing in rifle volleys, death-winged, under her star banner,\nto the tune of 'Yankee-doodle-doo ,' that she is born, and, whirlwindlike, will envelop the whole world.\"\nFor a hundred years, to American children, Bunker Hill has been\npresented as a type of patriotism in the concrete. A patriot is a\nman who loves his country and is ready to die for it. Since the Civil\nWar new names have been added to the list : Lincoln and Grant in\n\nthe North, and, with precisely the same sentiment, Lee and Jackson\nin the South.\n\nAll our patriotic literature has the same ring-the songs we sing :\nAmerica is a sweet land of liberty; land where our fathers died;\nColumbia's heroes fought and bled in freedom's cause; in the rocket's\nred glare, and with bombs bursting in air, the star-spangled banner\nwaves o'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nNEW STANDARDS OF PATRIOTIC CITIZENSHIP.\n\n135\n\nAs a perpetual stimulus to this emotion we have put the flag over\nall our schoolhouses and have taught our children to salute it. Just\nnow we are experiencing a powerful revival of this sentiment.\n\nNot\n\ncontent with chanting the praises of the country's heroes, men and\nwomen everywhere are beginning to glory in descent from them; the\n\nSons and Daughters of the Revolution are organizing, and still more\nselect and exclusive is the Society of the Colonial Wars.\nWhat does it all mean, and what is to be the outcome of it all ?\nis the practical question for us to consider. Here is a sentiment\n\nof tremendous power, widespread and deeply felt. Hitherto, this\nsentiment has had the weakness of the old theology, which aimed to\nteach men how to die. It has been an immense reservoir of potential\nenergy, waiting for foreign aggression or internal disturbance to\nbecome kinetic, but always waiting, anticipating-always thinking\nof war as the field for its exploits. Now, the practical question, 1\ntake it, is this: Shall this sentiment of patriotism be allowed to\nexpend itself in mere effervescence, in Fourth of July orations, and\nafter-dinner speeches on battle anniversaries ? Shall it content itself\nwith building monuments to patriots of the past and garnishing their\nsepulchers ? Shall it pride itself chiefly in a patriotic ancestry, or\nshall its energy be transmuted into useful work ? Shall men and\nwomen be ambitious to be themselves fathers and mothers rather\n\nthan sons and daughters of revolution ? In a word, shall our people\nbe willing to live for their country while they are waiting to die\nfor it?\n\nTo bring about this change will necessitate new standards of\npatriotism ; or, at least, more comprehensive standards. To form\nthese we shall have to change our point of view, to get a new πομςτω.\nWe must move from the fifteenth century to the twentieth. Instead\nof a poor, feeble, downtrodden people struggling to become erect,\nwe must see an independent nation, grown rich and powerful. Instead\nof galling restrictions upon personal liberty, we must see personal\nfreedom. Instead of class distinctions, embodied in laws and customs, we must see legal, social equality. And we must see that a\n\ngreat, independent nation, composed of free and equal people, will\nnot have to fight over the old battles or to meet again the old foes.\nWhatever demands it makes upon the love and devotion of its citizens will be to meet new enemies and will call for new weapons.\nWhen we have come to know what these new enemies are, we\nshall realize that the work of patriots is no longer to be done under\n\nthe glamour of military glory; is no longer a struggle with principalities and powers, but with the rulers of the darkness of this world,\nagainst spiritual wickedness in high places.\nOur work, therefore, in the education of the young for citizenship,\nwill be three-sided. We shall need, first, to get beneath the mani\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "136\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nfestations of patriotic emotions in the past to the essential and\n\nunderlying principles ; from the deeds to the spirit. Next, we shall\nneed to show what are the peculiar perils of our country to-day ;\nto discover the real enemies. And, third, we must teach how these\nenemies are to be met and conquered ; in other words, how the old\nspirit must manifest itself under the new conditions.\n\nIt may be easier for us than for children, but surely not impossible\nfor them, to see, that, in all the patriotic deeds they have been accustomed to honor, there is the common element of self-sacrifice, a putting aside of personal and private interest for the sake of the public\nweal. And it will be our task to bring to light the more obscure\nexamples of this self- sacrifice ; to show, for instance, that the women\nof Boston, in giving up their tea, were as patriotic and as heroic as\ntheir husbands, in feathers and paint, emptying the boxes into the\n\nsea ; or, that, for the Dutch boy to sit all night, stopping with his\nhand the leaking dike, was as patriotic as for his ancestors to break\ndown their dikes and flood their land to save it from the Spanish\ninvaders ; that, for Washington to leave the quiet retreat of Mount\nVernon to become president, was a more signal exhibition of patriotism than for him to fight the battles of the Revolution.\n\nBy some such course of instruction as this, having brought into\nprominence the essential element of all historic patriotism; having\nshown that, whoever, at any time and under any circumstances, sets\n\naside his personal interests for public ends, is doing a patriotic act ;\nthat to sacrifice comfort, or time, or reputation, or friends, or money,\n\nor health, or life is, in its essence, patriotism-our next step will\nnaturally be to show what dangers beset our country to-day, under\nwhat colors its enemies fight.\n\nWe know too well, and it will be our business to teach, that\nour foes are of our own household ; foes not to be met by cruisers and\ntorpedo boats, nor by coast fortifications, nor by a standing army.\nWe may show that private vices may be more dangerous than\nforeign armies ; that idleness, intemperance, luxury, and extravagance\n\nmay destroy a people-are, so far as they exist, to-day destroying our\npeople.\n\nWe may show that a venal ballot tends to undo the work of\n\ncenturies of struggle for political freedom through universal suffrage.\nWe may show that a corrupt judiciary may throw down in a night\nall the bulwarks of civil liberty which have been set up through the\nages. Wicked men on the bench may light their pipes with Magna\nCharta and the Bill of Rights and state and national constitutions.\nWe may show that combinations of men for selfish purposes in a\ncountry as rich as ours may make and unmake laws, so that under\nthe cloak of freedom and equality and under the guise of laws made\nby the people and for the people the great body of the people may\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nNEW STANDARDS OF PATRIOTIC CITIZENSHIP.\n\n137\n\nbe oppressed in person and estate. And we may show, that, in comparison with these dangers, the bombardment of a city by a foreign\nfleet or the invasion of a foreign army would be light afflictions.\nIn the presence of these enemies, and such as these, possible or\nactual, the new patriotism is to find reason for being and ample scope\nfor exercise. If, now, we set ourselves to characterize a twentieth\ncentury patriot, we shall find, that, first of all-a foundation for\neverything else there must be sound manhood, personal integrity ;\na man in whom the beatitudes have been fulfilled, who has hungered\n\nand thirsted after righteousness and has been filled.\nAmerican society has reached that stage in its development,\nwhen, from each extreme, exudes a class of idlers, one over-fed and\n\nover-dressed, the other hungry and ragged, but both alike preying\nupon the public, both alike subject to the vices which idleness\nentails; one killing time by coaching and fox-hunting, the other by\ntramping on the road; one, by the very contrast, baiting and exasperating the other.\n\nMore and more, as time goes on, we shall find our ingenuity and\nour effort taxed to limit these classes. The extreme of peril in popular government is reached when one of these classes furnishes leaders\n\nand the other voters, as in the later days of the Roman republic. All\nour educational forces need to be directed to the dignifying of labor,\nto building up a society which, from top to bottom, shall consist of\n\nindependent, self-supporting producers, whose very independence is\nin itself patriotic.\n\nNext, the new patriotism will recognize in a substantial way the\nmutual obligations which grow out of the interdependence of men\n\nin society.\n\nModern society is built on an industrial basis. Zig-\n\nzagging through it from top to bottom there runs the line which\nseparates employer from employe. It is of supreme importance that\nthis relation shall be one of mutual respect and good will. There\nmust enter it on both sides the qualities of large-minded and large-\n\nhearted personality. Especially should these qualities be found in\nthe employing class, as having been specially favored by nature or\ncircumstances. This personality must be helpful, sympathetic, generous ; but, above all things, just. Fair dealing must be its supreme\n\ncharacteristic, and it must be shot through with the spirit of the\nGolden Rule.\n\nHere, again, we are confronted with peril.\n\nThe magnitude of\n\nindustrial interests has tended to eliminate the personal element on\nboth sides. The employer is no longer a man with a soul dealing\nwith another man, also with a soul. But it is a corporation, a mere\n\nbody; and it deals with a union, also a mere body. The employer's\npersonality, and with it his personal responsibility as a man to his\nfellow-man, has been given over to boards of directors and superin\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n138\n\n[General\n\ntendents and foremen of all grades, until all sense of it has been\nlost.\n\nThe employe has lost himself in the officers of his union and\n\nthe walking delegate. Both alike have abdicated the throne of personal sovereignty, and have subjected themselves to the tyranny of\ntheir respective orders .\n\nThe whole industrial system to-day is practically in the hands of\nirresponsible agents. No wonder there is trouble. Friction is\ninevitable, and friction produces heat, and heat fire, and fire is combustion, and combustion is ruin.\nThe new patriotism will penetrate to the core of this system,\nand bring back to it the sense of personal responsibility which it\nhas lost. Measured by the new standard, men who retreat behind\nthe philosophical abstraction called capital, or behind the legal\ndummy called a corporation, and calmly see, or refuse to see, men\nand women and children subjected to excessive toil for scanty remuneration-existing, but not living; who hear unmoved, or refuse to\nhear, the appeal for justice, based on real or fancied wrongs ; such\nmen, whatever else they may be called, will not be called patriots.\nNot even though they enrich universities, and found libraries, and\nbuild churches, and contribute liberally to campaign funds.\nThe patriotic citizen in business will have intelligence enough to\n\nsee that the public weal-the national life-depend on social harmony, and that for such harmony he is responsible as far as his\nbusiness relations extend, and beyond to the outermost circle of his\npersonal influence, and he will be guided by his intelligence.\nWhile the patriotic citizen will, for his country's sake, live up\n\nto these personal and social obligations, he will distinguish himself\nby constant and cheerful participation in public affairs. Our modern\nrepresentative system has weakened the sense of personal responsibility for good government. Too many good men are content to sell\ntheir birthright of sovereignty for a mess of pottage. Not only are\nthey unwilling to do their part in municipal administration and jury\nduty, but they fail to meet the prime obligation of citizenship-to\nvote. They have lost the spirit of the fathers. In the old English\nparish and in the chartered towns of the fifteenth century the obligation of personal service in public affairs was recognized and enforced\nby law. The early settlers of New England brought with them the\nsame idea, and there are still on the statute books penalties for\nrefusing to serve in certain local offices.\n\nThe new patriotism will return to the old standards. It will\ninsist, that, if it is culpable to go into politics to serve selfish ends,\nit is still more culpable to stay out for selfish ends. If juries are\n\npacked, and so justice perverted ; if votes are sold, and so elections\npurchased; if bribes are received, and so legislation is made corrupt ;\nif public business is in the hands of spoilsmen, the blame will be laid\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\n139\n\nAMERICAN HISTORY AND Good CITIZENSHIP.\n\nat the door of the good men who allow it to be so. If the wolf gets\n\ninto the sheepfold, it is not the fault of the wolf. It is his nature.\nIt is the fault of the shepherd, whose business it was to keep him\nout-with his life, if need be.\nBy this standard will the patriotism of men be measured : Are\nthey willing, for the public good-for country's sake-to sacrifice\nprivate interests of time, and money, and thought; to sink partisan\nprejudices, and to unite with all other men similarly inclined in an\nalliance, offensive and defensive, for good government, pure government, business government?\nWill they vote ? Will they go to caucuses ? Will they take\nmunicipal offices ? Will they serve on juries ? Will they fight the\nsaloon interest and the gambling interest on their own ground? Will\nthey fight the spoilsmen in their own party ? Will they demand and\nfight-first, last, and all the time for clean men and clean measures?\n\nNothing less than this will satisfy the demands of the new\npatriotism. It does not supersede the old; it does not cease to reverence the old. The spirit that rebels to-day, and declares its independence of saloon rule, and corporate rule, and boss rule, is the spirit of\n'76 arming itself with twentieth-century weapons for twentiethcentury conflict.\n\nTHE STUDY OF AMERICAN HISTORY AS A TRAINING FOR\n\nGOOD CITIZENSHIP.\n\nBY DR. J. BALDWIN, PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY,\nAUSTIN , TEX .\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nTEXAS ,\n\n[STENOGRAPHIC REPORT. ]\n\nMR. PRESIDENT, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: At half-past the eleventh hour I\nconsented to say a few words on this important subject, and as a preliminary I\nwish to say, in the Herbartian phrase, that conduct is central in education. As\nconduct-study awakens the most brain cells and develops the largest brain areas,\nthese studies are educational and of the highest importance. I would say that conduct-studies deserve to stand first. I am longing to roll back the wheels of time a\nhalf a century, and to join this mighty army of young women and young men who\nare pushing this educational work to new and better conclusions. We who have\nworked during a half century realize that we are just beginning to get hold of the\ngreat principles that are to prepare us to lead the race to a higher and better life ;\nand, without any leader, without seemingly a purpose, we are coming to an organization of a new department in our educational work, which, it seems to me, is\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "140\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\ndestined to stand at the head of educational effort. The word is coming from various lands and countries, that the department of conduct- studies, in which we shall\n\nmake prominent the development of character and preparation for life, is the most\nimportant part of our educational work.\n\nWe long have done this work in a general\n\nway. France, to-day, is systematic in making the development of conduct in manners and morals primary in its educational work, and the result in a few years bas\n\nbeen marvelous. All the nations are turning their attention to this subject, and we\nare just now considering one phase of the conduct-work, good citizenship and patriotism, which is our theme to-day. The Herbartians have been looking around for\na center. Surely, conduct is central in our educational work. All subjects contribute to this. First, we want to make grand men; men of thought; men of\nachievement. And in doing so we want to develop character, conduct. Our highest\nconception of it all is pure self- activity. Our psychologists have been studying, investigating, and talking, and they arrive at pure self-activity as the basis of all\nmoral training. This activity goes out in thought-in all the realms of knowledge.\nThis activity goes out in devotion-in noble, lofty impulses of the soul. This activity goes out in that highest act, self-determination; culminating in action, cul-\n\nminating in conduct, culminating in character, and man becomes essentially a history-maker. Now, I am speaking of this new department, including conduct-studies, manners, and morals, including our school and family discipline, including the\nhighest studies, until it reaches our religious nature.\n\nIt includes man as an actor in\n\nhistory, including good citizenship, including the study of self. In this group, history is the central feature. History seems to come to us in a world of action, as\nnature and art in other fields. The artist studies first in nature and art.\n\nHe gets\n\nhis ideals and his inspiration, and he produces something better. The writer studies\nin literature, and gets his ideals and his inspirations, and produces Shakespeare's\npoems,\"Paradise Lost, \" and other great works of literature. Now, in conduct, history gives us the best in the individual and the best in the nations. We get our\n\nideals and our inspirations, and it seems to me that the committee of fifteen did\na wise thing in demanding that we begin this history work in the kindergarten.\nWe somehow get into the souls of the children the best things of all ages. It ele-\n\nvates their souls, and they are better prepared to study philosophy and history in\nthe university.\n\nIt seems to me in this way we can best fit men for higher, grander\n\nlives.\n\nNow, the lesson of the hour is patriotism, as developed in the study of the past\n--in history. I think that you all will say, that the study of Homer-the study of\nthe character of the Greek people-produced for a thousand years races of heroes.\n\nWhen we study into the darker periods of all history, it seems to me that we learn\nthat the stories of patriotism and heroism, and the songs of heroes, and the great\nachievements of the people, have done much to mold the race, almost from the beginning. When we look at England to-day-if I were not an American I would\nwant to be an Englishman-when we look at England to-day, what an inspiration\nis found in English history and English achievements ! Her mighty men (and\n\nthere are a host of them) stand out as an inspiration in every department of life today.\n\nGladstone is an inspiration to the entire world\n\nThe history of England-the\n\ngreatest empire the sun has ever shone upon abounds in the greatest achievements\nthe world has ever seen, by her mighty men and her mighty women. We turn to\n\nour beloved America. I am glad, in the paper just read, that we have had a sketch\n\nin such a masterly way of the influence of history in molding our marvelous people.\nI remember, as though it were yesterday, how my heart swelled with pride as I\n\nread of the achievements of our pioneers, and of our revolutionary fathers, and of\nour history-makers, all along this struggle of the making of the Constitution, of the\nbuilding of the government, of the building of the states. It seems to me that if\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "2\n\nSessions.]\n\nAMERICAN HISTORY AND GOOD CITIZENSHIP.\n\n141\n\nwe get into the minds and hearts of our youth these lessons, they will grow\nup to be worthy. Patriotism is not narrowing ; indeed, it seemsto me to be broadening. All the world loves a lover, and of all the men in the world to be pitied today are the men without a country, who should be pitied as we pity the poor bachelor without a wife. I love my family, and loving my family does not unfit me\n\nto love my country. The man who loves his country warmly, dearly, is fitted\nto become a citizen of the world. I would have every man broad. The American,\nof all people, should be the broadest. I think our hearts are large enough and\nwarm enough to love all people the brotherhood of man.\nWhile we love our country with all our hearts, we are prepared to love all\ncountries, and can appreciate what is done well in France, and praise what is done\n\nwell in England. We should be ready to applaud even Russia or Japan when they\ndo the right. I think that I can express the sentiment of every heart when I say,\nthat we are proud to-day that little Japan has made such great achievements\nin civilization. Just a little while ago, when I studied geography, it was almost\nunknown, away in the far-off ocean, and now we find there a civilization that is\nbecoming grand. They have an educational system that compares favorably with\nour own. They are becoming christianized people. We should be ready to applaud the achievements of all peoples.\n\nNow, the one subject that I was asked especially to present to you is patriotism\nin our Southland, and I will say some things to you that will surprise you. Nowhere in all our country do the fires of patriotism burn quite so brightly to-day as\nin our sunny Southland; and I want to say to you just one other word that you\nare not prepared to hear: that all the South-all our Southern people, I think, without exception-rejoice to-day that the Lost Cause is a lost cause. We realize how\ngreat a thing it is to be a part of this great country. We love the South, and we\nlove it because it is a part of our common country. We revere the memory of the\nheroes of the South, because they were true and brave.\nWe have problems to solve in the South that are difficult, but we are solving\nthem as best we can. We have there 8,000,000 of colored people; a downtrodden\nrace; a race who for a thousand years were a race of slaves and regarded as chat-\n\ntels. We have the problem of lifting up these millions and educating them into\ncitizenship and into patriotism. I wish, when you come down to the Cotton States\nExposition, that you could spend a month in the Southland and study the object\nlesson, this great lesson of the ages, where we are taking hold of this race of downtrodden humanity and lifting them up, as no race ever was lifted up, to a position\nof citizenship and patriotism. We realize they are there to stay. We realize that\nthey have the ballot. We realize that the interests of all the country demand that\nthey should be made intelligent and virtuous citizens. Hence, first, we are giving\nthe colored people of the South every advantage that we give to the white people.\nIf we have a common school for the whites, we have a common school for the col-\n\nored people. If we have a high school for the whites, on equal terms we have high\nschools for the colored people. If we have universities for the whites established\nby the state, we have colored universities, giving the highest education to the colored people.\n\nI wish you could study this problem as an object lesson, and see the marvelous\npower of our government. I confess I am astonished every day, to see these people\ntaking hold of education as I have never seen a people, with a thirsting and a\nburning desire for knowledge. Go into their meetings, and you would hardly hear\na better discussion of many current questions in our educational conventions or in\nour great cities than you hear in the meetings of these colored people. It may be\nin crude phrase, but they are discussing these questions of good government and\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n142\n\n[General\n\ngood citizenship with original ideas, and they are learning these lessons of intelligence. Now, you blame us because we have made some restrictions. Before you\nall to-day I simply state what I believe to be the true position, that intelligence\nshould govern. Senator Foster, a few years ago, at our State Teachers' Association, made a declaration that seems to me to be right: \" Universal education and\nlimited suffrage.\" Now, I do not defend many things that seem to have been found\nnecessary, but the whole South is coming to this, to leave the colored man to vote\nas freely as the white man as fast as he becomes intelligent, able to read and write,\nable to understand his duties as a citizen.\n\nNow, in conclusion, I wish to say a word with reference to history. All we ask\nis, that history should be impartial and generous. I somehow feel every day more\nand more that the lines between the state sections are growing dimmer.\n\nThis great\n\nnational meeting, where we almost forget our states, and come together as a nation,\nmakes us feel the patriotism of our whole country. The Christian Endeavor and\nvarious other organizations that are now meeting, revolutionizing the sentiment of\nthe country, it seems to me, together, as a whole, will do more and more to obliterate the lines between North and South and East and West. I am glad to see these\n\nlines are becoming dimmer and dimmer in our country, and that patriotism is coming to the front; and, as we write history, let us be generous. You can afford to do\njustice to the South. In the South we love to do justice to the whole country. We\nhave our Washington and Lincoln, the peerless patriots of all the world. We\nhave our Webster and our Clay, the world's peerless statesmen. We have our\nGrant and Lee, the world's peerless generals. We can afford, fellow teachers, to\nbe large-hearted and generous. We love the South. We love the North. We love\nour whole country, and, as we teach history, let us hold up all that is grand and\nlofty in all sections. Let us be large, and broad, and uplifted. Let the fires of\npatriotism burn warm with love for the whole country, and that love an intelligent\nlove. We want good citizenship. We want a broad, grand citizenship, and let it be\nthat the children make grand men and grand women, and then we will have a\ngrand country and a glorious immortality.\n\nTHE ETHICAL ELEMENT IN PATRIOTISM.\n\nBY A. P. MARBLE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OMAHA, NEB .\n\nPatriotism-love of country is fatherism (if we may coin a word)\nor filiation. It is derived from the Latin word, pater. This word\ncomes through the Greek from the Indo-Germanic root, pa, whose\n\nfirst meaning is to protect, and whose secondary meaning is to provide or to feed.\n\nProtection, then, and provision, as well as origin, are\n\ninherent in the word father.\n\nIt is interesting to trace the various\n\nwords and the wide range of ideas that are allied to this word pater,\nand to note all that is involved in those words and in their various\n\nconnections and ramifications-all coming from that one root, pa.\nFrom these we may perceive more fully the broad extension of the\nmeaning of patriotism. Of these we have paternal, patriarch, patron ,\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nETHICAL ELEMENT IN PATRIOTISM.\n\n143\n\npatroon, patois, pattern, and others in all thirty or more words ; and\nfrom the secondary sense of the root, pa, we have pastor, pasture,\npastern, with their various derivatives, making about as many more.\nAnd in all this group of words the fundamental idea of the original\nroot-word is found in one or the other of its meanings. Hence, patriotism, in the present meaning of the term, involves all those basic ideas.\nI. The first form of government was patriarchal. The father governed his family in early times, however it may be at present. He\nwas the author of their being, he protected them, and he provided for\nthem. In return they owed him filial obedience and service. In\nthat early, archaic, and semi-barbaric age there was no organized\nsociety. Abraham, for example, took many wives, had a numerous\nfamily, and moved west after the place whence he started had become\ntoo thickly settled. Soon afterwards, Lot, Abraham's nephew, set\nup for himself. His family and his flocks also increased rapidly;\nand, to avoid trouble with his uncle, he moved to a new claim on the\nfrontier. This was at a time when Henry George's theory about the\nownership of land was in practical operation. Both these patriarchs,\nLot and Abraham, were rulers of their own family; and loyalty to\nthem on the part of their descendants was the patriotism of that\n\nday. It is probable that there were other men in the neighborhood\nof similar age, just as there are a few men in our time, without\nfamilies. We can account for the prominence of the few, like the\n\npatriarchs just named, and the obscurity of the many only upon the\ntheory of the survival of the fittest.\n\nIn process of time, these unmarried men and many of the younger\nmembers of the family who were married became\n\nattached or\n\nremained attached to the family of the older patriarch; so that his\nfamily or patriarchate consisted of both his direct descendants and\n\nothers more remotely connected with him or not at all related.\nAnd then, of course, when the patriarch died, as they did in some\ncases after several hundred years, it became an interesting question\nwho was the head of the family; for family trees in those early\ndays were not always closely trimmed.\nII. Hence, the family at length expanded into the tribe, or gens ;\nand the ruler, selected on whatever ground, remained still the patriarch with a more extended sway. Here, also, as in the family, the\nidea of protection, of provision, and of union for the common weal\nstill continued. Loyalty to the tribe replaced loyalty to the family,\nthough there were instances where family feuds continued within\nthe enlarged union, as in the case of the Capulets and the Montagues,\nhinted at in \"Romeo and Juliet.\"\n\nIII. With the increase of population in that ancient world which\nwe are now considering, and with large and diversified interests, tribes\nat length became consolidated, so as to embrace whole peoples with\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "144\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\na common origin and a common language. And such combinations\nhave often been made not without war and bloodshed and with\n\nviolence to the patriotic instinct on the part of the conquered tribe;\nan instinct that develops later for the larger community; as in the\ncase of the Scotch and Welsh (though not yet of the Irish) that form\nparts of the British empire.\n\nIV. And lastly, through contiguity or by conquest, the small\nnations have been united to form a single empire with interests more\nor less identical, and cohering by bonds of sentiment as well as of\ncommon interest. There are families, tribes, peoples, nations, in\nthe world at the present day in all these various stages of attachments and coalescence, in the islands of the sea, in remote Africa, in\nAsia, and on the continents of Europe and America; and in them all,\nthrough the successive stages of their development, the fundamental\nidea of protection from foes without, of provision for human needs,\nhas a prominent place. This idea is essentially selfish; it is the\nattempt of each man, each tribe, each nation, to get the best at\nwhatever cost to the rest of mankind. And this state of things was\nfrom the first a necessity ; a necessity unlovely, indeed, but one from\nwhich something better and broader has grown and is growing. In\nthe conflict with the blind forces of nature, men soon learn that\ncombination is necessary in order to achieve success ; and advanced,\nprogressive tribes and nations have found that they must act in\nunison if they would advance and gain, and preserve what they have\nalready gained. Selfishness has therefore been an aid to progress\nand a conservator of what that progress has achieved.\nSelfishness, then, or more strictly speaking self-interest, is not\nan unworthy quality. Without a proper regard for one's self, there\nwould be no progress in the world. It is a man's duty to care well\nfor himself and for his own, in order that he may be helpful to\nhumanity. People are generally quite enough inclined to look out for\nthemselves. In a majority of cases, probably, they care for themselves too much. They are selfish in excess, and too little altruistic.\nIt sounds beautiful to hear the young admonished to forget self\n\nand to work for others. Noble examples of self-denying heroism are\npointed out as models for the young to emulate, and the Scriptures\nof the New Testament emphasize the quality of self-denying love.\nThis is what is needed by nine people in ten; perhaps, by ninety-nine\nin a hundred.\n\nBut for the last one in the ten or in the hundred the\n\nopposite admonition is needed: that he care for himself-look out\n\nfor number one. For there are a few timid, self-depreciating souls,\nfine-grained, made of the best timber, who neglect their own interest, and cripple their own power for good both to themselves and\nthe world at large. All such persons need to be reminded, that this\nworld is a battlefield where he who wins must fight for himself; that\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nETHICAL ELEMENT IN PATRIOTISM.\n\n145\n\nself-preservation is the first duty of man; that doing to others as you\nwould have them do to you does not generally mean ruining yourself\nfor their sake; for, carried to that extent, the Golden Rule would\nimply the extreme of selfishness-that you wish other people to ruin\nthemselves for your sake. I put in a plea, then, for selfishness occasionally, for the tenth or the hundredth boy ; or, since that word has\nso long stood for evil, for self-interest-that self-interest which has\nbeen from the first, and is now, an important element of patriotism .\nV. In tracing thus the gradual extension of the original family\ninterest, as it embraces the tribe, the people, and then the nation,\nwe find that patriotism has a constantly widening horizon. The\npetty personal interest broadens from the family to the tribe, and\nfrom the tribe to the individuals of the same race.\n\nFrom this it\n\nextends, with the advance of civilization and the complexity of human\ninterests, to all the people living in the same country. But it does\nnot stop at that point. Of the millions of people in our country, no\nperson can have a personal interest in the vast majority. That interest is confined to but few, and is not bounded by city or state lines.\nThe community of interest in a municipality or a commonwealth,\nfounded on a policy beneficial to that organization, does indeed create\na warmer attachment among its members.\n\nBut such an attachment,\n\nwith advancing enlightenment and civilization, is modified and controlled by regard for mankind outside of that narrow boundary ;\nmodified both by that sincere regard which an enlightened man has\nfor all humanity and by a far-seeing self-interest. For it has gradually\nbecome known, that righteousness and justice exalt a nation and\nthat public wrong is a reproach to any people. It is as true of a\nnation as it is of an individual, that honor and justice are the most\nprofitable in the long run; that sin does not pay.\nVI. And further. In the present complex organization of enlightened society no part can be harmed without injury to all. Within\n\nthis century one part of the world was comparatively but little\naffected by the prosperity or the adversity of another part. At\npresent, by rapid transit and the telegraph, every part of the civilized world is interested in every other part, and the condition of the\nwhole world-its crops, its social status, and its wars are known at\nthe breakfast table. The value of the wheat crop in the Mohawk\nvalley is determined by the product of Minnesota and Manitoba,\nof Southern Russia and Argentina, and all Europe and America\nwatch with eager interest the insurrection in Cuba, the disturbance\nin Samoa, the deposition of Lilioukalani, and the march of the\nMikado towards Pekin.\n\nVII. In this widely-extended interlacing of national interests, true\npatriotism comes to have an ethical element that comprehends all\n10\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "146\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nhumanity. Ethics is the science of duty-morality; the knowledge\nof rules for human guidance that have developed with the race and\nthat contain the results of human experience. Patriotism has\nbroadened itself outward from the narrow conception of the interest\nof the family to the tribe and nation, and now, in its wider significance, to the whole world; because, in the wider experience, it has\nbeen discovered that the welfare of one is best subserved by the\nprosperity of all, and that the true patriot is also a citizen of the\nworld.\n\nIt is this broad, truer patriotism that should be cultivated in the\nschools. To raise the flag over every schoolhouse ; to celebrate the\nglorious Fourth with guns and banners; to march in procession to\nthe sound of martial music, as a lesson in patriotism, is well enough,\nand not to be despised. But this is not all. There must be a loftier\nconception than this as the basis of duty.\n\nMinnesota may push to\n\nthe front her wheat ; Nebraska, her tasseled corn ; Louisiana, her\nsugar; Colorado, her silver; the South, her cotton; and New England, her manufactures ; but beyond them all, and over them all, is\nthe Union. And so, beyond the Union there is a commonwealth of\nnations, a community of enlightened men on whose sympathy and\nco-operation the world's prosperity largely depends-a prosperity in\nwhich we share, and without which our own advancement would be\nenfeebled. It is to such a goal that all civilization and all true\npatriotism tends; and progress will be along the lines, dimly traced\nabove, by which the race has advanced from the patriarch to the\nprince-the uncrowned princes of a free republic.\nVIII. We best teach ethics, as other subjects are best taught,\n\nin the concrete and by example. Our holy religion, and all other\ngreat religions of the world, so far as I know them, are revealed and\nillustrated in the life of a person; and the law of love, the life of\nsacrifice, which conquers the world, the flesh, and the devil, is displayed in the life of Jesus. That life is the ideal of all Christian\nendeavor. It is by such a method that patriotism may best be inculcated; and fortunately for the youth of this great country we have an\nexemplar of the noblest and the best, an example that more than any\nother has commanded the admiration of all\n\nlovers\n\nof\n\nfreedom\n\nthroughout the world. In the apotheosis of the father of his country, however, his character has been sublimated, and only his transcendent virtues appear. It is doubtful whether the human character, with all its nobility contrasted and brought into relief by\nits inevitable frailties-the real Washington-might not furnish a\nbetter model for us all, as being something attainable and not beyond\nour reach. That character will bear the searchlight of such scrutiny ;\nand Washington the man, as well as Washington the hero, Washing-\n\nton day by day, is a worthy text for American patriotism, both\nethically and practically. His apostle was Abraham Lincoln, and his\nGideon, his Ulysses, was Grant.\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n147\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nW. H. BARTHOLOMEW, Principal of Female High School, Louisville, Ky.-We\nin the South appreciate the purposes of our government and endeavor to keep before us the high ideals that have been presented to us this morning. We believe\nthe time has come in the history of our civilization when we are not only to teach\n\nthe man to die for his country, but, in a higher and better sense, we are to teach\nman to live for his country. We cannot teach him to live for country until we\nhave taken these heaven-born endowments and have developed them into beauty\nand symmetry based upon the principles of justice, equality, and righteousness.\nAnd this is the work to which you and I have been called. Now, it matters not\n\nwhether we live in the North or in the South, whether we live in the East or the\nWest. If you and I realize the grave, serious responsibility that is imposed upon\nus, and we make an earnest, conscientious, prayerful effort to discharge that responsibility in the presence of God and to give to this nation of ours men of intelligence and virtue, then we have placed this nation upon the granite foundation of\ntruth and justice, and there is no power within nor is there any power without that\ncan ever make her conquest.\n\nSol can this morning heartily indorse the sentiments\n\nthat have been expressed by these speeches. May I again say that which has\nbeen implied this morning, that the center from which emanates the moral and\nspiritual power is the family, and that nation which disregards its obligation to the\nfamily is the nation which cannot survive. This external demonstration must have\nsomething lying within. This flag, as such, is nothing but a cloth flag. When that\nflag indicates equality, when that flag indicates justice, when that flag indicates\ntruth, then it means something. So it is our purpose-our privilege, rather-to take\nthese boys and these girls, over whom we have been called to preside, to take their\npower and to create in them strong and earnest desires-not only to know what is\nright, not only to know what is true, but to create in them a disposition and a purpose to do what is right and what is true; not because it pays, but simply because\nit is right and true.\n\nMay I say this morning, in the language of the Great Teacher whom we all love\nand whom we most revere, if we would make this nation of ours what we would\nhave it, \"He that would be the greatest among you must be the servant of all.\"\nAs Mr. Marble said this morning, there is an element of selfishness that enters in ;\nbut it was not in that narrow sense.\n\nThe Great Teacher said that he who cannot\n\nlove himself cannot love another. It is true that patriotism begins at the home, but\nit does not stop there. It is said that charity begins at home; but the man who\npractices all of his charity at home is absolutely a selfish man. We want that charity which begins at home, and passes out from the home, and takes in others, and\nrealizes that there are other interests than his own. Or, perhaps to state it in\nanother way-when I cultivate my intellectual powers, when I cultivate my heart\npowers, when I cultivate my powers of will, I do so in order that I may be more\nhelpful to others. Then I have placed myself in an attitude where I am discharging, not only my obligations to myself but also my duty to my fellows. Some one\nsaid this morning, that if he were not an American he would wish to be an Englishman. I want to say this morning, that I don't want to be anything else but an\nAmerican. That which has given me the sincerest pleasure for perhaps ten or fifteen years is coming up here and meeting you, gentlemen, who have dedicated your\nlives to what? Why, to educating these little boys and girls in their infancy and\nweakness and developing them into Christian manhood and into Christian womanhood.\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "148\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nSUPT. C. B. GILBERT of St. Paul, Minn.-I rejoice that at last the schoolmaster\nhas a higher idea of patriotism than the average citizen, because in that is the\nonly hope of the future. I came up here with fear and trembling, expecting to\n\nhear members discuss the relation of the great Ego which we call the nation. I\nhave not heard a word of it. All of these schoolmasters have told you that patriotism is the sentiment that leads; that the country is not represented by the domestic\n\ncat which loves the spot where it lies down to sleep, or by the undomesticated cat\nwhich drives you away from its lair or eats you up. But the country is simply an\nopportunity for service and cultivation of the doctrines we have heard. That\ndoctrine, you and I, schoolmasters and scheolmistresses, believe. The motto which\nwe take away from here is not, \" My country against the world,\" but, \"My country\nfor the world.\" Now, the practical question comes, How are we to impress this\ntruth upon the children? Not by what we have been wont to call education-read-\n\ning, writing, and arithmetic-and the filling of the mind with knowledge, and the\ntraining of the powers so as to make them strong; that does not make them patriots. The most powerful men that history has known have many of them been the\nvery worst, and I regret exceedingly that this generation has seen a reviving of\none of the great examples of selfishness-who stands for selfishness above all those\n\nthat ever lived-Napoleon. Napoleon is to-day the ideal of millions of boys of this\nland.\n\nWe schoolmasters must put down such stuff.\n\nNow, society is not the result of a social compact. It is a divine institution\ngiven to man by the Father, that he might make the most of himself and then give\nhimself for the good of others ; because it is through society, as has been well said\nby Dr. Bartholomew, that man can do the best service. Hence, we must create\nsuch an atmosphere about the child in school that he shall become habituated to the\nthought that he is a member of society; that he may serve society, and through\nsociety the world. That is the business of the teacher, inspired by the gentle\nspirit of the Master. This influence you can carry with you into the schoolroom,\nso that it will take hold of the children. It is your duty to create an atmosphere so\nthat the children shall, from day to day, live in love and live in service, and go out\nfrom the schoolroom to serve mankind; not to fight them but to serve them by noble\n\ndeeds-serve them in all the glorious ways that have been referred to this morning.\nIt is a powerful influence for good and for patriotism which the teachers of this\nland can exert, so that the whole world may be inspired with the spirit of love\ntoward mankind. You, ladies and gentlemen, and you alone can do that.\nSTATE SUPT. J. R. PRESTON of Mississippi.-I have listened with profound pleasure to all that has been said, and the noble and high ideals of patriotism that have\nbeen set up for us. I represent in some ways, not the trans-Mississippi, not the\nNorth, not the East, but I represent the far South-the State of Mississippi . I\nhad the honor a few years ago of reading a paper at the National Educational\n\nAssociation in Toronto on the subject of teaching patriotism, and the foundation\nprinciple that I laid down there I believe to be true to-day. I find reported in the\npapers of this morning that the true patriotism is to live for one's country. That\nis what we are trying to do. Fellow teachers, in this great nation, with us of the\nSouth the problems of the past have been submerged in the history of the past.\nThe problems of the present are pressing with mighty weight upon our greatest\nenergies, and we are trying, in faith, and in patriotism, and in truth, and in honor,\nand in honesty, to meet these problems day by day, according to the best light and\n\nthe best knowledge and the best thought which we possess. We are honest ; we\nare sincere ; we are struggling with great difficulty; and we come and claim from\n\nyou a charitable appreciation of the efforts we are making. We come and ask you\nto do what we are trying sincerely to do to lay aside all prejudice, and to teach\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nEVOLUTION AND EDUCATION.\n\n149\n\nthe right, and cease to teach or allow to be created any of the baneful feelings of\n\nhate which once tore asunder this mighty country. We come to you with open\nhearts, and we believe that the teachers have a grand opportunity-the grandest\nopportunity and the grandest power-to allay prejudice, to smother hate, to come to\na consideration of this question with fairness and with justice, and we believe that\nthis great Union, established as it is upon the principles of justice and equality, is\nworthier to-day of the love and admiration of every citizen, North and South, than\nit ever was, or than any portion of it separated apart ever could have been.\n\nLet us forget all that is past, and remember the great issues that are before us\nto-day. Let us grapple with them in faith and truth and honesty. Let us look at\nthem with all the intelligence that we can summon. Let us, as teachers, feel that\n\nhere is the work of the nation, and let us enter into it with a profound love, not\nfor the North or South, the East or the West, but love for this whole nation.\n\nTHE EFFECT OF THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION ON\nEDUCATION.\n\nBY JOSEPH LE CONTE, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA , BERKELEY, CAL.\n\nLike all great truths, the idea of evolution has been held in a\nvague way even from the earliest dawn of thought. But only very\nrecently do we observe any attempt to apply it to life. We find the\nexplanation of this in the profound difference between the old philosophy and modern science in their respective attitudes toward\ntruth. To the old thinkers, pure thought and gross matter, the ideal\nand the real, belonged to two different worlds. They never dreamed\nof bringing down their noble thoughts to the practical concerns of\nlife to apply them to social organization, or politics, or religion.\nThese glorious ideas were for the delectation of thinkers only. These\ndaughters of the intellect were too pure and holy to be married to\nthe grossly practical. They were vestal virgins about the sacred\naltar of truth ; beautiful exceedingly, but forever barren. To modern\nscience, on the contrary, every truth has, and must have, its practical application. The tree of knowledge must bear appropriate fruit\nfor the material benefit of humanity. Evolution is now, therefore,\napplied to practical life, because it has passed from the domain of\nvague philosophic speculation into that of definite scientific knowledge. This change has not taken place all at once, but only by the\nsuccessive labors of many men, each contributing his own characteristic part. It was the part of Lamarck to awaken scientific attention\nand deeply stir the scientific mind. It was the part of Darwin to\nconvince the scientific mind of the truth of the evolution of the\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "150\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\norganic kingdom. It was the part of Spencer to extend the law\nof evolution to embrace every department of nature, and thus to make\n\nit applicable to society, to religion, and to education. It was the part\nof Huxley to fight the battles of evolution and to conquer its accept-\n\nance by the intelligent, but unscientific, public. It was, and is, the\npart of American evolutionists to complete the evidence from palæ-\n\nontology where it was weakest, and also for we are less hampered\nby tradition here than elsewhere-to apply it fearlessly, yet I hope\nreverently, to religious and social thought.\nThe final effect has been to revolutionize our whole view of nature\n\nand of man, to change the whole attitude of the mind toward\ntruth, and thus to modify deeply our philosophy in every department ;\nand, therefore, also to modify profoundly our theory and methods of\neducation. It is this effect on education that I wish to bring before\nyou this evening. But the subject is so large, and my time so short,\nthat I can only touch lightly some most salient points.\nI would be glad to point out to you how the theory of evolution\nindirectly, but in a most important way, affects education (as it does\nall departments of thought) by simply elevating the intellectual standpoint and widening the intellectual horizon; but I must forego this\nand proceed at once to its direct effect on our theories and methods of\n\neducation. And here, as you already anticipate, I must speak first of\nall of its immediate effect on biology ; and then afterward on all its\nindirect effects, through biology, on nearly all the higher departments\nof thought. These I shall call higher lessons taught in the school of\nevolution.\n\nOrganic evolution is evolution par excellence. In the mind of\nDarwin evolution was, and in the minds of very many it still is,\n\nidentified with the theory of origin of species by descent with modifications. To many it means only a continuous genetic chain of all\norganisms from the earliest to the present, and, therefore, a bloodkinship among all existing organisms from lowest to highest. It is\nto Spencer that we owe the extension of this law of continuity to\nevery realm of nature, and thus this mode of thinking to every realm\nof thought. Organic evolution, therefore, whether of the individual\nor of the organic kingdom, is the type of evolution. In that department the battle of evolution was fought and won. Right here, in the\norigin of new organic forms, was found the barrier to the acceptance\nof the law of continuity-the stronghold of supernaturalism in the\nrealm of nature. When this barrier gave way, the whole domain\nof thought was immediately conquered. It is right, then, that I\nshould take up this department first.\nThere is a striking contrast between the old natural history and\nthe new biology. The one is, perhaps, best represented by Audubon,\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nEVOLUTION AND EDUCATION.\n\n151\n\nthe other by Huxley. In the one imagination predominates, in the\nother reasons; in the one love of field and forest and mountain, in\nthe other thoughtful work in the laboratory. The one studies form\nand habits, the other structure and function. The characteristic\nimplements of the one are the shotgun, the insect-net, and the dredge,\nof the other the scalpel and the microscope. In the ideal biologist,\n\nthese two must be united in equal proportions. Such union was\nnearly realized in Agassiz and Darwin, because they stood just at\nthe parting of the ways. Zoologists now belong mainly to the one\nclass or the other, but predominantly to the second class. In botany,\nthe differentiation has not been so extreme. The change is, therefore, best illustrated in zoology.\nSuch, then, is the contrast between the old and new style natu-\n\nralist. The change may, perhaps, be regretted by some, but was\nabsolutely necessary in the development of biological science. The\nold-style naturalist had been working from time immemorial, enthu-\n\nsiastic in traveling, observing, collecting, describing, classifying ; in\na word, gathering the materials of science; but thoughtful men\nbegan to ask, \"Where is the science itself?\" \"What light does all\nthis throw on the real problem of life ?\" \"What is the meaning of\nthe classification so laboriously constructed?\" \"What is the meaning of the facts of geographical distribution of species gathered by\nsuch extensive traveling ?\" The old natural history as a real science\nseemed to have reached its limit, if it was not indeed moribund.\nCollections of dry plants were contemptuously compared to gathered\nhay. Geographical distribution of organisms was a tiresome chaos\nof curious facts without connecting idea.\n\nJust then came evolution\n\n-a great new idea, informing and giving life and meaning to this\ndead mass of facts, bringing order out of this chaos, \"creating a\nsoul under the dry ribs of this death.\" The true meaning of classi-\n\nfication is at once revealed, viz., the various degrees of blood-kinship\nin descent. Geographical distribution of organisms is at once completely explained by migrations produced by the glacial epoch and\n\nthe slow evolution-changes produced by a changed environment,\nphysical and organic. The strange and hitherto inexplicable course\nof embryonic or ontogenic development becomes now but a brief\nrecapitulation of the phylogenic or family history. It is easy to\nimagine the prodigious impulse given to the sciences of life. The\ndeepest problems of plant life, animal life-yea, of human life and\nsocial life-seemed now within reach of science. The army of investigators was increased tenfold. Biological laboratories sprang up\n\neverywhere, on lake- and sea-shores, and, still more numerously, in\nschools, colleges, and universities.\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "152\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nSuch was the intellectual impulse given by the introduction of a\ngreat new idea. But great new ideas always involve new methods\nof work, and, therefore, new methods of teaching. The new method\nhas been called by different names.\n\nI will call it the \" evolution\n\nmethod.\" But as this is only one of many methods of science, I\nmust introduce its discussion by a few words on scientific methods\ngenerally.\nWe all know the prodigious enlargement of the domain of modern\nthought produced by the birth and rapid growth of the sciences of\nnature. But until recently there has been but little corresponding\n\nchange in the subject-matter of education, especially in the lower\nschools. This was right. The reason is obvious. All attempts to\nteach science by the old text-book methods gave very unsatisfactory\nresults.\n\nScience-teaching as a means of mental culture seemed far\n\ninferior to mathematics and the languages. These latter, at least to\nsome degree, threw the pupil on his own resources ; but science-teaching by pure classroom, text-book methods is the barest memoriter\nexercise. Now, science is nothing if not a knowledge of nature at\nfirst-hand, and science-teaching is nothing unless, in some degree, it\nbrings the pupil in contact with nature. The new knowledge must\nhave new methods. In a word, science must be largely taught in the\nfield and in the laboratory. This field and laboratory method must\nsupplement every other method in science-teaching. This is now so\ngenerally understood that it is unnecessary to dwell on it.\n\nBut there is another and deeper sense in which we may use the\nterm method, which is even more important. It is method, not in\nthe sense of use of eye and hand but of use of brain; not in the\nsense of dexterous manipulation but of orderly thinking. In this\nsense, scientific methods bear the same relation to intellectual prog-\n\nress that tools, instruments, and machines bear to material progress.\nThey are intellectual contrivances whereby we accomplish results\nwhich would otherwise transcend our power.\n\nAs the civilized man\n\nhas no superiority over the savage in bare-handed strength, and the\ngreat material results accomplished by the former are wholly due\nto the use of material contrivances called tools, instruments, machines-so the scientific man claims no superiority over others in\nunassisted intellectual power, and the great results accomplished\nby him in the acquisition of knowledge and in the conquest of nature\nare wholly due to the use of intellectual contrivances called scientific\nmethods. These are mainly three : 1. The method of symbols, or\nmathematical method. We all know the power of this method. We\nall know how by the use of a few numeral digits, a few letters, a and\nand =, the veriest school-boy\nb, x and y, and a few signs, -| - and\nmay quickly solve questions which would defy the unaided power\n-\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nEVOLUTION AND EDUCATION.\n\n153\n\nof an intellectual giant. 2. The method of experiment, especially\napplicable to physics and chemistry. Physical phenomena are usually too complex, too affected by disturbing causes and complicating\nconditions, to be understood at once as they occur in nature. The\nphysicist, therefore, removes, one by one, these disturbing causes\nand complicating conditions, watching the result, until the true cause\nand the necessary conditions are discovered. I need not tell you\nwhat this method has accomplished. 3. The method of comparison.\nThe phenomena of life in its higher forms are so complex that we\n\ncannot understand them without simplification, and yet so delicately\nadjusted that in most cases we cannot, we dare not, use the method\nof experiment. If we introduce our rude hands to modify the phenomena, we are in danger of destroying life itself-the very thing\nwe are investigating. But Nature herself has prepared for us three\nseries of experiments. 1. As we go down the scale of life from man,\nthrough vertebrates and invertebrates to the lowest protozoa, the\ncomplex structure and functions of the animal body become simpler\n\nand simpler, by the removal of one complication after another, until\nfinally the complex problem of life is reduced to its simplest terms.\nThis is the taxonomic series. 2. Again, as we go backward in the\n\nhistory of the development of any one of the higher animals, say\nman, from the mature condition through the stages of youth, new-\n\nborn embryo, to the earliest germ cell, we find that structure and\nfunction again become simpler and simpler until again the problem\nof life is reduced to the simplest terms. This is the embryonic or\nontogenic series. 3. Again and lastly, if, commencing with the fauna\n\nof the present geological epoch, we go backward in geological time,\ntaking successively those of earlier and earlier periods, even to the\ndawn of life, we find a similar series of simplifying structures and\nfunctions until we again reach the simplest possible expression of\n\nthe problem of life. This is called the geological or phylogenic series.\nThis last is par excellence the evolution series. But they are all\nevolution series, since they are similar and all have their origin in\nevolution.\n\nIt is by comparison of the terms in each one of these series, and\nof the three series with one another, that all true scientific knowledge in biology has been attained. It is therefore called the \"comparative method.\" It was to some extent used and so framed before\nthe birth of evolution as a scientific theory ; but evolution has given\nit a new meaning and a new power and greatly extended its application, and, therefore, it should now be called the \"evolution method.\"\nIt is the great method of discovery in all departments which are\ntoo complex to be investigated by other scientific methods. When\nphenomena are too complex to be readily understood, and at the\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "154\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nsame time too delicately adjusted to submit to the method of experiment, all we can do is to watch all the stages of increasing complication-the process of gradual becoming. If by the method of experiment we put Nature on the rack and extort from her the truth, we\n\nobtain the truth by the method of evolution less boldly but not less\nefficiently by watching and surprising Nature in her most secret\nmodes of working.\n\nThis method, although first used in biology, may be and has been\nextended to all the more complex phenomena of human life-to psychology, to sociology, to politics and government, and even ethics and\nreligion. Scientific methods generally, but this one especially, may\nbe likened to the \"little leaven which a woman took and hid in three\n\nmeasures of meal\"-a little, very little, scientific method introduced\ninto three measures of the old curriculum has \"leavened the whole\n\nlump.\" But we all know how much depends on the leaven. Alas,\nhow much bad leaven has been used, especially in sociology! It is\nnecessary, therefore, to say something of how to make good leaven.\nThis brings me to the subject of what I call schools of methods.\nIt may be regarded as a law, that, although each one of these\nmethods may be used in several departments, yet it is best developed\nand is used with most success in the simplest and lowest department,\nwhere it was first introduced ; and thus this department becomes\n\nthe school for its skillful use. Thus, for example, while the method\nof symbols is used in other departments,-as in physics, chemistry,\nand even sometimes in logic, yet the proper school for its skillful\nuse is mathematics, where it was first introduced and is still most\npowerful. Again, although experiments may be used in many departments, as in chemistry, physiology, psychology, and even, perhaps,\nin sociology,-yet undoubtedly the proper school for the skillful use\n\nof this method is physics. So also the method of comparison or the\nevolution method may indeed be used in all the more complex departments of knowledge, but the only proper school in which to become\nimbued with its characteristic spirit and practiced in its skillful use\nis biology. Other and still higher departments can never take on\na true scientific form until they use the method which has proved so\n\nsuccessful in biology; and this they must learn to do in the biological\nschools. As anatomy, physiology, and morphology became scientific\nonly by becoming comparative anatomy, physiology, and morphology,\n\nso also psychology will never become scientific until it becomes comparative psychology, nor sociology until it becomes comparative\nsociology.\nI have said that the leaven of scientific method has leavened the\n\nwhole lump of the school curriculum. I now go further, and say that\nthe leaven of evolution and the evolution method has leavened the\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nEVOLUTION AND EDUCATION.\n\n155\n\nwhole lump of human knowledge, especially in all those departments\nwhich are too complex to be subdued by other methods. This method\n\nis applicable, not only to plant life and animal life but also to all the\nphenomena of human life, individual and social, and therefore to\npsychology, to language, to history, to sociology, and to ethics. In\nfact, the enormous recent advances in all these are due wholly to\nthe use of the so-called historic method. But what is this but another\n\nname for the evolution method? It would carry me too far and\ntake me too long to justify this assertion in all these departments.\nLet me draw your attention only to a few of the most important lessons taught us in these higher departments.\n\nA Lesson in Psychology.-Until very recently, the psychical phenomena of man were studied as a separate department of knowledge,\nhaving no possible connection with any other and capable of investigation only by the method of introspection; and an elaborate system\nof philosophy has thus grown up wholly separated from other knowledges. But it is now no longer possible to admit such disconnection.\n\nThere can no longer be any doubt that man, both body and spirit,\ncame by a process of evolution from some lower form of animal; that\nhumanity emerged gradually by a natural process out of animality.\n\nNot only every organ and function of the human body, but every\nfaculty of the human mind, has its beginnings and foreshadowings,\nits embryonic condition in the higher animals.\n\nIt is quite evident\n\nthat psychology can never become a progressive science until every\nstage of the development of the physical nature of man is traced ;\nuntil the psychical phenomena of man are studied in comparison with\nthose beginnings of the same which we find in the higher animals\nand in infants ; until we trace all stages of the process by which\nthey become what we find them in the mature man. Moreover, even\nthe experimental method is now applied to psychology with encouraging success. We have thus in psychology at least three methods\nof research, viz., the method of experiment, the method of comparison\n(or evolution method), and the method of introspection. The relative\ndomains of these have not yet been adjusted. The experimental\nmethod, from which so much is now hoped, although undoubtedly of\ngreat value, is, I believe, limited in its application to the lower phe-\n\nnomena, i. e. , those most allied to physiology. Introspection, on the\nother hand, is limited to the higher phenomena, i. e. , the distinctively\nhuman. The method of comparison, or evolution method, is probably\nwithout limit in its application. It is to this method, therefore, that\nI look with most hope.\n\nA Lesson in Sociology. - The old idea of the origin of things was\nthat of creation at once by fiat, without natural process, and permanence thereafter until another creation.\n\nHence arose the doctrine\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "156\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nof instantaneousness of specific origin and the permanency of specific\ntypes. According to this view, if the organic kingdom advances at\nall, it must be by successive exterminations of old forms and re-\n\ncreations of new and better forms. According to this view, applied\nto the domain of philosophy and science, all truth must be absolute,\nunchangeable, and permanent ; and, therefore, if knowledge advances\nat all, it must be by a succession of theories exploded and other and\nbetter ones substituted. In theology, views of God, of man, and of\nnature, and their mutual relations, must be either perfectly true or\nutterly false and baneful. Forms of religion and creeds are either perfect, God-given truth or else inventions of the devil to deceive mankind.\n\nToleration, therefore, is inconsistent with loyalty to truth. In politics, the unreasoning antagonisms of parties come necessarily from\nthis attitude of the mind. In social philosophy, improvement in society can only come by utter destruction and complete reconstruction\nout of entirely new materials. Thus, in all things, by this old view,\n\nadvance can take place only by a succession of catastrophes and\nre-makings out of the whole cloth.\nEvolution changes the whole attitude of the mind in this regard.\nThe very first lesson taught by evolution is that nothing originates\nall at once, like a creation by fiat; but all things are in a state of\ncontinuous change and growth. Progress is not by a succession of\ndestruction and re-creation, but by a gradual process of evolution.\nAs in the evolution of the organic kingdom, some forms, i. e. , the more\n\nrigid, perish and leave no progeny, while some, i. e. , the more plastic,\nare modified into new forms, better suited to the ever-changing\n\nenvironment, and all the new forms come thus only by modification\nof the old; so, in the advance of science, some ideas and theories die\nout and leave no progeny, while others are modified to newer and\ntruer forms, and all the new and true forms come thus only by modification of the old. And so, also, the progress of society, of religion,\nof all things, is not by sweeping destructions and re-creations out of\nnew materials or reorganizations on an entirely new basis, but must\nbe only by modification of old forms into the higher new. In a\nword, the social organism is not made, but grows.\nA Second Lesson in Sociology.-There are two views of the relation\nof the individual to society which may perhaps be called the ancient\nand the modern. According to the one, the individual is wholly\nsubordinate to society, and has no rights in the presence of social\ninterests. The individual has no value except as an organ of the\nbody politic. This view is abhorrent to the modern mind, which has\nindeed gone to the other extreme of apotheosis of the individual.\nThis great change was undoubtedly due to the introduction of Christianity, which exalted to infinity the worth of the individual immortal\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions ]\n\n157\n\nEVOLUTION AND EDUCATION.\n\nhuman soul, while it correspondingly belittled the value of society as\nearthly and temporary. This was especially true of the early Christians, for whom the end of the world was near at hand.\n\nThis idea\n\nof the supreme importance of the individual, and that society exists\nonly for us, the individuals of to-day, has reached its culmination in\nthe present time, and nearly all the evils which now threaten society\n\nmay be traced to this source. The higher law of the ancients was\nthe interest of society; the higher law of the moderns is the dictate\nof the individual conscience.\n\nThe evils of this extreme view are\n\nbecoming so obvious that there is a strong tendency to swing back\n\nagain to the other extreme of socialism. Now, there is a profound\ntruth in both these views, and they must be combined and reconciled\nin a true social philosophy. This, I believe, evolution will help us to\ndo.\n\nLet us see.\n\nOrganic evolution reached its term and completion in achieving\nman. But evolution did not stop there; for in achieving man it\nachieved also the possibility of another and higher kind of evolution,\nand was therefore transferred to a higher plane, and continued as\nsocial evolution or human progress. Now, as the highest end, the\ntrue significance, the raison d'être of organic evolution was the\nachievement of man; so the highest and real meaning of society and\n\nsocial progress is the achievement of the ideal man. This view\nentirely changes the relation of the individual to society by giving a\nnew and nobler meaning to society. Individual interests must be\nsubordinated to social interests, not only because society is the\ngreater organism, nor even because it represents all other individual\ninterests ; but also, and chiefly, because society is the only means\nof achieving the ideal. The higher law from this point of view is\nloyalty, not to society as the ancients would have it, nor yet to the\nconscience as we moderns would have it, but to the divine ideal\nhumanity. Fortunately for us, however, the highest interests of the\nindividual are also thereby subserved.\nThis point is so important that I must stop a moment to explain\nand enforce it.\n\nThe social organism has often been compared to the animal organism, the body politic to the animal body, and social progress to\norganic evolution. Doubtless this comparison and the inferred likeness may be, and have been, carried much too far. Doubtless there\nare many fundamental differences arising from the presence of new\nand higher forces in the social body, and of new and higher factors\nin social progress; and no one has insisted on this more than I.\nBut it is a mistake also to minimize the resemblance.\n\nIt has been\n\ncommon for the opposers of such resemblance to say, that, in the ideal\nof the animal organism, the life and individuality of the constituent\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "158\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nparts are completely merged in the life and individuality of the\nwhole; that the part is of no value except as an organ of the whole ;\nand that, while this ideal may have been to some extent realized in\nsome ancient societies, it is utterly abhorrent to the modern mind;\n\nthe infinite value of the eternally, enduring human soul forbidding\nany such merging of the individual life into the common social life.\nBut let us not exaggerate the contrast.\n\nIt is not true that in the\n\nanimal body the life of the part is wholly lost in the life of the whole.\nOn the contrary, such life as each part is capable of is completely\nrealized ; each part has the very best that it is capable of. Again,\nit is not true that the part works for the whole without corresponding\nbenefit in return. On the contrary, the acknowledged ideal of the\nsocial organism, viz., that each part works for the whole and the\nwhole for each part, is completely realized in the animal organism.\nWhere, then, is the difference? For it must be very fundamental.\nIt is this : In the one case, the integrating bond is material and\nnecessary, and the function of each part unchangeably fixed forever ;\nin the other, the integrating bond is spiritual, and therefore free,\nand the function of each part is freely chosen and may be freely\nchanged for the better. In the one case, the union is by necessary\nlaw of mutual dependence; in the other, by a free law of mutual love\nand mutual help.\n\nNow, if society consisted only of ideally perfect, happy, unimprovable beings associated only for mutual enjoyment, then, indeed, I\nsuppose, the infinite worth of the immortal human soul, in comparison with any temporary association, would make such association\nwholly subordinate to the individuals. But when we remember that\nhuman society is an association of individuals not long since emerged\nout of animality, nor far on the way toward a true, i. e. , an ideal\nhumanity, and that the achievement of that ideal is the real end and\nmeaning of our earthly life; and, finally, that an organized society\nis the necessary and only means whereby the ideal may be achieved,\nwhether in the individual or in the race, we see at once that the\nimmediate individual interest must be subordinate to this, the highest interest of humanity. But subordination is not sacrifice. On\nthe contrary, it is the highest success for the individual. In subserving this, the highest interest of humanity, each individual is\nthereby subserving his own highest interests. In striving to advance\nthe race toward the ideal, he is himself realizing that ideal in his own\nperson.\n\nWhy, then, are we so slow to learn this lesson ? Why are we so\nloath to surrender our extreme individualism ? I answer, not only\nbecause it is in accord with our natural selfishness, but also, and I\nbelieve chiefly, from the effects of an inherited narrow philosophy of\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nEVOLUTION AND EDUCATION.\n\n159\n\nlife. Is it not evident that so long as the Golden Age was behind\ninstead of before us ; so long as man was regarded as in a state of\nsad fall from a pristine ideal condition ; so long as it was believed\nthat the perfect image of God, once possessed, had been lost and\nmust be restored, not through society but by some inscrutable\nmiraculous agency; so long as this was the mental attitude, the\nsupreme importance of society as a means of salvation, i. e. , of attaining the ideal, must have remained unrecognized ? The outcome of\nsuch a mental attitude was of necessity the individualism run-mad\nof the present day. But if, on the contrary, as evolution teaches, our\nrace has gradually emerged out of animality into humanity; if the\ndivine image was at first dim, scarcely recognizable, and the mission\nof humanity is, not to restore but to brighten that image until it is\nperfect-if the ideal, the Golden Age, is not in the past but in the\nfuture-then our whole mental attitude toward society becomes .\nchanged-then the good of the individual must be, not sacrificed\nindeed, for that is not necessary, but freely subordinated to the good\nof society; then the prevailing law is not the law of mutual antag-\n\nonism and struggle, and survival of only the strongest and fittest ,\nbut the law of mutual love and mutual help, and the making of as\nmany as possible strong and fit to survive.\nStill Another Lesson, and the Last.\n\nBut whether to call it a lesson\n\nin psychology, or in sociology, or in ethics, I do not know, nor does\nit matter much ; for all departments meet on the highest plane. But\nI suppose it may be most properly called a lesson in ethics, for it\noffers us a moral ideal.\n\nI have said in a previous lesson that individual interests must\n\nbe subordinated to the attainment of the ideal. Now, what is this\nideal ? I believe that evolution will help us to find it. If man has\nindeed emerged out of animality into humanity, as evolution teaches,\nthen must he approach his ideal just in proportion as he rises above\nthe distinctively animal and lives habitually on the distinctively\nhuman plane; and he completely attains it when the distinctive\nhumanity is carried out to its highest limit. Now, it is evident\nthat this proposition involves not only a moral ideal but a means\nof attaining it, i. e., a philosophy of the right conduct of life. Let\nus stop, then, to differentiate it clearly, but very briefly, from other\nand older philosophies of life. I feel constrained to do this lest you\nshould think that it involves an ascetic philosophy.\nThere are two opposite philosophies of life which have hitherto\n\ndominated the world of thought, aye, and of conduct, too. According\n\nto the one, our nature is essentially dual, i. e. , animal and spiritual,\nwithout cordial relation between. The pure spiritual nature is im-\n\nprisoned here on earth for a brief space in an impure material body\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "160\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nand dominated by it, and the higher spiritual nature becomes purer,\nnobler, freer, just in proportion as it despises, tramples under foot,\nand extirpates the animal nature. This is the ascetic philosophy of\nlife. According to the other, our nature is one. Man is simply a\nhigher kind of animal. His pleasure may, indeed, be higher, more\nrefined than that of other animals, but still they are all on the same\nplane the animal. Pleasure, enjoyment-the more refined the better, of course is the only end of human as of animal life. Virtue is\nonly a more refined kind of selfishness. This is the hedonistic philosophy of life. Now, evolution completely combines and reconciles\nthese two mutually excluding opposites, both as to the nature of man\nand as to the philosophy of life, and is, therefore, more rational than\neither. According to the evolution view, humanity emerged out of\nanimality, the spirit of man out of the anima of animals ; but at the\nmoment of emergence it was born into a new and higher spiritual\n\nworld of self-consciousness and immortality. If this be so, then evidently the mission of man and the true philosophy of the right conduct of life are not an extirpation but a subordination of the animal\n\nto the higher spiritual nature. And this is attained, not by the\nnatural decay nor by the voluntary extirpation of the animal but by\nthe natural growth and the voluntary strengthening of the higher\n\nspiritual nature. The animal was in evolution the mother and is still\nthe nourisher of the spiritual ; and, therefore, the stronger the animal nature the better, if so be it is held in due subjection. There\nis not an appetite, passion, or emotion of our animal nature but is\ncontributive to our spiritual nature, if only it be duly subordinated.\nIn our complex human nature the higher is nourished and strengthened by its connection with the more robust lower, and the lower\npurified and refined by its connection with the higher, and the whole\nman is thus elevated to a higher plane without violating the integrity\nof his manhood.\n\nSo much was necessary to say lest I be misunderstood as sustaining an ascetic philosophy. I repeat, then, if man has emerged out\nof animality into humanity, then he approaches his ideal just in\nproportion as he departs from the characteristically animal plane and\nlives on the distinctively human. In animals the whole life and activity are concentrated on the now. Man, on the contrary, by memory\nand imagination, and more and more as his distinctive human nature\npredominates, lives also in the past and the future. His life expands\nmore and more backward and forward, until in the ideal man he lives\n\nequally in all time. For him there is equal reality in all moments,\npast, present, and future. He weighs in equal balance all events\n\nwithout any prejudice in favor of the now, and is thus, as it were,\nunconditioned by time.\n\nThis is the ideal of wise and prudent con\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nSCIENCE AND EDUCATION.\n\n161\n\nduct, the intellectual ideal. Again, in animals the whole life and\nactivity are concentrated on the self, although an unrecognized self,\nfor selfhood is first recognized in man. Man, on the contrary, and\nmore and more as his distinctive human nature predominates, lives\nalso in and for other selves. His life expands and incorporates more\nand more the lives of others, through a realizing sympathy and love.\nHe reaches his ideal in this direction when his life spreads equally\nover all other lives in proportion to their real work ; when self-love no\nlonger in the least disturbs the justness of judgment or unduly influences conduct; when self and other selves are weighed in the same just\nbalance; in a word, when he is at last unconditioned by self. This\nis the ideal of right conduct-the moral ideal. The moral law of\nequal love to self and neighbor is now fulfilled. This ideal, first\ngiven by the moral insight of the Founder of Christianity, is now at\nlast verified by science. Observe that the condition and beginning of\nthis whole process of evolution are the recognition of selfhood in\nman. But observe also that man finds selfhood only to lose it again\nin love.\n\nSCIENCE AND EDUCATION.\n\nBY WM. L. BRYAN, UNIVERSITY OF INDIANA, BLOOMINGTON, IND .\n\nModern science is, for the most part, outside the public school.\n\nI\n\nbelieve that this should not be so.\n\nI am not one of those who believe that science can now, or ever,\n\nfully determine any art or occupation. On the contrary, I believe on\nprinciple that no principle, scientific or philosophic, is sufficient to\ndetermine a single skillful deed. Every deed, in the school or elsewhere, is a concrete thing, subject not only to the tangible forces\nwhich your method can grasp but also to the million intangible\nforces which no statable principle can grasp. The power to take\naccount of these intangible realities, which all men not debauched\nby learning possess in some degree, we call tact, common sense,\ngumption, administrative genius. For my part, I believe that these\nqualities are more important in the school, and in every business,\nthan anything which science or philosophy can add. More than any\nother one thing, I should like to-day to see a crusade in favor of common sense in the public school. With scientific and philosophic Don\nQuixotes riding their Rosinantes against innumerable windmills,\nand sometimes carrying windmills with them, I know of no hope for\n11\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "162\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nthe children except in that saving salt of common sense which the\nAmerican people generally show in the long run in all their undertakings. I particularly rejoice that we have in so many cities schoolmen with a genius for the practical administration of affairs. At a\ntime when the ferment of educational ideas is everywhere working,\nit is worth while to remember that there is no sort of man greater\n\nthan the great executive. A man who can successfully administer a\ngreat school, who can meet rightly everybody who has to be met\nfrom the janitor to the mayor, who can face the whole problem of\nlife from the price of coal to the co-ordination of studies, and who\ncan bring out of all this conditions that will suffer the children to\n\nlive and to grow, that man is a statesman and all the rest of us should\ntake off our hats in his presence.\nIn the second place, I do not believe that empirical science makes\nvalueless the philosophical contributions to education. Some of my\ncolleagues do not agree with me in this. There are those who\nbelieve, that, although men have lived in the world some thousands\nof years, nothing worth the while was known until lately. Plato\nmight as well never have lived; Kant is a corrupter of the youth ;\nHegel is an enemy of human progress; and so following. I cannot\nagree with this. In general, I have found that these critics do not\n\nknow the philosophies they deride. Their derision is generally ignorant derision and their scorn is self-disgrace.\n\nFor my part I rejoice in the priceless inspirations of Fræbel. I\ndo not doubt that the disciples of Hegel and Herbart have done\nvastly more than their unintelligent critics realize to lift educational\ntheory from the plane of capricious debate. I should like to see in\nthis association a Plato Club or an Aristotle Club. I should be glad\nto see a genuine revival of any of those greater masters who have\ntaken the raw material of human experience through spiritual fire\n\nuntil it has become gold. I am glad, also, that we have in some cities\nthe philosopher-superintendent-provided he is like that one of your\nnumber of whom his friends say that he can fly and also walk-he\ncan fly with the seers and he can keep step with the children.\nBut, ladies and gentlemen, there is another influence which I\nbelieve should more largely touch the public school. Of the vast\n\nsocial movement commonly called modern science, doubtless because\nof its relative magnitude in our time, we are all more or less\nattentive witnesses. It is perhaps too great and too near for adequate\ndefinition at present by anyone, but something of the outside of its\nsecret is the secret of everyone. The best experiences of the best\nobservers are saved, and these are by degrees brought together so\nthat they emerge special laws, and then general laws, sciences, and\nthe promise of science. Through this wide and delicate and or\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nSCIENCE AND EDUCATION.\n\n163\n\nganizing contact with things, our race has experienced such a rebirth, such an inflow of new truth and such re-enforcement of power\nfor growth and for efficiency as that which comes to a tree in the\nspring. The old core of life was there, but it has awakened to the\nnew life of growth and productivity under the thousand touches\nof the outside world.\n\nThe old fable of Antæus has come true.\n\nWe\n\nhave touched the earth and it has given us new life. We\nhave touched the earth and it has not degraded us.\n\nThere are those\n\nwho think otherwise. \"Tell Evenus,\" said Socrates on the day of\nhis death; \"tell Evenus to follow me as soon as possible into the\nhouse of death.\" For, he goes on in substance, as everywhere in\nthe dialogues, it is the business of a wise man to die, to escape\nfrom the confusion and corruption of the senses, to escape from the\ndegradation of work with the hands, to escape every day of one's\nlife, by every means, from every sort of contact with the earth, and\nby pure reflection to ascend into complete fellowship with the Absolute Good.\n\nThat sounds like gospel. It is gospel; but there is a better\ngospel. I appeal from these earth-despising prophets to a prophet\nwho did not despise the earth; who came eating and drinking; who\ncared for the bodies of men; whose last prayer and whose last command was that his disciples should not desert the world even to\ndwell apart in a mountain of transfiguration, but should go out into\nthe earth where the people are.\n\nThere is another band of disciples not less sacred, not less brave.\nTheir mission is not to preach, but to see. What are they looking\nat? The dictionary is too short for an answer. At the earth, from\nskin to core, wherever it can be set eyes on; at every living thing and\nevery shred of its body; at every man and every work of man, from\nthe playthings of a baby to the pyramids, and constitutions, and philosophies, and to science itself-nothing is insignificant. An earthworm is studied to as good a purpose as an empire. Nothing is\ncommon or unclean. Swamp and plague and boil, dark age and savage continent, uncouth dress, grotesque religion, Hottentot, Zulu,\nchild, and pedagogue ; everything comes into its divine right of being\nlooked at.\n\nI have seen a picture of a roomful of monks sitting in elegant\nleisure hearing the story of a returned missionary. It may be that\namong those who listened were good men, who had faith in God, in\nthe goodness of His world, and in the triumph of righteousness. But\nthe haggard story-teller was one who believed that the world has to\n\nbe made good, and so he had gone forth to struggle with publicans\nand with Pharisees, to have the mother-love within him insulted and\ntortured by those he longed to save, and to lie prostrate in Gethsem\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "164\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nane, with every friend fled and the face of God hidden. I would have\nbeside this picture another. I would have a roomful of philosophers\nlistening to the story of the scientist. They sit aloft in peace, declaring that the world is rational.\n\nHe also believes that the world is\n\nrational; but that is not enough. He must go forth and see that it\nis rational, and how it is so. He must go forth to be tortured by\nexceptions. Again and again he must fail\nThrough the granite-seeming\nTo see the smile of Reason beaming .\n\nAgain and again he must see the well-ordered, schematized reason of the books shattered by pitiless reality-all this in order that\nthere may rise, vast and substantial, the Reason which is.\n\nI need not say how profoundly this whole movement of modern\nscience has affected the world.\n\nThis movement has without doubt\n\ngiven us an incredible advance toward the millennium. It has helped\nus to master the brute earth and made us all neighbors and brothers.\nIt has changed the whole spiritual atmosphere, so that there was\ndoubtless not a sermon preached here this week not deeply modified\nby what a century of science has done.\nAnd still modern science is for the most part outside the public\nschool. Can it come inside? Not easily. It is not easy for any good\nthing to get really inside of any institution. You cannot get common\nsense or philosophy or any sort of science inside the school between\nthe lids of a handbook.\n\nYou cannot get any of these things entirely\n\nand thoroughly inside from a committee of great outsiders who talk\nat the school . There are special reasons why it is hard to get science\ninto any kind of art, such as teaching. There are two battle lines in\nhuman progress. Some are trying to find out what is true; some\nare trying to find out what to do. Sometimes the two lines are near\ntogether, and they may become one. Sometimes they are far apart.\nWhat science discovers may have to wait a dozen or a hundred years\nbefore it can be turned to practical account. Faraday was long dead\nbefore there was commercial electric light. And so the discoveries\nof science must often pass through a long digesting process before\nthey can be schoolroom wisdom.\n\nNevertheless, there are those who believe that elementary education and modern science cannot much longer remain as isolated from\neach other, and as ignorant of each other, as at present. We must\nshort-circuit the connection between the university and the common\nschool. The established results of science must get a quicker path\n\nfrom the laboratory into the schoolroom, so that the children will\nnot be taught so many as true which are known to be false, and so\nthat most certain conditions of physical and mental health will not\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS.\n\nSessions.]\n\n165\n\nbe ignored. We need to get the method of science inside the school,\nso far at least that everybody, from the kindergarten baby to the\n\nnormal school president, will acquire a habit of not deciding questions without reference to the facts involved.\n\nWe need to get the\n\nspirit of science to fill us, every one, with zeal for work, with infinite\npatience, with the secret of growing along with all that is good in\nthe old into the ever new, with humility because we have seen so\nlittle, and with reverence because we have seen so much.\n\nAll that I have said in plea for science has been more powerfully\nsaid in the person of the distinguished scientist who has preceded\n\nme. He has brought us a message not found without infinitely laborious study of minute facts by himself and other such missionaries of\nscience as he. That message has touched our late-born race to the\nmarrow, and that man stands among us a living proof that one may\nspend his life in scientific study of the earth and therewith grow\ninto the spiritual vision of a prophet.\n\nTHE INSTRUCTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS NOW\n\nAT WORK IN THE SCHOOLS.\n\nI.\n\nBY TEACHERS' INSTITUTES.\n\nBY ARVIN S. OLIN, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE, KAN.\n\nThe advancement of the teacher's work is in no particular more\nmanifest than in the views now held concerning the preparation of\nteachers for that work. Sixty years ago there were in this country\nno agencies for specifically preparing teachers to do their work.\n\"What one knows, that he can teach,\" was the maxim everywhere\nbelieved and acted upon, and plans of school organization, government, and methods of instruction, so far as they may be called plans,\nwere traditional, or were derived, either consciously or unconsciously,\nfrom imitation. Now, a distinction is made between knowing and the\nability to impart knowledge, and among the teacher's qualifications\nmethodology is given a scarcely lower place than a complete knowledge of the subjects to be taught.\nTo supply these technical or professional qualifications half a\nscore of different means are provided, all tending toward the same\ngeneral end. This technical training of teachers is the specific func\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "166\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\ntion of the normal school. Allied to this, in form or purpose, are\nteachers' associations of all kinds, teachers' institutes, reading circles, teachers' classes, teachers' colleges, and chairs of pedagogy in\ncolleges and universities. All of these have for their main object the\n\ngiving of the ability to use one's powers most economically and advantageously in the work of teaching.\nTo this group of special agencies the institute belongs. It is dif-\n\nferentiated from the normal school and the college by its lack of permanence and continuity; it differs from teachers' associations in the\nfact, that, while an association is an assemblage of equals, gathered\nfor the purpose of deliberating on questions of common interest, the\n\ninstitute is a definite part of a school system, with a certain responsible headship and a definite and systematic plan of work. In its\ntime-limits the institute often resembles the association ; in the character of its work it is like the normal school. Indeed, Chancellor\nPayne defines the institute as a normal school with a very short\ncourse of study.\nThe instituțe came into existence at almost the same time as the\n\nnormal school, and, like it, has had a rapid development, especially\nwithin the past twenty years, and its influence has never been more\nwidely felt than now. Together with the other agencies for enrich-\n\ning the teacher's work, the institute has been partly a cause and\npartly an effect of the improved conditions of the present day, when\nteaching is more scientific and the teacher's work is receiving a\nwider and more generous recognition than formerly.\nThe successful teacher has three cardinal qualifications-character, knowledge, skill. Character is mainly the product of heredity\nand home influences; knowledge is the joint product of the home and\nthe school ; for the development of skill we look to the normal school,\nor to its substitutes and equivalents. The teacher has no greater\nneed than for skill to make potent the character and knowledge\nwhich she possesses.\n\nThere are two classes of teachers in our schools-professional and\nnon-professional. By professional teachers, I mean those who have\nbeen thoroughly trained for their work and who are permanently\nengaged in that work. Their efficiency is usually increased by skilled\nsupervision. The positions held, the compensation received, though\ninadequate, and their personal qualities, make them worthy representatives of a real profession.\nThe class of professional teachers is both absolutely and relatively\nlarger now than ever before. But in spite of the 200 normal schools\nin the country, the great body of American teachers are almost entire-\n\nly without special training for their work. They are educated in the\ndistrict school, which may be good, so far as it goes, perhaps re\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nIMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS.\n\n167\n\nceive some high school training, secure a teacher's certificate, and\nteach in district schools for a longer or shorter time until they can\nmake more lucrative or more attractive engagements. This is the\nnon-professional class of teachers, who comprise, it is safe to say, at\nleast three-fourths of the 400,000 teachers of the country.\n\nThe division between the two classes is thus loosely marked, but\nthere is a constant interchange between them. Non-professional\nteachers seek to align themselves with the professional class, and it\nis not an unusual thing to see a professionally-trained teacher assume\na non-professional attitude toward her work. One can find large\ncities among whose teachers there is more of intellectual and educa-\n\ntional provincialism than among the teachers in many villages and\nsmall towns.\n\nThe most important work of the institute is to aid the first and\n\ncheck the second of these tendencies ; to make it easy for a teacher\nto pass from the non-professional to the professional class, and to\nprevent a teacher from dropping out of the professional class.\n\nIt is plain that institute work for the professional class should be\nof a character different from that required for non-professional teachers.\nFor the latter more time, more concrete work, less of abstract\nphilosophy, is required than for the class of professional teachers.\nThe institute for professional teachers needs not to deal so much with\n\nthe matter of instruction ; even the methods and devices of presenting\nknowledge may not need to be emphasized; but the principle lying\nback of the method or device, the law of mind involved, and the\ndetermination of general educational relations should be emphasized. Though it be not through a study of the rudiments of pedagogical science, still the institute has its message and its work for\n\nthe professionally-trained teacher. If for no other reason, its existence would be justified as a sure prevention of stagnation. As a\nsingle illustration, I have in mind a city school system with which\nare connected nearly 400 teachers, whose energy, skill, and excellent\nwork are known in all parts of the country. One day each month is\ndevoted to institute work, and it is safe to say that the marked success of these schools is due, in no small measure, to the unifying and\nenergizing influence of the institute. The superintendent says, \"During the past year the monthly institutes have been, as always with us,\nefficient means of unifying the schools, rousing enthusiasm for new\ninformation and better work, developing hidden talent, cultivating\n\nprofessional feeling and esprit de corps, and encouraging sympathetic\nsocial relations among the teachers. \" The work was carried on as a\ngeneral meeting, in which subjects of common interest were treated,\nand section meetings, in which more detailed work was done. In the\n\nlist of topics presented to the general meeting I notice such subjects\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "168\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nas \"Motives,\" \"Hereditary Environment,\" \"Relation of School-Work\nto Citizenship,\" \"The State's Duty to the Feeble-Minded,\" \"The Science of Ethics,\" etc.\n\nOf the sectional meetings, two studied the history of education,\none following Rosenkranz's outline of educational systems ; another\ngroup broadened their interests and their sympathies by a study of\nGerman literature .\n\nAll this work was in addition to the discussion\n\nof the common, every-day problems of the schoolroom.\n\nI mention\n\nthis instance because it seems to me an ideal form of institute work\n\nfor professional teachers and because the benefits of this system have\nbeen remarked by so many educators.\nBut, as the non-professional class of teachers is the larger, and as\ntheir need is greater, so the work of the institute for non-professional\nteachers is more important, and what follows relates to this form of\ninstitute work.\n\nWhat, then, should the institute do for teachers ? Among the\nmost important uses of institutes are :\n\nI. To enable teachers to gain and regain scholarship. This is\nnot to say that academic work should occupy the greater part of the\ntime in institutes. It is not to say that teachers have a right to\ndemand that the work of the institute be so planned that they may\nacquire a knowledge of any subject from the foundation. But it is\nthe legitimate work of the institute to make knowledge of a subject\nricher and fuller; to review and emphasize the salient points of the\nsubjects under discussion. There are two good reasons for this\nview: First, without this knowledge-drill it is difficult to make\ninstitute work profitable or interesting to the comparatively untrained teachers in attendance. Second, academic instruction supplies\nthe best of illustrative material for more strictly professional work.\nAnother reason might be given. An institute conductor or instructor rarely presents to his class a lesson on the principles of percentage, or evolution, or the drainage system of a continent, or phrase\nmodifiers, or any other important topic familiar to institute workers,\nbut, that, for some in his classes, the lesson is the first scientific development of the subject that has come within their experience. And\nyet with our present status such persons may be, and often are, teachers. They are distinctly the gainers by the presentation of the important points in the academic branches with which they have to do.\nInstitute reviews are beneficial to teachers, also, in that they restore elements of knowledge which had sunk below the level of con-\n\nsciousness, and so had become unavailable for teaching purposes. A\ngood illustration of this is found in the case of a teacher engaged in\nroutine work within rather narrow limits, as in intermediate work.\n\nSuch teachers have often said to me that they felt themselves losers\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nIMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS.\n\n169\n\nby the fading out from consciousness of the elements of scholarship\nformerly possessed. To such the academic work of the institute is\nan intellectual tonic and restorative.\n\nI have said so much concerning this question because it is a much\nmooted point. From a study of the question on its merits, from observation, and a somewhat extended experience, I am convinced that\nit is unwise to attempt to banish academic work from the institute ;\n\nthat instruction from the knowledge standpoint given by a master\nis not only a legitimate part of institute work, but is almost indispensable for reaching the best results.\nII. The second and the greatest object for which the institute\nexists is to enable teachers to master the special principles of their\nart. This has to do with the strictly professional part of the teacher's equipment. Roughly speaking, the institute presents four phases\nof this work: the principles of psychology, organization, management,\nand methodology. The reasons for emphasizing these elements are\nobvious. Psychology is to the teacher's art what anatomy is to the\nmedical practitioner. President Stanley Hall declares psychology to\nbe the heart of modern pedagogy. But it is not the skeletonized\npsychology of the old book-makers that will be a source of strength\nin the institute. What is needed is the applied, vitalized psychology\nwhich discovers in the living child the powers, the tendencies, and\nthe capacities of the human soul, and reveals in the teacher's art the\nmeans of influencing and guiding that soul aright. To secure right\nschool government and methods of presenting truth are problems in\napplied psychology, and it is pre-eminently the business of the institute to promote conditions for their successful solution. These conditions will be met, not only in the giving of formal instruction on\npsychological and allied subjects, in lectures and discussions, though\nthese are good; but the whole attitude and atmosphere of an institute\nshould be such as to promote professional growth in the highest\nsense.\n\nThe institute is one of the most efficient means of keeping in\ntouch with the leaders in educational thought. The ablest educational journalism, the most attractive book-writers, cannot rival the\ninstitute in the propagation of what is really an educational gospel.\nLet me cite a single illustration of this. An honored member and\nformer officer of this association was, some years since, conducting\na state school of institute workers. He brought up the then comparatively new script method of teaching reading to beginners.\nPractically the entire body of institute workers was against him at\nfirst; but as he developed the principles of the method the able conductor won for it the approval of all, and through the institutes of an\nentire state the new method was presented and indorsed.\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "170\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[General\n\nIn professional matters the good institute is to the teacher what\nthe newspaper and magazine are to the general scholar, keeping her\nabreast of current thought.\n\nIII. A third important object of the institute is to enable teachers to acquire the right relation to their work. The dignity, the\nworth, the possibilities of the teacher's work are ideas which slowly\ngrow into the mind, and depend largely upon association and a\nknowledge of the professional elements of the teaching work. One\nmay sometimes plod drearily along a road, oblivious to beauty appealing to every sense until a more observant friend points it out ;\nand as we may through greater knowledge increase our appreciation\n\nof the beauty in a landscape, or a picture, or a poem, so we may\nthrough the proper means come to more truly know and feel the dignity and the worth of the work in which we are engaged. The institute furnishes most favorable conditions for acquiring this right\nrelation to one's work. Aspiration may be fostered; inspiration\nmay be generated; unity and harmony may be developed. Under\nthe care of skilled instructors, the tide of ambition and earnestness\nand enthusiasm rises higher and higher, until the gates are opened\nand the generous flood flows out to enrich all the tributary fields.\nIV. The fourth great object of the institute is to enable teachers\nto establish right relations to each other. These relations have\ngreatly changed since the influences which draw and bind teachers\ntogether have begun to be felt. Formerly, teachers worked in isolation; now, side by side, in the heartiest co-operation. Formerly, the\ntendency was to evolve pedagogical plans and processes from one's\ninner consciousness ; and sometimes in the mind of the pedagogue,\nas in the minds of the villagersStill the wonder grew\nThat one small head could carry all he knew\n\nNow, the greatest as well as the humblest gladly learns from his\nfellows and the records of experience.\n\nTo learn the lessons of good fellowship, of interdependence and\nmutual helpfulness, the institute provides excellent conditions, and\none of the most obvious and most encouraging results of the institute\nsystem has been the cordial personal relations existing among teachers.\n\nAt this point I make brief mention of the relation of the institute\nto the permanent agencies for the training of teachers. The institute\nmakes no pretension to completeness of work. For the class of\n\nteachers who offer themselves without any professional training it\nis only an imperfect substitute for the normal school. But, as a rule,\nthe institute stimulates the desire for fuller knowledge and a higher\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nIMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS.\n\n171\n\ntraining, and it often happens that the institute becomes the guidepost to the normal school and the college for those who but for the\nawakening influence of the institute would never have been in attendance upon them.\n\nThese are among the important benefits which the institute brings\nto teachers at work in the schools.\n\nThe extent to which teachers\n\nappropriate these advantages will mainly depend upon right methods\nof doing institute work. For this purpose the most general and most\nadvantageous organization is similar to that of a school. There is a\ndouble gain in this. It is the most efficient form of organization,\nand it makes the entire institute an illustration-a model-in school\n\nmanagement.\n\nAnd this is as true in the details of institute work as\n\nin its general control.\n\nOrdinarily an institute should, for at least part of the work, be\ndivided into classes, according to the varying abilities or needs of\nits members. There are two methods of conducting these classes :\nthe lecture method and the recitation method.\n\nEach of these has its\n\nplace, and it would be unwise to exclude either. In short-session\ninstitutes the lecture will, of necessity, be the principal medium of\ninstruction ; but even here there should be some opportunity for\nmembers of the institute to \"talk back.\" In institutes having longer\nthan one-week sessions there should be an earnest attempt to secure\n\nenergetic study of the subjects dealt with in the institute and a large\nand intelligent participation in the classroom work. Lecturing is\nan exposure to knowledge; but often it does not \"take.\" Intelligent\nstudy is an inoculation which never fails to produce the expected\nresults.\n\nI hold firmly to the idea, that, in institutes whose sessions continue longer than one week, the recitation should be the standard\nmethod for carrying on institute work. These are the reasons for\nthis view of the case :\n\n1. Institutes are largely for those teachers who have not enjoyed\n\na liberal training; it is only for those who are liberally trained that\nthe lecture system will yield the largest advantage.\n2. All teachers are given more or less to imitation. Continually\ndeluge institute members with oceans of talk, and they will go and\ndo likewise, to the infinite harm of thousands of innocent children.\nOn the other hand, every recitation skillfully conducted in the institute-questions carefully framed, topics properly correlated, all\nmatters of detail firmly in hand-stimulates the teacher-pupils to a\nmore artistic and efficient use of the recitation.\n\n3. One grows strong by what he makes his own. Teachers\nappropriate for themselves that which they themselves investigate.\nFrom such investigation, if properly directed, they will get more,\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "172\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nand more permanently, than by merely listening to a lecture on the\nsame subject. There are exceptions ; but this is true of the average\nwork of the average institute.\n\n4. The judicious institute conductor can usually so guide and\nsupplement the recitation as to secure all the advantages of the\nlecture with none of its disadvantages .\n5. To the teacher the power of clear, connected, worthy expression is of the highest importance. The institute recitation is a\n\npowerful auxiliary in developing this power.\nThe disposition to make the institute mainly a means of recreation and amusement is to be deprecated. By all means let the\ninstitute be attractive ; but let it not be forgotten that there is a\nserious work to be done so serious as to engage the best efforts of\nall who have to do with institute management. To review and re-enforce the scholarship of teachers ; to impart the elements of skill and\n\nprofessional knowledge; to give to teachers right views of, and right\nrelations to, the work in which they are engaged; to establish the\nmost helpful relations of teachers to each other; surely these interests are so important as to forbid spending the major portion of the\n\ninstitute sessions in listening to humorous lectures and engaging in\nsocial diversions.\n\nThere have been many attempts to make the work of institutes\nmore efficient by grading them. These attempts have been attended\nwith varying success. In long-session institutes there would seem to\nbe the same reason for grading as in a school. But the baleful\nshadow of the examination for teachers' certificates, which is usually\nheld at the close of an institute, generally prevents complete grading.\nThe impending examination causes a large part of the institute to\nask, not what the institutes can give, nor what they most need, but\nwhat they can do which will help them most in the examination.\nInstitutes have been in existence since 1839 ; under their present\nname since 1843. What results have they brought to pass ?\nAmong the most important effects which have been brought about\nby institutes may be named the following :\n1. They have been the forerunners of more complete methods of\nfitting teachers for their work, and their existence and activity have\nmade it easier to establish such complete instrumentalities .\n2. The institute has reached a class which otherwise would have\n\nremained almost unaided in their efforts to gain technical preparation for the work of teaching.\n\n3. The institute has done much to rouse an interest in education,\nnot only among teachers but among all classes of people. Not every\n\ncounty can go to the normal school ; but the institute, as it were,\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS.\n\nSessions.]\n\n173\n\nbrings the normal school to every county. It might be called normal\nschool extension.\n\n4. The institute has aided much to raise the standard of pro-\n\nfessional qualifications for teachers, especially in rural schools ; and\nthis makes it possible to raise the legal requirements for teachers,\nand so protect the schools, in a measure, from empiricism.\nI have tried in this paper to show the ways in which the institute\nis helpful to teachers, the methods by which these advantages may\nbe best assured to those for whom they are intended, and the most\nobvious results of institute work in the past.\n\nThere is every reason to believe that an agency so democratic, so\nprogressive, and so adaptable will in future exert an even wider and\nmore helpful influence than it now exerts; and that the institute will\nremain, as it is, pre-eminent among the instrumentalities for instructing and improving teachers now at work in the schools.\n\nTHE INSTRUCTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS NOW\nAT WORK IN THE SCHOOLS.\n\nIL\n\nBY TEACHERS' CLASSES.\n\nBY EARL BARNES, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA .\n\nThe question is often asked, Why do teachers need to be kept\nunder constant instruction more than any other professional class ?\nThe steady development of human knowledge and the development\nof new educational methods add no problem to the teacher's work\n\nwhich is not met by the physician, and we have no physicians' classes .\n\nOwing to the monopoly of education by the state, however, the\nteacher's work is subject to peculiar limitations. The money available for the support of the half- million teachers needed in our country to-day is not sufficient to enable us to command the services of\nwell-trained men and women, and the inertia of governmental organization makes it impossible for the money to be so distributed as to\n\noffer those rewards to genius and preparation that we find in the\nphysician's calling. The great governmental machine, with its finan-\n\ncial limitations, makes the employment of a large number of poorlyprepared teachers unavoidable. This same necessary element of\neconomy leads to overcrowding these ill-prepared teachers so that\n\nmost of them have neither time nor strength, even if they had the\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n174\n\n[General\n\ntraining and the habit of intellectual work, to carry on individual\nlines of study. This condition of things makes it imperative that\nthe superintendent, or some one else, should devote time and effort to\nthe training of the teachers now in actual service.\n\nThe aim of such a class should be, to awaken professional interest\nand enthusiasm and to direct the teacher's educational thinking into\n\nvaluable lines.\n\nSuch classes cannot be expected to give much liberal\n\nculture, or information, or intellectual training. If these have not\nbeen secured by the previous education of the teacher, little can be\n\ndone in teachers' meetings. The teachers' class is not a broadly\neducational institution, destined to develop and find permanent place\nin our school system. Institutes, associations, and clubs will furnish\nsufficient distributing points for new educational supplies when we\nare able to admit no one to the teachers' calling who is not professionally trained. The teachers' class is a makeshift device needed\nto-day to fill a gap.\n\nThe materials for this study are drawn largely from personal\nexperience in New York, Indiana, and, more especially, in California,\nwhere for the past four years I have been constantly at work with\nclasses of teachers in active service.\n\nIn the organization of the teachers' classes we have found the\nfollowing method effective : The superintendent of a city or town\nsends out a circular to his teachers, saying that, beginning with a\ncertain date (taking care to avoid holiday seasons), a course of study\nwill be taken up by the teachers, under the direction of Mr. Blank,\ncovering some particular field, and asking their hearty support for\nthe work.\n\nAll financial friction is avoided if the board of education\n\nsets aside a small sum to pay the printing bills and the expenses of\nthe instructor.\n\nThis also secures a sense of personal responsibility.\n\nIf the board provides special instruction for the teachers they ought\nto avail themselves of it. Still further personal responsibility is\nsecured bydismissing the schools a half-hour or an hour earlier than\nusual and holding the meeting at some central location at three or\nfour o'clock. Friday is a bad day to meet ; Tuesday works well. If\nthe lectures and discussions are accompanied by schoolroom experiments or tests, a Saturday morning meeting for the working up of\nresults is desirable. Attendance on this session must be purely voluntary-a few teachers attending on compulsion will ruin the work.\nBut these are details unworthy consideration in such a body, it may\nbe said. The man who disregards these details ruins his work before\nhe begins it. The conductor who is going to work with a class of\nwomen teachers\n\nand all our town and city teachers are women now\n\n-wearied by long hours of exhausting work in our overcrowded\nschoolrooms, worried by small economies that small wages make im\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nIMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS.\n\n175\n\nperative, cannot be too careful about the details of his arrangements .\nIf he calls the teachers together Friday evening, under compulsion\n\nfrom the superintendent, with a request that they contribute to\nnecessary expenses, the conductor will find himself confronted by a\nmass of wearied irritability that paralyzes the activity of even a professional educational agitator.\n\nWhat is the best subject-matter for such a series of meetings ?\nAcademic subjects, whether languages, literature, history, science, or\nart, belong to the field of so-called university extension. Teachers\n\nare the best patrons of such courses ; but, with the differences in\ntastes and previous study that prevail in all school departments , it is\n\nunwise to organize the teachers as a class for the study of these\nsubjects. The teachers' class should be given up to professional\nwork, and not all professional study is adapted to its use .\nThe history of education is not good material for such a class.\n\nThe value of this study lies in tracing lines of development during\nperiods of time. The members of teachers' classes have too unequal\npreparation, too little time for study, and too few available collections of historical records to make such study valuable. Besides, the\nwhole spirit of American pedagogy is opposed to such study. We\nlive on the near edge of the immediate present; witness the fact that\nin this great national meeting of American pedagogues our program\ndoes not contain a single historical study, though we have abundant\nforecasts of the future.\n\nEducational classics, if studied as biography or as links in a historical chain of ideas, are subject to the same difficulties as broader\nstudies in the history of education. If taken up and studied as\nisolated attempts to answer educational questions, and if through\ndiscussions these answers are brought into immediate relations with\n\nthe actual schoolroom experience of the class, Rousseau's \"Émile\" or\nPestalozzi's \"How Gertrude Teaches Her Children\" may form the\nbasis for interesting and broadening study.\nFormal works in psychology are likewise barren reading for the\nteachers' class ; and it must be remembered that I am speaking, not of\na little club of congenial spirits but of a class that includes most of\nthe teachers in the department or in some branch of it.\n\nThe unequal\n\nintellectual standing of such a class and the lack of vital points of\ncontact between text-books of psychology and actual teaching make\n\nsuch study perfunctory and of slight value. This leaves us as valuable subjects of study the whole range of real questions concerning\nthe children themselves, the curriculum, the methods of instruction,\nand the problems of school organization and management. How ,\nthen, should these questions be taken up ? Is it better to start with\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "176\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nsome treatise on pedagogy or methods, or is it better to gather up\ndetails and work out home-made generalization ?\nIt seems to me there can be no question that the last method is\n\nthe one to pursue. The teacher, like the child, must be approached\nthrough his lines of natural interest. Listen to a group of teachers\nof the class who especially need this training, and see how uniformly\nthey talk about the details of their every-day schoolroom life. They\nare lost in the details ; there are so many trees that they never see\nthe woods, and it is exactly here that they need help. They seldom\nturn to a discussion of Rousseau, or experimental psychology, or\nHerbart, or the committee of ten.\n\nThose teachers who care for these\n\ntopics are those who have broad training, in the school or in life,\nand they are capable of self-sustained professional life. But, you\nsay, \"It is not what these untrained and overworked teachers like to\n\ndo that concerns us; it is what they ought to do.\" Even admitting\nthis, we must nevertheless begin where these teachers now are if we\nare to lead them effectively where we want them to go.\nBesides,\n\nwho knows\n\nwhere we want them\n\nto\n\ngo ?\n\nDo\n\nwe\n\nwant them to get anywhere in particular? Is it not that we want\nthem rather to get power-power to observe clearly and honestly the\nphenomena about them in their schoolrooms ; power to select the\nessential from the merely passing; power to see the relations of these\nconcrete essentials to Mary Gibbs or Tommy Hodge ; power to see\nthe relations of Mary Gibbs or Tommy Hodge to the community in\nwhich they live and to the possible industral, political, religious,\nmoral, and æsthetic life which opens before them ? This is surely\nthe problem-to get the teacher where he is strong enough and is\nwell enough acquainted with the actualities of his work so that he\ncan direct himself.\n\nAt first, then, I should say, the method of work in the teachers'\nclass should be inductive; taking up simple studies on the children\nthemselves ; their ways of seeing things and thinking about them;\ntheir ambitions, passions, and fears, their plays, their language, their\nvarious forms of expression. Along with this we may have simple\n\ndefinite experiments in the subjects taught, noting how the children\nrespond to number, or literature, or nature lessons in the various\ngrades, under different conditions of presentation ; or we may take up\nthe problems of school organization and discipline. Every schoolroom should be a laboratory; no one can be a vital teacher who is\nnot an investigator.\n\nBut this kind of work requires a conductor of no mean ability.\nThe teachers' class contains such a variety of personalities, having\ndifferent preparation, with many of its members set in a mold of\nhabit by years of work, that the instructor must be a man or woman\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "[Sessions.\n\nIMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS.\n\n177\n\nof versatility and sympathetic understanding, backed by a wide\nknowledge of human nature and pedagogic theory and practice. In\nsome of our cities and towns this work is being admirably done by\nsuperintendents of ability and professional training, who call on outside talent for occasional assistance. I believe such a superintendent\nis the ideal conductor; but at present we have not enough of them\nto go around. The special teacher and the teacher who has done\nsomething especially well can both be used to great advantage in the\nteachers' classes, with, of course, a constant danger of jealousy.\nProgressive teachers from neighboring towns can be invited in to\nexcellent advantage to lead or direct some piece of work. There\n\nstill remains, however, a large place for the professional trainer of\npedagogues. True, he does not know the teachers personally, though\nthat is sometimes just as well, and he is ignorant of the local conditions and practices; but he brings from his university or normal\nschool an air of freshness. He, in a sense, connects the class with the\ninstitution he represents, and he has the advantage of the prophet\nwho is out of his own country. The rapid development of departments of education in our colleges and universities and of the profes-\n\nsional sides of our normal schools, now going on, will furnish a\nlimited number of such leaders, but nowhere else in the teacher's\nworld is the demand so far in excess of the supply, and the demand\nis growing more rapidly than is the supply.\nThe state is rapidly broadening its activity as an educator. In\n1850 it generally provided for education between the ages of seven\n\nand twenty; but gradually the age limit has been pushed down and\nup, until now, through the development of the public kindergarten\nand the state university, it has become possible in many parts of our\ncountry for a person to attend a free school under the charge of\nthe state from the time he is two and one-half years old until he dies\nof old age. Nor is the end yet: The present tendency of the state\nis to take upon itself the care of the child wherever it can do the\n\nwork better than the parent can do it. Hence, the demand for\nteachers will multiply in the future even faster than our population\ngrows. With a better appreciation of the teacher's work more\nmoney will be forthcoming, but we shall necessarily have for years to\ncome great numbers of badly paid and hence weak teachers, incapable\nof self-sustained professional life. To train them into efficiency we\n\nneed thousands of strong superintendents, or directors, or class\nconductors, selected for reasons of special fitness and finely trained\nin the best educational thought and practice of all time.\n\nTo put the matter of this paper in condensed form, I should say :\nFor many years there will be a large demand for teachers' classes.\n12\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n178\n\n[General\n\nA permanent director or professionally trained superintendent,\naided by occasional outside courses, gives the best leadership; but for\nthe present we must depend on outside inspiration for much of the\nwork.\n\nThe subject-matter of instruction should be taken from the actualities surrounding the teacher's work.\n\nFormal texts on psychology, pedagogy, or the history of education should be introduced only after a considerable work with concrete details, if at all.\nThe method of instruction should be inductive, gathering up the\ndetails of school life and showing their possibilities.\nIn the organization of the class the greatest freedom and flexibility should prevail, yet the class should be organically connected with\nthe school department.\n\nBadly conducted teachers' classes do far more harm than good;\nthey weary and disgust the teachers, degenerate into petty debating\nclubs, and arouse dissatisfaction and little jealousies .\n\nWisely conducted teachers' classes are of the greatest value, fill-\n\ning a present gap in our system of training teachers.\nThey enable the superintendent to detect genius, draw it out,\nand use it to advantage. At the same time, they enable him to detect superficiality and indifference and get rid of them.\nThey enable the teacher herself to discover her weakness and\nher strength-genius finds itself.\n\nThey introduce the student spirit into the teacher's work. This\nspirit alone can give strength and value to such meetings .\nThey give opportunity for free discussion and for the develop-\n\nment of the spirit of give-and-take so necessary in a school department largely composed of women.\nThey give unity and purpose to the work of the school department, arouse a professional spirit, and an esprit de corps which is contagious and which is the very soul of school life.\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nIMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS.\n\n179\n\nTHE INSTRUCTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS NOW\nAT WORK IN THE SCHOOLS.\n\nIII.\n\nBY TEACHERS' READING CIRCLES.\n\nBY L. H. JONES, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO .\n\nThe reading circle as a means of training teachers now in service\nhas large advantages connected with marked limitations. Too much\n\nmust not be expected from it. As a piece of mechanism, or as a part\nof an organization, its nature must be studied, its proper place and\nuse be found, and its correlation with other forces strictly observed.\n\nIn large school systems, as of the great cities, its place is mainly\ntaken by the class or pedagogical club, though there is still room\nfor each. The club has as its chief idea discussion-the reading\n\nbeing more in the form of study and preparation for the discussion.\nThe reading circle, on the other hand, must have as its chief element the reading of books ; other things, as meetings and discussions,\nbeing incidental, however desirable. The real or causative idea of\n\nthe reading circle is an attempt to overcome what might properly\nbe called the inertia of books. This inertia of books is not entirely\ndependent on the nature of the book, but somewhat, also, upon circumstances connected with the life of the reader. Each of you can\nrecall in your own experience that the reading of some particular\nbook was an epoch-making influence in your life, shaping for you even\nthe trend of your after-life and action. A closer reflection will, in\nmost of these cases, show that it was not the book itself which\n\nenforced its reading upon you, but that some circumstance outside\nthe book, and even outside your own line of conscious effort, became\nthe force which determined that you should then and there read\nthat particular book. It was the casual reference to it by a friend,\nor some notice of its contents in the paper, or something of this\nnature which gave the impulse and supplied the occasion. Now, the\nreading circle does this kind of thing for the average teacher, supplies motive and arranges due occasion, and finally enforces by\ncompetitive struggle the necessary reading and thinking. To sum up\nbriefly, the reading circle acts as a distinctive force to overcome the\ninertia of books in several ways, among which I mention the following:\n\n1. It places definitely before the attention of its members the\n\nparticular book or books adopted and shows how best to obtain them,\nsecures better rates financially,\n\nwhich is no small part of its service,\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "180\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\n-and puts the entire matter into tangible shape. The teacher by\nmerely joining the organization adds to his own arm the strength\nof the entire organism; the latter does the rest, and actually places\nthe book right end up in the teacher's hand.\n2. If rightly managed, it furnishes a key to the book itself by a\nwell-considered outline, duly prepared by some competent teacher,\nwho gives suggestions as to the practical applications that the ordinary teacher may make of the teachings of the book when once his\n\nattention has been called to them. To persons unskilled in reading,\nas many teachers are, as most teachers in the rural schools are,\nthis is an important function of the reading circle as an organized\nform of help to the teacher.\n3. It furnishes an immediate and forceful motive for reading,\nthrough the very idea of the organization itself. It is a lamentable\n\nfact, as has been pointed out already, that most persons must have\nan immediate and more or less external motive for much of their\n\nreading-a motive outside any interest felt in the ideas as such.\nThese influences may come from many sources. The very fact of\nbelonging to an organization of large membership is of itself a mighty\ninfluence. The fact that stated times are set for reading certain\nportions, and that many persons are thus known to be engaged simultaneously on the same work, is not only a strong motive to the reading itself, but it introduces an important element of education into\nthe life and habits of the teacher, viz. , an appropriate time for each\nseparate thing to be done; and last, but not least, some form of test\nin the way of examination is possible where such close organization\nas is herein described exists.\n\nIt is true that the reading circle is not wholly a modern institution. Its present form and use among teachers is relatively modern.\nOf all the reading circles known to me, that with which I am most\nintimately familiar is the Indiana circle, on whose board of directors\nI had the honor and pleasure to serve for eight years. The circle in\nthat state consists essentially of two parts, both carried on under\nthe auspices of the same board of directors.\n\nThe first is called the\n\nTeachers' Reading Circle, and is given up distinctively to work more\nor less definitely professional in its nature; the other is devoted to\nthe direct interests of young people, and is known as the Young\nPeople's Circle.\nThe former, known distinctively as the Teachers' Reading Circle,\nwas organized in 1883. It has steadily grown in numbers until it\nnow has a membership of about 12,000, out of something over 15,000\nteachers employed in that state. Its members have pursued each\nyear at least two lines of reading, one of which is distinctly pedagogical, ranging year by year through psychology, methods, history\nof education, etc. Another line of reading, pursued simultaneously,\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nIMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS.\n\n181\n\nhas been more largely literary or scientific. In literature it has\nbeen the effort, not to read or study about literature but to read\nstandard literary works themselves for the spiritual nourishment and\nenlightenment which comes from reading and assimilating the brightest and best creations of human genius. I mention, as typical of\nthe kind of books used in this work, that this circle has had on its\nlist from time to time characteristic selections from Shakespeare,\nCarlyle, Hawthorne, and Ruskin.\nThe board of directors has followed the plan of having prepared\nby some competent person each year a somewhat exhaustive outline\nof the books to be read in that particular year, containing explanatory notes, philosophical comments, suggestions and questions, etc.;\nand it has further arranged the books into definite portions by\nperiods of months. It is very important that a set time be arranged\nfor particular portions of the work, that the idea before mentioned\nof having large numbers of people working simultaneously on the\nsame thing, may act as motive to induce careful reading of the text.\nI am not in general an advocate of the policy of indirection; but\nthere are some things that seem more easy of accomplishment when\nthe end to be attained is not kept too closely in the consciousness\n\nof the one in whom the purpose is to be realized. It is in this view\nof the case that I have watched with great interest the effect upon\n\nthe teachers of Indiana of the Young People's Reading Circle, organized in that state about seven years since. In the six years during\nwhich I was a member of its board of directors, the membership of\nthat circle rose to more than 200,000 children. For the present year,\nI am told by State Superintendent Geeling of Indiana that the membership exceeds 400,000 persons, each of whom has read one or more\nof the books on its list for the current year. The board of directors\nearly decided never to place on the list a book of questionable merit.\nThe books have therefore been exceptionally well selected. Pupils of\nthe ordinary school have been roughly cast into five grades, and from\ntwo to three books assigned to each of these grades for a year. The\nteachers of the state were asked, through circulars, to become the\nagents of the board of directors in securing the interest of children and\nparents, and they were especially asked to make use of the books on\nthis list as supplementary to the work of text-books in school. The\ntownship trustees were asked to buy, from the public fund, a set of\nbooks each year for the library of each district school. A system\nof district libraries of the best reading for young people has thus\nbeen established in more than half of the counties of that state.\nIt is in connection with the use of these books in the schoolroom\n\nthat a point of the greatest interest to me has arisen.\n\nIn order to\n\nbe able to use these books to supplement school work, and in order\nto be able to direct the children in the reading of these books in\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "182\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\ntheir homes, and in order to interest the trustees in the purchase\nof these books for the libraries, the teachers have been obliged to\nread the books for themselves; and, strangely enough, through this\nreading of the books-at first compulsory ; afterwards, with ever-in\ncreasing interest, voluntary-such interest in juvenile literature has\nbeen established that I verily believe the Young People's Reading\nCircle has done more to arouse enthusiasm and develop power among\nthe teachers of Indiana than the Teachers' Reading Circle itself has\naccomplished. For the books selected for the Young People's Circle\n\nwere almost in every case those universal books, touching all ages,\ntemperaments, and interests. Such books can be written only by\ngeniuses.\n\nThe teachers became at once interested in a line of\n\nreading of which they had known nothing, a new bond of sympathy\nbetween them and the children was established, and themes of conversation above the commonplace were suggested by the mutual reading of these books. I consider this last point a matter of no mean\nconsequence. The bane of companionship, not alone among children\nbut even between adults and children, is the tendency to gossip.\nThat there shall be suggested worthy themes of conversation, through\nthe means of which sympathies of a higher order shall be established,\nis alone worthy the efforts of any reading circle that has ever been\nestablished ; and it is true, as I have observed, that, out of this\nmutual reading of teachers and pupils, the teachers themselves have\nlearned better how to talk to children, how more fully to sympathize\nwith them, as I believe, than they were ever likely to have learned\nin any other way.\nBut turning from this somewhat theoretical study of the question, I will refer very briefly to the testimony of those who have had\nan opportunity to know as to what has actually been the effect,\npractically, upon the teacher, the school, and the pupils of the reading-circle work in Indiana, where it has in the last twelve years had\na faithful trial under at least fair conditions.\n\nI sent recently a circular letter to each of ten county superintendents in different sections of the state, asking for an answer to the\nfollowing question, \"What have been the most marked effects of\nthe reading-circle work upon teachers, schools, and pupils, so far as\nyou have observed them in your work, during the years in which\n\nthese circles have been in operation in your county?\" From the various answers which I received I quote a few sentences, showing the\ngeneral tenor of all the answers. I might have condensed this a\nlittle more, but I have, in each instance, preferred to use the exact\nwords of the particular county superintendent. Among the number,\none speaks as follows in reference to the Young People's Circle :\nI take most pride in the good results of the more permanent kind. Facts, figures, etc., can state what occurred only in a certain way. During the time that I\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nIMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS.\n\n183\n\nwas working for numerical results, I was really on the lookout for the spiritual\nforces that must be set into operation in my county schools, both as a direct and as\nan indirect result of the reading circle work. It affected the whole country-pupils,\nteachers, trustees, and patrons. Some of the direct results were : (1) Pupils became\nmore industrious ; (2) books were used as much as possible to aid in the lessons of\nthe day; (3) the general increase of knowledge from this source enabled pupils to\nprepare and recite their regular lessons more intelligently and perfectly, and the\nknowledge gained from these books was frequently applied in new and unexpected\nways to the topic under discussion ; (4) a great desire was developed to know more\nthan the mere text-book contained; (5) the order in the schoolroom became much\nbetter and the general discipline of the school very much easier, both these effects\nbeing very marked in many cases ; (6) ambitions for a higher education were aroused\nin many pupils ; (7) improvement in the moral tone of the school was very marked,\nand was traceable in an immediate way to the influence of the books read.\nAs to the teachers, they read more, they were much more careful in their\nteaching; they themselves became much more ambitious for higher education; and,\ndirectly or indirectly, through this influence there was a greatly increased ratio of\nteachers who went each year to higher institutions of learning.\nAs to the trustees, they became more loyal, more enthusiastic over the work of\nthe schools; in fact, they became proud of them, and sounded their praise from\nthe housetop. The influence was marked upon the patrons. They were brought\ninto closer sympathy with the schools ; more anxious for the advancement of their\nchildren. They became frequent visitors in the schools. Many parents became\neager to read the books from hearing the children read from them in their homes\nof evenings .\n\nAnother says, in reference to the Teachers' Circle :\nThe teachers have acquired a taste for professional reading and a greatly increased power to comprehend professional books. The close study required of them\nto master the books of the reading-circle course has given to them the key to a\nmuch better comprehension of the work in their school journals. The whole result is a better knowledge of the laws of mental growth, and the greater power to\nsee principles in the subject-matter, and a clearer view of the relation of the law\nin the mind and the principle in the subject stronger and more logical and original\nthinking in both teachers and pupils. The Young People's Reading Circle has\ncultivated a taste for good books on the part of the rising generation. It has influenced parents to buy good books for their children. Our book stores report a\ngreatly increased sale of good juvenile books and magazines. Parents themselves\nhave become interested in the reading of these children's books. The regular daily\nwork of the school has been greatly strengthened by the use of these books as supplementary to the regular texts.\nAnother writes :\nThere has never been anything that has done more to create an interest in\nliterature and good reading than the two reading circles now being operated in our\nstate. This has borne good fruit in the increased enthusiasm and power of the\nteacher and the increasing good order and industry among pupils. Schools have\nbeenmuch better attended.\n\nThere has been a much smaller amount of tardiness ;\n\na much larger number of pupils have graduated ; a much larger number of pupils\nhave entered the high school in this county; indeed, the greatest thing, educationally, that has been done in this state in the last quarter of a century has been the\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "184\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\norganization and conduct of these two reading circles. May God continue to bless\nthe work in this county and state.\n\nThe teacher of the future is to represent, more and more, a liberal\ndegree of culture as well as professional training ; and the reading\ncircle, in my judgment, is destined to hold an important place as a\nmeans toward this end.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nMRS. A. J. PEAVEY, State Superintendent of Public Instruction of Colorado.In Lucian's \"Dialogues of the Dead\" there is a representation of a teacher of\nrhetoric, who comes to the banks of the Styx and demands a passage. Charon replies to him, \"You must strip off all that boundless length of sentences that is\nwrapped round you, and those antitheses of yours and balancing of clauses and\nstrange expressions, and all other heavy weights of speech, or you will make my\nboat too heavy.\" I sometimes think as I listen to the voluminous discussions concerning the work and wages of teachers, that we are apt to overload ourselves\n\nwith classifications, analyses, and syntheses until we have well-nigh covered up\nthe purpose and aim of the teacher's work in the methods of its performance. This\nmay be the reason why so many teachers are wandering up and down the land\n\nvainly seeking the wherewithal to enable them to purchase a passage to the Elysian\nfields where work and rest are happily combined. We are certainly living in a\ntime when \"training\" is the order of the day. Physical exercise is carried to the\npoint where the man becomes simply a highly developed muscular organism. The\naim of the athlete is to make himself a steam engine for speed, a trip hammer for\npounding, and a hydraulic ram for lifting. The intellectual man has an analogous\nambition. It is his aim to master all the knowledge; or, at least, all the knowledge\npertaining to his specialty. The aspirant in the mental conflict offers the prayer\nand resolve of Paracelsus :\nMake no more giants , God;\nBut elevate the race at once.\n\nWe ask\n\nTo put forth our strength; just our human strength;\nAll starting fairly; all equipped alikeGifted alike; all eagle- eyed, true-hearted ;\n\nSee if we cannot beat the angels yet !\nSuch is my task .\n\nEven in the spiritual realm this ambition is seen. There are men who seem to\ndespise the needs of the body and the achievements of the mind in order that they\nmay reach some attitude of perpetual adoration and lose themselves in God. I do\nnot mean to overdraw the picture, but I think we have only to look about us to see\nthose inordinate endeavors to attain the highest possible development, and, as a\nresult, an over-weighting which finally destroys the only purpose for which the\ndevelopment is valuable. We are placed here in this world to contribute to the welfare of others. All self-development which loses sight of this divine end can only\nresult in a final depreciation of value. It is our business to make the most of all\nthe faculties with which God has endowed us, and while, in doing this, we must\n\nnecessarily make a choice of some particular work, we shall surely fail if we pursue that choice to the extinction of those things that constitute a well-rounded life.\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n185\n\nThe bearing of these remarks on the subject before us is evident. There is such\na thing as too much training for the teacher's profession. I readily admit the\nvalue of all the agencies which are provided for instruction and the improvement\nof the men and women who are engaged in this work.\n\nI hold it as fundamental\n\nto success that every teacher should take advantage of the opportunities offered\nfor improvement, and that the motto of each one should be, \"This one thing I do;\"\nbut I also deem it essential to success that the teacher should realize his limitations,\n\nand that he should regulate his ambition to become great by a firm determination\nto become good. If anyone needs a well-rounded life-physically, spiritually, and\nintellectually-co-ordinately developed, it is the man or woman who comes to the\nwork of training and educating the young.\n\nThe institute, the class, and the reading circle ought each of them to keep in\nview the necessity of a symmetrical development; but it is out of the question for\n\nany teacher to take in, at one time, all that these three sources of improvement\noffer.\n\nMy first suggestion, then, is, that the teacher should select one of these sources\nas a principal means of improvement and make the other two entire subsidiary.\nThis may be done for one year. The next year the same plan may be pursued,\nchoosing one of the other sources. In three years the course would be completed,\nand much more would be realized than from the attempt to use all three to their\nfull extent at the same time.\n\nTo be a little more explicit: Suppose a teacher chooses institute work as a\nspecialty.\n\nIn that case, all the institutes within a given locality should be faith-\n\nfully attended and faithfully prepared for. A young teacher would not expect to\ntake a prominent part in such a gathering, but the directors of it, knowing the\npurpose and determination of such a teacher, would provide special opportunities of\nexercise for such talents as might be developed. Before the year was out it might\nreasonably be expected that such a teacher would be something of an adept in the\nwork of the institute, and consequently there would be a definite advancement in\nprofessional life. If a teacher, having determined on this course, should find time\nto attend a teachers' class or a reading circle, there would be no objection, but it\nis evident that no burdens or responsibilities could be assumed.\nIn order to make this suggestion practical and efficient, it should be the selfimposed duty of the superintendent of education in a given city or county to summon the teachers to make an election at the beginning of the year as to which of\n\nthese three means of improvement should be taken; provided, of course, that they\nare all in existence.\n\nUnder such an order of things it would not be long before special merit would\ndisplay itself, and, if properly rewarded, the standard of professional life would be\nraised, both to the advantage of the teachers and the community they serve.\nMy second suggestion is in reference to the reading classes. These classes\nshould consist of circles of not more than half a dozen members each. If the\nsession were to occupy two hours on a given evening, this small number would\n\ngive time for suggestion, discussion, and questions, and without these the reading\nwould be of very little value. A theme should be chosen, and each one of the six\nshould bring something to be read or an abstract or analysis of something previ-\n\nously read on the subject. It might be well sometimes to devote several sessions to\nthe reading of one theme, in which case a subsequent meeting should be held for\nconversation on the theme without the books. This would incidentally improve the\npower of conversation-a great desideratum in a teacher's life.\nOn stated occasions-say, once in three months-several of these circles might\ngather for a general meeting, in which representatives from each circle might\nset forth the attainments of their respective circles, and at the end of the year all\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "186\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nthe circles of the town or county might meet to make a report of their work and\ndiscuss the value of it.\n\nConcerning the books to be read in such circles I need hardly speak. It is evident that only works on education should have a place there. To a limited extent,\nbiographies of great teachers, such as John Amos Comenius, Froebel, and Pestalozzi, might be profitably perused. The history of Greek education in the second\nand third centuries of our era is especially interesting and profitable, as showing its\ngeneral diffusion, the emoluments and honors obtained by teachers, and the position which they held in the social life of the day.\n\nThe main course of the reading, however, should be devoted to those works\nwhich are strictly pedagogical in character. As an example of easy reading in this\nline, I might suggest Landon's \" School Management,\" \"Day Dreams of a Schoolmaster\" by Thompson, and Klemm's \"Chips from a Teacher's Workshop.\" These\nare specially valuable for young teachers. Of a little higher order and demanding\nmore study and thought are works on psychology, with special adaptation to the\nwork of teaching.\nOne advantage of the reading circle will be the gradual accumulation of a library\n\nof a professional character. I look for the time when a teacher will as much expect to have a library devoted to his work as a minister, or lawyer, or physician expects to have his theological, legal, or medical library.\nI have one other suggestion to make: Attendance upon teachers' institutes,\nclasses , and reading circles should be entirely voluntary. The only way to raise a\nprofession to dignity and honor is to give it a free course. If there be not an inward compulsion to improvement no external force will avail. If you put it into a\ncontract that a teacher must attend so many institutes, or classes, or circles, it will\nseem like a reflection upon the professional enthusiasm, and it will reduce the work\nto drudgery. Non-attendance upon these sources of improvement will soon bring\nits own penalty. The teacher that fails to advance will retrograde and must soon\ndrop out. Competition ought to settle this matter, as it does in other branches of\n\nprofessional labor. The people want the best, and there are so many determined to\nbe the best that there will be little difficulty in rejecting what is manifestly inefficient, however much difficulty there may be in choosing between what is good.\nAs I said in the outset, this does not mean that one must undertake more than\n\nhe can do. The daily work in the schoolroom is the chief thing; next to this comes\na careful, systematic, and well chosen order of auxiliary work.\n\nThis is fully\n\nwithin the compass of the teacher's ability, and, if persistently pursued, will bring\npower, influence, and corresponding reward.\nThe present tendency to limit the teacher's work to one branch of instruction is\ngreatly in favor of this method of improvement. The time has gone by when a\nteacher is expected to teach everything, from the alphabet to ancient and modern\nlanguages and from notation to the calculus .\n\nIn all well-regulated schools the teacher is now the occupant of a single chair.\nThis is a common sense order and one that is in line with a true scientific method.\nHaving one thing to do it can be done well. The subject, whether it be mathe-\n\nmatics, or language, or history, or natural science, becomes the center from which\nthere may be infinite radiations to an infinite circumference. Under such a plan\none may become master of a subject, knowing it as it is and as it appears in all its\nrelations. Such a mastership gives confidence to the teacher and certainty to the\nteaching, makes it effective, arouses enthusiasm in the pupil and communicates\naspirations which make his work a delight more than a task.\n\nThe main object of\n\nthe training of teachers will, I think, be attained if those who have supervision\nover them will keep steadily in view the fact that all methods must be flexible and\nadapted to immediate practice. Beyond all else they must be influential in the\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\n187\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nmolding of the character. They must give the teacher a sense of his power, his\nresponsibility, and his need of humility. They must keep before him the fact that\nhis work, in its possibilities for good or evil, is well-nigh unlimited.\nIn closing these few remarks I would like to quote to you a saying of Dion\nChrysostom, a noted teacher and rhetorician of the first century, a man greatly\nhonored by his emperor, Vespasian, and afterwards by Trajan. \" There are two\nkinds of education,\" he says; \"the one divine and the other human. The divine is\ngreat and powerful and easy; the human is mean and weak and has many dangers\nand no small deceitfulness. The mass of people call it education, as being, I suppose, an amusement, and think that a man who knows the most literature is the\nwisest and best educated man. And then, on the other hand, when they find a man\n\nof this sort to be vicious and cowardly and fond of money, they think the education\nto be as worthless as the man himself. The other kind they sometimes call educa-\n\ntion and sometimes manliness and sometimes high-mindedness. It was thus that\nthe men of old used to call those who had this good kind of education-men with\nmanly souls, and educated as Herakles was-sons of God.\"\n\nAnd this from the last\n\nwords of Comenius : \" I thank God that I have been a man of aspirations .\"\nDR. JAMES M. GREEN of the State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.-I dislike to\nfollow in a discussion of this character such able papers as have been presented on\neach of the various subjects. It is by no means an easy task. I shall devote myself to emphasizing one or two points, and to suggesting one or two lines of thought\nthat have been set forth in the papers.\n\nI have noticed in that which has been said little in favor of the institute, in\nwhich all of the teachers are engaged. There seems to be a tendency to classify\nthe institute into departments. There is no doubt but this tendency is good, especially where we may have what may be termed a longer institute; but I desire to\nlay emphasis upon this, which seems to me to be the fact, that there should be two\nor three days in each institute in which all the teachers are engaged together, for\nthis reason, that I do not think that education can be entirely divided into stalls, or\ncompartments, or departments.\nThese teachers' schools should be compulsory.\n\nIt is herein that I differ with\n\nthose that have spoken. I would make attendance compulsory; not that the teacher\nshould by law be compelled to attend that class, but that the teacher should be\ncalled upon to pass an examination for a license to teach that would involve the\n\nknowledge which would be given in that class. It strikes me as very interesting,\nfrom a pedagogic standpoint, to say that the teacher's attendance should be volun-\n\ntary, but I have seen some of these voluntary results on the part of persons who\ndidn't know what is involved in the work. It is easy enough to get voluntary action after a person has been developed, but until that development has been reached\na teacher doesn't know what is involved in professional training; hence, doesn't\nseek it.\n\nI would only have this particular kind of a compulsory class for young\nteachers. I would have presiding over that class a person who has been under the\ntraining or direction of some one of the normal schools, or the universities, or some\nother competent center of training. This could be easily accomplished in the appointment of teachers throughout our states.\n\nOne or two such workers can be lo-\n\ncated in each county in the state and can be placed at the head of the class, and\nthe pay of that teacher supplemented by the state or by some organization which\nwill make it an inducement to give to these beginning classes what can be acquired\nin the higher institutions .\n\nNow, why I am so desirous upon this point is, that, as has been said, threequarters of the teachers of our country to-day have had no training before going\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "188\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\ninto the work. I desire to have compulsory training schools established in order\n\nthat these teachers may be brought within this line of influence, and this would\nreadily come about if teachers were required to have a license to teach. The very\nfact of the license is a compulsion. They must do a certain amount of work. It\n\nis simply to cover that point that I would make attendance compulsory over a given\nperiod.\n\nN. C. SCHAEFFER, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.I agree with the first speaker in dividing teachers into two classes; but, nevertheless, my classification is somewhat different. According to my thinking, the\nfirst class of teachers consists of those who die before they are ready for burial.\n\nIn\n\nother words, they cease to grow before they are ready to quit the schoolroom.\nSince education is the play of mind upon mind; since the growing mind is a\nquickening mind; since the teacher who has ceased to grow has also lost his power\nto awaken life, and interest, and thought in those intrusted to his care, it is evidently\nincumbent upon us to ask ourselves the question, What is to be done with these\nteachers who have reached the dead line ? Shall we find a remedy for the difficulty\nin the reading circle, or shall we say that the teachers' classes and the teachers' institutes are the remedies for revivifying the work of these teachers in the schoolroom? I confess to you that I have tried all three of these remedies without avail ,\n\nand in my despair I turned to my catechism and learned something new about the\nresurrection from the dead.\n\nI find taught there in clear and explicit terms the\n\nresurrection of the dead in the world to come, but I find not a word about the resurrection of the dead in the world of school-teaching .\n\nMy conclusion, therefore, is, that, for the sake of the children, we should entirely eliminate from the schoolroom this first class of teachers who have ceased to\ngrow. We should eliminate them by a comfortable marriage if she is a woman;\nand if the teacher belongs to the opposite sex, then, by placing him upon the\nemeritus list-the most decent form of burial ever invented for a human being.\nI turn my attention to that second class of teachers-to the teachers who have\n\nnot yet reached the dead line, to that class of teachers who are still susceptible of\nlife and of growth . With reference to these it must be confessed that every one\nof the three agencies discussed here to-day may be helpful in keeping them from\n\nreaching that dead line. And yet it is possible that every one of these remedies\nmay fail.\n\nIt is possible for that teacher to look upon all knowledge gathered from\n\nthese three instrumentalities as the end in itself; to look upon the pupil as simply\nexisting for that knowledge, as simply existing in order that the teacher may take\nthe knowledge thus gained and put it into the child's mind as a receptacle. For\nthat reason I deem it necessary to combine these three remedies with the additional\nremedy found in the materia medica of my friend, Dr. Barnes; I mean the study\nand love of the child. And here do not misunderstand me. I do not by this refer\nto that abstract pedagogical entity oftentimes known as \" The Child.\" I am willing to admit that it may be like breaking of light from above when the teacher\nfinds out what are the three stages of growth in the development of the human\n\nsoul. It may be like a revelation from on high for a teacher to find out that just\nas there are nascent periods for the first teeth, for the second teeth, for the moustache, and for the beard, so there are nascent periods for the different organs and\nfunctions of the body, and for the different faculties and sentiments of the soul.\nIt may be reviving the work of the teacher when he learns that there is a nascent\n\nperiod for this part of the arm, and a nascent period for that part of the arm, and a\nstill different period of growth for the nose and fingers, and it may save that teacher\nvery many a sin when he finds, that, by reason of the laws of life, he may ruin the\n\nchild by imposing upon the little one, before the nascent period has come, too great\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n189\n\nburdens. I say, it may be like a revelation from on high for a teacher to find out\nthat there is a time when the head grows that way (indicating), and that there is\nstill a different time when the head grows that way (indicating), and still a different time when the head grows that way (indicating); and it may save the teacher\nfrom many a sin to find out how these nascent periods are related to the development of the child-the development of the faculties of perception through the eye\nand through the ear. Studies of this sort may be carried on for the purpose of\nadding something new to the sum of human knowledge. They may be carried on\nfor the purpose of preparing articles for the \"Forum, \" or writing books for Americans. These investigations may be carried forward in the same scientific spirit\nwith which the entomologist studies the bugs and insects of his collection. Now,\na scientist and investigator of that sort may say, \"Suffer the little children to come\nunto me, and forbid them not,\" but the children never come. There was an entirely\ndifferent spirit in the life of the Great Teacher in the Book of Books.\n\nThat is the\n\ngrandest book on teaching ever written, and in that book I am taught to keep the\nheart with all diligence, for out of it are the issues of life. Education is not wholly\nthe result of mind playing upon mind, but it is also the result of heart influencing\nheart.\n\nWhen Horace Mann made a famous speech for the dedication of a building\nthat had cost many thousands of dollars, devoted to the reformation of bad boys ,\n\nhe said, \"If all this which has been spent upon this building results in the reformation of one boy, it is money well spent.\" Somebody said to him, \" Mr. Mann, do\nyou think that one boy is worth all that money ?\" He replied, \"Yes, if it is my\nboy or your boy.\"\nI would have the teacher look upon every member of his class as \"my boy,\"\nand go out toward each member of that class with the same fullness of love with\n\nwhich the mother's heart and father's heart go out towards that boy. Is not that\nwhat is meant by the famous inscription upon the monument of Pestalozzi, where\non one side you read, \"Everything for others; for myself nothing,\" and upon the\nother, \" I lived like a beggar, that beggars might learn to live like men ?\"\nI am so anxious about these two ends, of study and love of children,-side by\nside, and as part of the work of every teacher and a necessity in every teachers '\nclass, that I will try and turn my thought into the concrete.\nAbout three years ago an acquaintance of mine brought his wife and a little\n\nchild to the Pennsylvania Chautauqua at Mount Gretna. The child was a favorite with everybody, and near them lived a sickly woman, who persisted in bestowing her admiration upon that child, frequently in kissing the child's hand. A\nmonth after the Chautauqua had closed, that child was very sick, and at a con-\n\nsultation of five experts death was pronounced inevitable. When they examined\nthe spittle of that humble woman, who was troubled with some sort of grave-yard\ncough, they found in it the germs of tubercular consumption, and the theory of one\nof the doctors was, that, by the kiss upon the hand, one of these germs had lodged\nthere and had been carried by the hand to the mouth, and become inoculated in the\n\nsystem, and death was the result. When the father told me the mournful tale he\nwound up, with a tear in his eye, with the words, \"Is it not strange that the kiss\nof love should become the angel of death?\" And I went away, saying to myself,\n\"The kiss of love the angel of death!\" and I vowed that I would study child-life as\nI had never studied it before, lest something that I might do in love might, after\nall, prove to be the angel of death.\nI would have every reading circle, every teachers' class, and every teachers'\ninstitute conducted with that conviction, that even what we do in love to children\nmay, through our ignorance, prove a source of wrong-an angel of death.\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "190\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nJOHN R. KIRK, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Jefferson City, Mo.\n-Lest you think that I lack in fidelity to current pedagogical thought, I desire to\nsay in the beginning that I do not know of any state-I have not heard of any\nstate-where teachers and pupils are more assiduously and faithfully engaged in\ntrying to make use of these three means of grace and salvation which have been\nspoken of this morning than in my own State of Missouri, and this is true from\nthe very head of an admirably equipped state university down yonder to the lowlands and mountains among the Ozarks .\n\nFor twenty-five years, in an unsystematic and unorganized way, we tried to\nwork these things out. For four years just past I think we have been working in\nan organized way, and with perhaps good results, to find out what there is that\ncan be done by these means. But honest as I am, for my part, in undertaking to\nmake use of these means, I look upon much of it as being hedged in by many limitations.\n\nI would not go to the extent that one of the speakers did, who said that he\nwould banish from the teachers' class all books on pedagogy and psychology, and\nsimilar subjects ; I would not do that. If we have a teachers' class I would try,\nnot only to make use of the knowledge which can there be gained that has not yet\nbeen put into books, but I would try, if possible, to interpret some of the books\nthat have already been written.\nBut there are limitations on the value of teachers' classes.\n\nIf there is any-\n\nthing that tends to destroy the personality and the independence of the individual\nteacher, it is the improperly managed teachers' class.\nI want to tell you a secret this morning. It is only known to a few of us. If\n\nthere is one of you who is a principal or superintendent, where both you and your\npredecessor have lately been promoted and have moved into a new town, and you\ndon't know the actual details of your business; if you actually cannot go into the\n\nfifth grade as principal or superintendent and take charge of any recitation there\nand do about as well as the ordinary teacher; if you know you cannot do that; if\nyou know you are not an expert in passing upon the work in the third grade or the\n\nfirst-let me tell you how you can cover up these defects and stay longer with\nthose who pay you a salary. Further, if you feel yourself to be deficient in scholarship; if you know you are somewhat narrow with regard to pedagogical information, let me tell you a secret: Go right to work and organize some kind of a read-\n\ning circle or a number of teachers' classes, and keep them as far as you can under\nyour control, and select the books used and select the instructors used, and keep\nthe discussion going, and talk about your classes, and your reading circles, just as\nmuch as you can, and these deficiencies of yours will be undiscovered .\n\nNow, that is not said in irony. It is in good earnest. There are a great many\nprincipals and superintendents at least, I have heard of a great many ; of course,\nI don't meet them in associations like this, or in our state associations there are\n\ngreat numbers of them that are admirable managers of large schools, yet cannot\nget down to the details of the instruction of the teachers that purport to be under\nthem, and by this superficial and artificial means keep up an agitation, and thus\ncover up their defects.\n\nRegarding the institute, I wish we might turn toward the improvement of it ;\nthat we might take from it the incomprehensible vagaries that are constantly\npreached to the teachers who must submit to instruction in our institutes.\n\nI will\n\nventure to say that in our country there will be 10,000 lectures on apperception, coordination, and correlation that will be like the lecture of a gentleman from Massachusetts whom I heard at Council Bluffs, Iowa, some three or four years ago.\nIt was full of beautiful oratorical effects. A lady, speaking to me about it, said,\n\"That was beautiful, but what did he mean?\"\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "191\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nSessions.]\n\nI would have a great deal of illustrative work introduced into all our institutes,\nwhether they be for one day or for four weeks. Instead of the lecture, talk, talk,\ntalk, I would have introduced into every institute-and we are going to do this in\nMissouri-a model school, where the first grade class is brought into the presence\nof the institute and taught, and where the second grade class is brought there and\ntaught; and where the fourth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades are brought in\nthere and taught, and let the discussion follow the observation and the illustration.\nCOL. FRANCIS W. PARKER of Illinois.-The sweet, strong spirit of this magnificent convocation is accumulative and culminating.\n\nNot long ago a skirmisher on\n\nthe advance line was often driven back by the brickbats of contempt; or if he\nstayed he was covered with the mud of ridicule.\nthen left.\n\nThere is just a little now and\n\nThe new idea which brought a new name was covered with talk. If\n\nanyone does not know what apperception is, buy a \" Century Dictionary,\" and\nmake it more easy for the new idea to be born. The great organization is being\n\nperfected. All honor to the heroes and pioneers of the coming school system, who\nhave made it possible to march on. Obstructions are passing away, and we search\nfor the truth.\n\nWe are learning to understand.\n\nWe do not propose to cling like\n\nbarnacles to traditions or to any system. We propose to take from Hegel all he\nhas, and from Pestalozzi, and Froebel, and Herbart all they have to give, and what\nthey have to give is a magnificent spirit of progress. We will take all these, and\nmarch on to higher and better things.\n\nThe one thing now is the training of the teacher. You have had that eloquently and profoundly discussed this morning. The superintendent is one who\nteaches directly, earnestly, honestly, for the welfare of the pupil. If he does not do\nthat, he is not a teacher. I believe in the resurrection in this life, and I believe\nthere is a new spirit coming.\n\nI am not going to speak of the delights of the grand old past, but I love to\nthink of the progress of the last forty-one years, in which I have been a teacher.\nI thank God for living now. I would not have been born later for anything in the\nworld. Everything is tending toward the training of the teacher. With the 450,000 teachers of our land, it has been impossible to train and educate them all together. We have had to bend to circumstances, and it is all right; but we are going to elevate the standard. Legislation is going to assist us.\nI have the great pleasure of announcing to you-perhaps to some of you for the\nfirst time that the greatest event for education in the United States since the\nplanting of the first normal school near the old battle-ground in Lexington has\n\njust occurred. Governor Morton of New York has signed a bill, as perhaps very\nfew of you know-I have just found it out that he has signed a bill, which means\nmore for the teaching profession in the United States than any other legislation\nthat ever took place.\n\nLet me give you briefly the terms of this bill. After 1897 no one can enter the\nschools of any city or village in the great Empire State without at least one year's\nprofessional training. More than that. The state superintendent of schools of New\nYork can determine the high schools which may send graduates to the normal\nschools. In three years' high school course the state superintendent can determine the\n\npedagogical value of that school, and put it off or on the list. Never was given to\nany superintendent of this country a mightier, grander power to help the schools\nthan is now given to Superintendent Skinner, and I fully believe he will be equal\nto the great responsibility.\nI announce this because it gives me great courage. Seven long years one man\n\nhas worked for this bill. Twice it passed the legislature, and once it was killed by\nthe politicians. Another time it was vetoed by another politician, but persistent,\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n192\n\n[General\n\nindefatigable effort won the day. One of our number has accomplished this grand\nresult, and I say, all honor to W. H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools of Brooklyn, for this victory.\n\nIn twenty-five years from this time, I predict there will not be a state in this\nUnion which has not followed the magnificent example of New York. Let us work\nto this end. Let the spirit of this meeting enter our souls, and let the grandeur of\nour past enter fully into our hearts and lend dignity and enthusiasm to our professional lives .\n\nThis grand army is to march on-not the army of thirty-four years ago-but\nwith the sword of the spirit this army is to march on.\nMine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord;\nIn the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea;\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\nAs he died to make men holy, let us live to make men free;\nFor Truth is marching on.\n\nTHE RELATION OF GEOGRAPHY TO HISTORY.\n\nBY PROF . EDWARD CHANNING, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\n\nI feel that an apology is due to you-who have attended this\nconvention since the beginning-from a speaker who reached Denver only this morning. Indeed, on occasions like the present it\nmight be a good rule to permit no one to speak who had not\nearned his right to the attention of others by giving his own attention to what others have said; or, at all events, by giving security\nfor future good conduct in this regard. I have followed your debates in the newspapers as well as I could, and wish to add my testimony to the truth of a remark which fell from Dr. Hinsdale. He\nprotested-if the published reports are correct-against the idea\nthat all good teaching is of the present day. There were undoubtedly just as good teachers one hundred years ago as there are today.\n\nThe old-time teachers knew little of what we call method ;\n\nΓ\n\nbut it is not impossible that too much weight is given to method\nnowadays. The first-class teacher should, and does, invent his own\nmethods . He will be a method unto himself. Methods invented by\nothers unquestionably aid second-class and third-class teachers ; but\nthey also prevent their rising to higher grades.\n\nBecause there was\n\nno method of doing this or doing that in the olden time, it by no\nmeans follows that there were not good teachers and good teaching. The main object of teaching was and is or should be the\ntraining of the mind, and not the turning out of walking encyclo-\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nGEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY.\n\n193\n\npædias or dictionaries of dates. In the former regard, the older\nteachers were oftentimes remarkably successful; we of the present\nmay congratulate ourselves if we succeed as well. Many of our\nmodern methods employ too much machinery between the teacher\nand the pupil. In my opinion, the less machinery there is employed\nthe better it is for both teacher and student. A good text-book\nproperly used is a blessing; the best text-book abused is a great\nevil. Probably in no branch of teaching is the text-book so misused as it is in the teaching of history.\n\nAnother topic of which we\n\nhear a great deal at the present time, especially in such gatherings\nas the present one, is the educative value of this or that study. I\nhad intended to say something on this topic to-night, but I find that\nPresident Baker is to read a paper on the matter. I will content\nmyself, therefore, with the remark, that, in my opinion, the educative value of any subject depends mainly on the way in which\nit is taught and studied. Any subject taught in the perfunctory\nway thathistory is often taught has no educative value whatever.\nOn the other hand, history as it is taught in at least two secondary\nschools not far from Boston possesses the highest educative value.\n.\n\nHistory is the record of man's experience on this earth; geogra.\n\nphy is the description of the forces of nature which have affected\nman's destiny. Without a knowledge of the latter it is impossible\n\nto understand the former. At the present day one must also understand the influence of the great inventions of the last hundred\nand fifty years as modifying the action of the forces of nature. The\nhistory of man is largely dependent on means of communication\nand transportation.\n\nThe railroad of to-day is as important as the\n\nriver of the seventeenth century. As an example to illustrate my\nmeaning: It is impossible to judge fairly the Southern leaders in\nour Civil War unless we take into account the great change in conditions of transportation which bore its first military fruit in that\nstupendous conflict. The Southern leaders were justified in believing the conquest of the South to be practically impossible under\nthe old conditions of warfare; but the Northern leaders, by a lavish\n\nuse of the railway, solved a problem which would have been incapable of solution fifty years earlier. The same thing is true of the\nFranco-German war; the effective use made of the railways by the\n\nGermans contributed materially to the hastening of a conclusion\nwhich may have been otherwise inevitable. History for the most\npart, however, treats of man's activity before the age of steam. Το\nunderstand the conditions under which the nations of modern Eu-\n\nrope were brought into existence or under which our own country\nwas settled and developed in the earlier epoch, we must first discard\nour modern ideas of distances and our contempt for natural obstruc13\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "194\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\ntions to communication-like rivers and mountains, for instance.\nWe must endeavor to picture to ourselves the conditions which prevailed before the advent of the steam locomotive and the marine en-\n\ngine, and we must endeavor to estimate the triumphs and catastrophes of our ancestors from their point of view-geographically\nspeaking. Even at the present day the physical conformation of a\ncontinent determines many things in a nation's life. The Pyrenees still separate Spain and France; the Alps still cut off Italy\nfrom the rest of Western Europe.\n\nIn some respects, as, for exam-\n\nple, in the transportation of goods and soldiers, the railroads have\neffected great changes; but these mountain blocks give different\nconditions of life to the peoples living south of them and to those\nliving north of them. The German and the Italian must forever\nbe unlike. Bodies of water still affect human progress as they\ndid in the days of Genseric and his Vandal crews. The \"silver\nstreak\" still separates \"perfidious Albion\" and the Continent as it\nseparated them in the days of Napoleon and the younger Pitt. You\nremember Sir John Seeley's remark to the effect that England belonged to Europe or America, as she might choose. Even at the\npresent moment similar conditions seem to be bringing about a\nrepetition of history in the Far East, where, in Japan, our children\nmay see another Britain domineer the ocean.\n\nWater separates nations in time of war; it brings them together\nin time of peace. In this way the historian accounts for the early\ncivilization of the Mediterranean lands and for the colonization\nof the Atlantic seaboard of the United States.\n\nIt is difficult for\n\nus to realize the importance of interior waterways in the development of Europe and America, because the railroad has almost superseded the river steamboat in our country. It is interesting to go\nback to the early time and to compare the life of the citizens of\nLondon or Venice with that of the inhabitants of some small village\n\nonly a few miles away ; or to visit a town like Lubeck, once full of\nbusy commercial life but now an interesting historical museum.\nBut the greater part of the history of Europe was written before\n\nits fall, and in the natural causes contributing to its prosperity and\ndecay we find that which explains to us many things in the history\nof Europe.\n\nOne of the best examples of the influence of physical conditions\non a country's history is that great phenomenon of human industry known as Paris. Why is it that Paris is the most important\nplace in France? Many factors have combined to produce this marvelous city; but one of the principal causes of its greatness is to be\nfound in its geographical position. Paris is on the Seine; but\nKouen and many other towns are on the Seine. Paris, unlike\nRouen and these other towns, is on precisely the point of the Seine\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY.\n\nSessions.]\n\n195\n\ndesigned by nature for a great city. A glance at the map of France\nwill show you that this is so. At almost the spot occupied by\nParis the Seine valley widens out somewhat in the shape of a palmleaf fan, the branches of the river forming the ribs of the fan, with\n\nParis at the point where the handle ceases and the leaves spread\nout. One branch points southeastwardly, toward the Rhone valley,\nItaly, and Switzerland ; another points eastwardly, toward the Moselle, the Vosges, and the Rhine-toward Elsass-Lothringen and\nCentral Germany ; another points northeastwardly, toward the\nMaas and the Scheldt-toward Luxemburg and Belgium. The lines\nof commerce of the Middle Ages followed these subordinate valleys\nof the Seine system, as the canals and railroads of our time follow\nthem. Westward the Seine connects Paris with Rouen, Havre, and\nthe ocean. Southward, at nearly the most northern point of the\nLoire, stands Orleans, guarding the route from Northern France to\nSouthern France.\n\nParis is thus at the center of a vast network of\n\nlines of communication. The traveler, the bale of goods, the invading army, all find themselves sooner or later at this spot.\n\nParis,\n\nbesides being a great commercial center, is the military key to\nNorthern France; it is, to all intents and purposes, a frontier\nfortress.\n\nNo conqueror can hope to long occupy Northern France\n\nunless he holds this fortified city.\n\nTurning, now, to our own country, we have an admirable example of the relation of geography to history; not quite at our feet,\nto be sure, but only twenty-nine hours away-the Mississippi river.\nTwo hundred years ago the French possessed the mouths of the\nMississippi and the St. Lawrence, which were then regarded as the\nkeys to the continent. Were they the real keys of the continent ?\n\nWas it due solely to the better colonizing qualities of the British\nrace that this northern continent of ours became British and not\n\nFrench ? It seems to me that this question must be answered in\nthe negative. Of course, the more we exalt the facilities nature\nplaced in the hands of the French, by just so much we exalt our\nancestors who triumphed in spite of nature. Fresh from a ten days'\ntrip on the Lower Mississippi, I feel impelled to assert, that, for\neffective colonizing value, the Chesapeake was worth more to the\n\nBritish than the Mississippi could possibly have been to anyone before the days of steam navigation. If anyone doubts this assertion,\nlet him do as I have done, and picture to himself, not an Indian\ntrader in his light canoe but a heavily laden Mayflower, with its\nhundred precious pilgrims and their household goods; or let him\nthink of an Arbella, with John Winthrop and Isaac Johnson and a\nyear's provisions for the thronging colonists on board. Think of\nthese immigrant ships overcoming the four-mile current of that\n\nturbid stream, \"poled\" over this sandbar by hand, hauled along\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "196\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nthat bend by a tow-line from the shore. Let us suppose that the attempt to carry the ship herself up stream to Cairo, for instance, is\nabandoned and the ship's longboat and the canoes of the natives\nare used for transportation. Think of the father of one of those\n\npilgrim households, aided by a servant, perhaps, rowing day after\nday against that ceaseless current, making good two miles an hour ;\noften not so much. How long would it have taken him to reach\nCairo, one thousand miles from the sea, or St. Louis, two hundred\nmiles farther up stream? And what provisions of food and cloth-\n\ning would have remained at the end of his journey? It seems, therefore, that the colonization of the Mississippi Valley from the Gulf\nof Mexico was an impossibility before the days of steam. The case\nof the St. Lawrence is different. There the tide penetrates far in-\n\nland, and the river can be navigated by sailing vessels from the sea\nto Montreal, where the Lachine rapids bar the way. But the navigation of the river is dangerous; that of the Gulf of St. Lawrence\n\nand its approaches is even more dangerous; and for many long\nmonths the river is closed by ice to navigation. For purposes of\ncolonization the Delaware system was of more value than the St.\nLawrence-although of far less value for purposes of exploration,\n\nmissionary enterprises, or trading expeditions. The gateways of\nthe continent were Chesapeake bay and Delaware bay, the Hudson\nriver and the passes of the Appalachians, in the seventeenth and\neighteenth centuries. They are to-day.\nAnother interesting topic is the influence of climatic conditions\n\n،\n\non our history. Prof. Josiah D. Whitney has published (in his\n\"United States\") a most interesting table of comparative isothermal lines, showing the rapid change of climate on the western side\nof the Atlantic compared with the conditions which prevail on the\n\neastern side of that ocean. This greatdiversity of climate on the\nAtlantic seaboard of our continent necessitated a corresponding\ndiversity of agricultural products and means of earning one's living.\nMany of the divergences which marked off the New Englander from\nthe Carolinian were due solely to his climatic environment. Different modes of life necessitated in time different social fabrics and\n\nvarying governmental institutions, and in this way we can account\nfor many of the most important facts in our historical development\nas a nation.\n}\n\nIn these brief remarks I have endeavored to set before you a\nmode of historical thinking sometimes neglected in our text-books\nand in our schools. The study of history is valuable only as it is a\nliving study; only as the subject conveys to the student something\nbeside mere fact; only as it is interesting. It can be best made interesting by being understood, and it can never be understood without a knowledge of the geographical conditions under which man\nhas been obliged to work out his destiny.\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUES.\n\n197\n\nEDUCATIONAL VALUES,\n\nBY DR. JAMES H. BAKER, UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO , BOULDER, COLO.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nIDEALS .\n\nWe estimate a man's worth by his intellectual grasp, his æsthetic\nand ethical insight, and his power for action toward right and useful\nends. If these characteristics make the ideal man, they should be\nthe ideal aim of education, and a study is to be valued as it best contributes toward developing them. The same test of efficiency is to\nbe applied to the whole curriculum of a school period.\nThere is a correlation between the field of knowledge and the\n\nknowing being. The objective world, with its varied content, answers\nto the mind with its varied powers. It is through the objective world\nof nature and of man that the subject comes to a consciousness of\nhimself. Each important phase of the objective world makes a distinct contribution in extent or kind of knowledge to that consciousness .\nWe do not live in a world where cucumbers grow on trees,\nor where human beings fail in their ever-recurring characteristics ;\nand we believe it possible to discover the kind of value which each\nsource of knowledge may furnish toward the education of the child,\nwith the expectation that we shall not find the choice of studies to\nbe a matter of indifference.\nVALUES .\n\nWithout laying claim to a best analysis, we may use a customary\ndivision of the field of knowledge : (1) Mathematical relations ; (2)\n\nnatural phenomena ; (3) human action ; (4) human thought; (5) æsthetic and ethical qualities. The studies corresponding are (1) mathematics; (2) natural science ; (3) history ; (4) language and literature ;\n\n(5) art and ethics. Mathematics treats of quantitative knowledge,\nfurnishes a peculiar intellectual training, and makes possible all\n\ncommerce, all great structures, and the higher developments of physical science. Natural science acquaints us with the field of physical\nphenomena and of plant and animal life, is the best training in induction, and is largely the basis of our material civilization. History\nreveals the individual; and our present civilization is the light of all\nhuman action, is a source of ethical training, and has high practical\nvalue for the problems of government and society. Literature reveals\nthe ideal thought and the speculations of men, gives æsthetic and\nethical culture, and in a practical way applies poetry to life. Art and\nethics deal with distinct types of knowledge, cultivate the higher\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "198\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nemotional powers, and, like ideal literature, set up standards of perfection in execution and in conduct of life.\n\nThe world in which we live is the world we are to know in order\n\nto adapt ourselves to it in thought; the world we are to know in\norder to gain power to work therein with success ; the world we are\nto know as representing the thought of the Creator and the correlated nature of man; the world we are to know to gain the soul's highest realization; and for these ends, to know it in its various phases.\nEach department of study makes its own peculiar contribution to\nknowledge, each has its peculiar fitness for developing some given\npower of the mind, each makes its own contribution in preparing the\nindividual for the practical world. In three distinct ways does each\n\nsubject have a peculiar value for knowledge, for power, for practical life.\n\nWhile a classification of studies without cross-divisions is impossible, we may say that the first four groups give us the power of\nknowledge for action; the fifth the feeling for perfection of action\nand righteousness of action ; and these in their exercise and their\ntendency create the right kind of power in action.\nCan the exact absolute and relative value of each line of study\n\nbe determined? No; but we may make approximate estimates\nthrough philosophical study of the relation of the mind to the world,\nthrough the history of education and the experience of practical\nteachers. Every position is tentative and subject to constant readjustment, with a closer approach to truth. A re-investigation of\nmany problems through careful observation of children will doubtless make an important contribution to knowledge of values, if the\nexperiments are conducted with a wisdom that takes them out of the\nrealms of fads, and if the Platos of the world are not given a seat too\nfar back. Important as this kind of investigation is, extreme advocates may undervalue the store of educational philosophy that has\nbecome common property. From Cain and Abel down, the child has\nalways been the observed of all observers; the adult man recognizes\nthe nature of the child in his own nature, and has recollections of\nmany of his first conscious experiences. From the time of the early\nphilosophers, the data have been sufficient to discover universal\ntruths. Child-study serves, not so much to establish principles as to\nbring the teacher's mind in close sympathy with the life of the child,\nin order to observe carefully facts for the application of principles.\nTHEORY OF EQUIVALENCE .\n\nIn an ideal course of general training, can there be in any exact\nmeaning an equivalence of studies ? As well ask whether one sense\n\ncan do the work of another in revealing the world to the mind. To\nbe sure, the fundamental conceptions of the material world can be\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions. ]\n\nEDUCATIONAL VALUES.\n\n199\n\nobtained through the sense of touch alone; but we also attach importance to the revelations of sight and hearing, and these revelations\nhave a different quality.\n\nHe who lacks these other senses is defect-\n\nive in sources of soul development. So he who neglects important\nfields of knowledge lacks something that is peculiar to them. Each\nstudy helps every other, and before special training begins each is\nto be used up to the time when the student becomes conscious of its\n\nmeaning. By contact with nature and society, the child, before the\nschool period, gets an all-around education. He distinguishes numerically, observes natural phenomena, notes the deeds of his fellows,\ngains the thoughts of others and begins to perceive the qualities of\nbeauty and right. The kindergarten promotes all lines of growth ;\nthe primary school continues them. Shall the secondary school be\nopen to broad election ? At a time when some educators of strong\ninfluence are proclaiming the formal theory of education, that power\nwithout reference to content is the aim of study, and some universities encourage a wide choice of equivalents in preparation for admission, and the homes yield to the solicitation of pupils to omit different\nsubjects, it is important to answer the question in the light of the\nprevious analysis. And we say, no, for the simple reason that not\nuntil the secondary period can the meaning of the various departments of knowledge be brought within the conscious understanding,\nnot until then are the various powers developed to a considerable\ndegree of conscious strength, not until then has the natural bent of\nthe student been fairly tested. In this period one would hardly advocate the exclusive study, for instance, of history, to the entire neglect\nof mathematics and physics ; nor would he advocate the choice of\nmathematics to the entire neglect of history and literature.\nThe question of college electives is to an extent an open one. But\nit is clear that where general education ends special education should\nbegin, and that indiscriminate choice of studies without purpose is\nno substitute, either for a fixed curriculum or for group election in\n\na special line. I believe most fully in the freedom of modern university education, but not in its license. Its freedom gives the opportunity to choose special and fitting lines of work for a definite purpose; its license leads to evasion and dilettantism. We hear of a\nsenior who took for his electives Spanish, French, and lectures in\nmusic and art, not because they were strong courses in the line of\nhis tastes and tendencies, but because they were the lines of least\nresistance. There appears to be a reactionary tendency toward a\nmore careful guarding of college electives, together with a shortening\n\nof the college course, in order that genuine university work may begin\nsooner.\n\nIf this tendency prevails it will become possible to build\n\nall professional and other university courses upon a substantial foun-\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "200\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\ndation, and we shall no longer behold the disgraceful spectacle of\nlaw and medical students entering for a degree upon the basis of a\ngrammar-school preparation.\n\nThe opportunity to specialize, which is the real value of college\nelection, is necessary even for general education. To know all subjects one must know one subject. The deepening of one kind of\nknowledge deepens all knowledge. The strengthening of power in\none direction strengthens the whole man. And education is not\n\ncomplete until one is fairly master of some one subject, which he\nmay employ for enjoyment, for instruction, and for use in the world\nof practical activity. Here we reach the ultimate consideration of\nthe intellectual side in estimating educational values.\nSOME THEORIES .\n\n\"But,\" says some one, \"my conservative, not to say old-fashioned,\nfriend, do you not know\"-etc. ? Yes, I know that we have before us\nnew problems, or a reconsideration of old problems ; and I hope I am\nwith the vanguard. I believe the trend of educational thought is\nright, however we may for a time deviate in curious paths. I know\nthat mental capacity, health, time, money, home obligations, proposed\noccupation, and even deviation from the normal type, are all to be\nconsidered in planning the education of a pupil. But the deviations\nfrom ideal courses and standards should be made with ideals in view,\na different proposition from denying the existence or possibility of\nideals. Yes, I know that the mind is a unit-being and a self-activity ;\nthat it develops as a whole ; that there are no entities called faculties.\nBut suppose the various psychical activities had never been classified,\nas they now are, in accordance with the facts of consciousness, the\nusage of language and literature, and the convenience of psychology,\nwhat a herald of fresh progress would he be who would first present\nmental science in clear groupings ! We may call the world one, but\nit has many phases; the mind is one, but it has many phases ; these\nare more or less correlated, and our theory of educational values\nstands. Yes, I know that interest is the sine qua non of success in\neducation, and nothing is more beneficent than the emphasis given\nthis fact to-day. I also know that pleasure is not the only, not even\nthe most valuable, interest; and that the disagreeable character of a\nstudy is not always a criterion for its rejection. The pleasure theory\nwill hardly overcome the importance of a symmetrical education.\nIn regard to some things, however, you must permit some of us to\nmove slowly. We must use the principle of \"apperception,\" and\ninterpret the new in the light of that which has for a long time been\nfamiliar-attach it to the \" apperception mass ;\" we must be indulged\nin our right to use the \"culture-epoch\" theory and advance by degrees\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.]\n\nEDUCATIONAL VALUES.\n\n201\n\nfrom the barbaric stage to that of deeper insight ; we must \"concentrate\" (concenter) with established doctrines other doctrines that\npresent large claims, and learn their \"correlations\" and \"co-ordinations.\"\n\nA new object or idea must be related to and explained by the\nknowledge already in mind; it must be so placed and known or it is\nnot an idea for us. If \"apperception\" means the act of explaining a\nnew idea by the whole conscious content of the child's mind, then it is\nthe recognized process of all mental growth. In a given study topics\nmust be arranged in logical order, facts must be so organized as to\nconstitute a consistent whole, important relations with other studies\nmust be noted, and one subject must be made to help another as\nopportunity arises. If \"correlation\" means to unite and make clear\nparts of subjects and subjects by discovery of valuable mutual relations, then it is a vital principle of all good teaching. Studies, while\npreserving their integrity, must be adjusted to each other in time\nand sequence so that a harmonious result may be produced. If \" coordination\" means the harmonious adjustment of the independent\nfunctions of departments of study, we own the triteness of the truth.\nIf the theory of \"culture-epochs\" finds a parallel in order of development between race and individual, and throws light upon the\nselection of material for each stage of the child's growth, then let the\ntheory be used for all it is worth. Its place, however, will be a subordinate one. Here are the world and the present civilization by\nmeans of which the child is to be educated, to which he is to be\n\nadjusted. Select subjects with reference to nature as known by modern science, with reference to modern civilization and the hereditary\naccumulation of power in the child to acquire modern conceptions.\nIf\"concentration\" means subordinating all other subjects of learning to a primary subject, as history or literature, which is to be used\nas a center throughout the elementary period, we refuse to give it a\nplace as an important method in education. Intrinsically there is\nno such thing as a primary center except the child himself. He possesses native impulses that reach out toward the field of knowledge\n--and in every direction. It is difficult to imagine a child to be\nwithout varied interests. Did you ever see a boy who failed to\nenumerate his possessions, investigate the interior of his automatic\n\ntoy, delight in imaginative tales, applaud mock-heroic deeds, and\nappreciate beautiful objects and right action? If the child lacks\nnormal development and has not the apperceiving mind of the various departments of knowledge, create new centers of apperception\nand interest, cultivate the neglected and stunted powers. The various distinct aspects of the objective world suggest the selection of\nstudies; the nature of the mind suggests the manner in which the\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n202\n\n[General\n\nelements of knowledge are to be organized. The parts of a subject\nmust be distinctly known before they are correlated; subjects must\n\nbe distinctly known before they are viewed in a system of philosophy.\nKnowledge is not organized by artificial associations, but by observing the well-known laws of classification and reasoning. Moreover,\nall laws of thought demand that a subject be developed in a definite\nand continuous way, and that side illustration be employed only for\nthe purpose of clearness. In practice the method of concentration\ncan but violate this principle.\nWe may ask whether apperception, correlation, co-ordination, and\nconcentration are anything but a recognition of the laws of association. The laws of association in memory are nothing but the law\nof acquisition of knowledge, as all good psychology points out. These\nlaws include relations of time, place, likeness, analogy, difference,\nand cause.\n\nAdd to these laws logical sequence in the development\n\nof a subject, and you have all the principles of the methods named.\nHave these investigations an important value? Yes. They explain\nand emphasize pedagogical truths that have been neglected. Having\nperformed their mission and having added to the progress of educational theory, they will give way to new investigations. This is the\nhistory of all progress.\nINTEREST .\n\nThe subject of interest deserves a further thought. It goes withcut saying that all a man thinks, feels, and does centers around his\nown personality, and in that sense is a self-interest. But we are not\nto infer that therefore interest must be pleasure.\n\nWe are born with\n\nnative impulses to action, impulses that reach out in benevolence\nand compassion for the good of others, impulses that reach out\ntoward the truth, and beauty, and goodness of the world without\nregard to pleasure or reward. These impulses tend toward the per-\n\nfection of our being, and the reward lies in that perfection, the possession of a strong and noble intellectual, æsthetic, and ethical character.\n\nThe work of the teacher is to invite these better tendencies\n\nby presenting to them the proper objects for their exercise in the\nworld of truth, beauty, and right. Interest and action will follow,\nand, later, the satisfaction that attends right development. Whenever this spontaneous interest does not appear and cannot be invited,\nthe child should face the fact that some things must be, because they\nare required, and are for his good. When a course of action is\nobviously the best, and Inclination does not lead the way, Duty must\ncome to the rescue.\n\nI am not touching this matter as an old ethical controversy, but\nbecause I am convinced it is a vital practical problem of to-day in\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions.\n\nEDUCATIONAL VALUES.\n\n203\n\neducation; am convinced that the pleasure theory is bad philosophy,\nbad psychology, bad ethics, bad pedagogy, a caricature of man, contrary to our consciousness of the motives of even our ordinary useful\nacts-a theory that will make a generation of weaklings. Evolution\ndoes not claim to show that pleasure is always a criterion of useful\naction. Herbert Spencer, in his \"Ethics,\" says: \"In many cases,\npleasures are not connected with actions which must be performed,\nnor pains with actions which must be avoided; but contrariwise.\"\nHe postpones the complete coincidence of pleasure with ideal action\nto the era of perfect moralization.\n\nWe await the evolutionist's\n\nmillennium. Much harm as well as much good has been done in the\nname of Spencer by well-meaning teachers, and much harm has been\ndone in the name of physiological psychologists ; I would avoid a\nmisuse of their noble contributions to educational insight. Listen to\na view of physiological psychology with reference to the law of habit :\n\"Do every day or two something for no other reason than that you\nwould rather not do it. The man who has daily inured himself to\nhabits of concentrated attention, energetic volition, and self-denial in\nunnecessary things, will stand like a tower when everything rocks\naround him and when his softer fellow-mortals are winnowed like\n\nchaff in the blast.\" The fact is, it is impossible to create character,\nenergy, and success without effort that is often painful. This view is\nan essential part of our theory of educational values.\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Report of the Committee on Necrology.\n\nBY C. W. BARDEEN, SYRACUSE, N. Y. , CHAIRMAN.\n\nJames McCosh .\nAmong the deaths of the year, this association as a body suffers\nmost in that of James McCosh, ex-president of the College of New\nJersey, who died on November 16th. He is remembered here for his\npaper on \"Upper Schools,\" at the Elmira meeting in 1883; for his\ndiscussion in the association and afterward of the project for a\nnational university; for his paper at the Chautauqua meeting in 1880\non \"The Importance of Harmonizing the Primary, Secondary, and\nCollegiate Systems of Education;\" and, most of all, for his service as\nchairman of the Department of Rational Psychology at the International Congress of Education in 1893, where the keen enjoyment of\ncontroversial discussion by this veteran of eighty-two years was one\nof the features of the meeting.\n\nHe was born in Ayrshire, Scotland, April 1, 1811; was graduated\nfrom Glasgow and Edinburgh; in 1851 became professor of logic and\nmetaphysics at Belfast ; and in 1868 came to America as president\nof the College of New Jersey. He resigned his office in 1888, after\nmaking of a provincial institution a great college. He secured for it\nmore than three millions in money, and he left upon the students the\nimpress of a vigorous and healthy individuality. He was also a\nvoluminous writer and a controversialist of remarkable skill and\npower.\n\nPresident Patton said of him, in a baccalaureate address :\nDr. McCosh was a philosopher and a theologian; but above all, he was a\nteacher of men, and as president of Princeton he will always be thought of as one\nof the few who had the gift of wielding a fascinating power over the youth of\nhis time.\n\nJulius bawley Seelye .\nAnother of America's great college presidents died on May 12th.\nJulius Hawley Seelye was a graduate of Amherst College and of\nAuburn Theological Seminary. After pursuing theological studies\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "NECROLOGY.\n\nMemoriam.]\n\n205\n\nin Germany he was settled in 1853 as pastor in Schenectady, N. Y.\nIn 1858 he resigned his pastorate to accept the professorship of\n\nmental and moral philosophy in his alma mater. This professorship\nhe held till 1877, when he was elected president of Amherst College,\nfrom which position he resigned in 1890 on account of failing health.\nHis connection with Amherst College for thirty-three years was\nbroken for two years, 1875-77, by a term of service in congress, to\nwhich he was elected as an independent.\nThe \" Outlook\" well says :\nIt is given to few men to excel in so many departments of life as did Dr. Seelye.\nAs a preacher he easily ranked among the first twenty-five in the country. As a\npublicist he set an inspiring example of purity and independence in political life,\nand rendered invaluable service to his country in a crisis involving serious peril. As\npresident he carried Amherst College safely through the period of adolescence, from\nan epoch in which college students were treated as boys under governors to that\nin which they are treated as men. As an inspirational teacher he exerted his profoundest and most permanent influence. Preacher, publicist, administrator, teacher,\nPresident Seelye was in all a man of vision, trusting to it in himself, and believing\nin its sacred power in others.\n\nhenry Coppée.\n-\n\nAnother college president died on March 21st. Henry Coppée, acting president of Lehigh University, was born in Savannah, Ga., Oct.\n13, 1821, and was graduated from Yale in 1839 and from West Point\nin 1845. He took part in the Mexican war, and in 1848 was made\nassistant professor of French at West Point. In 1855 he resigned\nfrom the army and became professor of English literature in the\nUniversity of Pennsylvania.\n\nIn 1866 he was elected president of\n\nLehigh University, but afterward resigned to hold the professorship\nofEnglish literature.\n\nhenry A. Coit.\nAnother teacher, who might have been a college president but preferred to remain at the head of one of our great preparatory schools,\ndied on February 5th. Henry A. Coit was born in Wilmington, Del.,\nJan. 20, 1830, and was educated in St. Paul's School, College Point,\nL. I., and at the University of Pennsylvania. He early entered the\nministry of the Episcopal Church, and became a missionary in Northern New York.\n\nWhen St. Paul's School was founded, in Concord,\n\nMr. Coit was chosen its first rector, assuming the position in April,\n\n1856. The school opened with three students, but under Mr. Coit's\ndirection it gradually increased to more than 300, its present number,\nand has become the leading Episcopal school in the country. Dr.\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "206\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[In\n\nCoit was elected, in 1867, president of Trinity College, and in 1871, of\nHobart College, but in both cases he declined the honor, preferring to\ngo on with the work which he had undertaken.\n\nDaniel\n\nkirkwood .\n\nDaniel Kirkwood, who died on June 11th, though better known as\na professor of mathematics and an astronomer, had also been president of Delaware College. He was born in Bladensburg, Md., Sept.\n27, 1814, of Scotch-Irish descent. His early life was spent on a farm,\nand at the age of twenty he entered the academy at York, Pa., where,\nafter a four years' course, he was elected first assistant and mathematical instructor. In 1843 he became principal of the Lancaster\n(Pa.) High School. In 1851 he was chosen professor of mathematics\nby Delaware College, and three years later became president. He\nwas called to the chair of mathematics in Indiana University in 1856,\nand in 1866 to a similar chair in Washington and Jefferson College,\nPennsylvania. In 1867 he was recalled to Indiana, and remained\nuntil his retirement as emeritus professor in 1886. He was a member\nof various scientific societies, and contributed largely to scientific\njournals. He was the author of three books, \"Meteoric Astronomy\"\n(1867), \"Comets and Meteors\" (1873), and \"The Asteroids or Minor\nPlanets Between Mars and Jupiter\" (1887) .\nOliver Wendell\n\nHolmes .\n\nAmong college professors, the year is marked by the loss of two\nof the most famous in America.\n\nOliver Wendell Holmes is most\n\nwidely known as a literary man, yet he was an eminent medical professor and author, and was the inventor of the stereoscope. Indeed\nhis versatility was perhaps his most marked characteristic. He was\na physician, a professor, a scientist, an essayist, a novelist, a wit, a\n\npoet; and withal a gentleman, a man of the world, and pre-eminently\na citizen of Boston, which on public occasion was glad to put him forward as her representative. His poems were never fully appreciated\nsave by those who heard him recite them on the occasions for which\n\nthey were written.\n\nHe had the faculty of turning, as Lowell said,\n\nThe phrase that stuck but never stung,\n\nand could hit off contemporary men and doings with a felicity seldom\nrivaled.\n\nHis life of sunshine ended peacefully on October 7th, at his home\non Beacon street, Boston. He was the last to go of the great quintette which included Emerson, Longfellow, Lowell, and Whittier.\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "Memoriam. ]\n\nNECROLOGY .\n\n207\n\nHe was born, the son of a clergyman, in Cambridge, Aug. 29,\n\n1809, the same year with Tennyson, Darwin, Lincoln, Poe, and Gladstone. He fitted at Andover, and was graduated from Harvard in\n1829.\n\nHe began to study law, but turned to medicine, and in 1833\n\nwent to Paris to study. He returned in 1835, took his degree in 1836,\nin 1838 was made professor of anatomy in Dartmouth, and in 1847\nwas called to the same chair in Harvard. In 1849 he gave up medical practice to devote himself to literary work; and in 1883 he gave\nup his chair in the medical school.\nHis literary fame had come suddenly. In 1830 there was talk\n\nofbreaking up the old frigate Constitution, and it stirred him to write\nand send to the \"Advertiser\" \"Old Ironsides.\" Though he was but\ntwenty-one, the poem saved the ship, which lies to-day in the harbor\nat Portsmouth. In 1836 he published a volume of poems, but his reputation was still local when, in 1857, he began to contribute to the \"Atlantic Monthly\" \"The Autocrat at the Breakfast Table.\" These papers insured the success of the magazine, and made him famous. In\n1859 he began \"The Professor\" and in 1873 \"The Poet at the Break-\n\nfast Table,\" and many of his best poems appeared in these papers.\n\"The Professor's Story\" was \"Elsie Venner,\" a novel which appeared\nin 1861, and \"The Guardian Angel\" was the chief attraction of the\n\"Atlantic\" in 1867.\n\nIn 1866 he visited Europe with his daughter, and was welcomed\nby the most distinguished men in England; his travels were entertainingly reported in the \"Atlantic.\"\nWhen the Department of Superintendence met at Boston in 1893,\n\nDr. Holmes was present at the reception given, and read a poem written for the occasion.\n\nJames Dwight Dana.\nJames Dwight Dana, who died on April 14th, was born in Utica\n\nin 1813, was graduated from Yale in 1833, and was appointed instructor in mathematics to midshipmen in the United States navy,\nvisiting many foreign countries. From 1836 to 1838 he was an assistant at Yale to Professor Silliman, and in the meantime was made geologist to the expedition sent by the United States to the Southern\nPacific ocean, under Captain Wilkes. His report was published by the\ngovernment in several volumes with many plates. In 1850 he was\nmade Silliman professor of natural history and geology at Yale,\nwhere he remained till his death. His text-books have always been\nthe standards upon their subjects. When Professor Marsh was\n\nstudying geology in Germany his fellow students were advised to\nlearn English for the sake of studying Dana's text-book of mineral\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "208\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[In\n\nogy, assured by the German professor that they could learn the English language and the subject both easier than they could learn the\nsubject alone from any other text-book. With all his eminence as a\nscholar and an author, Professor Dana was the simplest and most\n\nlovable of men. The writer remembers being one of a party of freshmen whom he took out over the hills near New Haven and showed\n\nthe elementary characteristics of the rocks with as much interest\nand patience as though he had been a newly appointed tutor.\nDaniel C. Eaton .\n\nAnother Yale professor, who had acquired eminence in the field\nof botany, died on May 29th. Daniel C. Eaton was born at Fort\nGratiot, Mich., Sept. 12, 1834, and graduated from Yale in 1857. In\n1864 he became professor of botany in that institution, where he\nremained until his death. He was the author of several works,\nincluding \"The Ferns of America. \" He made quite a number of\nimportant expeditions in the interest of science, among them one to\nthe Wasatch mountains in Utah.\n\nTheophilus Adam Wylie .\n\nTheophilus Adam Wylie, a veteran professor of the University of\nIndiana, and author of the published volume giving its history, was\n\nborn in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 8, 1810. He was the son of Samuel\nBrown Wylie, an eminent classical and oriental scholar. He was\ngraduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1830. In 1837 he was\nappointed professor of natural philosophy and chemistry in the University of Indiana. In 1852 was made professor of mathematics in\n\nMiami University, but three years later he returned to his former\npost.\n\nIn 1864 he was transferred to the chair of ancient languages.\n\nIn 1886 he withdrew from active work and was made professor\nemeritus.\n\nA. 15. IR. Dawson .\n\nAmong supervisory officers, we have lost the former commissioner\nof education under President Cleveland's first administration, who\n\ndied February 1st.\n\nN. H. R. Dawson was born in Charleston, S. C.,\n\nand was a descendant of Paul Hamilton, secretary of the navy in\n1812, and also of several early colonial governors of South Carolina.\nHe was also a brother-in-law of President Lincoln, their wives being\nsisters.\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "Memoriam.]\n\nNECROLOGY.\n\nJoseph\n\n209\n\nEstabrook .\n\nA foremost teacher of Michigan died September 30th.\n\nJoseph\n\nEstabrook was born in Bath, N. H., July 3, 1820, was graduated from\nOberlin College, and in 1853 was made principal of schools in Ypsi-\n\nlanti. After fifteen years of service there, he went to East Saginaw\nto organize the school system, and in 1871 returned to Ypsilanti as\nprincipal of the State Normal School. In 1880 he retired to accept a\nprofessorship in Olivet College. In 1886 and 1888 he was elected\nstate superintendent of public instruction. He was cheery, warmhearted, and broad-minded-a noble old man.\nhenry A. ford .\nAnother Michigan teacher of much influence was Henry A. Ford,\nwho died last November. He was a captain in the army during the\nRebellion, and afterward became professor in Kalamazoo College.\nHe was for many years editor of the \"Michigan Teacher,\" and did\neditorial work on the Kalamazoo \"Telegraph\" and the Cleveland\n\"Leader.\"\n\nMrs. Mary J. Platt.\nOn September 20th, on the Pachango Indian reservation in Southern California, Mrs. Mary J. Platt, teacher of the school, was\nkilled by an assassin, who placed her body in the center of the floor\nof the schoolhouse, covered it with stovewood, and set it on fire.\n\nAn\n\nillustrated sketch of her work was given in the \"Review of Reviews \"\nfor November.\n\nMichael Frank .\nIn the death at Kenosha of Col. Michael Frank, Wisconsin lost\nthe man who has been called the father of her public school system.\nHe had reached the age of ninety.\n\nDavid Swing.\nDavid Swing, who died in Chicago last October, though best\nknown as clergyman, was a graduate of Miami University and had\nbeen a professor in that institution. While pastor of a Presbyterian\n\nchurch in Chicago, he was accused of heresy, and though acquitted\nby the lower ecclesiastical courts withdrew from the church rather\nthan carry the trial further, and became pastor of the Central Church,\norganized for him, where he taught \"a faith full of love and gentleness and charity.\" He was also a successful writer, and was noted\nfor his familiarity with the classics.\n14\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "210\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[In\n\nThis report can hardly close without reference to some of the\nnotable deaths abroad .\n\nJohn Stuart Blackie.\nJohn Stuart Blackie, who died March 2d, was well known in\nAmerica through his \"Self- Culture,\" and his fame as one of the great\nteachers of the century is widespread.\nHe was born in Glasgow in 1809, and after studying in Germany\nand Italy returned in 1834 to Edinburgh, where he published a metrical translation of \"Faust,\" and became a lawyer. In 1841 he\nbecame professor of Latin literature in the University of Aberdeen.\nA metrical translation of the works of Æschylus led to his being\ncalled to Edinburgh, where he was professor of Greek from 1852 to\n1882. Since 1882 he devoted himself to authorship, sometimes\nlecturing on modern Greek at Oxford and Cambridge. He was one\nof the most interesting personalities of his generation, and a remarkable instructor.\n\nAmong the many anecdotes told of him, the following is so characteristic that it should be repeated here :\nHe was lecturing to a new class with whose personnel he was\nimperfectly acquainted. A student arose to read a paragraph, his\nbook in his left hand. \"Sir!\" thundered Blackie, \"hold your book in\nyour right hand!\"-and as the student would have spoken-\"No\nwords, sir ! Your right hand, I say!\"\nThe student held up his right arm, ending piteously at the wrist.\n\"Sir, I hae nae right hand !\" he said.\nBefore Blackie could open his lips there arose such a storm of\nhisses as one perhaps must go to Edinburgh to hear; and by it his\nvoice was overborne. Then the professor left his place and went\ndown to the student he had unwittingly hurt and put his arm around\nthe lad's shoulders and drew him close, and the lad leaned against\nhis breast.\n\n\"My boy,\" said Blackie-he spoke very softly, but not so softly\nbut that every word was audible in the hush that had fallen on the\nclassroom-\"my boy, you'll forgive me that I was over-rough ? I\ndid not know I did not know ! \"\nHe turned to the students and with a look and tone that came\n\nstraight from his great heart, he said: \"And let me say to you all,\nI am rejoiced to be shown that I am teaching a class of gentlemen.\"\nScottish lads can cheer as well as hiss, and that Blackie learned .\n\nThomas henry Huxley.\nThe name of Thomas Henry Huxley, who died on June 29th, only\na few days ago, is as well known in America as in England. He was\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "NECROLOGY.\n\nMemoriam. ]\n\n211\n\nborn in 1825, at Ealing, Middlesex, and educated at Ealing School, in\nwhich his father was one of the teachers. At twenty he was graduated from the Charing Cross Medical School, and in 1846 entered the\nnavy as assistant surgeon. He was appointed to H. M. S. Rattlesnake, about to sail upon an exploring expedition in the South\nPacific. In the course of the long voyage he had splendid opportunities to make observations of the natural history of the sea,\n\nparticularly with reference to the anatomy of the mollusks and\nmedusae. He wrote several admirable papers, afterward published\nin the philosophical transactions of the Royal Society, which in 1851\nmade him a Fellow. In 1853 he resigned his navy appointment and\nbecame professor of natural history in the School of Mines. He was\nalso connected with other institutions as instructor and lecturer, and\nbegan to occupy a distinguished place as specialist in zoölogy and\nbiology. From 1863 to 1869 he was Hunterian professor in the\nRoyal College of Surgeons, and contributed as much to researches in\nzoölogy as any investigator of his time. He was a warm friend of\nProfessor Tyndall, and in early life traveled with him over the Alps.\nIn 1870 he became a member of the London School Board and was\n\nprominent as a fierce opponent of denominational education.\n\nIn\n\n1872 he was elected rector of the University of Aberdeen, and in 1881\nLecame inspector-general of fisheries.\n\nIn 1884 he was elected presi-\n\ndent of the Royal Society. About this time a letter published\nthrough breach of confidence showed him a bold adherent of the\n\nagnostic doctrine that it is impossible to define the unknowable in\nterms of the known. In this letter Mr. Huxley declared himself the\nfirst to introduce the word agnostic into modern philosophical discussion. In 1876 he visited America, delivering lectures in several\ncities. Among his more important works, apart from those strictly\nscientific, are, \"Lay Sermons, Addresses, and Reviews,\" 1870, and\n\" Critiques and Addresses,\" 1873. With Darwin, Tyndall, and Spencer, he formed the great quartette which succeeded in forcing upon\nan unwilling public the doctrine of evolution.\n\nJames Anthony froude .\nJames Anthony Froude, who died October 20th, was born in\nDevonshire, April 23, 1818, and was graduated from Oxford in 1840,\nand made Fellow of Exeter College at the age of twenty-four. At\nthis time he was in sympathy with the Newman high church movement, and, when ordained deacon in 1844, wrote \"The Lives of the\nEnglish Saints.\" But in 1848 he published \"The Nemesis of Faith,\"\nwhich was considered an attack upon religion, and he was forced to\nresign his Fellowship.\n\nHe became a writer for the \"Westminster\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "212\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nReview,\" and in 1856 published the first volumes of his \"History of\nEngland,\" the last appearing in 1870. In 1869, he was installed\nrector of St. Andrews, and was for a time editor of \"Fraser's Magazine.\" In 1873 he lectured in America, afterward amplifying his\nlectures into \"The English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century.\"\nHis \"Short Studies on Great Subjects\" appeared in 1867, his \" Cæsar\"\nin 1879, his \"Reminiscences of the High Church Revival\" and his\n\"Reminiscences of Carlyle\" in 1881, his \"Thomas Carlyle\" the next\nyear, his \"Oceanea\" in 1886, and afterward \"Thomas á Becket,\" \"The\nEnglish in the West Indies,\" and a novel, \"The Two Chiefs of Dunboy.\" In 1892 he was made Regius professor of history at Oxford.\n\nHermann Helmholtz.\nIn the death of Hermann Helmholtz, the world loses perhaps its\ngreatest scientist. He was born Aug. 21, 1821, at Potsdam, the son\nof a professor in the gymnasium. He took the degree of M. D., in\n1842 became an army surgeon, and in 1847 read a paper on the conservation of force that made him famous.\n\nIn 1849 he was made pro-\n\nfessor in Königsberg, in 1855 at Bonn, in 1858 at Heidelberg, and in\n1871 at Berlin. In 1891 he was made president of a school for the\nexperimental furthering of natural inquiry and the technics of precision. His principal investigations were upon sound and sight, but\nhis memoir on eddies or vortices, in the field of hydrodynamics, was\nsecond in importance only to that on the conservation of force.\nWilliam\n\nMoon .\n\nWilliam Moon, who died on October 11th, was the inventor of the\nembossed system of printing for the blind, which he had adapted to\n476 languages and dialects , and in which more than 200,000 volumes\nhave been printed.\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE.\nCLEVELAND MEETING .\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES.\n\nFIRST DAY.\n\nMORNING SESSION.- TUESDAY, FEB. 19, 1895.\nThe Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association\nmet in annual session at Cleveland, Ohio, in Association Hall, at 9:30 a. m. , the\nPresident, Supt. W. H. Maxwell of Brooklyn, N. Y. , presiding.\nRobert L. Blee, the Mayor of Cleveland, opened the meeting by an address of\nwelcome. He was followed by H. Q. Sargent, Director of the city schools, who\nwelcomed the department in behalf of the teachers of Cleveland.\nOlney also gave a brief address of welcome.\n\nProf. Chas . F.\n\nPresident Maxwell responded to the addresses of welcome in behalf of the department.\n\nSuperintendent Jones of Cleveland extended an invitation to the department to\nvisit the city schools.\n\nPresident Staley of Case School of Applied Science invited the department to\nvisit that institution.\n\nPapers on the subject, \"How to Test the Quality of a Teacher's Work,\" were\nread by Supt. W. C. Warfield, Covington, Ky., and Supt. Aaron Gove, Denver,\nColo.\n\nThe papers were discussed by Supt. Chas. W. Cole, Albany, N. Y.; Supt..\nFrank D. Cooper, Des Moines, Iowa; Supt. W. W. Chalmers, Grand Rapids,\nMich.; Supt. John E. Morris, Alliance, Ohio ; Supt. Chas. W. Cole, Albany, N. Y.;\nSupt. J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo .; Supt. John Burke, Newport, Ky.; Miss\nN. Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.; Miss Sarah L. Arnold, Minneapolis, Minn.; Supt.\nF. Treudley, Youngstown, Ohio ; President E. A. Sheldon, State Normal School,\nOswego, N. Y.; Prof. Charles A. McMurry, Normal, Ill.; President Irwin Shepard,\nState Normal School, Winona, Minn.; Supt. Edward P. Seaver, Boston, Mass.; Dr.\nE. E. White, Columbus, Ohio ; Supt. W. H. Maxwell, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nSuperintendent Gove of Denver, Colo., closed the discussion.\nMiss Ellen G. Reveley of Cleveland was called upon and was received enthusiastically.\n\nShe declined to speak, owing to the lateness of the hour, but extended\n\navery cordial welcome on behalf of the superintendents of the primary schools of\nCleveland.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "214\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nAFTERNOON SESSION.\n\nPresident Maxwell announced the following committees :\nCOMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS .\n\nSupt. J. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss.\nPresident A. S. Draper, Champaign, Ill.\nSupt. A. B. Blodgett, Syracuse, N. Y.\nSupt. Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo .\nSupt. Henry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa.\nCOMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS .\n\nSupt. O. T. Corson, Columbus, Ohio.\nSupt. Chas . B. Gilbert, St. Paul, Minn.\nSupt. Z. H. Brown, Nashville, Tenn.\nSupt. Chas. R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y.\nSupt. H. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I.\n\nSupt. Horace S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I. , presented a paper on \" The Training\nof Teachers-Report of the Committee of Fifteen. \"\n\nThe paper was discussed by Prof. A. B. Blodgett, Syracuse, N. Y.; State Supt.\nN. C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa.; President John W. Cook, Normal, Ill .; Dr. W. J.\nMilne, Albany, N. Y.; Professor Nicholson; Supervisor Geo. H. Martin, Boston,\nMass .; Miss Ellen G. Reveley, Cleveland, Ohio ; Dr. D. L. Kiehle, Minneapolis,\n\nMinn.; Dr. Walter B. Hervey, New York City ; Dr. Gordy, Athens, Ohio ; Dr. E.\nE. White, Columbus, Ohio ; Dr. E. A. Sheldon, Oswego, N. Y.; Supt. H. S Tarbell,\nProvidence, R. I.\nEVENING SESSION .\n\nAt 8 p. m. the President called the department to order.\nDirector Sargent extended an invitation to the department to attend a reception\n\nat Gray's Armory at 8 p. m., the same being tendered the visiting teachers by the\nteachers of the Cleveland city schools, the faculty of the Western Reserve University, the Case School of Applied Science, and the citizens of Cleveland.\nMiss Emma C. Davis, on the part of the teachers of the city of Cleveland, secconded the invitation in behalf of the lady teachers of Cleveland.\n\nOrville T. Bright, Superintendent of Schools, Cook county, Illinois, read a paper\non \"Changes-Wise and Unwise-in Grammar and High Schools.\"\nMiss Sarah L. Arnold, Supervisor of Primary Schools, Minneapolis, Minn., next\n\nread a paper on \"Recent Improvements in Primary Work. \"\n\nSECOND DAY.\nMORNING SESSION.-WEDNESDAY, FEB. 20, 1895.\nThe department was called to order at 9:30 by President Maxwell.\nDr. W. T. Harris read a portion of the \"Report of the Committee of Fifteen.\"\nThis was followed by a discussion by Frank M. McMurry, Buffalo, N. Y.;\nFrancis W. Parker, Cook County Normal, Chicago, Ill.; Charles De Garmo ,\nSwarthmore College, Pennsylvania ; Wm. H. Maxwell, Brooklyn, N. Y.; С. А.\nMcMurry, Normal, Ill.; Dr. Walter B. Hervey, New York City; Dr. B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich.; Dr. E. E. White, Columbus, Ohio : Dr. Nicholas Murray\nButler, New York; Samuel T. Dutton, Brookline, Mass.; Dr. W. T. Harris, Washington, D. С.\nThe session then adjourned.\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\n215\n\nMINUTES.\n\nAFTERNOON SESSION .\n\nN. C. Schaeffer, State Superintendent, Harrisburg, Pa., read a paper upon\n\"The Powers and Duties of State Superintendents.\"\nJ. R. Preston, State Superintendent, Jackson, Miss.; State Supt. Henry Sabin,\nDes Moines, Iowa; A. W. Edson, Worcester, Mass .; A. E. Winship, Boston, Mass.;\nState Supt. E. B. Prettyman, Baltimore, Md. , and State Supt. R. E. Emery, Madison, Wis. , took part in the discussion.\nSupt. N. C. Schaeffer then closed the discussion.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\nEVENING SESSION.\n\nApaper on \"History Teaching in School, with Reference to the Report of the\nCommittee of Ten,\" was presented by Dr. B. A. Hinsdale, Professor of Pedagogy,\nUniversity of Michigan.\nCharles F. Thwing, President of Western Reserve University, addressed the\ndepartment on \"The Teaching of Political Economy in Schools.\"\nThe department then adjourned to attend the reception at Gray's Armory\ntendered by the teachers of Cleveland .\n\nTHIRD DAY.\n\nMORNING SESSION .\n\nTHURSDAY, FEB. 21, 1895.\n\nA. S. Draper, President of the University of Illinois, read the report of the\nCommittee of Fifteen on \" The Organization of City School Systems .\"\nThe paper was discussed by Dr. E. E. White, Columbus, Ohio: Albert Bushnell Hart, Harvard University; Supt. A. P. Marble, Omaha, Neb.; Dr. B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich.; Supt. F. Cogswell, Cambridge, Mass.; Superintendent\nSeaver, Boston, Mass.; Col. F. W. Parker, Chicago, Ill.; Robert C. Metcalf. Boston, Mass.\n\nPresident Draper closed the discussion.\nThe selection of place for holding the next meeting of the department was then\ntaken up.\n\nState Superintendent Sheats of Florida extended an invitation to the depart\nment to hold their next meeting in Jacksonville, Fla.\n\nThere was also an invitation to hold the meeting in Indianapolis, Ind.\nSupt. H. R. Pattengill of Lansing extended an invitation to hold the next meeting in Detroit, Mich .\n\nThe balloting showed the following results :\n\nDetroit\n\nFirst\nBallot.\n\nSecond\nBallot.\n\n103\n\n131\n\n80\n\n99\n\n19\n\n...\n\nJacksonville .\nIndianapolis\n\nPresident Maxwell declared Jacksonville as the place for the next meeting of\nthe department.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations recommended the following names as officers\nfor the department :\nPresident -Lewis H. Jones, Cleveland, Ohio .\nFirst Vice President-J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.\nSecond Vice President-Chas . W. Cole, Albany, N. Y.\nSecretary-R. E. Denfeld, Duluth, Minn.\n\nThe report of the committee was adopted.\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "216\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nAFTERNOON SESSION. -THURSDAY, FEB. 21, 1895.\nDepartment called to order by President Maxwell.\n\n\"Individualism in Mass Education\" was the subject of a paper read by P. W.\nSearch, Superintendent of City Schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\nThe paper was discussed by Supt. L. H. Jones, Cleveland, Ohio; Dr. Richard\n\nG. Boone, Ypsilanti, Mich.; Dr. W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C.; Col. F. W.\nParker, Cook County Normal School, Chicago, Ill.; Supt. W. J. Shearer, New\nCastle, Pa.; A. E. Winship, Boston, Mass .; H. R. Sanford, Institute Conductor,\nNew York ; Dr. E. E. White, Columbus, Ohio ; Dr. Eugene Bouton, Pittsfield, Mass.\nSuperintendent Search then closed the discussion .\n\nThe department then adjourned to meet at 8 p. m.\nEVENING SESSION.\n\nThe closing session of the department was called to order at 8 p. m., President\nMaxwell in the chair.\n\nA paper on \"Application of Child Study in the School\" was read by. Col.\nFrancis W. Parker, Principal of the Cook County Normal School, Illinois.\nThe Committee on Resolutions made its report through its Chairman, Supt. C.\nB. Gilbert of St. Paul, Minn., as follows :\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS .\nSUPT. C. B. GILBERT, Chairman .\n\nWhereas , The institutions of this country are undergoing at the present time a severe\n\nstrain, and possibly a final testing, which condition has aroused in the minds of thoughtful people grave unrest and gloomy forebodings as to the future ; and\nWhereas , The sole hope of perpetuity for a free state is found in the intelligence,\nvirtue, and patriotism of its people ; and\nWhereas, The only reliable and controllable means possessed by the state for securing\nthese safeguards is its system of public and universal education; therefore, be it\nResolved. By the school superintendents in convention assembled, that it is the duty\nof every citizen, whether directly engaged in the work of education or not, but especially\nof those who are so engaged, and who are for this reason more familiar with the needs\nand difficulties of a school system, to see to it that the public schools of this land reach\nand maintain the highest efficiency possible.\nResolved, That, to this end, we declare our belief in the following propositions, and\npledge ourselves to use our utmost efforts towards securing their general adoption :\nI. As to School Management-\n\nFirst-The public schools should be absolutely free from the domination of those\nwho would prostitute them to political or personal ends.\nSecond-The management of the schools should be in the hands of educational experts clothed with adequate power, protected in their tenure of office, and held responsible for results .\nII. As to Teachers-\n\nSince the character of the teacher sets the standard of the school and provides the\ntrue basis of all educational work, we declare, first, that the standard of scholarship required of teachers should be high.\nSecond-That all teachers, both of elementary and higher schools, should have thorough professional training .\nThird-Not only all teachers of all grades but also principals, supervisors, and superintendents should have thorough professional training. To this end, we heartily favor\n\nthe establishment of fully-equipped training schools of pedagogy in connection with\ncolleges and universities .\n\nFourth- Only those should be employed as teachers who have refinement of mind and\n\nsoul to such a degree that, both consciously and unconsciously, they will influence children for good.\n\nFifth-Teachers doing good work should be secure in tenure of office.\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nMINUTES.\n\n217\n\nIII. As to the Training of ChildrenWe believe that the studies with which the child's mind is to be busied while in\n\nschool should be those which will give him sympathetic acquaintance with the material\nand social world in which his life is to be spent. We further believe that the chief\nstudy for all teachers should be the child himself, to the end that all efforts at education may be directed along the line of least resistance as determined by the child's own\nnature. We believe that the aim of all directive effort in education should be, first, so\n\nto train all the child's powers by the exercise of his self-activity that he shall both comprehend his material and social environment and be able to live his life effectively in it;\nand, second, to develop in him a purpose to use these powers so gained for the good of\nsociety.\n\nResolved, That we recognize the great value of the report presented by the Committee\nof Fifteen, as setting standards, defining educational values, and furnishing broad\ngrounds for intelligent deliberation and discussion in the future, and that the committee\n\nbe and hereby are authorized to put the report and such dissenting opinions as they may\nsee fit to use, into form satisfactory to themselves, and to print the same; and that the\ncommittee having performed this duty be discharged.\nResolved, That in the opinion of this body of superintendents the importance of public education in this country demands its recognition as a distinct and co-ordinate department of the executive branch of the government, and we urge a systematic movement on the part of all educators and educational bodies in the land to the end that\nthe Commissioner of Education be made a cabinet officer.\n\nResolved, That we express our sincere appreciation of the generous hospitality shown\nus by the citizens of this beautiful city of Cleveland, and that we congratulate them\nupon having successfully solved one of the great problems of school administration. We\nthank especially Director Sargent, Superintendent Jones, and their colaborers in the\npublic schools, and the presidents and officers of Adelbert College and the Case School\nof Applied Science, for their untiring efforts to make our stay here pleasant and profitable. We extend to the different railroads leading to Cleveland our thanks for their various courtesies. We especially express our appreciation of the dignified, impartial, and\nfelicitous manner in which our esteemed President has conducted and controlled the\n\nvarious meetings of this body, and of the efficiency and courtesy shown by the Secretary\nand Treasurer in the performance of their arduous and too often thankless tasks.\n\nPresident-elect Jones, being called to the chair, spoke as follows :\nPresident Maxwell:\n\nIn assuming the presidency, I accept this symbol of authority from your hands , sir,\nwith the greatest diffidence, since you have handled it in this hall for three days with\nsuch rare courtesy and consideration. You , sir, by the quiet grace and noble dignity\nwith which you have presided over the deliberations of this body, have set a standard\nthat will be difficult for me to maintain.\n\nLadies and Gentlemen; Members of the Department:\nI desire to return in this public manner my heartfelt thanks for the high honor\nwhich you this day have conferred upon me, and to express the hope, with fears mingled\nwith the hope, that I may rise to your expectations when I meet you a year from this\ntime in the land of flowers .\n\nBy the authority vested in me, I now declare this department adjourned, to meet\none year from this time in Jacksonville, Fla. , the exact date to be named hereafter.\n\nW. H. MAXWELL,\nPresident.\n\nJ. M. CARLISLE,\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "218\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS.\n\nHOW TO TEST THE QUALITY OF A TEACHER'S WORK.\n\nBY W. C. WARFIELD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, COVINGTON, KY.\n\nThe power to influence the formation of the character of a child\nis the best quality that a teacher can manifest ; therefore, we must\ntest this quality if we would properly estimate the teacher's work.\nArithmetical rules and mathematical problems may assist in making a child think, and thus assist in his mental development, but can\ndo but little in making him a man. When a child has mastered the\nelements of algebra, he owns an instrument with which he can penetrate into the depths of numerical reasoning and calculative secrets.\n\nThe teacher may drill a class in reading until each pupil can readily\ncall off the words and sentences ; she may subject the pupil to a\ncross-examination in geography to her own satisfaction, or may succeed in getting them to properly \"fill the blanks\" in the language\nlesson, but may be working with no end in view save that of promoting a large class. I sometimes think what a blessing it would be if\nwe could really get the teacher to put out of her mind all ideas pertaining to promotions. Then, perhaps, we could get her to think\nmore about the child's growth and less about markings and examinations.\n\nCharacter-building is the foundation stone upon which all other\nblocks of marble should be laid by the teacher; upon it should be\nerected the castle of existence.\n\nWithin this castle should be gar-\n\nnered the fundamental knowledge acquired by the child.\nGood scholarship, a certain amount of tact, kindness of heart,\nintermingled with love and devotion to duty, and supplemented with\na considerable amount of training, ought to be possessed by every\nprospective teacher. Add to this a few years of experience in teaching, and almost invariably the result will be a good teacher.\n\nWhen a supervisor enters a teacher's room and finds her parading\nthe aisles with flushed cheeks and a ferule ready for instant use,\nhe is tempted to believe that but little quality is to be found in such\na teacher's work.\n\nthem so.\n\nAre such teachers successful ?\n\nI have not found\n\nLove should be the ruling spirit of the schoolroom.\n\nIt is\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nHOW TO TEST A TEACHER'S WORK.\n\n219\n\nlove that incites interest; it is love that commands respect. But\nsometimes this love may assume a ridiculous phase. I once knew a\n\nteacher who was so much beloved by her pupils that I feared they\nwould love her to death. Such a catastrophe was averted by her\nelopement with an alderman's son, who was looked upon as the dull-\n\nest pupil in the class. If a teacher can get her pupils to love their\nwork, she will be able to keep them busy. Busy pupils govern themselves. Anarchy and riot flee before honest labor's onward march.\nDisorder and idleness cannot live in an atmosphere of love. Some-\n\ntimes the teacher who is apparently the best-liked by young pupils\nbecomes thoroughly despised by these very pupils after they leave\nher class. She only reached half way into their hearts ; she failed\nto touch the inmost chords of the soul.\n\nTwo teachers may be of equal scholarship, similar training, and\nbe teaching in the same school. They may even be teaching the\nsame grade of work, but different classes. The pupils may be of\nequal ability and with similar home surroundings. Yet the supervisor may find one a successful and the other an unsuccessful teacher.\nIn one room the pupils are students of nature. To them every\nbird sings a song of joy, every breeze comes freighted with perfume,\nand every stream bears upon its bosom a ship loaded with treasures. They are ever on the alert for new discoveries. New words\nmust be found and conquered.\n\nTo them the flowers in field and\n\ngarden tell their sweet story. They learn that the rocks encircle the\nearth in mysterious layers, each forming a chapter in the world's\nhistory before man came to record it in prose and song. To them\n\nthe reading lesson is simply the door which is about to open and\ngive them an unobstructed entrance into the highway of the world's\nliterature, along which they may stroll in pleasant companionship\nwith the silent masters-fellow-travelers who will never quarrel with\nthem, who can be dismissed and recalled at pleasure. To them the\nstudy of language is the guide-book to correct expression, enabling\nthem to tell their thoughts to others in a way that will be easily\nunderstood; not in high-stilted sentences, filled with expletive adjectives, but with child-like simplicity and charming grace. To them\nthe study of geography is the revelation of nature's household treasures-the exposition of God's manifest greatness. They view the\nearth as one grand picture. They make fancied journeys through\n\nmysterious caverns. They revel in oriental breezes to-day and watch\nthe sunset in the occident to-morrow. They penetrate the innermost\nparts of the earth in quest of wealth, and climb to the top of Mount\nÆtna to study climate, or ascend the slope of Mount Washington in\nsearch of healthful resting-places. To them mathematics serve as\na conveyance to the broad plane of exact reasoning.\n\nHistory teaches\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "220\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nthem how the men of the world have lived, pointing out their mistakes and their achievements. They are led to admire the good\nand to condemn the bad. The physical welfare of the child is considered, and the children are taught to employ a correct carriage of\nthe body. The ethical part of their education is not neglected, and\nthey look upon a trickster as a traitor to the school. To them, home,\nschool, and native land are possessions around which their loyal\nhearts are united in one common brotherhood.\n\nIn the school of this\n\nteacher we find the whole child developed.\n\nIn the school of the second teacher we find the pupils trying to\n\"call off\" the multiplication table, because they will be \"kept\" if they\ndo not know it. They plod through the reading lesson because it\nis in the reading book, and they are trying \"to get through the book.\"\nTo them the patch-work found in the ordinary reader is wholly meaningless. The simplest English classic or the choicest fairy tale given\nin complete form would be equally unintelligible to them. They are\nmade to work because they come to school, and they must be put\nthrough the evolutions of her daily program. She does not concern\nherself about results, unless it be to send a large delegation to the\nteacher of the next higher grade when promotion time comes. Promotions and averages are the platform and scale-beam, respectively,\nupon which, and by which, she weighs one and all of them. She has\na well-warranted dread of the supervisor's visits, and ceases everything else when he enters the room in order to deliver her regulation\napology for her manifest defects as a teacher. To these pupils there\nappears no rift in the clouds. The major portion of them are chiefly\noccupied in endeavoring to do the things that the teacher is constantly telling them not to do.\n\nThere is a studied mechanism that\n\nis plainly obvious. The high-pitched tones grate harshly as they\ngive forth the oft-repeated reprimands. She may, perhaps, keep an\norderly register, and her class record book is probably free from blots,\nbut they are the indices to volumes of misery. Culture flew out of\nthe window when this unqualified schoolmistress entered the room.\nHow may we obtain information concerning the work being done\nby a teacher ? Close supervision is apparently the best means that\ncan be employed. I would include with this frequent cabinet conferences between the supervisor and the teacher. More information\ncan be obtained in such a conference, lasting only ten minutes, than\ncan be obtained in a dozen grade meetings or a score of Saturday\nnormal classes. Grade meetings and normal classes may assist the\nteachers by giving them some inspiration, but a thoughtful supervisor hardly cares to recommend the retaining or discharging of any\nteacher on the evidences presented by her at such a meeting. When\na teacher presents herself as an applicant for a position, I would give\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nHOW TO TEST A TEACHER'S WORK.\n\n221\n\nmore for one hour's talk with her than I would for an examination\n\nlasting three days. No superintendent or supervisor can make a correct estimate of the work being done by the teacher until he has\nhad the opportunity of conferring with her and ascertaining what\nconception she has of the function of a teacher.\nThat teacher who shows her will under control ; who subordinates\neverything else to her school duties ; who conscientiously and\npromptly carries out certain specific plans that she may have laid\ndown; who knows when to speak and when to keep silent; who\napplies herself thoroughly to the discharge of duty; who expects\nobedience and secures it ; who is of a refined, cultured nature-is prepared to meet the test the supervisor may apply.\n\nIt is by observing the development of pupils that we can test the\nquality of the work being done by the teacher. If the latent faculties\nof a certain pupil are being properly aroused or the active faculties\nbeing properly directed we can rest assured that the pupil is in safe\nhands. That teacher who is striving to make a manly man out of\nan indifferent boy ; who is inculcating in his mind true ideas of life ;\n\nwho is carefully guiding him along the pathway of knowledge; who\nis persuading him to acquire the power of doing things is fulfilling\nthe requirements. The teacher who insists upon doing the pupil's\nwork, and fails to perceive what her own work properly is, can draw\nno veil around such methods that will secrete such manifest defects.\n\nAn inner view of teachers' thoughts must give evidence of what\nthey can do. If their ideals be high, their achievements must be\ngreat.\n\nIf they demonstrate that they know how to do we need have\n\nno fear of results. A teacher with a well-defined plan has the task\nhalf done.\nThere are hundreds of teachers in this broad land of ours who\nbelieve thatTo live for common ends is to be common.\n\nThe highest faith makes still the highest man;\nFor we grow like things our souls believe,\nAnd rise or sink as we aim high or low.\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "222\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nHOW TO TEST THE QUALITY OF A TEACHER'S WORK.\n\nBY AARON GOVE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLO.\n\n[ABSTRACT BY THE AUTHOR. ]\n\nThe quality of a teacher's work cannot be tested by immediate\nresults ; such a measurement is impossible.\nThe task of the artisan, when executed, presents a product the\nimperfections of which are apparent to the competent instructor.\nHe works only with the material.\nWith him whose line of effort is along that of training the mind;\nwhose art includes all the divine relations and attributes of the\n\nhuman soul; who deals only with the immaterial-no testing is possible, no human judgment is competent.\nAs there are approximate truths, so are there approximate judgments. I understand it to be within the province of this discussion\nto consider the quality of effort, not contemplating accurate decisions.\nA part of truth is more helpful than is absolute error.\nA long-established and dangerously crystallized custom of school\nsupervisors has been to make, on the printed page, assignments to\nteachers, and pretend later to calculate the value of the accomplishment of the task by a formal inspection and examination. To so\nrigid and ridiculous a practice has this method been carried that\nschool boards have been known who required the measure and rank\n\nof teachers to be recorded in figures by the supervisors.\nA product of mental effort or training that can be examined by\nthe senses can be ranked, and measured, and tested.\nThe reply to a properly framed question is before the teacher for\naccurate judgment; a topic assigned to a student for general treatment elicits such a return as can be only approximately measured.\nThe lawyer before the court presents his work to the bench for\njudgment; judgment is rendered ; but neither judge nor client\nbelieves the quality of the attorney's work to have been tested. The\ndecision may be but an approximate truth.\n\nNotwithstanding these considerations, an estimate by the supervisor of the teacher's work must be made. He has prepared himself\nas an expert. He knows much or little of the science and art of\n\nteaching. The making of this estimate is a part of his duty-only a\npart ; essential, but of minor importance when the whole field of\nduty is in view.\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nHOW TO TEST A TEACHER'S WORK.\n\n223\n\nOne of the objects of the elaboration of this subject will have been\nreached, if we can relate how the supervisor estimates the quality\nof the teacher's work.\n\nThe most nearly accurate conclusion is reached by him who has,\nat some time in his life, had that work to do which is now being done\nby another under his supervision. His exact knowledge of what is\nmeant by \"Put yourself in his place,\" is of service, provided, that, in\nthe theory of the art of teaching, he is abreast of the profession.\nIt is too late to belittle the effusions of theorists.\n\npractice without theory.\n\nThere is no\n\nThe educational world would stagnate and\n\ndie without theory. True, in these latter days, it requires much\nstrength, more patience, and most charity to withstand and combat\n\nthe propositions daily before us for bettering educational processes.\nShouting \"Impracticable schemes of theorists !\" is no adequate reply.\nActual experience as a teacher in the country school and in the\n\ngrades, helpful as it is, can alone never make a competent judge of\nprofessional work.\n\nSome of the most eminent members of this\n\ndepartment have never taught an elementary school.\n\nAn indication of the merit of a teacher is found in his physical\ncondition: A body healthy and erect, surmounted by a comely and\nproperly placed head; a countenance fair to look upon, without blemish, either natural or acquired; hands and feet natural and well\nformed; and the man clothed withal, decently and in order.\nA knowledge of his disposition is surely a necessary element for\n\ntesting his work, and disposition includes digestion as well as personal habits.\n\nThe commonly accepted method of testing the quality of the teach-\n\ner's work is inspection while on duty. Unquestionably this is the\nmost important factor in calculating the product.\nTo define and portray what the inspector does, how he does it, and\nto give the detailed reasons for his conclusions, would be to cover\nthe ground which fifty authors have attempted to cover, in as many\nessays printed within ten years, so many of which the members of\nthis department have tried to read, and so many of which are valueless to the superintendent.\nShould I undertake the task the outcome would be quite as useless\nto you.\n\nThe individuality of the man is quite as emphatically indicated\n\nin superintending schools as it is in any other directive position.\nHis ultimate judgment is fairly reliable. How he reaches it, is as\ndifficult to detail as it is for one teacher to give to another the spirit\nof the methods she uses; the mechanics of methods only can be com.\nmunicated .\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "224\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nHerbart, back among us, could at best but reiterate his principles.\nThe application thereof depends upon the individual. The most\nample knowledge of pedagogical philosophy will cause variable\ndemonstrations, modified by conditions and temperaments. An inspection of five minutes or five hours of a given schoolroom returns to\none a somewhat definite notion of the teacher. That alone is, in the\nlight of my preface, not conclusive. An intimate association with\nthe teacher, a definite knowledge of that teacher's head, and heart,\nand scholarship is essential. A beautiful, orderly, and attractive\nschool may be a misrepresentation ; it may not be good teaching. A\n\ngroup of riotous, clamoring, bustling youngsters with their teacher ;\noccasionally, even in such a place, true character training is in\nprogress .\n\nInstances and illustrations of the testing of the work of the\n\nteacher are abundant, but not especially helpful.\nA group of children playing school dramatize their daily work and\n\nthe style of the teacher with painful exaggeration ; the casually pronounced opinion of pupils constantly for several months is a pointer\nto a trail worthy honorable following.\n\nBut in the end, the only possible, intelligent measure of the quality\nof a teacher's work is the deliberate judgment of an intelligent adult\npronounced twenty years after leaving school. The adult man of\nAmerica, well bred, educated, and cultured, is he alone whose opinion\nof his childhood's teacher is competent authority. Because that is\nnot material to us now in the harness, detracts not from its truth.\nWe are set apart to test and measure associates in supervision\nwho are bigger, heavier, than we, in power, in energy, and in teaching\nstrength. In our criticism, often, we are not satisfied unless we find\nweaknesses which we hug to our own souls, and then give them utterance. I do not know how to test the quality of a teacher's work;\n\nyou don't. If we could do this, we would make our schools efficient\nas they should be.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n[REPORTED BY A. S. DOWNING OF NEW YORK. ]\n\nCHARLES W. COLE, Superintendent of City Schools, Albany, N. Y.-The topic\nbefore us has been so fully covered by the two able papers to which we have listened that there is not much left for discussion.\n\nIf I were to criticise anything\n\nit would be the form of the question itself, \"How to test the quality of a teacher's\nwork ?\" It might be answered by giving any one of the thousand different ways\nin which to make such a test. I presume the intention was to try to ascertain the\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n225\n\nbest possible way in which to test the quality of a teacher's work. I shall not\nundertake to show the best way. Each one will have to work out that prob.em for\nhimself. In order to make the best possible test, it would be necessary to wait until twenty years after the pupils had gone out from under the influence of the\nteacher and then to try to ascertain what kind of men and women they had become. And, in order that this test should be an infallible one, it would be necessary to suppose that the pupils had been under the influence of a single teacher for\na long period of time. In such a case, the character-result might well be accepted\nas a satisfactory test of the quality of a teacher's work. But this test cannot be\napplied in a graded school system. The very fact that one teacher has charge of\na particular set of pupils for so short a time-seldom more than a year, and often\nnot more than a half-year-precludes our drawing the conclusion that any one\nteacher can be made wholly responsible for the make-up of the character of any\none set of pupils; and where character is built up by so many builders, we may expect a sort of stratified result-layers of good building, and, perhaps too often, other\nlayers of weak and imperfect construction.\n\nIt is all very well to say that a Mark Hopkins on one end of a log and a Garfield on the other is the best kind of a university, but we know that Hopkinses and\nGarfields are not met with every day in our schoolrooms. And then, again, we\nmust not forget that character is not entirely formed in the schoolroom; that the\nenvironments of home, the street, and the church also have large influence in the\nformative work. For these reasons (although I must not be understood as undervaluing the evidence to be derived from the characters developed in the pupils), a\nsuperintendent of a graded system is precluded from making this the only test of\nthe quality of his teachers' work. Again, before we endeavor to ascertain the\n\nquality sought after, it is necessary to understand what we mean by that quality.\nIt seems to me that we should look for two kinds of quality-the intellectual and\nthe quality of his teachers' work. Again, before we endeavor to ascertain the\n\ndone in giving the pupils power; that is, power to think and power to do. This\nside can be judged in many ways too familiar to you to need rehearsal. The same\nis true as to the moral quality of the work; as to whether it shows that the teacher\nhas put conscience into her efforts and has succeeded in developing sincerity in the\nwork of the pupils.\nI cannot suggest any touchstone that will immediately determine the quality\nof a teacher's work. The one that seems to me the nearest is the impression that\nwillbe made on one's mind immediately on entering a schoolroom by the very atmosphere of the room, which shows to an experienced observer what the mental\nand moral attitude of both pupils and teachers is towards each other and towards\ntheir work. With 300 teachers, I cannot devote many hours to each; nor do I\nthink that necessary. The supervisory principals overlook the work of the more\n\nexperienced teachers. I devote the time of my visits of inspection to testing the\nyoung and inexperienced teachers, to giving them counsel and advice.\nSUPT. FRANK D. COOPER, Des Moines, Iowa.-In early manhood I listened to\na lecture upon \"The Problem of Life.\" The speaker summed it all up by saying\nthat every man solves this problem for himself. So in the solution of this question.\nEvery superintendent must solve it for himself. There is so much in a teacher's\nwork which does not take body and form, and therefore cannot be tested by any\nfixed rules. It depends much upon who is testing and upon who is tested. Just as\nin a laboratory, the test depends upon the eye, and also upon what is to be seen.\n\nMuch depends upon the spirit and purpose with which the superintendent comes\nto the test. He should lay aside all his personality and bring to the work the right\n\nprofessional spirit. He can determine much by seeing, hearing, and feeling quali\n15\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "226\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Cleveland\n\nties which cannot be measured or expressed in words. There are causes which are\ncertain ultimately to produce definite effects. By observing these causes he may\nknow positively what the quality of the work of the teacher is from the results\nwhich must evidently follow. We have been looking too much upon the material\ncauses ; hence, measuring material results.\n\nW. W. CHALMERS, City Superintendent, Grand Rapids, Mich.-In my remarks\nto-day I shall have in mind schools giving employment to 300 or more teachers. I\nagree with Superintendent Warfield, that the object of the public school is character building and the development of power in children; that, therefore, ability\nto accomplish this is the best qualification of a good teacher. But I claim that\ntalk of that kind is of no practical importance to us here to-day. We can make no\napplication of such suggestions. We have not the time, and it is a physical impossibility for a superintendent to keep in touch with the work of 300 or 400 teachers\nand watch the development in character in from 15,000 to 25,000 pupils. It seems\nto me that our work in this direction lies in being able to read the character of the\n\napplicant for a position. We must be experts in reading human nature. Of the\n1,000 hours of school in the year, we must be able to judge of the 999 by seeing the\none. We must be able to order by sample.\n\nAs a physician receives the report of\n\nhis patient from the nurse, takes his temperature, diagnoses the case, and writes\naprescription, so we must be able to get a report about the teacher from the principal, spend a half-hour in a schoolroom and prescribe for the ailment. If we are\nable to judge a man by his dress and conversation, by spending fifteen to thirty\nminutes in a schoolroom and observing the atmosphere of the room, the condition\nof the floor, the desks, the blackboards, the walls, the occupation of every pupil\npresent, the neatness of the teacher, and the kind of instruction the class is getting at that time, we ought to be able to carry with us a fairly well outlined mental picture of the teacher in charge. Our knowledge of a teacher's work must\ncome through these hasty visits and from our talks with the school principals.\nIt seems to me that it is more to the point to advise superintendents to study\n\nthe character and strength of their principals. Associate with you a corps of able,\nindustrious, honest, reliable principals, and see your teachers through them. Study\nyour principals and study them carefully. Your corps of principals is your cabinet,\nyour personal staff and advisers.\n\nSee to it that no traitor gets into camp.\n\nI differ from Superintendent Gove when he says that we are not as heavy as\nsome of those we are trying to weigh; that we are not capable of supervising and\ncriticising some of our teachers, because we are not as good teachers as they.\n\nI\n\ncannot preach as well as Dr. Gunsaulus of Chicago, nor as well as John Smith of\nPodunk, but were I on a committee to select a pastor, I would have no trouble in\nchoosing between them. I cannot give as good primary language, number, or kindergarten lessons as some of the teachers of Grand Rapids, but there is no one in\nGrand Rapids who is as good a judge of such work, according to the standards of\nthe management of the schools , as I am .\n\nIn conclusion, I desire to call your attention to a mechanical device that I make\nuse of to assist me in keeping in touch with the work of my schools. It is a system of monthly reports ; I call it a record of work, or history of work, for the\nmonth. Don't say that it is useless, and a great consumer of time and energy of\nthe teacher that might better be expended in other directions. It is neither. It\ntakes only fifteen to twenty minutes of time each month on the part of the teacher,\nand about the same time of the superintendent ; and it gives him a complete view\nof the work of his schools for the entire month. These blanks are given to the\nteachers of all departments, and they are asked to fill them out and send to the\n\noffice the Monday following the close of each school month.\n\nMy clerk reads them\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n227\n\ncarefully, and compares them, subject by subject, with the course of study, general outlines, and instructions for each subject. She notes all irregularities and\nspecial recommendations, makes a typewritten copy of the notes, and hands it to\nme.\n\nIt takes me but a few minutes to read these notes, and then I have in mind\n\nevery irregularity in detail that has occurred in the schools for the past month. I\nget this report about the middle of the first week after the close of each school\nmonth. I then write letters to principals and teachers, suggesting changes that I\ndeem wise.\n\nJ. M. GREENWOOD, City Superintendent, Kansas City, Mo.-Often the superintendent can test the quality of the teacher's work by the senses of smell and feel-\n\ning. To illustrate what I mean: A young medical student, having completed his\ncourse of instruction, began to practice in the town where he attended lectures.\nHe was called to see a patient whose ailment from the books and from his instructors' lectures he was unable to make out. So he hastened to his most trusted\n\nmedical adviser for help. After describing the case, the experienced physician was\nunable to determine the disease.\n\nTogether they visited the patient. No sooner was\n\nthe door of the sick room opened than the old practitioner gave the young doctor a\nnudge, and whispered, \" Smallpox !\" The novice asked, \" How could you so quickly,\nwithout seeing the patient, tell that it was smallpox ?\" The physician answered,\n\"By the smell and the feeling which this disease always creates in me.\" So the\nskilled superintendent, often by merely entering the room, can judge from a compound sensation of the disease at work among the inmates.\nThis power to test cannot be transferred from one to another in technical terms\nand directions; but it comes only as an experience to those who study closely the\nmaladies of the schoolroom from the two sides of theory and practice.\n\nThe feeling may also be illustrated by the story of a seven-year-old boy who\nwas asked by his mother, at the close of the first day in school, how he liked his\nteacher. He said, \"I think I shall like her very much.\" \"Why?\" asked the\nmother. \"Because she is such a restful teacher.\" \" What do you mean by that ?\"\nasked the mother. \"Why, she didn't make me feel any time to-day like I wanted\nto fight.\" As a superintendent, I have known teachers who are restful, helpful,\nand active; but others who, as soon as I entered their rooms, put me into the fighting feeling.\n\nJOHN BURKE, City Superintendent, Newport, Ky. The only practical method\nof testing the quality of a teacher's work is to observe the work while it is in\nprogress. My method of doing this is :\nFirst-I observe the manner of government ; whether there is systematic arrangement of pupils, order at the seats and in recitation; whether the teacher's\ndesk is in order and the blackboards show systematic arrangement of work.\n\nI do\n\nnot like, as a rule, to see bare blackboards, even though they may be clean. If the\nboards are covered with neat work, and show that a number of pupils have been\ndemonstrating their knowledge on them, this is a good sign.\nSecond-The teacher must look pleasant and the pupils eager and happy. The\npresence of the superintendent must not cast a chill upon the teacher and the\nschool. The teacher should feel that she is in the presence of a friend and sympathizer, as well as of an expert and a critic. I commend more frequently than I\ncriticise. The way to get people to do their best is to encourage them and praise\ntheir work. Everybody likes praise and commendation, even the members of this\nintelligent and dignified body.\nThird-I observe the manner of the teacher. She must be calm and going\nabout her work in the usual way. The fussy, nervous, excitable teacher cannot be\na good teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "228\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Cleveland\n\nFourth- I observe the clearness with which a teacher presents her work. A\nteacher should teach so as to excite thought in the minds of her pupils. Teaching\nthat arouses thought can never be drudgery either to teacher or pupils.\nBy such signs as these, and many others known to superintendents, I can readily ascertain what kind of work the teacher is doing.\nMISS CROPSEY of Indianapolis, Ind. I believe with Thoreau, that \"whatever\na man does he merely reports himself.\" The quality of our work is apparent to\nthose who have the power of seeing. We reveal ourselves in every act of speech,\nof voice, of gesture. In the voices and faces of the children we see ourselves reflected. In the very external arrangement of the room we show our sense of proportion and the ability or inability to appreciate the influence of this manifestation\nof reason upon the minds of children.\n\nIn order to judge anything justly we must approach it from the standpoint of\nappreciation. We must not judge by mere negative acts and deeds. Only a pure,\na sensitive spirit can judge rightly of the quality of a teacher's work. A lower\nkind of intelligence may perhaps measure the quantity.\n\nToo much stress has been laid upon the external or mechanical side of teaching.\nThis has a relative importance. The fundamental test of the quality of a teacher's\nwork must be found at last in the ability to furnish conditions for the real miracle\n\nof growth in the child-that all lower forms of activity may prepare for the ex-\n\npression of higher powers. Reading, arithmetic, and geography are not ends in\nthemselves. By means of these, and by all experiences which the school should\ngive, we are to strive to make human life all-sided, powerful, efficient, happy.\nMISS SARAH L. ARNOLD, Supervisor of Primary Schools, Minneapolis, Minn.As I had not anticipated being called upon to join in this discussion, I have prepared no argument, but I would like to answer a criticism which we must often\nmeet in our work .\n\nProtracted visits are not always necessary to determine the superintendent's\njudgment of the teacher's power and skill. Many little incidents, seemingly trifling,\nwill show us the trend of the teacher's work, if we are well qualified for our positions and observe with a sympathetic spirit and the insight which comes of experience.\n\nOur experience and study enable us to judge truly from seeming trifles, and\nfrom such judgment we may justly formulate a general estimate of the strength or\nweakness of the teacher's habitual work.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT TREUDLEY of Youngstown, Ohio, spoke eloquently, paying tribute to the influence which his former teachers had exerted over him, not by their\nmethods of instruction but the presence of a power which was indefinable and\n\nnot capable of analysis.\nDR. E. A. SHELDON, Principal of the State Normal and Training School, Oswego, N. Y.-I fully agree with my friend from Youngstown, that the most valuable products of the teacher's work are not to be tested by any formal examination\nquestions, whether oral or written. They are spiritual, and can only be spiritually\ndiscerned. The atmosphere of a good school is not to be ascertained by written\nexaminations. One may feel it. You see the children growing in spiritual perception and power, and realize that it is the atmosphere in which they live and move\nthat conduces to this growth, and that it is the teacher who creates this atmos-\n\nphere. As there are conditions in air that can only be tested by breathing it, so\nthere are conditions in the schoolroom that go to build up true nobility of character that can only be recognized by one whose soul is sensitive to such spiritual\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n229\n\nconditions. I remember nearly thirty years ago to have been on a visit to some of\nthe schools of New England (a trip I often take to keep myself in touch with the\n\nbest educational work) , and on my return, as we were passing through Westfield,\nMass. , some one remarked that there was a state normal school located in this\n\ntown. I resolved to stop off a train and see it. I shall never forget the impression\nmade upon me by the atmosphere of this school. I took an opportunity to go again\nand spend some days. There was the presence of noble souls. There was genuine\nspiritual and intellectual growth. No written examinations could have revealed\n\nthis inestimable product. The source of this power was in the teachers, and I\nwould have been glad to transport them to Oswego without examination ; and tried\nto do so, but failed.\n\nI remember to have seen in one of my own primary schools the children reaching out their fingers to touch the gown of the teacher as she passed up and down\nthe aisles. It almost seemed that virtue entered into the little ones as they\ntouched the hem of her garments. To me this was far better testimony than any\n\namount of formal examinations could furnish as to the value of the product of this\nteacher's work.\n\nIt is astonishing with what tenacity school officers sometimes hold to the idea\nthat the only possible way to find out what is in a person is by questioning it out\nof him. Such persons are very likely to think that no questions but those of their\nown framing can by any possibility accomplish this object. I had a daughter who\nhad graduated from the classical department of our normal school; had taught the\nLatin and Greek in the same school for four years; had spent nearly two years in\n\nspecial study at Cornell University; had subsequently studied three years at Oxford University, England, making a specialty of English literature, and had received a first-class certificate in an honor course in that subject; had taught in the\nhigh school at Omaha, Neb., for one year, to the entire satisfaction of everybody,\nand held the state certificate of Nebraska, when an ignorant ward politician in the\nboard of education discovered that she had not been examined by their board, and\nnothing would do but she must leave her work in the school and take their examina-\n\ntion. She had to be examined in reading, spelling, arithmetic, geography, grammar,\nand other studies which usually pertain to such examinations-subjects to which\nshe had given no direct attention for at least ten or twelve years, and which had no\ndirect bearing on her teaching work in the high school. All this took several days .\n\nIn the meantime her work in the high school stopped, as did her compensation, and\nthere was no equivalent realized either by the school or the board. The only satisfaction gotten out of all this fret and worry, loss of time and instruction, was that\nwhich came to the board that she had been examined.\n\nI hardly need say in the presence of this highly intelligent body of educational\nmen that very little value is to be attached to such kind of examinations. They\nmay test the ability of the persons examined to remember certains things, but not\nthat which is of far greater importance their power to think, to reason, to express ,\nand to do. I remember about thirty-five years ago, when we were introducing the\nobjective methods into the public schools of Oswego, a member of the board of\neducation of Cincinnati, a very intelligent German, came and spent several days\namong the schools for the purpose of satisfying himself as to whether there was\nany superior merit in these methods. I suggested to him that he go into the schools\nand question the children on subjects entirely foreign to those that were being\npursued in the regular course of instruction. In this way he would test them, not\non the things they remembered of what they had been taught-a product that\nmight be the result of the most objectionable kind of teaching-but he would\nfind out how they had been trained to think, to reason, and to express their ideas.\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "230\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Cleveland\n\nI said, \" They may not be able to answer your questions, but you will thus. test\nan intellectual product of far greater value than mere knowledge.\" I may add,\nthat he tried the experiment and found it entirely satisfactory. I confidently look\nfor a time near at hand when we shall employ more sensible means of testing educational values than those so widely prevalent at the present time.\n\nDR. CHARLES A. MCMURRY of Normal, Ill., quoted Mr. Gove's statement that\nthe quality of a teacher's work could be best judged by an intelligent adult twenty\nyears after leaving his school. \"It is now more than twenty years since I left Mr.\nGove's school, and I have the time qualification for pronouncing a final judgment on\nMr. Gove's work as a teacher. While there are many things which go to make up\nthe general effect of a teacher's work, it might be appropriate to call attention to\nat least one point which stands out, after twenty years, in memory. To a boy\ncoming in from the work of the garden and farm, Mr. Gove's school was a happy\nplace. It was a place of sunshine and comfort. The feeling remains strong, now,\nas it was then, that the school was the happiest place in which to be; the spirit that\npervaded it then was a joyous one, and the memory of it is now equally so. Other\nthings in Mr. Gove's teaching remain, but this is paramount. Now, it is the\nmature verdict of many older schoolmasters that one of the most desirable and\n\nuseful qualities in a teacher, after all, is the ability to live harmoniously, and sympathetically with children to make their surroundings pleasing and inspiring.\"\n\nIRWIN SHEPARD, President State Normal School, Winona, Minn.-It would\ndoubtless be both interesting and profitable to superintendents if they could sometimes know just what judgments the supervised teachers pass upon the work,\nmethods, and ability of the supervisors.\nI have been in a position to know something of this side of the question through\nteachers whom I have trained and sent into the field, and who, returning, have\nfreely spoken of the faults and virtues of their superintendents. I only hope that\nsuperintendents are generally as fair, not to say charitable, in judging their subordinates as are the subordinates in judging their superiors.\nIt is quite as important for a superintendent to be able and ready to discern\nand recognize a teacher's strongest points as her weakest. That supervision accomplishes most which so guides all the forces of school administration that teach-\n\ners are always working at their best. That superintendent must inevitably fail to\nsecure the best results who sees only, or concerns himself too largely with the\nweakest points in his teaching force.\n\nThe superintendent should establish such a\n\nrelation as a trusted counselor and friend to his teachers that they feel no embarrassment in doing their work in his presence.\nSuperintendents are everywhere encouraging their teachers to make careful,\nkindly, sympathetic study of each child, that they may know best how to guide the\nchild to his best in living and working. Has not the superintendent an equally important duty and opportunity to study each teacher with kindly purpose and tactful sympathy, to find the \"lines of least resistance\" and the elements of greatest\nindividual power ? When this is done, most of the other problems of supervision\nare easily solved.\n\nEDWARD P. SEAVER, Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass.- Sympathy\nwith teachers in their work is the first requisite in a superintendent. Unless he can\ngo into his work in this attitude of sympathy he had better not got into it at all. A\nbook of marks may be a convenience as a memorandum book, but it should be only\n\na memorandum book. If the teacher feels that the main purpose of a superintendent's visit is to assign marks whereby the teacher's standing or continuance\n\nin office is to be decided, the effect is sure to be depressing on a sensitive teacher\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\n231\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nand the best teachers are very apt to be sensitive. The only use of marks is to\naid the memory of the superintendent; they should never be reported to a board of\neducation as a basis for action.\n\nNow, a word about examinations. These are, in my judgment, a necessary\npart of the measures to be taken for the determination of the fitness of candidates\n\nfor appointment as teachers. Five minutes' conversation with a candidate will\nshow what his spirit is; and the impression a superintendent gets from a personal\ninterview of this sort may properly go far to determine the question of a candidate's\nfitness. But this is not enough. Here comes a young man and proposes to teach\nLatin, French, or mathematics. He has been a popular teacher in the schools where\nhe has taught already, and he makes a good personal impression ; seems to be of\nexcellent spirit, and all that. I say, that, in justice to him and in justice to those\nwho may select him from among others for appointment, he should be given ample\nopportunity to make written records of his knowledge of Latin, or French, or mathematics. If his spirit be not all right he is not wanted at all. But besides the right\nspirit-enthusiasm, earnestness, and all that there must be competent knowledge\nof the subjects to be taught and ability to impart that knowledge. All these we\nmust have; and we cannot make sure that we have them unless we apply the\nproper tests ; and among these tests good fair-and-square written examinations are\n\nindispensable. They protect both the appointers and the appointees in the case of\nwell-fitted candidates, and they discourage the approach and prevent the appointment of unfit persons to teachers' positions. This must be so, at least, in all large\ncities, where appointments must be guarded against certain untoward influences.\nDR. E. E. WHITE of Columbus, Ohio, said that the last speaker's reference to\nthe secret book induced him to say a word condemnatory of the practice of keeping\na secret per cent record of the standing of teachers. He gave his experience in\nvisiting the schools of a large city, where the estimates made by persons acting as\ninspectors of the teachers' work were recorded in a secret book kept by the superintendent. A teacher whose work in geography he had much admired had been\nmarked so low for several years as to raise the question of her re-employment!\nHe questioned the ability of anyone to mark the worth of a teacher on a per cent\nscale on a brief visit to his school. Five minutes in a school may be sufficient to\nnote marked excellencies or serious defects, but work not thus characterized is not\n\nso easily judged. It is not possible on seeing a school under favorable conditions\nto determine what would be true under average conditions-much less under un-\n\nfavorable conditions. It often happens that the visitor finds a teacher teaching, not\nonly a favorite branch but an exceptional lesson; and it also may happen that the\nteacher is at his worst. It is true that several visits at different hours may enable\nthe inspector to make an average estimate.\n\nBut there are many teachers who can\n\nnever do their best in the presence of a memorandum book and lead-pencil, or even\nin the presence of a visitor who is known to be present to mark their work. Formal school inspection is not as infallible as the inspectors imagine. In his judgment, there was not a little pedantry in the assumptions of school supervisors respecting their ability to pass judgment on the work of teachers at sight.\nSUPT. AARON GOVE in closing the discussion, said : \"In the discussion of this\nsubject I have confined myself to a literal rendering of the subject assigned,\nnamely, How to test the quality of a teacher's work. I understand that the testing is an approximately exact measurement of the effort.\n\nI regret the wide range\n\nwhich has followed the presentation. I conclude, that, while none of us consider\nourselves equal to the testing of the quality of a teacher's work, each of us feels\ncompetent, in a measure, to judge, and that the method of arriving at that judgment is as varied as are the characters, temperaments, dispositions, training, and\nantecedents of those who undertake to make the estimate.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n232\n\n[Cleveland\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF FIFTEEN.\n\nTo the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association:\nThe undersigned, chairman of the Committee of Fifteen, appointed at the meet-\n\ning of the Department of Superintendence held in Boston, Mass., in February,\n1893, would respectfully report:\nOn Feb. 22, 1893, the following resolution was adopted by the Department of\n\nSuperintendence, on motion of Superintendent Maxwell of Brooklyn, N. Y.:\nResolved. That a committee of ten be appointed by the committee on nominations.\nto investigate the organization of school systems, the co-ordination of studies in primary\nand grammar schools, and the training of teachers, with power to organize sub-conferences on such subdivisions of these subjects as may seem appropriate, and to report the\n\nresults of their investigations and deliberations at the next meeting of the Department\nof Superintendence.\nResolved, That the officers of the Department of Superintendence be, and hereby are,\n\ndirected to make application to the board of directors of the National Educational Association for an appropriation of $2,500 to defray the expenses of the committee of ten\nand of the conferences which that committee is empowered to appoint.\n\nOn February 23d the committee on nominations appointed the following committee of ten: \"\n\nSupt. William H. Maxwell of Brooklyn, N. Y., chairman; Dr. William T'.\nHarris, United States Commissioner of Education; Supt. T. M. Balliet of Springfield, Mass .; Supt. N. C. Dougherty of Peoria, Ill.; Supt. W. B. Powell of Wash-\n\nington, D. C.; Supt. H. S. Tarbell of Providence, R. I.; Supt. L. H. Jones of Indianapolis, Ind.; Supt. J. M. Greenwood of Kansas City, Mo.; State Supt. A. B.\nPoland of New Jersey; Supt. Edward Brooks of Philadelphia.\nOn motion of Superintendent Maxwell, the members of the committee on nominations were added to the committee of ten, so that the committee became one of\nfifteen. The names thus added to the committee were the following: President\n\nAndrew S. Draper of the University of Illinois ; Supt. E. P. Seaver of Boston,\nMass.; Supt. A. G. Lane of Chicago, Ill.; Supt. Charles B. Gilbert of St. Paul,\nMinn.; Supt. Oscar H. Cooper of Galveston, Tex.\n\nThe application for an appropriation to defray the necessary expenses of the\ncommittee was presented to the board of directors of the National Educational Association, but no action was taken by that body until July, 1894, during the meeting at Asbury Park, N. J., when the sum of $ 1,000 was set apart for the purpose.\nIn the meantime, however, the committee had not been idle Individual members had been collecting information and exchanging views by correspondence.\nDuring the meeting of the Department of Superintendence held in Richmond, Va. ,\nin February, 1894, the committee held two protracted sessions. At these sessions\nthe plan of work for the ensuing year was discussed and determined. The chairman was authorized to divide the members of the committee into three sub-commit-\n\ntees-one on the training of teachers, one on the correlation of studies in elementary\neducation, and one on the organization of city school systems .\nThe sub-committees were appointed as follows :\n\nThe Training of Teachers.-Horace S. Tarbell (chairman), Edwards Brooks,\nThomas M. Balliet, Newton C. Dougherty, and Oscar H. Cooper.\nThe Correlation of Studies in Elementary Education .-William T. Harris (chairman), James M. Greenwood, Charles B. Gilbert, Lewis H. Jones, and William H.\nMaxwell .\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence ]\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE OF FIFTEEN.\n\n233\n\nThe Organization of City School Systems .- Andrew S. Draper (chairman), Edwin P. Seaver, Albert G. Lane, Addison B. Poland, and W. B. Powell.\nThe committee next adopted the following lists of questions, which the members were directed to submit to all persons throughout the country whose opinions\nmight be considered as of value :\nTRAINING OF TEACHERS .\n\n1. What should be the lowest age at which a person should be permitted to undertake a course of professional work ?\n\n2. What should be the requirements for scholarship to enter on such a course ?\n(a) English-Grammar, historical grammar, rhetoric, literature.\n(b) Mathematics-Arithmetic , algebra, geometry .\n(c) Botany and zoology.\n(d) Drawing.\n(e) Music.\n(f) History.\n\n(g) Geography.\n(h) Physics.\n(1) Chemistry.\n\n(j) Foreign languages-French, German, Latin, Greek.\n(k) Physiology and hygiene.\n(1) Mineralogy.\n3. Should scholarships be determined by an examination, or should a high school\n\ndiploma be accepted as evidence? If the latter, should a four years' course be required ?\n4. What should be the duration of the training-school course ?\n\n5. What proportion of this time should be devoted to studying principles and methods of education? What proportion to the practice of teaching ?\n6. To what extent should psychology be studied, and in what way ?\n7. Along what lines should the observation of children be pursued ?\n8. What measurements of children shou'd be made, and what apparatus should be\nrequired for the purpose ?\n9. In what way should principles of education be derived from psychology and allied\nsciences ?\n\n10. How far and in what way should the history of education be studied? In what\nway may the history of education be made of practical use to teachers ?\n11. In what way should the training in teaching the various subjects of the common school curriculum be pursued?\n(a) By writing outlines of lessons ?\n(b) By giving lessons to fellow pupil teachers ?\n(c) By the study of books or periodicals devoted to methods of teaching?\n(d) By lectures ?\n\n12. In a model school, should there be a model-teacher placed over each class? Or,\nshould there be a model-teacher placed over every two classes ? Or, should the pupilteachers be held responsible for the teaching of all classes, under the direction of a\ncritic-teacher?\n\n13. What is the most fruitful plan of observing the work of model-teachers ?\n14. Whatis the most fruitful plan of criticising the practice-work of pupil-teachers ?\n15. Should the criticism be male by the teachers of metho lology, or by critic-teachers appointed specially for the purpose, or by the model-teachers ?\n16. Should the imparting of knowledge, other than psychology, principles, methods,\nand history of education, form any part of the work of a normal or training school ?\n\n17. How should a pupil-teacher's efficiency be tested in a training school?\n18. On what grounds should the diploma of a training school be issued ?\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES .\n\n1. Should the elementary course be eight years and the secondary course four years ,\nas at present? Or, should the elementary course be six years and the secondary course\nsix years ?\n\n2. Has each of the grammar school studies-language (including reading, spelling,\ngrammar, composition), mathematics (arithmetic, algebra, plane geometry) , geography,\nhistory, natural science (botany, zoology, mineralogy), penmanship, drawing , etc. , a distinct pedagogical value? If so, what is it?\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "234\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\n3. Should other subjects than those enumerated in the second question, such as\nmanual training (including sloyd, sewing, and cooking), physical culture, physics, music,\nphysiology (including the effects of stimulants and narcotics), Latin, or a modern language, be taught in the elementary school course? If so, why ?\n4. Should the sequence of topics be determined by the logical development of the\nsubject, or by the child's power to apperceive new ideas ? Or, to any extent by the\nevolutionary steps manifested by the race? If so, by the evolution of the race to which\nthe child belongs, or that of the human race ?\n5. What should be the purpose of attempting a close correlation of studies ?\n(a) To prevent duplication, eliminate non-essentials, and save time and effort?\n(b) To develop the apperceiving power of the mind?\n(c) To develop character-a purely ethical purpose?\n6. Is it possible on any basis to correlate or unify all the studies of the elementary\nschool?\n\n7.\n\nIf not, may they be divided into two or more groups, those of each group being\n\ncorrelated ?\n\n8. Is there any way of correlating the results of work in all the groups ?\n9. What should be the length of recitation periods in each year of the elementary\nschool course ? What considerations should determine the length ?\n\n10. In what year of the course should each of the subjects mentioned in questions\n2 and 3 be introduced, if introduced at all ?\n11. In making a program, should time be assigned for each subject, or only for the\ngroups of subjects suggested in question 7 ?\n12. How many hours a week for how many years should be devoted to each subject, or each group of subjects ?\n13. What topics may be covered in each subject, or each group of subjects ?\n14. Should any subject, or group of subjects, be treated differently for pupils who\nleave school at twelve, thirteen, or fourteen years of age, and for those who are going\nto a high school ?\n\n15. Can any description be given of the best method of teaching each subject, or\ngroup of subjects , throughout the school course ?\n16. What considerations should determine the point at which the specialization of\nthe work of teachers should begin ?\n17. On what principle should the promotion of pupils from grade to grade be determined? Who should make the determination ?\nCITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS .\n\n1. Should there be a board of education, or a commissioner with an advisory council ?\n2. If a commissioner, should he be elected by the people, or appointed by the mayor,\nor selected in some other way ?\n3. What should be his powers and duties ?\n4. If a board of education, of how many members should it consist ?\n\n5. Should the members be elected or appointed ? From the city at large or to represent districts ?\n\n6. Should the members be elected in equal numbers from the two great political\nparties, or can any other device be suggested to eliminate politics from school administration?\n\n7. By what authority should the superintendent of schools be elected or appointed?\nand for what term ?\n\n8. What should be the qualifications of a city superintendent of schools ?\n9. Should the city superintendent owe his appointment directly or indirectly to the\nstate educational authorities, and be responsible to them rather than to the local authorities ?\n\n10. In whom should be vested the authority to license teachers ? To cancel licenses\nfor cause?\n\n11. In whom should be vested the power to appoint teachers ? In whom the power\nto discharge teachers ?\n\n12.\n\nSupposing teachers appointed to a school, who should have the power to assign\n\nthem to grades or classes ?\n\n13. Should the principle of competitive examination be introduced in determining\npromotions to positions of greater responsibility or emolument?\n14. How should the duties of superintendents on the one hand and of principals on\nthe other, in the supervision of methods and of teaching, be defined ?\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE OF FIFTEEN.\n\n235\n\n15. By whom should the course of study be made ?\n16.\n\nBy whom should text-books be selected ?\n\n17. By whom should promotions be made?\n18. By whom should disputes between parents and the teaching force be settled?\n19. By whom should a compulsory education law be enforced ?\nIt was further decided that all papers written in answer to these lists of ques-\n\ntions were to be placed in the hands of the chairmen of the sub-committees not\nlater than Nov. 1, 1894, and that the chairmen should prepare reports to be submitted to the full committee at a meeting to be held in December of that year.\n\nThe next meeting of the committee was held on July 9, 1894, at Asbury Park,\nN. J., during the session of the National Educational Association at that place.\nIt was there determined that each of the sub-committee chairmen should present\n\nthe report of his sub-committee to the Department of Superintendence at the meeting to be held in Cleveland, Ohio, in February, 1895. Other details were arranged,\nand progress was reported in the matter of obtaining opinions from the experts\ninvited to answer the questions formulated by the committee.\nOn the 10th of December, 1894, the committee met in Washington, D. C. It\ncontinued in session four days, holding three sessions each day. During a small\nfraction of this time the sub-committees met separately; but for the most part the\nsubject-matter of each report was discussed by the full committee. All the mem-\n\nbers were present except Superintendent Powell, who was unfortunately absent\nthrough severe illness.\n\nPresident Draper presented a preliminary report on the organization of city\nschool systems, and Superintendent Tarbell one on the training of teachers . Superintendent Tarbell's report was adopted by the full committee without a dissenting\nvoice. President Draper's report also received the unanimous approval of the committee, except in so far as it recommended the establishment of the office of school\ndirector. Seven votes were recorded in favor of that recommendation. No votes\n\nwere recorded against it, though several members refrained from voting. Subsequently, when the report was submitted in its final shape, eleven members signified their approval of the entire report, and signed it.\nWith regard to the correlation of studies, important differences of opinion were\ndeveloped in the consideration of the various propositions submitted by Dr. Harris\nand by other members of the committee.\n\nAbout two-thirds of the time the com-\n\nmittee was in session was devoted to the discussion of these propositions. While\nan adequate conception of the intensity of this discussion cannot now be conveyed\n\nto anyone who was not present, a brief resume of the leading proposition presented\nwill give some idea of its scope .\n\nThe following propositions were unanimously adopted by the full committee :\nThe civilization of the age-the environment into which the child is born-\n\nshould determine the selection of the objects of study, to the end that the child\nmay gain an insight into the world in which he lives and a command over its re-\n\nsources such as is obtained by a helpful co-operation with his fellows.\nPsychology should determine the selection and arrangment of the topics\nwithin each branch, so as to afford the best exercise of the faculties of the mind,\nand to secure the unfolding of those faculties in their natural order.\nLanguage, as a subject of study. has a distinct and definite relation to the in-\n\ntroduction of the child into the civilization of his time, and has, therefore, a distinct pedagogical value, forming the true basis of correlating the elementary\nstudies.\n\nIn correlating geography and history, the former should be subordinate to the\nlatter.\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "236\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Cleveland\n\nInstruction in the elements of physics and chemistry, in so far as they are to\n\nbe taught at all in the elementary school, should not be limited to the higher grades,\nbut should be given in all grades in connection with topics in physiology and physical geography.\n\nElementary geography should not be taught as a special study, but the topics\nusually included under this caption in the course of study should be incorporated\ninto the course of form and nature study.\nThe use of good English, including the correct use of technical terms, should\nbe required in all studies; all use of bad English, caused by, or significant of, confusion of thought, should be corrected by securing the elucidation of the thought :\nthe child's best efforts in speech should be required in all recitations, oral or written; but solecisms should for the most part be corrected in the regular language\nlessons.\n\nThe study of English grammar should be made subordinate and auxiliary to the\nstudy of English literature.\n\nWriting, as a special branch, should be taught only through the sixth year of\nthe course.\n\nManual training in wood and metals shou'd be made a part of the course for\nboys during the seventh and eighth years; and sewing and cooking should be\n\ntaught to girls-the former in the fourth, fifth, and sixth years, the latter in the\nseventh and eighth years .\n\nMusic should be taught throughout the elementary course, and the sight-reading of music should have a prominent place in the study.\nWith regard to the following propositions, serious differences of opinion arose :\nAlgebra should take the place of arithmetic in the eighth year of the elementary\ncourse. Rejected.\n\nAlgebra (not to the exclusion of arithmetic) should be taught during one-half of\nthe last year of the course. Adopted by a majority.\n\nLatin should be studied during the eighth year instead of English grammar ;\nand English grammar should be studied during the sixth and seventh years.\nAdopted by a majority.\n\nIn the eighth year, an option should be given between Latin and a modera\nlanguage. Rejected.\nUnited States history should be taken up during the eighth year, and should\nbe studied only up to the date of the adoption of the Constitution.\n\nRejected.\n\nUnited States history should be studied for one and a half years. Adopted\nby a majority.\nThe Constitution of the United States should be studied for ten weeks during\n\nthe last year of the course. Adopted by a majority.\nIf the community is at one on the course of study, all pupils should take the\nsame branches of study, without any omission. Adopted by a majority.\nThe course of study for elementary schools should admit optional studies on\neducational grounds for the good of the pupil. Rejected.\nReading should be both silent and oral.\n\nThere should be at least four lines\n\nof connected reading, embracing literature, history, geography, and nature studies.\nFurthermore, prose and poetry, of an appropriate character, should be read to the\nclasses throughout the grades in which pupils are too young to read such literature\nthemselves. Adopted by a majority.\nConcrete geometry should be taught under the head of drawing, and also under the head of mensuration in arithmetic.\n\nRejected.\n\nDuring an eight-year course (beginning with the sixth year of age) the following subjects should be required from all pupils : English, mathematics, United\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE OF FIFTEEN.\n\n237\n\nStates history and Constitution, drawing, and music. Not more than one of the\nfollowing subjects should be pursued in addition to those enumerated above:\nLatin, a modern language, natural science, manual training, or concrete geometry.\nRejected.\n\nNot more than sixty minutes of outside study should be required of any elementary school pupil. Adopted by a majority.\nThe propositions stated above were discussed at great length; and Dr. Harris\n\nwas requested, in drawing up his report, to give expression to the views of the\nmajority of the committee as gathered from these discussions, to discuss educational values, to elucidate various phases of correlation, and to arrange a tabular\n\nview of the elementary course of study showing the location of each subject and\nthe time to be devoted to it.\n\nThe final meeting of the committee was held in Cleveland, Ohio, on Feb. 18,\n1895, when the reports of the sub-committees were adopted by the Committee of\nFifteen.\n\nWith regard to the presentation of the reports to the Department of Super-\n\nintendence, and with regard to its publication, the committee-having no publication fund at its disposal, and wishing to spread the report before the public at once\n-at its Washington meeting adopted the following :\nResolved,\n\nThat the reports of the three sub-committees be read by their respective\n\nchalrmen before the Department of Superintendence at Cleveland, in February, 1895,\nand published in the \"Educational Review\" for March, 1895; provided, that the publishers\nof the \"Review\" agree to furnish to each member of the Committee of Fifteen, and also\nto each person appointed to discuss the report before the Cleveland meeting, a printed\ncopy of the report; and immediately after the meeting to send to each educational\njournal desiring it such printed copy, with the request that it be published in as\nnearly complete a form as possible.\n\nThe terms of this resolution were conveyed to the editor and publishers of the\n\"Educational Review,\" and were accepted by them. The reports were read by the\nthree chairmen of sub-committees before the Department of Superintendence at\nCleveland on Feb. 19, 20, and 21, 1895. The reports were printed in the March\nissue of the \"Educational Review. \" Printed copies were furnished to the members of the Committee of Fifteen and to the gentlemen appointed to discuss the report. A copy was sent to every educational journal desiring it, and also to every\nmember of the department who responded to the public invitation to furnish his\nname and address for the purpose.\nAs soon as the reports were presented to the department, they became the\nproperty of the National Educational Association.\n\nThe following resolution was adopted by the Department of Superintendence\non February 21st :\nResolved, That we recognize the great value of the report of the Committee of Fifteen\nin setting forth standards, defining educational values, and furnishing broad grounds for\nIntelligent deliberation and discussion in the future; and that the committee be, and\n\nhereby are, authorized to put the report and such dissenting opinions as they may see\nfit to use into form satisfactory to themselves, and to print the same;\ncommittee having performed this duty be discharged.\n\nand that the\n\nUpon the same subject the Committee of Fifteen, at its meeting in Washington,\non Dec. 11, 1894, adopted the following resolution :\nResolved, That the chairmen of the sub-committees, acting in conjunction with the\nchairman of the Committee of Fifteen, are hereby authorized to publish such papers as\n\nare deemed necessary, as appendices to the general report of the Committee of Fifteen.\nWILLIAM H. MAXWELL,\nChairman,\nBROOKLYN, N. Y., March 23, 1895.\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "238\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Cleveland\n\nREPORT OF THE SUB- COMMITTEE ON THE TRAINING\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS.\n\nBY H. S. TARBELL , CHAIRMAN.\n\nThis report treats of the training of elementary and secondary\nteachers, considering first that training which should precede teaching in elementary schools. By elementary schools are meant the\nprimary and grammar departments of graded schools, and ungraded\nor rural schools.\n\nThat teachers are “born, not made,\" has been so fully the world's\nthought until the present century that a study of subjects without\nany study of principles or methods of teaching has been deemed\nquite sufficient. Modern educational thought and modern practice,\nin all sections where excellent schools are found, confirm the belief\n\nthat there is a profound philosophy on which educational methods\nare based, and that careful study of this philosophy and its application under expert guidance are essential to making fit the man born\nto teach .\nCONDITIONS FOR PROFESSIONAL\n\nTRAINING - AGE AND\n\nATTAINMENTS .\n\nIt is a widely prevalent doctrine, to which the customs of our\nbest schools conform, that teachers of elementary schools should\nhave a secondary or high school education, and that teachers of high\nschools should have a collegiate education.\n\nYour committee believe\n\nthat these are the minimum acquirements that can generally be accepted; that the scholarship, culture, and power gained by four years\nof study in advance of the pupils are not too much to be rightfully\ndemanded, and that as a rule no one ought to become a teacher who\nhas not the age and attainments presupposed in the possessor of a\nhigh school diploma. There are differences in high schools, it is true,\nand a high school diploma is not a fixed standard of attainment ;\nbut in these United States it is one of the most definite and uniform\n\nstandards that we possess, and varies less than college degrees vary\n\nor than elementary schools and local standards of culture vary.\nIt is, of course, implied in the foregoing remarks, that the high\nschool from which the candidate comes is known to be a reputable\nschool, and that its diploma is proof of the completion of a good\nfour-years' course in a creditable manner. If these conditions do not\nexist, careful examination is the only recourse.\nIf this condition, high school graduation or proof by examination of equivalent scholarship, be accepted, the questions of the age\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nTRAINING OF TEACHERS.\n\n239\n\nand attainment to be reached before entering upon professional\nstudy and training are already settled. But if a more definite statement be desired, then it may be said that the candidate for admission to a normal or training school should be eighteen years of age\nand should have studied English, mathematics, and science to the\nextent usually pursued in high schools, should be able to write\nreadily, correctly, and methodically upon topics within the teacher's\nnecessary range of thought and conversation, and should have\nstudied, for two or more years, at least one language beside English.\nSkill in music and drawing is desirable, particularly ability to sketch\nreadily and effectively.\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS .\n\nThe training of teachers may be done in normal schools, normal\n\nclasses in academies and high schools, and in city training schools.\nTo all these the general term \"training schools\" will be applied.\nThose instructed in these schools will be called pupils while engaged\nin professional study, and pupil-teachers or teachers-in-training while\nin practice-teaching preparatory to graduation. Teachers whose\nwork is to be observed by pupil-teachers will be called model-teachers ; teachers in charge of pupil-teachers during their practice work\nwill be called critic-teachers.\n\nIn some institutions model-teachers\n\nand critic-teachers are the same persons. The studies usually pursued in academies and high schools will be termed academic, and\nthose post-academic studies to be pursued before or during practiceteaching as a preparation therefor will be termed professional.\nACADEMIC STUDIES.\n\nWhether academic studies have any legitimate place in a normal\nor training school is a question much debated.\n\nIt cannot be sup-.\n\nposed that your committee can settle in a paragraph a question upon\nwhich many essays have been written, many speeches delivered, and\nover which much controversy has been waged.\nIf training schools are to be distinguished from other secondary\nschools they must do a work not done in other schools.\n\nSo far as\n\nthey teach common branches of study they are doing what other\nschools are doing, and have small excuse for existence; but it may be\ngranted that methods can practically be taught only as to subjectsthat the study done in professional schools may so treat of the subjects of study, not as objects to be acquired but as objects to be presented, that their treatment shall be wholly professional.\nOne who is to teach a subject needs to know it as a whole made\nup of related and subordinate parts, and hence must study it by a\nmethod that will give this knowledge. It is not necessary to press\nthe argument that many pupils enter normal and training schools\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "240\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nwith such slight preparation as to require instruction in academic\nsubjects. The college with a preparatory department is, as a rule,\nan institution of distinctly lower grade than one without such a department. Academic work in normal schools that is of the nature\nof preparation for professional work lowers the standard and perhaps the usefulness of such a school; but academic work done as a\nmeans of illustrating or enforcing professional truth has its place\nin a professional school as in effect a part of the professional work.\nProfessional study differs widely from academic study. In the one,\na science is studied in its relation to the studying mind; in the other,\niu reference to its principles and applications. The aim of one kind\nof study is power to apply ; of the other, power to present. The tendency of the one is to bring the learner into sympathy with the natural world ; of the other, with the child world. How much broader\nbecomes the teacher who takes both the academic and the profes-\n\nsional view ! He who learns that he may know and he who learns\nthat he may teach are standing in quite different mental attitudes.\nOne works for knowledge of subject-matter ; the other that his knowledge may have due organization-that he may bring to consciousness\nthe apperceiving ideas by means of which matter and method may\nbe suitably conjoined.\nHow to study is knowledge indispensable to knowing how to\nteach. The method of teaching can best be illustrated by teaching.\nThe attitude of a pupil in a training school must be that of a learner\nwhose mental stores are expanding, who faces the great world of\nknowledge with the purpose to survey a portion of it. If we insist\nupon a sufficient preparation for admission, the question of what\nstudies to pursue and especially the controversy between professional and academic work will be mainly settled.\nPROFESSIONAL WORK.\n\nProfessional training comprises two parts : (a) The science of\nteaching, and (b) the art of teaching.\nIn the science of teaching are included : (1) Psychology as a basis\nfor principles and methods; (2) methodology as a guide to instruction ;\n\n(3) school economy, which adjusts the conditions of work; and (4) his\ntory of education, which gives breadth of view.\nThe art of teaching is best gained: (1) By observation of good\nteaching; (2) by practice-teaching under criticism.\nRELATIVE TIME .\n\nThe existence and importance of each of these elements in the\ntraining of teachers are generally acknowledged. Their order and\n\nproportionate treatment give rise to differences of opinion. Some\nwould omit the practice-work entirely, launching the young teacher\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nTRAINING OF TEACHERS.\n\n241\n\nupon independent work directly from her pupilage in theory. Others,\nand much the greater number, advise some preparation in the form\nof guided experience before the training be considered complete.\nThese vary greatly in their estimate of the proportionate time to be\ngiven to practice during training. The answers to the question,\n\"What proportion?\" which your committee has received, range from\none-sixteenth to two-thirds as the proportion of time to be given to\npractice. The greater number, however, advocate a division of time\nabout equal between theory and practice.\nThe normal schools incline to the smallest proportion for practiceteaching, the city training schools to the largest. It should be borne\nin mind, however, that city training schools are a close continuation,\nusually, of high schools, and that the high school courses give a more\nuniform and probably a more adequate preparation than the students\nentering normal schools have usually had. Their facilities for practice-teaching are much greater than normal schools can secure, and\nfor this reason also practice is made relatively more important. As\nto the relative merits of city training schools and normal schools,\nyour committee does not desire to express an opinion ; the conditions\nof education demand the existence of both, and both are necessities\nof educational advancement. It is important to add, however, that,\nin the judgment of your committee, not less than half of the time\nspent under training by the apprentice-teacher should be given to\nobservation and practice, and that this practice in its conditions\nshould be as similar as possible to the work she will later be required to do independently.\nSCIENCE OF TEACHING-PSYCHOLOGY.\n\nThe laws of apperception teach that one is ready to apprehend\nnew truth most readily when he has already established a considerable and well-arranged body of ideas thereon.\nSuggestion, observation, and reflection are each most fruitful\nwhen a foundation of antecedent knowledge has been provided.\n\nHence, your committee recommends, that, early in their course of\nstudy, teachers-in-training assume as true the well-known facts of\npsychology and the essential principles of education, and make their\nlater study and practice in the light of these principles. These principles thus become the norm of educational thought, and their truth\nis continually demonstrated by subsequent experience. From this\ntime theory and practice should proceed together in mutual aid and\nsupport.\n\nMost fundamental and important of the professional studies which\n\nought to be pursued by one intending to teach is psychology. This\nstudy should be pursued at two periods of the training school course,\n16\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "242\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nthe beginning and the end, and its principles should be appealed to\ndaily when not formally studied. The method of study should be\nboth deductive and inductive. The terminology should be early\nlearned from a suitable text-book, and significance given to the terms\n\nby introspection, observation, and analysis. Power of introspection\nshould be gained, guidance in observation should be given, and confirmation of psychological principles should be sought on every hand.\n\nThe habit of thinking analytically and psychologically should be\nformed by every teacher. At the close of the course a more profound\nand more completely inductive study of physiological psychology\nshould be made. In this way, a tendency to investigate should be\nencouraged or created.\nSTUDY OF CHILDREN.\n\nModern educational thought emphasizes the opinion that the\n\nchild, not the subject of study, is the guide to the teacher's efforts.\nTo know the child is of paramount importance. How to know the\nchild must be an important item of instruction to the teacher-in-train-\n\ning. The child must be studied as to his physical, mental, and moral\ncondition. Is he in good health ? Are his senses of sight and hearing\n\nnormal, or in what degree abnormal ? What is his temperament ?\nWhich of his faculties seem weak or dormant ? Is he eye-minded or\near-minded ? What are his powers of attention? What are his likes\nand dislikes ? How far is his moral nature developed, and what are\nits tendencies ? By what tests can the degree of difference between\nbright and dull children be estimated ?\nTo study effectively and observingly these and similar questions\nrespecting children is a high art. No common-sense power of discerning human nature is sufficient; though common sense and sympathy go a long way in such study. Weighing, measuring, elaborate\ninvestigation requiring apparatus and laboratory methods, are for\nexperts, not teachers-in -training. Above all, it must ever be remembered that the child is to be studied as a personality and not as an\nobject to be weighed or analyzed.\nMETHODOLOGY.\n\nA part of the work under this head must be a study of the mental\nand moral effects of different methods of teaching and examination,\nthe relative value of individual and class instruction at different\n\nperiods of school-life and in the study of different branches. The\nart of questioning is to be studied in its foundation principles and by\nthe illustration of the best examples. Some review of the branches\nwhich are to be taught may be made, making the teacher's knowledge\n\nof them ready and distinct as to the relations of the several parts of\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nTRAINING OF TEACHERS.\n\n243\n\nthe subject to one another and of the whole to kindred subjects.\nThese and many such subjects should be discussed in the class in\n\npedagogy, investigation should be begun, and the lines on which it\ncan be followed should be distinctly laid down.\nThe laws of psychology, or the capability and methods of mindactivity, are themselves the fundamental laws of teaching, which is\nthe act of exciting normal and profitable mind-action. Beyond these\n\nfundamental laws, the principles of education are to be derived inductively. These inductions when brought to test will be found to\nbe rational inferences from psychological laws, and thus founded\nupon and explained by them.\nSCHOOL ECONOMY.\n\nSchool economy, though a factor of great importance in the teacher's training, can be best studied by the teacher of some maturity and\nexperience, and is of more value in the equipment of secondary than\nof elementary teachers. Only its outlines and fundamental principles\nshould be studied in the ordinary training school.\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION .\n\nBreadth of mind consists in the power to view facts and opinions\nfrom the standpoints of others. It is this truth which makes the\nstudy of history in a full, appreciative way so influential in giving\nmental breadth. This general advantage the history of education\nhas in still larger degree, because our interest in the views and experiences of those engaged like us in training the young enables us\nto enter more fully into their thoughts and purposes than we could\ninto those of the warrior or ruler.\n\nFrom the efforts of the man we\n\nimagine his surroundings, which we contrast with our own. To the\nabstract element of theoretical truth is added the warm human inter-\n\nest we feel in the hero, the generous partisan of truth. The history\nof education is particularly full of examples of noble purpose, advanced thought, and moral heroism. It is inspiring to fill our minds\nwith these human ideals. We read in the success of the unpractical\nPestalozzi the award made to self-sacrifice, sympathy, and enthusiasm expended in giving application to a vital truth.\nBut with enthusiasm for ideals history gives us caution, warns\n\nus against the moving of the pendulum, and gives us points of departure from which to measure progress. It gives us courage to attack difficult problems. It shows which the abiding problems arethose that can be solved only by waiting, and not tossed aside by a\nsupreme effort. It shows us the progress of the race, the changing\nideals of the perfect man, and the means by which men have sought\nto realize these ideals. We can from its study better answer the\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "244\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nquestion, What is education, what may it accomplish, and how may\nits ideals be realized? It gives the evolution of the present and explains anomalies in our work. And yet the history of education is not\na subject to be treated extensively in a training school. All but the\noutlines may better be reserved for later professional reading.\nTRAINING IN TEACHING .\n\nTraining to teach requires (1) schools for observation, and (2)\nschools for practice.\n\nOf necessity, these schools must be separate in purpose and in\norganization. A practice school cannot be a model school. The pupilteachers should have the opportunity to observe the best models of\nthe teaching art; and the manner, methods, and devices of the modelteacher should be noted, discussed, and referred to the foundation\nprinciples on which they rest. Allowable modifications of this observed work may be suggested by the pupil-teacher and approved by\nthe teacher in charge.\nThere should be selected certain of the best teachers in regular\n\nschool work whom the pupil-teachers may be sent to observe. The\npupil-teachers should take no part in the school work nor cause any\nchange therein. They should, however, be told in advance by the\nteacher what purpose she seeks to accomplish. This excites expectation and brings into consciousness the apperceiving ideas by which\n\nthe suggestions of the exercise, as they develop, may be seized and\nassimilated.\n\nAt first these visits should be made in company with their teacher\nof methods, and the work of a single class in one subject should be\nfirst observed. After such visits the teacher of methods in the given\nsubject should discuss with the pupil-teachers the work observed.\nThe pupil-teachers should first describe the work they have seen and\nspecify the excellences noted, and tell why these things are commendable and upon what laws of teaching they are based. Next the\npupil-teachers should question the teacher of methods as to the cause,\npurpose, or influence of things noted, and matters of doubtful propriety-if there be such-should be considered. Then the teacher in\nturn should question her pupil-teachers as to matters that seem to\nhave escaped their notice, as to the motive of the model-teacher, as\nto the reason for the order of treatment, or form of question, wherein\nlay the merit of her method, the secret of her power. When pupilteachers have made such observations several times, with several\nteachers and in several subjects, the broader investigation may be\nmade as to the organization of one of the model rooms, its daily program of recitations and of study, the methods of discipline, the relations between pupils and teacher, the \"school spirit,\" the school movements, and class progress. This work should be done before teaching\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nTRAINING OF TEACHERS.\n\n245\n\ngroups or classes of pupils is attempted, and should form an occasional exercise during the period of practice-teaching as a matter of\nrelief and inspiration. If an artist requires the suggestive help of\na good example that stirs his own originality, why should not a\nteacher?\nTHE PRACTICE\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nDuring the course in methodology certain steps closely preparatory to practice-teaching may be taken. 1. The pupil-teacher may\nanalyze the topic to be taught, noting essentials and incidentals, seeking the connections of the subject with the mental possessions of the\npupils to be considered and the sequences from these points of contact to the knowledge to be gained under instruction. 2. Next, plans\nof lessons may be prepared and series of questions for teaching the\ngiven subject. 3. Giving lessons to fellow pupil-teachers leads to\nfamiliarity with the mechanism of class-work, such as calling, directing, and dismissing classes, gives the beginner ease and self-confidence, leads to careful preparation of lessons, gives skill in asking\nquestions and in the use of apparatus.\nThe practice-teaching should be in another school, preferably in\na different building, and should commence with group-teaching in a\nrecitation room apart from the schoolroom. Actual teaching of small\ngroups of children gives opportunity for the study of the child-mind\nin its efforts at reception and assimilation of new ideas, and shows\nthe modifications in lesson plans that must be made to adapt the\n\nsubject-matter to the child's tastes and activities. But the independent charge for a considerable time of a schoolroom with a full\n\nquota of pupils, the pupil-teacher and the children being much of the\ntime the sole occupants of the room-in short, the realization of or-\n\ndinary school conditions, with the opportunity to go for advice to a\n\nfriendly critic, is the most valuable practice ; and no practice short\nof this can be considered of great value except as preparation for\nthis chief form of preparatory practice. All this work should have\n\nits due proportion only, or evil may result. For example, lesson plans\ntend to formalism, to self-conceit, to work in few and narrow lines,\nto study of subjects rather than of pupils ; lessons to fellow-pupils\nmake one self-conscious, hinder the growth of enthusiasm in work,\nand are entirely barren if carried beyond a very few exercises ; teaching groups of children for considerable time unfits the teacher for\n\nthe double burden of discipline and instruction, to bear both of which\nsimultaneously and easily is the teacher's greatest difficulty and most\nessential power.\n\nA critic-teacher should be appointed to the oversight of two such\npupil-teachers, each in charge of a schoolroom. The critic may also\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "246\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nsupervise one or more teachers practicing for brief periods daily with\ngroups of children.\nThe pupil-teachers are now to emphasize practice rather than\ntheory, to work under the direction of one who regards the interests\n\nof the children quite as much as those of the teacher-in-training.\nThe critic must admit the principles of education and general methods taught by the teacher of methodology, but she may have her own\ndevices and even special methods that need not be those of the teach-\n\ner of methodology. No harm will come to the teachers-in-training\nif they learn that principles must be assented to by all, but that\nmethods may bear the stamp of the personality of the teacher ; that\nall things must be considered from the point of view of their effect\nupon the pupils; the critic maintaining the claims of the children,\nthe teacher of methods conforming to the laws of mind and the\n\nscience of the subjects taught. The critics must teach for their pupilteachers and show in action the justness of their suggestions. In\nthis sense they are model-teachers as well as critics.\nThe critic should at the close of school meet her pupil-teachers\nfor a report of their experiences through the day : What they have\nattempted, how they have tried to do it, why they did so, and what\n\nsuccess they gained. Advice as to overcoming difficulties, encouragement under trial, caution if need be, help for the work of to-morrow,\noccupy the hour. Above all, the critic should be a true friend, a\nwomanly and cultivated woman, and an inspiring companion, whose\npresence is helpful to work and improving to personality.\nLENGTH OF TRAINING - SCHOOL COURSE.\n\nThere are three elements which determine the time to be spent\n\nin a training-school-the time given to academic studies, the time\ngiven to professional studies, and the time given to practice. The\nsum of these periods will be the time required for the training course.\nTaking these in the inverse order, let us consider how much time is\nrequired for practice work with pupils. The time given to lesson\noutlines and practice with fellow pupil-teachers may be considered a\npart of the professional study rather than of practice-teaching. The\nperiod of practice with pupils must not be too short, whether we consider the interests of the pupils or of the teachers-in-training. An\neffort is usually made to counteract the effect upon the children of\n\na succession of crude efforts of teachers beginning practice by\nstrengthening the teaching and supervision through the employment\nof a considerable number of model and supervisory teachers, and by\ndividing the pupils into small groups so that much individual work\ncan be done. These arrangements, while useful for their purpose, destroy to a considerable degree the usual conditions under which\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nTRAINING OF TEACHERS.\n\n247\n\nschool work is to be done and tend to render the teachers-in-training\nformal and imitative.\n\nThe practice room should be, as far as may be, the ordinary school,\nwith the difficulties and responsibilities that will be met later. The\nresponsibility for order, discipline, progress, records, reports, communications with parents and school authorities, must fall fully upon\nthe young teacher, who has a friendly assistant to whom she can\ngo for advice in the person of a wise and experienced critic, not constantly at hand, but constantly within reach.\nBetween the critic and the teacher-in-training there should exist\nthe most cordial and familiar relations. These relations are based,\non the one hand, upon an appreciation of wisdom and kindness ; on\nthe other, upon an appreciation of sincerity and effort. The growth\nof such relations, and the fruitage which follows their growth, require\ntime. A half-year is not too long to be allotted for them. During\nthis half-year experience, self-confidence and growth in power have\nbeen gained; but the pupil-teacher is still not ready to be set aside\nto work out her own destiny. At this point she is just ready for\nmarked advance, which should be helped and guided. To remain\nlonger with her critic friend may cause imitation rather than independence, may lead to contentment and cessation of growth. She\nshould now be transferred to the care of a second critic, of a different\npersonality but of equal merit. The new critic is bound by her duty\nand her ambition to see that the first half-year's advancement is\nmaintained in the second. The pupil-teacher finds that excellence is\nnot all upon one model. The value of individuality impresses her.\nShe gains a view of solid principles wrapped in diverse characteristics. Her own individuality rises to new importance, and the elements of a growth not at once to be checked start up within her.\nFor the care of the second critic a second half-year must be allowed,\n\nwhich extends the practice work with pupils through an entire school\nyear. For the theoretical work a year is by general experience\nproven sufficient. The ideal training course is, then, one of two years'\nlength.\n\nProvision for the extended practice which is here recommended\ncan be made only by city training schools and by normal schools having connection with the schools of a city. To set apart a building of\nseveral rooms as a school of practice will answer the purpose only\nwhen there are very few teachers in training. In order to give each\npupil-teacher a year of practice the number of practice rooms must\nequal the number of teachers to be graduated annually from the\ntraining school, be the number ten, or fifty, or five hundred. In any\nconsiderable city a school for practice will not suffice ; many schools\nfor practice must be secured. This can be done by selecting one ex-\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "248\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Cleveland\n\ncellent teacher in each of a sufficient number of school buildings,\n\nand making her a critic-teacher, giving her charge of two schoolrooms, in each of which is placed a pupil-teacher for training.\nThis insures that the teaching shall be done as nearly as may be\nunder ordinary conditions, brings the pupil-teachers at once into the\ngeneral body of teachers, makes the corps of critics a leaven of zeal\nand good teaching scattered among the schools. This body of critics\nwill uplift the schools. More capable in the beginning than the average teacher, led to professional study, ambitious for the best things,\nthey make greater progress than they otherwise would do, and are\nsufficient in themselves to inspire the general body of teachers. For\n\nthe sake of the pupil-teachers, and the children, too, this plan is\nbest. Its economy also will readily be apparent. This plan has been\ntried for several years in the schools of Providence, with results fully\nequal to those herein claimed.\nTESTS OF SUCCESS .\n\nThe tests of success in practice-teaching are, in the main, those to\nbe applied to all teaching. Do her pupils grow more honest, industrious, polite ? Do they admire their teacher ? Does she secure obedience and industry only while demanding it, or has she influence that\nreaches beyond her presence ? Do her pupils think well and talk well ?\nAs to the teacher herself: Has she sympathy and tact, self-reliance\n\nand originality, breadth and intensity ? Is she systematic, direct, and\nbusiness-like ? Is she courteous, neat in person and in work? Has\nshe discernment of character and a just standard of requirement\nand attainment ?\n\nThese are some of the questions one must answer before he pronounces any teacher a success or a failure.\n\nAdmission to a training school assumes that the pupil has good\nhealth, good scholarship, good sense, good ability, and devotion to\nthe work of teaching. If all these continue to be exhibited in satis-\n\nfactory degree and the pupil goes through the prescribed course of\nstudy and practice, the diploma of the school should naturally mark\nthe completion of this work. If it appears, on acquaintance, that a\nserious mistake has been made in estimating any of these elements,\nthen, so soon as the mistake is fairly apparent and is probably a\npermanent condition, the pupil should be requested to withdraw from\nthe work.\n\nThis is not a case where the wheat and the tares should\n\ngrow together until the harvest at graduation day or the examination preceding it. With such a foundation continually maintained,\nit is the duty of the school to conquer success for each pupil.\nTeaching does not require genius. Indeed, genius, in the sense\n\nof erratic ability, is out of place in the teacher's chair. Most good\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nTRAINING OF TEACHERS.\n\n249\n\nteachers at this close of the nineteenth century are made, not born ;\nmade from good material well fashioned. There is, however, a possi-\n\nbility that some idiosyncrasy of character, not readily discovered\nuntil the test is made, may rise between the prospective teacher and\nher pupils, making her influence over them small or harmful. Such\na defect, if it exist, will appear during the practice-teaching, and the\ncritic will discover it. This defect, on its first discovery, should be\nplainly pointed out to the teacher-in-training and her efforts should\nbe joined with those of the critic in its removal.\nIf this effort be a failure and the defect be one likely to harm the\npupils hereafter to be taught, then the teacher-in-training should be\ninformed and requested to withdraw from the school. There should\nbe no test at the close of the school course to determine fitness for\n\ngraduation.\n\nGraduation should find the teacher serious in view of\n\nher responsibilities, hopeful because she has learned how success is\nto be attained, inspired with the belief that growth in herself and in\nher pupils is the great demand and the great reward.\nTRAINING\n\nOF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS .\n\nPerhaps one-sixth of the great body of public school teachers in\nthe United States are engaged in secondary work and in supervision.\nThese are the leading teachers. They give educational tone to communities, as well as inspiration to the body of teachers.\nIt is of great importance that they be imbued with the professional spirit springing from sound professional culture. The very\ndifficult and responsible positions that they fill demand ripe scholarship, more than ordinary ability, and an intimate knowledge of the\nperiod of adolescence, which Rousseau so aptly styles the second\nbirth.\n\nThe elementary schools provide for the education of the masses.\nOur secondary schools educate our social and business leaders. The\n\ncareers of our college graduates who mainly fill the important places\nin professional and political life are determined largely by the years\nof secondary training. The college or university gives expansion and\nfinish, the secondary school gives character and direction.\nIt should not be forgotten that the superintendents of public\n\nschools are largely taken from the ranks of secondary teachers, and\nthat the scholarship, qualities, and training required for the one class\nare nearly equivalent to that demanded for the other.\n\nOur high schools, too, are the source of supply for teachers in elementary schools. Hence the pedagogic influences exerted in the high\nschool should lead to excellence in elementary teaching.\n\nThe superintendent who with long foresight looks to the improvement of his schools will labor earnestly to improve and especially to\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "250\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nprofessionalize the teaching in his high school. The management\nwhich makes the high school an independent portion of the school\nsystem, merely attached and loftily superior, which limits the supervision and influence of the superintendent to the primary and grammar grades, is short-sighted and destructive.\nThere ought also to be a place and a plan for the training of\nteachers for normal schools. The great body of normal and training\nschools in the United States are secondary schools. Those who are\nto teach in these schools need broad scholarship, thorough understanding of educational problems, and trained experience. To put\ninto these schools teachers whose scholarship is that of the secondary\nschool and whose training is that of the elementary is to narrow and\ndepress rather than broaden and elevate.\n\nIf college graduates are put directly into teaching without special\nstudy and training, they will teach as they have been taught. The\nmethods of college professors are not in all cases the best, and, if\nthey were, high school pupils are not to be taught nor disciplined\nas college students are. High school teaching and discipline can be\nthat neither of the grammar school nor of the college, but is sui\ngeneris. To recognize this truth and the special differences is vital\nto success. This recognition comes only from much experience at\ngreat loss and partial failure, or by happy intuition not usually to\nbe expected, or by definite instruction and directed practice. Success\nin teaching depends upon conformity to principles, and these principles are not a part of the mental equipment of every educated person.\nThese considerations and others are the occasion of a growing\n\nconviction, widespread in this land, that secondary teachers should\nbe trained for their work even more carefully than elementary teachers are trained.\n\nThis conviction is manifested in the efforts to secure\n\nnormal schools adapted to training teachers for secondary schools,\nnotably in Massachusetts and New York, and in the numerous professorships of pedagogy established in rapidly increasing numbers in\nour colleges and universities .\n\nThe training of teachers for secondary schools is in several essential respects the same as that for teachers of elementary schools.\nBoth demand scholarship, theory, and practice. The degree of scholarship required for secondary teachers is by common consent fixed\nat a collegiate education. No one with rare exceptions-should be\nemployed to teach in a high school who has not this fundamental\npreparation.\n\nIt is not necessary to enter in detail into the work of theoretical\ninstruction for secondary teachers. The able men at the head of\ninstitutions and departments designed for such work neither need\nnor desire advice upon this matter. And yet for the purposes of this\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nTRAINING OF TEACHERS.\n\n251\n\nreport it may be allowable to point out a plan for the organization\nof a secondary training school.\nLet it be supposed that two essentials have been found in one\nlocality, (1) a college or university having a department of pedagogy\nand a department of post-graduate work; (2) a high school, academy,\nor preparatory school whose managers are willing to employ and\npay a number of graduate students to teach under direction for a\n\nportion of each day. These two conditions being met, we will suppose that pedagogy is offered as an elective to the college seniors.\nTwo years of instruction in the science and art of teaching are\n\nto be provided; one, mostly theory with some practice, elective during the senior year; the other, mostly practice with some theory,\nelective for one year as post-graduate work.\nDuring the senior year is to be studied :\nTHE SCIENCE OF TEACHING .\n\nThe elements of this science are :\n\n1. Psychology in its physiological, apperceptive, and experimental\nfeatures. The period of adolescence here assumes the prominence that\n\nchildhood has in the psychological study preparatory to teaching in\nlower schools. This is the period of beginnings, the beginning of a\n\nmore ambitious and generous life, a life having the future wrapped\nup in it ; a transition period, of mental storm and stress, in which\negoism gives way to altruism, romance has charm, and the social,\nmoral, and religious feelings bud and bloom. To guide youth at this\n\nformative stage, in which an active fermentation occurs that may\ngive wine or vinegar according to conditions, requires a deep and\nsympathetic nature, and that knowledge of the changing life which\nsupplies guidance wise and adequate.\n2. Methodology : a discussion of the principles of education and\nof the methods of teaching the studies of the secondary schools.\n3. School economy should be studied in a much wider and more\nthorough way than is required for elementary teachers. The school\nsystems of Germany, France, England, and the leading systems of\nthe United States should also be studied.\n\n4. History of education, the tracing of modern doctrine back to\nits sources ; those streams of influence now flowing and those that\nhave disappeared in the sands of the centuries.\n5. The philosophy of education as a division of an all-involving\nphilosophy of life and thought in which unity is found.\nTHE ART OF\n\nTEACHING .\n\nThis includes observation and practice. The observation should\ninclude the work of different grades and of different localities, with\nminute and searching comparison and reports upon special topics.\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "252\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Cleveland\n\nHow does excellent primary work differ from excellent grammargrade work ?\n\nHow do the standards of excellence differ between\n\ngrammar grades and high school grades? between high school and\ncollege work? What are the arguments for and against co-education\nin secondary schools as determined by experience ? What are the\nupper and lower limits of secondary education as determined by the\nnature of the pupil's effort ?\n\nIn the college class in pedagogy much more than in the elementary normal school can the class itself be made to afford a means of\n\npractice to its members. Quizzes may be conducted by students upon\nthe chapters of the books read or the lectures of the professors. These\nexercises may have for their object review, or improved statement,\nor enlarged inference and application, and they afford an ample op-\n\nportunity to cultivate the art of questioning, skill in which is the\nteacher's most essential accomplishment.\n\nThe head of the department of pedagogy will, of course, present\nthe essential methods of teaching, and the heads of other depart-\n\nments may lecture on methods pertaining to their subject of study ;\nor secondary teachers of known success may still better present the\nmethods now approved in the several departments of secondary work.\nPOST-GRADUATE YEAR.\n\nTo those graduates who have elected pedagogy in their senior\nyear may be offered the opportunity of further study in this department, with such other post-graduate work as taste and opportunity\n\npermit. From those selecting advanced work in pedagogy the board\nin charge of the affiliated secondary school should elect as many\nteachers for its school as are needed, employing them for two-thirds\ntime at one-half the usual pay for teachers without experience. Under the professor of pedagogy of the college, the principal, and the\nheads of departments of the school, these student-teachers should\ndo their work, receiving advice, criticism, and illustration as occasion\nrequires. The time for which they are employed would provide for\ntwo hours of class-work and about one hour of clerical work or study\nwhile in charge of a schoolroom.\n\nThese student-teachers should be\n\ngiven abundant opportunity for the charge of pupils while reciting\nor studying, at recess and dismissals, and should have all the responsibilities of members of the faculty of this school. Their work should\n\nbe inspected as frequently as may be by the heads of the departments\nin which they teach, by the principal of the school, and by the professor of pedagogy. These appointments would be virtually fellowships with an opportunity for most profitable experience.\nIn the afternoon of each day these students should attend to\n\ncollege work and especially to instruction from the professor in peda\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n253\n\ngogy, who could meet them occasionally with the heads of the departments under whose direction they are working.\nOn Saturdays a seminary of two hours' duration might be held,\nconducted by the professor of pedagogy and attended by the studentteachers and the more ambitious teachers of experience in the vicin-\n\nity. These seminaries would doubtless be of great profit to both\nclasses of participants and the greater to each because of the other.\nIt will not be needful to specify further the advantages to the\nstudent-teachers. The arrangement likewise affords advantage to\nthe affiliated school, especially in the breadth of view this work would\nafford to the heads of departments, the intense desire it would beget\nin them for professional skill, the number of perplexing problems\nwhich it would force them to attempt the solution of.\nThe visits of the professor of pedagogy, and the constant comparison he would make between actual and ideal conditions, would\nlead him to seek the improvement not only of the students in practice\nbut of the school as a whole.\n\nWhen several earnest and capable people unite in a mutual effort\nto improve themselves and their work all the essential conditions of\nprogress are present.\n\n( HORACE S. TARBELL, Chairman,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Providence, R. I.\nEDWARD BROOKS,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Philadelphia, Pa.\nCommittee:\n\nTHOMAS M. BALLIET,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Springfield, Mass.\nNEWTON C. DOUGHERTY,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Peoria, Ill.\nOSCAR H. COOPER,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Galveston, Tex.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n[REPORTED BY C. B. GILBERT OF ST. PAUL, MINN.]\n\nA. B. BLODGETT, City Superintendent, Syracuse, N. Y.-I shall not attempt\nto present a philosophical discussion of the report submitted on the topic now before\nus.\n\nI am satisfied that too many technicalities, too much psychology, and too much\n\npedagogy are talked to and at young, immature persons who are preparing to become teachers.\n\nI do not believe in the born teacher. The truly born teacher must receive a\n\nsecond birth, either through professional training or an extended uphill experience.\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "254\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nI believe a thorough normal training to be a necessity. The report very wisely\nomits a discussion of the relative merits of city training schools and normal schools,\nand I agree with the committee that \"each is a necessity.\"\n\nFor myself, in this discussion, however (and I speak from the standpoint of our\nown work in this line), I must give the preference to the city training school. It\nmust be acknowledged that many teachers-in-training are not qualified for the\nwork before them, because their academic education and general culture are too\nmeager. They are not qualified to master the problems which they must meet in\npedagogical study.\nThere is a vast difference as to fitness between the students who enter these\nrespective training schools.\n\nIn many cases, the requirements for entrance to a\n\nnormal school do not measure up to the requirements for entrance to a good city\nhigh school ; while the candidates for the city training-class must be graduates of\nsaid high school. This gives to the city class greater maturity of mind and body,being older, and a broader and clearer comprehension of the professional work to\nfollow.\n\nThere is great danger, in the professional training of immature minds, that the\nwork presented shall be too technical in its nature; that terms too scientific shall\nbe used.\n\n[Here Mr. Blodgett read from a pamphlet, prepared by a normal school principal, some \"assumed principles\" in the training of teachers. The extracts read\nwere absurd, ultra-metaphysical statements, and their reception by the association\nshould not be considered as representing the position of the speaker or of the association on this question. Mr. Blodgett closed the reading of these statements by\nsaying : \"From all such elements and factors in the proper training of teachers,\nmay the good Lord deliver us-or me, at least, \" ]\nIn further discussion, Mr. Blodgett remarked, that in normal schools, the pupil\nclasses, eight to twelve each, were too small to secure the best practical results to\nthe trainer; and going out from such training many a young teacher has found\n\nherself overwhelmed by the numbers she has been compelled to face, and failure\nhas resulted. They should also be trained in every feature and detail of school\nwork. At some part of their training they should be given the management, and\nshould be held responsible for the discipline of the room, the playground, and all\nthe details of actual school life. They should receive and dismiss pupils, make out\nreports, etc.\n\nIn my own city (Syracuse), the course covers one and one-half years after\ngraduation from the high school, and no one is admitted to the training-class without this excellent preparation. The first half-year is devoted to a review of subjectmatter studies. The second half-year is given to the study of methods, psychology,\n\nschool economy, history of education, etc. The third half-year is devoted to practice in a school, covering eight years of work, from the lowest primary to the highest grammar grades. The work of the first year is in the hands of an excellent\nmale graduate of the Oswego Normal School. The practice work of the last halfyear, frequently covering an entire year, is presided over by a graduate of the Cook\n\nCounty Normal, who received her last and best training after she had proven herself an excellent teacher of some years' experience. In herself, she illustrates my\nposition, that of the necessity of maturity before professional training is taken on.\n\nMy contention is, first, that professional training should be preceded by a\ndefinite, well-rounded high school course of study, or its full equivalent. This is\nthe rule in city training classes, but not the rule in normal schools. Second, that\nthe training should be in the hands of those who dwell upon the spirit of the\nnormal work and not so much upon the letter. And, further, that the mechanics\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n255\n\nof method and the technical, professional terms should not stand in the mind of the\nnormal student of any school for the real essence and truth that training is intended to give.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT, SCHAEFFER of Pennsylvania asked whether Mr. Blodgett considered the extract read as typical of New York normal schools, and was answered\n\"\nNo.\"\n\nPRESIDENT JOHN W. Cook of Illinois State Normal University. Is it typical\nof any state excepting a state bordering on insanity ?\nPRESIDENT WILLIAM J. MILNE of the State Normal College at Albany, N. Y. ,\ncommended the report of the committee for its clearness, its philosophical basis,\nand its eminently practical suggestions. He called the attention of the association\nto the fact, that, whenever a body of school superintendents, or men engaged in\nsimilar work, attempted to discuss the training of teachers, they invariably found it\nnecessary to cast some slur upon normal schools, and that the body assembled at\nCleveland was no exception to the rule. He implied that one of the reasons why\nsuch a condition of affairs existed was, that very few of the superintendents had\nthemselves had any previous professional training, and that they could not tell\ngood training from poor when they saw it; and, further, that probably very\nmany of them (and those were the ones who were most given to denouncing normal\nschools) had never in their lives visited such an institution. He thought that it\nwas no criticism on normal schools at all that the principal of one of them, somewhere in the United States, had prepared a pamphlet on the training of teachers\nwhich expressed the principles underlying the work in a form that was unnecessarily involved, and perhaps absurdly metaphysical. Moreover, he defended the\nstatements on the ground of their being accurate and very likely true; that there\nmust be principles underlying all instruction in pedagogy, on which the work is\nbased, and that it is not unlikely that scholarly thought and investigation will\nsometime fix them absolutely in some form which may be metaphysical and yet\nwithin the comprehension of people who ought to discuss and apply those principles.\n\nPROFESSOR NICHOLSON.-The young men and women who come forward to be\nteachers are as far away from childhood as possible. They have forgotten childish\nfeelings and experiences. The first thing necessary is to create in them an interest\nin children. The way to do this is to begin with the scientific study of childhood.\nThis will lead to the sympathetic study.\nPRESIDENT JOHN W. Cook of Normal University, Illinois, said that the department should not be so ready to pass judgment upon the extract read by Mr.\nBlodgett. It is a just criticism upon it, perhaps, that its language is so formal and\ntechnical; but because the writer has chosen to present his thought in a phraseology with which we may not be familiar, we should not conclude that he is necessarily foolish. It is not always wise for us to make ourselves the measure of the\nwisdom of what others may say. We should remember that our great philosophical\nseer formerly used terms in these gatherings which not all of us were able to\nunderstand.\n\nAs to the relation of city training schools and normal schools, Mr. Cook insisted that there was no such thing as conflict. In this country the normal school\ncame first and the city training school was an outgrowth from it. It is true, that,\nin some of the states, like New York, the order may be said to have been reversed.\n\nClearly, indeed, each has its function. The method of the city training school\ncannot become universal. It has very manifest advantages over the normal school\non one hand, while it has serious drawbacks on the other. It furnishes a greater\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": "256\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nopportunity for practice work in actual teaching, but a smaller opportunity usually\nfor theoretical work. The normal school is usually limited in its practice department; the city training school in its theoretical department. The great peril of the\ncity training school is the tendency toward inbreeding. Its pupils are usually\ngraduates of the local high school, and have come up through several grades of the\nsystem. When they leave the training school and return to the city schools as\nteachers, they have not had that experience with different systems which is necessary for the best preparation.\nThe motive in establishing city training school\n\nsystems has sometimes been\n\nrather low. It has been claimed by their promoters that they could thereby diminish the expenses of the management of the system by using the pupil-teachers to\nfill vacancies occasioned by sick-leaves, and also to supply the lower grades with\nteachers without expense to the city.\n\nBut the city training school, since it is always local in its purposes, can never\nsupply the teachers for the rural schools.\n\nThe normal school is their only oppor-\n\ntunity. It is true, that, with the large classes, they cannot all be in charge of\nschoolrooms while in training, but they can do much teaching and can receive very\ngreat assistance.\n\nMr. Cook thought that the danger with regard to the self-sufficiency of the\nyoung teacher who comes from the normal school was very greatly exaggerated.\nHe had not been a witness of this unfortunate condition of things, and rarely heard\ncomplaint in his own state. It is probable that there is ground for it, because the\nyoung teacher goes from the normal school with a technique which is but partially assimilated, perhaps. Yet this stage, in which the technique assumes the\nformal aspect, is one through which we must all go before we attain any high degree of skill .\nSUPERVISOR GEO. H. MARTIN of Boston dissented from Mr. Blodgett's opinion\n\nin regard to the intelligence of students coming from normal schools as compared\nwith those coming from city training schools.\n\nMost of the students in the state\n\nnormal schools come from country homes where there is considerable culture. They\nbring with them some inherited taste for scholarly pursuits, and have selected\nteaching as a vocation to gratify this taste. They have a breadth, and insight, and\nsympathy with what is best which stands them in stead of the more showy attain-\n\nments of the city girls.\nMany of the students in the city training schools have come from homes lacking the refinements of hereditary culture. Sometimes they are but a single generation removed from absolute illiteracy.\n\nThese seek to enter the teaching ranks\n\nthrough the training school for social advancement. Having graduated, they secure\nschools because their fathers pay taxes and have influence. The graduates of the\n\nstate normal schools can urge no such claim on any particular town or city, and are\nforced to win their way upon their merits.\nMISS ELLEN G. REVELEY of Cleveland. In this discussion we have lost sight\nof the end, which is the child. Pupils who come to normal schools have been\n\nstudents of books. It is essential to put them in touch with the world aroundwith the thought of the day. It is very essential that every student be acquainted\nwith himself and with his relation to the child; then will he make a strong\nteacher.\n\nDR. D. L. KIEHLE, State University of Minnesota, spoke to the second part\nof the report, and emphasized the need of training for teachers of secondary schools\n\nand of superintendents and principals. The graduate of a normal school, who\ncomes with a feeble possession of her new theories and ideas, often finds super-\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n257\n\nvisors who have had a higher education of the college but no professional training, and who have little sympathy with primary education and do not strengthen\nand encourage the young graduate in the attainment of her ideals received in the\nnormal school, but rather make light of it all. He hailed with the greatest satisfaction that portion of the report which favors pedagogical training in colleges and\nuniversities, and desired to emphasize the importance of instructing these young people in the study of children. Dr. Kiehle related, that, in his classes, he had found\nlittle sympathy with elementary teaching; but he had sent them out to visit kindergartens, and that they had returned regenerated. When superintendents and principals have sympathy with scientific pedagogy, then the young teacher will grow.\nDR. WALTER B. HERVEY, New York Teachers' Training College, also emphasized the importance of the second part of the report. The first necessity in\ntraining college graduates is regeneration. The college graduate has grown away\nfrom the possibilities of second birth between the time of his own graduation and\n\nthe time when he has children of his own to care for He has lost sympathy with\nchildhood. In order to develop this he must have contact with all grades; then\nhe may approach the study of the period of adolescence with sympathy and intelligence. Dr. Hervey praised the practical suggestions for the training of secondary\nteachers outlined in the report that the committee had not waited for more training colleges, but had devised a plan for existing institutions. He spoke of a visit he\nhad paid to a school in Germany in which five young men with the degree of Ph.\nD. devoted two years without pay to teaching under instruction.\nSUPT. EDWARD P. SEAVER, Boston, Mass.-Why have city training schools become necessary? In my opinion, it is because the state normal schools, as usually\norganized and managed heretofore, have been unable to bring their pupils into\nimmediate and vital contact with the minds of children.\n\nTheir work has been far\n\ntoo exclusively theoretical. When you can run a medical school without a hospital\nfor observation; when you can run a law school without moot courts; when\nyou can run a theological school without giving the young theologians opportunities to preach to sinners-then, perhaps, you can run a normal school without\npractice-classes. Mr. Blodgett called our attention to some things they teach\nin the normal schools under very high-sounding names. There was mentioned\nsome sort of a process called making a person's potential energy kinetic. Well,\nthere is no difficulty in understanding what that means. The boys would call\nit \"getting a move on. \" Now, that is just what the pupils in the normal school\nwant. As long as they are taught only theory they are at a standstill, not knowing how to move. But put them into contact with real live children, and they\nmust \"get a move on\" or fail. Therefore, let there be schools of practice connected with every normal school in the land.\n\nSTATE SUPT. E. B. PRETTYMAN of Baltimore. The real question raised by this\ndiscussion is, whether teaching is, or ever will be, a profession. We know how men\nbecome professional lawyers ; we know how they become professional physicians.\nIt is by study in special schools, where they are trained in the principles of their\nprofession. Where are we to obtain professional teachers except in normal schools\nand colleges for special training in the science of education, the art of teaching,\nand the mode of governing schools ? Is a mere medical student allowed to become\n\na practitioner without professional training and examination by experts, and imperil the lives of people by his ignorance and want of skill ? Do we turn over our\ncases to a tyro of a lawyer ? No. Then we should not intrust our children to a\nteacher who is a tyro. It would be just as sensible for a medical convention or an\n\nassembly of lawyers to decry medical colleges or law schools as for this department\n17\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "258\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Cleveland\n\nto condemn or sneer at normal school and colleges. Teaching becomes a profes-\n\nsion just in proportion to the number of teachers who have been professionally instructed, trained, and approved by educational experts. If we cannot now fill all\npositions with professionally educated teachers, let us nevertheless aim at the\ngradual elevation of teaching until finally it shall become, and be recognized as,\none of the learned professions.\n\nDR. JAMES M. MILNE, State Normal School, Oneonta, N. Y.-Wouldn't it be\na good idea for those who criticise the normal schools to know the normal schools\nof to-day, and not base all their criticisms on their knowledge of the normals of\n\ntwenty-five years ago? There has been a great advancement all along the line, and\nthe normal schools have been in the van of the movement. Child study is no new\nthing in the normal schools. Science work in lower grades is no longer a novelty\nwith us. The enrichment of the courses of the grammar grades was initiated\nlong ago.\n\nNow, with reference to the city training schools. They come into competition\nin no sense with the normal schools. City training schools are bred in local inluences, and the particular needs of each city determine their work. Their motto\nis, to do just as the teachers are now doing in the city systems, only more so.\nNormal schoo's, however, have a wider, a more general outlook, and have to satisfy a more general demand. The assertion that the students in a city training\nschool are more mature than those in a normal school is not at all warranted by\nfacts.\n\nAll that have taken part in this discussion have presented their ideas from their\nown system of schools, and have assumed that the general likeness is complete.\nWe all know how far this stops short of the truth in reference to either training\n\nschools or normal schools. Of course, we all regret the good superintendent's ignorance of psychology; but we cannot charge it to his strength, but rather to his\nweakness. Things that we do not know are not of necessity worthless or untrue.\nLet fairness prevail and let this good experience meeting go on.\nDR GORDY, Athens, Ohio. Of all the work in the world the most difficult and\ndelicate is that of training children. Hence, the training of those who are to do\nthis is the most important thing in the world. The work of the city training and\nnormal schools is distinct.\n\nThe office of this body is, not to take an attitude of\n\nopposition to either but rather that every man be convinced that both are necessary.\nWhen Horace Mann was pouring out his life for the common schools, he received\nno sympathy from the colleges. This illustrates the attitude of people of culture\nto-day towards the normal schools .\n\nDR. E. E. WHITE of Cincinnati objected to that portion of the report which\nrelated to the study of adolescence. He thought that physiologists had pushed\nthis matter too far. That the less our young teachers and would-be teachers had\nto say about this subject the better.\nDR. E. A. SHELDON of Oswego stated that he had had experience in both city\ntraining schools and normal schools, and thought it well that their faults be\nbrought out in this discussion. The normal school men have been too ambitious\nto have large schools. The most essential condition in training teachers is that\nthey teach. A training teacher cannot work properly with more than twenty\npupils. The pupil-teachers should take all the responsibility of the management\nof a school.\n\nThis they cannot do if the school is large.\n\nThere should be in the\n\nnormal school more careful study of children-more extended preparation in schol-\n\narship. The pupil-teacher must have a school in which to practice. The office of\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCHANGES IN SCHOOLS.\n\n259\n\nthe critic is to build up, and not pull down. Pupil-teachers must be left more to\nthemselves to work out their own results in their own way.\n\nPRESIDENT MAXWELL emphasized that portion of the report which demanded a\nhigher scholarship for those who are to be teachers .\n\nSUPT. H. S. TARBELL, chairman of the committee, in closing the discussion,\nreferred briefly to Dr. White's criticism, and said that Dr. Wihte had not caught\nthe meaning of the report. That the study of adolescence was not recommended\nfor the elementary normal schools, but only in the colleges; for teachers, not pupils .\nSecond, that in regard to the relative merits of city training schools and normal\n\nschools, the committee had expressed no opinion, believing that both have valuable\nfunctions.\n\nMr. Tarbell thought that normal school men were too sensitive with regard to\ncriticism upon the normal schools. He believed that superintendents and teachers\nshould be recognized as knowing something which differentiates them from other\n\neducated persons. It should be understood that scholarship plus experience does\nnot necessarily make teachers.\nThe normal school men have gained the ground so far as elementary schools\nare concerned. When educators have established in the mind of the public the\nsame conviction in reference to higher schcols, then we may expect a more satis\nfactory education in all.\n\nCHANGES- WISE AND UNWISE-IN GRAMMAR AND HIGH\nSCHOOLS.\n\nBY ORVILLE T. BRIGHT, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, COOK COUNTY,\nILLINOIS .\n\nIt is surely impossible to speak with definiteness of the beginnings\nof the great changes which occur in our institutions. Especially is\nthis true of religious and educational institutions, founded, as they\nare, so largely upon traditions, and possibly on that very account\nthe most sacred to the hearts of the people. In these matters even\nformal changes are not lightly to be entertained, while attempts at\nchanges fundamental are naturally received with profound distrust\nand often with determined opposition.\nGenerally, however, the opposition of the people to changes proposed in matters of study has not been active, but their sympathy\n\nhas been withheld from the progressive teacher, and this lack of\nsympathy is sure to affect the relations of the children to the school.\nOften the press, notably in Chicago, has tried to damn the best work\nof teachers by crying \"Fad!\" and indulging in rank personal abuse.\nBut there has been many a long step forward, and rarely has one\n\nto be retraced, notwithstanding. There have also been, during the\nlast ten years, many battles-royal among educational men and\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "260\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nwomen; and, thank God, they are still on. The issues involved are\ntremendous, and fortunately time cuts no figure as to the result.\nIt is safe to say that the years from 1880 to the present time have\nbeen more charged with changes for the betterment of the public\nschools than were the fifty preceding years ; aye, the one hundred. To\nnote all the changes in grammar and high schools that have come\nabout or have been well launched within the years mentioned would\nmake little more than a catalogue of a forty-minute paper. I shall\nnote only a few of the most important.\nFrom an artistic, convenient, and sanitary point of view, the\n\nschoolhouse has become a subject of serious study for architects\nonly within the past ten or fifteen years. Improvements have been\nmost marked in matters of ventilation and lighting, and in these\nrespects the best modern schoolhouses leave little to be desired. A\nfan is now considered as necessary a part of the Chicago schoolhouse as is a chimney ; and the same is true in many other cities.\nNatural forces, also, have been utilized with great skill in thou-\n\nsands of smaller places, and excellent ventilation secured-second\nonly to mechanical.\n\nWhile the tendency in the respect referred to is all in the right\ndirection, the issues involved are so vitally important, as affecting\nthe health and even costing the lives of children, that the splendid\n\nimprovement of the past ten years seems all too slow. It must be\nconfessed, that, in the great majority of schoolrooms throughout the\ncountry, the children are still suffering from lack of pure air and\nproper lighting. There is quite as often too much of the latter as\ntoo little ; and while it is rare to find cases in which the children\nare obliged constantly to face the light, it is just as rare to find cases\nin which the teacher is not obliged to do that very thing. There\n\nis no shifting the responsibility for the unsanitary condition of the\nolder schoolhouses. It is almost wholly the fault of school superintendents and teachers. The elements of this fault are apathy, laziness, and lack of intelligence. Thorough study of the subject and\nthe interest and vigorous action sure to follow on our part will produce results for the next decade which will discount those of the\nlast.\n\nAnother change well under way, and one which is sure to sweep\nthe country, relates to school furniture. Compared to the slab seats\nwhich some of us used years ago, with no backs, and over which\nour legs flopped from one side to the other as we studied or recited,\nthe modern school desk is a luxury and a thing of beauty. Compared\nto what it should be, considering the health and comfort of the child,\n\nand what it might be with very little additional cost, it is sadly defective. Think of fitting a desk for a child from the reader he is in\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCHANGES IN SCHOOLS.\n\n261\n\nor from his years of age! Almost without exception in our city and\nvillage schools the desks in any given room are of exactly the same\nsize and of exactly the same height. You might as well fit a suit of\nclothes to our honored president on the strength of his being superintendent of schools in Brooklyn, and another of exactly the same\nsize to Superintendent Jones of Cleveland because he happens to\nbelong to the same class.\n\nThe children in any grade will vary from six to twelve inches in\nheight, or even more; and while the smallest in a class sit with\nlegs dangling in the air, the largest crowd themselves most uncomfortably into the desk space. And it follows that either of the\nextremes must sit in great discomfort and in exceedingly unhealthful positions during school hours. It is astonishing, indeed, that\nsuperintendents, principals, and school officers seem to think little\nor nothing about this matter. I recall an instance of a magnificent\nschoolhouse, built at a cost of $100,000, in which my rule showed\nthe variation of the height of the desk above the chair used by the\nunder-sized six-year-old in first grade and that used by the overgrown\neighth-grader to be exactly two inches. The difference between the\nfirst and the fifth grade desk was one inch.\n\nThe schoolhouse in\n\nwhich this barbarism occurred was built within ten years.\n\nTo my\n\nindignant protest, the principal said blandly, \"I declare, I hadn't\nthought anything about that.\"\n\nWe cannot excuse ourselves for this sort of thing. Is anybody\nso deaf, dumb, and blind that he cannot see the absolute necessity\nof adjustable desks and chairs in every schoolroom ? The chair\nshould in no case be a part of the other fellow's desk.\n\nAnd if it\n\ncould be made to turn a little, to assist the occupant to attain the\nupright, so much the better. The trouble is not altogether in the\nseat being too high or too low from the floor. The desk, in its effect\nupon the arms, chest, shoulders, and spine, is just as deleterious to\nthe health as is the seat in its effect upon the lower members.\n\nHave you ever carefully examined the children in your schools,\nhaving in mind well-developed chest and erect position as to spine\nand shoulders? If not, make a careful trial-if possible in company\nwith a sympathetic physician. Make notes of results in any one\nschoolroom, and then study causes. I do not intend to say that all\nof the malformation found is the result of school-sittings. The simple question for us to determine is, whether the school furniture tends\nto increase or diminish these deformities, and there can be but one\nanswer to this question. The struggle for a better class of school furniture, one that can be fitted to the size of the child instead of the\nclass he belongs in, is well begun, and adjustable desks have already\ncome into use in many towns within the last two or three years.\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "262\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nWithin a few days I have seen five different patterns of adjustable\ndesks. The next ten years will probably produce fifty of them;\nand thousands of children will be comfortably and healthfully seated\nin school where now there are tens or hundreds.\n\nAfter comfort and healthfulness, schoolrooms should be attractive-attractive in the same sense that a comfortable home is.\n\nNoth-\n\ning is more charming to note than the positive movement in this\ndirection, although it is by no means general. In an eloquent lecture\ndelivered by Prof. Albion Small the other evening, occurred this\nsentence, \"The enjoyment of beauty is nature's first and purest tonic\nfor tired mind and exhausted body.\"\n\nIf this sentiment is a true\n\none, and it surely is, and if children become tired during the school\nsessions, as they surely do, then the silent instructor referred to\nshould find place in every schoolroom.\n\nThe enjoyment of beauty which comes from a cultivation of taste\nis something that has very little entered into our teaching in the\npublic schools of America. In proof of this, one needs but to call\nattention to the utter lack of utilization of color in the furnishing\nof schoolrooms. Almost invariably there is a zone of grained wainscoting, a zone of blackboard, a zone of blank white wall, and a dead-\n\nwhite ceiling,-until softened by dust and grime,-hardly the purest\ntonic for tired mind and exhausted body, both of which are apt to\nseek tonics of a nature to disturb the school serenity. Tinted walls\nand tasteful application of color in painting certainly would be no\nadditional expense. Tastefully papered walls would cost but very\nlittle. A few pictures or casts, which may be both artistic and inexpensive, prettily draped windows, growing plants and flowers, and,\nabove all, a case of well-selected books-all these things constantly\nappealing to the children, would be wonderfully effective teachers ;\nnot only instructing but controlling children. Many such rooms may\nnow be found in almost any system of schools in this country, with\na gratifying increase each year. In short, they are living-rooms, arranged under the impression that the children are living while at\nschool-not merely getting ready to live; that, indeed, school-life\nought to be the richest part of the whole span, be it longer or shorter.\nI know full well the difficulties surrounding the accomplishment of\nwhat is here indicated, and I know just as well that those difficulties\nmay be overcome.\n\nOne would be a stupid observer, indeed, who has not noted with\npleasure the vast difference which the last few years have brought\nabout as regards the sympathy existing between teacher and pupils.\n\nThe study of the children has brought consciously to the knowledge\nof the average school-teacher the fact, that the controlling motive in\nschool must be interest; that the love for learning cannot be secured\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCHANGES IN SCHOOLS.\n\n263\n\nby means of the rod or the ruler; that the great need of the children\nis patience, and not punishment; that their pranks (which are soon\nforgotten) are but a part of their development and are not designed\nfor the misery of the teacher; that whispering in school is not an unpardonable sin-certainly not to be compared to the sin of the teacher\nwho requires self-reporting at the close of school when children are\ntired and want to go home ; in short, that, considering surroundings,\ntemptations, state of development, and human nature, the inclinations of children are generally toward the good.\nAs these notions have gained ground, corporal punishment in\nschool has had to give way. The fact of the matter is, whatever\npretenses to the contrary may be set up, that immediately preceding\nwhipping, in school or at home, in nine cases out of ten the actuating\nmotive is anger and a wish to \"get even\" on personal grounds. After\nthe chastisement there is a change in sentiment. A feeling of gratified revenge comes to the whipper, and one of anger to the whipped,\ncoupled with the notion that, give him an even chance and he would\nlike to try it again. Later on, humiliation and repentance have come\nto many a whipper. If anybody is to punish a child, my impression\nis that it should be the person who has the most sympathy with him.\nAnd it may be remarked here, that, if there is any period for whipping, it soon passes. Hence, I think the matter may be well relegated to the mother, who will try, at least, to convince the offender\nof the necessity before the infliction, and whose tears will be very\napt to mingle with those of the child. This is perhaps a little tough\non the mother, but it is pretty safe. Corporal punishment in schools\nis vastly less general than it was, and this through the action of the\nteachers ; but it is still altogether too common.\nIt is well within a decade that I read in a report of a noble-\n\nhearted superintendent of a certain city a plea for the children as\nagainst the barbarity of corporal punishment. He stated that in that\ncity there were about 15,000 boys who were eligible to this means\nfor the elimination of manhood; and, also, that there were 15,000\ncases of corporal punishment in one year an average of one apiece.\nI asked by letter two or three years afterwards how the matter was\n\ngetting on, but could get no reply. I would not tell if I were engaged\nin that kind of business. It flourishes much more in the East than in\nthe West.\n\nThe fact of the matter is, that school flogging is an outgrowth of\n\nthe total-depravity and physical-torture-to-all-eternity theory in theology, with the addition of mental starvation on the three R's. As\na means of saving grace, both are terrible failures. Just so far as a\nteacher controls through physical fear, just so far he or she makes\nhumiliating confession of weakness, concedes the lack of true man-\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "264\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nhood or womanhood, and just so far will the training of girls and\nboys be a failure. I once heard a great teacher and keen observer,\nafter carefully visiting every room of a school of 1,200 pupils, say\nto the principal:\n\n\"I have not seen a child in this school do a mean\n\nor underhand thing. I have seen them whisper and move about,\nbut they have done it all in a natural way and without specially disturbing anybody. How does it come about?\" \"Oh, I don't know,\"\nwas the answer. \"I have little to do in discipline; hardly ever think\nof it. Public sentiment seems to control the school.\" Mighty influences were at work in that school, but so subtle and quiet that\nto speak of them caused surprise. This is the tendency of these later\nyears-a tendency that develops manhood and womanhood, good\nimpulse and self-control. Would to God that the close of this century might see the end of control in school through the old regime\nof physical pain; that the rod might be forever banished from the\nschoolrooms of America, and that solely through the efforts of the\nteachers !\n\nNext after the teacher, which topic I must pass, the most important topic connected with any school is the subject-matter to\nbe taught. This subject is so great and the changes which have been\nbrought about or which have been suggested, discussed, and tried\nsince the year 1880 are so many, that one hesitates to touch upon\nit where reference must be so brief.\n\nUntil within a very few years\n\nthe grammar school subjects for study were universally the same,\nand in this order of importance : Arithmetic, geography, and grammar, with the lesser lights, reading, writing, and spelling. The first\ninnovation was United States history ; but it obtained only a secondary place, and that with the older pupils, along with the grammar.\nIt was a relief, however, as there was in some degree a stimulus for\nthe imagination and its tendency was towards reading.\n\nA fair understanding of the changes that have taken place or\nare being urged in courses of study calls for a consideration of these\nstudies separately. That they were entirely separate, and still are in\nmost schools, goes without saying. Not only this, but the different\ntopics of the different studies were almost as separate as the differ-\n\nent studies. The Jupiter-supreme of the group is arithmetic. The\nreasons for this in American schools, I think are several. 1. In\n\nthe old three-R days, arithmetic was the only subject calling for\nmuch study, and its supremacy was inevitable. 2. On the part of\nparents there is a prevalent notion that the knowing well how to\nfigure will, in some mysterious way, figure the learner into business\nand into a fortune.\n\nThe text-books are all constructed to enhance\n\nthis notion, nine-tenths of the problems being about dollars ; and,\nstrange to say, almost all have to do with the getting of dollars. It\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCHANGES IN SCHOOLS.\n\n265\n\nsounds so fine to say, \"I send my agent,\" \"I draw my check,\" etc.\nEvery farmer's boy comes to imagine himself a banker or capitalist.\n3. The teacher, of course, knows that arithmetic is practical in its\napplication to affairs of life, and she has heard and takes for granted\n\nthat the study is most excellent discipline.\nLet us look this subject squarely in the face, see what we will do\nwith it, and bring a little common sense to bear on our consideration.\nAlmost without exception the children in the graded schools of this\ncountry are kept eight years upon arithmetic. Every day has one\nor two arithmetic recitations, so that the recitations per week range\nfrom five to ten. No other recitation in school has so large a period\ndevoted to it each day, and no other is so constant a trespasser on\nthe periods set apart for the other recitations. Bear in mind that this\nsort of thing continues for eight years, and frequently the arithmetic\nis carried a half year or a year in the high school. Is it possible that\nany one subject, with American teachers and with American chil-\n\ndren, needs such an inordinate proportion of school-time ?\n\nWill\n\nanybody pretend to say that the results secured are at all commensurate to the time consumed ? If there is any one complaint\nfrom high school teachers which is constant and never varies, it is\nthat the children know little about arithmetic when they enter high\nschool .\n\nOh , dear, what can the matter be ? for matter there must\n\nbe, and it is high time that we were looking after it.\nI am well aware that any man or set of men who recommend\ncutting down and enriching this study take their lives in their hands.\nThere has probably been more railing at the committee of ten for\ntheir report in regard to mathematics than for any other one thing.\nWhether their adjustment is altogether wise or not may be ques-\n\ntioned, but that cuts no figure in the case. Their main contention\nis, that the subject should be cut down and enriched, and in this\nthey are absolutely right; and I insist that the higher regard one\nhas for arithmetic as a science the stronger will he insist that it\n\nno longer be cluttered up with obsolete or unrelated topics. My regard for the value of this study is profound; but it is for arithmetic\nas it should be, not as it has been. I protest, first, that the number\nof years which the subject is studied is too many; and, second, that\nthe time given to it in the daily program is too great. So far as the\nyears are concerned, one certainly should be cut off each end; and\nI am inclined to think, that, in the primary school, during the first\ntwo years, with the exception of the numbering consequent upon\nother studies, very little should be done in arithmetic as a separate\nstudy. In other words, that five years, as a special study, ought to\nfinish this subject, and do it vastly better than it is done now. As\nto the day's relation to arithmetic, I do not propose to be an unreasonable crank, and advocate that grammar school children out of\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "266\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nschool should do no work preparatory to the work which goes on in\nthe school session. This is unreasonable and ridiculous. A grammar\nschool without home study is an absurdity-no school at all.\n\nBut\n\nthe work which the child should prepare at home should not be\narithmetic. I insist upon this, both in the interest of health and\nmorality. A tussle with problems as a preparation for sleep needs\nno comments. The tossing and restlessness of nervous children dur-\n\ning the night hours, as produced by this sort of thing, I need not\nbring to the minds of parents.\nFrom the moral side, the consumption of the father's time in\ngetting the lessons for his children, and the irritation consequent\nupon the difficulty with which he accomplishes the task or his inability to do so, sends him to bed in a frame of mind conducive to\nanything but tranquility or godliness. And what is worse in this\nconnection, the pretense of the child that the lesson presented the\nnext day is the result of his own effort, and the acceptance of the\nsame as such on the part of the teacher, are training in the line of\nutter dishonesty. In this respect I am not talking at random, as\nevery superintendent very well knows.\nA shrewd business man came to me recently with the following\n\nproblem, which he and his twelve-year-old daughter had worked\nover the entire preceding evening. With several other problems,\nit was to be solved in the evening for recitation in a public school\nthe next morning :\nA, B, and C start at the same point in the circumference of a circular island,\nand travel around it in the same direction. A makes\nof a revolution in a day, B\nIn how many days will they be together at the point of starting ?\n, and C\n\nThe man was very angry ; possibly because he could not solve\nthe problem. Nobody but a schoolmaster can. When he declared\nthat to give such sums to sixth-grade girls was a d-d outrage, he\nrelieved my feelings as well as his own. It is time we stopped driving\ngirls out of the public schools with arithmetic. In this connection\nit would perhaps be profitable to find out in any given community\nhow many of the really cultivated women had ever been \"good in\narithmetic.\" I read the other day that Mrs. Charlotte Emerson\nBrown wrote and spoke French fluently at ten years of age, and the\nquestion came to me, Are the public schools making Mrs. Charlotte Emerson Browns ?\n\nIn an address given in Brooklyn, Oct. 6, 1892, President Eliot of\nHarvard has this to say of this study: \"From one-sixth to one-fourth,\n\nor even one-third, of the whole school time of American children\nis given to the subject of arithmetic-a subject which does not train\na single one of the four faculties that it should be the fundamental\n\nobject of education to develop. It has nothing to do with observing\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCHANGES IN SCHOOLS.\n\n267\n\ncorrectly, or with recording accurately the results of observation,\nor with collating facts and drawing just inferences therefrom, or\n\nwith expressing clearly and forcibly logical thought.\"\nAgain, the entire subject known as arithmetic is so cut up into\n\nseparate subjects, so separately taught, that it is no wonder the\naverage child is utterly befuddled when he gets through. After\nreading a vigorous protest against the recommendations of the committee, and not only against the recommendations of the committee\nbut against the spirit of those recommendations, I recently picked\nup a modern arithmetic (the first that came to my hand on a shelf\nfull of them) to note how the subjects differed from those in my own\nschool arithmetic. The book was not Smiley's \"Federal Calculator,\"\n1825, but was launched upon the schools of the country since the\nyear 1880, and its author occupies an honorable place among teachers. Any topic to which I here refer is fully set forth in the book,\nand, it may be assumed, is taught by most teachers who use that\nspecial text-book.\n\nAny process in arithmetic which is the result of mechanical rather\nthan thought development certainly has very little disciplinary value.\nChildren spend time in learning a mechanical process for finding\nthe greatest common divisor, which they never afterwards use in\narithmetic until the review. They are taught a mechanical process\nfor finding the least common multiple, and when they have it well\nin hand, the constant aim of the teacher is, and should be, to prevent its use. It stands constantly as a bar to mental effort on the\npart of the child in his handling of fractions, and he would be vastly\nbetter off without it. Interminable compound fractions are set up,\nwhose only purpose is to afford an opportunity for knocking down\nthrough mechanical work in cancellation. These are followed by\ncomplex fractions, varying from three to eight stories in height, simplified (if simplified at all) through purely mechanical means. In\nthe book referred to, I find forty odd pages devoted to compound\nnumbers. With the single exception of linear measure used in trans-\n\nference of land, I doubt if any person in this room has ever seen or\nhad occasion to use a compound number, unless, possibly, in paying\nan English hotel bill.\n\nThen follows what is still worse-fractional compound numbers.\nWhat are they for, anyway ? Later comes a kind of discount never\nheard of in business ; courses of exchange and arbitration of ex-\n\nchange that would knock out any banker in Cleveland; partial payment problems, the solution of which would cover a blackboard ten\nfeet square, and they never come out right. And then, to complicate matters, five different rules for the performance of these problems. Compound proportion! Would you, who have forgotten all\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "268\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nabout it, like to know what it is like? for there is nothing else like\nit under the sun! Listen to a quotation :\nIf 16 men can dig a ditch 40 rods long, 3 feet wide, 2½ feet deep and of 7\ndegrees of hardness, in 10 days of 12 hours each, in how many days of 10 hours\neach can a ditch 60 rods long, 3½ feet wide, 3 feet deep, and of 10 degrees of hard-\n\nness, be dug by 20 men, if 8 of them work till but 4 of the work is done ?\n\nThen we have equation of payments, something utterly unheard of\nby 1,000 out of every 1,001 business men. Alligation-to suggest the\nmixing of sand and sugar, but nothing else that ever occurs in this\n\nworld. Cube root! In spite of all that anybody may say on the subject, children of thirteen or fourteen years of age learn how to find\n\ncube root only as a mechanical process. Of course, I speak of the\naverage child, and I know what I am talking about.\n\nProgressions,\n\narithmetical, and geometrical ; annuities, circulating decimals; and,\nright here, in this modern arithmetic, duo-decimals. And then, for\nfear something might get away, are brought in building associations.\nIn almost all of the arithmetics first come the definitions, then\nthe rules, then a problem with full explanation, then the problems\nfor the children to work according to rule, and like the sample given.\nAnd this is called discipline! God save the mark!\nWhat would I do ?\n\nClean out the rubbish from the arithmetics.\n\nSimplify the subject. Enrich each of the topics left by giving plenty\nof work adapted to the children. Train them thoroughly in principles and to accuracy in execution ; rapidity in calculation will take\ncare of itself. Vivify the subject as much as natural, by relating it\nto other subjects studied in the school, and make the work threefourths mental arithmetic to the end of the course.\n\nThis is the line\n\nof change in the best schools; and the change thus far has not been\nslight, by any means.\n\nThe substitution of algebra for arithmetic in the eighth grade\nworks admirably. There is but one verdict on this subject, after a\ntrial in hundreds and hundreds of schools during the last two or\n\nthree years. Some have had it much longer and have no thought of\nchanging. In many schools elementary geometry takes one part of\nthe year and algebra the other. I have been greatly pleased with\nthe vigor and apparent delight with which children take hold of the\nsubjects. Of the many wise suggestions of the committee of ten, in\nmy opinion none was better than this, and the substitution has largely come about directly from the recommendations of the committee.\nI believe there is no subject of instruction in the grammar schools\nin which there is so great a determination for change as in that of\ngeography, and there is none in which an intelligent change is more\ndifficult. Every thoughtful teacher is utterly sick of the dreary committing to memory of thousands of facts relating to boundaries and\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCHANGES IN SCHOOLS.\n\n269\n\nlocation, which, in the nature of things, have no possible interest\nto the child. Geography ought to be a most inspiring subject. It\nought to present the richest material in thought-content, and this\nis the tendency of the change going on. The new geography is becoming a combination of certain, possibly all, of the elementary\nsciences, with a knowledge of the present surface of the earth. Children are being taught that the variations in the surface of the earth,\nwhich make it so beautiful, have a significance. And this significance\nwill keep the mind of the child constantly on the alert and will keep\nhim thinking.\n\nI have no doubt that Miss Arnold will speak of the delightful\nwork now going on in the best primary schools-work closely related to the teaching of geography. It is geography, in that it deals\nwith the relation of the child to the world about him and its phenomena.\nFrom the first year of school he observes, learns something\nof cause and effect, and states the results of his observations orally\nand in writing. With this sort of training he will come to his textbook in geography with strength and vigor.\nWhat shall the text-book be, and who shall make it? The making\ncannot be done in a hurry, although the demand for the new geography is something tremendous, and this demand comes from every\npart of the country. Mr. Frye, in his new primary geography, which\nis the result of years of labor, has taken a long step in the right direction. The sale of this book is unprecedented , and it points to the\ntruth of what I have said as to the demand of the teachers.\n\nWe must\n\nhave carefully prepared text-books on this subject for the grammar\ngrades, otherwise teachers will be floundering around in a helterskelter fashion; and while the instruction will be in any case far\nmore valuable than that which you and I received, it will in nowise\nbe what it ought to be. We must have a text-book which shall constantly build upon the observation which the children have had,\nwhich shall inspire further and better observation, and which shall\ncombine in the proper degree the elements of other sciences with\nthat of geography.\n\nOne of the two most important disturbers of the educational\n\npeace during the past ten or fifteen years is English, and the disturbance has reached from the kindergarten to the college.\n\nPrior\n\nto that time there was in the use of English little or no training of\nany kind in the primary schools. The grammar school study consisted of definitions, rules, and tables from the grammar book, with\n\ninterminable parsing, analyzing, and diagraming. The high schools\nstudied the history of authors in the English literature and the rhetoric book. The colleges were so occupied with Greek and Latin that\n\nthey never thought anything about English, not even of the deficiencies of students at entrance. But there was an awakening all\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "270\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nalong the line, and teachers were forced to take an account of stock.\n\nFierce attacks were made on the sort of grammar study in vogue,\nand its defenders had a sorry time of it.\nOf course, the routine travesty called parsing and diagraming\n\nis not teaching English grammar, but grammar study is essentially\nanalytic. The great need was a training in the use of English-a\ntraining which was constructive. The language lessons came in and\nthe book-makers had a harvest.\n\nIn most cases these books were\n\nprimary grammars with language lessons interspersed. So the grammar definitions and rules in primary language came even into primary\nschools.\n\nOther schools declared grammar a snare and a delusion\n\nand bundled it out altogether, depending on oral instruction entirely.\nOthers still made composition a prominent aim throughout the entire\nprimary and grammar school, made correct expression a part of\nevery recitation, and, eliminating the rubbish from English grammar,\nmade it the closest and most disciplinary of studies. In general, the\nresults of language lessons fell far short of the absurd claims of\nover- zealous advocates. Unskilled teachers, many of whom did not\neven use good English, were called upon to plan and give lessons\nin English to little children. The book lessons referred to were\ncommitted to memory, the grammar part getting the lion's share\nof course, as that was in line with the teacher's experience. Most\n\ngrotesque work naturally followed, and specimen recitations of this\nsort have been reported and sent over the country as samples of\nwhat the reformers advocated. One rarely gets through a meeting\nof this kind without hearing sneering reference to language lessons,\ncoupled with prophecy that we are going back to the old-fashioned\ngrammar. Are we, indeed ?\nWhatever else we may be, let us not be ridiculous.\nThe efforts to secure better instruction in English have not re-\n\nsulted in failure. The best advocates of this instruction urged from\nthe first the relation of language-teaching to other branches of study ;\nthat subjects studied in the grammar schools should furnish material\nfor composition; and, recognizing that the use of good English would\nbe most powerfully influenced by the reading of good English, they\nurged the training of the children to the love of books and the fur-\n\nnishing of books for them to read. Further, they strongly condemned\nthe then universal custom of giving children but a single reading-book\n\nin any one grade and keeping them at this book until it was committed\nto memory from cover to cover. In this contention, the battle was\nlively, because the interests of book-makers were concerned. In\nthis respect, the following instance shows the general condition of\nten years ago and a common condition of to -day.\n\nA noted teacher visited a second-grade room, in which the children read suspiciously well. After getting permission to talk to\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCHANGES IN SCHOOLS.\n\n271\n\nthe class, he had the books closed and gave at random single sentences in different parts of the book. In every case the children\ncaught the connection and continued in concert until stopped-books\nclosed, mind you. The teacher came to him in tears, and said: \"My\nchildren are not half through the grade, and that reader is all they\nwill have until the end of the year. What shall I do?\" \"Go sell all\nthou hast and buy books.\" She went, and hundreds of other earnest\nteachers went, using their scant store of money. And the result :\nTo-day every grammar school in Chicago has from three to six sets\nof supplementary readers or other books for each grade. In 1880\nonly one school in the city had so much as a pretense of supplementary reading. Now every grammar school in Chicago has a wellselected library and a splendid outfit of reference books. Then there\nwere but two school libraries in the city, given by men whose names\nwere on the schools, and but one dictionary and a pronouncing gazetteer for each school.\n\nI know this to be a common experience in\n\ncities and villages the country over. This is not failure.\nThe average fifth-grader to-day, as a result of language-teaching\nin primary grades, writes as correctly as did the average eighthgrader ten years ago, and the thousands of children who leave school\nat the third or fourth grade go out capable of fairly correct expression.\n\nChildren in the higher grammar grades in the best schools are\nstudying and appreciating literature which formerly was found only\nin high schools. Miss Emily Rice, the accomplished teacher of history and literature in the Cook County Normal School, said to me\nlast week, with face aglow, \"The eighth grade (fifty pupils) have just\nfinished 'Merchant of Venice,' and have enjoyed it more intensely\nthan anything else they have ever read.\"\nAnother eighth grade of forty pupils read two or three books of\nthe \"Odyssey\" with great interest and profit. \"Hiawatha\" has proved\na veritable literary treasure-house. We were surprised when children of fifth grade liked it intensely, then fourth grade, then third,\nand now it is doing duty in second grade in many of our best schools.\nThe study of children and their needs has made a vast difference in\nour estimate of their appropriate mental food. The demand for\ngood reading-books for little children, instead of the meaningless,\nmawkish stuff formerly put into children's books, because suited to\ntheir capacity, has become intense and general. Right here I cannot\nhelp mentioning Miss Cyr's exquisite second reader, a literary gem.\nFables and fairy stories, myths and legends of Greece, Rome, and\nNorseland, and the far East have been drawn upon, as well as the\nrich field of our own Indian lore, and charming books have been\nthe result when literary geniuses wielded the pen. Nature myths,\nas part of our nature study, lead naturally to love for poems of\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "272\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nnature, among the choicest in our literature ; and stories of the gods\nand heroes of the Old World lead naturally to love for stories of\nthe heroes of discovery, exploration, and settlement of our own\ncountry. So, with active imagination and mind full of material for\nexpression, composition is a necessity and a pleasure to the child.\nWith nothing seeking expression, composition was for you and me\na positive cruelty, and how little of it could by any means be forced\nout of us.\n\nIt is safe to say, that, considering stimulus to the imagination,\nthought-content, genuine literary merit, and in consequence of all\nthese, healthy interest, more good books have been written for children in the last ten years than in all the years before. Many teachers believe, and rightly, that, in learning how to read, a child should\nlearn to love to read ; that the material given him from the start\nshould have an inherent interest, and there should be abundance\nof it.\n\nAs a result, when they come to the grammar school, the children\nwill be habitual readers of good books. The first crop is scarcely\nin yet, but tens of thousands are on the way. I am here as a historian, not as a seer; but I venture this prophecy, that, ten years\nfrom now, students will enter high school with a better, because a\nmore sympathetic, knowledge of English literature than they have\nnow on entering college.\n\nSchool readers above the third are disappearing in the best\nschools. In their place are used books relating to subjects of study\nfor reading and discussion, and for literary training enough of the\nwritings of one author at a time to make a distinct literary impression. This is wise economy of time and effort, and develops an aim\nvastly different from mere practice in oral reading.\nOne other change, as a result of language-training agitation, Mr.\nChairman, I wish to note in passing, and I would do so with reverence and tenderness.\n\nOne of the sacred institutions of American\n\nschools, and one that has held tenaciously a place in the heart of\nthe American schoolmaster ever since\nZaccheus he\nDid climb a tree,\nHis Lord and Master\n\nFor to see,\n\nis the spelling-book. I say in the heart of the schoolmaster, for if he\nhad brought his head to bear upon it, it would have gone long ago.\nThe experiences of the past few years have made a great many thousands of teachers believe that learning to spell should be the learning of words which are coming into the child's vocabulary day by\nday as he goes on in his school work, and that the spelling lessons\nshould invariably have relation to the subjects under study, instead\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCHANGES IN SCHOOLS.\n\n273\n\nof words which have been selected by some far-away genius and laid\naway in blocks in a spelling-book whose orthography is to be learned\nfor future use. No plan of work could be more illogical, wasteful of\ntime, and inadequate in results. Hence, we are obliged to chronicle\nas one of the changes of the closing years of this century the \"passing\" of the spelling-book.\nThe change of attitude on the part of high schools toward composition and English literature, or more properly literature in English, is very significant. This has doubtless been the result to a\ncertain degree of changes in requirements for college entrance. Grammar rules and definitions, parsing, analyzing, and diagraming will\nnot pass muster at the college door. Ability to write a good composition, fair as to thought and correct as to expression, is the demand.\nThe high schools demand, and rightfully, that correctness of expression be secured in the grammar schools, in order that their work\nmay be devoted to the thought element of composition and elegance\nof style. In line with this desire, and in furtherance of it, the high\nschool study of literature is coming to have a new meaning; not\nstudying the lives of authors and what somebody else has said about\ntheir writings but the studying of the writings themselves in wholes,\nand many of them. In a word, it is the study of literature and not\nabout literature.\n\nAs already indicated, the other great disturber of the educational\npeace during late years has been science.\n\nIt would be hard to tell\n\nwhere the disturbance began, or when, but it would be a dull place\nindeed to which it has not reached within the past ten years. Looking at it from the college standpoint, the text-book and lecture-room\nwere found utterly inadequate to the proper teaching of science,\nwhether physical or biological. The working laboratory for students\nwas added, and each man had in a degree to work out his own experiments and researches. The awkwardness of students in handling\n\napparatus and their inability in matters of observation made painfully apparent the defects of the high school preparation. Something different was demanded by colleges, and their demands have\nbeen more than met by the high schools. In fact, it may have been\nthe high schools which took the lead. This matters not. The changes\nwhich the past ten years have wrought in science teaching are wonderful indeed. Ten years ago there were probably not a dozen high\nschools in the country in which laboratory work in science was done\nby students. Now there are hundreds of them. In 1889 Chicago ac-\n\nquired its first high school laboratory by annexation. To-day every\none of its twelve high schools has one, two, or even three laboratories. The Hyde Park High School, recently completed, has an\noutfit for science-teaching superior to that of half the colleges in the\nUnited States. Every projector of a high school building, even in\n18\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "274\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nsmall villages, considers the laboratory essential. At the same time,\nthe demands of geology and of botany for field study have been just\nas imperative and the results correspondingly intelligent. These are\ncertainly magnificent changes, and they are working wonders in the\ncause of science.\n\nBut what of the primary and grammar schools? That natural\nhistory ought to be introduced into the primary schools at the very\nbeginning and continue through the grammar schools is generally\nconceded by intelligent teachers. That simple experiments in natural\nphilosophy and chemistry are just as suitable for these same schools,\nis also true, and, therewith, the study of natural phenomena and\ntheir causes; and this contention is, not only because of the tremendous advantage to the pupils who continue in high school but\nbecause nature study is the best possible study for the children, the\n\nrichest in thought-content, and, consequently, the most developing.\nIt is their birthright, and how shall you and I excuse ourselves if\nwe keep them from it ?\n\nThere may be one excuse for us that is, our ignorance. Here\nis nature all around us, with its phenomena, plant life and animal\n\nlife on every hand; earth-history carved in every gully and every\nhillock, piled in every sand-heap and strewn on every shore. We see\nit not; know it not; read it not. How can we teach it? It is ignorance of subject-matter that stands in the way of elementary scienceteaching to-day, and that alone. The text-book study has left us\nso helpless. The attitude of the teachers is splendid, even in Chicago\n-fool-talk of the newspapers to the contrary notwithstanding; and\nalmost everywhere an honest effort is pushing forward. Nature study\nis well established in thousands of primary schools, and is gaining\nground every day as teachers are finding out something to teach.\nIn the grammar schools, the movement is slower, and there is a break\nbetween the primary and high schools. An adjustment is at hand,\nor will be with the new geography. God speed the day!\nPrior to 1880 the basis of promotion in public schools was almost\nuniversally a test or final examination in which the dead line between\nsuccess and failure was a fixed per cent. Seventy-four, with a good\nrecord, meant failure ; seventy-five, with no better record, meant\nsuccess. In fact, the record had nothing to do with it. I think it\nwas in 1881 that George Howland announced to Chicago principals\nthat pupils would thereafter be admitted to high school on their\nrecommendation, and that alone. After regaining their breath, the\nprincipals prophesied various disasters to the schools, and went off\nto think it over. Within two years it was evident that Mr. Howland\nhad executed a master-stroke. It was the greatest official act of\nhis long and successful superintendency. So far as I know, it was\nthe first of its kind in any large city. Examinations for grade pro\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCHANGES IN SCHOOLS.\n\n275\n\nmotions were gradually abolished in all of the best schools. How\ngenerally Mr. Howland's action has been adopted by other cities I\ncannot say, but I know that it has by many. I believe the examination test has been modified where it has not entirely given place to\nmore rational means for determining promotion. The question involved is a very serious one, but I cannot take your time to discuss it\nfully. It seems plain, however, to me, that the person best qualified\nto judge of a child's ability to go on is his teacher. If the teacher is\nin doubt, the principal, who should know individually every child in\nschool, may aid in the decision. To say that any other test is necessary is a travesty on common sense.\nCramming for examinations is the most vicious of all school\n\npractices. It impairs the health and depraves the mind. The anxiety of the few weeks preceding \"the final\" is terrible on the highlystrung nervous temperaments ; and all the more so the farther removed the examining power. Suppose a case : A city has some\ngrammar schools and a high school. It has an excellent corps of\nteachers. Each school has a competent principal. The city has an\nable superintendent, with possibly an assistant or two. The eighthgrade pupils are nearly ready for high school. The eighth-grade\nteachers are the best in the city, but they cannot determine who\nshall go to high school. The principals cannot. The superintendent\ncannot. All together cannot pass children from their own grammar\nschools to their own high schools. Somewhere, far away from this\ncity, there is an examining board to determine this vital question. Its\nmembers are wise men, but they know nothing of the children they\nare to examine. Days and weeks are spent in special preparation\nfor the great board examination. No effort is made to finish subjects\nbroadly, grandly, or to make the closing recitations inspiring and\nmemorable in showing relations, making deductions, and generalizations not before noticed. Oh, no ! The aim is to teach what will\n\nprobably be asked for, and the possibility of this question, that, or\nthe other, with the answer that would suit the examiners, is kept\nconstantly before the children. As a last finishing-touch the teachers are directed to take sets of old questions already given by the\nboard and teach them. This is done, reaching back for years, on the\ntheory that history must repeat itself and that history includes examiners. The examination is taken, and later the pupils of a school are\nassembled to hear results read from a platform, to the glorification\nof the winners and to the utter humiliation of the poor children who\nfail to pass. Need I say what I think of this sort of thing ? Is it good\n\nsense, good pedagogy, justice to childhood, or common humanity?\nWhat is the ideal thus set up as the end and aim of school life and\nschool study ? To pass the examination, to be sure; and that any\npractices that will insure this success are justifiable-a most degrad\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "276\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\ning sentiment for American teachers.\n\n[Cleveland\n\n\"May the Lord have mercy\n\non the souls of children committed to the tender mercies of a per-\n\ncentage factory.\" The tendency is against this sort of thing, but it\nclings tenaciously in many otherwise intelligent communities.\nOne of the most pleasing and valuable of all of the changes that\nhave come about in the last ten years is the more cordial relation\nbetween sections of our school system. The primary and grammar\nschools as one, the high school as another, and the college as another,\n\nhave stood isolated and unsympathetic. There was little of communication or relation between them, except when the colleges berated\nthe high schools for lack of preparation, and the high schools berated\nthe grammar schools. All this is changing. In looking for lack of\npreparation, college-men look beyond the high schools to the grammar, and even to the primary schools. And this is sound and logical;\nbut it is not with the same old fault-finding spirit. There goes with\nit a desire for helpfulness and sympathy utterly unknown a few\nyears ago. At a recent meeting of the Illinois State Teachers ' Association there were present from the state university ten or fifteen\n\nof its professors, including the president, taking part in all of the\ndiscussions, whether primary, grammar school, high school, or college. There were also present five other college or university presidents and how many professors I do not know; but I believe it safe\nto say that there was a greater per cent of college-men, as compared to the whole number in the state, than of any other class of\nteachers. Such an element at a state meeting ten years ago, or\neven five years ago, was unknown in the country.\nThe pioneer in this magnificent change, the man who has done\nmost to bring about an intelligent feeling of sympathy between the\ncolleges and the lower schools, both by his manly criticism of those\nschools and by his splendid suggestions in the way of improvement,\nis that prince among college-men, President Eliot of Harvard College.\nHis meetings with the grammar and high school men of New England and their sharp discussions have been read the country over.\nPresident Eliot was in a position to command a hearing, and fortunately he has had much to say about the public schools, and he has\nsaid it magnificently. How he has argued and plead for the enrichment of the primary and grammar school courses, and how terrible the need ! President Eliot's views have not been generally\nadopted by any means by the grammar school men of the country,\nbut there are very few of them whose views have not been modified\nby what President Eliot has advocated. He has done that best of\n\nall things, either in the matter of education or any other institution.\nHe has set men to the defense of their practices, and in this defense comes careful, earnest thought, and it is rare, indeed, that it is\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCHANGES IN SCHOOLS.\n\n277\n\nnot followed by some reconstruction. For this we have to thank\nPresident Eliot.\n\nAnother most significant change which is slowly moving forward\nis that of making teachers accountable to the superintendent or to\nthe principal. Every business of large magnitude in the country\nrecognizes the importance of placing the responsibility for any particular part of that business in the hands of one man or one woman.\nA railroad or bank in which each member of the board of directors\n\nwas more or less a superintendent would be laughed to scorn, and\nits management would have but one outcome-utter failure. The\nsame is true in schools. For the school system of any village or\nany city, so far as the instruction and the work of the teachers is\nconcerned, one man or one woman should be responsible. Take\nany body of teachers who are now responsible to Tom, Dick, and\nHarry on the board of education, who are exercising what is called\n\na \"pull\" to keep their places, in whose appointment relationship,\nfriendship, or politics cut a large figure ; remove all these unsavory\ninfluences, make this body of teachers directly responsible to an\nefficient superintendent, let them know that their continuance in the\n\nschools depends solely upon the efficiency of their work as judged\nby this superintendent, and the effectiveness of the schools in which\nthey work will be more than doubled in one year. This is universal\nexperience, and I am glad, indeed, to say that the placing of this\nresponsibility in the hands of superintendents is on the increase\neven in the Eastern States. A New England school board usually\nhas a realizing sense of where to find a summation of earthly wis-\n\ndom up to the date of its appointment, but the Boston school board\nhas, within the past year, and for the first time, concluded that its\nmembers should be something besides a pack of official busybodies,\nconstantly meddling with and effectually preventing any effective\nwork of their superintendent ; and we congratulate the Boston\nschools. All are watching with intense interest the reform movement in New York City, as it shall affect the schools, and the fate\nof the proposed law to make the superintendent the center of power\nand responsibility. The action taken by this splendid city of Cleve\nland some years ago stands as an object-lesson to the other cities of\nAmerica, and your schools to-day are the strongest possible justification of the action.\n\nThe whole law in a nutshell should be : Every\n\nteacher responsible to the superintendent alone ; the superintendent,\nand he alone, responsible for the schools.\nPolitics in every form-hands off !\n\nThe newcomers that have fought their way into our education\n\nsince 1880 are the kindergarten and manual training, and a right\nroyal fight they have had of it. The opposition in these cases has\ncome from teachers, keen and strong, but blind to the truth-and\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "278\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\noften willfully blind. The kindergarten entailed an entirely new\nphilosophy of primary teaching which has to be understood by each\n\nteacher ; hence, study. The old primary teaching entailed no philosophy-it traveled on tradition ; hence, no study. The kindergarten\nchildren were so hard to govern ; they wouldn't sit still when they\ncame to primary schools ; kindergartens hadn't taught them anything, etc.\n- all because the poor teachers couldn't understand this\nnew institution which had been studying childish needs as shown\nin childish activities. But the opposition was less vicious than that\nshown to manual training. Here sarcasm and ridicule were brought\nto bear when argument failed. But manual training marched steadily on, and it has marched gloriously in. As Dr. Butler well says,\n\"The time is surely past when the brain can say to the hand, 'I have\nno need of thee. \" Both manual training and the kindergarten are\nhere to stay. Many of us, in the nature of things, cannot live to see\nboth fully adjusted in our schools, as teachers in these departments,\nfortunately, must be trained for their work; but adjusted they will\nbe as integral parts of every public school system in this country.\nAnd the new education ! What has become of it? Nobody ever\nhears of it now.. The term never appears in educational papers.\nIts reputed advocates of the years past still seem very much in evidence. Nobody tries to laugh them out of court now. Ten years\nago even their tremendous earnestness could not secure a respectful\nhearing in some very respectable educational gatherings. But they\nplead only for the kindergarten for little children ; manual training\nfor older children; greater inspiration and fewer per cents in recita-\n\ntion; more teaching and less examination ; greater sympathy and\npatience with little children, and less of cast-iron order; more of\nthings and less of form in subject-matter ; more observation and\nless definition and rule ; more of good literature for little children ;\nsupplementary reading, and a great deal of it, and less of grammar\nbooks ; elementary science for children and laboratory science for\nolder pupils, together with the proper relation of studies; and all\nthe time, and more than all the rest, the proper training of young\nmen and young women for the great work of teaching. Is it not\ntrue that these things formed the burden of the contention of the\ncranks ten years ago ? It seems impossible, but it is true. Have the\ncranks changed, or have we changed ?\nI have been able, very inadequately, to set forth the changes in\nschool work of the past few years. They have been mighty, indeed;\nbut it seems to me that we are even now in the sweep of the\ngreatest educational movements the world has ever known, and it\n\nseems, also, that the lessons of the past years tell us that we may be\nliving, active parts of these movements or they will roll over us,\nleaving but the wrecks of might-have-beens.\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nPRIMARY SCHOOL WORK.\n\n279\n\nRECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN PRIMARY SCHOOL WORK.\n\nBY SARAH L. ARNOLD , SUPERVISOR OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS, MINNEAPOLIS,\nMINN.\n\nI have been asked to outline the recent improvements in primary\n\nschool work. The topic, happily, includes improvements only, and\ndoes not reach out to take in many changes which have been attempted and the experiments which have been made in our eager desire to enrich and strengthen the school's curriculum. The present\n\nperiod is emphatically a period of question, experiment, and change.\nIt is a time when the new is eagerly seized because it is new, and\nthe old is ruthlessly swept from the field because it is old. Originality bears the palm in the popular mind. Truths lose favor when they\nhave attained their majority.\n\nNaturally, then, this topic demands an expression of personal\nconviction. Amidst so many new methods, plans, and devices, who\nshall judge which improve upon the work of a generation ago ? We\ncan only select such steps as seem to have been taken in accordance\nwith the principles which are in harmony with recognized and\neternal law. If any changes have been made which enable us without\nquestion to lead the child to clearer and fuller knowledge and to\nwider and happier development, these changes we must pronounce\ngood.\n\nIn speaking of this topic, I shall draw from the record of the\nexperience of the best primary schools of to-day as I have personally known them or as I have read of their development. I shall not\nassume that the progress which I shall describe has been universal.\nWe may feel encouraged, indeed, if we can heartily believe that our\nbest schools are more clearly than ever before recognizing the true\nideal of teaching, and are growing towards this ideal in their everyday experience. Sooner or later, the rank and file will follow the\nleading of the pioneers. My references to improvement in primary\nwork, then, apply to the growth in the best schools of to-day. In\nconsidering this growth, I shall note the introduction of new subjects,\nthe advance in methods, and the impelling cause.\n\nIt is not many years since the common practice in primary schools\neverywhere expressed the conviction that children were sent to\n\nschool simply to learn to read, write, and cipher. The chief end of\nthe school was to teach the three R's, and teachers commonly so\nfixed their eyes upon this immediate result of their labors that they\nforgot, if they had ever known, the higher end beyond. To read\nfrom the primer, first or second reader ; to spell a column of words\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n280\n\n[Cleveland\n\nfrom the spelling-book; to write the arbitrary copy ; to add, subtract,\nmultiply, and divide these were the duties of the child in the primary school, and the drill necessary to fix these forms in his mind\nentirely occupied the teacher. In my own experience as a child in\nthe primary school, I can find nothing to point beyond this; no evidence that the teacher recognized a higher aim in her work. Often,\nin the crowded school which I attended, an older pupil was set to\nteach me the appointed task. I remember that I was taught to write\nby a larger girl, who feebly and crudely outlined the letters upon\nmy slate for me. Nor can I forget the delight with which the class\nof little ones sat under a pine tree out of doors, while an older pupil\npronounced the words of the spelling lesson, which we dutifully\nspelled when our attention was called back from the waving boughs\n\nand the blue sky, seen through the branches of the tree above our\nheads. Between the school walls, I wrote, read, spelled, and \"did\nmy examples.\" Occasional rote songs varied the exercises. I have\nno memory of anything else. Yet the school was a fair example of\nthe primary schools of a growing town.\n\nAdded to this program of the old days, we find in the modern\nschoolrooms periods for nature study, literature or history stories,\nand language lessons. Music is definitely taught as a study instead\nof being confined to the rote songs, and drawing is included in every\nday's program. We find periods allotted, also, to physical exercises\nand to industrial work.\n\nThe more recent of these innovations are\n\nthe nature studies and the literature and history lessons. The language, music, drawing, and physical exercises have for a longer period\nheld a place in the primary program.\n\nWhat is indicated by the presence of these new subjects ? Why\nhave we added to the work of the primary teacher subjects seemingly so wide and so profound, and why do we find the pages of our\nprimary journals teeming with devices as to nature study and storytelling, to the frequent exclusion of the so-called essentials-the\nthree R's ?\n\nThe answer to this question indicates the line of growth in our\n\nprimary work. The three R's are no longer considered the essentials. Necessary, vital, we concede them to be ; but their conquest is\nno longer the chief end sought. The presence of the new subjects\nacknowledges the recognition of a deeper and higher aim in teaching.\nWe know, now, that the end of school-life is more than to learn to\nread, and write, and spell, and cipher. We demand that the school\n\nshall strengthen and develop in right lines all the powers which\nGod has given to the child.\n\nWe recognize that childhood is the\n\nperiod for obtaining materials for the fuller and deeper knowledge\nof after-life-for fixing habits and determining the taste which shall\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nPRIMARY SCHOOL WORK.\n\n281\n\nguide the growth of the future. The child's business is, not simply\nto learn to use books but to learn to live.\n\nBooks are of no advan-\n\ntage to him except as they enable him to interpret life and to determine his own action in accordance with right principles. His\nown experience must always lie underneath the knowledge which\nhe gains from books. To this experience everything in books must\nbe referred. We are assured that he must learn how to live; first,\nby learning to read the lessons written for him in the world of nature; and, second, by drawing from the experience of those who\nhave lived worthily and have given to the world thoughts worthy\nto endure. The child must learn to interpret the life which lies at\nhis own door before he can reach out to understand other lives.\n\nFrom his own seeing, imagining, and thinking he must get materials which will help him to interpret the lives of others as expressed in literature and history. This belief has led us to place\nunderneath and before the lessons in reading and writing other les-\n\nsons through which the child shall gain the ideas which must underlie the reading and writing-without which books can give him\nbut empty words. The presence of nature study, literature and\nhistory stories in our primary programs indicates the attempt to\nattain to realities instead of working with forms and to recognize the place of the form as determined by the thought which\nit exists to express .\n\nNo word is real to the child until it stands\n\nas the sign of its own idea; no thought can be apprehended except it express something akin to his own experience. What folly,\nthen, for us to use symbols which are dead to the child! Our\nfirst work is to bring him into the fuller experience which of itself\ndemands these modes of expression. Through nature study, the\nchild widens his experience in the world of nature and gains new\nideas, which find expression in his own language and enable him\nmore readily to apprehend the messages written for him in books.\nBryant's \"Fringed Gentian\" sings its clearest note for him whose\neyes have seen the \"blossom wet with heaven's own dew\"-whose\n\nheart has been gladdened by the beauty of the autumn visitor.\nTennyson's \"Song of the Brook\" is not for him whose feet have\nnever wandered by the brook-side-whose eyes have never rejoiced\nin the fern-shaded, rippling waters. The lessons written for us\nin literature and history likewise demand of us an experience of\nour own. \"The Village Blacksmith,\" who swings his heavy sledge\nand looks the whole world in the face, is a reality to the child who\nhas eagerly peered in at the open door of her own village blacksmith shop. A little six-year-old in M\nran eagerly to a blacksmith whom she knew. \"I've learned some poetry in school, and\nit's about you,\" she cried. \"Let's hear it,\" he replied; and, leaning\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "282\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\non his anvil, he listened while the child recited the poem. \"\nYes,\nyou've hit it,\" he said; \"that's me.\" The familiar companionship\nwith noble thoughts and noble deeds, rehearsed in poem and story\nin the early days of childhood and associated with childhood ex-\n\nperiences-with little acts of self-denial, of courage, of patiencefurnish the links between the child's feeling and thought and the\nmighty lessons which have been written for him in other lives. Bet-\n\nter: This world of poem and story in which his childish imagination travels is the threshold of that world of real and noble action\n\nupon which his boyhood must enter and in which his manhood must\nreign.\n\nI have spoken thus of the subjects which to-day assume prominence in our primary schools. If we inquire with thoughtful minds,\nwe shall recognize the change, not only in the subjects introduced\nbut also in the manner in which these subjects are presented. The\nmost vital changes, to my mind, are seen in the method of presenting\nreading, language, and nature study. The language lesson no longer\ndeals primarily with the form of expression. We are recognizing\nthe truth that the thought determines the expression, and are making thought-getting the business of our primary language teaching.\nInstead of dwelling upon words spelled alike but having different\nmeanings, rules for the use of capital letters, the place of the apostrophe and terms by which the mature grammatical thought can be\nwhittled down to the comprehension of the child, we have come to\nrecognize that the great thing which determines expression is the\npossession of a thought which demands to be spoken. We have set\nout by providing such exercises for language as will lead the child\nto observe, to imagine, to think, and so to come to the real knowledge\nwhich clamors for expression. Again, we are subordinating the form\nto the spirit, and are working to obtain the thing first, knowing that\nits symbol will be surely associated with it. Hence, in our language\nclasses, instead of the formal mechanical exercise which has been\n\npredominant, we find the description of a flower, or a tree, or an\nanimal which the children have observed, or the reproduction of\na story in which they have been heartily interested. The teacher's\nwise guidance sets the pattern right if the children err in formal\nexpression. They are given something to say and the desire to say\nit. This being true, the form is easily adjusted and fixed.\nIn the reading lesson, also, we recognize the subordination of\nform to thought of the letter to the spirit. Hugh Miller, in his\n\"Schools and Schoolmasters,\" tells us how laboriously and painfully\nhe toiled in memorizing letters, sounds, and syllables; and, later,\nthe words which his faithful teacher taught him in order.\n\nHow the\n\ncatechism and proverbs followed, equally meaningless to the child;\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\n283\n\nPRIMARY SCHOOL WORK.\n\nand how, at last, there fell into his hands the story of Joseph, with\nhis little coat of many colors, and with it the sudden assurance that\nall his meaningless toil had been intended as a preparation for this\ngreat end-that he might know how to read stories like this. He\nset himself down with his new treasure, and read it again and again.\nHis mind was illumined by the recognition of the goal toward which\nhe had been blindly tending.\nWhat joy would have inspired the drudgery of letter and sound\nhad this goal been in view from the beginning ! In the primary\nreading of to-day this truth is recognized. Reading is considered as\nthought-getting, and the child is set from the beginning to read his\nown thoughts which have been expressed in writing for him. He\nrecognizes at once the need of this wonderful hieroglyph. Here is\na means of telling somebody something which he desires to impart\nand of getting something which he is interested to learn. Reading\nand writing at once become to him vehicles of getting and for giv-\n\ning the thought which he is desirous to get and to give. No word\nis taught except as the means of embodying an idea which is his\nown. All dead and meaningless drill upon words vanishes with\nthe recognition of this principle. Words exist for the expression of\nhis thought, and for that alone.\nIn nature study we find this same emphasis of the reality-the\nsame expression of the child's own experience.\n\nIt is the animal\n\nwhich he has seen with his own eyes which he describes, and not\nthe one about which his teacher reads to him.\n\nThe dove which\n\nbecomes the schoolroom pet is fed and watered ; its movements,\nits habits, and its needs are observed by the child himself.\n\nThe\n\ntree which grows in the school-yard; which unfolds its marvelous\nbuds in the spring; blossoms with its wealth of beauty; bears fruit\nand sheds its leaves within the cycle of the child's own experiencethis is the tree which is observed, and described, and made to stand\nas a type of the other trees which other children know in other lands.\n\nChildren and teacher walk into the fields together, and study and\nenjoy brook and field, flower and tree, fish and bird; sharing in one\nanother's experiences, finding for themselves the lesson which every\nform of life brings home to them. The record of their voyage of\ndiscovery is real to them, and prepares the way for understanding\nthe travels of earlier explorers. Their own fields, and brooks, and\n\nwoods open the way to the selvas of the Amazon, the broad plains\nof the Mississippi, or the historic banks of the Nile. We have been\nlearning to lead the child to open his eyes upon the marvels that\nlie close by him, and through these to help him to interpret the\ngreat world beyond. The form of others' experience is of no use to\nhim until his own little experiences have given him power to understand and interpret the distant and unknown.\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "284\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nReading, language, nature study, literature, and history, as taught\nin our best primary schools to-day, indicate a more general com-\n\nprehension of the principle that growth proceeds from within\nthrough the activity of the child himself, that the child's thought is\n\nthe mighty factor which determines his expression, and that his\nown experience gives life to the symbols and forms which otherwise\n\nare dead. By a thousand illustrations I might prove to you, that,\neven in our poorer schoolrooms, at the hands of the teachers least\nqualified for their work, this principle is gaining ground. We are\nseeking first the real experience of the child, knowing that the form\nwill be added.\n\nThe enumeration of the new work which has been admitted and\n\nthe new methods which have been applied would be incomplete\nwithout mention of the growing recognition of the need of unity in\nschool work. This subordination of the form to the thought, of the\nsymbol to the thing signified, indicates an apprehension of the true\nprinciple of correlation, which is being so ardently discussed in these\ndays.\n\nThe child observes a bird; thus enlarging his field of knowl-\n\nedge, getting new thought through his experience of new life. He\nturns to reading to add to the knowledge which is so sadly limited\nif he depends upon himself alone. Books can tell him what he de\nsires to learn about birds, and his reading lesson is immediately\nassociated with his seeing.\n\nNow he desires to tell what he has\n\nlearned, and his language lesson is a letter imparting his new knowledge. The words which he learns to spell are the words which his\n\nwriting necessitates.\n\nHis word-picture is explained by the draw-\n\ning of the characteristics which he has noted. The story or poem\nsuggested by his study leads his imagination to the higher thought\nof the poet or historian. His work becomes, not a learning of many\nthings but the many ways of gaining and expressing knowledge\nabout this one thing. The recognition of this one purpose of thoughtgetting and of thought-giving groups the studies about the dominant\nthought, and brings unity out of the isolated fragments which would\nremain upon our program without such recognition. However the\n\ntheory of concentration may be exaggerated and misapplied, it con\ntains within itself a life-germ which must survive the truth that\nall things work together for good; that all things are the expression\nof eternal law.\n\nIn any work of reformation or reconstruction, the pendulum tends\nto swing to extremes. With the introduction of new subjects and\nthe apprehension of truer methods, we find, also, a general tendency\nto withdraw the necessary emphasis from subjects and methods\nwhich have before been taught. I would not have this paper tend in\nthat direction, or the three R's taught less carefully than before.\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nPRIMARY SCHOOL WORK.\n\n285\n\nRather let me declare, what I have found to be absolutely true,\nthat the recognition of the principles of which I have been speaking\nleads to better work in the detail of reading, writing, spelling, and\narithmetic. Children acquire power in these subjects more easily,\nmore rapidly, and more gladly because they are conscious that every\nlesson helps them towards the goal which they desire to reach.\nThey delight in the word study which helps them to master the\nstory which is dear to their hearts or to write the letter which tells\n\nof the experiences in which they are interested. In my observation\nI have found that teachers present the three R's more intelligently\nand with better results in proportion as they apprehend more clearly\nthe fundamental principles which we have been discussing. Is it\nnot always true that our work is distorted and weak when we see\n\nonly the immediate and present instead of looking at the farther\nand future results to which the present must contribute ?\nI should be unfair to our schools should I fail to mark what\n\nseems to me the greatest sign of growth-were I to leave unnoted\nthe change in the spirit of our teaching. This change is well-nigh\nuniversal. The harsh tone, the arbitrary dictation, the authoritative\nmanner have almost entirely disappeared from our schoolrooms.\nTeachers enter in fullest sympathy into the lives of the children;\nwork for them; live with them; share their interests ; study to understand their needs. Whatever may be the faults of our method\nand technique, the spirit of our primary school rooms deserves our\nheartiest commendation. In itself it may encourage us to believe\nthat the other elements to intellectual experience which we desire so\nearnestly may be added to our work since this great factor has been\nobtained.\n\nGreater than any other advance in our school work is\n\nthis full entrance into the lives and experiences of the children, and\nthis expression of loving desire to help them towards their highest\ndevelopment.\nIf we look for the cause of the improvement which I have indi-\n\ncated, we shall find that all may be referred to this recognition of\nthe development of character as the highest aim of education. We\nhave come to believe that the school must take hold of hands with\n\nthe church, with the state, and with the home in helping the child\nto fit himself for a life worth living.\n\nOne outcome of this belief\n\nhas been the more general study of child-life. This is not confined\nto the careful philosophic researches of the leaders in our profession,\nbut it is evidenced by the sympathetic painstaking study of the individual child by the teacher, who labors week after week and month\nafter month for his highest good. The development of the kindergarten and the general study of its principles have helped in a\ngreat measure to further this result. We cannot claim that our\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "286\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nideals are new or that our principles are new. We know that the\ntruths for which we contend most stoutly to-day were spoken by\nclarion voices centuries ago; but our work remains to apply these\ntruths to the conditions and the children of to-day.\n\nWhile the\n\ntruths, in themselves, are old, their application must ever be new.\nIt is true, that, to-day, we find a more general apprehension of these\nprinciples than at any other time in the history of education. It is\nnot alone the philosopher who studies to throw light upon our work ;\nthe humblest teacher in a country schoolroom shares with him his\n\nconsecration, and in her measure is growing towards the apprehension of the principles which should guide her work. We strive,\nand pant, and yearn for the same goal.\n\nAs we look back upon the history of education, we find that the\ngreatest advance has come through the recognition of some mighty\ntruth, and not through the discussion of the closer and immediate\ndetails. The growth of education after the Reformation is an evidence of this. \"The child must be taught to read,\" the reformers argued, \"that he might get the knowledge necessary for his soul's salvation.\" What efforts were at once made to present truth in a newer\nand better way to the child. We have been told, that, if we seek\nfirst the kingdom of God and his righteousness, all other things\nshall be added unto us. We may be assured, however we may halt\nand falter in our efforts to climb, that the recognition of our noble\n\naim will, in the end, lead us to an apprehension of every detail that\ncan help us toward this end. But the growth in the detail of teaching will not come unless we hitch our wagon to a star. If our mind\nis fixed on the truth, the intellect will grow. Method and knowledge\nof subject and the detail of school management and instruction will\nshape themselves in accordance with the dominating purpose of our\nlife-work; and I confidently assert that the most hopeful sign to\nbe read in our primary work is this general lifting of the ideal. We\nmay well wait with an infinite patience for the lesser growth to be\nadded unto us.\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n287\n\nREPORT OF THE SUB- COMMITTEE ON THE CORRELATION\nOF STUDIES IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION.\n\nBY WM. T. HARRIS, CHAIRMAN,\n\nThe undersigned committee agrees upon the following report,\neach member reserving for himself the expression of his individual\ndivergence from the opinion of the majority, by a statement appended to his signature, enumerating the points to which exception is\ntaken and the grounds for them.\nI.-CORRELATION\n\nOF\n\nSTUDIES.\n\nYour committee understands by correlation of study :\n1. Logical Order of Topics and Branches. -First, the arrangement\nof topics in proper sequence in the course of study, in such a manner that each branch develops in an order suited to the natural\n\nand easy progress of the child, and so that each step is taken at the\nproper time to help his advance to the next step in the same branch,\nor to the next steps in other related branches of the course of study.\n2. Symmetrical Whole of Studies in the World of Human Learning.Second, the adjustment of the branches of study in such a manner\nthat the whole course at any given time represents all the great\ndivisions of human learning, as far as is possible at the stage of\nmaturity at which the pupil has arrived, and that each allied group\nof studies is represented by some one of its branches best adapted\nfor the epoch in question; it being implied that there is an equivalence of studies to a greater or less degree within each group,\nand that each branch of human learning should be represented\n\nby some equivalent study; so that, while no great division is\nleft unrepresented, no group shall have superfluous representatives\nand thereby debar other groups from a proper representation.\n3. Psychological Symmetry-The Whole Mind.-Third, the selection\nand arrangement of the branches and topics within each branch\nconsidered psychologically with a view to afford the best exercise\nof the faculties of the mind, and to secure the unfolding of those\nfaculties in their natural order, so that no one faculty is so overcultivated or so neglected as to produce abnormal or one-sided mental development.\n\n4. Correlation of the Pupil's Course of Study with the World in\nWhich He Lives-His Spiritual and Natural Environment.-Fourth, and\n\nchiefly, your committee understands by correlation of studies the\nselection and arrangement in orderly sequence of such objects of\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "288\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nstudy as shall give the child an insight into the world that he lives\nin, and a command over its resources such as is obtained by a helpful co- operation with one's fellows. In a word, the chief consideration to which all others are to be subordinated, in the opinion of your\ncommittee, is this requirement of the civilization into which the child\nis born, as determining, not only what he shall study in school but\nwhat habits and customs he shall be taught in the family before the\nschool age arrives ; as well as that he shall acquire a skilled acquaintance with some one of a definite series of trades, professions,\nor vocations in the years that follow school ; and, furthermore, that\n\nthis question of the relation of the pupil to his civilization determines\nwhat political duties he shall assume and what religious faith or\n\nspiritual aspirations shall be adopted for the conduct of his life.\nTo make more clear their reasons for the preference here expressed for the objective and practical basis of selection of topics\nfor the course of study, rather than the subjective basis so long favored by educational writers, your committee would describe the\n\npsychological basis, already mentioned, as being merely formal in\nits character, relating only to the exercise of the so-called mental\nfaculties .\n\nIt would furnish a training of spiritual powers analogous to the\ngymnastic training of the muscles of the body. Gymnastics may\ndevelop strength and agility without leading to any skill in trades\nor useful employment. So an abstract psychological training may\ndevelop the will, the intellect, the imagination, or the memory, but\nwithout leading to an exercise of acquired power in the interests of\ncivilization. The game of chess would furnish a good course of\nstudy for the discipline of the powers of attention and calculation\nof abstract combinations, but it would give its possessor little or no\nknowledge of man or nature. The psychological ideal which has\nprevailed to a large extent in education has, in the old phrenology\nand in the recent studies in physiological psychology, sometimes\ngiven place to a biological ideal. Instead of the view of mind as\nmade up of faculties, like will, intellect, imagination, and emotion,\nconceived to be all necessary to the soul if developed in harmony\nwith one another, the concept of nerves or brain-tracts is used as\nthe ultimate regulative principle to determine the selection and arrangement of studies. Each part of the brain is supposed to have\nits claim on the attention of the educator, and that study is thought\nto be the most valuable which employs normally the largest number\nof brain-tracts.\n\nThis view reaches an extreme in the direction of\n\nformal as opposed to objective or practical grounds for selecting a\ncourse of study. While the old psychology with its mental faculties concentrated its attention on the mental processes and neg\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n289\n\nlected the world of existing objects and relations upon which those\n\nprocesses were directed, physiological psychology tends to confine\nits attention to the physical part of the process-the organic\nchanges in the brain cells and their functions.\n\nYour committee is of the opinion that psychology of both kinds,\nphysiological and introspective, can hold only a subordinate place\nin the settlement of questions relating to the correlation of studies.\nThe branches to be studied, and the extent to which they are\n\nstudied, will be determined mainly by the demands of one's civilization. These will prescribe what is most useful to make the individual acquainted with physical nature and with human nature, so as\nto fit him as an individual to perform his duties in the several insti-\n\ntutions-family, civil society, the state, and the church. But next\nafter this, psychology will furnish important considerations that\nwill largely determine the methods of instruction, the order of taking up the several topics so as to adapt the school work to the\ngrowth of the pupil's capacity, and the amount of work so as not to\novertax his powers by too much or arrest the development of\nstrength by too little. A vast number of subordinate details belonging to the pathology of education, such as the hygienic features\nof school architecture and furniture, programs, the length of study\nhours and of class exercises, recreation, and bodily reactions against\nmental effort, will be finally settled by scientific experiment in the\ndepartment of physiological psychology.\nInasmuch as your committee is limited to the consideration of\n\nthe correlation of studies in the elementary school, it has considered the question of the course of study in general only in so far as\nthis has been found necessary in discussing the grounds for the selection of studies for the period of school education occupying the\neight years from six to fourteen years, or the school period between\nthe kindergarten on the one hand and the secondary school on the\nother. It has not been possible to avoid some inquiry into the true\ndistinction between secondary and elementary studies, since one of\nthe most important questions forced upon the attention of your\ncommittee is that of the abridgment of the elementary course of\nstudy from eight or more years to seven or even six years, and the\ncorresponding increase of the time devoted to studies usually assigned to the high school and supposed to belong to the secondary\ncourse of study for some intrinsic reason.\nII.-THE COURSE OF STUDY- EDUCATIONAL VALUES .\n\nYour committee would report, that it has discussed in detail\nthe several branches of study that have found a place in the curriculum of the elementary school, with a view to discover their edu\n19\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "290\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\ncational value for developing and training the faculties of the mind,\nand more especially for correlating the pupil with his spiritual and\nnatural environment in the world in which he lives.\n\n1. Language Studies. - There is first to be noted the prominent\n\nplace of language study that takes the form of reading, penmanship,\nand grammar in the first eight years' work of the school. It is\n\nclaimed for the partiality shown to these studies, that it is justified\nby the fact that language is the instrument that makes possible\nhuman social organization. It enables each person to communicate\nhis individual experience to his fellows, and thus permits each to\nprofit by the experience of all. The written and printed forms\nof speech preserve human knowledge and make progress in civilization possible. The conclusion is reached that learning to read and\nwrite should be the leading study of the pupil in his first four years\nof school. Reading and writing are not so much ends in themselves\nas means for the acquirement of all other human learning. This\nconsideration alone would be sufficient to justify their actual place\nin the work of the elementary school. But these branches require\nof the learner a difficult process of analysis. The pupil must identify the separate words in the sentence he uses, and in the next\nplace must recognize the separate sounds in each word. It requires\na considerable effort for the child or the savage to analyze his sentence into its constituent words, and a still greater effort to discriminate its elementary sounds. Reading, writing, and spelling in\ntheir most elementary form, therefore, constitute a severe training\nin mental analysis for the child of six to ten years of age. We are\nfact that the word has a twofold character-addressed to external\n\nof observation of differences among material things, because of the\nfact that the word has a twofold character-addressed to external\n\nsense as spoken sound to the ear, or as written and printed words\nto the eye, but containing a meaning or sense addressed to the understanding and only to be seized by introspection. The pupil must\ncall up the corresponding idea by thought, memory, and imagination, or else the word will cease to be a word and remain only a\nsound or character.\n\nOn the other hand, observation of things and movements does\nnot necessarily involve this twofold act of analysis, introspective\nand objective, but only the latter the objective analysis. It is\ngranted that we all have frequent occasion to condemn poor methods of instruction as teaching words rather than things. But we\nadmit that we mean empty sounds or characters rather than true\nwords.\n\nOur suggestions for the correct method of teaching amount\n\nin this case simply to laying stress on the meaning of the word,\nand to setting the teaching process on the road of analysis of con-\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\ntent rather than form.\n\n291\n\nIn the case of words used to store up ex-\n\nternal observation the teacher is told to repeat and make alive again\n\nthe act of observation by which the word obtained its original\nmeaning. In the case of a word expressing a relation between facts\nor events, the pupil is to be taken step by step through the process\nof reflection by which the idea was built up. Since the word, spoken\nand written, is the sole instrument by which reason can fix, preserve, and communicate both the data of sense and the relations\n\ndiscovered between them by reflection, no new method in education\nhas been able to supplant in the school the branches, reading and\npenmanship. But the real improvements in method have led teachers to lay greater and greater stress on the internal factor of the\n\nword, on its meaning, and have in manifold ways shown how to repeat the original experiences that gave the meaning to concrete\nwords, and the original comparisons and logical deductions by which\nthe ideas of relations and causal processes arose in the mind and\nacquired abstract words to preserve and communicate them.\nIt has been claimed that it would be better to have first a basis\n\nof knowledge of things, and secondarily and subsequently a knowledge of words. But it has been replied to this, that the progress\nof the child in learning to talk indicates his ascent out of mere impressions into the possession of true knowledge. For he names\nobjects only after he has made some synthesis of his impressions\nand has formed general ideas. He recognizes the same object under different circumstances of time and place, and also recognizes\nother objects belonging to the same class by and with names.\nHence the use of the word indicates a higher degree of self-activity\n-the stage of mere impressions without words or signs being a\ncomparatively passive state of mind. What we mean by things\nfirst and words afterward, is, therefore, not the apprehension of\nobjects by passive impressions so much as the active investigation\nand experimenting which come after words are used and the higher\nforms of analysis are called into being by that invention of reason\nknown as language, which, as before said, is a synthesis of thing and\nthought, of outward sign and inward signification.\nRational investigation cannot precede the invention of language\nany more than blacksmithing can precede the invention of hammers, anvils, and pincers. For language is the necessary tool of\nthought used in the conduct of the analysis and synthesis of investigation.\nYour committee would sum up these considerations by saying\nthat language rightfully forms the center of instruction in the elementary school, but that progress in methods of teaching is to be\nmade, as hitherto, chiefly by laying more stress on the internal side\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "292\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nof the word, its meaning; using better graded steps to build up the\nchain of experience or the train of thought that the word expresses.\n\nThe first three years' work of the child is occupied mainly with\nthe mastery of the printed and written forms of the words of his\n\ncolloquial vocabulary ; words that he is already familiar enough\nwith as sounds addressed to the ear.\n\nHe has to become familiar\n\nwith the new forms addressed to the eye, and it would be an unwise method to require him to learn many new words at the same\ntime that he is learning to recognize his old words in their new\nshape. But as soon as he has acquired some facility in reading\n\nwhat is printed in the colloquial style, he may go on to selections\nfrom standard authors.\n\nThe literary selections should be graded,\n\nand are graded in almost all series of readers used in our elemen-\n\ntary schools, in such a way as to bring those containing the fewest\nwords outside of the colloquial vocabulary into the lower books of\n\nthe series, and increasing the difficulties step by step as the pupil\ngrows in maturity. The selections are literary works of art possessing the required organic unity and a proper reflection of this unity\nin the details, as good works of art must do. But they portray situations of the soul, or scenes of life, or elaborated reflections, of\nwhich the child can obtain some grasp through his capacity to feel\nand think, although in scope and compass they far surpass his\nrange. They are adapted therefore to lead him out of and beyond\nhimself, as spiritual guides.\nLiterary style employs, besides words common to the colloquial\nvocabulary, words used in a semi-technical sense expressive of fine\nshades of thought and emotion. The literary work of art furnishes\na happy expression for some situation of the soul, or some train\nof reflection hitherto unutterable in an adequate manner. If the\npupil learns this literary production, he finds himself powerfully\nhelped to understand both himself and his fellow-men. The most\npractical knowledge of all, it will be admitted, is a knowledge of\nhuman nature-a knowledge that enables one to combine with his\n\nfellow-men and to share with them the physical and spiritual wealth\nof the race. Of this high character as humanizing or civilizing are\nthe favorite works of literature found in the school readers, about\n\n150 English and American writers being drawn upon for the material. Such as Shakespeare's speeches of Brutus and Mark Antony,\nHamlet's and Macbeth's soliloquies, Milton's \"L'Allegro\" and \"Il\nPenseroso,\" Gray's \"Elegy,\" Tennyson's \"Charge of the Light Bri-\n\ngade\" and \"Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington,\" Byron's\n\"Waterloo,\" Irving's \"Rip Van Winkle,\" Webster's \"Reply to\nHayne,\" \" The Trial of Knapp,\" and \"Bunker Hill Oration,\" Scott's\n\"Lochinvar,\" \"Marmion,\" and \"Roderick Dhu,\" Bryant's \"Thana\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n293\n\ntopis,\" Longfellow's \"Psalm of Life,\" \"Paul Revere,\" and \" The\nBridge, \" O'Hara's \" Bivouac of the Dead,\" Campbell's \"Hohenlin-\n\nden,\" Collins' \"How Sleep the Brave,\" Wolfe's \"Burial of Sir John\nMoore,\" and other fine prose and poetry from Addison, Emerson,\nFranklin, the Bible, Hawthorne, Walter Scott, Goldsmith, Wordsworth, Swift, Milton, Cooper, Whittier, Lowell, and the rest. The\nreading and study of fine selections in prose and verse furnish the\nchief æsthetic training of the elementary school. But this should\nbe re-enforced by some study of photographic or other reproductions\nof the world's great masterpieces of architecture, sculpture, and\npainting. The frequent sight of these reproductions is good; the\nattempt to copy or sketch them with the pencil is better; best of\nall is an æsthetic lesson on their composition, attempting to describe in words the idea of the whole that gives the work its organic\nunity, and the devices adopted by the artist to reflect this idea in the\ndetails and re-enforce its strength. The æsthetic taste of teacher\nand pupil can be cultivated by such exercises, and once set on the\nroad of development this taste may improve through life.\nA third phase of language study in the elementary school is formal\ngrammar. The works of literary art in the readers, re-enforced\nas they ought to be by supplementary reading at home of the whole\nworks from which the selections for the school readers are made,\nwill educate the child in the use of a higher and better English style.\n\nTechnical grammar never can do this. Only familiarity with fine\nEnglish works will insure one a good and correct style. But grammar is the science of language, and as the first of the seven liberal\narts it has long held sway in school as the disciplinary study par\nexcellence. A survey of its educational value, subjective and objective, usually produces the conviction that it is to retain the first\nplace in the future. Its chief objective advantage is, that it shows\nthe structure of language and the logical forms of subject, predicate,\nand modifier, thus revealing the essential nature of thought itselfthe most important of all objects because it is self-object. On the\nsubjective or psychological side, grammar demonstrates its title to\nthe first place by its use as a discipline in subtle analysis, in logical\ndivision and classification, in the art of questioning, and in the mental accomplishment of making exact definitions. Nor is this an\nempty, formal discipline ; for its subject-matter, language, is a product of the reason of a people, not as individuals but as a social whole,\n\nand the vocabulary holds in its store of words the generalized experience of that people, including sensuous observation and reflection, feeling and emotion, instinct and volition.\nNo formal labor on a great objective field is ever lost wholly,\n\nsince, at the very least, it has the merit of familiarizing the pupil\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "294\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nwith the contents of some one extensive province that borders on his\nlife and with which he must come into correlation; but it is easy for\n\nany special formal discipline, when continued too long, to paralyze\nor arrest growth at that stage. The over-cultivation of the verbal\nmemory tends to arrest the growth of critical attention and reflection. Memory of accessory details, too, so much prized in the school,\nis also cultivated often at the expense of an insight into the organizing principle of the whole and the causal nexus that binds the parts.\nSo, too, the study of quantity, if carried to excess, may warp the\nmind into a habit of neglecting quality in its observation and reflection. As there is no subsumption in the quantitative judgment but\nonly dead equality or inequality (A is equal to or greater or less than\nB), there is a tendency to atrophy in the faculty of concrete syllogistic reasoning on the part of the person devoted exclusively to\nmathematics . For the normal syllogism use judgments wherein the\nsubject is subsumed under the predicate (This is a rose the individual rose is subsumed under the class rose ; Socrates is a man,\netc.). Such reasoning concerns individuals in two aspects ; first,\nas concrete wholes ; and, secondly, as members of higher totalities\nor classes-species and genera. Thus, too, grammar, rich as it is\nin its contents, is only a formal discipline as respects the scientific,\nhistoric, or literary contents of language, and is indifferent to them.\nA training for four or five years in parsing and grammatical analysis, practiced on literary works of art (Milton, Shakespeare, Tennyson, Scott), is a training of the pupil into habits of indifference\ntoward and neglect of the genius displayed in the literary work of\nart and into habits of impertinent and trifling attention to elements\n\nemployed as material or texture, and a corresponding neglect of the\nstructural form which alone is the work of the artist. A parallel to\nthis would be the mason's habit of noticing only the brick and mortar, or the stone and cement, in his inspection of the architecturesay, of Sir Christopher Wren. A child overtrained to analyze and\nclassify shades of color (examples of this one finds occasionally in a\nprimary school whose specialty is \"objective teaching\") might in\nlater life visit an art gallery and make an inventory of colors without\ngetting even a glimpse of a painting as a work of art. Such overstudy and misuse of grammar as one finds in the elementary school,\nit is feared, exists to some extent in secondary schools and even in\ncolleges, in the work of mastering the classic authors.\nYour committee is unanimous in the conviction that formal gram-\n\nmar should not be allowed to usurp the place of a study of the literary work of art in accordance with literary method. The child can\nbe gradually trained to see the technical \"motives\" of a poem or\nprose work of art and to enjoy the æsthetic inventions of the artist.\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n295\n\nThe analysis of a work of art should discover the idea that gives it\norganic unity ; the collision and the complication resulting ; the solution and denouement. Of course, these things must be reached\nin the elementary school without even a mention of their technical\nterms. The subject of the piece is brought out ; its reflection in the\n\nconditions of the time and place to heighten interest by showing its\nimportance ; its second and stronger reflection in the several details\n\nof its conflict and struggle; its reflection in the denouement, wherein\nits struggle ends in victory or defeat and the ethical or rational\ninterests are vindicated, and the results move outward, returning\nto the environment again in ever-widening circles. Something re-\n\nsembling this is to be found in every work of art, and there are\nsalient features which can be briefly but profitably made subject\n\nof comment in familiar language with even the youngest pupils.\nThere is an ethical and an æsthetical content to each work of art.\n\nIt is profitable to point out both of these in the interest of the child's\ngrowing insight into human nature. The ethical should, however,\nbe kept in subordination to the æsthetical, but for the sake of the\nsupreme interests of the ethical itself. Otherwise the study of a\nwork of art degenerates into a goody-goody performance, and its\neffects on the child are to cause a reaction against the moral. The\nchild protects his inner individuality against effacement through\nexternal authority by taking an attitude of rebellion against stories\nwith an appended moral. Herein the superiority of the æsthetical\nin literary art is to be seen. For the ethical motive is concealed\nby the poet, and the hero is painted with all his brittle individualism\n\nand self-seeking. His passions and his selfishness, gilded by fine\ntraits of bravery and noble manners, interest the youth-interest us\nall.\n\nThe established social and moral order seems to the ambitious\n\nhero to be an obstacle to the unfo'ding of the charms of individuality.\nThe deed of violence gets done, and the Nemesis is aroused. Now\nhis deed comes back on the individual doer, and our sympathy turns\nagainst him and we rejoice in his fall. Thus, the æsthetical unity\ncontains within it the ethical unity. The lesson of the great poet\nor novelist is taken to heart, whereas the ethical announcement by\nitself might have failed, especially with the most self-active and aspiring of the pupils. Aristotle pointed out in his \"Poetics\" this advantage of the æsthetic unity, which Plato in his \"Republic\" seems\nto have missed. Tragedy purges us of our passions (to use Aristotle's expression) because we identify our own wrong inclinations\nwith those of the hero, and by sympathy we suffer with him and see\nour intended deed returned upon us with tragic effect, and are thereby cured.\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "296\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nYour committee has dwelt upon the æsthetic side of literature\nin this explicit manner because they believe that the general tend-\n\nency in elementary schools is to neglect the literary art for the literary formalities which concern the mechanical material rather than\n\nthe spiritual form. Those formal studies should not be discontinued,\nbut subordinated to the higher study of literature.\nYour committee reserves the subject of language lessons, composition writing, and what relates to the child's expression of ideas\nin writing, for consideration under part 3 of this report, treating of\nprogram.\n\n2. Arithmetic.- Side by side with language study is the study\nof mathematics in the schools, claiming the second place in importance of all studies. It has been pointed out that mathematics concerns the laws of time and space, their structural form, so to speak,\n-and hence that it formulates the logical conditions of all matter\nboth in rest and in motion. Be this as it may, the high position of\nmathematics as the science of all quantity is universally acknowledged. The elementary branch of mathematics is arithmetic, and\nthis is studied in the primary and grammar schools from six to eight\nyears, or even longer. The relation of arithmetic to the whole field\nof mathematics has been stated (by Comte, Howison, and others) to\nbe that of a final step in a process of calculation in which results are\nstated numerically. There are branches that develop or derive quantitative functions : say, geometry for spatial forms, and mechanics\nfor movement and rest and the forces producing them. Other\nbranches transform these quantitative functions into such forms as\nmay be calculated in actual numbers ; namely, algebra in its common or lower form, and in its higher form as the differential and\nintegral calculus, and the calculus of variations. Arithmetic evaluates or finds the numerical value for the functions thus deduced and\n\ntransformed. The educational value of arithmetic is thus indicated,\nboth as concerns its psychological side and its objective practical\nuses, in correlating man with the world of nature. In this latter\nrespect, as furnishing the key to the outer world in so far as the\nobjects of the latter are a matter of direct enumeration,-capable of\n\nbeing counted, it is the first great step in the conquest of nature.\nIt is the first tool of thought that man invents in the work of eman-\n\ncipating himself from thraldom to external forces. For, by the command of number, he learns to divide and conquer. He can proportion\none force to another, and concentrate against an obstacle precisely\n\nwhat is needed to overcome it. Number also makes possible all the\nother sciences of nature which depend on exact measurement and\nexact record of phenomena as to the following items : Order of suc-\n\ncession, date, duration, locality, environment, extent of sphere of in\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n297\n\nfluence, number of manifestations, number of cases of intermittence.\nAll these can be defined accurately only by means of number. The\neducational value of a branch of study that furnishes the indispensable first step toward all science of nature is obvious. But, psychologically, its importance further appears in this, that it begins with\nan important step in analysis, namely, the detachment of the idea\nof quantity from the concrete whole which includes quality as well\nas quantity. To count, one drops the qualitative and considers only\nthe quantitative aspect. So long as the individual differences (which\nare qualitative in so far as they distinguish one object from another)\nare considered, the objects cannot be counted together. When counted, the distinctions are dropped out of sight as indifferent. As counting is the fundamental operation of arithmetic, and all other arith-\n\nmetical operations are simply devices for speed by using remembered\ncountings instead of going through the detailed work again each\ntime, the hint is furnished the teacher for the first lessons in arithmetic. This hint has been generally followed out and the child set\n\nat work at first upon the counting of objects so much alike that the\nqualitative difference is not suggested to him. He constructs gradually his tables of addition, subtraction, and multiplication, and fixes\nthem in his memory. Then he takes his next higher step, namely,\nthe apprehension of the fraction. This is an expressed ratio of two\nnumbers, and therefore a much more complex thought than he\nhas met with in dealing with the simple numbers. In thinking fivesixths he first thinks five and then six, and holding these two in mind\nthinks the result of the first modified by the second. Here are three\nsteps instead of one, and the result is not a simple number but an inference resting on an unperformed operation. This psychological\nanalysis shows the reason for the embarrassment of the child on\nhis entrance upon the study of fractions and the other operations\nthat imply ratio. The teacher finds all his resources in the way of\nmethod drawn upon to invent steps and half steps, to aid the pupil\nto make continuous progress here. All these devices of method consist in steps by which the pupil descends to the simple number and\nreturns to the complex. He turns one of the terms into a qualitative\n\nunit and thus is enabled to use the other as a simple number. The\npupil takes the denominator, for example, and makes clear his conception of one-sixth as his qualitative unit; then five-sixths is as\nclear to him as five oxen. But he has to repeat this return from\n\nratio to simple numbers in each of the elementary operations-addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, and in the reduction\nof fractions\n\nand finds the road long and tedious at best.\n\nIn the\n\ncase of decimal fractions the psychological process is more complex\n\nstill; for the pupil has given him one of the terms, the numerator,\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "298\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nfrom which he must mentally deduce the denominator from the position of the decimal point. This doubles the work of reading and\nrecognizing the fractional number. But it makes addition and subtraction of fractions nearly as easy as that of simple numbers, and\nassists also in multiplication of fractions. But division of decimals\nis a much more complex operation than that of common fractions.\nThe want of a psychological analysis of these processes has led\nmany good teachers to attempt decimal fractions with their pupils\nbefore taking up common fractions. In the end they have been\nforced to make introductory steps to aid the pupil, and in these steps\nto introduce the theory of the common fraction. They have by this\nrefuted their own theory.\n\nBesides (a) simple numbers and the four operations with them,\n(b) fractions, common and decimal, there is (c) a third step in number, namely, the theory of powers and roots. It is a further step in\nratio, namely, the relation of a simple number to itself as power\nand root.\n\nThe mass of material which fills the arithmetic used in the\n\nelementary school consists of two kinds of examples, first, those\nwherein there is a direct application of single numbers, fractions, and\n\npowers; and, secondly, the class of examples involving operations in\nreaching numerical solutions through indirect data and consequently\ninvolving more or less transformation of functions.\n\nOf this char-\n\nacter is most of the so-called higher arithmetic and such problems\n\nin the text-book used in the elementary schools as have, not inappropriately, been called (by Gen. Francis A. Walker, in his criticism\non common-school arithmetic) numerical \"conundrums.\" Their difficulty is not found in the strictly arithmetical part of the process\nof the solution (the third phase above described), but rather in the\ntransformation of the quantitative function given into the function\n\nthat can readily be calculated numerically. The transformation of\nfunctions belongs strictly to algebra. Teachers who love arithmetic,\nand who have themselves success in working out the so-called numerical conundrums, defend with much earnestness the current prac-\n\ntice which uses so much time for arithmetic. They see in it a valuable training for ingenuity and logical analysis, and believe that the\nindustry which discovers arithmetical ways of transforming the funetions given in such problems into plain numerical operations of\n\nadding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing is well bestowed.\n\nOn\n\nthe other hand, the critics of this practice contend that there should\nbe no merely formal drill in school for its own sake, and that there\nshould be, always, a substantial content to be gained. They contend that the work of the pupil in transforming quantitative functions by arithmetical methods is wasted, because the pupil needs a\nmore adequate expression than number for this purpose; that this\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n299\n\nhas been discovered in algebra, which enables him to perform with\nease such quantitative transformations as puzzle the pupil in arithmetic. They hold, therefore, that arithmetic pure and simple should\nbe abridged and elementary algebra introduced after the numerical\noperations in powers, fractions, and simple numbers have been mastered, together with their applications to the tables of weights and\nmeasures and to percentage and interest. In the seventh year of\nthe elementary course there would be taught equations of the first\ndegree and the solution of arithmetical problems that fall under proportion or the so-called \"rule of three,\" together with other problems\ncontaining complicated conditions-those in partnership, for example.\nIn the eighth year quadratic equations could be learned, and other\nproblems of higher arithmetic solved in a more satisfactory manner\nthan by numerical methods. It is contended that this earlier introduction of algebra, with a sparing use of letters for known quantities,\nwould secure far more mathematical progress than is obtained at\npresent on the part of all pupils, and that it would enable many pupils to go on into secondary and higher education who are now kept\nback on the plea of lack of preparation in arithmetic; the real difficulty in many cases being a lack of ability to solve algebraic problems\nby an inferior method.\nYour committee would report that the practice of teaching two\nlessons daily in arithmetic, one styled \"mental\" or \"intellectual\" and\nthe other \"written\" arithmetic (because its exercises are written out\nwith pencil or pen) is still continued in many schools. By this device the pupil is made to give twice as much time to arithmetic as\nto any other branch. It is contended by the opponents of this practice, with some show of reason, that two lessons a day in the study\nof quantity have a tendency to give the mind a bent or set in the direction of thinking quantitatively, with a corresponding neglect of\nthe power to observe and to reflect upon qualitative and causal\naspects ; for mathematics does not take account of causes, but only\nof equality and difference in magnitude. It is further objected, that\nthe attempt to secure what is called thoroughness in the branches\ntaught in the elementary schools is often carried too far ; in fact, to\nsuch an extent as to produce arrested development (a sort of mental\nparalysis) in the mechanical and formal stages of growth. The mind\nin that case loses its appetite for higher methods and wider general-\n\nizations. The law of apperception, we are told, proves that temporary methods of solving problems should not be so thoroughly mastered as to be used involuntarily or as a matter of unconscious habit,\nfor the reason that a higher and a more adequate method of solution\nwill then be found more difficult to acquire. The more thoroughly a\nmethod is learned, the more it becomes part of the mind and the\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "300\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\ngreater the repugnance of the mind toward a new method.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nFor this\n\nreason parents and teachers discourage young children from the\npractice of counting on the fingers, believing that it will cause much\ntrouble later to root out this vicious habit and replace it by purely\nmental processes. Teachers should be careful, especially with precocious children, not to continue too long in the use of a process\nthat is becoming mechanical; for it is already growing into a second\nnature and becoming a part of the unconscious apperceptive process\nby which the mind reacts against the environment, recognizes its\npresence, and explains it to itself. The child that has been overtrained in arithmetic reacts apperceptively against his environment\nchiefly by noticing its numerical relations-he counts and adds; his\nother apperceptive reactions being feeble, he neglects qualities and\ncausal relations. Another child who has been drilled in recognizing\ncolors apperceives the shades of color to the neglect of all else. A\nthird child, excessively trained in form studies by the constant use\nof geometric solids and much practice in looking for the fundamental\ngeometric forms lying at the basis of the multifarious objects that\nexist in the world, will, as a matter of course, apperceive geometric\nforms, ignoring the other phases of objects.\nIt is, certainly, an advance on immediate sense-perception to be\n\nable to separate or analyze the concrete, whole impression, and consider the quantity apart by itself. But if arrested mental growth\ntakes place here the result is deplorable. That such arrest may be\ncaused by too exclusive training in recognizing numerical relations\nis beyond a doubt.\n\nYour committee believes that, with the right methods and a wise\nuse of time in preparing the arithmetic lesson in and out of school,\nfive years are sufficient for the study of mere arithmetic-the five\nyears beginning with the second school year and ending with the\nclose of the sixth year ; and that the seventh and eighth years should\nbe given to the algebraic method of dealing with those problems that\ninvolve difficulties in the transformation of quantitative indirect\nfunctions into numerical or direct quantitative data.\nYour committee, however, does not wish to be understood as\nrecommending the transfer of algebra, as it is understood and taught\nin most secondary schools, to the seventh year or even to the eighth\nyear of the elementary school. The algebra course in the secondary\n\nschool, as taught to pupils in their fifteenth year of age, very properly\nbegins with severe exercises, with a view to discipline the pupil in\nanalyzing complex literate expressions at sight and to make him\nable to recognize at once the factors that are contained in such com-\n\nbinations of quantities. The proposed seventh-grade algebra must\nuse letters for the unknown quantities and retain the numerical form\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n301\n\nof the known quantities, using letters for these very rarely, except to\nexhibit the general form of solution, or what, if stated in words,\nbecomes a so-called \"rule\" in arithmetic. This species of algebra\nhas the character of an introduction or transitional step to algebra\nproper. The latter should be taught thoroughly in the secondary\n\nschool. Formerly it was a common practice to teach elementary\nalgebra of this sort in the preparatory schools and reserve for the\ncollege a study of algebra proper. But in this case there was often\na neglect of sufficient practice in factoring literate quantities, and as\na consequence the pupil suffered embarrassment in his more advanced mathematics-for example, in analytical geometry, the dif.\nferential calculus, and mechanics. The proposition of your committee is intended to remedy the two evils already named; first, to aid\nthe pupils in the elementary school to solve, by a higher method, the\nmore difficult problems that now find place in advanced arithmetic ;\nand, secondly, to prepare the pupil for a thorough course in pure\nalgebra in the secondary school.\nYour committee is of the opinion that the so-called mental arithmetic should be made to alternate with written arithmetic for two\n\nyears and that there should not be two daily lessons in this subject.\n3. Geography. -The leading branch of the seven liberal arts was\ngrammar, being the first of the Trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and\nlogic) . Arithmetic, however, led the second division, the Quadrivium\n(arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy). We have glanced at\nthe reasons for the place of grammar as leading the humane studies\nas well as for the place of arithmetic as leading the nature studies .\n\nFollowing arithmetic as the second study in importance among the\nbranches that correlate man to nature is geography. It is interesting to note that the old quadrivium of the Middle Ages included\ngeography, under the title of geometry, as the branch following\narithmetic in the enumeration ; the subject-matter of their so-called\n\"geometry\" being chiefly an abridgment of Pliny's geography, to\nwhich were added a few definitions of geometric forms, something\nlike the primary course in geometric solids in our elementary schools.\nSo long as there has been elementary education there has been something of geography included. The Greek education laid stress on\nteaching the second book of Homer, containing the \"Catalogue of\nthe Ships\" and a brief mention of the geography and history of all\nthe Greek tribes that took part in the Trojan War. History remains\nunseparated from geography and geometry in the Middle Ages.\nGeography has preserved this comprehensiveness of meaning as a\nbranch of the study in the elementary schools down to the present\nday. After arithmetic, which treats of the abstract or general conditions of material existence, comes geography with a practical study\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "302\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nof man's material habitat and its relations to him.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nIt is not a simple\n\nscience by itself, like botany, or geology, or astronomy, but a collection of sciences levied upon to describe the earth as the dwellingplace of man and to explain something of its more prominent features.\nAbout one-fourth of the material relates strictly to the geography ;\nabout one-half to the inhabitants, their manners, customs, institutions, industries, productions ; and the remaining one-fourth to items\ndrawn from the sciences of mineralogy, meteorology, botany, zoology,\n\nand astronomy. This predominance of the human feature, in a study\nostensibly relating to physical nature, your committee considers\nnecessary and entirely justifiable.\n\nThe child commences with what\n\nis nearest to his interests, and proceeds gradually toward what is\nremote and to be studied for its own sake. It is, therefore, a mistake to suppose that the first phase of geography presented to the\nchild should be the process of continent formation. He must begin\nwith the natural differences of climate and lands and waters and ob-\n\nstacles that separate peoples, and study the methods by which man\nstrives to equalize or overcome these differences by industry and commerce, to unite all places and all people, and make it possible for\neach to share in the productions of all. The industrial and commercial idea is therefore the first central idea in the study of geography\nin the elementary schools. It leads directly to the natural elements\nof difference in climate, soil, and productions, and, also, to those in\nrace, religion, political status, and occupations of the inhabitants,\nwith a view to explain the grounds and reasons for this counterprocess of civilization which struggles to overcome the differences.\nNext comes the deeper inquiry into the process of continent formation, the physical struggle between the process of upheaving or upbuilding of continents and that of their obliteration by air and\nwater; the explanation of the mountains, valleys, and plains, the\nislands, volcanic action, the winds, the rain-distribution. But the\nstudy of cities, their location, the purposes they serve as collecting,\nmanufacturing, and distributing centers, leads most directly to the\nimmediate purpose of geography in the elementary school. From\nthis beginning, and holding to it as a permanent interest, the inquiry\ninto causes and conditions proceeds concentrically to the sources of\nthe raw materials, the methods of their production, and the climatic,\ngeologic, and other reasons that explain their location and their\ngrowth .\n\nIn recent years, especially through the scientific study of physical\ngeography, the processes that go to the formation of climate, soil,\nand general configuration of land-masses have been accurately determined, and the methods of teaching so simplified that it is possible\nto lead out from the central idea mentioned to the physical explana\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n303\n\ntions of the elements of geographical difference quite early in the\ncourse of study. Setting out from the idea of the use made of the\nearth by civilization, the pupil in the fifth and sixth years of his\nschooling (at the age of eleven or twelve) may extend his inquiries\nquite profitably as far as the physical explanations of land-shapes and\nclimates. In the seventh and eighth year of school much more may\nbe done in this direction. But it is believed that the distinctly human\ninterest connected with geography in the first years of its study\n\nshould not yield to the purely scientific one of physical processes\nuntil the pupil has taken up the study of history.\n\nThe educational value of geography, as it is and has been in elementary schools, is obviously very great. It makes possible something like accuracy in the picturing of distant places and events, and\nremoves a large tract of mere superstition from the mind. In the\n\ndays of newspaper-reading one's stock of geographical information\nis in constant requisition. A war on the opposite side of the globe\nis followed with more interest in this year than a war near our own\nborders before the era of the telegraph. The general knowledge of\nthe locations and boundaries of nations, of their status in civilization\nand their natural advantages for contributing to the world-market,\nis of great use to the citizen in forming correct ideas from his daily\nreading.\n\nThe educational value of geography is even more apparent if\nwe admit the claims of those who argue that the present epoch is\nthe beginning of an era in which public opinion is organized into\na ruling force by the agency of periodicals and books. Certainly,\nneither the newspaper nor the book can influence an illiterate people; they can do little to form opinions where the readers have no\n\nknowledge of geography.\nAs to the psychological value of geography, little need be said.\nIt exercises in manifold ways the memory of forms and the imagination; it brings into exercise the thinking power in tracing back\ntoward unity the various series of causes. What educative value\nthere is in geology, meteorology, zoology, ethnology, economics, history, and politics is to be found in the more profound study of\ngeography, and, to a proportionate extent, in the study of its merest\nelements.\n\nYour committee is of the opinion that there has been a vast improvement in the methods of instruction in this branch in recent\nyears, due in large measure to the geographical societies of this and\nother countries. At first there prevailed what might be named\nsailor geography. The pupil was compelled to memorize all the\ncapes and headlands, bays and harbors, mouths of rivers, islands,\nsounds, and straits around the world. He enlivened this to some ex\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "304\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\ntent by brief mention of the curiosities and oddities in the way of\ncataracts, water-gaps, caves, strange animals, public buildings, picturesque costumes, national exaggerations, and such matters as\nwould furnish good themes for sailors' yarns. Little or nothing\nwas taught to give unity to the isolated details furnished in endless\nnumber. It was an improvement on this when the method of memorizing capital cities and political boundaries succeeded. With this\ncame the era of map-drawing. The study of watersheds and commercial routes, of industrial productions and centers of manufacture\nand commerce has been adopted in the better class of schools. Instruction is geography is growing better by the constant introduction of new devices to make plain and intelligible the determining\n\ninfluence of physical causes in producing the elements of difference\nand the counter-process of industry and commerce by which each\ndifference is rendered of use to the whole world and each locality\nmade a participator in the productions of all.\n4. History.--The next study, ranked in order of value, for the\nelementary school is history. But, as will be seen, the value of history, both practically and psychologically, is less in the beginning\nand greater at the end than geography. For it relates to the insti\ntutions of men, and especially to the political state and its evolution.\nWhile biography narrates the career of the individual, civil history\nrecords the careers of nations.\n\nThe nation has been compared to\n\nthe individual by persons interested in the educational value of history. Man has two selves, they say, the individual self, and the collective self of the organized state or nation. The study of history is,\nthen, the study of this larger, corporate, social, and civil self. The\nimportance of this idea is thus brought out more clearly in its educational significance ; for, to learn this civil self is to learn the substantial condition which makes possible the existence of civilized\nman in all his other social combinations-the family, the church,\nand the manifold associated activities of civil society. For the state\nprotects these combinations from destruction by violence. It defines\nthe limits of individual and associated effort, within which each endeavor re-enforces the endeavors of all, and it uses the strength of\nthe whole nation to prevent such actions as pass beyond these safe\nlimits and tend to collision with the normal action of the other indi-\n\nviduals and social units. Hobbes called the state a Leviathan, to\nemphasize its stupendous individuality and organized self-activity.\nWithout this, he said, man lives in a state of \"constant war, fear,\npoverty, filth, ignorance, and wretchedness ; within the state dwell\npeace, security, riches, science, and happiness.\" The state is the collective man who \"makes possible the rational development of the individual man, like a mortal god, subduing his caprice and passion\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n305\n\nand compelling obedience to law, developing the ideas of justice,\nvirtue, and religion, creating property and ownership, nurture and\neducation.\" The education of the child into a knowledge of this\nhigher self begins early within the nurture of the family. The child\nsees a policeman or some town officer, some public building-a courthouse or a jail; he sees or hears of an act of violence—a case of robbery or murder followed by arrest of the guilty. The omnipresent\nhigher self, which has been invisible hitherto, now becomes visible\nto him in its symbols and still more in its acts.\n\nHistory in school, it is contended, should be the special branch\nfor education in the duties of citizenship. There is ground for this\nclaim. History gives a sense of belonging to a higher social unity\nwhich possesses the right of absolute control over person and property in the interest of the safety of the whole. This, of course, is\nthe basis of citizenship ; the individual must feel this or see this\nsolidarity of the state and recognize its supreme authority. But\nhistory shows the collisions of nations, and the victory of one political ideal accompanied by the defeat of another. History reveals\nan evolution of forms of government that are better and better\nadapted to permit individual freedom, and the participation of all\ncitizens in the administration of the government itself.\nPeople who make their own government have a special interest\nin the spectacle of political evolution as exhibited in history. But\nit must be admitted that this evolution has not been well presented\n\nby popular historians. Take, for instance, the familiar example of\nold-time pedagogy, wherein the Roman republic was conceived as a\nfreer government than the Roman empire that followed it by persons\napparently misled by the ideas of representative self-government associated with the word republic. It was the beginning of a new\nepoch when this illusion was dispelled, and the college student became aware of the true Roman meaning of republic, namely, the supremacy of an oligarchy on the Tiber that ruled distant provinces\nin Spain, Gaul, Asia Minor, Germany, and Africa for its selfish ends\nand with an ever-increasing arrogance. The people at home in\nRome, not having a share in the campaigns on the borderland, did\nnot appreciate the qualities of the great leaders who, like Cæsar,\nsubdued the nations by forbearance, magnanimity, trust, and the\nrecognition of a sphere of freedom secured to the conquered by the\nRoman civil laws, which were rigidly enforced by the conqueror, as\nmuch as by the violence of arms. The change from republic to empire meant the final subordination of this tyrannical Roman oligarchy and the recognition of the rights of the provinces to Roman\nfreedom. This illustration shows how easily a poor teaching of\n\nhistory may pervert its good influence or purpose into a bad one .\n20\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "306\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nFor the Roman monarchy under the empire secured a degree of freedom never before attained under the republic, in spite of the election of such tyrants as Nero and Caligula to the imperial purple.\nThe civil service went on as usual administering the affairs of distant\ncountries, educating them in Roman jurisprudence, and cultivating\na love for accumulating private property. Those countries had before lived communistically after the style of the tribe or at best of\nthe village community. Roman private property in land gave an\nimpulse to the development of free individuality such as had always\nbeen impossible under the social stage of development known as the\nvillage community.\nTo teach history properly is to dispel this shallow illusion which\nflatters individualism, and to open the eyes of the pupil to the true\nnature of freedom, namely, the freedom through obedience to just\nlaws enforced by a strong government.\nYour committee has made this apparent digression for the sake\nof a more explicit statement of its conviction of the importance of\nteaching history in a different spirit from that of abstract freedom,\nwhich sometimes means anarchy, although they admit the possibility\nof an opposite extreme, the danger of too little stress on the progressive element in the growth of nations and its manifestation in\n\nnew and better political devices for representing all citizens without weakening the central power.\nThat the history of one's own nation is to be taught in the elementary school seems fixed by common consent. United States history includes, first, a sketch of the epoch of discoveries and next of\nthe epoch of colonization. This fortunately suits the pedagogic requirements ; for the child loves to approach the stern realities of a\nfirmly-established civilization through its stages of growth by means\nof individual enterprise. Here is the use of biography as introduction to history. It treats of exceptional individuals, whose lives\nbring them in one way or another into national or even world-historical relations. They throw light on the nature and necessity of\ngovernments, and are in turn illuminated by the light thrown back\non them by the institutions which they promote or hinder. The era\nof semi-private adventure with which American history begins is\nadmirably adapted for study by the pupil in the elementary stage of\nhis education. So, too, the next epoch-that of colonization. The\npioneer is a degree nearer to civilization than is the explorer and\ndiscoverer. In the colonial history, the pupil interests himself in the\nenterprise of aspiring individualities ; in their conquest over ob-\n\nstacles of climate and soil ; their conflicts with the aboriginal population; their choice of land for settlement; the growth of their cities ;\nabove all, their several attempts and final success in forming a con\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n307\n\nstitution securing local self-government. An epoch of growing interrelation of the colonies succeeds, a tendency to union on a large\nscale due to the effect of European wars, which involved England,\nFrance, and other countries, and affected the relations of their colonies in America. This epoch, too, abounds in heroic personalities,\n\nlike Wolfe, Montcalm, and Washington, and perilous adventures,\nespecially in the Indian warfare.\nThe fourth epoch is the Revolution, by which the colonies\nthrough joint effort secured their independence and afterward their\nunion in a nation. The subject grows rapidly more complex, and\ntasks severely the powers of the pupils in the eighth year of the elementary school. The formation of the Constitution, and a brief\nstudy of the salient features of the Constitution itself, conclude the\nstudy of the portion of the history of the United States that is sufficiently remote to be treated after the manner of an educational\n\nclassic. Everything up to this point stands out in strong individual\noutlines and is admirably fitted for that elementary course of study.\nBeyond this point, the War of 1812 and the War of the Rebellion, together with the political events that led to it, are matters of memory with the present generation of parents and grandparents, and\nare consequently not so well fitted for intensive study in school as\nthe already classic period of our history. But these later and latest\nepochs may be and will be read at home, not only in the text-book\non history used in the schools but also in the numerous sketches\nthat appear in newspapers, magazines, and in more pretentious\nshapes. In the intensive study which should be undertaken of the\nclassic period of our history, the pupil may be taught the method\n\nappropriate to historical investigation, the many points of view\nfrom which each event ought to be considered.\n\nHe should learn to\n\ndiscriminate between the theatrical show of events and the solid in-\n\nfluences that move underneath as ethical causes. Although he is\ntoo immature for very far-reaching reflections, he must be helped\nto see the causal processes of history. Armed with this discipline in\nhistoric methods, the pupil will do all of his miscellaneous reading\nand thinking in this province with more adequate intellectual reaction than was possible before the intensive study carried on in\nschool .\n\nThe study of the outlines of the Constitution, for ten or fifteen\nweeks in the final year of the elementary school, has been found of\ngreat educational value. Properly taught, it fixes the idea of the\nessential threefoldness of the constitution of a free government and\nthe necessary independence of each constituent power, whether legislative, judicial, or executive. This, and some idea of the manner\nand mode of filling the official places in these three departments, and\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "308\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Cleveland\n\nof the character of the duties with which each department is\n\ncharged, lay foundations for an intelligent citizenship.\nBesides this intensive study of the history of the United States\nin the seventh and eighth years, your committee would recommend\noral lessons on the salient points of general history, taking a full\nhour of sixty minutes weekly, and preferably all at one time, for\nthe sake of the more systematic treatment of the subject of the lesson and the deeper impression made on the mind of the pupil.\n5. Other Branches . Your committee has reviewed the staple\nbranches of the elementary course of study in the light of their educational scope and significance. Grammar, literature, arithmetic,\ngeography, and history are the five branches upon which the disciplinary work of the elementary school is concentrated. Inasmuch as\nreading is the first of the scholastic arts, it is interesting to note\nthat the whole elementary course may be described as an extension\nof the process of learning the art of reading. First comes the mastering of the colloquial vocabulary in printed and script forms. Next\ncome five incursions into the special vocabularies required : (a) In\nliterature, to express the fine shades of emotion and the more subtle\ndistinctions of thought, (b) the technique of arithmetic, (c) of geography, (d) of grammar, (e) of history.\nIn the serious work of mastering these several technical vocabularies the pupil is assigned daily tasks that he must prepare by independent study. The class exercise or recitation is taken up with\nexamining and criticising the pupil's oral statements of what he has\nlearned, especial care being taken to secure the pupil's explanation\nof it in his own words. This requires paraphrases and definitions of\nthe new words and phrases used in technical and literary senses,\nwith a view to insure the addition to the mind of the new ideas cor-\n\nresponding to the new words. The misunderstandings are corrected\nand the pupil set on the way to use more critical alertness in the\npreparation of his succeeding lessons. The pupil learns as much\nby the recitations of his fellow-pupils as he learns from the teacher,\nbut not the same things.\n\nHe sees in the imperfect statements of\n\nhis classmates that they apprehended the lesson with different presuppositions and consequently have seen some phases of the subject\nthat escaped his observation, while they in turn have missed points\nwhich he had noticed quite readily. These different points of view\nbecome more or less his own, and he may be said to grow by adding\nto his own mind the minds of others .\n\nIt is clear that there are other branches of instruction that may\n\nlay claim to a place in the course of study of the elementary school ;\nfor example, the various branches of natural science, vocal music,\nmanual training, physical culture, drawing, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n309\n\nHere the question of another method of instruction is suggested.\nThere are lessons that require previous preparation by the pupil himself-there are also lessons that may be taken up without such preparation and conducted by the teacher, who leads the exercise and furnishes a large part of the information to be learned, enlisting the aid\nof members of the class for the purpose of bringing home the new\nmaterial to their actual experience. Besides these there are mechanical exercises for purposes of training, such as drawing, penmanship, and calisthenics.\nIn the first place, there is industrial and æsthetic drawing, which\n\nshould have a place in all elementary school work. By it is secured\nthe training of the hand and eye. Then, too, drawing helps in all\nthe other branches that require illustration. Moreover, if used in\nthe study of the great works of art in the way hereinbefore mentioned, it helps to cultivate the taste and prepares the future workman for a more useful and lucrative career, inasmuch as superior\ntaste commands higher wages in the finishing of all goods.\nNatural science claims a place in the elementary school, not so\nmuch as a disciplinary study, side by side with grammar, arithmetic,\nand history, as a training in the habits of observation and in the use\nof the technique by which such sciences are expounded. With a\nknowledge of the technical terms and some training in the methods\nof original investigation employed in the sciences, the pupil broadens\nhis views of the world and greatly increases his capacity to acquire\nnew knowledge. For the pupil who is unacquainted with the technique of science has to pass without mental profit the numerous scientific allusions and items of information which more and more\n\nabound in all our literature, whether of an ephemeral or a permanent character. In an age whose proudest boast is the progress of\nscience in all domains, there should be in the elementary school, from\nthe first, a course in the elements of the sciences. And this is quite\n\npossible; for each science possesses some phases that lie very near\nto the child's life. These familiar topics furnish the doors through\nwhich the child enters the various special departments. Science, it\nis claimed, is nothing if not systematic. Indeed, science itself may\nbe defined as the interpretation of each fact through all other facts\nof a kindred nature. Admitting that this is so, it is no less true\nthat pedagogic method begins with the fragmentary knowledge\npossessed by the pupil and proceeds to organize it and build it out\nsystematically in all directions. Hence any science may be taken\nup best on the side nearest the experience of the pupil and the investigation continued until the other parts are reached. Thus, the\npedagogical order is not always the logical or scientific order. In\n\nthis respect it agrees with the order of discovery, which is usually\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n310\n\n[Cleveland\n\nsomething quite different from the logical order, for that is the last\nthing discovered. The natural sciences have two general divisions\n--one relating to inorganic matter, as physics and chemistry, and\n\none relating to organic, as botany and zoology. There should be\na spiral course in natural science, commencing each branch with\nthe most interesting phases to the child. A first course should be\ngiven in botany, zoology, and physics, so as to treat of the structure\nand uses of familiar plants and animals, and the explanation of\nphysical phenomena as seen in the child's playthings, domestic machines, etc. A second course covering the same subjects, but laying\nmore stress on classification and functions, will build on to the\nknowledge already acquired from the former lessons and from his\nrecently acquired experience. A third course of weekly lessons,\nconducted by the teacher as before in a conversational style, with\nexperiments and with a comparison of the facts of observation already in the possession of the children, will go far to helping them to\nan acquisition of the results of natural science.\n\nThose of the chil-\n\ndren specially gifted for observation in some or more departments\nof nature will be stimulated and encouraged to make the most of\ntheir gifts .\n\nIn the opinion of your committee there should be set apart a full\nhour each week for drawing and the same amount for oral lessons\nin natural science.\n\nThe oral lessons in history have already been mentioned.\n\nThe\n\nspiral course, found useful in natural science because of the rapid\nchange in capacity of comprehension by the pupil from his sixth\n\nto his fourteenth year, will also be best for the history course, which\nwill begin with biographical adventures of interest to the child and\npossessing an important historical bearing. These will proceed from\nthe native land first to England, the parent country, and then to the\nclassic civilizations (Greece and Rome being, so to speak, the grandparent countries of the American colonies). These successive courses\nof oral lessons, adapted respectively to the child's capacity, will do\nmuch to make the child well informed on this topic. Oral lessons\nshould never be mere lectures, but more like Socratic dialogues,\nbuilding up a systematic knowledge partly from what is already\n\nknown, partly by the new investigations, and partly by comparison\nof authorities.\n\nThe best argument in favor of weekly oral lessons in natural science and general history is the actual experiences of teachers who\nhave for some time used the plan.\n\nIt has been found that the les-\n\nsons in botany, zoology, and physics give the pupil much aid in learning his geography and other lessons relating to nature, while the\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n311\n\nhistory lessons assist very much his comprehension of literature and\nadd interest to geography.\nIt is understood by your committee that the lessons in physiology\nand hygiene (with special reference to the effects of stimulants and\nnarcotics) required by state laws should be included in this oral\ncourse in natural science. Manual training, so far as the theory and\nuse of the tools for working in wood and iron are concerned, has just\nclaims on the elementary school for a reason similar to that which\nadmits natural science. From science have proceeded useful inventions for the aid of all manner of manufactures and transportation.\n\nThe child of to-day lives in a world where machinery is constantly\nat his hand. A course of training in wood- and iron- work, together\nwith experimental knowledge of physics or natural philosophy,\nmakes it easy for him to learn the management of such machines.\nSewing and cookery have not the same but stronger claims for a\nplace in school. One-half day in each week for one-half a year each\nin the seventh and eighth grades will suffice for manual training, the\nsewing and cookery being studied by the girls and the wood- and\niron-work by the boys. It should be mentioned, however, that the\nadvocates of manual training in iron- and wood-work recommend\nthese branches for secondary schools, because of the greater maturity of body and the less likelihood to acquire wrong habits of\nmanipulation in the third period of four years of school.\nVocal music has long since obtained a well-established place in\nall elementary schools. The labors of two generations of special\nteachers have reduced the steps of instruction to such simplicity that\nwhole classes may make as regular progress in reading music as in\nreading literature.\n\nIn regard to physical culture, your committee is agreed that\nthere should be some form of special daily exercises, amounting in\n\nthe aggregate to one hour each week, the same to include the main\nfeatures of calisthenics and German, Swedish, or American systems\nof physical training, but not to be regarded as a substitute for the\nold-fashioned recess established to permit the free exercise of the\npupils in the open air. Systematic physical training has for its object rather the will-training than recreation, and this must not be\nforgotten. To go from a hard lesson to a series of calisthenic exercises is to go from one kind of will-training to another. Exhaustion\nof the will should be followed by the caprice and wild freedom of the\nrecess. But systematic physical exercise has its sufficient reason\nin its aid to a graceful use of the limbs, its development of muscles\nthat are left unused or rudimentary unless called forth by special\ntraining, and for the help it gives to the teacher in the way of school\ndiscipline.\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "312\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nYour committee would mention in this connection instruction\n\nin morals and manners, which ought to be given in a brief series of\nlessons each year, with a view to build up in the mind a theory of\nthe conventionalities of polite and pure-minded society. If these lessons are made too long or too numerous, they are apt to become offensive to the child's mind. It is, of course, understood by your\ncommittee that the substantial moral training of the school is performed by the discipline rather than by the instruction in ethical the-\n\nory. The child is trained to be regular and punctual, and to restrain\nhis desire to talk and whisper-in these things gaining self-control\nday by day. The essence of moral behavior is self-control. The\nschool teaches good behavior. The intercourse of a pupil with his\nfellows without evil words or violent actions is insisted on and se-\n\ncured. The higher moral qualities of truth-telling and sincerity\nare taught in every class exercise that lays stress on accuracy of\nstatement .\n\nYour committee has already discussed the importance of teaching\nsomething of algebraic processes in the seventh and eighth grades,\nwith the view to obtaining better methods of solving problems in\nadvanced arithmetic. A majority of your committee are of the opinion that formal English grammar should be discontinued in the\neighth year, and the study of some foreign language, preferably that\nof Latin, substituted. The educational effect on an English-speaking\npupil of taking up a language which, like Latin, uses inflections\ninstead of prepositions, and which further differs from English by\nthe order in which its words are arranged in the sentence, is quite\nmarked, and a year of Latin places a pupil by a wide interval out\nof the range of the pupil who has continued English grammar without taking up Latin. But the effect of the year's study of Latin\nincreases the youth's power of apperception in very many directions,\nby reason of the fact that so much of the English vocabulary used\nin technical vocabularies, like those of geography, grammar, history,\nand literature, is from a Latin source; and, besides, there are so\nmany traces in the form and substance of human learning of the\n\nhundreds of years when Latin was the only tongue in which observation and reflection could be expressed.\n\nYour committee refers to the program given later in this report\nfor the details of co-ordinating these several branches already recommended.\n\n6. The Difference Between Elementary and Secondary Studies.- In\nrecommending the introduction of algebraic processes in the seventh and eighth years as well as in the recomendation just now\nmade to introduce Latin in the eighth year of the elementary course\n-your committee has come face to face with the question of the\nintrinsic difference between elementary and secondary studies.\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n313\n\nCustom has placed algebra, geometry, the history of English literature, and Latin in the rank of secondary studies ; also, general history, physical geography, and the elements of physics and chemistry.\n\nIn a secondary course of four years, trigonometry may be added to\nthe mathematics; some of the sciences whose elements are used in\nphysical geography may be taken up separately in special treatises,\nas geology, botany, and physiology. There may be also a study of\n\nwhole works of English authors, as Shakespeare, Milton, and Scott.\nGreek is also begun in the second or third year of the secondary\ncourse. This is the custom in most public high schools. But in\nprivate secondary schools Latin is begun earlier, and so, too, Greek,\nalgebra, and geometry. Sometimes geometry is taken up before algebra, as is the custom in German schools. These arrangements\nare based partly on tradition, partly on the requirements of higher\ninstitutions for admission, and partly on the ground that the intrinsic difficulties in these studies have fixed their places in the course of\nstudy. Of those who claim that there is an intrinsic reason for the\nselection and order of these studies, some base their conclusions on\nexperience in conducting pupils through them, others on psychological grounds. The latter contend, for example, that algebra deals\nwith general forms of calculation, while arithmetic deals with the\nparticular instances of calculation.\n\nWhatever deals with the par-\n\nticular instance is relatively elementary; whatever deals with the\ngeneral form is relatively secondary. In the expression a + b = c,\nalgebra indicates the form of all addition. This arithmetic cannot\ndo, except in the form of a verbal rule describing the steps of the\noperation; its examples are all special instances falling under the\n\ngeneral form given in algebra. If, therefore, arithmetic is an elementary branch, algebra is relatively to it a secondary branch. So ,\ntoo, geometry, though not directly based on arithmetic, has to presuppose an acquaintance with it when it reduces spatial functions\ninto numerical forms ; as, for example, in the measurement of surfaces and solids, and in ascertaining the ratio of the circumference\nto the radius and of the hypotenuse to the two other sides of the\nright-angled triangle. Geometry, moreover, deals with necessary\nrelations . Its demonstrations reach universal and necessary conclusions, holding good, not merely in such material shapes as we\nhave met with in actual experience but with all examples possiblepast, present, or future. Such knowledge transcending experience\nis intrinsically secondary as compared with the first acquaintance\nwith geometric shapes in concrete examples .\n\nIn the case of geometry, it is claimed by some that what is called\n\"inventional geometry\" may be properly introduced into the elementary grades. By this some mean the practice with blocks in the\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "314\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nshape of geometric solids and the construction of different figures\nfrom the same ; others mean the rediscovery by the pupil for himself\nof the necessary relations demonstrated by Euclid. The formerexercises of construction with blocks are well enough in the kindergarten, where they assist in learning number, as well as in the\nanalysis of material forms. But its educational value is small for\npupils advanced in the use of books. The original discovery of\n\nEuclid's demonstrations, on the other hand, belongs more properly\nto higher education than to elementary. In the geometrical textbooks recently introduced into secondary schools there is so much\nof original demonstration required that the teacher is greatly embarrassed on account of the differences in native capacity for mathematics that develop among the pupils of the same class in solving\nthe problems of invention. A few gifted pupils delight in the inventions, and develop rapidly in power, while the majority of the class\nuse too much time over them, and thus rob the other branches of\nthe course of study, or else fall into the bad practice of getting help\nfrom others in the preparation of their lessons. A few in every\nclass fall hopelessly behind and are discouraged. The result is an\nattempt on the part of the teacher to correct the evil by requiring\na more thorough training in the mathematical studies preceding,\nand the consequent delay of secondary pupils in the lower grades of\nthe course in order to bring up their \"inventional geometry.\" Many,\ndiscouraged, fail to go on ; many more fail to reach higher studies\nbecause unable to get over the barrier unnecessarily placed before\nthem by teachers who desire that no pupils except natural geometricians shall enter into higher studies.\nPhysical geography in its scientific form is very properly made\na part of the secondary course of study. The pupil in his ninth year\nof work can profitably acquire the scientific technique of geology,\nbotany, zoology, meteorology, and ethnology, and in the following\nyears take up those sciences separately and push them further, using\nthe method of actual investigation. The subject-matter of physical\ngeography is of very high interest to the pupil who has studied\ngeography in the elementary grades after an approved method. It\ntakes up the proximate grounds and causes for the elements of\ndifference on the earth's surface, already become familiar to him\nthrough his elementary studies, and pushes them back into deeper,\nsimpler, and more satisfactory principles. This study performs the\nwork also of correlating the sciences that relate to organic nature\nby showing their respective uses to man.\n\nFrom the glimpses which\n\nthe pupil gets of mineralogy, geology, botany, zoology, ethnology,\nand meteorology in their necessary connection as geographic conditions he sees the scope and grand significance of those separate\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\ninquiries.\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES\n\n315\n\nA thirst is aroused in him to pursue his researches into\n\ntheir domains. He sees, too, the borderlands in which new discoveries may be made by the enterprising explorer.\nPhysics, including what was called until recently \"natural philosophy, \" after Newton's \"Principia\" (\"Philosophiæ Naturalis Prin-\n\ncipia Mathematica\" ), implies more knowledge of mathematics for\nits thorough discussion than the secondary pupil is likely to possess.\nIn fact, the study of this branch in college thirty years ago was\ncrippled by the same cause. It should follow the completion of\n\nanalytical geometry. Notwithstanding this, a very profitable study\nof this subject may be made in the second year of the high school\nor preparatory school, although the formulas can then be understood\n\nin so far as they imply elementary algebra only. The pupil does\nnot get the most exact notions of the quantitative laws that rule\nmatter in its states of motion and equilibrium, but he does see the\naction of forces as qualitative elements of phenomena and understand quite well the mechanical inventions by which men subdue\nthem for his use and safety. Even in the elementary grades the\npupil can seize very many of these qualitative aspects and learn the\nexplanation of the mechanical phenomena of nature and other applications of the same principles in invention ; as, for example, gravitation in falling bodies; its measurement by the scales; the part it\nplays in the pump, the barometer, the pendulum; cohesion in mud,\nclay, glue, paste, mortar, cement, etc.; capillary attraction in lampwicks, sponges, sugar, the sap in plants; the applications of lifting\n\nby the lever, pulley, inclined plane, wedge, and screw ; heat in the\nsun, combustion, friction, steam, thermometer, conduction, clothing,\n\ncooking, etc.; the phenomena of light, electricity, magnetism, and\nthe explanation of such mechanical devices as spectacles, telescopes,\nmicroscopes, prisms, photographic cameras, electric tension in\nbodies, lightning, mariner's compass, horseshoe magnet, the telegraph, the dynamo. This partially qualitative study of forces and\nmechanical inventions has the educational effect of enlightening\nthe pupil and emancipating him from the network of superstition\n\nthat surrounds him in the child-world, partly of necessity and partly\nby reason of the illiterate adults that he sometimes meets with in the\npersons of nurses, servants, and tradespeople,whose occupations have\nmore attraction for him than those of cultured people. The fairy world\n\nis a world of magic, of immediate interventions of supernatural spiritual beings, and while this is proper enough for the child up to\nthe time of the school, and in a lessening degree for some time after,\nit is only negative and harmful in adult manhood and womanhood.\nIt produces arrested development of powers of observation and\n\nreflection in reference to phenomena, and stops the growth of the\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "316\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nsoul at the infantine stage of development.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nNeither is this infantine\n\nstage of wonder and magic more religious than the stage of dis-\n\nillusion through the study of mathematics and physics. It is the\narrest of religious development, also, at the stage of fetichism. The\nhighest religion, that of pure Christianity, sees in the world infinite\nmediations, all for the purpose\nose of developing independent individuality ; the perfection of human souls not only in one kind of pietynamely, that of the heart-but in the piety of the intellect that beholds\ntruth, the piety of the will that does good deeds wisely, the piety of\nthe senses that sees the beautiful and realizes it in works of art.\nThis is the Christian idea of Divine Providence as contrasted with\n\nthe heathen idea of that Providence, and the study of natural philosophy is an essential educational requisite in its attainment,\nalthough a negative means.\n\nOf course, there is danger of replacing\n\nthe spiritual idea of the divine by the dynamical or mechanical idea,\nand thus arresting the mind at the stage of pantheism instead of\nfetichism. But this danger can be avoided by further education\nthrough secondary into higher education, whose entire spirit and\nmethod are comparative and philosophical in the best sense of the\nterm; for higher education seems to have as its province the correla-\n\ntion of the several branches of human learning in the unity of the\nspiritual view furnished by religion to our civilization. By it one\nlearns to see each branch-each science, or art, or discipline-in the\nlight of all the others.\n\nThis higher or comparative view is essential\n\nto any completeness of education, for it alone prevents the one-sidedness of hobbies, or \"fads,\" as they are called in the slang of the day.\nIt prevents, also, the bad effects that flow from the influence of what\nare termed \"self-educated men,\" who, for the most part, carry up\nwith them elementary methods of study-or, at best, secondary methods-which accentuate the facts and relations of natural and spiritual phenomena but do not deal with their higher correlations . The\n\ncomparative method cannot, in fact, be well introduced until the student is somewhat advanced, and has already completed his elementary\n\ncourse of study dealing with the immediate aspects of the world\nand his secondary course dealing with the separate formal and\n\ndynamical aspects that lie next in order behind the facts of first\nobservation. Higher education in a measure unifies these separate\nformal and dynamic aspects, corrects their one-sidedness, and prevents the danger of what is so often noted in the self-educated men\n\nwho unduly exaggerate some one of the subordinate aspects of the\nworld\nand make it a sort of first principle.\nHere your committee finds in its way the question of the use of\nthe full scientific method in the teaching of science in the elementary\nschool. The true method has been called the method of investiga\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n317\n\ntion; but that method as used by the child is only a sad caricature\nof the method used by the mature scientific man, who has long since\npassed through the fragmentary observation and reflection that\nprevail in the period of childhood, as well as the tendencies to exaggeration of the importance of one or another branch of knowledge\nat the expense\nse of the higher unity that correlates all-an exaggeration that manifests itself in the possession and use of a hobby. The\nideal scientific man has freed himself from obstacles of this kind,\nwhether psychological or objective. What astronomical observers\ncall the subjective coefficient must be ascertained and eliminated\nfrom the record that shows beginnings, endings, and rates. There\nis a possibility of perfect specialization in a scientific observer only\nafter the elementary and secondary attitudes of mind have been outgrown.\n\nAn attempt to force the child into the full scientific method\n\nby specialization would cause an arrest of his development in the\nother branches of human learning outside of his specialty. He could\nnot properly inventory the data of his own special sphere unless he\nknew how to recognize the defining limits or boundaries that separate his province from its neighbors. The early days of science\nabounded in examples of confusion of provinces in the inventories of\ntheir data. It is difficult, even now, to decide where physics and\nchemistry leave off and biology begins.\nYour committee does not attempt to state the exact proportion\nin which the child, at his various degrees of advancement, may be\nable to dispense with the guiding influence of teacher and text-book\nin his investigations, but they protest strongly against the illusion\nunder which certain zealous advocates of the early introduction of\nscientific method seem to labor. They ignore in their zeal the deduction that is to be made for the guiding,hand of the teacher, who\n\nsilently furnishes to the child the experience that he lacks, and\nquietly directs his special attention to this or that phase, and prevents him from hasty or false generalization as well as from undue\nexaggeration of single facts or principles. Here the teacher adds\nthe needed scientific outlook which the child lacks, but which the\nmature scientist possesses for himself.\n\nIt is contended by some that the scientific frame of mind is\nadapted only to science, but not to art, literature, and religion, which\nhave something essential that science does not reach; not because\nof the incompleteness of the sciences themselves, but because of the\nattitude of the mind assumed in the observation of nature.\n\nIn\n\nanalytic investigation there is isolation of parts one from another,\nwith a view to find the sources of the influences which produce the\nphenomena shown in the object. The mind brings everything to\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "318\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nthe test of this idea. Every phenomenon that exists comes from\nbeyond itself, and analysis will be able to trace the source.\nNow, this frame of mind, which insists on a foreign origin of\nall that goes to constitute an object, debars itself in advance from\nthe province of religion, art, and literature, as well as of philosophy.\n\nFor self-determination, personal activity, is the first principle\nassumed by religion, and it is tacitly assumed by art and literature,\nclassic and Christian. The very definition of philosophy implies\nthis, for it is the attempt to explain the world by the assumption of\na first principle, and to show that all classes of objects imply that\nprinciple as ultimate presupposition. According to this view it is\nimportant not to attempt to hasten the use of a strictly scientific\nmethod on the part of the child. In his first years he is acquiring\nthe results of civilization rather as an outfit of habits, usages, and\ntraditions than as a scientific discovery. He cannot be expected to\nstand over against the culture of his time, and challenge one and\nall of its conventionalities to justify themselves before his reason.\nHis reason is too weak. He is rather in the imitation stage of mind\nthan in that of criticism. He will not reach the comparative or\ncritical method until the era of higher education.\n\nHowever this may be, it is clear that the educational value of\nscience and its method is a very important question, and that on it\ndepends the settlement of the question where specialization may\nbegin. To commence the use of the real scientific method would\nimply a radical change also in methods from the beginning. This\nmay be realized by considering the hold which even the kindergarten\nretains upon symbolism and upon art and literature. But in the\nopinion of a majority of your committee natural science itself should\nbe approached, in the earliest years of the elementary school, rather\nin the form of results with glimpses into the methods by which these\nresults were reached. In the last two years (the seventh and eighth)\nthere may be some strictness of scientific form and an exhibition of\nthe method of discovery. The pupil, too, may to some extent put\nthis method in practice himself. In the secondary school there\nshould be some laboratory work. But the pupil cannot be expected\nto acquire for himself fully the scientific method of dealing with\nnature until the second part of higher education-its post-graduate\nwork. Nevertheless this good should be kept in view from the first\nyear of the elementary school, and there should be a gradual and\ncontinual approach to it.\n\nIn the study of general history appears another branch of the\nsecondary course. History of the native land is assumed to be an\n\nelementary study. History of the world is certainly a step further\naway from the experience of the child. It is held by some teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n319\n\nto be in accordance with proper method to begin with the foreign\nrelations of one's native land and to work outward to the world-\n\nhistory. The European relations involved in the discovery and colonization of America furnish the only explanation to a multitude of\nquestions that the pupil has started in the elementary school. He\nshould move outward from what he has already learned, by the\nstudy of a new concentric circle of grounds and reasons, according\nto this view. This, however, is not the usual course taken. On\n\nbeginning secondary history the pupil is set back face to face with\nthe period of tradition, just when historic traces first make their\nappearance. He is by this arrangement broken off from the part\nof history that he has become acquainted with and made to grapple\nwith that period which has no relation to his previous investiga-\n\ntions. It is to be said, however, that general history lays stress on\nthe religious thread of connection, though less now than formerly.\nThe world history is a conception of the great Christian thinker,\nSt. Augustine, who held that the world and its history is a sort of\nantiphonic hymn, in which God reads his counsels and the earth and\n\nman read the responses. He induced Orosius, his pupil, to sketch\na general history in the spirit of his view. It was natural that the\nOld Testament histories, and especially the chapters of Genesis,\nshould furnish the most striking part of its contents. This general\nhistory was connected with religion and brought closer to the experience of the individual than the history of his own people. To commence history with the Garden of Eden, the Fall of Man, and the\nNoachian Deluge was to begin with what was most familiar to all\nminds, and most instructive, because it concerned most nearly the\n\nconduct of life. Thus, religion furnished the apperceptive material\nby which the early portions of history were recognized, classified,\nand made a part of experience.\nNow that studies in archæology, especially those in the Nile and\nEuphrates valleys, are changing the chronologies and the records\nof early times and adding new records of the past, bringing to\nlight national movements and collisions of peoples, together with\ndata by which to determine the status of their industrial civiliza-\n\ntion, their religious ideas, and the form of their literature and art,\nthe concentric arrangement of all this material around the history\nof the chosen people as a nucleus is no longer possible. The question has arisen, therefore, whether general history should not be\nrearranged for the secondary school, and made to connect with\nAmerican history for apperceptive material rather than with Old\nTestament history. To this it has been replied with force that the\nidea of a world history, as St. Augustine conceived it, is the noblest\neducative ideal ever connected with the subject of history. Future\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "320\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Cleveland\n\nversions of general history will not desert this standpoint, we are\ntold, even if they take as their basis that of ethnology and anthropology, for these, too, will exhibit a plan in human history-an\neducative principle that leads nations toward freedom and science,\nbecause the Creator of nature has made it, in its fundamental constitution, an evolution or progressive development of individuality.\nThus, the idea of Divine Providence is retained, though made more\ncomprehensive by bringing the whole content of natural laws within\nhis will as his method of work.\n\nThese considerations, we are reminded by the partisans of\nhumanity studies, point back to the educative value of history as\ncorrective of the one- sidedness of the method of science.\n\nScience\n\nseeks explanation in the mechanical conditions of, and impulses\nreceived from, the environment, while history keeps its gaze fixed\non human purposes, and studies the genesis of national actions\nthrough the previous stages of feelings, convictions, and conscious\nideas. In history the pupil has for his object self- activity, reaction\nagainst environment, instead of mechanism, or activity through\nanother.\n\nThe history of English literature is another study of the secondary school . It is very properly placed beyond the elementary school,\nfor as taught it consists largely of the biographies of men of letters.\nThe pupils who have not yet learned any great work of literature\nshould not be pestered with literary biography, for at that stage the\ngreatness of the men of letters cannot be seen.\n\nPlutarch makes\n\ngreat biographies because he shows heroic struggles and great deeds .\nThe heroism of artists and poets consists in sacrificing all for the\nsake of their creations. The majority of them come off sadly at\nthe hands of the biographer, for the reason that the very sides of\ntheir lives are described which they had slighted and neglected for\nthe sake of the Muses. The prophets of Israel did not live in city\npalaces, but in caves; they did not wear fine raiment, nor feed\n\nsumptuously, nor conform to the codes of polite society. They were\nno courtiers when they approached the king. They neglected all\n\nthe other institutions-family, productive industry, and state-for\nthe sake of one, the church, and even that not the established ceremonial of the people, but a higher and more direct communing with\nJehovah.\n\nSo with artists and men of letters it is more or less the\n\ncase that the institutional side of their lives is neglected or unsymmetrical ; or, if this is not the case, it will be found prosaic and\nuneventful, throwing no light on their matchless productions.\nFor these reasons should not the present use of literary biography, as it exists in secondary schools and is gradually making\n\nits way into elementary schools, be discouraged, and the time now\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n321\n\ngiven to it devoted to the study of literary works of art ? It will\nbe admitted that the exposure of the foibles of artists has an\nimmoral tendency on youth : for example, one affects to be a poet,\n\nand justifies laxity and self-indulgence through the example of\nByron. Those who support this view hold that we should not\ndignify the immoral and defective side of life by making it a branch\nof study in school.\n\n7.\n\nCorrelation by Synthesis of Studies . -Your committee would\n\nmention another sense in which the expression correlation of studies\nis sometimes used. It is held by advocates of an artificial center of\n\nthe course of study. They use, for example, De Foe's \"Robinson\nCrusoe\" for a reading exercise, and connect with it the lessons in\ngeography and arithmetic. It has been pointed out by critics of this\nmethod that there is always danger of covering up the literary features of the reading matter under accessories of mathematics and\nnatural science.\n\nIf the material for other branches is to be sought\n\nfor in connection with the literary exercise, it will distract the\nattention from the poetic unity. On the other hand, arithmetic and\ngeography cannot be unfolded freely and comprehensively if they\nare to wait on the opportunities afforded in a poem or novel for their\ndevelopment. A correlation of this kind, instead of being a deeper\ncorrelation such as is found in all parts of human learning by the\nstudies of the college and university, is rather a shallow and uninteresting kind of correlation that reminds one of the system of mnemonics, or artificial memory, which neglects the association of facts\nand events with their causes and the history of their evolution, and\nlooks for unessential quips, puns, or accidental suggestions with a\nview to strengthening the memory. The effect of this is to weaken\nthe power of systematic thinking which deals with essential relations\n\nand substitute for it a chaotic memory that ties together things\nthrough false and seeming relations; not of the things and events\nbut of the words that denote them.\n\nThe correlation of geography and arithmetic and history in and\nthrough the unity of a work of fiction is, at best, an artificial correlation, which will stand in the way of the true objective correlation. It is a temporary scaffolding made for school purposes.\nInstruction should avoid such temporary structures as much as possible, and when used they should be only used for the day, and not\nfor the year, because of the danger of building up an apperceptive\ncenter in the child's mind that will not harmonize with the true\n\napperceptive center required by the civilization.\n\nThe story of Rob-\n\ninson Crusoe has intense interest to the child as a lesson in sociol-\n\nogy, showing him the helplessness of isolated man and the re-enforce-\n\nment that comes to him through society. It shows the importance\n21\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "322\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nof the division of labor.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nAll children should read this book in the\n\nlater years of the elementary course, and a few profitable discussions may be had in school regarding its significance. But De Foe\npainted in it only the side of adventure that he found in his countrymen in his epoch, England after the defeat of the Armada having\ntaken up a career of conquest on the seas, ending by colonization and\na world-commerce. The liking for adventure continues to this day\namong all Anglo-Saxon peoples, and beyond other nationalities there\nis in English-speaking populations a delight in building up civilization from the very foundation. This is only, however, one phase\nof the Anglo-Saxon mind. Consequently the history of Crusoe is\nnot a proper center for a year's study in school. It omits cities,\ngovernments, the world-commerce, the international process, the\nchurch, the newspaper and book from view, and they are not even\nreflected in it.\nYour committee would call attention in this connection to the\n\nimportance of the pedagogical principle of analysis and isolation as\npreceding synthesis and correlation. There should be rigid isolation of the elements of each branch for the purpose of getting a\nclear conception of what is individual and peculiar in a special\nprovince of learning. Otherwise one will not gain from each its\nspecial contribution to the whole. That there is some danger from\nthe kind of correlation that essays to teach all branches in each will\n\nbe apparent from this point of view.\nIII .- THE SCHOOL PROGRAM.\n\nIn order to find a place in the elementary school for the several\nbranches recommended in this report, it will be necessary to use\neconomically the time allotted for the school term, which is about\n200 days, exclusive of vacations and holidays. Five days per week\nand five hours of actual school work or a little less per day, after\nexcluding recesses for recreation, give about twenty-five hours per\nweek. There should be, as far as possible, alternation of study-hours\nand recitations (the word recitation being used in the United States\nfor class exercise or lesson conducted by the teacher and requiring\nthe critical attention of the entire class). Those studies requiring\nthe clearest thought should be taken up, as a usual thing, in the\nmorning session ; say, arithmetic the second half-hour of the morning\nand grammar the half-hour next succeeding the morning recess for\nrecreation in the open air. By some who are anxious to prevent\nstudy at home-or, at least, to control its amount-it is thought\nadvisable to place the arithmetic lesson after the grammar lesson,\nso that the study learned at home will be grammar instead of arith-\n\nmetic. It is found by experience, that, if mathematical problems\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n323\n\nare taken home for solution, two bad habits arise, namely, in one\ncase, the pupil gets assistance from his parents or others, and thereby\nloses to some extent his own power of overcoming difficulties by\nbrave and persistent attacks unaided by others ; the other evil is a\nhabit of consuming long hours in the preparation of a lesson that\nshould be prepared in thirty minutes, if all the powers of mind are\nfresh and at command. An average child may spend three hours in\nthe preparation of an arithmetic lesson. Indeed, in repeated efforts\nto solve one of the so-called \"conundrums,\" a whole family may\nspend the entire evening. One of the unpleasant results of the next\nday is that the teacher who conducts the lesson never knows the\nexact capacity and rate of progress of his pupils; in the recitation\nhe probes the knowledge and preparation of the pupil, plus an\nunknown amount of preparatory work borrowed from parents and\nothers. He even increases the length of the lessons, and requires\nmore work at home, when the amount already exceeds the unaided\ncapacity of the pupil.\nThe lessons should be arranged so as to bring in such exercises\nas furnish relief from intellectual tension between others that make\n\nlarge demands on the thinking powers. Such exercises as singing\nand calisthenics, writing and drawing, also reading, are of the\nnature of a relief from those recitations that tax the memory, critical\nalertness, and introspection, like arithmetic, grammar, and history.\nYour committee has not been able to agree on the question\n\nwhether pupils who leave school early should have a course of study\ndifferent from the course of those who are to continue on into sec-\n\nondary and higher work. It is contended, on the one hand, that\nthose who leave early should have a more practical course, and\nthat they should dispense with those studies that seem to be in the\n\nnature of preparatory work for secondary and higher education.\nSuch studies as algebra and Latin, for example, should not be taken\nup unless the pupil expects to pursue the same for a sufficient time\n\nto complete the secondary course. It is replied, on the other hand,\nthat it is best to have one course for all, because any school education is, at best, but an initiation for the pupil into the art of learning, and that, wherever he leaves off in his school course, he should\n\ncontinue, by the aid of the public library and home study, in the\nwork of mastering science and literature.\n\nIt is further contended\n\nthat a brief course in higher studies, like Latin and algebra, instead\nof being useless, is of more value than any elementary studies that\nmight replace them. The first ten lessons in algebra give the pupil\nthe fundamental idea of the general expression of arithmetical\nsolutions by means of letters and other symbols. Six months' study\nof it gives him the power to use the method in stating the manifold\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nconditions of a problem in partnership, or in ascertaining a value\nthat depends on several transformations of the data given. It is\nclaimed, indeed, that the first few lessons in any branch are relatively of more educational value than an equal number of subsequent lessons, because the fundamental ideas and principles of the\nnew study are placed at the beginning. In Latin, for instance, the\n\npupil learns in his first week's study the, to him, strange phenomenon of a language that performs by inflections what his own language performs by the use of prepositions and auxiliaries. He is\nstill more surprised to find that the order of words in a sentence\n\nis altogether different in Roman usage from that to which he is\naccustomed. He further begins to recognize in the Latin words\nmany roots or stems which are employed to denote immediate\nsensuous objects, while they have been adopted into his English\ntongue to signify fine shades of distinction in thought or feeling.\nBy these three things his powers of observation in matters of\nlanguage are armed, as it were, with new faculties. Nothing that\nhe has hitherto learned in grammar is so radical and far-reaching\nas what he learns in his first week's study of Latin. The Latin\narrangement of words in a sentence indicates a different order of\nmental arrangement in the process of apprehension and expression\nof thought. This arrangement is rendered possible by declensions.\nThis amounts to attaching prepositions to the ends of the words,\nwhich they thus convert into adjectival or adverbial modifiers ;\nwhereas the separate prepositions of the English must indicate by\ntheir position in the sentence their grammatical relation. These\nobservations, and the new insight into the etymology of English\nwords having a Latin derivation, are of the nature of mental seeds\nwhich will grow and bear fruit throughout life in the better command of one's native tongue. All this will come from a very brief\ntime devoted to Latin in school.\n\nAmount of Time for Each Branch. - Your committee recommends\nthat an hour of sixty minutes each week be assigned in the program\nfor each of the following subjects throughout the eight years : Physical culture, vocal music, or oral lessons in natural science (hygiene\nto be included among the topics under this head), oral lessons in\nbiography and general history, and that the same amount of time\neach week shall be devoted to drawing from the second year to the\neighth inclusive ; to manual training during the seventh and eighth\n\nyears, so as to include sewing and cookery for the girls and work\nin wood and iron for the boys.\nYour committee recommends that reading be given at least one\nlesson each day for the entire eight years ; it being understood, however, that there shall be two or more lessons each day in reading\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n325\n\nin the first and second years, in which the recitation is necessarily\nvery short, because of the inability of the pupil to give continued\nclose attention, and because he has little power of applying him-\n\nself to the work of preparing lessons by himself. In the first three\nyears the reading should be limited to pieces in the colloquial style,\n\nbut selections from the classics of the language in prose and in\npoetry shall be read to the pupil from time to time, and discussions\nmade of such features of the selections read as may interest the\npupils. After the third year your committee believes that the\nreading lesson should be given to selections from classic authors\nof English and that the work of the recitation should be divided\n\nbetween (a) the elocution, (b) the grammatical peculiarities of the\nlanguage, including spelling, definitions, syntactical construction,\npunctuation, and figures of prosody, and (c) the literary contents,\nincluding the main and accessory ideas, the emotions painted, the\ndeeds described, the devices of style to produce a strong impression\non the reader. Your committee wishes to lay emphasis on the\nimportance of the last item, that of literary study, which should\nconsume more and more of the time of the recitation from grade\nto grade in the period from the fourth to the eighth year. In the\nfourth year and previously the first item that of elocution, to\nsecure distinct enunciation and correct pronunciation-should be\nmost prominent. In the fifth and sixth years the second item\nthat of spelling, defining, and punctuation-should predominate\nslightly over the other two items. In the years from the fifth to the\neighth there should be some reading of entire stories, such as\n\"Gulliver's Travels,\" \"Robinson Crusoe,\" \"Rip Van Winkle,\" \"The\n\nLady of the Lake,\" \"Hiawatha,\" and similar stories, adapted in\nstyle and subject-matter to the capacity of the pupils. An hour\nshould be devoted each week to conversations on the salient points\nof the story, its literary and ethical bearings.\nYour committee agrees in the opinion, that, in teaching language,\ncare should be taken that the pupil practices much in writing exercises and original compositions. At first the pupil will use only his\n\ncolloquial vocabulary, but as he gains command of the technical\nvocabularies of geography, arithmetic, and history, and learns the\nhigher literary vocabulary of his language, he will extend his use\n\nof words accordingly. Daily, from the first year, the child will\nprepare some lesson or portion of a lesson in writing. Your committee has included under the head of oral grammar (from the first\nto the middle of the fifth year) one phase of this written work\ndevoted to the study of the literary form and the technicalities of composition in such exercises as letter writing, written reviews of the\nseveral branches studied, reports of the oral lessons in natural\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "326\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nscience and history, paraphrases of the poems and prose literature\nof the readers, and finally compositions or written essays on suitable themes assigned by the teacher, but selected from the fields\nof knowledge studied in school.\n\nCare should be taken to criticise\n\nall paraphrases of poetry in respect to the good or bad taste shown\nin the choice of words ; parodies should never be permitted.\nIt is thought by your committee that the old style of composition\nwriting was too formal.\n\nIt was kept too far away from the other\n\nwork of the pupil. Instead of giving a written account of what he\nhad learned in arithmetic, geography, grammar, history, and natural\n\nscience, the pupil attempted artificial descriptions and reflections on\nsuch subjects as \"Spring,\" \"Happiness,\" \"Perseverance,\" \"Friendship,\" or something else outside of the line of his school studies .\n\nYour committee has already expressed its opinion that a good\nEnglish style is not to be acquired by the study of grammar so much\nas by familiarity with great masterpieces of literature. We especially\nrecommend that pupils who have taken up the fourth and fifth readers, containing the selections from great authors, should often be required to make written paraphrases of prose or poetic models of style,\nusing their own vocabulary to express the thoughts so far as possible,\nand borrowing the recherché words and phrases of the author where\ntheir own resources fail them. In this way the pupil learns to see\nwhat the great author has done to enrich the language and to furnish\n\nadequate means of expression for what could not be presented in\nwords before, or at least not in so happy a manner.\nYour committee believes that every recitation is, in one aspect\nof it, an attempt to express the thoughts and information of the lesson in the pupil's own words, and thus an initial exercise in composition. The regular weekly written review of the important topics\nin the several branches studied is a more elaborate exercise in composition, the pupil endeavoring to collect what he knows and to state it\nsystematically and in proper language. The punctuation, spelling,\nsyntax, penmanship, choice of words, and style should not, it is true,\nbe made a matter of criticism in connection with the other lessons,\nbut only in the language lesson proper. But the pupil will learn language, all the same, by the written and oral recitations. The oral\ngrammar lessons from the first year to the middle of the fifth year\nshould deal chiefly with the use of language, gradually introducing\nthe grammatical technique as it is needed to describe accurately the\ncorrect forms and the usages violated.\n\nYour committee believes that there is some danger of wasting\nthe time of the pupil in these oral and written language lessons in\nthe first four years by confining the work of the pupil to the expression of ordinary commonplace ideas not related to the subjects\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n327\n\nof his other lessons, especially when the expression is confined to the\ncolloquial vocabulary. Such training has been severely and justly\ncondemned as teaching what is called prating or gabbling, rather\nthan a noble use of English speech. It is clear that the pupil should\n\nhave a dignified and worthy subject of composition, and what is so\ngood for his purpose as the themes he has tried to master in his regu-\n\nlar lessons ? The reading lessons will give matter for literary style,\nthe geography for scientific style, and the arithmetic for a business\nstyle; for all styles should be learned.\nYour committee recommends that selected lists of words difficult\n\nto spell be made from the reading lessons and mastered by frequent\nwriting and oral spelling during the fourth, fifth, and sixth years.\nYour committee recommends that the use of a text-book in grammar begin with the second half of the fifth year, and continue until\nthebeginning of the study of Latin in the eighth grade, and that one\n\ndaily lesson of twenty-five or thirty minutes be devoted to it.\nFor Latin we recommend one daily lesson of thirty minutes for\nthe eighth year. For arithmetic we recommend number work from\nthe first year to the eighth, one lesson each day; but the use of the\ntext-book in number should not, in our opinion, begin until the first\nquarter of the third year. We recommend that the applications of\nelementary algebra to arithmetic, as hereinbefore explained, be substituted for pure arithmetic in the seventh and eighth years, a daily\nlesson being given.\n\nYour committee recommends that penmanship as a separate\nbranch be taught in the first six years at least three lessons per week.\nGeography, in the opinion of your committee, should begin with\noral lessons in the second year, and with a text-book in the third\nquarter of the third year, and be continued to the close of the sixth\nyear with one lesson each day, and in the seventh and eighth years\nwith three lessons per week.\n\nHistory of the United States with the use of a text-book, your committee recommends for the seventh and the first half of the eighth\n\nyear, one lesson each day; the Constitution of the United States for\nthe third quarter of the eighth year.\n\nThe following schedule will show the number of lessons per week\nfor each quarter of each year:\nReading.-Eight years, with daily lessons.\nPenmanship. Six years, ten lessons per week for first two years, five for third\nand fourth, and three for fifth and sixth.\n\nSpelling Lists.-Fourth, fifth, and sixth years, four lessons per week.\nGrammar.-Oral, with composition or dictation, first year to middle of fifth\nyear, text-book from middle of fifth year to close of seventh year, five lessons per\nweek. (Composition writing should be included under this head. But the written\nexaminations on the several branches should be counted under the head of composition work .)\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "328\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nLatin, French, or German.-Eighth year, five lessons per week.\nArithmetic . Oral first and second year, text-book third to sixth year, five lessons per week.\n\nAlgebra. Seventh and eighth years, five lessons per week.\nGeography. Oral lessons second year to middle of third year, text-book from\nmiddle of third year, five lessons weekly to seventh year, and three lessons to close\nof eighth.\n\nNatural Science and Hygiene. Sixty minutes per week, eight years .\nHistory of United States. Five hours per week, seventh year and first half of\neighth year.\n\nConstitution of United States. Third quarter in the eighth year.\nGeneral History and Biography.-Oral lessons, sixty minutes a week, eight\nyears.\n\nPhysical Culture. Sixty minutes a week, eight years.\nVocal Music. Sixty minutes a week, eight years .\nDrawing. Sixty minutes a week, eight years.\nManual Training, Sewing, and Cooking. One-half day each week in seventh\nand eighth years .\n\nYour committee recommends recitations of fifteen minutes in\n\nlength in the first and second years, of twenty minutes in length in\nthe third and fourth years, of twenty-five minutes in the fifth and\nsixth years, and of thirty minutes in the seventh and eighth.\nThe results of this program show for the first and second years\ntwenty lessons a week of fifteen minutes each, besides seven other ex-\n\nercises occupying an average of twelve minutes apiece each day ; the\ntotal amount of time occupied in the continuous attention of the reci-\n\ntation or class exercises being twelve hours, or an average of two\nhours and twenty-four minutes per day.\nFor the third year twenty lessons a week of twenty minutes each,\nand five general exercises taking up five hours a week, or an average\nof one hour per day; giving an average time per day of two hours\nand twenty minutes for class recitations or exercises .\n\nIn the fourth year the recitations increase to twenty-four (by reason of four extra lessons in spelling) and the time occupied in recitations and exercises to thirteen hours, or an average per day of two\nhours and thirty-six minutes.\nIn the fifth and sixth years the number of recitations increases\nto twenty-seven per week, owing to the addition of formal grammar,\nand the total number of hours required for all is sixteen and onefourth per week, or an average of three and one-fourth per day.\nIn the seventh and eighth years the number of lessons decreases\nto twenty-three, history being added, penmanship and special lessons\nin spelling discontinued, the time devoted to geography reduced to\nthree lessons a week. But the recitation is increased to thirty minutes in length. Manual training occupies a half-day, or two and a\nhalf hours, each week. The total is nineteen hours per week or\nthree and three-fourths per day.\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "CORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\nSuperintendence. ]\n\n329\n\nThe following tabular exhibit shows all of these particulars :\nSecond\nYear.\n\nFirst\n\nBRANCHES.\nYear.\n\nReading ...\n\n10 lessons a week.\n\nWriting\n\n10 lessons a week .\n\nThird\nYear.\n\nFourth\n\nFifth\n\nYear.\n\nYear.\n\nSixth\nYear.\n\nSeventh\nYear.\n\nEighth\nYear.\n\n5 lessons a week .\n\n5lessons a week.\n\n3 lessons a week.\n\n4lessons a week .\n\nSpelling lists.......\n\nEnglish Grammar\n\nOral, with composition lessons .\n1\n\n*5 lessons a week with\ntext book.\n5 lessons\naweek.\n\nLatin\n\nArithmetic .\n\nOral 60 minutes a\nweek.\n\n5 lessons a week with text-book.\n\n5lessons a week.\n\nAlgebra.\n\nGeography\n\nOral, 60 minutes a week .\n\n*5 lessons a week with text-book .\n\n3 lessons a week .\n\nNatural Science\n60 minutes a week .\n\n+Hygiene......\n5lessons a\nweek.\n\nU. S. History .\n\n#5\n\nU. S. Constitution .\nles.\n\nGeneral History..\n\nOral, 60minutes a week.\n\nPhysical Culture..\n\n60 minutes a week.\n\nVocal Music.\n\n60 minutes a week, divided into 4 lessons.\n\n60 minutes a week .\n\nDrawing..\nManual\n\nTrain-\n\nOne-halfday each\ning or Sewing\n+Cookery\n\nweek.\n\n20+ 7\n\nNo. of Lessons.....\n\nTotal Hours of\nRecitations .\n\nLength of Recita-\n\n24\n+5\n\n20+ 7\n\n27+5\n\n27+ 5\n\n23+ 6\n\n23+ 6\n\n20+5 daily\ndaily\ndaily\ndaily\ndaily\ndaily\ndaily\ndaily\nexercises exercises. exercises. exercises. exercises exercises. exercises. exercises.\n12\n\n12\n\n112\n\n13\n\n164\n\n164\n\n172\n\n17\n%\n\n15min.\n\n15min.\n\n20 min.\n\n20 min.\n\n25 min.\n\n25 min .\n\n30min.\n\n30min.\n\ntions..\n\n*Begins in second half year.\nIV.-METHODS AND ORGANIZATION.\n\nYour committee is agreed that the time devoted to the elementary\n\nschool work should not be reduced from eight years, but they have\nrecommended, as hereinbefore stated, that in the seventh and eighth\nyears a modified form of algebra be introduced in place of advanced\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "330\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\narithmetic, and that in the eighth year English grammar yield place\nto Latin. This makes, in their opinion, a proper transition to the\nstudies of the secondary school and is calculated to assist the pupil\nmaterially in his preparation for that work. Hitherto, the change\nfrom the work of the elementary school has been too abrupt, the pu\npil beginning three formal studies at once, namely, algebra, physical\ngeography, and Latin.\nYour committee has found it necessary to discuss the question of\nmethods of teaching in numerous instances, while considering the\nquestion of educational values and programs, because the value and\ntime of beginning of the several branches depend so largely on the\nmethod of teaching.\n\nThe following recommendations, however, remain for this part of\ntheir report :\n\nThey would recommend that the specialization of teachers' work\nshould not be attempted before the seventh or eighth year of the\nelementary school and in not more than one or two studies then. In\nthe secondary school it is expected that a teacher will teach one, or,\nat most, two branches. In the elementary school, for at least six\nyears, it is better, on the whole, to have each teacher instruct his\npupils in all the branches that they study, for the reason that only\nin this way can he hold an even pressure on the requirements of\n\nwork, correlating it in such a manner that no one study absorbs undue attention. In this way the pupils prepare all their lessons under\nthe direct supervision of the same teacher, and by their recitations\nshow what defects of methods of study there have been in the preparation.\n\nThe ethical training is much more successful under this plan, because the personal influence of a teacher is much greater when he or\nshe knows minutely the entire scope of the school work. In the case\nof the special teacher, the responsibility is divided and the opportunities of special acquaintance with character and habits diminished.\nWith one teacher, who supervises the study and hears all the recitations, there is a much better opportunity to cultivate the two kinds\n\nof attention. The teacher divides his pupils into two classes, and\n\n•\n\nhears one recite while the other class prepares for the next lesson.\nThe pupils reciting are required to pay strict attention to the one of\ntheir number who is explaining the point assigned him by the teacher ;\nthey are to be on the alert to notice any mistakes of statement or\nomissions of important data, and they are, at the same time, to pay\nclose attention to the remarks of the teacher.\n\nThis is one kind of at-\n\ntention, which may be called associated critical attention. The pupils engaged in the preparation of the next lesson are busy, each one\nby himself, studying the book and mastering its facts and ideas, and\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n331\n\ncomparing them one with another, and making the effort to become\noblivious of their fellow-pupils, the recitation going on, and the\nteacher. This is another kind of attention, which is not associated\nbut an individual effort to master for one's self without aid a prescribed task and to resist all distracting influences . These two disciplines in attention are the best formal training that the school affords.\n\nYour committee has already mentioned a species of faulty correlation wherein the attempt is made to study all branches in each,\nmisapplying Jacotot's maxim, \"all in all\" (tout est dans tout).\nA frequent error of this kind is the practice of making every reci-\n\ntation a language lesson, and interrupting the arithmetic, geography,\nhistory, literature, or whatever it may be, by calling the pupil's attention abruptly to something in his forms of expression, his pronunciation, or to some faulty use of English; thus turning the entire system of school work into a series of grammar exercises and weakening the power of continuous thought on the objective contents of the\n\nseveral branches by creating a pernicious habit of self-consciousness\nin the matter of verbal expression. While your committee would not\nventure to say that there should not be some degree of attention to\nthe verbal expression in all lessons, it is of the opinion that it should\nbe limited to criticism of the recitation for its want of technical ac-\n\ncuracy. The technical words in each branch should be discussed until the pupil is familiar with their full force. The faulty English\nshould be criticised as showing confusion of thought or memory, and\nshould be corrected in this sense.\n\nBut solecisms of speech should be\n\nsilently noted by the teacher for discussion in the regular language\nlesson.\n\nThe question of promotion of pupils has occupied, from time to\ntime, very much attention. Your committee believes, that, inmany\nsystems of elementary schools, there is injury done by too much formality in ascertaining whether the pupils of a given class have completed the work up to a given arbitrarily fixed point and are ready\nto take up the next apportionment of the work. In the early days\nof city school systems, when the office of superintendent was first created, it was thought necessary to divide up the graded course of\nstudy into years of work, and to hold stated annual examinations to\nascertain how many pupils could be promoted to the next grade or\nyear's work. All that failed at this examination were set back at the\nbeginning of the year's work to spend another year in reviewing it.\nThis was to meet the convenience of the superintendent, who, it was\nsaid, could not hold examinations to suit the wants of individuals or\n\nparticular classes. From this arrangement there naturally resulted\na great deal of what is called \"marking time.\" Pupils who had nearly\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "332\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\ncompleted the work of the year were placed with pupils who had\nbeen, till now, a year's interval below them. Discouragement and\ndemoralization at the thought of taking up again a course of lessons\n\nlearned once before caused many pupils to leave school prematurely.\nThis evil has been remedied in nearly one-half of the cities by promoting pupils whenever they have completed the work of a grade.\nThe constant tendency of classification to become imperfect by reason of the difference in rates of advancement of the several pupils,\n\nowing to disparity in ages, degree of maturity, temperament, and\nhealth, makes frequent reclassification necessary.\n\nThis is easily ac-\n\ncomplished by promoting the few pupils who distance the majority\nof their classmates into the next class above, separated as it is, or\nought to be, by an interval of less than half a year. The bright pupils thus promoted have to struggle to make up the ground covered\nin the interval between the two classes, but they are nearly always\n\nable to accomplish this, and generally will in two years' time need\nanother promotion from class to class.\n\nThe procrustean character of the old city systems has been removed by this device.\nThere remain for mention some other evils besides bad systems\nof promotion, due to defects of organization. The school buildings\nare often with superstitious care kept apart exclusively for particular\ngrades of pupils. The central building erected for high school purposes, though only half filled, is not made to relieve the neighboring\ngrammar school, crowded to such a degree that it cannot receive the\n\nclasses which ought to be promoted from the primary schools. It\nhas happened in such cases that this superstition prevailed so far\nthat the pupils in the primary school building were kept at work on\nstudies already finished because they could not be transferred to the\ngrammar school.\n\nIn all good school systems the pupils take up new work when they\nhave completed the old, and the bright pupils are transferred to\nhigher classes when they have so far distanced their fellows that the\namount of work fixed for the average ability of the class does not\ngive them enough to do.\nIn conclusion, your committee would state, by way of explanation,\nthat it has been led into many digressions in illustrating the details\nof its recommendations in this report, through its desire to make\nclear the grounds on which it has based its conclusions, and through\nthe hope that such details will call out a still more thorough-going\n\ndiscussion of the educational values of branches proposed for ele-\n\nmentary schools and of the methods by which those branches may\nbe successfully taught.\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n333\n\nWith a view to increase the interest in this subject, your committee recommends the publication of selected passages from the\npapers sent in by invited auxiliary committees and by volunteers,\nmany of these containing valuable suggestions not mentioned in this\nreport.\n\nWILLIAM T. HARRIS, Chairman,\nUnited States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C.\n\nI dissent from the majority report of the committee in regard to\nthe following points :\nARITHMETIC .\n\n1. As to Fractions.- In teaching arithmetic there does not exist\n\nany greater difficulty in getting small children to grasp the nature\nof the fraction as such than in getting them to grasp the idea of the\nsimpler whole numbers. It is true that the fractions 4, 4, 4, etc., as\nsymbols, are a little more complex than are the single digits; but as\nto the real meaning, when once the fractional idea has been properly\ndeveloped by the teacher and the significance of the idea apprehended\nby the pupil, it is as easily understood as any other simple truth.\nChildren get the idea of half, third, or quarter of many things long\nbefore they enter school, and they will as readily learn to add, subtract, multiply, and divide fractions as they will whole numbers. In\nusing fractions they will draw diagrams and pictures representing\n\nthe processes of work as quickly and easily as they illustrate similar\nwork with integers. It is, of course, assumed that the teacher knows\nhow to teach arthmetic to children ; or, rather, how to teach the children how to teach themselves. There is really no valid argument\nwhy children in the second, third, and fourth years in school should\nnot master the fundamental operations in fractions. Not only this,they will put the more common fractions into the technique of percentage, and do this as well in the second and third grades as at any\nother time in their future progress. There is only one new idea in-\n\nvolved in this operation, and that consists in giving an additional\nterm-per cent to the fractional symbol. When one number is a\npart of another, it may be regarded as a fractional part or as such\n\na per cent of it. A great deal of percentage is thus learned by the pupils early in the course. Children are not hurt by learning.\n\nStand-\n\ning still and lost motion kill.\n\nEvery recitation should reach the full swing of the learner's mind,\nincluding all his acquisitions on any given topic. But if the teaching\nof fractions be deferred, as it usually is in most schools, the time may\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "334\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nbematerially shortened by teaching addition and subtraction of fractions together.\n\nThis is simple enough if different fractions having\n\ncommon denominators are used at first, such as + =? and\n=?\nThen the next step, after sufficient drill on this case, is to take two\nfractions (simple) of different units of value, as +++= ? and - = ?\nMultiplication and division may be treated similarly.\nIn decimals, the pupil is really confronted by a simpler form of\nfractions than the varied forms of common fractions.\n\nDevices and illustrations of a material kind are necessary to build\nup in the pupil's mind at the beginning a clear concept of a tenth,\netc., and then to show that one-tenth written as a decimal is only a\nshorthand way of writing\nas a common fraction, and so on. He\nsees very soon that the decimal is only a shorthand common fraction,\n\nand this notion he must hold to. This is the vital point in decimals.\nThe idea that they can be changed into common fractions and the\nreverse at will, establishes the fact in the pupil's mind that they are\ncommon fractions and not uncommon ones. Fixing the decimal\npoint will, in a short time, take care of itself.\nIn teaching arithmetic the steps are: (1) Developing the subject\ntill each pupil gets a clear conception of it; (2) necessary drill to fix\nthe process ; (3) connecting the subject with all that has preceded it ;\n(4) its applications; (5) the pupil's ability to sum up clearly and concisely what he has learned.\n\n2. As to Abridgment.- Under this head, I hold that a course in\n\narithmetic, including simple numbers, fractions, tables of weights\nand measures, percentage and interest, and numerical operations in\npowers, does not fit a pupil to begin the study of algebra. That\n\nwhile he may carry the book under his arm to the schoolroom, he is\ntoo poorly equipped to make headway on this subject ; and, instead\nof finishing up algebra in a reasonable length of time, he is kept too\nlong at it, with a strong probability of his becoming disgusted with it.\nThere are subjects, however, in the common school arithmetic\nthat may be dropped out with great advantage, to wit, all but the\nsimplest exercises in compound interest, foreign exchange, all foreign\nmoneys (except reference tables of values), annuities, alligation, progression; and the entire subjects of percentage and interest should.\nbe condensed into about twenty pages.\n\nCancellation, factoring, proportion, evolution, and involution\nshould be retained. Cancellation and factoring should be strongly\nemphasized, owing to their immense value in shortening work in\narithmetic, algebra, and in more advanced subjects. Some drill in\nthe metric system should not be omitted.\n3. As to Mental Arithmetic. -Till the end of the fourth year the\npupil does not need a text-book of mental arithmetic. So far his\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n335\n\nwork in arithmetic should be about equally divided between written\nand mental. At the beginning of the fifth year, in addition to his\nwritten arithmetic, he should begin a mental arithmetic and continue\nit three years, reciting at least four mental arithmetic lessons each\nweek. The length of the recitation should be twenty minutes.\nA pupil well drilled in mental arithmetic, at the end of the\nseventh year if the school age begins at six-is far better prepared\nto study algebra than the one who has not had such a drill. There\nare a few problems in arithmetic that can be solved more easily by\nalgebra than by the ordinary processes of arithmetic, but there are\nmany numerical problems in equations of the first degree that can\nbe more easily handled by mental arithmetic than by algebra. To\nattack arithmetical problems by algebra is very much like using a\ntremendous lever to lift a feather.\n\nThose who have found a great\n\nstumbling-block in arithmetical \"conundrums,\" have, if the inside\nfacts were known, been looking in the wrong direction. A deficiency\nof \"number-brain-cells\" will afford an adequate explanation.\n4. Rearrangement of Subjects . There should be a rearranging of\nthe topics in arithmetic, so that one subject naturally leads up to\nthe next. As an illustration, it is easily seen that whole numbers\nand fractions can be treated together, and that, with United States\nmoney, when the dime is reached is the proper time to begin decimals,\nand that, when a \"square\" in surface measure first comes up, the next\nstep is the square of a number as well as its square root, and that\nsolid measure logically lands the learner among cubes and cube-roots.\nWhen he learns that 1728 cubic inches make one cubic foot he is pre-\n\npared to find the edge of the cube. What is meant here is pointing\nthe way to the next above. All depends upon the teacher's ability\nto lead the pupil to see conditions and relations. My contention is,\nthat truth, so far as one is capable of taking hold of it when it is properly presented, is always a simple affair.\n5. As to Algebra. If algebra be commenced at the middle of the\n\nseventh year, let the pupil go at it in earnest, and keep at it till he\nhas mastered it.\n\nHere the best opportunities will be afforded him to\n\nconnect his algebraic knowledge to his arithmetical knowledge. He\nbuilds the one on top of the other. The skillful teacher always insists that the learner shall establish and maintain this relationship\nbetween the two subjects. To switch around the other way appears\nto me to be the same as to omit certain exercises in the common algebra because they are more briefly and elegantly treated in the calculus. It is admitted that a higher branch of mathematics often\nthrows much light on the lower branches ; but these side-lights\nshould be employed for the purpose of leading the learner onward to\n\nbroader generalizations. Unless one sees the lower clearly, the\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "336\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nhigher is obscure. Build solidly the foundation on arithmetic, written and mental, and the higher branches will be more easily mastered and time saved.\nHISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES .\n\nIn teaching this branch in the public schools, there does not ap-\n\npear, so far as I can see, any substantial reason why the pupils should\nnot study and recite the history of the Rebellion in the same manner\nthat they do the Revolutionary War. The pupils discuss the late war\nand the causes that led to it with an impartiality of feeling that\nspeaks more for their good sense and clear judgment than any other\n\nway by which their knowledge can be tested. They may not get hold\nof all the causes involved in that conflict, but they get enough to understand the motives which caused the armies to fight so heroically,\nand why the people, both North and South, staked everything on the\nissue. Just as the men who faced each other for four years and met\nso often in a death grapple will sit down now and quietly talk over\ntheir trials, sufferings, and conflicts, so do their children talk over\n\nthese same stirring scenes. They, too, so far as my experience extends, are singularly free from bitterness and prejudice.\ntainly a period of history that they should study.\n\nIt is cer-\n\nTHE SPELLING -BOOK.\n\nIn addition to the \"spelling-lists,\" I would supplement with a good\nspelling-book. So far, no \"word-list,\" however well selected, has supplied the place of a spelling-book. All those schools that threw out\nthe spelling-book and undertook to teach spelling incidentally or by\nword-lists failed, and for the same reason that grammar, arithmetic,\ngeography, and other branches cannot be taught incidentally as the\npupil or the class reads \"Robinson Crusoe,\" or any other similar work.\nIt is an independent study, and as such should be pursued.\nJAMES M. GREENWOOD,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Mo.\n\nWhile affixing my signature to the report of this committee, as expressing substantial agreement with most of its leading propositions,\nI beg leave also to indicate my dissent from certain of its recommend-\n\nations, and to suggest certain additions which, in my judgment, the\nreport requires.\n1. There are other forms of true correlation which should be in-\n\ncluded with the four mentioned in the first part of the report, and\nwhich should be as clearly and fully treated as are these four.\nThe first is that form of correlation which is popularly understood\nby the name, and which is also called by some writers, concentration.\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n337\n\nco-ordination, unification, and alludes in general to a division of\nstudies into content and form; by content, meaning that upon which\nit is fitting that the mind of the child should dwell, and by form, the\nmeans or modes of expression by which thoughts are communicated.\n\nOr, it may be thus expressed: The true content of education is (1)\nphilosophy-or the knowledge of man as to his motives and hidden\nsprings of action indicated in history and literature, and (2) sciencethe knowledge of nature and its manifestations and laws.\n\nIts form\n\nis art, which is the deliberate, purposeful, and effective expression to\nothers of that which has been produced within man by contact with\nother men and with nature, and is commonly referred to as divided\ninto various arts, such as reading, writing, drawing, making, and\nmodeling. The relation of content and form is that of principal and\nsubordinate, the latter receiving its chief value from the former. In\na true education they are so presented to the mind of the child that\n\nhe instinctively and unconsciously grasps this relation, and is thereby\nlifted into a higher plane of thinking and living than if the various\n\narts are taught, as they too commonly are, without reference to a noble content. This relation of form to content is vaguely referred to in\nthe report, but nowhere definitely treated. It seems to me that it is\na true form of correlation, and, as such, deserves special and definite\ntreatment. Moreover, it is at present much in the minds of the teachers of this country, often in forms that are misleading and harmful.\nThe fact that it adds the important element of interest to the dry de-\n\ntails of common school life makes it especially attractive to progressive and earnest teachers, and this committee should recognize its importance and make such an utterance upon it as will guide the average teacher to a clear comprehension of its meaning and to a wise use\nof it in the schoolroom.\n\nSecond, there is a still higher form of correlation, which is definitely referred to later in the report as that \"of the several branches\nof human learning in the unity of the spiritual view furnished by\nreligion to our civilization.\" This, in the report, is assigned absolutely to the province of higher education. While I do not wish to\ndissent wholly from this view, since it is doubtless true that this\nhigher unity cannot be comprehensively stated for the use of a child,\nyet a wise teacher can so present subjects to even a young child that\na sense of the unity of all knowledge will, to a certain degree, be unconsciously developed in his mind. In regard to certain of the great\n\ndivisions of human knowledge, this relation is so evident that they\ncannot be properly presented at all unless the relation be made clear.\nSuch studies are history and geography.\n2. The recommendations upon the subject of language should be\n\nbroadened to cover the production of good English by the child him\n22\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "338\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nself, with the suggestion of suitable topics and proper methods. This\nreport confines itself to the absorptive side of education, and ignores\n\nthat development of power over nature, man, and self which comes\nfrom free exercise of faculties and free expression of thought. The\nstudy of language, as something for the child to use himself-the\ngreat means by which he is to assert his place in civilization and exert his influence for good-is nowhere referred to except in the\nvaguest way. This statement in regard to language applies almost\nequally well to drawing ; and here is made evident the importance\nof the form of correlation to which I have just referred. The proper\nmaterial for the training of the child in expression is that which is\nfurnished by the study of man and nature. His mind being filled\nwith high themes, he asserts his individuality, expresses himself in\nregard to them, and thereby gains at once both a closer and clearer\n\ncomprehension of what he has studied, and also the power by which\nhe may become a factor in his generation.\n3. I would wish to omit the word \"weekly,\" where it occurs in the\ndiscussion of the subjects of general history and science, unless it be\nunderstood to mean that an amount of time in the school year\n\nequivalent to sixty minutes weekly be given to each of these subjects .\nIt is often better to condense these studies into certain portions of\nthe year, giving more time to them each week, and using them as the\n\nbasis, to a certain degree, of language work. I believe, that, especially with young children, clearer concepts are produced by such\nconnected study, pursued for fewer weeks, than by lessons seven\ndays apart.\n4. In my judgment manual training should not be limited to the\nseventh and eighth grades, but should begin in the kindergarten with\n\nthe simple study of form from objects and the reproduction in paper\nof the objects presented, and should extend, in a series of carefully\ngraded lessons, through all the grades; leaving, however, the heavier\ntools, such as the plane, for the seventh and eighth grades. By these\nmeans an interest is kept up in the various human industries, sympathy for all labor is created, and a certain degree of skill is developed ; moreover, the interest of the pupils in their school is greatly\nenhanced. Manual training has often proved the magnet by which\nboys at the restless age have been kept in school instead of leaving\nfor some gainful occupation.\n\n5. I desire to suggest that geometry may be so taught as to be\na better mathematical study than algebra to succeed or accompany\narithmetic in the seventh and eighth grades. I do not refer particularly to inventional geometry, to which the committee accords a\nslighting attention ; but to constructive geometry and the simplest\npropositions in demonstrative geometry, thus involving the compre\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n339\n\nhension of the elementary geometric forms and their more obvious relations. This study may be made of especial interest in connection\nwith manual training and drawing, while it presents fewer difficulties\nto the immature mind than the abstractions of algebra, since it connects more directly with the concrete, by which its presentation may\noften be aided.\n\n6. While agreeing fully with the majority of the committee that\nthe full scientific method should not be applied to the study of elementary science by young children, yet I am compelled to favor more\nof experimentation and observation by the child and less of telling by\nthe teacher than the report would seem to favor.\n\n7. I would go further than the majority of the committee, and\ninsist that, except in rare cases, there should be no specialization of\nthe teaching force below the high school, and, that, even in the first\nyears of the high school, so far as possible, specialization should be\nsubordinated to a general care of the child's welfare and oversight\nofhis methods of study, which are impossible when a corps of teach-\n\ners give instruction, each in one subject, and see the student only\nduring the hour of recitation.\n8. While in the main I agree with the bald statements under the\n\nhead \"Correlation by Synthesis of Studies,\" since reference is made\nto only a very artificial mode of synthesis not at all in vogue in this\ncountry, I must dissent emphatically from this portion of the report\nas by inference condemning a most important department of correlation, to which I have referred earlier. The doctrine of concentration\n\nis not necessarily artificial ; rather, it refers to the higher unity, of\nwhich this committee has spoken in glowing terms as belonging to\nthe province of higher education. It also includes the division of the\nschool curriculum into content and form, which this committee inferentially adopts in its treatment of language. I do not believe, any\nmore than do the majority of the committee, that the entire course\nof study can be literally and exactly centered about a single subject,\nnor do I believe in any artificial correlation; but there is a natural\nrelation of all knowledges, which this committee admits in various\nplaces, and which is the basis of a proper synthesis of studies according to the psychological principle of apperception.\n9. If, by the term \"oral,\" as applied to lessons in biography and\nin natural science, the committee means, as the word would imply,\nthat the instruction is to be given in the form of lectures by the\nteacher, I cannot in full agree with the committee's conclusions. As\nI have already stated, in natural science the work should be largely\nthat of observation, and in history and biography, while in the very\nlowest grades the teachers should tell the children stories, as soon\nas it is possible the desired information should be obtained by the\n\nstudent through reading. To this end, the reading lesson in school\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "340\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nshould be properly correlated with his other studies, and he should be\nadvised as to his home reading. The information thus obtained\nshould be the subject of conversation in the class, and should furnish\nthe material for much of the written language work of the children.\n\n10. I must dissent emphatically and entirely from that portion\nof the report which recommends that a text-book in grammar be introduced into the fifth year of the child's school life. It is a question\nin my mind whether it would not be better if the text-book were not\nintroduced into the grades below the high school at all. Certainly\nit should not appear before the seventh year. Such knowledge of\ngrammar as will familiarize the child with the structure of the sen-\n\ntence, the basis of all language, and as will enable him to use correctly forms of speech which the necessities of expression require,\nshould be given orally by the teacher in connection with the child's\nwritten work, when needed; but against the introduction of a textbook upon grammar, the most abstruse of all the subjects of the\nschool curriculum, when the pupil is not more than ten years old, I\nmust protest.\n\nInstead of that the child should devote much time,\n\nsome every day, to writing upon proper themes in the best English he\ncan command, furnishing occasion to the teacher to correct such\nerrors as he may make and acquiring by use acquaintance with the\ncorrect forms of grammar. If, as will doubtless be the case in most\ncities, local conditions render the introduction of Latin into the\neighth grade inadvisable, this study of grammar may be made in that\ngrade somewhat more intensive.\n\n11. If by a text-book in geography is meant that which is com-\n\nmonly understood by the term, and not simply geographical readingmatter, in my judgment, it should not be introduced earlier than the\nfifth year.\n\nThese suggestions and expressions of dissent, if approved by the\ncommittee, would necessitate some change in the program submitted,\nthe most important of which would be the making room for the production of English in the grades. This could be provided in the first\n\nand second grades by taking some of the time devoted to penmanship\nand doing the work partly in connection with the reading classes. In\nthe third and fourth grades it should take some of the time devoted\n\nto penmanship, and should be studied, also, in connection with geography and reading ; and, in the fifth and sixth grades, it should take\nall of the time given to grammar.\n\nI regret to be compelled to express dissent upon so many points,\nbut as most of them appear to me vital, and as the differences appear\nto be not merely superficial but fundamental, affecting and affected\nby one's entire educational creed, I cannot do otherwise. To most.\n\nof the report I most gladly give my assent and approval.\nCHARLES B. GILBERT,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, St. Paul, Minn.\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES.\n\n341\n\nI agree most heartily with the main features of the foregoing re-\n\nport of the sub-committee on correlation of studies. It is so admirable in its analysis of subjects and in its statement of comparative educational values, and so suggestive in its practical applications\nto teaching, that I regret to find myself appearing in any way to dissent from its conclusions. Indeed, my principal objection is, not\n\nagainst anything contained in the report (unless it be against a possible inference which might be drawn at one point) but it refers rather\nto what seems to me to be an omission.\n\nIn addition to all the forms of correlation recommended in the re-\n\nport, it seems to me possible to make a correlation of subjects in a\nprogram in such way that the selection of subject-matter may be to\nsome extent from all fields of knowledge. These selections should\nbe such as are related to one another so as to be mutually helpful in\nacquisition. They should be the main features of knowledge in the\ndifferent departments.\n\nThese different departments from which the chosen subjects\nshould be taken must be fundamental ones and must be sufficiently\nnumerous to represent universal culture. The report itself indicates\nconclusively what these are.\nReference is made in the report to various attempts that have\nbeen made to correlate subjects of study.\n\nA very just criticism is made upon that attempt at correlation\nby the use of the story of \"Robinson Crusoe\" as a center of correlation. It is distinctly pointed out in the report, that the experiences\nofRobinson Crusoe are lacking in many of the elements of universal\nculture and in many elements of education needed to adjust the individual properly to the civilization of our time and country. It is\nequally evident that the attempt to make this story the center of correlation leads directly to trivial exercises in other subjects in order\nto make them \"correlate” with \"Robinson Crusoe.\"\n\nIt is also shown\n\nin the report that it naturally leads to fragmentary knowledge of\nmany subjects very much inferior to that clear, logically-connected\nknowledge of a subject which may be had by pursuing it without reference to correlating it with all others.\n\nIt is at this point, that, in my judgment, a wrong inference is permitted by the report.\n\nIt does not, as it seems to me, follow, that, because correlation\nbased on \"Robinson Crusoe\" is a failure, all correlations having the\nsame general purpose will necessarily prove failures. For my own\npart, I do not believe that correlation needs any \"center,\" outside the\nchild and its natural activities. If, however, it seems wiser to give\n\nspecial prominence to any given field of acquisition, it should, in my\njudgment, be accorded to language and its closely related subjects-\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "342\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nreading, spelling, writing, composing, study of literature, etc. Indeed,\nlanguage as a mode of expression is organically related to thinking\nin all fields of knowledge, as form is related to content. A \"system\"\nor \"program\" of correlation on this basis would seek for fundamental\n\nideas in all the leading branches and make them themes of thought\nand occasions of language exercises.\n\nThe selections would omit all\n\ntrivialities in all subjects, and would not attempt to correlate for the\nmere sake of correlation; but would seek to correlate wherever, by\nsuch correlation, kindred themes may be made to illuminate one another. To illustrate : Concrete problems in arithmetic would be\nsought that would clearly develop and illustrate mathematical ideas\nand their application; but, in a secondary way, these problems would\nbe sought for in the various departments of concrete knowledgegeography, history, physics, chemistry, astronomy, meteorology, роlitical, industrial, or domestic economy. But none of these themes\nwould be so relied upon for problems as to compel one to choose un-\n\nreasonable or trivial relations on which to base them. The problems\nthemselves should represent true and important facts and relations\n\nof the other subjects as surely and rigidly as they should involve correct mathematical principles ; and all such exercises should be rightly\nrelated to the child's education in language.\nIn like manner, when a child is engaged in nature study of any\nkind, some valuable problems in mathematics may be found rightly\nrelated both to the subject directly in hand and the child's natural\nprogress in arithmetic. Also, many of the lessons in nature study\nare directly related to some of the finest literature ever produced, in\nwhich analogies of nature are made the means of expression for the\nfinest and most delicate of the human experiences. When the child\nhas mastered the physical facts on which the literary inspiration is\nbased is the true time to give him the advantage of the study of such\nliterature. These ideas are not only rightly related to one another\nbut the mind itself. It is, so to speak, the nascent moment when the\nmind can easily and fully master what might else remain an impenetrable mystery; and all because subjects and occasion have come into\nhappy conjunction.\nThis is not the place in which to attempt any elaboration of such\na system of correlation ; but I feel that its absence from the report\nmay make many persons feel that the latter is so far incomplete.\nL. H. JONES,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n343\n\nWith the main lines of thought in this report I find myself in\n\nagreement. With many of its details, however, I am not in accord.\nI regret to have to express my dissent from its conclusions in the following particulars :\n1. The report makes too little of the uses of grammar as supplying canons of criticism which enable the pupil to correct his own\n\nEnglish, and as furnishing a key (grammatical analysis) that gives\nhim the power to see the meaning of obscure or involved sentences.\n2. For the study of literature, complete works are to be preferred\nto the selections found in school-readers .\n\n3.\n\nThat species of language exercise known as paraphrasing I\n\nregard as harmful.\n\n4. The study of number should not be omitted from the first year\nin school. Practice in the primary operations of arithmetic should\n\nnot be omitted from the seventh and eighth years. The quadratic\nequation should be reserved for the high school.\n\n5. The foreign language introduced into the elementary school\ncourse should be a modern language-French or German. Latin\nshould be reserved for those who have time and opportunity to master its literature.\n\n6. In the general program of studies, the school day is cut up\ninto too many short periods. The tendency of such a program as\nthat in the text would be to destroy repose of mind and render reflection almost an impossibility.\n7. I desire to express my agreement with the opinions stated in\nsections 2, 3, 6, and 9 of Mr. Gilbert's dissenting opinion; and, in the\nmain, with what Mr. Jones says on the correlation of studies.\nWILLIAM H. MAXWELL,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Brooklyn, N. Y.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n[REPORTED BY S. T. DUTTON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BROOKLINE, MASS.]\n\nFRANK M. MCMURRY,\n\nPrincipal of Franklin School, Buffalo, N. Y.-\" The\n\ncorrelation of studies deals with the relation of ideas.\n\nThe word concentration\n\nwas brought to us from Germany, and treats with the relation of studies and\nparts of studies to one another. As a result, the children may study Egypt by\nlearning about the Nile river and the art of Egypt; arithmetic by observing the\ntriangular faces of the pyramids and the manners and customs of the people. All\nthese ideas are brought into relation and help to interest.\" The speaker read from\n\npage 6 of the report, and answered the charge made by Dr. Harris, that \"Robin\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n344\n\n[Cleveland\n\nson Crusoe\" is shallow, and, when used as a system of mnemonics, tends to weaken\nthinking.\n\nThe opponents of the Herbartian system take this as a type, and, con-\n\ndemning the type, reject the whole. The speaker objected to the idea of isolation\nin studies, and said that the report overlooked the thought of culture studies, especially the sciences.\n\n\"The committee forget that there is danger of specialization\n\nin the early years. They insist upon sequence, but do not do so as a matter of\nprinciple. In reading they overlook the idea of unity, and do not deal with literary\nthought as wholes. If they leave out what their report was intended to discuss,\nwhat do they find to present to us ? The new education deals with child study, apperception, and interest. It is recognized that ideas must be active; they must\nbe real and make a direct appeal to the child's interest. All this seems to have\nbeen overlooked in the report. The report makes much of the fact that psychology\nshould be subordinate. This is all a mistake. They discard the value of richness\n\nof thought, and emphasize reading, writing, and arithmetic. I do not believe this\nis right.\"\n\nCOL. FRANCIS W. PARKER.-When, in Boston, two years ago, I moved that a\ncommittee be appointed to report on correlation, I had in mind a full and complete treatment of the subject. I had confidence in the ability of the committee.\nI supposed they would make a careful study of every phase of the subject; that\nthey would make themselves familiar with Herbart, Ziller, Stoy, and Rein. They\nhave ignored the very subject which they were intended to treat. The report\nis a grand restatement of facts long known to all of us . But it is like the play of\n\n\"Hamlet\" with Hamlet left out; or, as I might better say, with Hamlet kicked out.\nToo many teachers at the present time think that Herbartian doctrine seems to\n\nfurnish a grand working hypothesis. The report assumes that the development of\nlanguage cannot be related to the development of thought-that grammar must be\n\nstudied by itself. In speaking of a course of study, it is dogmatically stated that\nthere should be two lessons in reading every day for six years; after that one lesson a day. We are led to infer that children cannot reason. Prof. John Dewey,\non the other hand, declares, that, after the disintegrating process has gone on in the\nadult mind for some years, he is the one who cannot reason, but the child does\nreason .\n\nShall not literature, including history, be made the subject of study from the\nbeginning ? The report leaves no margin for the research of the teacher. Can abstract philosophy direct her? Shall we not be directed by our experience? Just\nthink of six years of regular books. Is there no relief? I shall accept this report\nrespectfully ; I shall take it home and study it prayerfully; but I move that a committee of fifteen be appointed to revise it.\nPRESIDENT DE GARMO, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa.-\" I labor under\ngreat embarrassment in attempting to speak at this time. It is like going to\nchurch and hearing nothing but the text, for Dr. Harris has read only a few\ntheoretical propositions, leaving us quite in the dark as to what the report really\nsays. This report should have been distributed so that every member of the department could have had one before the meeting.\"\n\nThe speaker referred to several\n\ninstances where the report treated of educational values only. \"The entire report is\na critique of educational values. It should be universally read.\n\nIt treats of cor-\n\nrelation of the pupil with his environment, and does show the relative value of\nstudies. But it dismisses the very essence of their correlation as unworthy of\ntreatment. The effect of the report will, I fear, be reactionary so far as correlation is concerned. People will assume one of the two positions which President\nEliot says are the stages incident to progress; first, that no reform is needed; second, that we have it already. The report should be called a discourse on 'Edu\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\nSuperintendence.]\n\n345\n\ncational Values.' So far as the correlation of studies is concerned, it is like the\ntext of the minister to whom I referred, who, at the outset, repeated it several\ntimes, because, as he said, he should have no occasion to refer to it again; for,\nthough the sequence of topics and the mutual relations of studies are mentioned,\nthey are nowhere developed. If this report were accepted we should have to regard education as a series of great tunnels running parallel with each other and\ncrossed at regular distances by other tunnels. The student must first go forward\nin one a little way and then cross into another and make progress by a series of\ntransitions, nowhere perceiving the natural interrelation existing among the\nstudies.\n\nHow much better is it to go out into the world under the sun and follow\n\nthe great natural highways.\"\nW. T. HARRIS, Commissioner of Education.- I must set myself right on Herbart. The report does not allude to Herbart anywhere except in respectful terms.\nThe criticism of the use of \"Robinson Crusoe\" does not attribute its mistakes to\n\nthe Herbartians. Perhaps they would not recognize it as a true statement of\ntheir method. To make Herbart of use in pedagogy we must to some extent ignore\nhis philosophy. His usefulness in education is proportioned to his uselessness as\na philosopher. What can we do with a philosopher who omits the will from the\nthree departments of the mind and retains only intellect and feeling ? Herbart\nwas obliged to explain how man comes to act without the will. He explains that\ndesire can be aroused by interest in such a way that action will follow.\n\nWith this\n\ngreat defect, however, Herbart is valuable in education. His doctrine of apperception does not need any correction. His doctrine of interest, however, needs\nsome limitation, because the idea of the will and the idea of duty are omitted\nfrom his system.\n\nHe must make up by the idea of desire and the idea of interest.\n\nI am surprised that the claim is made here that the report does not treat the subject assigned to it. Correlation of studies is assumed to mean concentration of\nstudies.\n\nThere is no such definition to the word correlation in any dictionary ; only\n\nfour or five obscure books in the English language give the word correlation the\nmeaning of concentration. I was told of this sense of the word correlation, but\ndid not believe for a moment that it had been the intention of the Department of\n\nSuperintendence, in appointing a committee on this subject, to have a report on\nthe Herbartian idea of concentration. The resolution appointing this committee at\nCambridge said \"co-ordination of studies\" and not \"correlation\" or \"concentration.\"\n\nDR. CHARLES A. MCMURRY remarked that this report is essentially an analysis\nand isolation of the branches of study.\n\nDr. Harris had objected to the definition\n\nof correlation suggested by some of the speakers as not contained in any dictionary.\nWould Dr. Harris, on his side, find any dictionary definition of correlation which\njustified the title of correlation over a treatise devoted almost exclusively to an\nanalysis and isolation of the different studies ?\n\n\"I feared,\" he continued, \"that Dr. Harris would take refuge in metaphysical\ndistinction .\n\nHe remarks that Herbart left the will out of his psychology, and, as\n\na consequence, moral education can find no true place in his system of education.\nThis is unfair, and misrepresents Herbart's whole position. As a matter of fact,\nall who are acquainted with Herbart know that he makes moral education the basis\n\nand corner-stone of his whole educational system. In Dr. Harris' report now before us, moral education stands forth with no such prominence as in Herbart's\ntheory and practice of education.\"\nQuoting from the report, the speaker said that the fact of a process being difficult, as the analysis of words and letters, was not proof of its pedagogical value\nat a certain age. \"It is not the most difficult process,\" he said, \"that is most appropriate in the early grades, any more than Latin is the best study for boys sim\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "346\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nply because it is harder and dryer than anything they will study later. The chief\nobjection to this report is, that it will be a tower of strength to those who still hold\nto the old formalism in education. The life-giving spirit of the new movement in\neducation is in sharp contrast to the dead formalism which has been long imposed\nupon the schools. I fear that the report will be accepted as a defense of formal\ndiscipline and will arrest progress already begun.\"\nDR. WALTER B. HERVEY.-My mind assents to nearly all that has been said\nthis morning. I think we should try to harmonize the two ideas, the Hegelian and\nthe Herbartian, which here seem to be at variance. The Hegelian must go out in\nthe world empty himself and find a larger, fuller life. He must lose his life in\norder that he may find it. The Herbartian depends upon what he has acquired.\nHe learns new truth by what he has already gained. We have here the Calvinistic\ntheology set over against the Unitarian. The Herbartian brings to the front\nmoral tests and sentiments. It appeals to the moral feelings. This is higher than\n\nHegelianism or the Hegelian idea, but is not opposed to it. There is a certain degree of isolation in teaching. We do not always need to travel the dull road of\nanalysis.\n\nDR. B. A. HINSDALE.-I did not understand Dr. Harris to say what Dr. McMurry ascribes to him. He did not say that Herbart omitted moral training, but\nthat he based it upon the feelings rather than upon the will. What criteria should\nguide us in studying this problem? I am led to seek for them in the human soul\nand in the study of environment. Neither of these sources can be omitted . Have\n\nwe not all understood that the first steps in teaching involve isolation and analysis,\nbut that there must also be grouping and co-ordination ? There are two natural\ngroups of subjects pursued in schools. First, the elementary school arts; as speech,\nreading, writing, drawing, and number. Second, real studies; those that give\nknowledge and culture. A claim is made that the child should be kept at real\n\nthings, and that the school arts are to be learned along the way. Can this be\ndone? I do not believe we can teach the whole round of human knowledge by\nmeans of teaching certain studies.\n\nDR. E. E. WHITE of Columbus, Ohio.-I have some hesitation in responding to\nthis call. I am only a learner concerning the Herbartian theory of concentration,\nand am trying to keep an open mind. I am, indeed, anxious to know just what\nmy young friends mean, and, in time, I hope to get the proper correlation of their\nideas.\n\nAs I now see it, there is no one essential process or method of education,\nwhether Herbartian or other, and it seems to me somewhat doubtful to assume that\n\nwe have at last found a complete system of pedagogy that is to supplant all that\nhas been heretofore supposed to be fundamental in the art.\n\nThe serious defects\n\nin the psychology of Herbart have led some of the thoughtful advocates of his\nsystem of pedagogy to claim, that an acceptance of his pedagogy does not involve\nan acceptance of his psychology ; but the fact is Herbart's system of pedagogy is\nbased on his psychology, and so a rejection of the latter removes the basis on which\nthe former rests. Instead of his system of pedagogy, you have left only elements\nwhich may be utilized-fruitful suggestions ; but the system as such is in fragments.\n\nI recognize valuable principles of teaching in what is known as the Herbartian\npedagogy, and one of these is the proper blending and unification of subjects of instruction. This is not exclusively Herbartian, but his system gives the principle a\nnew emphasis. But the process is clearly most feasible in primary instruction, and\neven here it has its obvious limitations. I did not understand Miss Arnold last\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n347\n\nevening even to hint that the blendings, which she so admirably pointed out as desirable in primary instruction, are possible or feasible in higher grades. Even in\nthe primary school, the method is in danger of leading to factitious and superficial\nblendings. It is evident that what may be feasible in this respect the first two er\nthree years of school may not be desirable, even if practicable, in higher grades.\nThe primary school, the grammar school, the high school, and the college have each\ntheir characteristic phase of instruction, and the same method cannot be used\nthroughout the course. As we go up in the grades, there is an increasing differentiation of studies until only incidental blendings in closely allied subjects are\npossible in the same exercise ; and, in the university with its special courses, differentiation reaches its maximum. This shows that the so-called concentration is,\nat best, only a phase of a true course of instruction and a diminishing phase. In\nall grades above the primary, correlation, not concentration, is the determining\nprinciple; and even in primary grades all subjects cannot wisely be united in the\nsame exercises. Certainly there is no one method for all classes and grades of\npupils.\nDr. Harris is clearly right, as it seems to me, in his views as to the proper\nmeaning of the \"correlation of studies.\"\n\nHe uses the term, not only in its scientific\n\nbut in its recognized pedagogic sense. Concentration is a different process, and\nshould receive separate consideration. The attempt to use the terms co-ordination,\ncorrelation, and concentration interchangeably, as synonymous, introduces confusion into pedagogic discussion.\n\nI desire to add that the principles recently presented under what is called concentration seem to me to lead to the one conclusion that every child must be taught\nas an individual, and so by himself, and hence all attempts at class instruction are\nfutile and unscientific, and must be abandoned. Individual instruction can alone\nmeet the conditions assumed to be essential by the Herbartian theory as explained\nby its advocates.\n\nWhat does this involve? What becomes of the school as such ?\n\nThere have been many scholars since the flood-scholars who have honored\nlearning and widened its domain. How were they produced ? Not, certainly, by\nany one method, and surely not by \"concentration. \" These hosts of scholars and\nthinkers cannot be accounted for on any such assumption, for they were produced\nunder very unlike methods of elementary education. The history of school-training shows that we are not shut up to a diet of pedagogic hash on the one hand, or\nto one of baked beans on the other.\n\nThe child has some power of appropriation and\n\nassimilation.\n\nDR. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, Columbia College. This is an interesting and\nexciting field of battle; it has not been a Bull Run, and it is manifestly not an\nAppomattox. But the contest should be fair, and we should not permit ourselves to\nbe led away from the main question presented by this report. I shall devote no\npart of my limited time to eulogizing its author. My own intellectual debt to hin\nis too great and of too long standing to make that necessary ; but I am compelled\nto say that with this report I am greatly disappointed. Such a document as this,\npresented at this particular time in the history of our educational development and\nsupposed to deal with the practical problem of the correlation of studies, is extremely unfortunate. This discussion has made it plain that there is among us a\ndifference of opinion as to what the term \"correlation of studies\" means. This re-\n\nport interprets it to mean the correlation between the studies of the school currieulum and the intellectual environment of the pupil. Certainly that is not what\nthe term is taken to mean in our current educational literature and in our current\n\neducational discussions. It has been claimed on this platform, that those who\nuse the phrase \"correlation of studies,\" in reference to the interdependence of\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "348\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nschool subjects one with another, are making a strained and improper use of the\nword. This criticism is not correct. The highest authority that we have, the\n\"Century Dictionary,\" gives as a definition of correlation, \"the act of bringing\ninto orderly connection or reciprocal relation.\" It recites a passage from the great\nwork of Grove, who first made this term familiar in English scientific literature,\nin illustration of the meaning of correlation. This is precisely the sense in which\nthe word is used by Dr. McMurry and others, and it is precisely the sense in which\nI expected to find it used in this report.\n\nThe questions sent out by the committee\n\njustified this expectation. Therefore I say, I am disappointed, and grievously disappointed, that we have in these pages only a passing reference to the real problem\nof correlation or concentration as it is before American teachers at the present\nmoment.\n\nI can find no fault with the use of the word selected by the committee, but I\n\ndo complain that they have not treated the problem, whatever name they choose to\ngive to it, that we asked them to solve. Instead of that, they have given us a splendid and learned discussion of educational values, an analysis of the history of the\n\nschool curriculum, and an elaborate defense of the status quo . It is apparent to\nme, therefore, that this report faces backward and not forward. I say this,\ndespite the fact that it suggests and argues for more than one important innovation in the curriculum.\n\nFor one hundred years, ever since the time of Pestalozzi, we have been trying\nto extract the curriculum from a philosophical discussion of this sort, but we have\nnot succeeded in satisfying ourselves wholly. We have made great advance, and\nfor that advance we in America are indebted more largely to Dr. Harris than to\nany other single person, living or dead. He has taught us to understand why certain specific branches of knowledge are selected for a place in the curriculum,\nand now we ask him to tell us how they are to be correlated, or co-ordinated, or\nconcentrated, in practice, to meet the new demands that are made upon the school ;\nand we get no answer in this report.\n\nThe curriculum that this report recommends to us and the methods that it outlines are arrived at by an analysis made from the adult point of view. Are we,\nthen, to understand that child study is to be given no hearing? Are we shut up to\nformal analysis as the sole method in evolving a practical school plan ? The newer\neducation answers this question directly in the negative. It is putting the child in\nthe place of honor, and asking him to tell us what his nature demands and in what\norder it demands it.\n\nDr. White has said that the legitimate result of this newer\n\nmovement is individualism in teaching. I agree with him absolutely. We hope\nthat the time will come when the individuality of every child will be respected.\nWe want to rescue each child from the thralldom to which the formalism of the\n\nschoolroom has subjected him. For the sake of system we are reducing fifty, sixty,\nor seventy individual children in a schoolroom to a common denominator. It is true\nthat there is no universal educational method, and that the Herbartians are as\nlittle likely as the Hegelians to provide us with a rule that shall know no exception.\nBut in the point of view that they take, based upon the doctrine of apperception\nand upon the doctrine of interest, they are absolutely right, and we did not expect\nthat a committee of this kind would turn this entire movement out of court without\n\nahearing. Personally I am a slavish adherent of no school of thought and wear\nthe badge of none, but I do say that we should not be prevented from giving to\nthis great Herbartian movement prolonged and sympathetic examination. Why\nis it that we find the question of the correlation or the concentration of studies\n\nforced upon us at all? Certainly the normal child sees the world about him as a\ncorrelated and a concentrated whole. It is the adults and the philosophers who\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n349\n\nhave made the analysis that has resulted in separating what to the child is con-\n\nnected; so that, after all, the advocates of correlation are simply endeavoring\nto put the course of study back where they found it and to treat the curriculum\nfrom the child's point of view. The adult is able to distinguish a physical fact\nfrom a chemical fact, a geographical fact from an historical fact, an arithmetical\nfact from an algebraical fact; but the child is not.\n\nHe views them all simply\n\nas facts, and originally they are all on the same plane with regard to his intelligence. We must, therefore, seek the real unity that underlies the curriculum, and\nnot proceed by making first an artificial separation of studies and then a doubly\nartificial synthesis of them.\n\nA preceding speaker has sharply criticised the psychology of Herbart. It is\nundoubtedly true that we cannot accept Herbart's psychology as a satisfactory\nexplanation of mental life. But it is not necessary that we should do so in order\nto secure the benefit of the educational theory and the educational practice that\nbears Herbart's name .\n\nSUPT. S. T. DUTTON, Brookline, Mass.--I shall only say a single word. About\nall has been said that needs to be said now. It seems to me that the question\ntakes this form the same God that made the child made the world about him.\n\nThe purpose of those who mean to work out something better is to find how\nthe child should be taught. Some of my friends do not seem to recognize the value\nof this report. Dr. Harris said very distinctly that the course of study in point\nshould include the whole round of human knowledge. Now, there are two things.\nthat have helped me in this matter, and my view is singularly different from Dr.\nWhite's .\n\nFirst, if correlation makes the kindergarten what it is, it seems to me\n\nthat it should go on. If successful there, it is likely to be in the first year, in the\nsecond, and so on. Second, a cross-section of the course of study at any point\nbrings in so many things that confusion follows unless the Herbartian plan is\nadopted. The only way out of the difficulty is the working out of these principles.\nIf that is not done, we shall have reaction .\nI am not afraid that the cause of correlation will be retarded because of this\n\nreport. Every teacher ought to read this discussion of educational values, and it\nought to help us it will help us. If this report is not complete, it will be completed in the good work of teachers all over this country.\nDR. W. T. HARRIS-I wish to add one remark as to the meaning of correlation. I would call attention to its etymology, which makes it a bringing into relation of what is co-ordinate. In Murray's great English dictionary-see the words\n\ncorrelation, correlate, and correlative-no hint of concentration is given among the\nmany meanings. I knew of the Herbartian idea of concentration of studies, but I\nwas not familiar with the use of the word correlation in the same sense as concentration. Concentration implies subordination of several branches to one central\none. I have given an example, in discussing the method of teaching geography, of\nthe application of the deeper doctrine of concentration.\n\nI have shown that we\n\nshould start with the child and proceed in two directions; one towards the elements of difference, in order to explain the obstacles which man has to overcome.\nOn the other side, we should go towards the subjects of human industry, inven-\n\ntion, and commerce, and learn the method by which man overcomes the \"elements\nof difference.\" Geography for the child should begin in the center and move outward towards these extremes, including at every step a human side and a natural\nside. This is not a philosophical study of correlation, Hegelian or otherwise, although it has been called so in this debate, but a scientific study of the educational\n\nvalue of the branches of the course of study. I began it in 1870. Now, in a\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n350\n\n[Cleveland\n\nscientific study, one does not allow his feelings of attraction or repulsion to cloud\nhis reason. He assumes an unprejudiced attitude towards the object that he\nstudies. Child study, as it is pursued by Dr. Stanley Hall, is pursued with this\ntrue scientific spirit. But child study is not the only thing in education, nor can\neducation be founded on child study alone. The child is here to be correlated with\nthe world. The educator must study the world and study the child, and correlate\nthe one to the other; that is to say, he must bring the child into a knowledge of\nthe world and a mastery of its appliances. The report, of course, assumes the\nvalue of child study, and in all the numerous places where attention is called to\nthe danger of producing arrested development the results of child study are drawn\nupon; but, on the other hand, if you have a knowledge of the child, and do not\nhave a knowledge of the significance of the branches of study and the way in\nwhich they unlock the world of reality, you cannot correlate the child with the\nworld.\n\nPOWERS AND DUTIES OF STATE SUPERINTENDENTS.\n\nBY HON. N. C. SCHAEFFER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION , HARRISBURG , PA.\n\nEducation is primarily the duty of the home. In the historical\ndevelopment of the race many of the functions which belonged originally to the head of the house have been made over to the church\nand the state. In every civilized country, with the possible exсерtion of Iceland (where the long winter nights give the father ample\ntime to teach his own children), the state has assured the task of universal education by establishing schools for the people and organizing systems of public instruction.\nA system of public instruction cannot be efficient without officers charged with executive duties.\n\nThe executive head of a school\n\nsystem is known by various names.\n\nIn the fatherland, where church\n\nand state are united, he is known as the cultus minister. In the\nQueen's dominions he is known as the minister of education. In\n\nmost of the states his official designation is superintendent of public\ninstruction.\n\nIn a few he is known as the commissioner of common\n\nschools. In Massachusetts he is the secretary of the state board of\neducation.\n\nEvery public office has its specified and its implied duties.\n\nIn the\n\npresent instance a discussion of those only which are typical will be\nattempted.\n\nSuch a discussion will serve to reveal wherein the func-\n\ntions and prerogatives of the state superintendent may with advantage be enlarged, and wherein his powers may be abridged without harm to the system.\n\nSince each commonwealth has its own pe\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nPOWERS OF SUPERINTENDENTS.\n\n351\n\nculiar conditions, regulations which work admirably in one state will\n\nnot answer equally well in all other states. The endless variety in\nmatters of detail forbids an attempt at more than the enumeration\nof the duties characteristic of the office in a majority of the states.\nIn all the states it is specified that the superintendent shall, at\n\nstated intervals of a year or two, make reports upon the condition\nof the school system. The points to be covered by each report are\n\nexplicitly stated by legislative enactments in several states ; in\nothers, room is left for the exercise of good judgment. Inasmuch as\nnew questions continually arise and statistics of every kind lose their\ninterest and value after a time, it seems wise to give the state superintendent considerable discretion in the collection of statistics for\n\nhis report. The only need for limitation arises in the case of the statistical fiend, who cannot see that the more time and energy teachers\nmust waste upon figures and percentages the less they will have for\ntheir legitimate work as guides of the young.\nThere is no cheaper or more satisfactory method of distributing\nthe state appropriation than by warrants upon the state treasurer\ndrawn by the superintendent of public instruction and made payable\nto the treasurer of each school district.\n\nThe state superintendent is required to expound the school laws\nand to make decisions for the benefit of directors and others inter-\n\nested in the administration of the school system. In most states his\ndecisions can be reversed by the courts. In New York the state superintendent is the final arbiter in all disputes concerning school\nmatters. \"However democratic in her political philosophy New York\nmay be,\" says Dr. Sidney Sherwood, \"the history of her common\nschools, as well as of her university, shows that she has imperialist\ninstincts.\n\nThe Empire State is not a mere fancy name.\"\n\nThe su-\n\npreme importance of deciding all school questions speedily and without expense causes me to give my unqualified approval to this extraordinary enlargement of his powers, and for this reason I quote more\nfully from the authority just cited : \"Any person feeling himself aggrieved in consequence of any decision made by school district meet-\n\nings, school commissioners, supervisors, district trustees, and other\nofficers, in regard to any matter under the school laws, may appeal\nto the superintendent of public instruction. Thus, the very sanction\nof local self-government-the district meeting is invaded by the\n\ncentral authority of the state. The superintendent, in this capacity,\nestablishes rules of practice, issues injunctions, and makes all necessary orders. Councils are heard before him. The questions involved\n\non their appeals touch all branches of the civil law, of the state constitutional law, real estate law, the law of contracts, the law of wills,\nand the like. Hence, there is conferred upon the superintendent an\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "352\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nappellate judicial authority co-ordinate with that of the court of appeals in some respects; for the law declares that his decision shall\nbe final and conclusive, and not subject to question or review in any\nplace or court whatever.\" Not only is the state superintendent a\ncourt of final appeal, but he is vested with ample powers to enforce\nhis decisions. He has, \"first, the power to compel the assessment and\ncollection of taxes in a school district to pay proper demands against\nthe district; second, the power to remove from office any school\ntrustee, or member of a board of education of a union free school district, or other school officer, for any willful violation or neglect of\nduty under the school statutes, or for willfully disobeying any decision, order, or regulation of the superintendent.\"\nSo far as I can learn, the universal testimony is that this extreme\ncentralization in the system of primary instruction has worked well.\nCertainly it is superior to the Pennsylvania system, under which the\nsame school question is decided in opposite ways by the different\njudges of the court of common pleas. For instance, before the passage\nof the act of June 25, 1885, it was allowable in one county for the\ndirectors to furnish free text-books, whilst immediately on the other\nside of the county line, under the jurisdiction of another judge, this\nwas a violation of law involving dire consequences for the directors,\nalthough they were acting under precisely the same code of laws as\ntheir neighbors. Again and again it has been demonstrated that\n\nmen learned in the law may not be sufficiently posted in school matters to interpret flexible statutes in accordance with the best interests of the children.\n\nIn many states the arrangements for the holding of institutes are\nin the hands of the state superintendent. In the Empire State there\nis an institute faculty under the direction of the central office, so that\nthe quality and variety of talent is limited by its judgment and\nwishes. I am unreservedly in favor of giving the county or city superintendent the power and the means to procure the best talent at\n\nhome and abroad. Feeling himself responsible for the success of the\ninstitute, he will stir up the interest of the general public, secure the\nbest available instructors, and seek to carry into effect their sug-\n\ngestions and directions during his subsequent school visits. Without the enthusiasm created among all classes by a system of magnificent county institutes it would have been impossible in Pennsylvania\nto secure an appropriation of $5,500,000 for common schools and\n\n$875,000 in aid of normal schools and the training of teachers. Where\nthe county superintendents or county school commissioners are\nelected by popular vote, so that the office is made a berth for the fellow who deserves party recognition and for whom there is no other\nplace, resulting occasionally in the selection of men who do not know\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nPOWERS OF SUPERINTENDENTS.\n\n353\n\nthe meaning of all the words in an ordinary spelling list, it is well\nto put into the hands of the state superintendent, not only the arrangements for the annual institute but also the preparation of the\nquestions for the examining and licensing of the teachers. But\nwhere the system of electing county superintendents brings into office\na man equal to the average state superintendent, by all means place\nin his hands the preparation of the questions and the examination\nfor all certificates not designed to be permanent. This will enable\nhim to cut off many who have knowledge without teaching power, as\nwell as to retain all who teach well in spite of limited scholastic attainments.\n\nThe other agencies for the training of teachers, such as the normal\nschools, the summer schools, the \" State School Journal,\" may be left\nin the hands of the state superintendent, in so far as his other duties\npermit him to oversee their work and management. In any event,\nhis coming should be hailed at every educational gathering and at\nevery institution of learning as was the advent of a new teacher in\nancient Athens ; his platform utterances should be replete with\nwords of wisdom and encouragement; his presence should be an inspiration to all with whom he comes in contact, and his scholarship\nand experience should enable him to guide his growing teachers in\ntheir study of the latest investigations and results in the department\nof pedagogy.\n\nThe duty of selecting text-books, prescribing courses of study, and\nmaking lists of books suitable for school libraries and from which purchases must be made, is sometimes imposed upon boards of education,\nof which the state superintendent is the most influential member.\nThe purchase of books should be made the duty of the local authori-\n\nties. The commissions of those charged with the duty of supervision\nshould be issued by the state superintendent, who should have the\npower to withhold the commissions from persons lacking the necessary qualifications. He should also have power to remove any superintendent for neglect of duty, incompetency, or immorality. He\n\ncan, of course, tell beforehand whether a supervisor can get things\ndone, or is simply fit to visit for the purpose of ascertaining and reporting what is done in the schools. Only the former class of superintendents earn their salaries.\n\nIf the commissions of the latter class\n\ncould be revoked it would be a blessing to teachers and pupils.\nIn addition to the specified duties, there are certain implied duties\n\nwhich belong to the office by virtue of its place in a school system.\nFirst among these implied duties is the obligation to make himself\na representative man. By taking up into himself the best elements\nof the nation and the age to which he belongs he may fit himself to\nbecome an educational leader. He should be familiar and in sym\n23\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "354\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\npathy with every grade of school work, from the kindergarten to the\nuniversity.\n\nIn the next place, he should inaugurate and carry into effect useful reforms, lopping off what has become dead and useless but engrafting what is new and full of promise. The world's life is constantly advancing ; the schools should keep pace with the progress\nof the race. True historical development implies the preservation\nof the real essence of the present age whilst its defects are abolished\nand the life of humanity is elevated and enriched. In other words,\nhe should be a conservative in the true sense of the word.\n\nThe word\n\nconservative may be used to designate \"a man who is at the\ntop of the tree and knows it, and means never to come down, whatever it may cost him to keep his place there.\" In this sense \"it means\na man who upholds government, and society, and the existing state\nof things, not because it exists ; not because it is good and desirable\n-because it is established ; because it is a benefit to the population ;\nbecause it is full of promise for the future-but rather because he\nhimself is well off in consequence of it, and because to take care of\nnumber one is his main political principle.\" A conservative in this\nsense of the word a state superintendent should never be ; but he\nshould be a conservative in the sense of one who seeks to preserve existing institutions from unnecessary and hurtful changes.\nPerhaps the most important of his implied duties is to guard his\nschool system from harm. Here he must deal with quasi-reformers,\nill- advised legislators, and agents of expensive charts and fancy apparatus. These last are the vampires whose blood-sucking propensities\neclipse the ghosts of the medieval period, which were said to cause\nthe death of the innocent by sucking the blood out of them while they\nslept. I trust and pray that some ingenious Yankee will concoct a\nrecipe that will be as fatal to these vampires as paris green is to the\npotato-bug.\n\nReformers in education spring up like mushrooms. Now, some\nspecies of mushrooms are edible ; an English botanist speaks of one\n\nkind as food fit for the gods. But many species are very poisonous,\nand typify the quasi-reformers, to whom they may be likened fair\nin appearance but deadly within. The average reformer sees one\n\nthing vividly, and judges everything else from his narrow point of\nview. A member of the Pennsylvania legislature proposed to change\nthe weekly school holiday from Saturday and Monday. On ferreting\nout his motive, a colleague discovered that the reason for the introduction of the bill was his wife's desire to have her daughters at\nhome on washday, whereas she did not need their services on Saturday. Over against such ill-advised legislation, the function of the\nstate superintendent resembles that of the ichneumon, noted for its\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nPOWERS OF SUPERINTENDENTS.\n\n355\n\nhabit of devouring crocodile eggs, which it scratches out of the sand.\nThis animal was regarded as sacred among the ancient Egyptians,\nbecause every egg destroyed meant a future crocodile dispatched.\nMany of the bills introduced at every session of the legislature contain hidden eggs, which, if hatched, develop into crocodiles, fatal to\nthe best interests of the children. It is the sacred duty of the state\nsuperintendent to search out and destroy all eggs of this kind before\nthey are hatched.\n\nLet us next consider the ways of selecting and creating an official\nvested with these ample powers and diverse functions. The plan\nadopted by most of the states is that of election by popular vote. This\ninvolves a nomination by the state convention of each political party.\nThe names at the head of the ticket are the first selected.\n\nThere is\n\nsome probability that the fear of defeat will cause the nomination of\nthe most capable men for governor, lieutenant governor, state treasurer, and the like; but by the time the office of state superintendent\nis reached, the wishes of the congressional districts which have no\nrepresentation on the ticket must be consulted. Thus, often a thirdrate candidate is selected because the best candidates happen to live\n\nin districts from which the other nominees have been taken. Thus,\nthe schools are sacrificed to party success, which is the ruling motive\nat every political convention. Popular indignation may defeat an\nunworthy candidate at the head of the ticket. Never have I known\n\nthe opposition to crystallize against a candidate whom the school\npeople consider unfit for the office of state superintendent. The\nmaxim, Vox populi, vox Dei, may hold when financial and agricultural\ninterests are involved ; but the vox populi often fails to voice the interests of innocent children and defenseless lady teachers, who cast\nno votes at popular elections.\n\nBut one worse method can be con-\n\nceived, viz ., that of election by the general assembly or joint vote of\nthe legislature. Here all the ills by which the people's wishes in the\nselection of United States senators may be defeated are liable to\ncreep into the election, and well-nigh all the reasons which led to the\n\nadoption of the present inethod of electing senators are wanting to\nhim who advocates the joint vote of both branches of the legislature\nas the best method of electing a state superintendent.\nLet us next picture to ourselves the method of appointment by the\ngovernor, with the advice and consent of the senate. In the middle\n\nof his term the office of state superintendent becomes vacant, and,\nDiogenes-like, he lights his lantern in search of a man. Being himself possessed of scholarly instincts, he seeks a man of broad and\nthorough scholarship and of large and varied experience as an educator. He seeks an exemplary exponent of the home, a loyal citizen\nof the republic, and a consistent member of the church.\n\nHis aim is\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "356\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nto find a man who is in sympathy with the progressive movements of\nthe age and who has taken up into himself the best elements of the\npeople whose children are to be educated. Having heard the claim\nof St. Philip Neri, that, with a dozen really detached men, he could\nconvert the world; and having read Newman's comments upon this\nremarkable claim, he concludes, that, in addition to the qualities already named, the appointee should be a detached man. Accordingly\nhe seeks a man who will go about his work because it is his duty,\n\"very much as soldiers are expected to go to battle, without a care\nfor the consequences ;\" one who will do what he conceives to be right\nand for the best interests of childhood, \"caring simply nothing what\nother people choose to say or think of him or do to him;\" one who\nwill account \"credit, honor, name, easy circumstances,comfort, human\naffections, just nothing at all,\" when any school duty involves the\nsacrifice of them. The ideal which the governor is seeking to find realized is a man who is as \"reckless of all these goods of life on occa-\n\nsions of great public duty as, under ordinary circumstances, we are\nlavish and wanton in our use of water, or as we make a present of\nour words without grudging to friend or stranger; one who will rid\nhimself of those who would prostitute the school system for selfish\nends as we get rid of wasps, or gnats, or flies which trouble us, without any sort of compunction, without hesitation before the act, and\nwithout a second thought after it.\"\nWhen at last he finds his man, the answer he receives is :\n\n\"Who\n\nis sufficient for these things ? Suffer me to stick to my post at the\nhead of the college.\" When the appointment is offered to a second\nman, he replies : \"My Lord, suffer this cup to pass from me. Iprefer\nto fill my place in the theological seminary.\" At length the man\nwhom the good Lord has, by sore trials and long experience, prepared\nfor the work, is found, appointed, and reappointed; but his career,\nthough brilliant, ends in sadness, persecution, and premature death.\nThe picture which I have drawn has a basis in fact. Not for\nthirty years has a state superintendent been appointed in Pennsyl-\n\nvania as a reward for party services. The last two presidents have\nshown themselves able to rise above party in the appointment of a\n\ncommissioner of education, and several governors have lately shown\nsimilar magnanimity in their choice of a state superintendent.\nIf it should be felt, that, in order to avoid the mishap of an appointment as a reward for political services, it is necessary to adopt a still\nbetter method, then the only plan which I can conceive of as superior\nto that of appointment by the governor is to vest the selection in\n\nsome board removed from the influences of ordinary politics. The\nboard of regents in New York, the board of education in Massachusetts, the supreme bench in Pennsylvania are sufficiently removed\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n357\n\nfrom the mishaps of politics to insure the selection of a suitable man.\nWhere the method of selection by popular election or gubernatorial\nappointment prevails, a term of four years is better than a term of\ntwo years; but the experience of Massachusetts has shown that ap-\n\npointment by a state board for a term of one year is not incompatible\nwith long tenure of office.\n\nWhatever be the method of selection\n\nadopted, the farther it is removed from the accidents and mishaps of\npolitics and popular elections the better it will be for the school system and the children, for whose sole benefit schools are established\nand conducted.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nSTATE SUPT. J. R. PRESTON, Jackson, Miss.-The duties and powers of a state\nsuperintendent naturally fall under three main divisions, corresponding with the\nmain divisions of the subject of education.\n\nFirst, the historic phase, which includes making a record and collating statistical reports of the actual condition and progress of the schools. These statistics\nshould be systematically collected after a uniform plan, the items being the same\nfor all the states. Otherwise they would be of little value as a basis of comparison with the systems existing in other states.\n\nSecond, the static phase. As the historic phase includes the actual condition of\nthe school, so the static phase embraces the ideal system. This ideal system is\nderived from the study of contemporary systems of education, and should be set\nforth by the state superintendent in the narrative part of his educational reports.\nThe third is the dynamic phase, which includes methods and means by which\nthe actual school system can be modified and brought up to the ideal. This imposes upon the state superintendent, as educational leader of the state, the duty of\nsetting into operation all impulses which may tend to bring about the desired result. His means of doing this are numerous and varied, consisting chiefly of addresses and articles in the newspapers and educational journals, through which\npublic interest is aroused and public sentiment molded. Under this head, also, may\nbe mentioned what may be termed a pathological phase of education, which imposes\nupon the superintendent the duty of looking after and preventing harmful legislation and correcting such evils as may exist in the administration of the system.\nThis requires him to keep in constant touch with the educational officers of the\nstate and to have accurate information of the real condition of the schools throughout his commonwealth.\n\nThe power of the state superintendent will depend mainly upon his personal\nqualities as a leader. By virtue of his official position, he becomes an authority\nin educational matters throughout the state.\n\nA superintendent who administers\n\nthe office wisely magnifies most this official authority. He does most when, forgetting all personal aims, he consults only for what is best for the cause he serves.\nSTATE SUPT. HENRY SABIN of Iowa.-The state superintendent of any state\nshould be a man of the people, respected by all; a leader of the teachers and their\nearnest friend. He must have back of him the educational forces of the state, and,\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n358\n\n[Cleveland\n\nworking with and through those forces, he must encourage educational meetings\nand mold public sentiment. The state superintendent must take the sting out of\nthe harmful legislation-killing off bad measures. These, if taken in time, need\nnot cause him trouble. Sometimes in one way and sometimes in another, and\nalways quietly, he may protect the interests of the people. The name of the state\nsuperintendent should be a household word. He should be the friend and adviser\nof every teacher in the state.\nSTATE AGENT A. W. EDSON of Massachusetts. In response to the assertion\n\nthat there must necessarily be some politics in the election of a state superintendent of education, I have this to say, that one state, at least,-Massachusetts,boasts of the fact that there is absolutely no politics whatever in the selection of\nthe head of the educational department. The state board of education is com-\n\nposed of eight members, exclusive of the governor and lieutenant governor, members ex-officio; one appointed each year and confirmed by the council, to serve for\na period of eight years. This board selects a secretary and six agents.\n\nThe mem-\n\nbers of the board receive no compensation, are appointed without any reference to\npolitical preferences, and have a long tenure of office. As a result, for fifty-seven\nyears, from 1837 to 1894, there have been but five secretaries-Mann, Sears, Boutwell, White, and Dickenson. The political faith of the secretary is not taken into\n\nconsideration; in fact, I doubt if the board knows to which political party the\npresent secretary, Hon. Frank A. Hill, belongs.\nIf the head of the educational department is elected by popular vote or by the\nlegislature, he must, necessarily, be somewhat embarrassed at times in dealing\nwith men and measures. It can't be otherwise. The less politics in connection with\nthe schools the better for them.\n\nIn the good time coming, teachers rather than\n\npoliticians will select educational leaders, school boards, and heads of departments.\nA. E. WINSHIP, Editor of \"New England Journal of Education,\" Boston.Two thoughts have been well emphasized, the duty and the responsibility of the\nstate superintendent. Two others should certainly receive attention-his opportunity and his personality. There is no position in America aside from that ef\ncommissioner of education of the United States that affords such opportunity of\neducational usefulness as that of the state superintendent of schools. He is en-\n\nabled to help those rural communities that are in no condition to help themselves\nin professional advancement.\n\nIt is the personality of the state superintendent, more than that of any other\neducational official, which makes him a power. The personality of Judge Draper,\nas head of the New York state school system, gave him boundless influence at\nhome and an international reputation.\n\nIt is this quality that distinguishes the work in Iowa, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts , as in many other states. Who can speak the influence for good upon\nthe Keystone State of the personality of Wickersham and Burroughs, Higbee and\nWaller-names that make her educational history radiant ? But never in sixty\nyears has there been a more striking and effective personality than that of her\nstate leader, Dr. Schaeffer, from whom we have heard to-day.\nRegarding the political affiliations of the state systems, an important distinction\nhas been omitted. No one expects or desires that the head of the educational department should not have positive political preferences; but it is little short of a\ncrime for those preferences to affect him as an educational official. It is as much\n\na man's duty not to be a politician educationally as it is to be a good citizen personally.\n\nThis department does well to speak in no uncertain tone regarding the choice\nand retention of state superintendents of schools on the strength of their personal\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n359\n\nity and their educational and administrative ability. All honor to New Jersey who\n\nin Republican hands has re-elected an eminent educator, despite the fact that he\nwas previously elected as a Democrat, and to New York who has just elected one\nwho has served as deputy superintendent under both parties. It ought to be possible for the educators of the country to so far affect public sentiment as to secure\nthe retention regardless of political affiliation of every notably efficient state official.\nSTATE SUPT. E. B. PRETTYMAN of Maryland.-In Maryland the state board\n\nof education consists of two ex-officio members, viz., the governor and the state superintendent, and, in addition, of four persons who are appointed by the governor\nby and with the advice and consent of the senate.\n\nThese four are selected from\n\nthe county superintendents or the presidents of the county school boards. Thus,\nfive out of the six members of the state board are actively engaged in school work,\nand constitute a professional board. It is the duty of this board to recommend\nlegislation, and the general assembly usually enacts the laws and amendments so\nrecommended. The public schools of the state are all under the jurisdiction of the\nstate board of education, except those of Baltimore city, which are conducted\nunder local laws .\n\nSTATE SUPT. R. E. EMERY of Wisconsin.-In most of the states many questions\nrequiring judicial decisions come before the state superintendent. In my own\nstate it has been enacted by the legislature that the decisions of the state superintendent should be subject to review at the hands of the supreme court. Within\nten years, however, no appeal has been taken from his decisions.\nSUPERINTENDENT SCHAEFFER, in closing the debate, said : \" It has been im-\n\nplied in the debate that governors in appointing the state superintendents are influenced by political motives. The fact is that in my state, although the governor\nwas a Democrat, he appointed a Republican, and it is an open secret that our\npresent United States commissioner of education did not vote for Harrison from\nwhom he obtained his appointment, and did not vote for Cleveland to whom he\n\nowes his re-appointment. The decisions of the state superintendent in the large\nstates are not the decisions of one man, but of a number of men working to-\n\ngether. And then, after the manner of the decisions of the supreme court, one\nman puts his name to the paper. Instead of the expensive methods and long time\n\nrequired under any other system, we have a way of settling these questions, and\nmany questions there are which it is better to settle any way than to leave unsettled for a very long time. The decisions of the state superintendent should not\n\nbe subject to a reversal by a fallible supreme court. If anyone can interpret data\nin the interests of the children, it is certainly the man who has made education a\nlife-long study.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "360\n\n[Cleveland\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nHISTORY TEACHING IN SCHOOLS.\n\nBY DR. B. A. HINSDALE, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN .\n\nThe report of the conference on history, civil government, and political economy, made to the committee of ten, is a document of forty\noctavo pages, the foundation of which is composed of some thirty-five\nresolutions that were carefully elaborated by the distinguished scholars and teachers who composed the conference, while the superstructure is built up by a careful exposition of these relations and\ntheir enforcement by appropriate arguments, the whole constituting\na solid and valuable body of pedagogical doctrine. Merely to summarize this report and to comment on its salient features would perhaps hardly meet the expectations of the hour. So I shall take up\nthe subject de novo, making such references to the report as shall\nconduce to the stronger presentation of my own ideas. I shall begin\nwith assigning to history its proper place in a full scheme of education.\n\nThat expansion or growth of the human mind which we call education originates in the contact of the mind itself with facts or ob-\n\njects of knowledge. We are not here concerned with the speculative\naspects of the subject; but we must emphasize the fact that all mental activity-the whole train of cognition, feeling, and will-has its\nrise in the establishment of such points of contact. Potent as the\nmind is, it cannot act, and so cannot make increase, in vacuum. These\nfacts or objects of knowledge are divisible into three classes :\n\n1. The Facts of Nature.-Every natural object offers to the mind\na point of contact, and, when such contact is fixed, sensation, perception, apperception, memory, thought, imagination, pleasure and pain,\nchoice and volition, all follow in due course of time.\n\nAll schools of\n\nphilosophy hold that the psychic life originates in the senses.\n2. The Facts of Human Society.-In their simplest forms, the human infant encounters these facts in the family, and thereby gets\nthe discipline that fits him to grapple with the more complex forms\nthat he afterwards encounters in general society and the state.\n\nAs\n\nhe learns what hardness and heat are by beating the floor with his\nheels and thrusting his hand into the flame, so he learns what command, obedience, rule, government, order, right, and duty are through\ncontact with his nurse, parents, brothers and sisters, and playmates.\n3. Introspective Facts, or Facts of the Self- Conscious Mind.-Progress\n\nively, the child becomes self-conscious. He learns the use of \"\nT\"\nand \"me,\" learns that he is not what he sees, and that he is other than\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nHISTORY TEACHING.\n\n361\n\nthe things he touches. He communes with his own heart, and his\nspirit makes diligent search.\nSuch are the primordial agents or factors of human civilization,\nas seen both in individual history and in race history. In both\nspheres they antedate teachers, and schools, and education, as these\nterms are commonly understood. In attrition between mind and\nnatural facts originates natural science; in attrition with social\nfacts, social and moral science; and in attrition with mental facts,\nmental science. To define the relations of these several groups of\nfactors and their comparative values is beside the present purpose ;\nexcept to say, that, for the most part, they run side by side through\nthe conscious life; that their interaction is constant and powerful,\nalthough not uniform in different persons or in different periods of the\nindividual life; and that they are all essential in something like rela-\n\ntive measure to a well-developed mind.\nThese primordial agents of human cultivation are powerfully reenforced by a secondary group. As the first men and women acquired experience through attrition with the worlds of nature, of\n\nsociety, and of the spirit, they imparted to one another what they had\nlearned, and thus became teachers one of another. Ex hypothesi, up\nto this time all knowledge had come from original sources; henceforth second-hand, or derivative, knowledge, and so tradition and\nauthority, play their part. It may be said with truth that there is\nno wide interval in point of time between the action of the primary\nagents and the secondary ones; but it is wide enough, to say nothing of the difference in character, to justify the classification of primary and secondary groups that has been given. So we are led to\nanalyze the group of secondary factors .\n1. First in time and in power, comes spoken language or oral\ntradition, the effect of which upon our minds and lives we are quite\nincapable of estimating.\n\n2. Then follow material monuments of various kinds, ranging\nfrom the articles and utensils of common life to the Pantheon and the\n\nSimplon road.\n\n3. Symbols follow, including the rude art of the savage, picturewriting, and the Parthenon freize.\n\n4. Last of all is writing, and its corrolary, printing, which gives\nus the printed page, books, and libraries. This is, indeed, a kind of\nsymbolism, but a symbolism of so distinct a kind that it well deserves\na separate classification.\n\nThese last factors of cultivation are plainly derivative; they mean\nnothing, and serve no useful purpose save as they rest upon a previous culture. Their relations to one another and to the primary\ngroup do not here concern us, beyond the observation that there has\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "362\n\nNATIONAL EducaTIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nbeen a strong tendency, and particularly since the invention of movable types, to exaggerate the fourth division of the secondary group.\nBut avoiding the questions that are suggested by the words humanism, classicism, realism, and naturalism, let us fix the location of history in the chart of human culture.\n\nThe Father of History tells us that he wrote his immortal book\nthat the actions of men might not be affected by time nor the wondrous deeds of the Greeks and the barbarians be forgotten. He has\nthus defined in a general way the field of history ; it is the field of the\naction or deeds of men.\n\nBut what action or deeds does it embrace ?\n\nShunning the various controversies that a detailed answer would perhaps excite, let us say that history is the story of man's more serious\nand valuable experience in the most important spheres of his activity-in politics, war, religion, art, industrial achievement, education,\nscientific discovery, and moral endeavor; and that its sources go back\nto every one of the secondary agents of education-tradition, monuments, symbolism, and the written page. Seizing first the actions of\nmen that constitute the body of history, the student rests not until\nhe has discovered the spiritual elements out of which these actions\n\nhave sprung. History is, therefore, philosophy teaching by examples. Even Froude, who scorned both the science and the philosophy\nof history, and said history was but a drama, admitted that it does\nteach the difference between right and wrong. And when this much\nis said, what need be added to show its high educational value ? His-\n\ntory is one of the main channels through which the experience of the\nrace is communicated to us ; and to ask whether it is worth while to\n\npay attention to what it conveys, is to ask whether it is worth while\nto defer to experience at all. If it is profitable to study the formation of crystals, the hatching of eggs, the germination and growth\nof seeds, and the surrounding social environment, a fortiore is it\nprofitable to study the evolution of humanity from its lowest to its\nhighest forms ? As in the lower sphere of life man cannot reach his\nends when cut off from association with men, so he cannot meet the\n\nends of the higher sphere when cut off from the past.\nHaving thus assigned to history its place in the circle of educational agents, I do not think that it is necessary to insist, point by\npoint, that it trains the memory, stimulates the imagination, furnishes\nguiding knowledge, and cultivates the faculties of reason. But I\nwould observe, with Bishop Stubbs, that history is a great school of\nthe judgment ; and all the more valuable because it deals with moral\nor probable elements, or just such elements as the pupil now encounters in the home, the school, and the church, and just such elements\nas he will encounter in the town meeting, on 'change, in legislative\nhalls, and administrative offices. How desirable it is, especially,\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nHISTORY TEACHING.\n\n363\n\nthat all persons in public life, that all educators in every sphere,\nshould be trained in this great school! In any active political community the study of the history of a similar community is the study of\nreal life ; and it fits the student for practical affairs in as real a sense\nas work in a biological laboratory fits him for the study of animated\nnature.\n\nThe views presented are also conclusive on another point, viz., that\nthe subject of history should receive more attention than at present\nin the schools. The only open question is, How much more? The\nconference on history declares, in resolution 1, that history and kindred subjects should be a substantial school study in each of eight\nyears; in resolution 11, that this work should be consecutive ; while\nthe amounts of time recommended in resolutions 14, 16, and 17 to be\nset apart to the various divisions of the subject are not less than\nthree forty-minute periods throughout the eight years, or a total of\nabout 900 exercises in all. Moreover, the conference urges that this\ntotal shall be equally divided between the grammar school and the\nhigh school. The committee of ten, dealing with high schools only,\nfails to meet the views of the conference in both the main points. In\nits model classical course it puts four periods a week in the first year,\nthree in the second year, none in the third year, and only offers three\nin the last year as an alternative for mathematics.\n\nIn the Latin and\n\nscientific course the assignment is four periods the first year, none\n\nin the second, two in the third, and the same alternative the fourth\nas in the classical course. These requirements the modern language\ncourse merely duplicates. In the English course history fares better. Four periods are given it in the first year, three the second, four\nthe third, and three the fourth.\n\nThe minimum is a total of six peri-\n\nods, or about 240 exercises; the maximum fourteen periods, or about\n560 exercises. We need not suppose that the failure of the committee to meet the views of the conference is a case of loving Cæsar less\n\nor Rome more, but a case of finding suitable room for all the studies\nthat it felt bound to accommodate. The superintendent of schools,\nalso, is quite certain to demand of the conference where he is to find\ntime for 900 exercises in history. Into these questions of detail it\nis less important now to enter than it is to insist that more time shall\n\nbe found for the subject, even at the cost of reducing somewhat the\ntime accorded to other subjects. Asked to name what subjects, 1\nshould say, in the grammar school, arithmetic and geography ; in\n\nthe high school, mathematics, language, physical science. This, be it\nobserved, in case it is necessary.\nAt what stage of his school life should the pupil be introduced\nto history ? The reply of the conference is, At the beginning of the\nfifth year. My own reply is, At the beginning of the first year. On\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "364\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nthis point the practice of the Herbartian pedagogists is, in the main,\ncorrect. I am not now particular to inquire whether or not \"the material for the instruction that is to mold character should be sought\n\nin the development of the national culture, which is to be followed\nin its chief epochs ;\" or whether Gesunnungs - Stoff should control education in its early stages ; or whether \"history and literature naturally constitute the core of concentration;\" or, indeed, whether, in the\nHerbartian sense, there is such a core. It answers my purpose to\ninsist upon the introduction of history into the first year of the school,\nand upon its continuance to the end thereof. Perhaps it would be\ndifficult to arrange for a German child a better introduction to the\n\nsubject than Ziller's double historical series, irrespective of the theoretical views that lie back of it.\n\nThis is the series :\n\nFirst year, Grimm's \"Fairy Tales ;\" second year, \"Robinson Cru-\n\nsoe; \" third year (1) Bible stories from the time of the patriarchs, (2)\n\"Legends of Thuringia;\" fourth year, (1) Bible stories from the time\nof the judges, then of the kings, (2) \"Niebelungen Tales ;\" fifth year,\n\nBible stories from the time of Christ, (2) History of Henry I., Otto I.,\nCharlemagne; sixth year, (1) Bible stories from the time of Christ\ncontinued, (2) \"Migration of the Nations,\" Roman Empire and the\nPopes, the Crusades, the Middle Ages, Rudolf von Hapsburg; sev-\n\nenth year, (1) the Original Congregations of Churches, and the Apostle Paul, (2) Discovery of America and its first settlement, history of\n\nthe Reformation, the Thirty Years' War ; eighth year, (1) Instruction\nin the Catechism, (2) Frederick the Great, the Napoleonic Wars for\nIndependence, the Restoration of the German Empire.\nAround this \"core\" all other instruction is grouped. One of Ziller's reasons for making such large use of the Bible is the fact that\nbiblical history is everywhere taught in the German schools.\nWhen the child comes to school at the age of six years, he is eager\nfor stories ; perhaps for the reason that their soul is activity, of\nwhich he is so very fond. Stories are congruous with his reading\nand language lessons, and with the books that he learns to read outside of school; while they may be so chosen that they shall convey\nvaluable content. They are the very stuff that the child both wants\nand needs. Furthermore, what is the story but a simple form of history ? Some etymological accident made \"story\" by knocking the\nrough breathing off from \"history.\" Story and history are but earlier\nand later forms of tradition, and, at first, they differed only in the\nkind of language in which they were told. In time history assumed\na more dignified form; but in Herodotus the differentiation is very\n\nobservable, while it is still common to call the masters of historical\nnarration great story-tellers. It is not a mere conceit to say, that\nthere is a striking parallelism between the development of historical\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nHISTORY TEACHING.\n\n365\n\nknowledge in the individual and the development of historical art.\n\nThe child listening to nurse's tale or to old wife's fable, the child\npouring over his book of stories full of incident and adventure and\nthe child studying his book of formal history travels in a few years\nthat long road, the three sections of which are marked in history by\noral tradition, by such writings as those of Herodotus, Livy, and\nFroissart, and by the profound works of Thucydides, Tacitus, and\nPolybius. Now, it is more than probable that the members of the\nconference on history would agree to all that I am saying, with the\nproviso that they do not call tales history. But I should reply, that,\npedagogically speaking, there is no qualitative difference between\nthem, and that you can no more separate the three periods in the\nchild's life sharply than you can separate them sharply in the history\nof the race. Still, I am not sure that the conference would meet my\nviews, because it makes no mention of either mythology or biography\nuntil the beginning of the fifth school grade.\nWhat shall be the range of the work attempted? What the subjects chosen? The conference answers with the following program :\nFifth and sixth grades, biography and mythology; seventh grade,\nAmerican history and elements of civil government; eighth grade,\nGreek and Roman history, with their oriental connections ; first year,\nin the high school, French history; second year, English history (each\nto be so taught as to elucidate the general movement of medieval and\nmodern history) ; seventh year, American history; eighth year, a\nspecial period of history, studied in an intensive manner, and civil\ngovernment.\n\nBefore commenting upon this scheme, I wish to present one that is\nfollowed in the elementary schools of Baden, Germany.\nThird grade, historical tales related by the teacher and repeated\nby the pupils several times ; fourth and fifth grades, historical tales\ncontinued, their number augmented, a brief outline of the history of\nthe village or town and the country (the latter connected with the\ngeography of the country), and short biographies of national heroes ;\nsixth grade, a brief outline of Grecian and Roman history, several\nparts dealt with in a more detailed way, e. g., the Persian wars, Alexander the Great, the wars between the Romans and Germans, the in-\n\nvasion of the barbarians, historical compositions, embracing both\nbiographies and tales and historical essays in the reading book; seventh grade, history of the Middle Ages in Germany, dealt with in the\nsame way as the ancient history in the seventh grade, much stress\nbeing laid on the Crusades and the end of the Middle Ages, historical\n\ntales, biographies, and essays in the reading book; eighth grade,\nmodern times, especially in Germany, history of the Thirty Years'\nWar, the Seven Years' War, the wars against Napoleon, and the war\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "366\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nof 1870-71, dealt with in a complete manner, history of France from\n1648 to 1858 (chiefly the French Revolution), tales, biographies, essays continued, and longer than in previous grades. No text-book is\nused; only oral instruction by the teacher, and a few notes taken by\nthe pupils.\nThis program suggests one important point of difference between\nGerman and American history. Germany has long lain directly in\nthe main stream of the world-movement, while America, from the be-\n\nginning, has lain outside of this stream. German history is primarily\na part of general history, while American history is such only in a\nsecondary degree. The German pupil establishes his historical connections with the world-movement directly, the American pupil only\nby the way of England. Then, historically, as well as geographically,\nthe German is much nearer to Greece and Rome. To a great extent,\n\nthe German's study of Italy or France is a study of Germany itself ;\nbut in the other case this is true only to a limited degree. The result\nis, that the German pupil makes the transition from natural history\nto general history far more easily than the American. This view of\nthe subject is little likely to be questioned. It is here presented as a\nreason for questioning the wisdom of introducing Greek and Roman\nhistory, with their oriental connections, at least as a formal study,\ninto the grammar school. It must be remembered that the typical\npupil of fourteen years of age is not very mature in mind. Besides\nit may well be doubted, also, whether, if foreign history is to be introduced into the grammar school, it would not be better to introduce\nportions of English history. I cannot think the German example at\nthis point is a safe one to follow. But, while I have serious doubts\nabout the formal study of Greece and Rome at this stage of progress,\nI have none whatever about bringing in, not merely the fable, the\nmyth, and the legend found in Homer and Virgil but also the biographies of the Grecian and Roman heroes and sages. Can we not rehabilitate Plutarch? and, if we can, would it not be worth more to\nthe youth than such formal study of Grecian and Roman history as\nwould be possible, no matter whether he goes to the high school or\nat once to active life ?\n\nIt should be observed that the German program says nothing\ndirectly about the orient, and that the American program only mentions its connections with Greece and Rome. To be sure, nobody\nknows very definitely what their early connections were, but I assume\nthat the conference would not go back of the great struggle between\nPersia and Greece. Everybody should have a general knowledge of\nthe Hebrew Bible ; but beyond this we should not, in general education, concern ourselves with Asia, until we reach the epochs across\nwhich are written in letters of light the names, Marathon, Ther-\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nHISTORY TEACHING .\n\n367\n\nmopylæ, Salamis, Platea. For practical purposes, outside of religion,\nwe may regard general history as beginning with Greece. Whatever\none may think of some of Dr. Freeman's historical theories, he will\nhardly dissent from these words in respect to Greece :\nThe Greeks, with their many small states, were the first people from whom\nwe can learn any lessons in the art of politics, the art of ruling and persuading\nmen according to law. The little commonwealths of Greece were the first states\nat once free and civilized which the world ever saw . They were the first states\n\nwhich gave birth to great statesmen, orators, and generals who did great deeds,\nand to great historians who set down those great deeds in writing.\n\nIt was in the\n\nGreek commonwealths, in short, that the political and intellectual life of the world\nbegan.\n\nOr from these words in respect to Rome :\nThe nations which have stood out foremost among all have been the Greeks,\nthe Romans, and the Teutons. And among these it is the Romans who formed\nthe center of the whole story. Rome alone founded a universal empire in which\nall earlier history loses itself, and out of which all later history grew.\n\nOn one point that the conference has touched I wish to utter no\nuncertain sound. The \"acquirement of a body of useful facts\" is pronounced \"the most difficult and the least important outcome of historical study.\" The principal end of history in the schools, as of all\neducation, is declared to be training of the mind. To these expressions, properly understood, there can be no rational objection.\nStill, they seem to ring of the venerable dogma of formal discipline.\nThey seem almost to suggest that profitable historical study can be\ncarried on without the acquirement of a body of useful facts. While\nit is true that the acquisition of facts and real mental training are\n\nnot necessarily measures each of the other, still they cannot be\nwholly separated, and in good teaching they cannot be separated at\nall. The mind cannot be disciplined upon nothing; it works only as\nit works upon something. For one, I stand much in fear that the\n\nfacts taught in the schools will not be well chosen, and that they will\nnot be well taught; but, waiving these two points, I have no fear that\ntoo many facts will be taught, unless, indeed, the subject is allowed\n\nto encroach upon other subjects. To suppose that too many facts\nwill be taught, is to suppose that too much history will be taught.\nHowever, I have no good word to say for the old-fashioned memoriter\nmethod, and cheerfully grant that the facts are only a means to an\nend.\n\nAt this point I wish to read, with some comments of my own, a\nstatement recently made by Prof. Morse Stephens, who came last year\nfrom Oxford to teach European history at Cornell University. *\n* Prof. Morse Stephens, Cornell's new professor of European history from Oxford, has\nmade some interesting comparisons between English and American college students.\n\nHe concludes that the average American undergraduate takes a more comprehensive\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "368\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nCompetent judges are not likely to question the general accuracy of this in-\n\nteresting statement. The explanation of the facts stated is found mainly in the\naims of English and American education, and in the methods of instruction that\n\nare employed, particularly in the secondary schools. First, English teachers lean\nmore on lectures, or other oral instruction, and so on writing and note-books ;\nAmerican teachers, more on oral recitations and on general summaries. One result\nis that the English boy is trained to spell and write better, and to use more correct\nEnglish, than the American boy. The one is methodical and correct in form,\n\nwhere the other is discursive and slipshod. But, secondly, the American pupil's\npeculiar discipline gives him comprehensive views of a subject, a better grasp of\nlarge facts, and a considerable mastery of generalizations, which have their unhappy compensation in a deficient knowledge of details, as well as a defective use\nof English. The American pupil is certainly not strong in names and places. The\nnatural tendency of the recitation method is here reinforced by the very common\ndisposition on the part of teachers to disparage details. \"A mere fact; only a\ndate!\" is the contemptuous phrase with which the careless or ignorant teacher\noften dismisses one of those little things that constitute the very staple of history.\nIn some quarters it has actually come to be a fashion to disparage the man of\n\nlarge information, of full knowledge, regarding him merely as a patient drudge.\nIt is now common to berate the schools for teaching too many facts . Facts may\n\npossibly be badly taught in the schools, or they may be ill chosen; but it is not\ntrue that the pupils of American schools are strong in facts, but the contrary.\n\nIn the third place, there can be no doubt that the typical English boy who comes\nup to the university has received a more regular, a more systematic, and a more\nthorough training than the typical American boy. Of its kind, he has been taught\nin a better school. Once more, it is an old saying that the English mind runs to\ndetails rather than to general views and philosophical principles. Such is the constant charge of the French and German critics.\n\nWhile there can be no doubt that\n\nthe English mind handles an enormous amount of fact-material, it may still be\ndoubted whether Englishmen are remarkable for a nice accuracy in their facts.\nThere is much reason to think the contrary.\n\nThe question whether the American\n\nstudent with his good essay and poor examination paper is better or worse than\nthe English student with his good examination paper and poor essay, is a question\nthat will not here be considered; the truth is, that measurable excellence should\nbe obtained in both exercises.\n\nIt is not necessary to go with Dr. Freeman in declaring that the\nfields of politics and history are co-extensive, in order to find firm\nground on which to rest the teaching of civil government in the\nschools. I quote with entire approval resolutions 28 and 29 adopted\nby the conference :\nview of history, has a better grasp of its essential facts, and surpasses his English\ncousin of corresponding grade in power of generalization; but the American student\nis lamentably deficient in his knowledge of details and also writes very poor English.\nProfessor Stephens thought the essays written by his undergraduate students at Cornell\nwere, on the whole, better than similar essays written by English students at Cambridge, although he sharply criticised the spelling, grammar, and generally careless\nstyle of the Americans. When, however, he set his American students an examination\nof twenty questions concerning dates and places, he was overwhelmed by the lack of\nknowledge of facts displayed in the answers. More than half of the class failed to pass\nthe examination, the average percentage being about forty, and as a ru'e the students\nwho wrote the best essays handed in the poorest examination papers .\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nHISTORY TEACHING.\n\n369\n\nThat civil government in the grammar schools should be taught by oral lessons, with the use of collateral text-books, and in connection with United States\n\nhistory and local geography.\nThat civil government in the high schools should be taught by using a text-\n\nbook as a basis, with collateral reading and topical work, and observation and instruction in the government of the city or town and state in which the pupils live,\nand with comparisons between American and foreign systems of government.\n\nThis direct observation of and instruction in the government of\n\nthe city or town and state is equally important, and even more important, in the elementary schools. Foreign systems of government,\nfor the most part, and certainly comparisons between them and our\nown system, should be deferred to the high school.\nPerhaps no part of the report of the conference has provoked\nmore criticism than the recommendation in respect to the intensive\nstudy of some period of history or other historical subject. It will\nhave been observed that such study as this is found in the German\nschools. The recommendation seems to me a good one, provided\ntime can be found to do the work, and provided the phrase \"intensive\nstudy\" be understood in a sense sufficiently limited or relative.\nWorthy of all praise are the remarks that both the conference\nand the committee of ten have offered on the importance of saving\n\ntime through the better co-ordination of subjects. Without entering\nupon the general merits of the doctrine of concentration, about\nwhich we are now hearing so much, I wish to say that instruction in\nhistory, in language and composition, in geography and civil government, can be so organized as at once to save time and to secure better results than at present. These subjects are as congruous and are\n\nas capable of close articulation as any subject found in the curriculum.\nThe report closes with the recommendation that only teachers\nwho have had adequate special training shall be employed to teach\nhistory and the related subjects. To the obvious objection, that such\nteachers are not to be found in numbers sufficient to carry out the\n\nprogram in the schools of the country, the conference would probably reply that the teachers can be provided as soon as the schools\ncan be put in shape to receive them.\nThe present subject, as well as several others on the program, has\nbeen immediately suggested by the discussion that has been going\non the last three or four years relative to secondary education. In\nthis discussion the central questions have been: What studies shall\nform the staple of such education ? and, In what order and proportion\nshall they be combined? Upon only one phase of the subject do I\nwish to comment. Causes that are here wholly irrelevant imposed\n\nupon the nations of modern Europe a foreign culture conveyed in foreign tongues. The ancient classics became, not merely a department\nof study but practically the field of study. The fact was most anoma\n24\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n370\n\n[Cleveland\n\nlous. The Jews, who have certainly proved themselves a tough and\nenduring nation, knew no literature and no history outside of their\nincomparable Scriptures, which to them were a national literature in\nthe best sense of the term, and not merely a book of religion. The\nGreeks, who were the ablest race intellectually that the world has\n\never seen, were nourished exclusively upon a national vernacular\nculture. Even the establishment of the Greek arts in Rome, following the conquest of Greece, fell far short of the establishment of the\nclassical tradition in breadth and permanency of influence. In re-\n\ncent times the power of this tradition has been broken; it is no longer\nconsidered necessary that an educated man shall study Greek, or even\n\nLatin. Into the general merits of the classical question, I do not propose to go.\n\nIt is unmistakable that there has been a strong drift\n\ntowards modern studies . Has this drift reached its limit ? I cannot\nthink so. While the old humanities will never be banished from the\n\nschools, they can hardly continue to hold even the diminished place\n\nthat they now occupy. Modern studies, and particularly vernacular\nstudies, will encroach upon them still more. This fact has been very\napparent in the discussions of the last three years. Moreover, it cannot be reasonably doubted, that, in the future, increased emphasis\nwill be laid upon the national history and literature as a means of\nforming the national mind and character.\n\nTHE TEACHING OF POLITICAL ECONOMY IN SECONDARY\nSCHOOLS.\n\nBY CHARLES F. THWING ,\n\nOF\n\nWESTERN\n\nSITY AND ADELBERT\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nCOLLEGE .\n\nRESERVE\n\nUNIVER-\n\nThe agreement is widespread that political economy as a system\nshould not be taught in secondary schools.\n\nIt is too recondite, too\n\ntechnical; at present, too uncertain. The agreement is also general\nthat certain truths of political economy should be taught in secondary\nschools. These truths are simple, vital, fixed. This brief paper,\ntherefore, relates to what are the facts which should be taught and\nalso what method of teaching should be used.\nProf. J. B. Clark writes me : \"We should treat economic truth, not\n\nas a specialty but as a vast department of truth-fact and principleabout which all men must and do think.\n\nThe difficulties of the sci-\n\nence when taught as a system are largely due to what is essentially\na cramming method. Much that is really scientific does not need to\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nPOLITICAL ECONOMY.\n\n371\n\nbe difficult. I have actually taught things that figure in advanced\neconomic courses to a boy ten years of age. It is easy to make a\ncourse so perfectly simple and elementary that a child can grasp it.\nIt is too much to expect that this should be done in all the schools\nsoon. It would require some trained teachers and some primers. In\na school or two the method could be perfected, and it could later be\nextended.\"\n\nProf. Franklin H. Giddings writes: \"I believe that certain important and elementary truths of political economy should be taught\nin the public schools, but I am not in favor of introducing there a\nsystem of political economy taught from a text-book.\"\nProf. Henry C. Adams writes me : \"Instead, therefore, of political\neconomy, it would seem to me more advantageous to introduce a\ncarefully prepared study of industrial history. Several advantages\nwould accrue in this. First, students would, through the study of\nindustrial history, come to understand the modern industrial regime\nmore perfectly than in any other way; and that, after all, is what we\nwant.\n\nMen ought to be able to understand the conditions of eco-\n\nnomic life in which they live, rather than familiarize themselves with\nsome other persons' theory with regard to those forces. Another advantage of industrial history would be, that students would come to\nappreciate the fact that the conditions under which they live are not\npermanent but are constantly changing. It would be worth a great\ndeal, for example, if the great mass of men and women to-day, in considering the labor problem, were familiar with the way in which that\nproblem came into existence. They would then regard any particular\nstrike or labor controversy, not as an isolated factor but as a phase\nof a great social movement. In this way they would secure a perspective which it is impossible to obtain in any other manner.\"\nProf. Simon N. Patten, in a paper, \"Economics in Elementary\nSchools,\" has stated what truths, in his opinion, should be taught,\nand has illustrated and enforced his teaching of these truths with\n\nmuch picturesqueness. Professor Patten states that the basis of political economy is found in the theory of utility. From this principle he derives the following truths, which he believes should be and\nmay be taught in elementary schools: \"Initial and final utility;\"\n\"\nIn a group of pleasures and pains, the pains should precede the\npleasures;\" \"A life of unalloyed pleasures;\" \"The basis of credit;\"\n\"The sacredness of unprotected property;\" \"The harmony of consumption ; \" \"The ejection of discordant elements;\" \"Group pleasures\nshould be given the preference above individual pleasures and the\nright of exclusion.\" These truths, which I thus take word for word\n\nfrom his paragraphs, are put into phrase most happy, and an exposition of them is made with rare facility and impressiveness.\n\nAs I\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "372\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nread the whole tract, which is composed of these expositions, I find\nmyself moved to say, that the number of those fitted to teach these\ntruths at all adequately in the elementary schools is small-exceed\n\ningly small. It is only one person in a thousand who can, in a formal\nlecture, explain and illustrate these truths so well as Professor Patten. It is only one teacher in ten thousand who could teach these\n\ntruths in ways at all proper. American education is, in fact, in respect to the need of well qualified persons to teach political economy\n\nin secondary schools, in the same condition in which Charles Wordsworth was when he went for a second mastership to Winchester. He\nneeded a good Greek grammar. He filled this need by making one\nhimself. We need good teachers of political science in the schools.\nI see no way of filling the need except by making the teachers. For,\nit is evident that we must teach the great economic and social truths\nin the secondary schools if they are to be at all taught to the great\n\nbody of the American people. And that these truths ought to be\ntaught to the great body of the American people is as plain as that\nanything ought to be taught to them. For what subjects are, or can\nbe, more important than the relations which men bear to each other?\nTeaching these subjects in the secondary school is more important\nthan teaching them in college. The boy who goes to college is a very\nimportant qualitative part of the community, but he is not a very important quantitative part.\n\nAny value which may attach to a brief paper upon this subject\nmust consist largely upon its definiteness. I therefore shall beg your\nindulgence. In teaching the great truths of political economy or of\npolitical science I should begin with the subject of money. Money\nis the most important economic element with which the child has to\ndo. Pennies fascinate him at an early age. He likes to play with\nthem and to swallow them. Money has a meaning for at least two\nof his senses. As an object of attainment it is pretty constant to him\nup to and through all his schooldays. Therefore, in teaching this\nsubject and beginning with money, I should first ask the question\nwhich Paul Dombey asked, What is money? and, in answering it,\nI should try to answer some of the most important questions of sci-\n\nence and of economic life. Money, we say, is a standard of value and\n\na medium of exchange. At once, in explaining this definition, I\nshould put on the table a one dollar bank bill, a one dollar silver\npiece, a one dollar gold piece, a one dollar check, and a one dollar\nforeign draft. I should then ask, What will that one dollar buy ?\nManifold will be the answers I should get.\n\nOne of the answers would\n\nbe, twenty pounds of sugar. This answer and others would allow me\nto illustrate the difference between ordinary purchase and sale and\nbarter, and would show the convenience of money as a means of ex\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nPOLITICAL ECONOMY.\n\n373\n\nchange. But money is also a standard of value. In explaining this\nphrase I should pick up the silver piece and ask where it came from,\nand point out the processes through which it has passed from the\nhour in which it was mined to the laying of the piece upon the desk.\nIshould thus be able to convey an idea as to cost. With the money\nstill before me I should pass on to the question of demand and sup\nply. There is only one barrel of sugar in town, but people need the\nsugar. Mr A needs it; Mr. B needs it; Mr. C wants a barrel, also.\nBut there is only one barrel for all. The demand of Mr. A plus the\n\ndemand of Mr. B plus the demand of Mr. C will make Mr. X who\nowns the sugar put up the price to a point where perhaps Mr. B can\n\nnot buy, or will buy a less quantity. But it is springtime and maple\nsugar is coming onto the market. The supply may lessen the price\nof sugar. Mr. B has had an addition to his income of a thousand\ndollars a year. Mr. C has likewise become well-to-do. With their\nincreased wealth they can buy more things, both in groceries and\nfurniture. Dealers in these articles increase their supplies. The\ndemand has increased the supply and the supply equals the demand.\nThus I illustrate the great law of demand and supply. I have on my\ntable five kinds of what I may call money. With these kinds before\nme I can talk about a paper currency; I can talk about a convertible\nand inconvertible currency. With the gold and the silver I can talk\nabout a double standard or a single. I have a check here, and I can\ntalk about checks in facilitating business in doing away with the\nneed of currency. With my foreign draft I can go somewhat into the\ndifficult question of international exchanges. International exchanges may introduce the question of free trade or restricted, i. e. ,\nprotection. What is called paper money and gold and silver will allow\nme to talk all I can wish as to the perils of paper money and advantages. At this point in my little course I should take the class\nto a bank and have explained to them what a bank is; what func-\n\ntions it fulfills in the community; and, in particular, its relation to\ncommercial crises. I could discuss the question of the relation of a\nbank to national finances, and the question of the relation of finance\nto the national government. A bank at once brings forth the question of capital, and in a bank in a building built for itself it would\nbe easy to discriminate between capital fixed and capital circulating.\nThis idea of money, too, suggests the idea of cost and price. Cost\nand price lead directly to the idea of labor. I might at once go underneath my money and say that the real cost of the table upon\nwhich my money is lying is the labor that has gone into making the\ntable. Labor leads to the subject of division of labor, and also to\nthe territorial division of labor and its products. Labor opens to us\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "374\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Cleveland\n\nthe question of expenditure, productive and unproductive. This\nquestion of wages, too, is simply a part of the question of money.\nThere are two departments in this subject extremely important\nwhich should be taught by example and illustration. First, the\nfinancial side of the government of the city or town in which the student lives ; and, second, methods of transportation. For the firstthe government of the city-let the class visit the offices of the city\nor town and become acquainted with all the methods of doing the\nmunicipal business. Let the student be shown the books of the city\ntreasurer and the auditor. Let him know the cost of each department of the city's house-keeping. Let him examine every means for\nmeeting this cost. For the question of transportation let him visit\nthe railroad office.\n\nLet him have pointed out to him the signifi-\n\ncance of a railroad ticket, the significance of a freight bill, the significance of a railroad bond or a certificate of railroad stock.\n\nThese\n\nare two departments with which he, as a child, has to do with which\nhe as a man will have to do.\n\ntion.\n\nLet him learn them through observa-\n\nLet him learn their significance through having it pointed out\n\nto him by a wise teacher.\n\nIf the method of visiting be insufficient,\n\nlet copies of various municipal and railroad documents be made, sent\nto the schoolhouses, and seen by and explained to students.\nI am not so blind nor so deaf as not to be aware how very simple\nall this seems to you. But do you know that I have touched upon\nmost of the principles which John Stuart Mill touches upon in his\ngreat book ? Is this method too recondite ? As Professor Clark says,\na child could understand it. Is this method too expensive in time ?\nAn hour a day for a dozen weeks would be ample. Is this method\nbeyond the ability of teachers to use ? If they have mastered a good\nbook, and then have forgotten the book and can use the principles\nof the book, it will be very easy to a teacher. Is this method stupid\nto a child? Not stupid so long as a teacher can afford to invest in\nthree dollars of currency and in blank bank checks. Is the result\n\nworth while ? Certainly, for the result is an intellectual trainingteaching one to think, to discriminate, to reason. Is the result worth\nwhile? Surely, for the result is a moral training of which the principle is that honesty lies at the basis of these methods. Is the result\n\nworth while? Assuredly, for the result is a most useful training, as\nit points out fallacies into which even lawmakers or law interpreters\nhave fallen. Is the result worth while? Yes, it is worth while, for\nit aids every child in becoming a good citizen.\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS.\n\n375\n\nREPORT OF THE SUB- COMMITTEE ON THE ORGANIZATION\nOF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS.\n\nBY ANDREW S. DRAPER, CHAIRMAN.\n\nIt is understood that the committee is to treat of city school systems which are so large that persons chosen by the people to manage\nthem and serving without pay cannot be expected to transact all the\nbusiness of the system in person nor to have personal knowledge of\nall business transactions ; and which are also so large that one person\nemployed to supervise the instruction cannot be assumed to personally manage or direct all of the details thereof, but must, in each case,\nact under plans of organization and administration established by\nlaw and through assistants or representatives.\nThe end for which a school system exists is the instruction of the\n\nchildren, the word instruction being used with the meaning it attains\nin the mind of a well-educated person, if not in the mind of an educational expert.\n\nTo secure this end, no plan of organization alone will suffice.\nNothing can take the place of a sincere desire for good schools, of a\nfair knowledge of what good schools are and of what will make them,\nof a public spirit and a moral sense on the part of the people which\nare spontaneous or which can be appealed to with confidence. Fortunately the interest which the people have in their own children is\nso large and the anxiety of the community for public order and security is so great that public sentiment may ordinarily be relied\nupon, or may be aroused to action, to choose proper representatives\n\nand take proper measures for the administration of the schools. If,\nin any case, this is not so, there is little hope of efficient schools.\nWherever it is so, it alone will not suffice; but proper organization\nmay become the instrument of public sentiment and develop schools\nthat will be equal to the needs of all and become the safeguards of\ncitizenship.\n\nEfficient schools can be secured only by providing suitable buildings and appliances and by keeping them in proper order, on the one\nhand; and, on the other hand, by employing, organizing, aiding, and\ndirecting teachers so that the instruction shall have life and power to\naccomplish the great end for which schools are maintained.\nThe circumstances of the case naturally and quickly separate the\nduties of administration into two great departments : one which\nmanages the business affairs, and the other which supervises the instruction. The business affairs of the school system may be trans-\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "376\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nacted by any citizens of common honesty, correct purposes, and of\ngood business experience and sagacity. The instruction will be in-\n\neffective and abnormally expensive unless put upon a scientific educational basis and supervised by competent educational experts.\nThere will be a waste of money and effort and a lack of results unless the authorities of these two departments are sympathetic with\neach other ; that is, unless, on the one hand, the business management is sound, is appreciative of good teaching, looks upon it as a scientific and professional employment, and is alert to sustain it; and\nuniess, on the other hand, the instructors are competent and selfrespecting, know what good business management is, are glad to uphold it, and are able to respect those who are charged with responsibility for it.\n\nTo secure efficiency in these departments, there must be adequate\nauthority and quick public accountability. The problem is not\nmerely to secure some good schoolhouses, but good schoolhouses\nwherever needed, and to avoid the use of all houses which are not\n\nsuitable; it is not to get some good teaching, but to prevent all bad\nteaching and to advance all the teaching to the highest possible point\nof special training, of professional spirit, and of life-giving power.\nAll of the business matters must be intrusted to competent business\nhands and managed upon sound business principles; and all of the\ninstruction must be put upon a professional basis. To insure this,\nthere must be deliberation and wisdom in determining policy, and\nthen the power to do what is determined upon must be present and\ncapable of exercise, and the responsibility for the proper exercise of\nthe power must, in each case, be individual and immediate.\nIt is imperative that we discriminate between the legislative and\nthe executive action in organizing and administering the schools.\nThe influences which enter into legislative action looking to the general organization and work of the schools must necessarily and fundamentally flow directly from the people and be widely spread. The\ngreater the number of people, in proportion to the entire population,\nwho can be led to take a positive interest and an active part in securing good schools the better will the schools be, provided the people can secure the complete execution of their purposes and plans.\nBut experience has clearly shown that many causes intervene to prevent the complete execution of such plans ; that all the natural enemies of sound administration scent plenty of plunder and are especially active here ; that good school administration requires much\n\nstrength of character, much business experience, much technical\nknowledge, and can be measurably satisfactory only when the responsibility is adequate and the penalties for maladministration are\nDecentralization in making the plan and determining what\n\nsevere .\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS.\n\n377\n\nshall be done, and centralization in executing the plan and in doing\nwhat is to be done, are perhaps equally important.\nIt should be remembered that the character of the school work of\n\na city is not merely a matter of local interest, and that the maintenance of the schools does not rest merely or mainly upon local authority. The people of the municipality, acting-and ordinarily glad\nto act, but in any event being required to act-under and pursuant\n\nto the law which has been ordained by the sovereign authority of the\nstate, establish and maintain schools. They must have the taxing\npower which the state alone possesses in order to enable them to pro-\n\nceed at all. They must regard the directions which the state sees\nfit to give as to the essential character of the schools, when it exercises in their behalf, or when it delegates to them, the power of taxation.\n\nThe plan should be flexible for good while inflexible for evil.\nAfter meeting essential requirements, the people of the municipality\n\nmay and should be empowered to proceed as much farther as they\nwill in elaborating a system of schools. The higher the plane of average intelligence, and the more generally and the more directly the\npeople act in deciding what shall be done, and the greater the facility\nand completeness with which the intelligence of the city is able to\nsecure the proper execution of its plans by officers appointed for that\npurpose, the more elaborate and the more efficient will be the schools.\nIt is idle to suggest that centering executive functions is unwisely\ntaking power away from the people. The people cannot execute plans\n\nthemselves.\n\nThe authority to do so must necessarily be delegated.\n\nThe question simply is: Shall it be given to a number of persons,\nand, if so, to how many? Or, to only one? This question is to be decided by experience, and it is, of course, true that experience has not\nbeen uniform. But it is doubtless true that the general experience\nof the communities of the country has shown, that, where purely executive functions are conferred upon a number of persons, jointly,\nthey yield to antagonistic influences and shift the responsibility\nfrom one to another ; and that centering the responsibility for the\nproper discharge of executive duties upon a single person, who gets\nthe credit of good work and must bear the disgrace or penalty of bad\nwork, and who can quickly be held accountable for misdeeds and in-\n\nefficiency, has secured the fullest execution of public plans and the\nlargest results.\n\nTo call this \"centralization,\" with the meaning\n\nwhich commonly attaches to the word, is inaccurate.\n\nInstead of re-\n\nmoving the power from the people, it is keeping the power closer to\nthe people and making it possible for the citizen in his individual\ncapacity, and for organized bodies of citizens, to secure the execution\nof plans according to the purpose and intent with which those plans\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "378\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nwere made. Indeed, it is safe to say that experience has shown that\nit is the only way in which to prevent the frequent thwarting of the\npopular will and the defiance of individuals whose interests are ignored or whose rights are invaded.\n\nSo much, it seems to us, is strongly supported both by reason and\nby experience, and is clearly manifest.\nBut all the people of a city whose population is numbered by hundreds of thousands or millions cannot meet in a legislative assemblage to formulate plans for school government, any more than they\ncan all meet to make plans for municipal government. They cannot\neven gather in mass meetings, and, if they could, mass meetings cannot deliberate. Even their legislative action must flow, not from a\nprimary but from a representative assembly.\n\nWhat shall such a representative legislative body be called ? How\nshall it be chosen ?\n\nOf how many members shall it be composed ?\n\nAnd what shall be its powers? These and other similar questions\nare all-important and must be determined by the law-making power\nof the state. The sentiments of the city, as expressed through the\nlocal organizations and particularly through the newspapers, must,\nof course, have much weight with the legislature if there is anything\nlike unanimity or any very strong preponderance of opinion in the\ncity; for the plan for which a community expresses a preference will\nsurely be likely to operate most effectually in that community. But\nthe local sentiment is not conclusive. When divided, it is no guide\nat all. The legislature is to take all the circumstances into consideration, take the world's experience for its guide, and, acting under its\n\nresponsibilities, it must exercise its high powers in ways that will\nbuild up a system of schools in the city likely to articulate with the\nstate educational system and become the effective instrument of de-\n\nveloping the intelligence and training the character of the children\nof the city up to the ideals of the state.\nThe name of the legislative branch of the school government is\nnot material, and the one to which the people are accustomed may\nwell continue to be employed. There is no name more appropriate\nthan the \"Board of Education.\"\n\nThe manner of selecting the members of this legislative body may\nturn somewhat upon the circumstances of the city. We are strongly\nof the opinion, that, in view of the well-known difficulty about securing the attendance of the most interested and intelligent electors at\n\nschool elections, as well as because of the apparent impossibility of\nfreeing school elections from political or municipal issues, the better\nmanner of selection is by appointment.\nIf the members of the board are appointed, the mayor of the city\n\nis likely to be the official to whom the power of appointment may\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS.\n\n379\n\nmost safely be intrusted. The mayor is not suggested because his office should sustain any relations to the school system, but because of\nthe fact that it does not and should not. The school system should\nbe absolutely emancipated from partisan politics and completely dissociated from municipal business. But we think the appointments\nshould be made by some one person rather than by a board. The\n\nmayor is representative of the whole city and all its interests. While\nnot chosen with any reference to the interests of the schools, he may\nbe assumed to have information as to the fitness of citizens for par-\n\nticular responsibilities and to be desirous of promoting the educa-\n\ntional interests of the people. If he is given the power of appointment, he should be particularly enjoined, by law, to consider only the\nfitness of individuals and to pay no regard to party affiliations, unless\n\nit be particularly to see to it that no one political party has an overwhelming preponderance in the board. The mayor very commonly\nfeels constrained, under the pressure of party expediency, to make so\nmany questionable appointments that he is only too glad, and particu-\n\nlarly so when enjoined by the law, to make very acceptable appointments of members of school boards, in order that he may gratify the\nbetter sentiment of the city. We are confident that the problem of\ngetting a representative board of education is not so difficult as many\nthink, if the board is not permitted to make patronage of work and of\nsalaried positions at the disposal of the public school system. Under\nsuch circumstances, and more and more so as we have approached\nsuch circumstances, appointment in the way we suggest has produced\nthe best school boards in the larger cities of the country.\n\nAttempts to eliminate partisanship from school administration\nby arraying an equal number of partisansagainst each other in school\nboards do not at least aim at an ideal.\n\nAt times such boards have\n\nworked well and at others have led to mischievous consequences. The\ntrue course is to insist that all who have any share in the management of the schools shall divest themselves of partisanship, whether\n\npolitical or religious, in such management, and give themselves wholly\nto the high interests intrusted to them.\n\nIf it be said that this cannot\n\nbe realized, it may be answered, without admitting it, that, even if\nthat were so, it would be no reason why the friends of the schools\nshould not assert the sound principle and secure its enforcement as\nfar as possible. We must certainly give no countenance to makeshifts\n\nwhich experience has shown to be misleading and expensive. The\nright must prevail in the end, and the earlier and more strongly it is\ncontended for the sooner it will prevail.\nThe members of schools boards should be representative of the\nwhole population and of all their common educational interests, and\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "380\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nshould not be chosen to represent any ward or subdivision of the territory or any party or element in the political, religious, or social life\nthereof. Where this principle is not enforced, the members will feel\n\nbound to gain what advantage they can for the sub-district or special\ninterests they represent; bitter contests will ensue, and the common\ninterests will suffer.\nThe number of the members of a board of education should be\n\nsmall.\n\nIn cities of less than 500,000 inhabitants it should not be\n\nmore than nine, and preferably not more than five. In the very\nlargest cities it may well be extended to fifteen.\n\nThe term for which members are appointed should be a long one,\nsay five years.\nWe think it an excellent plan to provide for two branches and sets\n\nof powers in the board of education ; the one to have the veto power,\nor at least to act as a check upon the acts of the other. This may be\naccomplished by creating the office of school director and charging\nthe incumbent with executive duties on the business side of the ad-\n\nministration, and by giving him the veto over the acts of the other\nbranch of the board, which may be called the school council. Beyond\nthe care and conservatism which are insured by two sets of powers\n\nacting against each other, this plan has the advantage of giving the\nchief executive officer of the system just as high and good a title as\n\nthat of members of the board ; it is likely to secure a more representative man, and gives him larger prerogatives in the discharge of his\nexecutive duties and better standing among the people, particularly\namong the employes and teachers associated with the public school\nsystem.\n\nIf this plan is adopted, the school director should be required to\ngive his entire time to the duties of his position and be properly compensated therefor. He should be the custodian of all property and\nshould appoint all assistants, janitors, and workmen authorized by the\nboard for the care of this property. He should give bond with sufficient sureties and penalties for the faithful and proper discharge of\nall his duties. He should be authorized by law to expend funds, within a fixed limit, for repairs, appliances, and help, without the action\nof the board. All contracts should be made by him and should run in\nhis name, and he should be charged with the responsibility of seeing\nthat they are faithfully and completely executed. All contracts in-\n\nvolving more than a limited and fixed sum of money should be let\nupon bids to be advertised for and opened in public. He should have\na seat in the board of education ; should not vote but should have\n\nthe power to veto, either absolutely or conditionally, any of the acts\nof the board through a written communication.\n\nThis officer and the\n\nschool council should together constitute the board of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS.\n\n381\n\nThe board of education should be vested only with legislative func-\n\ntions and should be required to act wholly through formal and recorded resolutions. It should determine and direct the general policy of the school system. Within reasonable limits as to amount,\nit should be given power, in its discretion, to levy whatever moneys\nmay be needed for school purposes. It should control the expenditure of all moneys beyond a fixed and limited amount, which may\nsafely and advantageously be left to the discretion of the chief executive business officer. It should authorize, by general resolutions,\nthe appointment of necessary officers and employes in the business\ndepartment, and of the superintendent, assistants, and teachers in the\ndepartment of instruction, but it should be allowed to make no appointments other than its own clerk. With this necessary exception,\nsingle officers should be charged with responsibility for all appointments.\n\nThis plan, not in all particulars but in the essential ones, has been\non trial in the city of Cleveland, Ohio, for nearly three years, and has\nworked with very general acceptability. If this plan is adopted, the\nchief executive officer of the system is already provided for and his\nduties have already been indicated. Otherwise it will be necessary\nfor the board to appoint such an officer. In that event the law should\ndeclare him independent, confer upon him adequate authority for the\nperformance of executive duties, and charge him with responsibility.\nBut we know of no statutory language capable of making an officer\nappointed by a board and dependent upon the same board for supplies\nindependent in fact of the personal wishes of the members of that\nboard. And right here is where the troubles rush in to discredit and\ndamage the school system.\n\nWe now come to the subject of paramount importance in making\naplan for the school government in a great city, namely, the character of the teaching force and the quality of the instruction. A city\nschool system may be able to withstand some abuses on the business\nside of its administration and continue to perform its function with\nmeasurable success, but wrongs against the instruction must, in a little time, prove fatal. The strongest language is none too strong here.\nThe safety of the republic, the security of American citizenship, are at\n\nstake. Government by the people has no more dangerous pitfall in\nits road than this, that in the mighty cities of the land the comforta-\n\nble and intelligent masses, who are discriminating more and more\nclosely about the education of their children, shall become dissatisfied\nwith the social status of the teachers and the quality of the teaching\nin the common schools. In that event, they will educate their children at their own expense, and the public schools will become only\ngood enough for those who can afford no better. The only way to\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": "382\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\navert this is by maintaining the instruction upon a purely scientific\nand professional footing. This is entirely practicable, but it involves\nmuch care and expense in training teachers, the absolute elimination\n\nof favoritism from appointments, the security of the right to advancement, after appointment, on the basis of merit, and a general leadership which is kindly, helpful, and stimulating to individuals, which\ncan secure harmonious co-operation from all the members, and which\nlends energy and inspiration to the whole body.\nThis cannot be secured if there is any lack of authority, and experience amply proves that it will not be secured if there is any\ndivision of responsibility. The whole matter of instruction must be\nplaced in the hands of a superintendent of instruction, with independent powers and adequate authority, who is charged with full responsibility.\n\nThe danger of inconsiderate or improper action by one vested with\nsuch powers is, of course, possible, but it is remote. Regardless of\nthe legal powers with which he may be individually vested, he is, in\nfact and in law, a part of a large system. He must act through\nothers and in the presence of multitudes. There is a great publicity\nabout all he does. When a single officer carries such responsibility\nhe is at the focus of all eyes.\n\nThere are the strongest incentives to\n\nright action. Without discovery, at least by many persons, he cannot\nact wrongfully. If he is required to act under and pursuant to a plan,\nthe details of which have been announced, and of which we shall\nspeak in a moment, a wrongful act will be known to the world and he\nmust bear the responsibility of it, and the danger of maladministration is almost eliminated.\n\nMoreover, we must consider the alternative. It is not in doubt.\nAll who have had any contact with the subject are familiar with it.\nIt is administration by boards or committees, the members of which\nare not competent to manage professional matters and develop an ex-\n\npert teaching-force. Yet they assume, and in most cases honestly, the\nknowledge of the most experienced. They override and degrade a superintendent, when they have the power to do so, until he becomes\ntheir mere factotum. For the sake of harmony and the continuance\nof his position he concedes, surrenders, and acquiesces in their acts,\nwhile the continually increasing teaching-force becomes weaker and\n\nweaker and the work poorer and poorer. If he refuses to do this, they\nprecipitate an open rupture and turn him out of his position. Then\nthey cloud the issues and shift the responsibility from one to another.\nThere are exceptions, of course, but they do not change the rule.\nIt will be unprofitable to mince words about this all-important\nmatter. If the course of study for the public schools of a great city\nis to be determined by laymen, it will not be suited to the needs of a\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS.\n\n383\n\ncommunity. If teachers are to be appointed by boards or committees,\nthe members of which are particularly sensitive to the desires of people who have votes or influence, looseness of action-is inevitable and\nunworthy considerations will frequently prevail. If the action of a\nboard or committee be conditioned upon the recommendation of a superintendent, the plan will not suffice. No one person is stronger\nthan the system of which he is a part. Such a plan results in contests between the board and the superintendent, and such contests\nare obviously unequal ones. There is little doubt of the outcome.\nIn recommending the appointment of teachers, the personal wishes\nof members of the board, in particular cases, will have to be acquiesced in. If a teacher, no matter how unfit, cannot be dropped\nfrom the list without the approval of a board or committee after they\nhave heard from her friends and sympathizers, she will remain indefinitely in the service. This means a low tone in the teaching force\nand desolation in the work of the schools. If the superintendent accepts the situation, he becomes less and less capable of developing a\nprofessional teaching service. If he refuses to accept it, he is very\nlikely to meet humiliation; dismissal is inevitable unless he is strong\n\nenough to make himself secure by doing the right thing and going\ndirectly to the people and winning their approval.\nThe superintendent of instruction should be charged with no duty\nsave the supervision of the instruction, but should be charged with\nthe responsibility of making that professional and scientific, and\nshould be given the position and authority to accomplish that end.\nIf the board of education is constituted upon the old plan, he must\nbe chosen by the board. If it is constituted upon the Cleveland plan,\nhe may be appointed by the school director with the approval of twothirds or three-fourths of the council. The latter plan seems preferable, for it centralizes the main responsibility of this important appointment in a single individual. In either case, the law and the sentiment of the city should direct that the appointee shall be a person\nliberally educated, professionally trained, one who knows what good\n\nteaching is and is also experienced in administration, in touch with\npublic affairs and in sympathy with popular feeling.\nThe term of the superintendent of instruction should be from five\nto ten years, and until a successor is appointed. In our judgment it\nshould be determinate so that there may be a time of public examination, but it should be sufficiently long to enable one to lay foundations\nand show results without being carried under by the prejudices which\nalways follow the first operation of efficient or drastic plans. The salary should be fixed by law and not subject to change in the middle\nof a term or except by law.\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "384\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nFor reasons already suggested, the superintendent, once appointed,\nshould have power to appoint from an eligible list all assistants and\nteachers authorized by the board, and unlimited authority to assign\nthem to their respective positions and reassign them or remove them\nfrom the force at his discretion.\n\nTo secure a position upon the eligible list from which appointments may be made, a candidate, if without experience, should be required to complete the full four years' course of the city high schools ,\nor its equivalent, and in addition thereto pass the examination of the\nboard of examiners, and complete at least a year's course of professional training in a city normal training school under the direction of the superintendent. If the candidate has had say three\nyears of successful experience as a teacher, he should be eligible to\nappointment by passing an examination held by a general examining\nboard. This board may be appointed by the board of education,\nbut should examine none but graduates of the high school and training school unless specially requested so to do by the superintendent\nof instruction.\n\nThe number admitted to the training schools should\n\nbe limited, and the examinations should be gauged to the prospective needs of the elementary schools for new teachers. The supply\nof new teachers may well be largely, but should not be wholly,\ndrawn from this local source. The force will gain fresh vitality by\nsome appointments of good and experienced teachers from outside.\nThe work of putting a large teaching force upon a professional basis, of making the teaching scientific and capable of arousing minds to\naction, is so difficult that a layman can scarcely appreciate it. It has\nhardly been commenced-it has been made possible only when the\navenues of approach to the service have been closed against the unqualified and unworthy. After that, the supervision must be close\nand general as well as sympathetic and decisive. The superintendent\nmust have expert assistants enough to learn the characteristics and\n\nmeasure the work of every member of the force. They must help and\nencourage, advise and direct, according to the circumstances of each\nThe work must be reduced to a system and the workers brought\ninto harmonious relations. Each room must show neatness and life,\n\ncase.\n\nand the whole force must show ardor and enthusiasm. By directing\nthe reading, by encouraging an interchange of visits, by organizing\nclubs for self-improvement, by frequent class, grade, and general\nmeetings, the professional spirit must be aroused and the work ener-\n\ngized. Those who show teaching power, versatility, amiability, reliability, steadiness, and growth, must be rewarded with the highest\npositions; those who lack fiber, who have no energy, who are incapable of enthusiasm, who will not work agreeably with their associates,\nmust go upon the retired list. Directness and openness must be en\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS.\n\n385\n\ncouraged. Attempts to invoke social, political, religious, or other outside influences to secure preferment must operate to close the door to\nadvancement. In general and in particular, bad teaching must be\nprevented. In every room a firm and kindly management must prevail and good teaching must be apparent. All must work along common lines which will insure general and essential ends. Until a\nteacher can do this and can be relied upon to do it, she must be helped\nanddirected; when it is manifest she cannot or will not do it, she\nmust be dismissed; when she shows she can do it and wants to do it,\nshe must be left to exercise her own judgment and originality and do\nit in her own way. In the schoolroom the teacher must be secure\nagainst interference. In all the affairs of the school her judgment\nmust be trusted to the utmost limit of safety. Then judgment will\nstrengthen and self-respect and public respect will grow. The qualities which develop in the teacher will develop in the school. To develop these qualities with any degree of uniformity in a large teaching\nforce requires steady and uniform treatment through a long course of\n\nyears under superintendence which is professional, strong, just, and\ncourageous ; which has ample assistance and authority; which is\nworthy of public confidence and knows how to marshal facts, present\narguments and appeal to the intelligence and integrity of the community with success.\nIt is the business of the plan of organization to secure such superintendence. It cannot be secured through an ordinary board of education operating on the old plan. It is well known what the influences are that are everywhere prevalent and must inevitably prevent\nit. It may be secured in the law, and it must be secured there or it\nwill not be secured at all.\n\nIn concluding this portion of the report, the committee indicates\nbriefly the principles which must necessarily be observed in framing\na plan of organization and government in a large city school system.\nFirst-The affairs of the school should not be mixed up with partisan contests or municipal business.\nSecond-There should be a sharp distinction between legislative\nfunctions and executive duties .\n\nThird-Legislative functions should be clearly fixed by statute\nand be exercised by a comparatively small board, each member of\nwhich is representative of the whole city. This board, within statu-\n\ntory limitations, should determine the policy of the system, levy taxes,\nand control the expenditures. It should make no appointments. Every act should be by a recorded resolution. It seems preferable that\nthis board be created by appointment rather than election, and that\nit be constituted of two branches acting against each other.\n25\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "386\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nFourth-Administration should be separated into two great independent departments, one of which manages the business interests\nand the other of which supervises the instruction. Each of these\n\nshould be wholly directed by a single official who is vested with ample\nauthority and charged with full responsibility for sound administration.\n\nFifth-The chief executive officer on the business side should be\n\ncharged with the care of all property and with the duty of keeping it\nin suitable condition; he should provide all necessary furnishings\nand appliances ; he should make all agreements and see that they are\nproperly performed; he should appoint all assistants, janitors, and\nworkmen. In a word, he should do all that the law contemplates and\nall that the board authorizes concerning the business affairs of the\nschool system, and when anything goes wrong he should answer for it.\nHe may be appointed by the board, but we think it preferable that he\nbe chosen in the same way the members of the board are chosen, and\nbe given a veto upon the acts of the board.\nSixth-The chief executive officer of the department of instruction\nshould be given a long term and may be appointed by the board. If\nthe board is constituted of two branches, he should be nominated by\nthe business executive and confirmed by the legislative branch. Once\nappointed, he should be independent. He should appoint all authorized assistants and teachers from an eligible list to be constituted as\nprovided by law. He should assign to duties and discontinue services\nfor cause at his discretion.\n\nto instruction.\n\nHe should determine all matters relating\n\nHe should be charged with the responsibility of de-\n\nveloping a professional and enthusiastic teaching force and of making\nall the teaching scientific and forceful. He must perfect the organiza-\n\ntion of his department and make and carry out plans to accomplish\nthis. If he cannot do this in a reasonable time he should be superseded by one who can.\nThe government of a vast city school system comes to have an\nautonomy which is largely its own and almost independent of direction or restraint. The volume of business which this government\ntransacts is represented only by millions of dollars; it calls not only\nfor the highest sagacity and the ripest experience, but also for much\nspecial information relating to school property and school affairs .\nEven more important than this is the fact that this government controls and determines the educational policy of the city and carries on\nthe instruction of tens or hundreds of thousands of children.\n\nThis\n\ninstruction is of little value, and perhaps vicious, unless it is professional and scientific. This government is representative. All citizens are compelled to support it, and all have large interests which\nit is bound to promote. Every parent has rights which it is the duty\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS.\n\nof this school government to protect and enforce.\n\n387\n\nWhen government\n\nexacts our support of public education, when it comes into our homes\nand takes our children into its custody and instructs them according\nto its will, we acquire a right which is as exalted as any right of property, or of person, or of conscience can be ; and that is the right to\nknow that the environment is healthful, that the management is kindly and ennobling, and that the instruction is rational and scientific.\nIt is needless to say to what extent these interests are impeded or\n\nblocked, or how commonly these rights of citizenship and of parentage are denied or defied, or how helpless the individual is who seeks\ntheir enforcement under the system of school government which has\nheretofore obtained in some of the great cities of the country. This\n\nis not surprising. It is only the logical result of the rapid growth of\ncities, of a marvelous advance in knowledge of what is needed in the\nschools, of the antagonism of selfish interests by which all public administration and particularly school administration is encompassed,\nand of the lack of plan and system, the confusion of powers, the absence of individual responsibility, in the government of a system of\nschools. By the census of 1890 there are seven cities in the United\nStates, each with a population greater than any one of sixteen states.\nThe aggregate population of twelve cities exceeds the aggregate population of twenty states. Government for education certainly requires\nas strong and responsible an organization as government for any other\npurpose. These great centers of population, with their vast and complex educational problems, have passed the stage when government\nby the time-honored commission will suffice. No popular government\never determined the policy and administered the affairs of such large\n\nbodies of people successfully, ever transacted such a vast volume of\nbusiness satisfactorily, ever promoted high and beneficent ends, ever\nafforded protection to the rights of each individual of the great multitude, unless in its plan of organization there was an organic separation of executive, legislative, and judicial functions and powers. All\nthe circumstances of the case and the uniform experience of the world\n\nforbid our expecting any substantial solution of the problem we are\nconsidering until it is well settled in the sentiments of the people that\nthe school systems of the greatest cities are only a part of the school\nsystems of the states of which these cities form a part, and are subject to the legislative authority thereof-until there is a plan of school\ngovernment in each city which differentiates executive acts from\nlegislative functions, which emancipates the legislative branch of\nthat government from the influence of pelf-seekers ; which fixes\n\nupon individuals the responsibility for executive acts, either performed or omitted; which gives to the intelligence of the community\nthe power to influence legislation and exact perfect and complete ex-\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n388\n\n[Cleveland\n\necution; which affords to every citizen whose interests are ignored,\nor whose rights are invaded, a place for complaint and redress ; and\nwhich puts the business interests upon a business footing, the teaching upon an expert basis, and gives to the instruction that protection\nand encouragement which is vital to the development of all professional and scientific work.\n\nWe have undertaken to indicate the general principles which we\nthink should be observed in setting up the framework of government\nof a large city school system. While we have no thought that any\nprecise form of organization which could be suggested would, in all\n\ndetails, be imperative, we are confident that the form or plan of organization is of supreme consequence, and that any which disregards\nthe principles we have pointed out will work to disadvantage or lead\nto disaster.\n\nANDREW S. DRAPER,\n\nPresident of the Illinois State University, Champaign, Ill.\nW. B. POWELL,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C.\nA. B. POLAND,\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Trenton, N. J.\n\nI find myself in general accord with the doctrines of the report.\nThere is only one feature of it from which I feel obliged to dissent,\nand that is an important though not necessarily a vital one. I refer to\nthe office of school director.\n\nI see no need of such an officer elected\n\nby the people, and I do see the danger of his becoming a part of the\npolitical organization for the dispensation of patronage.\nAll power and authority in school affairs should reside ultimately\nin the board of education, consisting of not more than eight persons\n\nappointed by the mayor of the city, to hold office four years, two members retiring annually and eligible for reappointment once and no\nmore.\nThis board should appoint as its chief officer a superintendent\nof instruction, whose tenure should be during good behavior and efficiency, and whose powers and duties should be to a large extent defined by statute law, and not wholly or chiefly by the regulations of\nthe board of education. The superintendent of instruction should\nhave a seat and voice but not a vote in the board of education.\n\nThe\n\nboard of education should also appoint a business agent, and define\nhis powers and duties in relation to all matters of buildings, repairs,\nand supplies, substantially as set forth in the report in relation to the\nschool director.\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n389\n\nAll teachers should be appointed and annually reappointed or recommended by the superintendent of instruction, until after a sufficient probation they are appointed on a tenure during good behavior\nand efficiency.\n\nAll matters relating to courses of study, text-books, and examinations should be left to the superintendent and his assistants, constituting a body of professional experts who should be regarded as alone\ncompetent to deal with such matters, and should be held accountable\n\ntherefor to the board of education only in a general way, and not in\nparticular details.\nEDWIN P. SEAVER,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass.\n\nI concur in the recommendations of the sub-committee on the or-\n\nganization of city school systems as summarized in the concluding\nportion of the report, omitting in item 3 the words \"And that it be\nconstituted of two branches acting against each other.\" Omit in item\n\n5, \"but we think it preferable that he be chosen in the same way\nthat members of the board are chosen and be given veto power upon\nthe acts of the board.\" I recommend that the veto power be given to\nthe president of the board.\nALBERT G. LANE,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Chicago, Ill.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nE. E. WHITE, Columbus , Ohio.-I consent to open the discussion with the\ndistinct understanding that I am in no way passing judgment upon the organization of the schools of any particular city. The fact that I had official relations\nto the somewhat radical reform in school administration in Cincinnati, which prepared the way for the still more radical reform in Cleveland, enables me to appreciate the value of the service which this city is rendering the cause of education\nin the direction of needed reforms in school organization in cities. The auspicious\ninauguration of this radical reform in Cleveland is an assurance that other cities\nwill soon profit by its example. This city is to be congratulated on its happy choice\nof a man for school director who has so wisely discharged the extraordinary duties\nof his office, especially in the choice of men to fill the important position of superintendent of instruction.\n\nIt is the purpose of the very able report to which we have just listened to present an ideal organization of the schools of large cities under normal conditions. It\ndoes not assume, as I take it, to indicate what school organization is best fitted to\nmeet the emergencies of a revolution in school affairs. School systems, as a rule,\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "390\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nhave a history back of them; but it sometimes happens that a city wisely rebels\nagainst its past experience in school administration and sets up a new organization in order to cure evils no longer tolerable. It is evident that a school organization best fitted to meet such abnormal conditions may not be the best possible for\ncities under normal conditions.\n\nWhat, then, is the best possible organization of the schools of a large city ? The\n\nreport clearly presents the facts and the principles which enter into the problem,\nand if I had the liberty to strike out a few sentences, I could approve heartily the\norganization recommended. The report presents two sound and fruitful principles\nof school organization, to wit :\n1. The separation of the legislative and executive functions of school administration. This principle is the basis of any efficient legislation, and its embodiment,\nin some practical form, is the first step in the needed reform in school organization.\n2. The separation of the executive function into two distinct departments.the business and the pedagogic, each in charge of an officer clothed by law with\nthe authority and the responsibility requisite for the highest efficiency. This principle is scarcely less vital than the preceding one.\n(1) The legislative function, including the general direction of the schools,\nshould be vested by state law in a body composed of representatives of the people,\nand I know no better appellation for such a body than the \" Board of Education. \"\nIt is my belief that this board of education should have full authority and responsibility within its legitimate functions, and so I would omit the recommendation of the report that another body or person should have the power to veto its\nactions or otherwise share its necessary authority and responsibility. The board\nof education should represent and be responsible to the people in all school legislation.\n\nThe report is in accord with experience in the recommendation that the board\n\nof education should be a comparatively small body-to be composed of five to fifteen members. It certainly should not be composed of more than twenty members .\nWhether the members of the board shall be elected by the people directly, or be\nappointed by some officer as the mayor, depends much on the size of the city and\nother local conditions. The one fact to be remembered in all school legislation is,\nthat we are living under a republican or representative form of government, in\nwhich all legislative power emanates from the people. It is not worth while to\nattempt to divorce the schools from their control. The problem is, how to give the\npeople the fullest possible control, and the ward politicians the least possible opportunity to come between the people and their purpose to have good schools-their\nvital interest.\n\n(2) The report is correct in recommending that there be a clear distinction\nmade between the legitimate duties of the board of education and those executive\n\nduties which experience shows that no board can efficiently or wisely discharge.\nThe executive duties involved in school administration should be intrusted to two\n\nindependent officers, a business manager or director and a superintendent of instruction, and the duties of these officers should not only be properly co-ordinated,\nbut the authority and general duties of each should be clearly defined by state law,\nnot by the rules of the board of education.\n\nThe duties of these two executive of-\n\nficers are well stated in the report, but I would add more specifically that the superintendent should not only have the appointment and assignment of teachers, and\nthe supervision of instruction, but he should also be responsible for the course of\nstudy, and, to this end, should have the selection of books and other teaching appliances.\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n391\n\nHow shall these officers be appointed and what shall be their tenure of office ?\n\nI know no plan that promises, on the whole, better results than their appointment by the board of education. No one can realize more keenly than myself the\nforce of the objections to this mode of appointing the superintendent, so strongly\n\nstated in the report; and yet, in my judgment, the most hopeful remedies for the\nevils and perils set forth lie in the direction (1) of a longer and more certain tenure\n\nof office, and (2) the full guaranty of requisite independence in authority and duty\nby state law.\n\nThere are obvious objections to the appointment or nomination of the superintendent by the business director, but the initial nomination might possibly be\nwisely intrusted to the president of the board. In the transition from the present\nsystem of school administration to the one proposed there will necessarily be some\nfriction. Men who, as members of the school board, have been accustomed to exercise executive and even supervisory functions, will naturally feel the loss of\npower and influence when these duties are intrusted to the superintendent or business manager, and they may seek to retain them by personal demands upon these\nofficers. As a result, the superintendent who has the inauguration of the new\nsystem may here and there be sacrificed; but this result is to be accepted as an\nincident in all radical reforms that involve a change in official power and responsibility. It may be wise for the first superintendent (and possibly business\nmanager), if he proposes to discharge his duties with fidelity, to be ready to retire\nwhen those who covet lost power and influence have an opportunity to pass on\nthe question of his continuance in office; but an appointment for even five years\n(the minimum term recommended in the report) will greatly lessen the liability of\nsuch an issue. In my judgment, the limited term of five to ten years recommended\nis better than a tenure for life; but I have not time to give reasons.\nPROF. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass. In a circular of suggestions for ethical instruction in schools are enumerated as proper\nsubjects, \"Providence, Honesty, and Thrift, and How All These Evils are Caused\nby Intemperance.\" The able report of the sub-committee on school organization\nproceeds on somewhat similar lines-\"Authority, Economy, and Efficiency, and\nHow These Evils Are Caused by Board Government.\"\nTo resist the logic and consecutiveness of the committee's argument is, however, impossible; for it strikes at evils of which we in New England are especially sensible. The separation of executive from legislative functions which it\nproposes will not only prevent the political, and sometimes corrupt, combinations\nwhich often demoralize the schools, but will prevent, also, that waste of expert\ntime which goes on under the most honestly administered systems so long as committees and sub-committees rule.\n\nIt would relieve some members of the Boston\n\nSchool Committee from six hours a day of harassing labor over the appointment\nof janitors and the patterns of ink-wells ; and it would set free the superintendent\nand supervisors of that city-a city once so pre-eminent in education-from exhausting routine, and from the hampering effect of a body of laymen who continually settle the principles and details of professional questions.\nYet any student or observer of American politics, however convinced of the\n\nsoundness of the general principles of this report, must recognize the difficulty of\nthe changes which it advocates. At least four of the suggestions there made will\nrouse instant opposition in many communities, and especially in New England.\nAppointive councils are perhaps better than elective. Possibly I should be more\ninclined to think so were I not a member by election of one of the bodies to be reformed-on which I might not find a seat by appointment. But in introducing that\nsystem you must face the serious danger of diminishing the popular interest in the\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "392\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nschools; which, at least in the smaller communities, is a steady force in favor of\ngood education. A board of education must not degenerate into a board of intellectual public works. A second point for reflection is the suggestion of \"two\nbranches acting against each other.\" One of the things which I learned in the\nexcellent high schools of this city, of which I am very proud to be a graduate, was,\nthat \"action is always equal to reaction, and in the opposite direction.\" A third\ndifficulty which will be felt east of the Hudson is the conferring independent powers of taxation on boards of education; for it is contrary to the New England\npractice of two centuries and a half. The fourth, and, to my mind, the most\nvulnerable, point in the report is the tacit attempt to avoid the natural results of\npopular local government. The legislature is to be appealed to from time to time\nto draft educational charters in detail, and to fix them upon cities, willing or unwilling. Is that the road to good government? Are legislatures so pure and wise in\nstate matters that you can trust them in city matters ? Are members of legis-\n\nlatures more likely than the people of the city themselves to know their wants and\nto provide for them impartially ? Are the people of Cleveland satisfied with the\n\nhistory and result of their soldiers' monument ? Are you going, in the long run, to\nkeep up popular interest in good schools by withdrawing from popular election, not\nonly the executive but the legislative officers ? The report calls for a system \"flexible for good, while inflexible for evil.\" There is only one power in the universe\n\nto which that antithesis can apply, and that is the Almighty. Even upon his power\nthere is a limitation pointed out by the little theologian of five, who was told that\nGod was omnipotent. She objected that \"He couldn't make a two-year-old mule\n\nin a minute.\" Doubtless the committee recognizes that the ideal system of school\ngovernment must have behind it a certain time for development; that the tradi-\n\ntions and conditions of a community must be consulted even in making good\nchanges.\n\nThe truth is (and we must work within that truth if we are to reach any results), that the most promising devices for improving the public service are, after\nall, simply an appeal from Philip drunk to Philip sober; from the people confused,\nunorganized, misled-even wrong-headed-to that sober second-thought of the people\nwhich is the foundation of American government. By appointing superintendents,\nthrough the mayor or other executive officer, by giving them a suitable term, by\nputting into their hands the school executive power, you can prevent hasty action\nand secure responsibility; by separating the business from the professional management, you get expert skill on both sides.\n\nYet the measure of the schools is the\n\ncharacter of the people. They cannot always get as good a system as they desire,\nthough organization helps them to reach it; but you cannot invent any machinery\nwhich will compel the people to maintain a better system than they desire.\n\nWhile fully recognizing the power and fruitfulness of the committee's report,\nit is still possible to criticise it for some things which it does not say. It treats\nably and exhaustively of school boards, directors, superintendents, supervision, and\nauthority. Is that all there is in school education ? Certainly not; there is also the\nenumeration of the materials for efficient schools. \"Buildings\"-good ! \"Appliances\"-excellent ! and Teachers !\"\n\nHow are the teachers to be used in this com-\n\nbination ? On the same page we are informed that it is \"by employing, organizing,\n\naiding, and directing\" them; but nowhere does it suggest consulting them. Is it\nunfair to say that the conception of the teacher's place in school organization as set\nforth by this report is that of a well-regulated service of letter carriers ? \"The first\n\ndelivery will begin at 8:30. There will be two deliveries daily. Badly addressed\nchildren may be returned to the superintendent's office, or to the sender. Special\ndelivery children must be hastened forward to their destination. Carriers are not\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n393\n\nto be appointed solely on political influence, and must pass suitable examinations.\nChildren are valuable, and therefore carriers will take pains not to deface them in\ntransit.\" Is that a system to apply to men and women who are handling and\nshaping the minds and souls of our children ? Is there to be no suggestion and re-\n\naction back from teacher to master and superintendent ? The whole scheme of\ncarrying on schools entirely by an impulse from above downward reminds one of\nthe report of a life-saving station to the government.\n\n\"Last night a large brig\n\ncame ashore on Smutty-Nose. We did all that was in human power to save the\nvessel by the use of the speaking-trumpet. Notwithstanding these efforts, she\nwent to pieces at 3 a. m. and all hands were lost.\"\n\nAs a teacher myself, I plead for some system by which the teachers shall directly participate in school organization. I say participate, because I wish to avoid\nthe slightest suggestion that they should control the schools. Systematic consultation on any definite and permanent plan is all that is asked for, and it will put the\nwhole profession on a different footing.\n\nIs a plea necessary for a system which is the simple common-sense, businesslike method of dealing with large bodies of professional persons? To be sure,\nboss sewer builders ignore their diggers; but heads of hospitals do take counsel of\n\ntheir house-physicians, to the great benefit of suffering humanity. Why are not\nteachers consulted ? The instinctive answer in many minds is, that they are con-\n\nsulted. That is true everywhere to some degree. Of course, a wise superintendent\ntalks over with an individual teacher changes that he proposes to make in her\nroom or building; and in a few cities the heads of school are organized, like the\nPrincipals' Round Table of Cleveland and the powerful and obstructive body of\nfifty-five principals in Boston. But where is there a superintendent who in any\nway systematically informs himself of the puplic opinion of the body of his teachers on any proposed reform ? Where is the city in which there is any representative organization, capable of voicing that opinion? Individual teachers are consulted; but the teachers are not.\n\nTo any regular consultation with the whole staff of teachers in a city many objections may be suggested. The teachers are too young! We had one of these\nyoung teachers in Cambridge a few years ago ; a young, fresh, vigorous, live teacher.\nShe had taught fifty years in the same school. Was her opinion of no value?\nTeachers are too inexperienced! It is true that they begin at about the age and ad-\n\nvancement of boys entering college, and the freshman is not absolutely wise; but\neven a freshman would learn wisdom if he had charge of fifty children, and at the\nsame time had to satisfy fifty mothers and one superintendent. Teachers change\nrapidly! Sometimes superintendents change rapidly. Perhaps a better mutual understanding would prevent changes of both sorts. The teachers would use their organizations to form cabals ! Are there no cabals or factions now ? The real bottom\n\nreason for the small consideration paid to the opinion of teachers seems to be, that\nwe think the main body of them even in the best city systems; even in the high\nschools-to be too ignorant to give any valuable advice on school questions. Miss\nArnold yesterday spoke of the tactless teacher, who cried out at the stupidity of her\nchildren in their presence. It seems to me that is what we are doing with our\nmillion teachers. If they have really nothing to contribute in council to school\nknowledge, let us shut up the buildings and spend the school money in fool's caps\nfor the teachers and for ourselves who have selected them.\n\nFor the participation of teachers in school organization there are many positive\nreasons. In the first place, the community needs their expert advice. They are the\nlargest body of educated men and women in this country. They are in a better\nposition, even, than their supervisors, to discover at least the minor defects of\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "394\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nschool systems. They have a personal interest in making their time and thought\n\ngo as far as possible. They have almost a mother's opportunity to study child\nlife. They are a public-spirited and intelligent body of people, performing a great\npublic service. Not to draw upon the results of their experience is to waste a\n\npart of the nation's resources. They have a profession, and the only profession\nto which women are admitted in large numbers .\n\nIn the second place, the teachers need the stimulus of debate and of formulating opinions which go on record. In the work of the committee of fifteen, both\nthe report on the training of teachers and that on school organization lay great\nstress on the need of careful, professional, and expensive preparation for this arduous calling .\n\nWhat would more attract people to make that effort than a recognized\n\nprofessional status? What makes Yale University the vigorous, pushing, forceful\ninstitution that it is ? The governors ? In part; but chiefly the faculty-that is,\nthe teachers .\n\nIn the third place, the superintendents will not be harmed by organized advice.\nNo one fears a teachers' trade union demanding a four-hour day. The sub-committee's report is justly incisive on the right of experts to manage expert mat-\n\nters. \"If the course of study for the public schools of a great city is to be determined by laymen\" they say (page 106, line 18), \"it will not be suited to the\nneeds of a community.\" If it be determined by only a part of the experts, will it\nsuit the community any better ? In the school machinery the teachers should be\na part of the upper mill-stone and not of the nether.\nIn the fourth place, the school boards need such direct relations with their\nteachers .\n\nHow can the co-operation of superintendents and teachers be brought about ?\n\nI will not say the \"correlation\" of teachers and superintendents, because that is\nan explosive word. Something valuable would be gained if every superintendent\nmade it a point never to enter on important changes in his schools without previously consulting a large number of leading teachers, and then following his best\njudgment. On the other hand, it would be a great advance in education if we\ncould introduce into America the successful French system of educational councils. In France every important administrative official, from the minister down,\nhas about him a council, including some teachers, whose advice he is bound to\ntake but not to follow. He assumes the responsibility, but never without informing himself.\n\nProbably that is too great a change for immediate introduction into this country, though the principle is one which ought to be introduced into many branches\nof the public service. I beg, therefore, to suggest a middle way, which has been\n\nproposed to the Cambridge school committee for that city, and is now pending. It\nis, that the teachers be requested to form a teachers' association, to which all\nteachers in service shall be eligible. Out of that association (which will number\nalmost 300) there shall be chosen, by vote of the teachers, a teachers' council of\n\nabout twenty members, including a representative from each of the nine grades,\nand also from the kindergarten teachers and from each of the high and special\nschools , the superintendent to be ex-officio chairman. To the council thus formed\n\nthe superintendent, the school committee, or any sub-committee may, from time to\ntime, submit questions for examinations and report. That is all.\n\nIt is all? If that proposition be carried out in Cambridge, the next step will\nbe carefully to go over the three important reports which have been presented to\n\nthis convention, and one after another to take up the suggestions as to curriculum,\ntraining, and the like, and to ask for the opinion of the council upon their applica-\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n395\n\nbility to the Cambridge schools. A further step will then be for the school committee, aided and informed by that opinion, to try to introduce some of these reforms into the Cambridge system. Consultation will increase the interest of the\nteachers and the dignity of their profession; it will be a safety-valve for misunderstandings and complaints, and it will make smooth the track of reform.\nThis specific system may or may not work well; but I appeal to you, superintendents, to consider the suggestion. The body of men seated in this hall have\nit in their power to carry into effect any reasonable plans of public school reform\nwhich do not cost too much money. The improvement of the schools means more\nwork and responsibility for the teachers. They will accept it cheerfully if you give\nthem a just hearing in the questions of their own profession.\nSUPT. A. P. MARBLE, Omaha, Neb.-It is an easy road to fame to attack such\nan able report as that of Dr. Harris or Judge Draper. Hayne coupled his name\nwith Webster's in this way. Unfortunately for such a purpose, I find myself in\nsympathy with the aim and purpose of this report, and with most of its details.\nIt seems to me that the last speaker has not discussed the report so much as\nsomething it does not contain; and the same is true of the discussions about the\nother two special reports. If anybody thinks the superintendent can conduct a\nsystem of schools without the co-operation of the teachers he is greatly mistaken.\nNo sensible superintendent attempts it. I appeal to every one present, whether\nthe assumption that we try to carry on the schools without his co-operation is not\nerroneous. The report does not discuss this question; it enters into no details .\nThe plan outlined does not create a one-man power. It merely locates definitely\nthe responsibility; and every officer is directly accountable to the people, who are\nthe source of all authority in this government. The plan of the report is, to avoid\nhasty action on the part of the public; but to make their verdict effective when it\nis pronounced. You cannot erect a pyramid and crown it with an autocrat, if you\nwould; but the executive officer while in authority is the instrument by which the\npeople enforce their will. He is the agent of the people, and not the creature or\nthe tool of any clique or part of the people. In this way only can the popular will\nbe executed. There have been school boards of 120 men. Think of all these, each\nwith sisters and cousins and aunts all wishing to teach!\nThe report very properly separates the executive from the legislative authority,\nand secures the independence of the executive. It makes the business and the\n\neducational functions distinct. It leaves the course of study, the selection of books,\nand the appointment of teachers to experts used to these matters. All this is in\nthe right direction.\n\nI question the wisdom of the conclusions in two respects : First, about two\nboards acting opposite to each other.\n\nThis, it seems to me, would lead to friction ;\n\nand it is unnecessary. Second, the executive should be elected by the people of the\ncity, as the mayor is, instead of being appointed by the mayor. He might be properly styled mayor de futuris of the citizens about to be. If the aim is to separate the schools from politics, the appointment by the mayor would tend to the opposite. The appointment would degenerate into an ante-election bargain in a close\nelection. The choice of a school director should not be made at the same time with\nthe choice of other municipal officers; it might be at the time of the state election.\n\nIn this way the whole people, who are less easily corrupted than a mayor might\nbe, would be brought to a careful consideration of the school question every year\nby the election of one class of members of the board of education each year for a\nterm of three years and by the election of the director once in two or four years\nfor a term of that length.\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "396\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nIn the practical adoption of the plan outlined in the report local conditions must\nbe taken into account. The traditions of a place must be considered. We do not\n\nwish revolution generally, but evolution. Any local attachment, like the teachers'\ncouncil spoken of by the last speaker, may be appended as you would attach the\nhemmer to a sewing-machine. But let it be remembered that no plan of organization will bring about the millennium in schools at once.\n\nThis school director is a\n\nvery interesting piece of political furniture for the politician to seize upon. He\n\nwill grasp it unless the people are eternally vigilant. This vigilance is the price\nof the liberty to have good schools. But if the schools prosper and the public become indifferent, then the high places of our educational worship will be occupied\nby the money changers and those who sell doves. In that case, the worse the corruption the quicker it will be discovered and uprooted.\n\nDR. B. A. HINSDALE, Ann Arbor, Mich.-In the first place, I do not understand\nProfessor Hart's suggestion about the council of teachers to lie in the direction\nunderstood by Superintendent Marble. I understand that this organization is to\nbring to bear the teacher's influence upon the school authorities. I wish to give\nthat suggestion an additional stroke of emphasis. It is certainly true that a great\namount of educational force is represented by the teachers of the country as a\nwhole, and that it does not have the influence that it should have upon affairs. The\ntrouble does not so much lie through the superintendent's office as through the coun-\n\ncil hall of the board of education. Now, why cannot public schools receive that\nhelp from the teaching body which the universities receive from their teaching\nbodies? It is very well known, and nobody who has studied the universities in\nolden times can doubt it, that the university was carried on by the teachers and\n\npupils, subject to the regulation of their organization and charters.\nSUPERINTENDENT COGSWELL, Cambridge, Mass. , explained and commended the\nwork of Professor Hart in organizing the teachers' council in Cambridge.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT SEAVER, Boston, Mass. I want to say in the first place that\nI consider Professor Hart's suggestion concerning the council of teachers to be a\ngood one. I think I heard him say that the body of Boston masters was a clog ;\nthis is not the case.\n\nCOLONEL PARKER, Chicago, Ill. It is not so now, but the Boston schoolmaster\nstood in the way of education for fifty years, and it can be proved.\n\nMR. R. C. METCALF, Boston, Mass.-I do not wish to make a speech, but I was\none of those masters. The Boston masters' association is composed of fifty-five\nprincipals. I was a member of that association for eighteen years, and need no\nexcuse for speaking a word in behalf of my associates.\nIt is true that they are not anxious to fall in with every new proposition that\n\nis made to them. The plan suggested by Professor Hart, by which the teachers of\na city or town may be called into the councils of the school committee and super-\n\nintendent, is a good one, and I can see in it the possibility of a way out of our\ndifficulties in the East.\n\nThe Boston masters have not been consulted as they\n\nshould have been in regard to the conduct of their schools .\n\nIt is one thing for the superintendent of Cleveland to manage his schools, presided over by fifty-five women, and quite another thing for the superintendent of\nBoston to manage his schools, presided over by fifty-five men. I believe that some\nway should be planned by which these principals may be brought into hearty cooperation with the superintendent. Mr. Philbrick was a very wise man, and he\nenlisted, to a considerable extent, the influence of the principals in behalf of needed\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n397\n\nreforms; but for the past few years this policy has not so effectually been carried\nout.\n\nI felt bound to say so much in behalf of the principals of the Boston schools.\n\nThey are strong, able men, anxious to improve and glad to co-operate in any forward movement.\n\nPRESIDENT DRAPER (called to close the discussion).-Take this Cambridge busi-\n\nness. They have a suggestion which does not apply to a reformed school board, but\nto an unregenerate one. I may say that the suggestion about this advisory council\nwas before the committee of fifteen and at the instance of Professor Hart. Now,\nthere is an entire misapprehension. The business of the committee of fifteen was\nsimply to build up the legal organization. No one who has been a superintendent\nwill stop a moment to debate the importance of the opinions of the teaching corps .\nNo superintendent succeeds who does not receive the suggestion of the teaching\nbody. I should refrain a long time before I gave any such body any legal standing,\nbecause the result would be a combination among the teachers-politics of the poorest kind-to coerce the superintendent. There are fifty-five lady principals in this\ncity who have shown just as much force and ability to manage schools as is shown\nby the fifty-five men in Boston.\n\nThe suggestion is made that our plan would sacrifice some superintendents. A\nsuperintendent who is not strong and decided enough to make the position secure\nis of small consequence to anybody. The school organization must be such as can\nresist all the evil-disposed persons and make for righteousness. There will always\nbe opposition to reform, even among the principals and teachers. It has been so\nfrom the time of the opposition of the Boston masters to Horace Mann down to\nthe fight that is now on in the city of Brooklyn.\nFour or five men in the city of Cleveland who are men of affairs-not teachers\n\nbut simply business men-came together to reform this city school system; and\nthey did not have the proceedings of the National Educational Association, either,\nfor a guide. They studied principles, and I think they succeeded pretty well.\nThe school systems of the greatest cities of this country are in trouble, and\nthey must be helped in some way. The trouble is, that the evil elements are con-\n\nstant, always present, always active, fighting for themselves, and the elements\nthat make for righteousness are inactive, and they may be defeated.\nA single suggestion of Professor Hart's in opposition to state legislation in city\naffairs deserves attention. The fact is, that the school systems in this country are\nstate systems for the very good reason that no local school officer can effect a result unless it is pursuant to the law of the state. If you are going to leave the\n\nschool organizations of these great states to the result of local elections, as elections are controlled by the ward politicians, the Lord take care of the school\nsystem. It is true that the outlook is not any too bright in the state legislatures ;\nbut they will constitute a breakwater. There is a great movement that is going to\nprevail, and it is going to prevail in spite of the city superintendent. If my boy is\nsitting in an illy-ventilated room in Chicago, what is my right? The superintendent\nputs me off with his good intentions ; I go to the superintendent of public buildings\nand he resents the imputation ; I go to a member of the school board and he can\n\ndo nothing. What is the remedy in the city of New York if instruction is not scientific ? Talk about being near the people! There is not anything further from the\npeople than these close organizations called city school boards.\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "398\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nINDIVIDUALISM IN MASS EDUCATION.\n\nBY P. W. SEARCH , CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\nTHE GRADED SCHOOL SYSTEM-ITS DEFECTS .\n\nThe so-called graded school system originated as a wise movement for the improvement of educational opportunity. Doubtless\nthere is an advantage in grouping into certain rooms pupils of fairly\nequal working ability. There has also been a value in the definite\ncourse of study, because of need of continuity in plan, the correlation\nof elements, economy of time, and utilization of experience and superior mind in enrichment of opportunity. So far the graded school\nhad its perfect justification; but when it proceeded, as is the case in\ngeneral, through evolution, to become a thing of mechanical excellence, it brought upon itself the merited criticism that should lead\nto a reform in the interests of every principle of economy.\nWhat are the weaknesses of the graded school system?\n1. It brings to the door of every child, irrespective of all individuality, that curse of all endeavor-uniformity. The fact that minds\nof children differ more than do the leaves of the forest; that in\n\nworking ability one possesses strength two or three times that of\nothers ; that, in the nature of circumstances, time possesses a different value to different children-these and other incontrovertible\n\nfactors count but little in the making up of school plans. The bright\nboy, full of ambition and progressive zeal, must be held back because\nof mass or relative demands. No difference how faithfully he has\nworked, he must go from his recitation to his seat discouraged and\nardorless because the lesson must be repeated from fault not his\nown; or, he must pass weeks in lifeless reviews in order that somebody else may be benefited. Some one has said, \"The public schools\nare places where pebbles are polished but diamonds are dimmed.\"\nThe latter part of this criticism is true. No man has a right to demand of a bright pupil twelve years of an ambitious life in order to\ncover the ordinary course of study. On the other hand, what sball\nbe said of the boy at the lower end of the class? Because the assign-\n\nment of lessons and rate of progress must be regulated by the average ability of the class, he is plunged prematurely into difficulties\nhe does not understand, to drag helpless, indifferent-a so-called\ndullard and dunce at the foot of his class, buried beneath a mountain of difficulties that consign him eternally and irrevocably to an\neducational grave. This is monstrously unjust; but it is not all.\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nINDIVIDUALISM IN MASS EDUCATION.\n\n399\n\nThese same pupils, promoted perchance at the end of the year because of the average of results, carry with them a rotten substructure upon which nothing substantial can be built.\n\nA few days\n\nat the beginning of the year suffice to cause them to lose confidence\nin themselves. Discouraged and misunderstood, they rapidly develop into ambitionless, bad boys, and soon drop by the wayside and\ndisappear from school life; and the name of this boy is Legion. Ordinarily we count the success of the school by the achievements of\nthose who remain to do work; but, in the name of all justice and\neconomy, I ask, What of the lost boys? What of the lost girls ? And\nthese are lost when they are crowded from educational life by the\nrelentless press of a mechanical gradation. The illustration cited\nconcerning the polishing of pebbles is defective in this, that it loses\nsight of the many who are buried beneath the mud and mirk of the\n\nprocess and never come in contact with the polish that touches the\naverage of the class. These rough, unpolished breccia are never\ncounted as the product of the school; but, nevertheless, they belong\nto its losses.\n\nBut suppose a graded scheme can be prepared that will adequately provide for the bright pupil by promotion at the end of the\nyear, and that will just as adequately hang a millstone of discouragement around the neck of the other pupil, by consigning him to\nidentical repetition of grades ; what shall be said of the treatment of\nthe pupil who is just upon the line of a grade requirement ? Suppose the usual per cent plan of marking values is in use (and there\nmust be some mechanical standard in mind in determining a mechan-\n\nical gradation). Now, I can see how it is that a pupil bearing sixtysix and two-thirds per cent and over should go on to higher grade,\nand how a pupil under thirty-three and one-third per cent should\nrepeat the grade; that is, I say I do for the sake of argument. But\nhow about those of the middle third? Or, suppose the passing grade\nis sixty.\n\nThe pupil barely attaining sixty goes forward, while the\n\none who has only fifty-nine and nine-tenths takes an extra year.\nNow, what principle of equity will justify the magnifying of a line\nwithout breadth into so great an expansion that it constitutes a\nyear, or, at least, a semester, of difference between these two pupils ?\n\nThe per cent may not be used, but the principle is the same for the\nbasis of a gradation. There is some dividing line, flexible or arbitrary, between these two pupils.\n2. The criticism is made that the public schools are full of pres-\n\nsure and over-tension; that the bright pupil of high-strung, nervous\ntemperament is the one who is spurred and goaded on by the teacher's\n\nendeavor to bring up the laggards; that the incentives used tend to\nabnormal rivalry; and, in consequence of these conditions and others,\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "400\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nthere is frequently fearful sacrifice in the pursuit of an education.\nWe may not realize the truth of this criticism, excepting as our\nminds are specially directed thereto. But, fellow-workers, think\nback over your experience of years, and recall the graduate who was\nnecessarily excused from reading her essay; the pale-faced student\nwho could not go on ; the girl of thirteen who dropped by the wayside. Experience in the schoolroom need not be long to produce\nabundant illustration from personal consideration.\n\n3. Do the public schools contribute to the good health of the\nchildren ? They should. There is no reason why intellectual endeavor should not be conducive to physical health. Every school\nplan should be built fundamentally upon adequate provision for the\ngrace and glory of robust, vigorous health; and the intelligent con-\n\nstituency of all America should cry aloud until this demand is perfectly met. Architectural precaution and schoolroom device are all\nimportant, but there is a weakness peculiar to class instruction that\nshould give way. The presentation of subjects by class appeal is so\nenormously expensive that the study of lessons has been driven to\noutside hours, all because the teacher, with her everlasting class\nmethod and consumption of time, has appropriated the entire day,\n\nand thus driven the pupil's work to evening hours. If you think\nthis is an extreme statement, examine the working programs of your\nvarious schools when you return home. You will find the entire day\nfilled with recitations, with the teacher still calling for \"more time.\"\nIf there is no other result of individual effort, it has its perfect justification in this finding, that the work of the public schools can be\ndone in normal school hours.\n\n4. The conduct of the work of many pupils by graded effort is\n\nexpensive in that it fills the individual pupil's working hours with\nso much dead time. Not only must he travel at some one else's speed\nand repeat lessons without fault his own, but he must sit passive\nduring a good part of the day while waiting his turn. Suppose the\nrecitation is in Latin, and that there are thirty in the class. The\npupil who is on his feet in the act of reciting is probably essentially\nactive ; two or three others, or more, are perhaps getting a fair degree of value from the exercise; but the majority of the class are in\na passive or comatose condition, and are much like men in a barber\nshop, each waiting his turn. Encouraged to listlessness and inattention, these pupils soon learn to calculate their turn and consequently qualify on parts, instead of wholes, and take chances in being called upon. There may be a value in this form of work. I do\nnot doubt it; but, compared with the intense earnestness and activity of the individual method, it is a wonder that it has any advocates\nat all. Again, I say, the class recitation method is enormously ex\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nINDIVIDUALISM IN MASS EDUCATION.\n\n401\n\npensive, and must give way to something that will utilize every\nminute of the pupil's time. \"Oh,\" says my fellow educator, \"this is\nan extreme statement of class practice.\" My friend, have you forgotton the long hours you squandered in some good school or college\nwhen you sat listlessly waiting for the end of the period that was\nto bring far-off relief and the softening of the board upon which you\nsat ? When will schoolmen learn that there is no growth by means\nof passive exercise and that activity is the essential principle of life?\n5. Class methods are also unfortunate in that there is every encouragement to dependency. The work of the class is in reality done\nby a few pupils, and these few get the major part of the teacher's\ntime. Leaning on these better pupils and watchful of every opportunity to gain help without work, is the greater part of the school,\nthereby failing to get value from personal accomplishment. There\n\nis also the inculcation of questionable motive, and the trend of practice is to a certain kind of mechanical results.\nTHE SCHOOL OF INDIVIDUALISM- ITS SUPERIORITY.\n\nContrasted with the graded school is the superiority of the school\nof individualism .\n\n1. The individual school does not discard gradation, but holds to\nit primarily for a purpose higher than the mechanical assignment of\npupils. A school must be both ungraded and graded; ungraded, in\nso far as the ready, flexible accommodation of pupils is concerned ;\ngraded, for the purpose of plan in work, continuity in execution,\n\ncorrelation of studies, and the utilization of superior experience and\ndirection. There may be the flexible grouping of pupils for certain\ngeneral purposes, but no gradation should tie a pupil to a definite\nanchorage.\n2. The individual school has to do with numbers.\n\nIt realizes in\n\npractical results far more than the graded school, because it receives\n\nall kinds of pupils, meets them at the door of personal needs, and\nholds to school-life that great number who are otherwise lost over\nthe ragged edges of a gradation. There is perfect adaptation to\nthe working ability of each individual. Somewhere along the line\nevery pupil finds his convenient working place. It is not a question\n\nof a pupil for the school, but the school for the pupil. If a boy comes\nfrom the schools of another city, there is no transition loss. If he\nis forced to enter a month or so late, he begins where he belongs,\n\nwithout loss because he does not fit a class. If by sickness he loses\nseveral weeks, he is not abnormally pressed during his days of con-\n\nvalescence by the double necessity of keeping up with the class and\n\nof making up work he has lost. His working place is his own, deter\n26\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "402\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nmined by what is scientifically best for himself, and in that place he\nworks to get the greatest personal good, irrespective of the ordinary\nclass limitation. To him assignment to a given room means nothing\nbut personal opportunity. There is no non-promotion difficulty, because every day brings its conscious daily advancement. There is\nno class discouragement, for there has been no specific class assignment. There is no class interval with its unhappy transition, for there\nis no specific class. Everywhere there is life, vigor, growth, enthusi-\n\nasm, because every moment brings its perfect opportunity for\nprogress and enrichment.\n3. The individual method is happy in its contribution to better\nhealth. The removal of dead time and passive exercise, the substitution of live direction of endeavor for the ordinary instruction cram,\n\nand the consequent possibility of limiting school work to school hours,\nbring to the pupil the realization that school work may be fundamentally conducive to vigorous health. Unwearied by a previous\nnight of late study, the worker comes to the laboratory fresh and vigorous for the work of the day. To him there has been no hurried\nmeal because of the encroachments of school work.\n\nThere is no head-\n\nache because of exhausted vitality, nor spectacles from working by an\ninferior light. Fresh, vigorous, and full of dynamic force, he is pre-\n\npared for a successful day of work. The day is divided into its\nworking periods of longer duration. All his working equipment\nremains in its respective laboratory. There is no divided energy in endeavor to anticipate the coming exercise ; no anxious\n\nworry because of unprepared lessons. In each working period he\nworks to individual accomplishment. When the session closes he\nleaves his technical work in the schoolroom and goes forth to gain\nrecreation, complete rest. and renewed vigor before commencing the\nwork of another day. The individual school builds fundamentally\n\nupon a basis of good health, claiming that there is more educative\nvalue in one hour of live, vigorous exercise, done under proper conditions, than in a whole day of passive, incompetent exercise.\n4. Not only is there better physical health, but a health intellectual as well. The pupil does all his work under direction. There\n\nis no passive exercise ; there is no desultory study. Every moment\nis full of live, vigorous accomplishment. This tends to make him a\ntrained thinker. He becomes independent and self-reliant in action.\nStudy takes on interest because every bit of the work is his own.\nThere is no rottenness in bis foundation work because he has skipped\n\nor prematurely passed certain elementary principles. His work is\nthorough ; each step is basic. All his work is done under circumstances favorable to vigorous thought. When will the teacher learn\nthere is no educative value in an exercise carried beyond a certain\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nINDIVIDUALISM IN MASS EDUCATION.\n\n403\n\npoint of nervous tension ? Exhausted brain may produce something ;\nbut that something is a thing of weakness, and the process has reacted in reflex weakness to the brain itself.\n\nThe individual method\n\nbases everything in intellectual growth upon better health, and the\nhabits that go to make the trained, self-reliant, independent, and\nspirited thinker.\n\n5. When a school plan appears that successfully accomplishes\nthe usual work of schools within the legitimate hours of the school\nsession, it does seem that that plan possesses elements commending\nitself to consideration ; but when that same plan realizes more work\nin shorter time, then what shall be said? Such has been the result.\nFor instance, the principal of a high school where individual methods have been in operation for several years writes me of pupils who,\nin Latin (and I refer to Latin simply for illustration), in one and one-\n\nhalf years of time of one and one-half hours per day, have read and\nqualified upon two books of Cæsar, seven orations of Cicero, six\nbooks of Virgil, including grammar drill, scansion, prose composition, historical reference, etc.; this done in fifty-seven weeks, of one\nand one-half hours per day. Parallel with this, these same pupils\nhave carried three other major studies, besides the usual incidentals\nbelonging to public school life. Has such result been accomplished\nunder the graded plan? It never has been in my experience. Now,\nwherein has the individual plan the time advantage over the usual\ngraded effort ? In this, that every period is a vitalized hour, realizing\nfrom the greater power of the pupil to do work. But, let me say,\nthis condition of affairs will not appear in a day nor in a year, but\ncomes with systematic growth under scientific conditions.\nThe teacher in the graded school stands confronted by the many\n\nnew elements demanding incorporation into the school program. The\nreport of the committee of ten, with its demands for enrichment,\narises before her like her ghost . How shall a program already full\nbe crowded more ? How shall there be enlargement and extension of\nwork without extension of time?\n\nIn the midst of this dilemma the\n\nindividual method presents itself, reduces the working hours of the\n\npupil, and still finds the need of extension of courses of study and\ngeneral enrichment in order to fill out the time.\n6. But not only does the individual school realize in more work but\nin better work. Every part of a pupil's work must be his own. No\none else reads to him the Latin lesson or permits him to copy the\nsolved problems in mathematics. To him there is no royal road by\nthe substitution of another's endeavor. He must do work by himself\n\nand for himself. He qualifies, not upon selected fragments of a whole\nbut on every line and on every problem. He recites and passes examination in the most thorough manner. The result of this is, he\nmay at first not do so much work, but he is thoroughly grounded upon\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "404\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nevery step; each acquisition becomes a part of himself, and there is\nno need of endless, reviews and repetition of work. Whenever a dull\nboy is given a piece of work absolutely his own, that piece of work\nbecomes to him an inspiration for the future, a solid rock of accomplishment and interest upon which he can and will build an educational superstructure. Hence, I repeat, the individual school realizes in more work and in better work because of utilization of the\n\nleading principles of vitalizing economy.\n7. There is another glorious result. There is every promise of a\nmore permanent class of results. Every step of the work, being basic,\nleads to the natural determination for continuance. There is no poor\nwork. Excepting as a given piece of work is good, the pupil cannot\npass on; and this passing on is determined daily.\n\nThis all tends to\n\nmaking him the true student, and inculcates a nobler motive in work.\nLife to the pupil takes on a new meaning, an inspiration dawns upon\nhim, an impulse uplifts him, and he is born again to a world of possibilities and accomplishments.\n\nNow, I am well aware that my friend of the graded school says\nthis all tends to disorganization ; but he is mistaken, for it presents\nopportunity for order of the highest type. But this order will not\nobtain of itself. Back of the whole plan there must be the superintendent or principal, who is willing to live in his schoolrooms and not\nin the office ; and, with it all, there must also be the teacher of higher\nqualification, who will certainly appear when the superintendent\ngives opportunity for life and realization.\nI am also aware my friend asserts that the happy characteristics\nI have described belong to the better graded school. Well, I don't\nthink they do; but I will not quarrel with him, for I am ready to\nrecognize any school as good where there is individual opportunity.\nI do not care absolutely for individual practice, but I do demand that\nnothing shall stand in the way of individual advancement. However,\nwhenever opportunity is given for untrammeled individual advance-\n\nment, mechanical gradation gives way to the school of individualism.\nThe school of individualism does not entirely discard class methods. When there is the starting of a new subject, or the giving of\nworking directions common to all, there may be utilization of class\npractice to advantage. There may also be the giving of certain typical\nexercises as the basis for individual ramification and extensions.\n\nThere may be the symposium for the interchange of findings, or the\nutilization of seminar methods. There may also be the flexible grouping of pupils who happen at particular times to be working simultaneously upon the same or similar exercises ; but nothing shall be\nallowed to stand in the way of individual enthusiasm, individual accomplishment, and individual advancement.\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nINDIVIDUALISM IN MASS EDUCATION.\n\n405\n\nThe school of individualism, then, is the one that provides for the\nmasses by holding a greater number to continuous educational life.\nIt realizes in better health, enthusiastic spirit, nobler motives, better\nhabits of thought, work greater in quantity and better in quality,\n\nwith opportunity for enrichment, and in other results that go to\nmake the true permanent student. It brings the teacher into the\nliving necessity for child study, and presents an intelligent basis for\nscientific instruction. It may not be a system perfect in all its parts,\n\nfor it demands adjustment, accommodation, and conservation all\nalong the line; but it has already solved, for those who have used\nit, many school problems, and comes from the people with emphatic\n\ndemand for incorporation into the public school policy of America.\nThe reading of this paper was followed by discussions. In replying to the opposing arguments made in answer to many questions, Mr.\nSearch closed with these statements :\n\n1. The school must be built for the perfect conservation of the\n\nindividual. As such, he must be received and placed where he can\nget the greatest amount of good to himself, irrespective of all relative\nor mass considerations. The class method is too expensive in its demands upon time, is conservative of the few, is full of unjust com-\n\nparison, of tendency to over-pressure, poor health, and mechanical\nresults. It is possible, even in the public schools, to meet the individual at the door of his actual needs and to provide for his perfect\nconservation.\n\n2. This is the day of child study. There can be no intelligent child\nstudy excepting as the teacher studies the individual. Of child study\nthere can be no practical result, excepting as there is adaptation to\nindividual necessities in the light of such findings. This leadsdirectly\nto the only sound basis for scientific instruction. When a person\nwishes to become physically strong, he goes to the gymnasium to gain\nstrength at the point of his actual needs. The old-time class instruc-\n\ntion in the physical gymnasium has given place to the specific examination of physical condition, followed by individual assignment of\ndrill and exercise in order that the person may become strong. Even\nso in the intellectual gymnasium. There must be examination of con-\n\ndition, and built upon this examination must be the intellectual drill\ncalculated to develop the mind to its greatest advantage, not by the\nold hit-and-miss general exercise of traditional practice but by specific assignment directed to individual purpose. This is scientific instruction. It may be in advance of the school of individualism at its\npresent development, but it will be the logical sequence of present\neffort at the conservation of the individual.\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "406\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\n3. The school of individualism bases everything upon better provision for physical, intellectual, and moral health, utilizes the doctrine of interest as the great motive in work, and seeks above all\nthings the generation of power. Through its recognition of powerability to do work-as the determining element in the placement and\nadvancement of the worker, it changes the standard of schools and\n\nof colleges, and asks for reconstruction, that all educational provisions may conserve economy of time, enrichment of endeavor, adaptation to individual needs, and realization in higher opportunity.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nSUPT. L. H. JONES of Cleveland.-The paper has given us two vivid pictures,\n\neach graphically drawn by a few bold strokes. The first, a very poor graded school ;\nand the second, a very excellent ungraded school-a school in which the instruction\nis chiefly individual. The lack of excellence in the graded school depicted is due\nchiefly to two causes. First, the school as described is really an ungraded school\n\n(that is, the pupils are of differing capacities), run on the program of a graded\nschool. Secondly, the teaching in it as described is exceedingly poor. Now, a great\nteacher is an artist in his profession; he adjusts the pupils properly to the subject-\n\nmatter, and then enters into the life of each pupil as an inspiring power, leading\neach pupil to master the subject for himself. In good teaching, it is the pupil who\n\ndoes the learning, the pupil who is developed, the pupil who receives the discipline and training. The pupil is the one in whom the great transformation\n\nimplied in learning takes place. If this kind of teaching be done, there is no\ndanger that the pupils will become automatons, even though all the teaching be\ndone in class recitation. Indeed, there are some kinds of development and some\nworthy ends to be reached which can only be best done through class instruction.\nThe most educative process that I have ever seen going on is that of class instruction, in which each pupil is attent upon knowing just what attitude the teacher\nwishes him to assume with reference to the subject; alert to hear everything said\nby each pupil who recites ; eager to hear every explanatory remark of the teacher;\nbusy adjusting what has been said by each and what he himself has been led thus\nto think; rejecting the irrelevant and finally drawing out of the mass of information given the true conclusion. The processes of mind which have been carried\nthroughout such recitation are very much those which adapt the child to successful action in real life. Besides, it is impossible to bring to bear the strongest\nclasses of motives upon children in any other form of instruction. The strongest\nfear of criticism which the child ever holds is the criticism of his peers in age and\nexperience, that is, the other children, and what his teacher thinks upon a question may be to him of great importance, but what his classmates think upon the\nsame thing is the supremely interesting thing to him. It is said that even a colt\nupon a race track, to reach the best results in training, must have a running mate\nof his own age.\n\nThe picture here drawn of the ungraded school, or the school in which individual teaching was described, excels the picture of the other school chiefly because\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n407\n\nthe teaching described was better; and, therefore, the actual excellence of such\nschool as pictured in the address is due less to the method of its organization than\nto the ideal excellence of its instruction .\n\nDR. RICHARD G. BOONE, Ypsilanti, Mich.-We concede all that has been said\nagainst the dangers of the class recitation in the ordinary school. But let no one\nfail to see that it is the abuses of the graded school system that have been criticised.\n\nWe are prone to emphasize individuality. It is easy to exalt it unduly. When\na pupil leaves school he goes out to live and move with others. He must co-operate\nwith them in the common life of his kind.\n\nThe school must fit him to do this.\n\nThe\n\nmodern method, speaking broadly, is the laboratory method; and in this individualism is exalted. A noted biologist of my state recently said to me that the defect\nin this method is, that each one is left to work alone. There is a virtue in such\n\nindependent work. Its excessive use is vicious. The method has its defects and\nlimitations not less than those incident to class instruction.\nIn individual teaching we are apt to emphasize what we do not want to em-\n\nphasize the acquisition of knowledge and facts, the covering of books and pages.\nFive pupils so taught go at five different rates of speed. This is not in itself a\nvirtue.\n\nThe wise teacher finds large advantage in group teaching. The many-sided\nfriction is a good thing for the child. The class advantages are a tremendous impulse in forwarding individual children. Individualism tends to a loss of the advantage and spirit of co-operative effort. Class work re-enforces the effort of each\nby the understanding of all others.\nDR. W. T. HARRIS. -In some cases the graded school system is so managed\nthat it is made to do harm to all pupils except those of average ability. Where the\nintervals between classes have been made so large as to include a year's work or\n\nmore it is evident that the lessons adapted to the average of the class are too long\nfor the backward pupils and too short for the bright and quick-minded pupils.\nBecause the graded system may be mismanaged or injurious when applied to\nrural schools or small schools in villages, many persons have supposed that the system should be abolished altogether. But the class system is really one of the greatest inventions ever made in pedagogy. A class recitation is a great means of instruction; far more potent than any device of individual instruction. Some have\nsupposed that the ideal of instruction is the private tutor with his single pupil; but\nthe pupil in the class has the opportunity of hearing his fellow-pupils tell what they\nhave learned by their study. They have glimpses of the subject which he has\nfailed to get. And, on the other hand, he himself has some views which are new\nto them. The teacher's views are more or less new to all of the pupils. It is this\nprocess of seeing the lesson through the minds of his fellow-pupils that makes the\nrecitation so valuable in gaining new insights and new methods of study. The pupil\nin studying his second lesson is on the alert in many ways which he entirely ignored\nwhen preparing his first lesson. In the graded school the teacher should have two\nclasses. One should prepare its lesson while the other recites. This develops two\nkinds of attention. First, the attention of the pupil to his own work, forgetful of the\npresence of his fellow-pupils and of the teacher. This kind of attention is absorption. Second, the attention of the pupil in the recitation, when he is alert to catch\nall the suggestions made by his fellow-pupils in their answers and all of the criticisms on the part of the teacher or other pupils. The private tutor when at his\nbest cannot arouse the interest of the individual pupil so well as the average class\nrecitation can do it.\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n408\n\n[Cleveland\n\nIn the ungraded school the teacher has a great variety of subjects to teach,\nand must hold each pupil responsible for his work if he can. But he has only five\nminutes, or less, to probe the work of the individual pupil. He cannot go behind\nthe words of the lesson to see whether the pupil understands them. It takes a recitation of twenty to thirty minutes to really probe a lesson and get at the ideas be\nhind the words. The pupil is called upon to restate his ideas in his own words and\nto illustrate the same. Good teaching cannot be had in an ungraded school.\nCOL. F. W. PARKER, Chicago.-The ideal school is an ideal community-an\nembryonic democracy.\n\nWe should introduce into the school what we must have\n\nin the state, and this is democracy in its pure sense. The child is not in the school\nto learn, not in there for mere knowledge; but he is in there to live, to learn to livenot a preparation for life so much as real living. The pupil should in school learn\nto live. He should there learn to put himself into life. The teacher is the leader\nin this community life. Self-government is the only true government. A child\nshould be taught how to live for others. We are too apt to ignore the divinity of\na child. The reconciling of the individual with life is the great problem of the day.\nIt is the great social question of the day. All work should be educative. The question is, What shall come into life to-day ? The class recitation is the one place\nwhere mind meets mind. A class of fifty is none too large. The forty-nine pupils\nhelp the one and the one helps the other forty-nine. When should a child be promoted ? When he can do more good in some other place than he can do where he\nnow is.\n\nSUPT. W. J. SHEARER of New Castle, Pa.-If I understand the method which\nSuperintendent Search advocates, it is a return to the ungraded school without recitations. Surely this would be a great mistake : First, because the graded school\nis a partial solution of the defects found in the ungraded school and better than\n\nthe ungraded school, measures up to the requirement of \"the greatest good to the\ngreatest number;\" second, because it would rob the pupils of all those many benefits which Dr. Harris has so well shown to be the results of the recitation.\n\nThat the graded school of to-day does not sufficiently provide for the individual\ndifferences of the pupils, all must admit; for, though the children of any grade\ndiffer widely in age, in acquirements, in aptitude, in physical endurance, in the\npower of attention, in home advantages, in the rate of mental development, in regularity of attendance, and in many other ways, the graded school of to-day would\nkeep all the children of each grade in intellectual lock-step, not only month after\nmonth but year after year for their whole school lives .\n\nThis being so, is it any wonder that the iron-clad system which, regardless of\nall differences, would cast all minds in the same mold, and subject all to the same\ntreatment for the same length of time, and test all in the same way, is objected\nto, because it demands so much uniformity at every step that the most are forced\nto stop school, and the few who do finish graduate too late to get a fair start in\nlife ? Is it to be wondered at, that, from all sides, there comes a demand for some\nsystem of grading which will be more pliant, and will not attempt to overcome, not\nonly the differences of physical ability and physical environments but even the difference in mental ability which the Almighty has predetermined ?\nThis \"Procrustean bed of grades,\" which differs but little from the first system\nof graded schools introduced by Sturm almost 400 years ago, must plead guilty to\nmany serious charges, among which may be mentioned the following :\n\n1. The bright pupils are discouraged by being held back and the slow by being\npushed forward ; yet some wonder why sixty per cent of the pupils do not go more\nthan three years .\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n409\n\n2. There is an amazing loss of time by those who remain. Statistics which\nwe have just compiled show, that, for every 100 pupils in the schools, there have\nbeen over 112 years lost.\n\n3. Even the brightest cannot gain time; while, if any but the brightest lose\nbut a short time, they fail to be promoted and lose a year even when but a month\nor two back.\n\nThough these defects exist, surely it is not necessary, pendulum-like, to swing\nfrom the iron-clad grading of the present to this plan, which would prove little\nbetter than a disorganized ungraded school.\n\nBy request, I mention very briefly the steps taken at New Castle to provide\na more pliant plan of grading :\n1. The promotion examination was abandoned. The pupil's promotion no\nlonger depends on the result of an examination nor upon the calendar, but on his\nability to proceed.\n2. The pupils were graded carefully, and but one grade put to a room. As\ndifferences appeared, each grade was divided into three or four sections, according\nto ability, and each division was allowed to go just as fast as it could and should.\n\n3. No certain amount of work was required of all in a given time; for, without\nuniformity of conditions, uniformity of results should not be expected.\nIn spite of limiting conditions, many advantages have resulted. We mention\nbut a few :\n\n1. It makes possible a frequent re- classification, which is the only means of\npreventing the sacrifice of the pupils to the graded school. When a pupil gets\nahead or behind his own class, he is at once moved to a division a short distance\nahead or behind his own, where he can work to advantage.\n2. An accurate grading of pupils, according to ability, into classes of from\nten to fifteen, instead of herding them in classes of fifty, furnishes a practicable\nmeans of reaching each individual.\n\n3. Every pupil is touched with hope and with enthusiasm; for the progress of\neach one depends entirely on ability and application.\n4. Forty-two per cent of the pupils in the highest grammar grade, having finished the work of that grade by January, at once started upon the work of the high\n\nschool, and will be able to graduate in three years, instead of four years .\n5. By the end of the first year's trial of the present plan, forty-five per cent\nof the pupils below the high school had gained from one-fourth to two-thirds of a\nyear's work, without any urging on the part of the teachers.\nIf this method is not founded upon sound educational principles, for the sake\nof those in whom I am deeply interested, let the educational philosophers present\ncriticise and correct.\n\nIf Superintendent Search, who so far has given us nothing but nebulous theory,\nhas a plan and has tried it, let us have an explanation and some statement of results. Theory without plans or results is worthless .\n\nMR. A. E. WINSHIP, Editor of \"Journal of Education, \" Boston, Mass.-Superintendents, like others, worship the new thing that is their own. Their attack\non what is not their own newness is often amusing, never more so than in this\n\ninstance, when three men who stood pre-eminently for the most advanced thought\nin school administration turn upon Mr. Search with peculiar delight when he brings\nsomething newer than their newest.\n\nSuperintendent Search has brought us an idea that has been designated as individualism, and all of these speakers have at once arrayed themselves for a redefense of the class system; a thing they have done, probably, regularly for thirty\nyears. There is certainly nothing new in this defense.\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "410\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Cleveland\n\nIndividual instruction does not do away with class exercises, but rather with\nthe tyranny of a program. It antagonizes that phase of class work which requires\nevery exercise to begin at a given minute, twelve minutes of eleven o'clock,-and\nclose as definitely at eighteen minutes past eleven. As Mr. Search's idea is applied\nin several places in California, there are class exercises whenever there is any occasion for them.\n\nThe class as a whole begins a subject and these exercises are\n\ncontinued till, one by one, the pupils are upon their feet, when they are allowed to\ngo alone under the general direction of the teacher until such time as they can\nadvantageously work together. The root element in individualism is to do the best\nfor the pupils as a whole and individually, both through class exercises and through\nprivate assistance. Each subject is treated differently, as is each pupil. In geography, the pet subject of our friend from Cook county, the opportunity for individual work would be great; there being no attempt to have all pupils learn the\nsame thing, but in many cases each specializing for his own advantage and that\nof his class. I make no claim to being an out-and-out believer in individualism,\nbut I do believe that the greatest advantage in these meetings comes from having\n\nevery man make the best possible presentation of the thing in which he believes.\nThis meeting stands out above all others in the history of the association, in that\nwe have had the best possible advanced statement of American Hegelianism and a\nvery vigorous defense by the Herbartianists. The better each presents his own\ncase, the sooner we shall have an ideal American product infinitely superior to either.\nH. R. SANFORD, Institute Conductor, New York. The objections to the graded\nschool system have not been exaggerated. It is altogether too much platoon work,\nChildren are treated in the mass, made to march along, step by step, together, and\nare graduated together, as far as possible, by the graded system. The tendency\nis, to keep pupils back and thereby discourage them; to keep pupils together for a\nwhole year without any allowance made for the differences in their mental make-up.\nOne plan to break this up is to have at least two classes in the same room. The\nlatch-string should always be kept out for meritorious pupils. The theoretical age\nfor entrance to the high school is fourteen years. I have tested classes in many\nstates, and I find that substantially the same differences exist as I found in some\nof the Cleveland schools yesterday. In one of the entering classes to the high\nschool I found that there were three pupils seventeen years of age, nine pupils sixteen years of age, eleven pupils fifteen years of age, five pupils fourteen years of\nage, three pupils thirteen years of age, and one pupil twelve years of age. All\nof the excuses that may be brought forward, and are brought forward, by teachers-some are sick, some are irregular attendants, others unusually dull-does not\nexplain these differences in age.\n\nDR. E. E. WHITE, Columbus, Ohio.-I improve this opportunity to clinch what\nI said yesterday, that the Herbartian pedagogy, as explained by its American advocates, leads logically to individual instruction and to the abandonment of class\ninstruction. This was frankly conceded by Dr. Butler in his reply-a most important concession, as I see it.\n\nWe now have had a concrete illustration of this fact.\n\nSuperintendent Search has simply carried the theory to its logical result. He has\nobviously seen, that, if the apperceptive condition of the pupil at a given moment\n(whatever this may mean!) determines the next step to be taken in his instruction, pupils cannot be taught in classes, since there is no continued common apper-\n\nceptive condition. The only thing to be done is, to let each pupil go at his individual gait without reference to the progress of others-led always by his interests,\nnot to say his whims. This is the position of the paper in a sentence; and it is a\nlogical one if the theory be true. This takes us back to the unclassified schools\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n411\n\nof fifty years ago, in which only a few bright pupils made satisfactory progress.\nNine-tenths of the pupils in the schools of my boyhood droned over nearly the same\nground in arithmetic, grammar, etc., from term to term, their progress being largely\nconfined to spelling and reading, in which there were class exercises of some sort.\nThe improvement since made in school instruction has been, to a great degree, the\nresult of classification. It is true that the graded system has been attended with\nserious evils, but it does not follow that the only remedy for these evils is a return\n\nto individual instruction. Experience shows that it is possible to teach pupils in\nclasses without sacrificing their individual abilities and needs. The thing required\nis the proper adaptation of class instruction to the individual pupils, and not the\nsacrifice of the pupils to class instruction. The abandonment of class instruction\nis practically the abolition of the schools .\nDR. EUGENE BOUTON Pittsfield, Mass.--The conditions in the smaller districts\nand smaller schools are quite different from those in the larger cities and larger\n\ngraded schools. In the rural district school the classes are frequently so small that\nthe instruction is approximately or absolutely individual. The results obtained in\nsuch schools are, in most cases, distinctly inferior to those obtained in schools having from thirty to fifty pupils reciting together in the same grade. There is usually in them a dearth of vigor and enthusiasm. They are lacking in the interest\ngenerated by numbers and in the stimulus afforded by the successes of other pupils.\nIn most teaching the same instruction is helpful to nearly all the pupils of a fairly\ngraded class, and in schools of fair size the class intervals may be short enough to\nmeet the needs of almost every pupil. If, however, the class intervals are less than\nthree a year, the number of classes will usually be too great for satisfactory work.\nIt is difficult to see how the efficiency of the teacher will be increased by practically\n\ndividing the room into as many classes in each subject as there are pupils to be\ntaught. The amount of personal attention to each pupil would not be increasea,\nand the multiplication of effect which characterizes class instruction would be lost.\nIt is true that more attention should be given to pupils who from any cause are\nout of touch with the work that they ought to do. Such pupils will naturally class\nwith others in some subjects, but in other subjects they must have help outside\nof the class or waste much of their time and effort and become bewildered and dis-\n\ncouraged. Very likely an extra teacher in a school of fair size might use her time\nprofitably in assisting such pupils. In schools of moderate size having a supervising principal this work might perhaps be best done by the principal. But it should\nbe added to class instruction; it should supplement it rather than replace it.\nSUPERINTENDENT SEARCH (in closing the discussion). We have been standing upon different platforms. Some of you will see these things in a new light within\nthe space of fifteen years. My work in this line has been experimental. This plan.\nof course, has its losses and its gains. I have sought to find the proportion of these,\nand my experience leads me to the opinion that the gains in this plan are very\nmuch more than the losses. It is not a return to ungraded schools. It is scientific\nstudy with the child as the basis of the work. There can be no such study except\nby individuality. There can be no true education except sub-education. In this\nthe teacher can only direct. Each pupil must do his own work.\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "412\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Cleveland\n\nCHILD STUDY- SYSTEMATIC AND UNSYSTEMATIC.\n\nBY WM. L. BRYAN, INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMINGTON, IND .\n\nI. It is a commonplace fact that one may give chief attention now\nto one and now to another mental occupation-now to seeing, now\nto hearing, now to meditation, and so on.\nIt is also a commonplace fact that one may through life devote\n\nmain attention to a certain form of mental occupation, one giving\nhimself mainly to poetic or religious emotion, another to the ingathering of new facts, another to the deeper assimilation of facts\nalready known, and so on.\n\nIt is a common opinion that the several forms of mental occupa-\n\ntion, as they occur in an individual, are by no means essentially hostile to each other; rather, that they are essentially supplementary, or\neven still more closely interdependent than that word implies, all\nspringing out of one life, and, all together, working out its more complete development.\n\nIf, by analogy, one expects that men of divergent mental habit will\n\nsee the uses of each other; if one expects that poet, prophet, scientist,\nphilosopher, and a man of affairs will confess themselves brothers,\n\nchildren of one life, working together in different ways at the same\nlife task\n\nif one expects this, what is the fact?\n\nGo to your book- shelf and take down a half dozen of the mastersPlato's \"Republic,\" \"Gulliver's Travels,\" \"The Imitation of Christ,\"\n\nSchiller's \"Gods of Greece,\" Bismarck's \"Speeches,\" and a monograph of the first rank on experimental psychology. All these books\ndeal in some way with the life of man. But the ways are not the\n\nsame. They are not at peace with each other. They are crowded\nwith mutual hostilities . My colleague in psychology is impatient of\neverything and everybody outside of a laboratory. Plato urges his\ndisciples to get away as far as possible from every sort of contact\nwith the earth. Swift spends one-fourth part of his volume in bitter\nridicule of all systematic science and philosophy whatever. Bismarck\nrails at the doctor-mob who would ruin the state with their scholar-\n\nisms. Schiller is angry with physical science for banishing faith in\nthe conscious divinity of Nature. And, finally, Thomas á Kempis distrusts all alike-science, philosophy, statesmanship, art, and common\nsense.\n\nFor all these other masters he has only pity and a prayer that\nthey may be saved into the quiet life.\nNow, it is always possible to settle a quarrel like this by taking\none of these points of view and explaining the others as degenerate\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCHILD STUDY.\n\n413\n\nor immature ; and it is always possible to settle such quarrels by compromise-by an eclectic lash made up of the skin and bones of all the\ncombatants and the marrow of none.\n\nBut this quarrel of the mas-\n\nters the genius of history has not settled so.\n\nThese men actually ex-\n\nisted. They were all born out of our common life. They have all\ncontributed to its development. The history of the world has been\nlarge enough to hold them all, just as they were. You may charge\nNature with being a superficial eclectic for giving birth to so many\nsorts of men. You may complain at God for not being more obviously\nrational-for not giving us masters of one trim normal school pattern. But such and so many masters he hath given, and none of them\nfor naught. Who shall say that the very bitterness of their strife is\nnot without its measure of good, and the deepest message of each is\nan accent of the Holy Ghost we dare not lose.\n\nIf, now, in the great world-school, whose pupils are all mankind,\nGod needs such and so many masters, which of them in the school we\nhave in charge can we afford to do without ? We have charge of the\nyouth. We are the doorkeepers of the school. We have power to\nadmit or to exclude.\n\nI am no poet, but the influence of poetry I can admit or exclude.\nI may admit it as scraps for the copy-book. I may admit it as sentences to be parsed. I may admit it as texts for a philosophy which\nthe poet would disown; or I may letthe children meet the poet's\nown message in its form, so that, in some measure, the holy fire which\nburned in him shall burn again in them.\nI am not a philosopher, but the best influences of the masters I\nmay admit or exclude. I may affect to despise philosophy. I may\naffect to believe that my office is insulated from the universe. I may\nmake decisions every hour which then and forever stand in the absolute judgment as if they were to stand in no judgment but that of the\nschool board. Nay, in this case I do not exclude philosophy. The\nraw, crude, contradictory answers which every hour, by word and\ndeed, I make to the riddle of the Sphinx is not common sense because\n\nI call it so. It is my metaphysics under a false name, without the masters' wisdom and with more than their dogmatism. Again, I may become a philosophic sectarian in the narrower sense. I may fail to get\nthrough any system that spirit which is the life of all the great systems. I may prison myself with words, which, to the masters, were\nunessential. I may descend upon the school in the name of rational\nfreedom to crush out all spontaneity there. I may teach the youth\nborn into this kingdom of divine surprise that all he has to do with\nanything he finds there is to pigeon-hole it.\nBut, also, without being a genius, I may admit to my school the\nbetter influence of philosophy. If I sufficiently desire the wisdom that\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n414\n\n[Cleveland\n\ncomes with reflection; if I will listen to some master in whom spiritual fire has burned the raw material of experience into gold; if I will\nconsider the questions of each day from the Mountain of Transfiguration as well as from the earth; lo ! then, through me, in some small\nmeasure-through me and for my school-there lives that spirit of\nwisdom, which, like Dante's Beatrice, leads us all into the paradise\nof better life.\n\nII. In like manner, gentlemen, if there were time, we might consider every other sort of master whom the doorkeepers of the school\nhave the power to admit or exclude. But I have come especially to\nurge the more general recognition of two kinds of masters who study\nhuman nature one of them by systematic research and one by personal acquaintance and insight. I wish to show, if I can, by an illustration, that nothing else can take the place of either of these, and\nthat neither of these can take the place of the other.\n\nMy illustration is the problem of adolescence. How shall we find\nout what we need to know in order to help the youth most in this\ncritical period of their lives ? What is it that we know of this period\nfrom common observation ? We know that it is a time of great\nchange, physical and mental. We know that it is a time of critical\nimportance for the establishment of health and habits, and other such\ngeneralities. Now comes a large body of scientific men, representing\nmany special departments of science, and say that they will help fill\nout our knowledge. They must do this in their own way. They must\ntake their own time. They cannot be hurried. They cannot promise\n\nevery whipstitch a new discovery. They cannot promise that each\nbit of their work will, by itself, illustrate some general educational\nlaw or supply some schoolroom recipe. What is it they will do that\ntakes so long ?\n\n1. They will measure hundreds of thousands of children in every\n\nway in which children show measurable change as they grow; the\ndimensions of the body as a whole and by parts; the weight of the\nbody as a whole and by parts (e. g., Donaldson's measurement of\nbrain weights at different ages) ; the motor ability in every aspectas the strength, endurance, speed, and precision of various muscles\nunder various conditions; the sensory discriminative ability for all\nthe senses ; the tenacity and span of memory; the precision, speed,\nand endurance of the mind in various measurable tasks; the apperceptive capital and the spontaneous interests ; the character and\n\namount of sickness and the death rate; and still other determinations already made and yet to be made.\n2. When any one of these determinations is made on a sufficiently\nlarge number of children, the results are treated by mathematical\n\nmethods, which show, not only the average measure of children for a\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCHILD STUDY.\n\n415\n\ncertain age but also the individual distribution. For example, Professor Bowditch's tables show that five per cent of the children of a\ncertain age are below a certain height ; ten per cent below a certain\nheight; fifteen per cent below a certain height, etc. A comparison of\nthe results for successive ages show the so-called curve of growth;\nthat is, the absolute amount and the rate of growth from year to year.\nFrom this curve we can see the periods of accelerated and of retarded\ngrowth. In like manner, each set of measurements mentioned are\ntreated by the methods found appropriate to each. And in like manner, accordingly, we find for each measurable function the curve of\nits growth, the time of life when it grows fast, the time when it grows\nslow, and the time when it reaches its full development.\n3. As soon as a few studies like this are made, there begins a comparative study of the several functions that have been measured.\nWhat are exact relations between these several phases of human development? Which of these functions fluctuate up and down together, and which, if any, in contrary directions ?\n4. Finally, each and every part of this work must be reviewed in\n\nthe light of the facts contributed by general biology, physiology, neurology, psychiatry, and related sciences.\nNow, what is it that is hoped from this long and infinitely laborious task in which a little army of trained men throughout the world\nare co-operating? The thing hoped for is a picture-not a fancy picture, not a speculation, not a guess, but a picture whose every line is\nverified-of the development of man in many of the most important\nphases of his life.\n\nMost of the work is in the future.\n\nNot all.\n\nPer-\n\nhaps 200,000 children in a half-dozen countries have been tested by\nthe best methods known to the science, and the results have been to\nsome degree digested. I wish to make no extravagant claims for the\nresults so far gained. I have no ambition to show tin-rattle discoveries, and I have a horror of premature pseudo-scientific schoolroom recipes. But the picture of the developing youth is so far drawn by the\nstudies already made that the school should not ignore it. I submit\nthat those who set tasks, those who make the curriculum, have no\nright to ignore those curves of growth which show now retarded and\nnow accelerated power to do the work required. As I said a while\nago, every schoolman cannot be a scientist, but the influence of science he can admit or exclude. Inside the school are the children;\noutside are the sciences of help ; at the door stands the schoolmaster.\n\nIII. But, as I already said, there is another kind of child study no\nless essential than the scientific; and that is, the child study which\ncomes with intimate personal acquaintance. My own studies and interests have been in that field of systematic research which I have\njust all too rapidly sketched, but the relative importance and the rel\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "416\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\native neglect of unsystematic child study leads me to devote somewhat more space to that problem. Let us take again the adolescent\nyouth and face this question : What can the high school and college\ndo to direct the abundant stock of life in later adolescence toward\n\ngood growth ? Here is a youth surcharged with force.\n\nIt will find\n\nan outlet. The outlet it finds will be the habits, will be the character,\nof the man. Unhappily, this force is all too easily misdirected. The\nsenses clamor for satisfaction. The opportunities for receiving satisfaction are everywhere abundant. The young man finds many already going and already gone into every form of delightful vice. What\ncan we do about it? Many answers come to mind. One says : \"Give\nthe youth Spartan discipline. Command. Forbid. Demand obedience.\" Another says : \"Teach him ethics. Have a little book of\nmaxims for him to learn. Teach him that honesty is the best policy.\"\nAnother says : \"Reason with the lad. Give him an ethical principle\n\nby which he can guide himself. Lead him to be rationally free.\" Another says :\n\n\"Inspire the boy. Read Tennyson to him. Inflame his\n\nsoul with Dante.\n\nKindle his enthusiasm with Beethoven.\"\n\nAll these things have more or less value, I feel sure; but I wish to\nsuggest another which I believe is the essential supplement to any of\nthese, and that is this: Better acquaintance by direct personal acquaintance. Now, the thing above all others to look for is this :\nWhat are the boy's interest? In what directions does the flood of\nforce within him tend to go out? What does he enjoy doing ? What\nwork or play does he go to with instinctive pleasure ? What, if any,\npart of the school work does he care about ? What, if any, sort of\nbook does he snatch up to read when he has a chance ? What does\nhe talk about and think about when he is not self-conscious ?\n\nsort of companions does he like to be with ?\n\nWhat\n\nWhom does he imitate ?\n\nWho are his heroes-living, dead, or fictitious ? Do you know none\nof these things about your boy or girl ? Do you not know where they\nare or where they want to go? Do you not know in what good or\nbad, in what essential or trivial, ways the flood of life in them is pressing ? Alas ! then, your commandings are more likely than not to be\nstupid, brutal, ruinous ; crushing the child's will or inciting it to\nrebellion. Your moral maxims and your moral principles will be\nlike bulrushes against a Nile flood, impotent to check the blind rush\nof life you do not understand; and the noblest things that may inspire yourself may, as many of us bitterly know, fail to touch any responsive chord, because we do not know what chords are there or\nwhat ones to strike.\n\nBut if you have gained the right sort of acquaintance, then you\nwill know what the best enthusiasms are and what will nourish them.\n\nDoes he love sport? Be his comrade, and make him see how fine it is\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCHILD STUDY.\n\n417\n\neither to win or to lose, and be a gentleman. Does he love tools ? Turn\nhim loose in your high school workshop and let him make physical apparatus.\n\nA thing he makes is worth more than a hundred-dollar one,\n\nfor, in making the thing, he is making himself. Does he read trashy\nnovels ? Don't give him your own favorite instead. Give him a good\nnovel that he will enjoy better than he did the trash. Find him heroes that will appeal to his present admirations. If he admires the\n\nprize fighter, show him that there are fists that clinch and strike for\nright, and, in due time, he will find a higher knight-errantry that uses\nno blows.\n\nThere is just here, however, a certain thing to guard against. Because a boy loves sport is no reason why he should never do something more useful. Because a boy loves tools is no reason for educating him to be only a tool and not a man. Because a boy has some\nstrong tendency which is good is no reason why he should follow that\nso far that it becomes an evil. All the time that we are encouraging\nthe boy's best present enthusiasm we must be on the watch for the\nbirth of better ones. Things happen rapidly in the time of adolescence.\n\nIt is the time for conversion.\n\nIt is the time for regeneration,\n\nphysical and spiritual. It is the time for the dawn of love that may\nturn toward hell or that may turn toward all the heavens that a man\ncan reach. We must therefore be on the watch for the birth of every\nbetter impulse as we await the birth of a child. We must save every\none of these higher instincts as we would save a flickering human\nlife. We must save the boy again and again from the best he is to\nmake him a better.\n\nMy plea is, that we get acquainted with the boys and girls in true\ncomradeship. One great advantage in this is, that at the same time\nwe are getting acquainted we are learning how to influence them and\n\nare getting the power to do so. There is no power in the world like\npersonal influence. Politicians understand this. One must have\nthree degrees of initiation to become an efficient politician. In the\nfirst degree, you think it is enough to vote. In the second degree,\n\nyou think it is enough to speak and write. In the third degree, you\nfind that things good and bad are brought to pass by direct personal\ncontact. And so I say, you must be the boy's comrade or he will es-\n\ncape you. If you have any sort of charm, use that, not for your sake\nbut for his sake. If you have fidelity of character, he will find that\n\nout for himself. If a sneak looks out of your eyes, he will know it,\nand every fine maxim from your lips will send him the other way. If\nyou care for the boy, if you want to do him any good, if you have in\nyou any of the mother spirit which clings to a life and will not let it\ngo, there is no power anywhere that can save if this fails, for it is the\nlove of God.\n27\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "418\n\nNATIONAL EducatIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nIV. My text to-night has been this, that God hath given us many\n\nmasters, each of whom represents the emphasis of some phase of\nman's life, and all of whom are necessary for the education of our\n\nrace. Of course, it is impossible for us to have in every schoolroom\na Goethe, who was a practical road-builder, a scientist whom scientists recognize as such, a philosopher by right of original insight, and\na poet who sang free as the voice of spring. Not one in a hundred\nyears is of Goethe's stature. It may be that only one of Goethe's\nstature can be a whole man, with every faculty alive and every faculty the stronger because the others are alive. It may be that you\nand I can serve our race best by being fragments, specialists in art,\nscience, philosophy, or business. I do not know. I cannot tell. But\nif you and I who have charge of the youth; if we professionals, for\nthe sake of a mechanical consistency, for the sake of a little system,\nstand between the children and any light that God hath given, how\nshall we measure the largeness of our offense and of their calamity ?\n\nAPPLICATION OF CHILD STUDY IN THE SCHOOL.\n\nBY COL. FRANCIS W. PARKER, PRINCIPAL OF COOK\nSCHOOL , CHICAGO , ILL.\n\nCOUNTY NORMAL\n\nTo have lived in the common school as a pupil and a teacher\n\nthroughout nearly the entire time which marks its establishment, its\ngrowth, and development is a beneficent compensation for growing\nold. No other institution established by man ever carried with it\nsuch possibilities for human weal. It is an absolutely democratic\n\ninstitution ; it sprang from the brain and heart of a people, and is, in\nthe truest sense, of the people, for the people, and by the people.\nWithout precedent, it established a precedent. It blazed its own\n\npath without guide or compass. It marched, met, and overcame\nevery obstruction, met and led by the sturdy common sense of the\npeople.\n\nOn the threshold of a new century it is well to consider some of\nthe most obvious signs of its progress. As a sign of professional\ngrowth, ten times as many books upon education have been published\nin English during the past twenty years than were ever previously\npublished in the same language. Second, the establishment of normal schools. Beginning with the first crude attempt, near the old\nbattle ground of Lexington, in 1839, normal schools have steadily increased all over the United States.\n\nThird, the founding of chairs of\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\n419\n\nCHILD STUDY.\n\npedagogics in universities and colleges has been the mark of recognition by higher institutions of learning of the fact that there is a\nscience of education and an art of teaching. Fourth, a few of the\nmost prominent colleges and universities have begun to take a deep\nand profound interest in the common school, have emphasized the\nvital importance of primary education, and reach a strong and helpful\nhand to those who are struggling with its serious problems. Fifth,\nthe subject-matter or conditions for education have been enhanced\nby the discoveries in science, the reformation of history, and the production of an immense amount of pure and educative literature.\nThese results, far reaching as they are, are dominated by others yet\nmore satisfactory and prophetic. Chief among these indications I\nwill place the fact that many educators have arrived at that stage of\ngrowth in which they heartily and cordially agree to disagree. In\nthe early days of our common school civilization, principles and methods seemed to be incarnated.\n\nOne hesitated to attack a method or\n\nprinciple in vogue else he should cause some heart that beat behind\nthe incorporated method to bleed. Methods and principles-thank\nGod! for the children's sake-are fast becoming impersonal; subjects for careful scrutiny and close criticism. The solid and stolid\nobstructions of fixedness, of dogmas, have, in part, broken away. The\nteacher is in touch with the spirit of the age-the spirit which pervades all other sciences- \" Ewiges Werden,\" the \"everlasting becoming.\" No syndicate of education to-day can lay a steel track, put on\nits cars, give imperative orders to its conductors, and proclaim \"The\nRoyal Road to Learning.\" All pronunciamentos in education, all discussions, courses of study and programs should be marked, \"For this\n\nday only.\" This program is an adaptation to present conditionssimply tentative, opening the way to better things. All investigations, all discussions, are but steps on the way. He who truly faces\nthe question of education, faces infinity; the work of to-day is solely\na means of movement to better work to-morrow.\n\nAlthough ab-\n\nstract philosophy may lay down a few eternal principles, mixed with\nmuch that is perishable, it cannot reach or even suggest the ultimate\nin methods or the extent to which the art of teaching may reach forward.\n\nTo hold fast to dogma is to be rooted in tradition.\n\nThe blind\n\nobedience to any school of pedagogics or implicit following of leaders\nhas no longer the charm of loyalty nor arouses the enthusiasm of the\npatriot. Mere discipleship closes the way to progress, instead of\nopening it.\nFræbel, the divinely inspired educator of the nineteenth century,\nhas interpreted the words of the Master, \"The letter killeth, but the\nspirit maketh alive,\" in these words :\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "420\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\n\"Again, a life whose ideal value has been perfectly established in\nexperience never aims to serve as model in its form, but only in its\nessence, in its spirit. It is the greatest mistake to suppose that\nspiritual perfection can serve as a model in its form.\n\nThis accounts\n\nfor the common experience, that the taking of such external manifestations of perfection as examples, instead of elevating mankind,\nchecks-nay, represses-its development.\n\"Jesus himself, therefore, in his life and in his teachings, constantly opposed the imitation of external perfection. Only spiritual,\nstriving, living perfection is to be held fast as an ideal; on the other\nhand, its external manifestation-its form-should not be limited.\n\nThe highest and most perfect life which we, as Christians, behold in\nJesus-the highest known to mankind\n\nis a life which found the\n\nprimordial and ultimate reason of its existence clearly and distinctly\nin its own being; a life which, in accordance with the eternal law,\ncame from the eternally creating All-Life, self-acting and self-poised.\nThis highest eternally perfect life itself would have each human being again become a similar image of the eternal ideal, so that each\nagain might become a similar ideal for himself and others. It would\nhave each human being develop from within, self-active and free, in\naccordance with the eternal law. This is, indeed, the problem and\nthe aim of all education in instruction and training; there can and\nshould be no other. We see, then, that even the eternal ideal is following, passive, in its requirements concerning the form of being.\"\nProbably from no other source has the common school of America\nreceived so much of benefit and inspiration as from the kindergarten\n\nand its founder. It has brought new life and new light to the teacher.\nBut the danger of the kindergarten is plainly marked out by the\nwords of Fræbel above quoted. That which seriously threatens the\nonward movement of its young and glorious life is implicit discipleship-the mere patterning or imitation of method without the divine\nspirit of constant and persistent investigation. It was an imperative\n\nnecessity for Fræbel, as for any other founder of a system, to have\na carefully detailed method; but had Fræbel lived until to-day, he\n\nwould have inevitably developed that method steadily out of itself\ninto something higher and better.\nNext to the incoming of Fræbel's system of education may be\nplaced the doctrine and methods of Herbart, worked out by his great\ndisciples, Ziller, Stoy, and Rein, and brought to America by some of\nour most thoughtful educators. The one distinguishing feature in\nthe Herbartian pedagogics is movement, and movement ahead. When\nany one of the many followers of Herbart says, \"I am a Herbartian,\npure and simple; I adhere to his doctrine and his doctrine alone,\" he\nsimply stultifies himself. In education, as in science, the one mode\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCHILD STUDY.\n\n421\n\nof motion is personal investigation ; the eternal becoming ; the beginning, not the closing of the account-the initial steps of a movement ending only in infinity. That many teachers are to-day eager\nand earnest students of the doctrine of both Herbart and Fræbel is\n\none of the most healthful and promising signs of the times. The day\nof superficial and contemptuous denial is fast passing away; the day\nwhen ridicule can keep otherwise thoughtful students of education\n\nfrom investigating that which history has brought them is also passing away.\n\nThe conclusion reached by Herbart in regard to Pestalozzi may be\ntruthfully made in regard to all educators of the past and present.\nHe says the advantage of Pestalozzi's method lies, not in the means,\nthe devices, or the material which he offered for education, but that\nPestalozzi himself more bravely, more courageously, and more zealously than all the earlier teachers appreciated the duty to develop the\nmind and soul of the child.\n\nThe one true element which exalted him\n\nwas a divine zeal to know the child and to present conditions for his\ngrowth. No one can understand and appreciate Pestalozzi, Fræbel,\nor Herbart unless they come in touch with that earnest, indefatigable, loving spirit, controlled by a mighty desire to do something better\nfor the children, which dominated all in common. Method and principle is always relatively crude; but the spirit was there the love\nwithout which the giver were nothing. From this standpoint of Herbart we can judge of the educators of the past and present. We can\nsee that nothing is ever fully worked out; that every method, every\n\ndevice, every course of study, every program, every exposition of principles is capable of infinite improvement. Seizing upon a mere detail,\nor device, or method, looking upon the crude outcome of an earnest\nbut perhaps over-zealous spirit, and judging the worth of a teacher or\n\ndoctrine from such a standpoint, is worthy only of a pedant or a dogmatist.\n\nTo sum up, the highest and best outcome in the progress of education is not to be found in the results of the schoolroom, in revised\ncourses of study, or in the application of this or that theory of education.\n\nFaith in the future of the common school has a safe and sure\n\nfoundation in the attitude of the few and ever-increasing number of\nthoughtful, earnest, scientific students of education; students who,\nopen and ready to accept all the past has to bring, at the same time\nhave a profound faith that there is no abiding in the onward march\ntoward higher and better things.\n\nEfforts are becoming more and more genuine; quackery is at a discount, and warmed-over devices ages old are not so easily foisted\n\nupon untrained teachers. In a word, a discovery in education to-day\ncorresponds to that of chemistry, physics, and geology, with one ex-\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "422\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Cleveland\n\nception-it cannot so easily function itself. The time is at hand,\nhowever, when it will be possible for all discoveries in education to\nbe put into one treasure-house for common use, that every teacher\nwho is working along original lines can be put in touch with all genuine teachers and in turn receive the benefit of their studies. It takes\n\nless and less time in these days for a blessing to reach the soul of the\n\nchild. Young teachers of to-day can scarcely appreciate what this\nmeans.\n\nOnly those who have lived in the struggle comprehend\nIn what a forge and what a heat\n\nWere shaped the anchor of our hope.\n\nIn the very nature of progress, the well-known methods of scientists the world over must soon become the methods of the teacher.\n\nAdiscovery in any science-chemistry, physics, or geology-soon becomes the property of every other science. It is heralded in the newspapers; it is open to students and to the public generally. Every\nschoolroom will be a laboratory in which scientific investigations\nshall be made, and whose results shall be given to all teachers.\nThe one central feature, and indeed the most encouraging one, is\nthe attitude of many teachers towards the discovery of truth. Shorn\nof all narrowing prejudices, all implicit beliefs in dogmas, there are\nmany teachers to-day ready to test anew the value of the old, and,\nwith a profound faith in human possibilities, are ready to surrender\nany predilection and move to higher planes. I would not assert that\nthese teachers are in the majority, but still there is many a child garden on our continent in which original discovery is fostered and nourished, and where teachers have begun to feel their true dignity and\nthe divinity of their art. The crying need of the times is thoughtful,\npersistent, honest, earnest, courageous students ; students of the his-\n\ntory of education, of psychology, of pedagogy, of subject-matter, and\nof actual work done in the schoolroom.\n\nImplicit faith in worn-out\n\ntheories and cold platitudes of rehashed philosophy is becoming less\nand less. The teacher has begun to feel that he marches along the\ninfinite line of unrealized possibilities. The teacher is beginning to\ntake his place with the true scientist, and to bring all other knowledge to bear upon the central thing, the child, and to study the conditions of his highest growth and development. The teachers of to-\n\nday, too, deeply realize that most human beings are simply specimens\nof arrested development ; that the schools of the twentieth century\nmust work out every socialistic problem which the nineteenth has\npresented.\n\nPsychology in the past has had its full share in the pedantry and\ndogmatism that have marked the other sciences.\n\nin an abstruse and ambiguous terminology.\n\nIt was once buried\n\nTo Herbart, his co\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCHILD STUDY.\n\n423\n\nworkers, and contemporaries, is due the merit of founding a rational\nschool of psychology. With Herbart, the real work of introspection\nbegan. He established a psychology that could be applied to education; he established a psychology that moved straight into the realm\nofmind knowledge. His pupils have been and are continually modifying the early doctrines of Herbart. As Herbart judged Pestalozzi,\nso we can judge Herbart. His greatest merit was his movement\ntowards something better. An indispensable sequence of Herbart's\npsychology was physiological psychology ; a psychology that would\nexplain the physical causes of mind action, that would everlastingly\ntemper and modify the results of introspective psychology. The students of physiological psychology moved directly to the study of initial life, to the beginnings of mind development, to child study. Child\nstudy as a pure science must be fascinating in the extreme. It may\nbe studied with profound enthusiasm without any appreciation of its\nfunction-education ; but it only reaches its sublime height when this\nsole purpose is fully realized, and when all its discoveries reach the\nlife of the child through the work of the teacher. The grandest\nproduct of Fræbel's life is the profound recognition of the dignity and\nthe divinity of the child. The sin of the past has been the contempt\nfor the individual. Personality has been sunken and buried in human organizations. Fræbel lifted the child from this mass of ignorance and oppression and placed him before us as a type of the Babe\nof Bethlehem. He made paramount the study and exaltation of the\nindividual ; but Fræbel, with all his glorious enthusiasm, his loving\nzeal and courageous persistence, could not and did not fully know\nthe child.\n\nHis deep intuitions could not fathom this greatest mys-\n\ntery and most profound problem beneath the throne of the Eternal.\nChild study is a direct sequence and outcome of the doctrines of\nFræbel and Herbart. A distinguished sociologist said the other day,\nthat, if all the Christians of the world should start out upon a burning crusade to save mankind, they would utterly fail, because they\nlacked a requisite knowledge of sociological conditions. We can say\nthe same of education. Pestalozzi moved along the line, fired by a\nburning zeal to help the child, but his methods are now called crude\nand unpractical. Fræbel followed him, gathering the products of\nPestalozzi's great work, and moved on; but Fræbel's striving simply\nformed the initiation of a far higher work, the work that has now so\nfairly and promisingly begun under the name of child study.\nI can speak for the teachers of the West when I say that no subject has ever claimed such close attention or aroused such enthusiasm\n\nas the present movement. It may be well here to suggest the dan-\n\ngers that come in the wake of any movement like this. The principal\ndanger is to be found in generalizations without the most earnest and\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "424\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nprolonged research. This danger, however, can be guarded against\nby the presentation of the concensus of opinions of all scientists in\nthis direction. The question of how the laboratory results of child\nstudy may be applied in the schoolroom is a very grave one, indeed.\nMovement in the right direction is generally so difficult that most\npersons prefer to stand still.\n\nIn regard to the application of child study in the schoolroom\n\nallow me to say, first, that those results which have been worked out\nby child-study scientists, and concerning which there is a general concensus of opinion, should receive our most profound and thoughtful\nattention. You will allow me to refer to one result concerning which\nI believe there is among scientists no dissenting voice, and that is\nthe law of the diffusion of nervous energy. It has been decided, if I\nunderstand it, that the nervous energy of the child is diffused very\nslowly and gradually from the brain and spinal cord through the torso\nand limbs to the extremities ; that this slow diffusion is marked by\n\nthat which all persons may readily notice-broad, curved movements\non the part of the child in walking, running, moving its arms and\nhands. If, say these scientists, the extremities are unduly exercised\nbefore this nervous energy is properly diffused, the undue action of\nthe extremities-the fingers, for instance-causes a reaction against\nthe flow of nervous energy, hemming it, and thus crippling the whole\nbody. This is a conclusion of immense importance to teachers, and\nif it is applied in the schoolroom, finger writing, writing upon slates,\ndrawing that requires minuteness and accuracy, the net-work of the\nkindergarten will be forever banished.\n\nSecond, child study will probably confirm many intuitions and\ndiscoveries from the side of close observation of children in the\n\nschoolroom by teachers unfettered by fixed habits of teaching. There\nare very few sympathetic teachers who have not groaned in spirit\nover the deformity in body induced by the prevailing manner of hold-\n\ning the pen in writing and the pencil in drawing. Now, the science\nof child study brings us a confirmation of that which many teachers\nhave suspected from mere sympathetic observation. Dr. John Dewey\n\nsays that an isolated study of forms of expression is disintegrating to\nthe mind; that after a few years of such drudgery natural generalization and reasoning becomes impossible. Child study may throw new\nlight upon this remarkable statement. It may be proven clearly from\nthe child-study point of view that the saying of Horace Mann in regard to the spelling-book is a psychological truth. It may be proven\nbeyond all doubt that there is an organic relation between thought\nand expression ; that all attempt at art should spring directly from\nintrinsic thought. It may be shown that the brain fibers that lead\nfrom thought centers to motor centers should be exercised in order\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence.]\n\nCHILD STUDY.\n\n425\n\nto be developed. Some of these suspicions of truth that have been\nawakened in the minds of many teachers who have brought to bear a\n\nloving spirit upon their work may be shown to be true, while others\nmay be corrected or shown to be false.\nThird, the knowledge of the relation of the body to the mind will\ncome out in the clear. Father Jahn's prophecies may receive complete\nconfirmation, by demonstrating that mental action depends upon\nbodily health and bodily exercise. The place of rhythm in education\nmay be scientifically exposed, and music take its true place in education upon a sounder, more scientific basis. It is true that most of\n\nthese suspicions lack, as yet, confirmation; but that which the\nearnest, unprejudiced teacher finds in the schoolroom in the future\nmay be referred to the test of the laboratory and the work of the scientist.\n\nFourth, a careful and thorough investigation of the laws of fatigue\nmay lead teachers to more properly balance the work with play, or\nwork with physical exercise.\nFifth, the laws of interest and of attention may be discovered and\napplied. It may be discovered that a child with a stiff immovable\nbody in the class cannot exercise in the freest way the powers of the\nmind.\n\nAll education must, of necessity, take one direction,-must have\none goal, and that is the close and careful study and appreciation of\npersonality, and the consequent conditions for individual growth.\nThe one duty of the teacher is to know the child and to supply the\nconditions for his highest growth and development into character.\nThese words have been repeated often, but they never will be realized\nuntil the teacher has better means of interpreting certain physical\nmanifestations of the child. It is undoubtedly true that thousands\nof children now in our schools are partially deaf, or partially blind;\nthat they can only with great effort hear the teacher or see the printed line or written work upon the blackboard. The usual conclusion\non the part of the teacher is that such a child is dull, stupid, inattentive, failing in obedience. Not long ago a mother brought her son,\nfifteen years of age, to me for advice and counsel. The boy had been\nin school for eight years and was still in the third grade. The mother\nsaid the boy was a good boy at home, willing and obedient; but in\nschool he had never learned anything, while his twin brother was in\nthe eighth grade. The mother was in despair in regard to her boy.\nWhen I spoke to the boy he turned his head and eye in a way that\nindicated that he was partially deaf. I said to mother, \"Your son\n\nis deaf.\" She denied it vigorously; said she had never noticed it, and\nthat the teacher in the school, an excellent one, had never said anything about it.\n\nThe boy had been sitting in the rear of the room and\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "426\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\ncould hear very little of what his teacher said, and could see very little of what was on the board.\n\nHe had been made to feel that he was\n\ndull and stupid, and he covered himself, like a pachyderm, with a skin\n\nof profound indifference. The case of this boy is simply a type of the\ncases of thousands. Their physical defects are misinterpreted, and\ncalled stupidity, or worse-viciousness. It is a well-known fact, that,\nafter a severe case of scarlet fever, the child's brain is not in condition for attention ; that it takes sometimes one or two years for the\nbrain to resume its normal condition.\n\nThe child leaves school with\n\ngreat ambition for promotion; he returns with the same ambition but\nwith a physical inability to study. The teacher presses him on, and\nan unhealthful morbidness is the result. There are many children\nwho have chorea-whose motor centers are partially disintegrated.\nOne-half the cases of disobedience in schools are owing to over-nerv-\n\n.\n\nousness-a pathological condition; and it may be truly said that most\nof the other half of the cases of disorder are due to animal spirits.\nThis nervousness should have the cure of physical exercise; of\nmanual training, if you please. These animal spirits are simply an\nexposition of the unexpended energy which should have its outlet in\neducative work. These are a few of the many instances that may be\ncited to show that a teacher may be full of sympathy for the children,\nand still totally misinterpret them and apply the wrong conditions,\nwith the usual result of arrested growth. Child study should be the\nmost helpful means for the study of personality. It is an open question as to what extent teachers may take part in the scientific study\nof children, but it is safe to affirm that conclusions should not be\nmade without the most careful thought and investigation.\n\nChild study has entered most of our universities and a few col-\n\nleges, under the direction of eminent scientists. The day is not far\ndistant when the example of the Worcester Normal School will be\n\nfollowed, and a scientist in physiological psychology and child study\nwill have a prominent place in every normal school, so that trained\ngraduates may come into the work armed and equipped in this direction.\n\nIn the report of the Fifteen upon the training of teachers, I read\nthat the teachers should study personality in a common sense way,\n\nbut into this study the weighing and measuring of children should\nnot come.\n\nIt may be answered that weighing and measuring of children is a very common sense way of studying personality . One thing\nteachers can all do, and should do with great pleasure and profit ;\nand that is, to assist the scientists in their careful examination of the\n\nchildren. They can fill out blanks sent from laboratories ; they can\nwatch and report upon dispositions of pupils, upon fatigue, and many\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCHILD STUDY.\n\n427\n\nother important items. I repeat, that this careful study raises the\ndignity of the child as nothing else can.\n\nThe effect upon the teachers of child study will undoubtedly be of\ngreat importance in the study of defects or symptoms of precocity.\nIt will be readily granted that most teaching is simply and solely\nroutine work, with little or no regard for personal needs and personal demands.\n\nIn another direction, child study may be exceedingly helpful; and\nthat is, that it may lead parents to change their standard of education. The common standard of education on the part of the peoplethe products of the old education-is that of quantity, of learning\n\npages, chapters, going over, finishing, being examined and marked,\npromoted, and if parents cannot watch by figures, personal reports,\nand promotions the progress of their children, they have no means of\nknowing that they move. The standard of character, of habits, of\nquality, has not entered the popular mind. There are many mothers\nwho are becoming thoughtful in this direction; but most mothers are\nillustrating Rousseau's opening sentence in his great work upon edu-\n\ncation, \"Émile, \" \"The child comes perfect from the hand of God, but\nis degraded by education.\"\nIt may be of interest to you to know the plan of work of the first\nState Child Study Association ever formed. The Illinois State Society for Child Study was organized last spring at the Illinois University, under the successful leadership of Dr. W. O. Krohn. The scientific part of the work, the laboratory methods, are in the hands of a\ndozen or more eminent scientists, such as Dr. Wm. Bryan of Bloomington University, Dr. Donalson of the Chicago University, Dr.\n\nHolmes of the Surgeons' College and Dr. Meyer of the Insane Asylum of Kankakee. In the hands of these scientists is the general\ndirection of the whole work, the publication of reports, hand-books,\nand other works upon child study. They are supposed to collect and\npromulgate all that is worthy of attention in this direction. The\nother officers of the society are teachers, and their special work is to\nassist the executive committee by investigation in the schoolroom,\nand to devise ways and means of applying in the schoolroom the prin-\n\nciples and methods discovered, and to promulgate them in every possible way. The further aim of the society is to introduce the discussion of child study in all teachers' meetings and conventions and\nthe formation of round tables by parents.\n\nA hand-book is now being\n\nmade which will consist of a course of work, with full direction for\nthe study of these round tables for one year.\n\nThe old Latin proverb, \"Natura non facit saltum,\" cannot be too\n\noften recalled. No one should expect rapid strides and progress in\nnature study. We must expect many blunders and errors. The cour\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "428\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Cleveland\n\nage of success is the courage to blunder. The way to success is by a\nzig-zag route. One fact should arouse us to the highest pitch of energy and enthusiasm ; should make us gird our armor on to fight for\n\nbetter things. It is the awful fact, that, good as our present common\nschools are, mighty as has been their progress and magnificent the\nresults, they are not, by any means, equal to the tremendous social\nproblems that face us in the coming twentieth century. Our common school system is not equal to municipal reform; not equal to\n\novercoming the thirst for money, the desire to get something for nothing. It is not equal to the education of a vast number of people\nwhose ancestors have been degraded through long ages of ignorance\nand oppression. We must have something better. The old German\nsaying, \"That which you would have the state, put into the school,\"\nwe can revive and change to \"That which we would have society,\nmust be put into the school.\"\nIt is said that an aged statesman, in welcoming Charles Sumner\nto the senate, commiserated him in the fact that all the struggles\nof the new republic were over, and that there were no more worlds\nto conquer. This blindness to the situation is a common fault. There\nare dangers to-day far greater and far more threatening than those\nof 1861. We had a touch of the danger in the great riots last summer\nin Chicago. It is useless for us to say that we must not look to the\ncommon school for the development of every virtue ; that the church\nand society must do their work. We must gird on our armor and\nput into the school everything that is good in society, and this can be\ndone by the development of character ; and character can only be de-\n\nveloped by the study of personality and the application of the right\nconditions for its outgrowth.\n\nOur critics may deride us with their\n\nhabitual ridicule, and say it is but the re-swinging of the pendulum ;\nbut hang the pendulum high in the heaven of eternal truth and its\narc will sweep the universe.\n\nThe future ideal school is the ideal community, the embryonic\ndemocracy. The children are not in school to get knowledge; they\nare there to live and to learn to live. Dr. John Dewey says : \"Education is not a preparation for life; it is life itself.\" In the ideal\nschool should be all the elements of living. The main purpose of the\nschool is the solving of the problem of all ages-the reconciliation of\n\nthe individual to the state. The highest gift of a community is the\nliberty and the means of freedom.\n\nEducation is the means of free-\n\ndom, and the ideal school should present all the means which will\nassist each child in his personal striving for freedom. The old ideal\nwas to sink the child into the state ; to make him subservient to the\norganization, to the machine. The new one is to make him, through\nthe development of his individuality, in the highest degree serviceable\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence. ]\n\nCHILD STUDY.\n\n429\n\nto the state. My fellow-teachers, he who truly faces the problems\nof education faces infinity and infinite progress. He must have a\ngreat, profound faith in the development of the human race; he must\nfeel in his soul that education is the one means for the fundamental\n\noutworking of all the problems that endure for good to the human\nrace, and he must have a heart full of courage, persistence, patience,\nand wisdom. Without ignoring the treasures of philosophy, we can\nsay that, from three sources-three great converging sources-the\nstream of education is flowing on ; one from Herbart, who has promulgated fundamentally the doctrine of unification; another from\nFræbel, who has taught us the dignity of the child; and the third\nfrom child study, which will give us knowledge of the child. From\nthese three we shall know the conditions which enable us to develop\nthe child into the fullness of manhood.\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION.\n\nCONSTITUTION,\n\nPREAMBLE .\n\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration\n\nand discussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance,\nand the presentation, through printed reports, of the substance of the discussions,\nand the conclusions formulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate\ncorrect thinking on educational questions ; and, for this purpose, it shall be the\naim of the Council, in conducting its discussions, to define and state with accuracy\nthe different views and theories on the subject under consideration, and, secondly,\nto discover and represent fairly the grounds and reasons for each theory or view,\nso far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis of opinion on the subject.\nIt shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object, to encourage from\nall its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion, together with\nthe completest statement of grounds for the same. It shall further require from\nthe chairmen of its committees the careful preservation and presentation of the\nindividual differences of opinion whenever grounds have been furnished for the\nsame by members of their committees.\n\nIt shall invite the freest discussion of the\n\nreports of its committees, and, whenever said reports are not so amended as to\nembody the new suggestions developed by such discussion, any member making\nsuch suggestion or objection may put in writing his view and the grounds therefor,\nand furnish the same to the Secretary for the records of the Council. It shall\nprepare, through its President, with the aid of the chairmen of the several com-\n\nmittees, an annual report to the National Association, setting forth the questions\nconsidered by the Council during the previous year, and placing before the asso-\n\nciation, in succinct form, the work accomplished. It shall embody in this report\na survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any action on the part\nof the association. The Council shall appoint, out of its own number, committees\nrepresenting the several departments of education, and thereby facilitate the exchange of opinion among its members on such special topics as demand the attention of the profession or of the public.\nARTICLE I.-MEMBERSHIP.\n\n1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected\nout of the membership of the National Educational Association. Any member of\nthe association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION.\n\n431\n\nCouncil, and after the first election such membership shall continue for six years,\nexcept as hereinafter provided.\n\n2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members-four\nmembers for six years, two for four years, and two for two years ; and the Council\nshall elect eight members-five members for six years, two for four years, and one\nfor two years ; and annually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council five members, each member, with the exception hereinafter\nprovided for (section 5), to serve six years, or until his successor is elected.\n3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection\nwith the annual meetings of the association. If the Board of Directors shall fail,\n\nfor any reason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies\nshall be filled by the Council.\n4.\n\nThe term of service of the several members of the Council, chosen at the\n\nfirst election, shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council.\n5.\n\nThe absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the\n\nCouncil shall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill vacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as\nwell as vacancies caused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All\npersons who have belonged to the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members, with the privilege of attending its regular sessions,\nand participating in its discussions. No state shall be represented in the Council\nby more than eight members.\n\nARTICLE II.-FEES .\n\nThere shall be no fee for membership in the Council of Education, but each\nmember of it shall secure a membership in the National Educational Association\nby becoming a life member of the same, or by paying to the Treasurer of the\nassociation the annual membership fee of two dollars.\nARTICLE III .- MEETINGS .\n\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place\nas the meeting of the National Association, and at least two days previous to this\nmeeting. There may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the\nExecutive Committee, but the attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary. The regular meeting of the committees shall take place on the days provided\nfor the annual meeting of the Council. Meetings of committees may be called at\nany time by the chairmen of the respective committees, but attendance at such\nspecial meetings shall be entirely voluntary. A majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at any meeting, whether regular\nor called; but any less number, exceeding eight members, may constitute a quorum\n\nfor the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as defined in this\narticle.\n\nARTICLE IV .-COMMITTEES .\n\nThe general management of the affairs of the Council shall be vested in an\n\nExecutive Committee, composed of the President, Vice President, and Secretary\n\nof the Council, and four other members, all of whom are to be elected by the\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n432\n\n[National\n\nCouncil at its annual meeting. There shall be twelve standing committees, each\nconsisting of five members. They shall be appointed by the Executive Committee,\nand be named as follows :\n\n1.\n2.\n3.\n4.\n5.\n\nCommittee on State School Systems .\nCommittee on City School Systems .\nCommittee on Higher Education.\nCommittee on Secondary Education.\nCommittee on Elementary Education.\n\n6.\n\nCommittee on Normal Education.\n\n7.\n\nCommittee on Technological Education.\n\n8. Committee on Pedagogics.\n9.\n\nCommittee on Moral Education.\n\n10. Committee on School Sanitation, Hygiene, and Physical Training.\n11. Committee on Psychological Inquiry.\n12. Committee on Educational Reports and Statistics .\nARTICLE V.-DUTIES OF STANDING COMMITTEES .\n\nThe committees of the Council shall consider the topics assigned to them, and\nreport on the same; they may select for their deliberations such other questions\nbelonging to their departments as they deem proper to discuss.\nWhenever called upon, the committees shall continue the deliberative work of\n\nthe association on topics assigned to them, or prepare questions to be submitted\nto that body.\n\nIt shall be the duty of the standing committees to observe the new educational\n\nexperiments and original investigations within the scope of their assigned topics,\nand report the same from time to time to the President of the Council.\nARTICLE VI .-DUTIES OF MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEES.\n\nThe members of the Council shall render active service and assistance in the\n\nwork of the committee to which they have been assigned, and further the general\nwork of the Council as much as is in their power. They shall give their attention\nto the questions submitted to them, and communicate their conclusions in writing\nto the Chairman of the Committee .\n\nMeeting of Committees for Special Work.-A half day at each annual session\nshall be set apart for \"round table\" discussions, and each standing committee may\nconduct its own meeting separately, inviting, at its pleasure, experts, original investigators, or other persons, to present their experience or theoretical views before\nit, for discussion.\nARTICLE VII .-DUTIES OF THE CHAIRMEN OF COMMITTEES .\n\nThe Chairman of each committee shall communicate the questions which are\nto be discussed to each of the members of his committee, and send them such other\n\ncommunications as may assist them in their work. He shall arrange a suitable\nplan for an exchange of opinion, and embody the conclusions arrived at in a brief\nreport. He shall, from time to time, inform the Secretary of the Council of the\nprogress made by his committee. He shall, with the consent of the other members\nof his committee, arrange special meetings at a convenient time and place. He\nshall see that the communications, sent in turn to each member of his committee,\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION.\n\nCouncil.]\n\n433\n\nare promptly forwarded. He shall state distinctly (in the form of questions, when\nfeasible) the topics on which he desires to have a brief expression of opinion from\nthe members of his committee, and embody the substance of their answers in his\nreport.\n\nARTICLE VIII.-THE WORK OF THE COMMITTEES .\nThe work of the committees of the Council shall be carried on in the regular\n\nmeetings provided for above, and in such special meetings as can be arranged from\ntime to time, according to the pleasure of the committee, and principally in writing,\nby an exchange of briefly-expressed opinions. It shall be the duty of each Chairman to devise a plan for the latter. Each member may be required to report on a\npart of the subject; or the whole topic may be submitted to each member, together\nwith the opinion of the other members that have considered the topic before.\nARTICLE IX.-DUTIES OF THE COUNCIL.\n\nIt shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Asso-\n\nciation, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general.\nThe Council shall assign work to each committee, and receive a report on the\nsame; it shall cause to be published such reports of committees, or parts of the\nsame, as in its judgment should be brought to general notice; it shall present,\nthrough the President of the Council, an annual report of its work to the National\nEducational Association.\n\nArrangement of Annual Program.-The President, in making up the annual\nprogram of exercises, may select any of the twelve standing committees which\nwill, in his opinion, prepare work for the Council of the most timely and vital\ncharacter, and he shall not be limited in his choice by considerations of routine.\nThe committee thus reporting may introduce before the Council such specialists,\nexperts, original investigators, or inventors of new methods as they may deem\nessential to present effectively their subject-matter before the Council for discussion.\n\nARTICLE X.- AMENDMENTS .\n\nThis constitution may be altered or amended, at a regular meeting of the Coun-\n\ncil, by a two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provision may be waived\nat any regular meeting by unanimous consent.\n\nBy-laws not in violation of this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds\nTote of the Council.\n28\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "434\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nOFFICERS FOR 1894-95 .\nPresident -C. C. Rounds, Plymouth, N. H.\nVice President.-E . Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa.\nSecretary and Treasurer.-N. C. Dougherty, Peoria, Ill.\n\nExecutive Committee.-The President, Vice President, Secretary; E. W. Coy, Cincinnati , Ohio; Charles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.; B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich.;\nJames H. Canfield, Lincoln, Neb .\n\nOFFICERS FOR 1895-96 .\nPresident.-H. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I.\nVice President.-Earl Barnes, Stanford University, Cal.\nSecretary and Treasurer.-Bettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio.\nExecutive Committee.-The President, Vice President, Secretary; Charles De Garmo,\nSwarthmore, Pa.; D. L. Kiehle, Minneapolis, Minn .; J. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss .;\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N. J.\n\nMEMBERS .\nNote-The letter \"A\" following a name denotes that the member is of the class\nelected by the association; the letter \" C,\" by the Council.\nTerm expires.\n\nTerm expires.\n\nEdwin C. Hewett, Normal , Ill ...... A 1896 * W. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky.A 1899\nAndrew J. Rickoff, Berkeley, Cal .... A 1806\n*Euler B. Smith, Athens , Ga ...\n1896\n\n* Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass.A 1899\n*Henry Sabin, Des Moines , Iowa .... A 1899\n\n*Chas . A. McMurry, Normal , Ill .... A 1896 *E. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa ..... A 1899\n*J.F. Millspaugh, Salt Lake City, Utah .A 1896 J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo..A 1899\nJohn T. Buchanan, Kansas City, Mo.C 1896 William A. Mowry, Salem, Mass .... C 1899\n*H. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I.... C 1896 Selim H. Peabody, Chicago, Ill ...... C 1899\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio ...\nC 1896 *Nathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa.C 1899\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis .... C 1896 David L. Kiehle, St. Paul, Minn .... Ο 1899\nMary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.C 1809\nJohn W. Cook, Normal, III ......... C 1896\nWilliam T. Harris, Washington, D.C.A 1897 *C. C. Rounds, Plymouth , N. H..... A 1900\n*C. B. Gilbert, St. Paul, Minn ..... A 1897 *J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala .... Α 1900\nJohn E. Bradley, Jacksonville, Ill .... A 1897 *Z. Richards, Washington, D. C..... A 1900\n*Earl Barnes, Stanford Univ., Cal .... A 1897 James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo ..... A 1900\nJ. G. Schurman, Ithaca, N. Y...... 1897 Thomas G. Harris, Austin, Tex .... A 1900\nCharles De Garmo, Swarthmore, Pa.C 1897 Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo ...... Ο 1900\nL. H. Jones, Cleveland, Ohio ....... C 1897 Wm . E. Sheldon, Boston, Mass ...... C 1900\nC. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo ..... C 1897 *Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn ...... C 1900\n*S . G. Williams, Ithaca, N. Y...... C 1897 Lucia Stickney, Cincinnati, Ohio .... C 1900\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York..C 1897 *H. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa..C 1900\nRichardG. Beone, Ypsilanti, Mich .. A 1898 James M. Green, Trenton, N. J.... A 1901\nF. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo .... A 1898 *Augustus S. Downing, Albany, N. Y.A 1901\nN. A. Calkins, New York City ...... A 1898 A. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan....... A 1901\n*Joseph Baldwin, Huntsville, Tex..A 1898 W. H. Payne, Nashville, Tenn ..... A 1901\nJames H. Canfield, Columbus, Ohio .. A 1898 J. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss ... A 1901\nA. S. Draper, Champaign, Ill ........ C 1898 Geo. P. Brown, Bloomington, Ill .... C 1901\n*William H. Maxwell, Brooklyn, N. Y.C 1898 Bettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio ..C 1901\nEmerson E. White, Columbus, Ohio .. C 1898 *Chas. H. Keyes, Pasadena, Cal ....C 1901\n*B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich .. C 1898 Wm. L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind ... C 1901\n*N. C. Dougherty, Peoria, III ....... C 1898\nWm. F. King. Mt. Vernon, Iowa ... C 1901\n*Present at the meeting of the Council in Denver, 1895.\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nHONORARY MEMBERS-DECEASED MEMBERS.\n\nHONORARY\nHenry Barnard, Hartford, Conn.\n\n435\n\nMEMBERS .\nE. J. James, Philadelphia, Pa .\nHenry M. James, Tacoma, Wash .\nH. S. Jones, Lincoln, Neb .\nE. S. Joynes, Knoxville, Tenn.\nThomas Kirkland , Toronto , Canada.\n\nWilliam N. Barringer, Newark, N. J.\nNewton Bateman, Galesburg, Ill.\nD. Bemis , Spokane, Wash .\nThomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R. I.\nAlbert C. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass.\nAnna C. Brackett, New York City .\nEdward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa.\nMatthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt.\nDavid M. Camp, New Britain, Conn .\nAaron L. Chapin, Beloit, Wis .\nClara Conway, Memphis, Tenn.\nMatilda S. Cooper, Nyack, N. Y.\nOscar H. Cooper, Galveston, Tex.\nWilliam J. Corthell, Gorham, Me.\nJ. L. M. Curry, Richmond, Va.\nV. C. Dibble, Charleston, S. C.\n\nHenry M. Leipziger, New York City .\nJames MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa.\nAlbert P. Marble, Omaha, Neb .\nFrancis A. Marsh, Easton, Pa.\nLillie J. Martin, San Francisco, Cal .\n\nThomas J. Morgan, Washington, D. C.\nLemuel Moss , Minneapolis, Minn.\nBirdseye G. Northrop , Clinton, Conn.\nJohn M. Ordway, New Orleans , La.\n\nFrancis W. Parker, Chicago, III.\nWarren D. Parker, River Falls, Wis .\nS. S. Parr, St. Cloud, Minn.\n\nJohn W. Dickinson, Boston, Mass .\n\nJohn B. Peaslee, Cincinnati , Ohio.\nWilliam F. Phelps, St. Paul , Minn.\nJosiah L. Pickard, Iowa City, Iowa.\nJohn T. Prince, Boston, Mass .\nWilliam H. Ruffner, Lexington, Va.\n\nLarkin Dunton, Boston , Mass .\nJolin Eaton, Washington, D. C.\nChas . W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nGeo. T. Fairchild, Manhattan, Kan.\nWilliam W. Folwell, Minneapolis , Minn.\nDaniel C. Gilman, Baltimore, Md.\nJames C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass .\n\nH. E. Shepard, Charleston, S. C.\nEdgar A. Singer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nJames H. Smart, Lafayette, Ind.\nHomer B. Sprague ......... Cal .\n\nJohn M. Gregory, Washington, D. C.\nDaniel B. Hagar, Salem, Mass .\n\nThomas B. Stockwell, Providence, R. I.\n\nW. R. Garrett. Nashville, Tenn.\n\nJ. W. Stearns, Madison, Wis .\n\nW. N. Hailman, Washington, D. C.\nG. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass .\n\nGrace Bibb Sudborough , Omaha, Neb .\nJohn Swett, San Francisco, Cal .\n\nIra G. Hoitt, Sacramento, Cal.\nJ. George Hodgins, Toronto, Canada.\nJames H. Hoose, Pasadena, Cal .\n\nGeorge W. Howison, San Francisco, Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto, Canada.\nThomas Hunter, New York City .\nEllen Hyde, Farmingham, Mass .\n\nW. R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga.\nH. S. Thompson, Columbia, S. C.\nL. S. Thompson, New Wilmington, Pa.\nJulia S. Tutweiler, Livingstone, Ala.\nDella L. Williams , Delaware, Ohio.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C.\nH. K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Neb .\n\nJohn S. Irwin, Fort Wayne, Ind.\n\nDECEASED\n\nRobert Allyn .\nIsrael W. Andrews .\nN. R. H. Dawson .\nSamuel S. Greene .\nJohn Hancock.\n\nWilliam D. Henkle .\n\nElnathan E. Higbee .\nGeorge Howland.\nMerrick Lyon .....\n\n1894\n1888\n\nMEMBERS .\nJames McCosh ...\nM. A. Newell .\n\n1894\n1893\n\n1895 Edward Olney .\n\n1886\n\n.1883 Gustavus J. Orr .\n1891 John D. Philbrick .\n1882 R. W. Stevenson .\n\n1888\n\n.1889 Eli T. Tappan .\n1892 Charles O. Thompson .\n1888 James P. Wickersham .\n\n1885\n1893\n1888\n..\n\n.1885\n.1891\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n436\n\n[National\n\nSTANDING COMMITTEES .\nThe committees from which reports are due in 1896 are Nos. II., III. , IV. ,\nVII. , X. , XI ., and XII. The topics already reported on will be found in italies,\nwith the years of the reports in parentheses.\nThe chairman of each of the standing committees should communicate with\n\nthe other members of his committee at once, select a subject, and notify the President, H. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I. , by Feb. 1, 1896. It is the wish of the\nPresident of the National Educational Association that the programs of the National Association, its departments, and the National Council, be issued by February 15th .\n\nAttention is called to provisions of the constitution of the Council in regard to\nthe character of the work of standing committees.\n\nProvision is also made in the\n\nconstitution for round tables, and it is expected that arrangements will be made\nfor these by those standing committees to which formal reports are not assigned.\nI.- On State School Systems .\nSUB - TOPICS.\n\n1.\n2.\n3.\n\nOrganization (1883).\nSupervision (1885) .\nLicensure of Teachers ( 1889).\n\n4.\n\nSchool Revenues.\n\nState, County, City, and District Supervision ( 1892) .\n9. The Ungraded School ( 1895).\nN. C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa., Chair-\n\n5.\n6.\n\nCompulsory Education ( 1891).\nTenure of Office of Teachers ( 1887) .\n\nJ. H. Canfield, Columbus, Ohio.\n\n8.\n\nman .\n\n7. Supplying the Schools with Text J. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss.\nJ. G. Schurman, Ithaca, N. Y.\nHenry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa.\n\nBooks.\n\nII .- On City School Systems .\nSUB- TOPICS.\n\n1.\n\nOrganization .\n\n2.\n\nSupervision ( 1884, 1890) .\n\n3.\n4.\n\nSuperintendency.\nQualification of Teachers.\n\n5.\n\nClassification of Pupils ( 1886) .\n\n6.\n\nUngraded Schools .\n\n7.\n\nBusiness Side of City School Systems\n(1888, 1889, 1890) .\n\n8.\n\nPromotions and Examinations .\n\n10.\n\nEnriching the Course of Study be-\n\n11.\n\nGraded Course of Study on Herbartian\n\nlow the High School.\n\nPrinciples (1895).\nAaron Gove, Denver, Colo., Chairman.\nL. H. Jones, Cleveland, Ohio.\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis .\nOscar H. Cooper, Galveston, Tex .\nN. C. Dougherty, Peoria, Ill .\n\n9. Evening Schools.\nIII .- On Higher Education .\nSUB - TOPICS.\n\n7. The Seminary Method of Instruc1. Higher Institutions Required ( 1885) .\ntion.\n2. Harmonizing of Higher, Secondary, and\n8. Professional and Technical Instruction\nElementary Schools (1882).\nin the University (1894) .\n3. Admission to College ( 1884).\nJ. E. Bradley, Jacksonville, Ill., Chairman.\n4. Elective System ( 1888) .\n5.\n\nCollege Government.\n\nWilliam F. King, Mount Vernon, Iowa.\n\n6. What Should Precede the Univer- James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo.\nA. S. Draper, Champaign, Ill.\nsity?\nS. G. Williams, Ithaca, N. Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nSTANDING COMMITTEES.\n\n437\n\nIV.- On Secondary Education .\nSUB- TOPICS.\n\n1. High Schools ( 1882) .\n2. Academies (1885) .\n3. Preparation for College (1884) .\n4. Relation of High Schools to Colleges (1887) .\n5. Opportunities of the Rural Population for\nSecondary Education ( 1889).\n6. Schools by Correspondence.\n\n8. Difference Between College Methods\nof Instruction and High School\nMethods.\n\nW. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky .\nF. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nH. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\n\n7. Uniformity in Requirements for Admis- John T. Buchanan, Kansas City, Mo.\nHorace S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I.\n\nsion to College (1891).\n\nV.-On Elementary Education .\nSUB- TOPICS.\n\n1.\n2.\n\nCourse of Study ( 1882) .\nOral Teaching (1884) .\n\n3.\n\nText-Books ( 1886 ) .\n\nThe Uses of Literature in Elementary\nEducation ( 1892).\n10. Economy in Elementary Education\n(1895) .\nGeo. P. Brown, Bloomington, Ill., Chair9.\n\n4.\n\nWaste in Elementary Education (1888).\n\n5.\n\nKindergarten.\n\n6. Language Lessons in Elementary\nSchools .\n\n7.\n\nman.\n\nWilliam E. Sheldon, Boston, Mass .\n\nScience Teaching in Lower Grades .\n\n8. Essentials in\n(\n1890).\n\nElementary\n\nZalmon Richards, Washington, D. C.\nEducation J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala\nBettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\nVI .- On Normal Education .\nSUB- TOPICS.\n\n1. Kind of Normal Schools Required.\n8. The Kind and Amount of Practice- Work\nand Its Place in the Normal School\n2. Academical and Professional Training\n(1883, 1889) .\nCourse (1895).\n3. Practice Departments (1885).\nR. G. Boone, Ypsilanti, Mich., Chairman.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n4. City Normal Schools ( 1891).\n5. Teachers' Institutes (1887).\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N. J.\n\n6. The Relation of the Normal School to William L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ill.\nOther Institutions of Learning ( 1892) . John W. Cook, Normal, Ill.\n7.\n\nNormal School Extension.\n\nVII .- On Technological Education.\nSUB-TOPICS.\n\n1.\n\nTechnical Training in Public Schools 6. Relation of Technological to Liberal Edu(1881)\ncation (1894).\n\n2\n\nPreparation for Institutes of Technology.\n\nC. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo. , Chairman.\n\n3. Pedagogical Value of the School Work- Selim H. Peabody, Chicago, Ill.\nshop (1886) .\n4. Agricultural Colleges (1888) .\n\nEuler B. Smith, Athens, Ga.\n\n5.\n\nCharles H. Keyes . Pasadena, Cal.\n\nSummer Schools of Science.\n\nWilliam H. Payne, Nashville, Tenn.\n\n"}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "438\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nVIII .- On Pedagogics .\nSUB- TOPICS .\n\n1.\n2.\n3.\n4.\n5.\n\nChair of Pedagogy in Colleges ( 1882) .\n10. Scope and Character of the Pedagogical\nPedagogy as a Science (1884) .\nWork in Universities (1892) .\nPedagogical Inquiry.\n11. The Laws of Mental Congruence and\nFunction of Public Schools (1886, 1887) .\nEnergy Applied to Some Pedagogical\nEducational Value of Manual Training\nProblems ( 1895) .\n\n6.\n\nMoral Education.\n\n7.\n\nPedagogical Terminology .\n\n(1889) .\n\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York City .\nChairman .\n\nDavid L. Kiehle, Minneapolis , Minn.\nA. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan.\n8. The Education of the Will ( 1891).\n9. Distinguishing Ideas in the Herbar- Charles A. McMurry, Normal, Ill .\nB. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich.\ntian System of Pedagogy.\nIX .- On Moral Education .\n\n[Changed from \" On the Education of Girls, \" 1891. ]\nSUB- TOPICS .\n\n1.\n\nCo-education ( 1883, 1890) .\n\n2.\n\nTechnical Training for Girls ( 1886) .\n\n3.\n4.\n\nWhat Education is Best ( 1888).\nThe Education of Girls (1891 ) .\n\n5.\n6.\n\n7. Moral Instruction in the Elementary\nSchools ( 1895).\nEmerson E. White, Columbus, O., Chairman.\n\nCharles De Garmo, Swarthmore, Pa.\nPractical Culture of the Moral Virtues Lucia Stickney, Cincinnati, Ohio .\n(1892) .\nCharles C. Rounds, Plymouth, N. Н.\nDirect and Indirect Moral Teaching.\nJ. F. Millspaugh, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nX.- On School Sanitation, Hygiene, and Physical Training .\n\n[Changed from—“ On Hygiene in Education,\" 1891. ]\nSUB- TOPICS.\n\n1. Sanitary Exercises and Appliances in William A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass .,\nChairman .\nPublic Schools (1883).\n2. Recesses (1884, 1885).\nMary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\n3. Relation of Mental Labor to Physical Joseph Baldwin, Austin, Tex.\nHealth (1887).\n4. Harmonious Development (1889) .\n5. Physical Education ( 1891) .\n\nF. A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass.\nC. B. Gilbert, St. Paul, Minn.\n\nXI .- On Psychological Inquiry.\n\n[Changed from\n\n\" On Educational Literature, \" 1891. ]\nSUB- TOPICS .\n\n1. School Reports (1885) .\n2. Books on Pedagogy ( 1888) .\n\n6.\n\nThe Psychology of the Imitative Functions\nin Childhood ( 1894) .\nE. O. Lyte, Millersville, Pa. , Chairman.\n\n3. Use of General Libraries (1887).\n\nWilliam T. Harris, Washington, D. С.\n4. Educational Literature (1890) .\n5. Relation of Mnemonic Systems to the N. A. Calkins, New York City.\n\nCultivation of the Power of Thought Edwin C. Hewett, Normal, III.\nEarl Barnes, Stanford University, Cal.\n\n(1892).\n\nXII.- On Educational Reports and Statistics .\n\n[Changed from \" On Educational Statistics,\" 1891. ]\nSUB- TOPICS .\n\nJ. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nCollected E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio.\n\n1. Reforms in Statistics (1885, 1887).\n2.\n\nWhat\n\nStatistics\n\nShould\n\nbe\n\n(1889, 1891) .\n\nWilliam H. Maxwell, Brooklyn, N. Y. ,\nChairman .\n\nA. J. Rickoff, Berkeley, Cal.\n\nH. K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Neb.\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION.\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES.\n\nFIRST DAY.\n\nOPENING SESSION.\n\nDENVER, COLO., FRIDAY, July 5, 1895.\n\nThe Council was called to order at 10 a. m., in the supreme court room, state\ncapitol, with President C. C. Rounds in the chair .\nPrayer was offered by D. L. Kiehle.\n\nIn the absence of E. E. White of Ohio, the report of the Committee on \"Moral\nInstruction in the Elementary Schools\" was not presented, but was taken up for\ndiscussion.\n\nEarl Barnes of Leland Stanford University opened the discussion, and was\nfollowed by C. C. Rounds, J. Baldwin, D. L. Kiehle, Henry Sabin, J. W. Cook ,\nF. L. Soldan, and J. H. Baker.\nThe discussion was reported by James H. Baker.\nAdjourned until 2:30 p. m.\n\nAFTERNOON SESSION .\n\nCouncil opened its session at 2:30 p. m.\nThe Committee on Elementary Education made a report on \"Economy in Elementary Education,\" the report being made by Miss Bettie A. Dutton of Cleveland,\nOhio, Chairman of the committee.\n\nThe report was discussed by Messrs. Brown, Richards, Soldan, Cook, and\nMarble.\n\nThe discussion was reported by W. F. King.\nIt was voted that the report be received and printed.\nOn motion of George P. Brown, the officers of the Council were authorized to\nbring the report before the Council at a subsequent meeting for further discussion.\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "440\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nSECOND DAY.\n\nMORNING SESSION. SATURDAY, JULY 6TH.\nCouncil met at 10 a. m. Prayer was offered by Joseph Baldwin.\nThe report of the discussion on \"Moral Instruction in the Elementary Schools\"\nwas presented by James H. Baker.\n\nApproved and ordered printed.\nThe Council then resumed the discussion on \"Economy in Elementary Education.\"\n\nThe discussion was opened by Mr. Baker, and continued by Messrs. Gilbert,\nCook, and Richards.\n\nReport of the Committee on State School Systems was submitted by its Chairman, Henry Sabin, The topic of investigation was \"The Ungraded School .\"\nReport was discussed by Messrs. Cook, Kiehle, Hinsdale, Brown, Rounds,\nBaldwin, Prince, Boyden, and Barnes.\nThe discussion was reported by Geo. P. Brown .\n\nReport was ordered printed.\nOn motion of B. A. Hinsdale, the chair was directed to appoint a committee\nof five, who should submit a plan for further investigation of this subject.\nAdjourned.\nAFTERNOON SESSION .\n\nThe Council was called to order promptly at 2:30, with President Rounds in\nthe chair.\n\nThe following committees were announced.\nCommittee on New Members .-H. S. Tarbell, Mary E. Nicholson, James H.\nBaker, Earl Barnes, and Z. Richards .\nCommittee on Nominations -F. Louis Soldan, C. B. Gilbert, L. H. Jones .\n\nThe Council then organized as a Round Table on City School Systems, with N.\nC. Dougherty as Chairman. Subject: \"Graded Courses of Study on Herbartian\nPrinciples .\"\n\nThe discussion was led by Charles A. McMurray, who was followed by Messrs.\nBrown, Cook, Baker, and Soldan.\nThe Council adjourned .\n\nTHIRD DAY.\n\nMORNING SESSION . MONDAY, JULY 8TH.\n\nCouncil met at ten o'clock. Prayer was offered by N. C. Schaeffer.\nThe President announced as the committee to report on \"Ungraded Schools,\"\nMessrs. Hinsdale, Kiehle, Preston, Brown, and Barnes.\nThe Committee on Pedagogics submitted its report on the \"Laws of Congruity\n\nand Mental Energy Applied to Some Pedagogical Problems,\" through the Chairman, B. A. Hinsdale.\n\nThe report was discussed by Geo. P. Brown, J. Baldwin, F. Louis Soldan,\nJames H. Baker, and L. H. Jones .\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES.\n\nCouncil. ]\n\n441\n\nThe President announced that the afternoon session would be held in the as-\n\nsembly hall of the Denver High School.\nCouncil adjourned.\nAFTERNOON SESSION.\n\nCouncil assembled promptly at 2:30 p. m.\n\nThe report of the Committee on Normal Education was presented by its Chairman, John W. Cook. Subject: \" The Kind and Amount of Practice Work and Its\nPlace in the Normal School Course .\"\n\nThe report was discussed by Messrs. Brown, Williams, Schaeffer, Barnes, Miss\nNicholson, and Mrs. Sudborough.\nWilliam F. King offered the following resolutions, which were unanimously\nadopted:\n\nWhereas, A reception was tendered by the Fortnightly Club of Denver to the Council\nof Education, on the evening of the 6th, at the residence of Bishop and Mrs. Henry\nW. Warren, at University Park ; and,\n\nWhereas, The pleasant ride, the beautiful and inspiring scenery, the perfect weather,\nthe meeting of genial acquaintances , new and old, and the generous hospitalities of this\nmodel home, where wealth and Christian culture are so happily blended, combined to\nmake this the social event of our delightful stay in Denver; therefore\nResolved, That we most heartily thank the Fortnightly Club and Bishop and Mrs.\nWarren for this very pleasant occasion, so liberally planned and so successfully executed.\nResolved further, That copies of these resolutions be sent to the Fortnightly Club ,\nand also to Bishop and Mrs. Warren.\n\nThe President announced that the morning session would be an executive session, and the Council would meet in the supreme court room of the capitol.\nCouncil adjourned .\n\nFOURTH DAY.\n\nMORNING SESSION.\n\nTUESDAY, JULY 9TH\n\nThe Council met in executive session, at 10 a. m., with President Rounds in\nthe chair.\n\nOn motion of F. L. Soldan, it was resolved that the reports of the committees\nhereafter to be submitted to this Council be published one month before its meeting, and a copy of each mailed to each member of the Council.\nOn motion of C. B. Gilbert, it was resolved that hereafter admission to the\nCouncil to other than members be by card, issued under the direction of the Executive Committee.\n\nOn motion of N. C. Dougherty, the General Secretary of the association was requested hereafter to secure railroad rates for the members of the Council and their\n\nfamilies, in time to attend the opening session of the Council.\nThe committee appointed to report a plan for further investigation of state\nschool systems made the following report :\nResolved. That there be undertaken under the auspices of the Council an investigation of the subject of \" Rural Schools, \" embracing such topics as revenues and expendi-\n\ntures, the constitution, organization, and duties of boards of management and control,\nand the provision of suitable teachers. More definitely, said investigation shall be conducted in general on the lines laid down in the report of the Committee on State School\nSystems, submitted to the Council at its present session.\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n442\n\n[National\n\nResolved, That a committee of nine be appointed to conduct this investigation, said\ncommittee to consist of the following persons : Henry Sabin of Iowa, D. L. Kiehle of\nMinnesota, A. B. Poland of New Jersey , C. C. Rounds of New Hampshire, J. H. Phillips\nof Alabama, B. A. Hinsdale of Michigan, S. T. Black of California, F. Sutton of Texas ,\nand L. E. Wolfe of Missouri .\n\nResolved, That the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association be\nurgently requested to appropriate, at some session to be held during the course of the\npresent annual meeting, the sum of $2,500, or such part thereof as may be necessary\nto defray the expenses of this investigation, including the publication of the report of\nthe committee.\n\nResolved, That the committee shall report within the period of two years in such\nform as it may determine, and that it be authorized to publish its report.\nRespectfully submitted ,\nB. A. HINSDALE, Chairman.\n\nOn motion of Henry Sabin of Iowa, the committee were authorized to increase\ntheir number to twelve,\n\nOn motion of B. A. Hinsdale, it was resolved that this committee be empowered\nand instructed to fill any vacancy that may occur in its membership, and it was further resolved that the President of the National Educational Association, the\n\nPresident of the Council, and the Chairman of the committee be appointed a committee to carry the request of the Council to the Board of Directors, and to urge\nits adoption.\nThe committee on nominations of members of the Council recommended the\n\nfollowing persons for election to the places and terms mentioned :\nGeo. P. Brown (to succeed himself) ...\nMiss Bettie A. Dutton (to succeed herself) .\nWilliam F. King (to succeed himself) .\n\n1901\n\nCharles H. Keyes (to succeed Henry M. James) .\nWilliam L. Bryan (to succeed Delia L. Williams)\n\n1901\n\nJohn Buchanan (to succeed John W. Dickinson) .\n\n1896\n\n1901\n1901\n\n1901\n\nOn motion of H. S. Tarbell, the recommendation of the committee was concurred in.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following names :\nPresident-H. S. Tarbell of Providence, R. I.\nVice President- Earl Barnes, Stanford University, Cal.\nSecretary and Treasurer-Bettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio .\nExecutive Committee-Charles De Garmo , Swarthmore, Pa .; D. L. Kiehle, Minneapolis,\nMinn.; J. R. Preston, Jackson, Minn .; James M. Green, Trenton, N. J.\n\nOn motion of F. L. Soldan, the Secretary was directed to cast the ballot of\nCouncil for the persons named.\nThe President appointed J. H. Phillips to conduct the President-elect to the\nchair.\n\nPresident Tarbell returned thanks for the honor conferred upon him, and the\nCouncil adjourned.\nRECORD OF MEMBERSHIP.\n\nThe following were present at one or more of the sessions of 1895:\nBaker, Baldwin, Barnes, Bartholomew, Brown, Bryan, Buchanan, Butler,\nCook, Coy, De Garmo, Dougherty, Downing, Dutton, Fitzpatrick, Gilbert, Gove,\nGreen, Harris (Texas), Hinsdale, Jones, Keyes, Kiehle, King, Lyte, Maxwell, Mc-\n\nMurry, Millspaugh, Nicholson, Payne, Phillips, Preston, Richards, Rounds, Sabin\n(Wisconsin) , Sabin (Iowa) , Schaeffer, Seerley, Shepard, Smith, Soldan, Tarbell,\nTaylor, Williams .\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\n443\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\n\nMORAL INSTRUCTION IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n[REPORTED BY JAMES H. BAKER.]\n\nMR. BARNES.\n\nFor many centuries it has been considered that conduct de-\n\npended on religious instruction. Owing to the jealousies of sects our own country\nand France have been obliged to put religious instruction out of the schools.\nEngland is to-day on the verge of secularization. Nowhere has secularization of\nthe schools been desired by the majority of thoughtful citizens-it is an undesired\nbut unavoidable compromise.\nAs a consequence of secularization, children are growing up in ignorance of the\nfundamental ideas of the Christian theology. An examination of 1,200 compositions written by California children on heaven and hell shows that many of them\n\nthink Christ was God's father, and many have not even heard of Mary or Moses.\nThis makes it impossible for them to understand the spirit of our civilization, or\nthe art, literature, and history of Christendom. Worse still, secularization is leaving in children's minds a feeling, that, when they have detected the invariable\nantecedent of a phenomenon, they have seen its ultimate cause. This makes life\nbarren and weak.\n\nBut secularization is here and it must be respected. It takes from us the\nfoundations on which moral training bas rested in the past. Can we create a new\n\nbasis for moral action through the love of birds and flowers, through admiration of\nAbraham Lincoln, or appreciation of Longfellow's poems, and if so, how ? This\nis the question that confronts this Council .\n\nMR. BALDWIN.-Conduct is the educational superlative. Educators are coming\nto think of school work as embracing five groups of studies blended into unity :\nConduct studies, language studies, mathematics studies, science studies, art studies .\nThe conduct group easily takes the first place. This group includes conduct lessons, school government, history, citizenship, mind lessons, religion. History, teaching the best lessons of individual and national experience, is central. These studies\nhave the highest educational value. They awaken and develop the largest brain\nareas. They have the greatest culture as well as the greatest practical value.\nThey give meaning and unity to the entire school work. Educators are first of all\nconduct teachers. The teacher makes even more thorough preparation for conduct\nlessons than for other lessons. In the near future the principals of our grammar\nschools and of our high schools will doubtless be conduct specialists. Thus, our\nablest teachers, during the eight formative years, will give their best efforts to\nfostering character growth. The outlook is encouraging. Warm-hearted teachers\nare learning the art of developing into character the best possibilities of their pupils.\nIn co-operation with parents and the church and society, our schools are coming\nmore and more to stand for the fostering of good conduct.\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "444\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nMR. ROUNDS.-For a few years past I have studied with much interest an\nexperiment in moral instruction in a system of schools in a village community in\nNew England. Convinced of the necessity for more systematic work in this direction, the subject of moral instruction was given a definite place in the course of\nstudy and in the time-table. The results were in some respects a surprise. Diffi-\n\nculties anticipated did not appear. It became at once one of the pleasantest subjects both to teacher and pupil, and there is no question of its value. Some remarkable instances might be given of the benefits derived from it in individual\ncases, and in general there has resulted a better understanding of the pupil by the\nteacher and a tenderer sympathy between them. The general atmosphere of the\nschool has apparently been modified essentially by this instruction.\nThe course has been graded according to the gradually developing moral perception of the pupil. The instruction has been intuitional in a sense closely\nanalogous to the usual object-lesson of the elementary school.\n\nThis instruction is\n\nbased upon spiritual perception as that is based upon sense perception, and it cannot be dogmatic in any sense. It is proved that lessons to a class cannot safely\nbe drawn from personal experiences of the pupil, nor can individual personal applications safely be made before the class, for reasons which soon become obvious .\nThe experiences drawn upon must be such as are analogous to the child's own\n\nexperience or observation, and he must be left to make the personal application\nhimself.\n\nIf literature, history, incidents from life, are treated from the point of view of\nright and wrong, there will always be at hand an abundance of material.\nWhatever may be the degree of truth in the statement that the child cannot\n\nreason-and I believe there is very little truth in it-it is unquestionably true that\nthe moral judgment is very early in exercise, and that correct inference in regard\nto right and wrong is one of the earliest forms of inference.\n\nMoral instruction, to\n\nbe effective, must appeal to the feeling of the pupil. The moral lesson is the earliest\nrevelation to the child of the spiritual world and its laws.\nIn the upper grammar grades the lessons are in morals and civics combined.\nThese lessons have shown that very few of even the more intelligent pupils have\nbeen led to think of the application of ethical principles to questions of public\npolicy. I believe, that, if American politics is to be redeemed from the reproach\nthat rests upon it, the salvation is to come, not from this generation so much as\nfrom the next, which is now in training in the schools.\nIt is a great misfortune that the Bible cannot be more widely used as a basis\nof instruction in the schools .\n\nThe community to which I refer is almost entirely\n\na Protestant community. There is very little appearance of denominational differences in social relations ; yet there is a degree of denominational feeling such as\n\nwould render it very unwise to give a course in biblical instruction in the public\nschool . Yet a judicious teacher can, in this community, sum up moral teaching\nin statements carefully selected from the Bible, and some teachers have said that\ntheir most effective instruction is that which is summed up in maxims, biblical and\nother, embodying, in the best form, fundamental moral truth.\nMR. BARNES.-Do you not find that children are natural liars, communists, and\nanarchists ?\n\nMR. ROUNDS.-That has not been my experience.\nMRS. SUDBOROUGH.-Will Mr. Barnes tell us whether it is true, as is sometimes\nsaid, that the religious instruction in the German schools is one of the causes of\nGerman infidelity\n\nMR. BARNES. I cannot answer the question.\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n445\n\nMR. ROUNDS.-A friend of mine, who spent some time in the study of German\nschools, tells me that he found the religious teaching generally formal and lifeless,\nor the teachers whom he questioned upon the subject said the lessons were given\nmerely because the law required this, but that they themselves did not approve of\nthe religious instruction in schoools .\n\nMR. KIEHLE.-In the progress of Christianity leading emphasis was given first\nto government and forms of worship; then, in Protestantism, to theological expression of belief, which caused the intellectual dogmatic element to be given the first\n\nplace in religious teaching. In recent times, the spirit of Christianity in heart-life\nand character is receiving prominent attention, and is recognized by church and\nstate in common as of fundamental value in the teaching of children. Hence, all\ncharacter, including that of Jesus of Nazareth, all record of life and history, including the Bible, are properly recognized by state and church as material for lessons in moral and religious spirit.\nMR. RICHARDS.-If we could have properly qualified teachers in morals we\n\nshould not find it so necessary to discuss this important subject of moral instruction. The difficulties all arise from the imperfect qualification of our teachers.\nTo train children to correct moral conduct in life, the teacher must be an ex-\n\nemplar of the moral principles which he wishes to inculcate.\nThis qualification consists, first, in the teacher's knowledge of what moral sentiments should be taught; and, second, in knowing how to teach, or inculcate, these\nprinciples ; and, third, in practically exemplifying these principles. These qualifications ought to be thoroughly and practically secured in our normal schools . No\nteacher should ever be graduated from our normal schools who has not been properly trained to do this work.\n\nThe Bible is the basis of all moral principles, but it is not absolutely necessary\nto use the Bible in teaching morals.\nMR. SABIN.-I have heard it said in the Council that children are liars, communists, and anarchists. I regret that anyone should hold such sentiments, and\n\nfor myself, I would allow no primary teacher to enter a schoolroom who believed\nsuch things.\n\nMR. BARNES. I have only raised the question whether a child was a liar in\ntruth, a communist in property, and an anarchist in general philosophy. Further\nI raised the question as to how far we ourselves have settled the primary questions\nof society, religion, and property. I urge that our problem must consist in clarifying our own minds; then, in finding where the children actually are in moral ideas;\nand, then, in leading them through all the work of the day to the best we know.\nMR. COOK.-I dissent from the idea that what ordinarily passes for religious\ninstruction is necessarily of much value as an ethical force in the school, and I\npress the necessity of setting up as the fundamental purpose of the school the\nformation of the moral will.\n\nTo this end, there should be no isolation of moral\n\ninstruction; but every exercise is valuable to the degree that it makes for wholesome conduct.\n\nMR. SABIN.-Professor Cook gets nearer right the longer he talks. No school\ntaught in the spirit which he emphasizes can be said to be a secularized school.\nI have seen a school in which the teacher was careful to read the Bible and to\n\nhave the opening prayer, and yet that school was the most highly secularized school\nI ever saw. The spirit of Christianity was entirely wanting. I know a teacher\nwho received this acknowledgment from a young man who years before had been\none of her pupils. He said that something she said to them one day turned the\nwhole course of his life, and that he had come out of his way to thank her for it.\n\nThat teacher did not read the Bible to her pupils, but her heart was as an open\nbook, known and read by them every day.\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nThere is one other side to this question. I am afraid the younger teachers\nare in danger of gaining wrong ideas from this discussion. The philosopher who\ngoes about with his note-book taking down the simple and amusing answers which\nchildren make to his philosophical queries may be doing good in one direction, as\nadding useful information in child study; but he is doing harm in another direction, because these answers are often misleading .\n\nHow many men and women\n\nthere are who owe their success to personal influence of some teacher!\nMR. SOLDAN.-\" Can morals be taught?\" is an interesting although not a new\nquestion. No one will deny that intelligence influences action; that to know what is\nright and wrong is the very condition of moral action. But the real trouble that\n\nmoral instruction seeks to meet lies not merely within but largely without the possibilities of intellectual training. Reference was made this morning to the fault\nof lying and cheating of which childhood is so often guilty. The cause of this is\ncertainty not that the child does not know that it is wrong to lie and right to tell\nthe truth. But the trouble is, that, knowing what is right, the perverse soul persists in the wrong. The preaching of virtue does not with any certainty lead to its\npractice.\n\nLessons in morals must be largely a matter of practice and action. When school\neducation takes charge of the child his ethical character has already been formed\n\nin its outlines, and the example and personality of the father and mother have\ntaught him practical lessons in morality or the opposite, which the school training\nmay deepen or modify, but which it will hardly succeed in eradicating. No matter\nhow the teacher will present the beauty of truth-telling to the intellect of the child,\n\nthe example of the parent at home will be more powerful.\nAnd yet, school instruction is not without means of influencing a child morally,\neven if no special lesson be set apart for this purpose.\n\nEvery reading lesson in\n\nwhich a noble action is held up to admiration or an evil action to disapproval and\ncensure, influences the child's moral attitude. In every history lesson in which\nthe child looks upon the heroes of his country, not only as great Americans but as\n\nhumanely great beings of which the world feels proud, his admiration becomes the\nfirst step in his forming the wish to be like them in their public and private virtues.\nMR. BAKER. That a system of public education is a necessity most people\nagree. It is also agreed that certain instruction which can be done by the various\nchurches and in the homes cannot be introduced as a part of a public school currie-\n\nulum, since there could be no agreement as to the exact character of that instruction. The education of the future is to be public education; and I hope that we\nshall find nothing but progress in this fact. Progress now means the progress of\nthe people, as such, and not the progress merely of class or sect. I think we, in\nour eagerness to secure ideal ethical results, may not appreciate the work that is\nnow done. All proper requirements of the schoolroom, all investigation of truth,\nthe examples of biography and history, the ideals of literature, the example of the\nteacher, are ethical in their influence.\n\nHabit was recognized in the Greek ethical\n\nphilosophy as of prime importance, and our schools lay a solid foundation of right\nhabit. Moreover, the spirit of reverence which recognizes a great creative power in\nthe universe can be successfully taught in public schools. For the purposes of the\nschoolroom, selections from various sources, including the Bible, of a strong ethical\ncharacter, may have more influence than perfunctory religious exercises. In our\nzeal may we not overdo formal ethical instruction and defeat our aim ? The child\n\npossesses impulses that reach out toward the truth, beauty, and goodness of the\nworld. Let the teacher invite these impulses by offering the proper objects for their\nexercise, and all instruction will be ethical instruction. I believe thoroughly in the\nreligious work of the church and the home, and it may be asked if it is not better\nthat the distinctively religious teaching should be given in them.\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council . ]\n\nECONOMY IN EDUCATION.\n\n447\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION-ECONOMY IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION.\n\nBY MISS BETTIE A. DUTTON, CLEVELAND, OHIO , CHAIRMAN.\n\nIt appears almost superfluous after the recent very full reports of\nthe experts and the scarcely less complete discussions of the same\nto attempt to say anything valuable on the subject of elementary\neducation. Yet the distance from the daily work of the children\nsometimes seems to lead to a forgetfulness of immediate needs,\nwhich it is possible might be met, and an uplift all along the line be\nfelt, could the attention of the best and widest students of educational problems be secured and brought to bear on the solution of\nthose most immediate, and pressing, and simple.\nCan anything be done, any word be said in this meeting of the\nCouncil of Education, which will bring into closer working relations\nthose who elaborate the finer theories and those who must meet ex-\n\nisting conditions in the schools ?\n\nCan these conditions be bettered\n\nto some extent, by the united care of all, in their most evident needs ?\nFor instance, in school organization. Is it not practicable to reduce materially the number of pupils assigned to one teacher's oversight in primary and grammar schools, that the teacher's care may\nbe so centered as to make possible that personal oversight desirable,\nand to give to each pupil the benefit of close acquaintance ? Just at\nthis point there is special need of change.\n\nTeachers are attempting\n\nthe impossible in the effort to give to each one of a half-hundred\nchildren the individual inspiration and uplift which come only from\nclose, personal association.\nThat large numbers can be successfully controlled; that crowds\neven can be skillfully manipulated, and with a dexterity worthy of\nmilitary generalship,-no one familiar with the movements of large\n\ncity and town schools can question. But the education of these\nhosts, if it meet in any true sense the ideals of present progressive\nleaders of educational forces, must be made far less like the drill\nof armies. The ideal teacher of to-day is no Napoleon in the schoolroom, and the model school is no longer a battle-ground.\n\nWe be-\n\nlieve there is no practical obstacle in the way of reducing the numbers in our schools at least one-half ; and that such reduction would\n\nmeet the hearty approval of wise patrons and boards of education.\nEspecially is this reduction important in first years of schoollife; when in place of the fifty or sixty small persons, for whom one\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "448\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nteacher is striving vainly to care, no more than half these numbers\nshould be grouped together ; and this for health, and happiness, and\nreal progress.\nDid you ever consider what it is to live daily, and for a series of\n\nyears, in the constant companionship of a half-hundred people ?\nCommunities are conservative in school appropriation and expenditure, and the financial problem in public school administration\nis an ever-present one; but in wise expenditure for little children\n\ncommunities are far more responsive than we are apt to believe,\nand will tax themselves royally when convinced of the need. We\nwould then place, in the first years of school, no more pupils under\n\none teacher than can be known in their homes, studied in detail, led\nand fostered with individual, painstaking care.\nIf need for larger classes is anywhere imperative, let it be in the\nlater years, when both teacher and pupils have better learned the\nadjustments to other than the home life. With the small classes\nthe training should begin at an early age. A bright child, happy in\nthe possession of health and of home comforts, should be permitted\nvery early to begin the search for the knowledge learned from books\n\nand teachers ; and the less favored children, with homes unworthy\nof the name, should be afforded early release from the desolations of\ntheir unfavored childhood.\n\nWe are confident that those of our com-\n\nmonwealths, now more than half, that have legislated in favor of\n\nearly admission to school have secured best opportunity for their\nchildren; and that, where the work is wisely planned, this advantage is immeasurable.\n\nContinuous observation along this line for many years convinces\nus that the pupil of five years is much more readily led to the easy\n\nmastery of such of our complex vocabulary as is within its grasp\nthan is the child of one or two years more, of even wise home train-\n\ning and associations ; while the difficulties in the way of learning\nto read are far less formidable.\n\nIt is a matter of no small moment\n\nthat the strictest economy of time and mental energy be attained for\nthe multitudes of children whose school-life is limited to elementary\nwork, and whose highest ideals in intellectual attainment are furnished by the teachers of their childhood.\nIndeed, it cannot be too vividly impressed upon the consciousness\nof those having charge of elementary courses of study, that the majority of those enrolled in public schools leave them before the age of\ntwelve years, while they are still little children ; a fact which gives\n\nimportance to all questions relating to their highest efficiency in the\naccomplishment of those ends for which schools exist-the formation\nand establishment of right character, the development of mental\nstrength, and the acquisition of useful knowledge. As the richest\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nECONOMY IN EDUCATION.\n\n449\n\nproducts of human thought are garnered in books and revealed from\nthe printed page, it is essential, that, whatever other means of educa-\n\ntion are made use of,-in hand-skill; in physical training; in language, oral and graphic; in music, the key which opens these rich\ntreasures in literature be placed efficiently in the hand of every pupil\nwithin his first school year. The art of learning to read should have\nbeen attained, and the child who has had one entire year of schooltraining should have been given ready ability to read, unassisted, all\nsimple, elegant English; should, in a word, be enjoying free foraging\nin the fields of knowledge as little hindered by unreadiness in the\nmastery of the mechanicism of language as are his seniors.\nWith this work effectively done, with the key to all knowledge\nthus early placed in their hands, our children would make rapid advance along the customary lines of school attainment and progress.\nThe geography, the history, the arithmetic, the story, and the poem,\nthe helpful description of beauty in flower and sky, in forest and\nstream, would now be working their blessed ministries in mental furnishing, not as a store on which to draw in that far-off indefinable\nfuture which we sometimes flatter ourselves will make all present unassimilated knowledge real, but for the \"daily bread\" which child\nmind needs for healthful growth to-day ; for the moral support which\nthis early acquaintance with the best thought of the world bestows,\nand which the growing mind must be familiar with if the best fruits\n\nof instruction and training be realized in maturer years.\nTo this readiness in reading, and carried hand-in-hand with it, the\nlessons in natural science should be given place in the first school\nyear; and with as clear conception of the end to be attained as is\n\nrecognized in the process of learning to read. All indefiniteness of\npurpose should be avoided in this most delicate guidance in the fields\nwhere nature must be alone the instructor and interpreter. While\nevery sense is sharpened by the constant habit of observation and\ncomparison, the judgment trained by daily exercise in classification\n\nand generalization, these results may not be reached through direct\ninstruction, even though the teacher be of rarest skill .\n\nThe science lessons in elementary schools afford a course of danger, scarcely equaled in any other department, of substituting the\nteacher's statement of well-known natural phenomena, learned too\noften from books alone, for the results of the pupil's own experience\nin seeing. If this mistake be frequent and continued, the habit of\nclose and accurate observation and of just conclusion will be weakened and lost, and the science lesson will have served no higher purpose than that of pleasing entertainment.\nIt was with intense pleasure not many weeks ago that I was permitted to hear, in a city schoolroom where thoughtfulness for results\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "450\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nholds high place, a lesson on one of our common wild-wood flowers.\nThe little people had each his own specimen blossom, which he was\nlooking at with delightful intensity, and, while the teacher asked a\nsuggestive question, showing most sympathetic interest. No intrusion\n\nof teacher or text-book came in the way of the children's personal\nacquaintance with the blossom so new and strange to them. When\nfor a few moments they had quietly studied the form and color of\nblossom, leaf, and stem, had enjoyed the dainty fragrance, counted\neach for himself the different parts of the flower, measured carefully\neach one his blossom's tiny stalk, they made the picture ; and finally,\nin writing, the description of the little blossom.\nAmong many of the pretty descriptions which I glanced over, this\none has fixed itself in my memory: \"My little blossom must have\ngrown in a shaded place, for it is very pale.\" Then after giving a\nvery good description of the parts of the tiny plant, he added: \"The\nstamens stand up and look at me like soldiers ; and the fragrance of\nmy flower makes me think of something very beautiful. \"\nThis exercise was one of many, was no better than others, and\nin a school whose average age is less than seven years. This plant\nstudy was not an exceptional but a daily exercise.\nPlant study may not be in itself more desirable for daily work\nthan are the studies of stars or of stones ; but as the material for\n\nillustration is in this most readily available, and as the flowers appeal unerringly to every true heart, young and old, we have in their\nuse gain in interest inborn or already kindled and glowing. In kindred sciences our children must not be left with unopened eyes.\nTo be ignorant of the structure of the world, blind to the glory of\ncolor and shadow on a mountain wall, to know nothing of that mar-\n\nvelous energy which thrusts the cones and wedges of its crests miles\ninto the immeasurable blue, to fail to follow the stars in their movements and to discern somewhat the laws which control and direct\n\ntheir march, is to lose in large measure the joy, and glory, and privilege of life.\n\nEconomy in mental force requires that the children be held in the\nschoolroom for briefer consecutive periods, and that, while this short\nsession is in progress, the attention to the varying school exercises be\nintense and all-absorbing. For this reason, we cannot believe that\nthe custom of furnishing for one-half so-called \"busy work,\" while\nthe teacher's care is given to the direct instruction of the other half,\nis conducive to best habits of study. The ever-multiplying \"devices,\"\ntoo often resultant of inability on the teacher's part to hold the attention and of ready enterprise of business firms quick to provide\nsupply for evident demand, lead only to loss if left in manipulation to\nthe children's unguided zeal, while the teacher is in \"busy work\" of\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nECONOMY IN EDUCATION.\n\n451\n\nother sort. Teacher and young children should work together in\nevery schoolroom exercise ; and every eye and ear should be intent\non all words spoken and each exercise performed. The mental impress, to be permanent and clear, must be that of the process instantaneous-neither blurred by too long exposure nor obliterated by\nneedless repetition. To require of one division of pupils fixed attention to study while the teacher is, within their hearing, developing\nsome interesting subject to their mates, is to force unnatural conditions. Who among trained students-how many of the scholarly and\nself- controlled learners in later life-would for an instant think it\n\npossible to work out the problems of absorbing interest in any field\nof investigation in the presence of a multitude and within sound of\neven the best beloved human voice!\nIt has been with serious concern that we have been forced to note\n\nin many of our graded schools, and in some whose light has hitherto\nshone afar, a drift toward departure from quiet personal work in lesson preparation and intensity of attention to class work; and in its\nplace-a reaction we believe from crowded classes and needless for-\n\nmalism-the two or three manifold \"divisions\" pursuing in one room\ntheir varying lines of work. The personal oversight and ready helpfulness, the \"word in season\" which the \"individual\" needs, can but\nbe lost or hopelessly deferred in other than wisely administered class\nwork. In fact it is only in the class and only in the single class that\nindividual need is promptly recognized and help effectually given. It\nis true that no system of classification will bring together, within the\nlimits of reasonable numbers, pupils whose native abilities and acquired power of attainment admit no variations ; nor is this an end\nto be desired or permitted. Sameness of instruction, evenness of\nprocess in development of truth, does not argue uniform impression\non the mind of the recipient.\nDo we not all listen to sweet music and receive uplifting according\nto the measure of our need and our acceptance ? And does not the\n\ngrateful summer shower fall upon uplifted flower-cups and forest\nkings with equal benediction ? If, then, the minds of our pupils be\nkept in receptive mood, and instruction worthy of their thought alone\nbe given, we may safely trust to each one to appropriate according to\nhis need, unhindered by the weakness or the strength of his associates; while the teacher's time will be economized and strength and\nskill conserved for worthiest work.\n\nOf the pitiful expenditure of teaching power permitted in many\nof our school systems in the attempt to teach exhaustively subjects\nwhose beginnings only are \"elementary,\" we have scarcely the courage to speak. This evil has been often pointed out and vigorous protests uttered by many whom we all delight to honor and whose skilled\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "452\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nleadership in school administration has been above question or criticism. The work in English grammar and arithmetic, which the\n\nstrength of years alone will bring within the mental powers, and\nwhich time will so simplify as to make clear almost unaided, is the\nrequired work of elementary courses of study and is emphasized in\nexamination lists to-day.\n\nThe picture is still vivid in my mind, afforded by modern annual\nexamination opportunity, of a group of well-qualified teachers in\nthese branches, with heads together over one of those improbable\narithmetical conundrums such as tradition tells us were frequently\nsubmitted \" in the early days of the republic,\" when the time element\nwas unmeasured and electric car and twin-screw steamship, telautograph, and linotype were unknown to the great thinkers of our\ncounty district schools. Questions whose solution, like the unravel-\n\ning of our grandmother's knitting-work, could only be effected in reverse order-by beginning at the toe ; banking problems upon which\nbankers differ, and insurance questions upon which insurance men\nwill not agree; history questions that would make a Fiske or a Von\nHolts shiver ; music that would have silenced a Beethoven forever ;\nlanguage exercises which would tax the linguistic skill of high\nschool principals who can speak or be silent in all the tongues of\nSouthern Europe and the East, are still given to children whose\nhome amusements are paper dolls and kites.\nOn the successful solution of such puzzles must depend decisions\nvital to the further school attendance of boys and girls to whom a\nyear marks differences in the determination, not of future courses of\nstudy merely but of all subsequent scholastic life.\nThe common age of pupils leaving our grammar schools for entrance upon higher courses of instruction is fourteen years. That\nthese should be regarded as scholars in any field is unreasoning and\ncruel. That their training should have made it possible for any to\nrequire of them the work of expert scientists, musicians, historians,\nor arithmeticians is loss to scholarship and violence to childhood.\nSince ever the world was made beautiful, timeliness has been the\n\norder of the universe. It is \"first the blade, then the ear, and after\nthat the full corn in the ear.\"\n\nEconomy in moral training in elementary schools makes imperative a higher tone and subtler skill in the instruction given in our\nnormal, high, and training schools. The line must be clearly drawn\nwhich separates here the clumsy and commonplace from the skillful\nand progressive.\nThose destitute of high endowment and noble aspiration have no\n\nplace in these schools ; whose sole excuse for public favor lies, not in\ntheir own but in the children's need. Lessons in sweetness of life are\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n453\n\nlasting only from lips and lives free from the dust and soil of selfish-\n\nness, and those who would lead children in right paths must draw no\nwavering lines upon the sand.\nWith the years of school-life economized by early admission and\nskilled methods in learning to read, with the science sense made\nkeen and active in these self-same years, with the work which cannot\nbe assimilated deferred until the natural season, with the character\nbuilt up and fortified by daily, close association with teachers of high\nculture and rare skill, we may reasonably expect, as product of these\nfactors, all that the public demand in scholarly attainment, in business skill, and in loyal, loving service.\nBETTIE A. DUTTON, Chairman.\nJ. H. PHILLIPS ,\n\nGEORGE P. BROWN,\nZALMON RICHARDS,\nWILLIAM E. SHELDON,\nCommittee.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n[REPORTED BY WM. F. KING .]\n\nMiss Dutton gave as the first point : The need of materially reducing the number of pupils assigned to each teacher in primary and\ngrammar schools, in order to get the benefit of close acquaintance and\npersonal oversight.\nMR. GEORGE P. BROWN.-I suppose this matter of economy means that we\nshall avoid waste by reducing the number of pupils from fifty to twenty-five. The\nschool is for vastly more than for teaching the studies laid down in the curriculum.\nIs there not such a thing as so manipulating fifty pupils as to get satisfactory results ? We must have a much more capable body of teachers in our schools, both\nmen and women.\n\nWe have now 450,000 teachers , and if we double this number\n\nwe shall have 900,000. The Council could hardly consider such an increase practicable. It seems to me that economy is to begin and continue in the better prepаration of teachers. And then, in this matter of numbers, I am inclined to think\nthat the limit is not reached at twenty-five. I am inclined to think, that if our\nvery small schools in the country were twice as large they would be more inter-\n\nesting and successful. In a school of twelve or fifteen, pupils and teachers are\nsomewhat lonesome, while a master at the head of a school makes fifty possible\nand successful .\n\nMR. Z. RICHARDS.-I do not rise to differ with Mr. Brown, for he is generally\nright. I would say, economy of expense as well as economy of time-not the time\nthat the teacher is to devote to the scholar nor the time the scholar attends school.\nIf we can have the right kind of a teacher, can we not do better with a small num-\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "454\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nber instead of a larger one ? Can we not, by getting better teachers and having a\nsmaller number of pupils, secure much better results? I am fully convinced that\nwith the right kind of primary teachers we can save three years of time to the\npupil, enabling him to enter the high school at eleven, instead of fourteen.\nMR. BROWN. -Do you think that a desirable thing ?\nMR. RICHARDS. -Yes ; if, as I believe, more than half the time of the pupils in\nthe primary schools of to-day is wasted.\n\nMISS DUTTON, in response to a question, said: \"I should like to have more\ncultured men assist the women in primary work. It would be a good idea for some\nof the fine scholars to lay aside Latin and Greek for a while and descend to the\nprimary room .\"\nMR. F. LOUIS SOLDAN . - It will be rather difficult to fix abstractly the number\n\nof children which are to form the proper quota for a teacher in a public school,\nbecause the personal equation-the power and experience of the teacher-would enter very largely into such determination. For the average teacher of fair training\nand good gifts the quota might be placed considerably higher than twenty-five,\nwhich is the number suggested by the report. There is little use in discussing this\nmatter without reference to financial possibility. The means of public education\nare closely circumscribed. Every friend of education will give ready assent to the\ngeneral proposition submitted by this able report, namely, that too many pupils\nare assigned to one teacher in many of our schools. We have heard to-day of\nschoolrooms in which eighty-five children or more are taught by one teacher, and\nfor such an outrageous condition the plea of financial limitations is but a very bad\nexcuse. Considering existing conditions, the number of forty-five to fifty pupils as\na maximum assignment to one teacher seems feasible financially, and presents no\neducational difficulty.\n\nOne of the honored members stated, in the course of this discussion, that, with\na quota of fifty pupils, but five or six minutes of the teacher's time could be given\nto each child. I cannot quite agree with the idea implied by this statement. It\nwould seem to suggest, that of the whole time a child spends daily in school he\nreceives education and instruction for the few minutes only during which he receives the teacher's attention individually. If such a claim were substantiated,\nthe public school, with its popularity, its masses of pupils, would necessarily be a\nfailure, and the private school a success in inverse proportion to the number of\nits pupils-a statement which few will be ready to accept. The fact is, that, under\na good teacher, each individual pupil is kept active during approximately the whole\ntime that the class is under instruction.\n\nTo illustrate:\n\nWhenever a statement is\n\nmade by teacher or reciting pupil, every other pupil is mentally active while receiving it; when the teacher is asking a question, each child is formulating, mentally,\nan answer, because he may find himself called on in a moment to state the answer.\nSince Pestalozzi, the development in teaching has been largely in the direction of\nthe growth of skill in handling masses with good educational effect.\n\nI desire to be understood to be opposed to a larger assignment of pupils than the\nquota suggested at the beginning of my remarks.\n\nMR. J. W. Cook, being called out by Mr. Brown, said: \"Our method has been\nto bring the parents to the school. We have endeavored to supplement by finding\nout home methods. The meetings of parents have been very beneficial in starting\nlines of work in the home to supplement the school, especially in the matter of securing the proper kind of literature for the children.\"\n\nMiss Dutton gave as her second topic : Use of skilled methods in\nlearning to read as bearing upon economy of time. The child in its\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n455\n\nfirst year of school training should have learned to read readily and\nbe as little hindered by the mechanism of the language as are his sen-\n\niors. She added in defense of this point that it was not simply a\ntheory with her. In the earlier days of her teaching she had eighty\nfive- and six-year-old pupils in one class . Without any theory in mind,\nshe put the five-year-old pupils in one class and those six years old in\nanother, and, giving exactly the same instruction to each class, found\nthat the five-year-old pupils made more improvement in every case.\n\nThis superiority showed itself especially in reading, but in other subjects, also.\nMR. COOK . -Were the five-year-old children exceptional ?\nMISS DUTTON. -They were just the same.\nMR. A. R. TAYLOR. -Did you follow the two classes through the high school ?\nMISS DUTTON.-I did, and found that the five-year-olds showed superiority in\nthe higher grades of the grammar school and the high school, and they were graduated one year earlier than the six-year-olds .\n\nMR. SOLDAN.-How large a vocabulary do you think these children had ?\nMISS DUTTON.-I do not know, sir. They could read fluently all the literature\nadapted to their age.\n\nIn reply to the question, as to what method she would recommend in teaching\nreading, Miss Dutton answered that all methods should be well known by the\nteacher,-phonetic and phonic, word method and sentence method, analytic and synthetic, and such discrimination made in their use as will best serve the immediate\ndemand.\n\nMR. BROWN.-I presume that Miss Dutton does not mean that the five-year-old\n\npupils knew more than those who were six years old, but only that they learned\nto read better. It is evident that the five-year-old child will have less to think\n\nabout, and hence less to confuse. A young child can learn the external forms of\nwords more easily.\n\nMR. RICHARDS.-I have noticed that children are more quick to learn at four\nand five years of age than later.\nMR TAYLOR.--Was the slow progress of the six-year-olds not due to the fact,\nthat most of them had already learned to read at home under faulty methods, while\nthe five-year-olds probably began to learn to read in your classes ?\nMISS DUTTON.-That is hardly probable.\nMR. TAYLOR -Might not those six-year-old children have done much more ?\n\nMISS DUTTON. -Had they been received into school life at five, and given a\nyear's proper training, undoubtedly they might.\n\nMR. JOSEPH BALDWIN . -Did you teach these five-year-olds with more enthusiasm?\n\nMISS DUTTON.-I think not.\n\nMR. TAYLOR.-The report of the committee seems to warrant the statement that\nreading needs more emphasis in the lower grades than the elements of the natural\nsciences.\n\nMR. RICHARDS -What has been said seems to prove that at least two or three\nyears are wasted in the elementary schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "456\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nMR. H. H. SEERLEY.- I approve the statement in the report advising the teaching of five-year-old children to read, as I know it is possible and not difficult to do.\nMy own experience as a child verifies it. I learned to read at home under the instruction of my mother, so that my first recollections at school, and that at the time\nI was four and one-half years of age, are that I belonged to a reading class in a\ndistrict school that used the third reader as a class-book.\n\nIn the summer term\n\nof my fifth year I read with a reading class that used as a text McGuffey's third\nreader, first edition,\n\na book equivalent in grade almost to McGuffey's fourth reader\n\nof recent years, and I know that I understood reasonably well what I thus read,\nbeing also able to read with fair facility from the New Testament Scriptures. In\nfact, after five years of age, all my lessons in reading were hardly of the character\nof school studies, as I made no preparation to be able to read readily any of the\ndaily lessons given the class. In my judgment, therefore, the early teaching of\nreading is not only possible but desirable, as the child's mind at five years is capable of doing it better than at any other time in life.\nOne other statement from experience. The argument has been made that a\nchild's vocabulary does not average over 300 words at five years of age. I feel certain that this statement is misleading; the average American child knows and\n\nuses more. I have been recently tabulating the vocabulary of an average child.\nHe is not yet three years of age, and has already a vocabulary of over 600 words.\nI feel assured, therefore, that we are inclined to underestimate, rather than overestimate, the average child's vocabulary at the time he is five years of age. He\nknows more than we think he does .\n\nMiss Dutton here presented the third topic as follows : To this\nreadiness in reading, and carried hand in hand with it, the lessons in\nnatural science should be given place in the first school year, and with\nas clear a conception of the end to be attained as is recognized in the\nprocess of learning to read.\nMR. C. B. GILBERT.-Those of us who favor the study of nature by children in\nthe primary schools do not mean by that study the use of the scientific method.\nWe agree entirely with Dr. Harris in opposing the acquainting young children with\nthis method. The scientific method consists in analysis and classification. This is\nfor maturer minds. Young children should study nature sympathetically. The\nwhole beautiful world belongs to the children. They are in sympathy with it, and\nthey can appreciate its beauties as completely as you can. I regret, that, in the\ndiscussions to-day, so much attention has been given to the form of education and\nso little to its content so much to instruction and so little to real education.\n\nIn-\n\nstruction is but one side of education-one element. Especially is this true of moral\neducation .\n\nI believe in the study of nature by little children for many reasons. It brings\nnew and valuable content into their lives. It introduces them to a new world-the\nbeautiful world that God has made. It furnishes a valuable basis for their instruc-\n\ntion in form. I do not care for short methods in teaching reading as a formal\nstudy-a mere study of words. It is of no value for the child to learn to read words\nor to write words unless he has something worth while to read or write about.\nThe literature that he can obtain in the reading-book is of little worth to him. He\nmust get his truth, if he gets it through literature, after it has been filtered through\nadult minds and adapted to him. He can appreciate Nature as she is. Let him\ngo to her and get content-matter for his reading and writing. I believe in the study\n\nof nature by the little child, not merely because it cultivates his powers of observa\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n457\n\ntion-not merely because it trains his judgment, as emphasized in the report-but\nbecause it has an ethical value. It reaches his spiritual nature. It gives a purpose to all of his education which he himself can appreciate, as he cannot the study\nof form merely.\n\nMR. L. H. JONES.-Methods may be employed which will make the teaching\nof natural science inimical to progress in learning to read; but better methods\nmay be employed which will show these lessons on nature study to be necessary to and complementary to the work of learning to read. It is doubtless the\nlatter method of procedure which is intended in this report. In this form of work,\nnature study leads a child into a new field of experience, and creates for him\nthe need of a new and different vocabulary from that of his colloquial range. It\n\nalso enables the child to put new and deeper significance into that which he reads,\nwhatever the vocabulary used. I am heartily in sympathy with the attitude assumed in this matter in the report.\n\nMR. SOLDAN noted a coincidence in these two points, and further discussed the\nrelation of study of books and nature in natural science. Care should be exer-\n\ncised in the kind of natural science taught. Rousseau declared reading and the\nstudy of natural science to be inimical.\nMR. JONES said this would be due to the method of teaching employed.\n\nMiss Dutton presented as the fourth topic : Shorter school sessions, and more direct attention from all pupils during that time. The\nteacher should also be able to give her direct personal attention to\neverything going on, including the so-called \"busy work.\"\nMR. BROWN. -Perhaps this so-called \"busy work\" was valuable work.\nMISS DUTTON. -Its highest value could only be reached by the careful guidance\nof the teacher leading to right habits of study. When the children are quietly at\nwork they need, more than at any other time, the teacher's undivided attention.\nMR. D. L. KIEHLE.-With reference to the short sessions recommended, what\nwould you say of the three-hour sessions of the kindergarten ?\nMISS DUTTON.-In this respect there was a violation of sound educational\nprinciples.\nMR. RICHARDS.-I understand that Miss Dutton would have but one kind of\nwork at a time, and hence a smaller number.\n\nMR. D. L. KIEHLE.-We shall all agree that the sort of busy work so often seen,\nwhich is but an aimless playing or fussing with material, is unworthy any place in\nour schools.\n\nIt seems to me that it is a mistake to limit the hours of companion-\n\nship with the teacher to the brief time given to earnest or intense activity in recitation. I should prefer such an arrangement of programs as will cultivate quiet,\ncontinuous, and persistent attention to subjects of interest, without what often\n\nappears as a strained and unnatural activity. To do this, there must be a varied\nprogram of physical and intellectual activity with frequent recreation and rest.\nAll of which should be in the presence of and under the proper influence of the\nteacher. This done, there is no difficulty in continuing children in school five or\neven six hours a day.\n\nPrior to adjournment the remaining points of the report were read\nwithout discussion.\n\nOn Saturday, when the report as a whole was under consideration :\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "458.\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nMR. JAMES H. BAKER said : \"I wish to ask whether the question of economy\nof time, as suggested in a practical way by Miss Dutton's experience in teaching\nreading, may not be carried farther? In our refinements of method and exact application of ideal theories may we not waste time in all departments of elementary\n\neducation ? Do we recognize the full extent of knowledge and power which the\npupil possesses when he enters school at the age of six. Might he not advance in\nessentials of education more rapidly ? The report of the committee of ten showed\nthat the various conferences recommended that certain studies usually confined to\nthe high school should be taken up in the elementary school. The suggestion was\nnot considered by the Council nor the committee of fifteen. Teachers reply:\n'Crowded courses; no room for anything more.' Now, the inquiry is made all\nalong the line, 'Can the whole period of general education be shortened?\" and it\nis important that the question be answered for the elementary period by educators experienced in the work of that period. In Prussia three years, instead of\neight, are given to elementary work, and at the age of nine high school work in\nmethod and organization begins. At the age of fourteen all the studies have been\nincluded which are recommended by the conferences, and it is agreed, that, in invaluable insight into leading subjects, the pupil is farther advanced than the\n\nAmerican boy at the same age; and this results from economy of time in the elementary work and early introduction to other subjects. I hope members of the\nCouncil will give us the benefit of their views in the light of the experience of the\nlast fifteen years.\"\n\nMR. GILBERT.-Too much stress is put upon this question of saving time. What\nwould be gained by putting pupils of primary grade into secondary work? The\ntendency of our times is to hurry through life. The true economy is to enrich the\ncourses. It is a mistake to rush a child too soon into the college and university.\nWhat we should do is to give the child's mind all that it can use. Fill its curriculum with that which is worth while.\n\nMR. COOK. I deem it proper to refer to a case in Illinois. In Decatur the work\nbelow the high school is done in seven years, and the high school has become the\nmost popular school in that city.\nMR. B. A. HINSDALE . -How long has this been in vogue?\nMR. COOK. -Several years.\n\nMR. N. C. DOUGHERTY . -Are the graduates of the high school who are prepared\nto enter our best colleges younger than those of other high schools in Illinois ?\nMR. COOK.-Yes, by a year; and I regard the size of the Decatur High School\nas an unanswerable argument in favor of the plan.\nMR. RICHARDS.-Life is short; art is long. I have made some calculations and\nhave found that nearly two-thirds of our children in elementary schools do not go\nover five years. Is it not important to save all we can of the five years ? Reading\nhas been spoken of as a mere formal exercise; but reading is not simply a formality. It is educative. Let the children command the language.\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council. ]\n\nUNGRADED SCHOOLS.\n\n459\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS\n-UNGRADED SCHOOLS.\n\nBY HENRY SABIN, DES MOINES, IOWA, CHAIRMAN.\n\nThis report has reference only to questions which concern schools\nin the rural districts and the smaller villages in which no attempt is\nmade at grading the pupils. The aim has been to make it strictly a\nbusiness paper, dealing with facts and with theories which are both\npracticable and of immediate importance. Early in the spring your\ncommittee sent to each state superintendent a circular asking for\ninformation concerning revenues, organization, and preparation of\nteachers for ungraded schools. The plan of supervision, attendance,\nand the course of study were included, as incidental. Replies were\nreceived from twenty-five states, viz.: Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio,\nNew York, South Carolina, Florida, California, Nevada, Maine, Kentucky, Texas, Minnesota, Missouri, Michigan, Rhode Island, New Jer-\n\nsey, Nebraska, Mississippi, Delaware, Massachusetts, Montana, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Wisconsin.\n\nIn addition a large number of\n\nstate reports have been consulted, as furnishing desirable information. The information thus gained is embodied in the report in the\nfollowing order of subjects : Revenues and distribution of same ; organization of schools ; supply of teachers.\nREVENUES.\n\nThe school funds are derived mainly from three sources, namely,\npermanent or invested funds, state tax, and local taxes imposed upon\ntowns or districts by vote of the inhabitants. Local taxes are im-\n\nposed in each of the forty-nine states and territories, including the\nDistrict of Columbia; thirty-nine have what is termed a permanent\nschool fund, the interest of which is distributed in support of the\nschools, but the principal remains inviolate. Thirty-one supplement\nthe proceeds of this fund by state tax. Ten have no permanent school\nfund; seven of these support their schools by state tax alone, and\nthree by local tax.\nIn preference to any attempt at tabulation we have made extracts\nfrom answers received to the circular and from state reports, as showing the trend of opinion in the different states.\nIt will be noticed, that, while the answers and suggestions differ\nin accordance with the civil organization of different states, there is\nsubstantial accord of sentiment in favor of a change in the method\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n460\n\n[National\n\nof taxation, and that school district taxation especially meets with\n\nlittle favor. These quotations could be largely increased, if necessary,\nbut the length of this paper will not admit of it. They look to some\nway of obtaining a remedy for the gross inequality which exists, not\nbetween the city and the country schools but between the ungraded\nschools in different districts of the same township.\nThe quotations are as follows :\nKentucky. As revenue to pay teachers and superintendents, we would prefer\ncounty taxation after, and as supplemental to, state taxation.\n\nMissouri. Revenues for the support of the ungraded schools are derived chiefly\nby a direct tax levied only by each district. I prefer a township tax.\nMississippi. I believe in a mixed revenue system; the state providing a certain\nproportion of the money necessary to maintain schools and distributing it to the\ncounty, township, or district, as the case may be, upon the basis of educable children. This to be supplemented by a county tax, distributed to the townships or\ndistricts on the basis of educable children; the townships or districts being permitted to levy such additional tax as they may see fit.\nTexas. The revenues for the support of the ungraded schools derived from\nlocal sources are very small. I should very much prefer a good, liberal, county\nschool tax to any other means of local support.\nFlorida. I would prefer a state levy, with county option to increase it.\nNevada. I prefer the county tax.\nMaine. I prefer a tax raised upon the entire township.\nMontana. Revenue is raised by county taxation. I prefer this method.\nPennsylvania. I incline to the opinion that a levy by the county would be more\nequable. Some townships in this state levy no tax. Others levy the maximum\n\nlimit allowed by the law, namely, thirteen mills for building purposes and thirteen\nmills for maintenance.\n\nIndiana. We can make a levy anywhere from one to thirty-five cents on each\none hundred dollars, and may go as high as fifty cents on the polls. We like the\ntownship system in this state, because it is so much cheaper.\nWisconsin. The revenues for the support of the ungraded schools are raised\n\nin part by the district, part by the county upon different townships, and in part\nby the state. It would seem more equable if raised by the township instead of the\ndistrict.\n\nSouth Dakota.\n\nUnder our constitution we cannot have state uniformity of\n\nschool taxation, but for school purposes we can provide for county tax levies that\nshall relieve the weak districts from the greater part of their burdens. This would\nbe much better than our present method of taxation, under which the local school\ntax in some districts has been at times as high as twenty mills, while in other dis-\n\ntricts having equally good school privileges the levy for the same years has been\nonly five mills or less.\nMassachusetts.-The Massachusetts Teachers' Association resolved, that, for\nthe purpose' of enabling the poorer towns of the commonwealth to have the continuous service of trained teachers, adequate assistance should be afforded by the\nstate, and for this purpose an enlargement of the state school fund should be made.\nOur revenues are wholly from town and state, principally from town tax. The\nlow valuation of small towns makes it desirable to have a larger contribution from\nthe state.\n\nMinnesota. The taxation by districts is, in the highest degree, unequal and\nexceedingly burdensome to the smaller and weaker ones. In some, the tax is one\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council. ]\n\nUNGRADED SCHOOLS.\n\n461\n\nmill on the dollar, while in others it reaches twenty-nine or thirty. The districts\nthat really need the best schools have the poorest, the school year is the shortest,\nand the poverty-stricken inhabitants actually pay the highest tax.\nWisconsin Report, 1893-94.-When taxation is made equal throughout the townships, the smaller districts will demand equal consideration with the larger ones\nin the selection of teachers and in the equipment of the schoolhouses.\nWashington.-In my judgment, if the policy is to be continued of allowing the\ncounty commissioners to levy the school tax, they should be compelled to levy such\na tax as will produce a specified amount for each child of school age in the county,\nand that amount should be such as, with the state apportionment, would provide\nfor each district an ample fund to maintain a school for a reasonable length of\ntime during the year.\n\nVermont. If the town as a social unit provides the major part of the revenue\nfor the public schools by an equal taxation, it should also disburse such revenue.\nIt is a fallacy to think that equalization of taxes and the district system are compatible.\n\nThe spirit of our institutions is that of equality before the law. A\nsystem of schools which does not provide equal school facilities to all\nchildren within its limits is not an American system. To put this in\ndifferent words : An American system of schools should seek to so\nequalize the burden of taxation that weak and impoverished districts\n\nwith a low valuation should still be able to maintain a school equal\nin length of term and in its equipment to other schools of the same\ngrade in that township or county.\n\nMany excellent reasons can be advanced why the state should\nbear the entire burden of taxation necessary to the purpose of common school education. These reasons are, however, more than counterbalanced by the objection that it would remove the schools too far\nfrom the people, and would diminish the interest which they ought\nto have in providing means necessary to the rightful instruction of\ntheir children. It is the policy of our government to impress upon\nthe people the fact that they are the government, and that everything\nwhich tends to strength and permanence comes from their united and\nintelligent action.\n\nWhile we believe that it is right that the state\n\nshould provide a generous amount, either by a tax of a certain number of mills on each dollar of valuation or by a certain fixed sum in\nthe aggregate, we also believe that local taxation is necessary to the\nhealthful growth and prosperity of the schools. The question is,\nWhat would be the unit of taxation ? Your committee are unanimous\n\nin the opinion that the system of district taxation in use in many\n\nstates is both unjust and vicious. The argument is founded upon\nfacts. Wherever there is a sparsely inhabited district, or one in\nwhich the valuation is low, the school interests suffer for want of\n\nsufficient support. Thus, in one district the children must put up\nwith a cheap, incompetent teacher and six months' school, while\nacross an imaginary line children have the advantages of a good\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "462\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\nteacher and of nine months' schooling.\n\n[National\n\nThis is not in accordance\n\nwith the spirit of free schools. It is true that the same discrepancies may exist to a diminished extent between different townships,\nand hence there has arisen the thought that the county is probably\nthe best unit of taxation. This question must be settled very largely\nby the civil organization of the state and by the character of its population. In the older states, where the population has some degree of\npermanency and where the township organization has a clearly defined relation to the state, probably the township furnishes the best\nunit. On the other hand, in the newer states, sparsely populated, or\nin states in which the population is largely transitory or engaged in\noccupations which do not encourage the owning of homes, the best\nunit is the county. If the point is raised, that it is unjust thus to tax\nthe wealthier portions of a county or township to support schools\n\nfrom which they can derive no benefit, the only answer is, that we\nnot only educate the child at the public expense for the child's sake\nbut also for the sake of the civilization in which he is to live.\n\nThe\n\nstate as a state has an immediate interest in the future of every child\nwho is to become a citizen. We reach these conclusions, then: That\nthe unit should be the county or the township, and that the law\nshould be mandatory, compelling the levying of an amount as a minimum, which, added to the revenue derived from the state, would\nfurnish reasonable school facilities to every child living upon that\nterritory. This, however, should not prevent any community from\nimposing additional taxes upon themselves, if facilities of a higher\norder are desired .\n\nThe ungraded schools need this protection. They are suffering\nfrom low wages, short terms, and incompetent teachers. The question of insufficient finances is at the foundation of the trouble.\n\nWe\n\nhave solved one equation of the problem when we have adopted the\nmost equable and acceptable method of supplying funds.\nDISTRIBUTION OF REVENUES.\n\nA question of equal importance presents itself in the methods of\ndistributing revenues. In most of the states the distribution is based\n\nupon the number of children of school age in the township or district.\nThis offers the temptation to swell the number included in the school\ncensus to its utmost limit in order to obtain a larger share of money\nfrom the state funds. The injustice of it is more clearly seen in the\nfact that the number of residents between certain ages furnishes no\ncriterion of the actual school necessities of the district.\n\nIt is as far\n\nout of the way as it would be to base the distribution of school funds\nupon the assessed valuation of the territory in question or upon the\nnumber of the people of all ages.\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council. ]\n\nUNGRADED SCHOOLS.\n\n463\n\nThese two points are to be kept in view. The funds must be distributed so as to equalize as far as possible school privileges, and at\nthe same time stimulate the community to take advantage of the opportunities thus afforded their children. A few extracts from letters and reports will illustrate the methods in use at present, and\nalso show the trend of educational opinion.\nIllinois . The state apportions the amount derived from the state school fund\nto the common schools on the basis of the number of persons under twenty-one\nyears of age residing in the counties, as shown by the national census.\nNew Jersey. Our ungraded schools derive most of their entire revenue from\nthis state in the following manner : Two hundred dollars per each teacher employed\nand the balance per capita according to school census.\n\nPennsylvania. The revenues for the support of the ungraded schools in Pennsylvania are distributed on the basis of the number of taxables at the triennial\nassessment.\n\nFlorida. The one-mill tax is apportioned among the counties on the basis of\nthe average attendance upon schools.\nMississippi.-The money is distributed to the counties and separate school districts on the basis of educable children in each .\n\nNebraska. The interest of the permanent state endowment is apportioned to\nthe school population.\n\nRhode Island. The state money for schools is divided in all the cities and towns\nupon two different plans. Each town gets one hundred dollars for each school up\nto fifteen in number, and after that, all that is left is divided in proportion to the\nnumber of children of school age.\n\nMinnesota. The current school fund is apportioned to the districts in proportion to the number of pupils who have attended school at least forty days in the\nyear.\n\nVirginia.-State school money is apportioned on the basis of the school population.\n\nOhio. The auditor of state shall apportion the state common school fund to the\nseveral counties of the state semi-annually, upon the basis of enumeration of youth\ntherein. But the law, in another section, provides that so much of the contingent\nfund as may be set apart by a township board for the continuance of schools\nafter the state funds are exhausted shall be so apportioned by the board that the\nschools in all the sub-districts of the township shall be continued the same length\nof time each year.\n\nIowa Report. The suggestion made by my predecessor, that the apportionment\nof money, at present derived from the interest of the permanent school fund and\nother sources, should be based upon the average daily attendance for the preceding\nyear, as reported by the county superintendent to the superintendent of public\ninstruction, carries with it much force. It seems the only just and equitable way,\nwhen we consider that the money would thus reach those schools in which there is\nthe most work to be done on account of the large number of pupils. In fact, such an\nenactment would doubtless increase the attendance, and act as a very efficient\nauxiliary to a compulsory law.\n\nWashington Report. The manner of apportioring the common school fund\namong the various districts is a matter that has often been the subject of interesting discussions ; and, while the method at present in vogue seems not to have\nbeen very seriously criticised since its adoption, there are grave doubts as to its\nefficacy in accomplishing the best results possible with the fund at our disposal.\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "464\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nSouth Dakota. The apportionments of state and county general school fund\nshould be based on the total attendance as shown by the annual reports of district clerks, and not on the total number of persons of school age. When the\namount of each quarterly apportionment is made dependent upon the school attendance, there can be no doubt that more pupils will be enrolled in our schools\nthan there have been heretofore, and that their attendance at school will become\nmore regular. Such an amendment would probably increase the per cent of attendance much more rapidly than our compulsory attendance law has yet done.\n\nNew Jersey, 1893. A fair distribution of state school moneys would require\nthat a part, if not all, should be apportioned on the basis of the number of pupils\nactually enrolled or taught in the schools, and not as now, wholly on the basis\nof the number of children of school age, whether enrolled and taught, or otherwise.\n\nIt is plainly the consensus of opinion that the prevailing system\nof distributing school funds, pro rata, upon the school population as a\n\nbasis, is detrimental to the interests of the rural schools. The result\nof this plan of distribution has been to give an undue advantage to\nthe schools in the strong districts, and to leave those in thinly settled and impoverished districts helpless and unprovided for. Several\nstates have already sought a remedy. If it is right to tax all for the\nbenefit of all, then it is just to so distribute the funds thus raised as\nto accrue to the advantage of the entire community.\nThe most feasible methods of distribution cannot be discussed\n\nwithout reference to the next topic in this report ; that of organization. We, however, cannot fail to reach the conclusion that justice\nto the rural schools demands that some method be devised which will\n\ninsure a reasonable support to the weakest school, and at the same\ntime act as a stimulant in obtaining the highest possible per cent of\nattendance.\nORGANIZATION .\n\nThe limits of this report will only allow to us to say, that, with\nbut very few exceptions, the judgment of state superintendents, as\ngathered from their replies to the circular sent to them and from\nvarious state reports, is strongly in favor of the township as the unit\nof organization.\n\nA few extracts from these papers must suffice. However, the old\nmaxim applies, \"From one learn all :\"\nMissouri. I prefer the township system, because it operates on a larger scale\nand is likely to give expression to the sentiment of better men.\nNew Jersey. The system (district) introduced many years ago, whereby townships were divided into school districts to fit the then prevailing conditions, is today antiquated, inefficient, and expensive.\nMichigan.-We prefer the township system, because it would lead to a uniformity of text-books, taxation, and length of school year for all of the children\n\nof the township, and equal facilities so far as teachers and apparatus are concerned.\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council. ]\n\nUNGRADED SCHOOLS.\n\n465\n\nWisconsin Report, 1894.-In my judgment, the substitution of the township\n\nfor the district, as the unit of the system, would result in the increased efficiency\nof the common schools.\n\nMississippi.- I believe the township system is the true philosophical system for\npublic school organization, although we cannot reach it, owing to uneven distribution of population.\n\nTexas.- I prefer the township system, with the county system as a close second choice. The district is too small to permit the organization of schools of different grades. The county is larger than necessary. The township is free from\nboth objections.\nPennsylvania. We prefer the township organization to district and county\norganization.\n\nIndiana. We tried the district system several years ago, and should consider\nit taking a long step backward to drop the township and take up the district system\nagain.\n\nVermont. It is doubtful if any law (township system) enacted in the State of\nVermont, received under such antagonistic and discouraging circumstances, ever\nwon more or stancher supporters than our present law during the short time it has\nbeen in operation.\n\nOhio. To anyone who will take the trouble to give this subject careful study,\nthe conclusion will be evident that the township is unquestionably the correct educational unit.\n\nIowa. The only feasible remedy for these evils is to return as soon as possible\nto the provision of the organic law of 1858, making each civil township a district\nfor school purposes.\nNew Hampshire. The most far-reaching change made in the last ten years\nhas been the substitution of the town system for the effete and impotent system of\ndistrict schools. The district school had lost much of its usefulness, and was, in\n\nmany towns, no longer susceptible of improvement. Under the town system it is\nregaining its power, and a better educated class of children is growing up in the\nrural sections of the state.\n\nRhode Island. As fast as our towns have abolished the district by their own\nvote, they at once begin to consider the matter of a high school. So long as the\ndistricts exist, we shall not have high schools; but if we can get rid of the districts,\nwe shall ultimately be able to provide high school facilities for the greater part,\nif not for all, of the children of the state.\n\nThe principal arguments in favor of making the civil township the /\nunit may be stated briefly as follows :\n1. The number of school officials would be greatly reduced; and,\nhence, less liability to loss of funds through incompetency or dis-\n\nhonesty. In Iowa, 27,000 school officers are serving as members of\nschool boards. The secretaries and treasurers receive $135,000 an-\n\nnually as compensation for their services. In Minnesota, the township system would reduce the number of school officers from 18,000 to\n3,000. In Wisconsin, it is estimated that the sum of $190,000 is\nwasted annually upon unnecessary schools. Under the district system, there is a great waste of supplies in one school, and a want of\nthe same in another; buildings are allowed to become dilapidated for\nwant of attention; several school officials are paid, when one officer\n30\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "466\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nwould suffice. In these respects the township system would effect a\n\nsaving of thousands of dollars annually. It is simply applying business principles to the business affairs of the schools.\n\n2. The township board of education, a certain proportion going out\nof office every year, should be armed with the same powers and exercise the same duties as the board of education in the city or in the\n\nindependent district. They should appoint teachers, locate buildings,\nselect text-books, determine courses of study, designate what schools\npupils may attend, consolidate schools when their numbers are re\nduced to a certain extent; and, in fact, transact any business which\nmay lawfully come before them. Subdistrict lines would disappear\nand a most fruitful cause of trouble cease at once. In unity there is\nstrength. To place all the schools of a township under the control\nof one governing board would tend to equalize length of terms,\nstrengthen the teacher's position, and lift the schools to a higher\nplace in the estimation of the public.\n\n3. The township system affords the only means through which\nwe may hope to reach township high schools and township supervision. We believe these two points are essential in any system looking to the improvement of the ungraded schools. The township high\nschool has become a necessity, if we are to lift the rural school out\nof the rut into which it has fallen. To promote the highest efficiency\nof such a school it must be in complete and perfect harmony with the\nschools of the township. This cannot be the case unless they are\nall under the control of one board and supported from the same general funds. The establishment of these high schools would furnish\na needed incitement to the pupils in the lower grades in the country,\nand would stimulate them to remain longer in school that they might\ngraduate at the end of the course. It would dissipate the aimlessness\nof study and instruction so prevalent in the country schools of to-day.\nThe answer to the question, Is it possible to arrange the course so as\n\nto lead up to the establishment of the township high school? is invariably in the affirmative. Township supervision is a natural result\nof the township system. It has already become an established feature\nof the Massachusetts system. It is rapidly gaining ground in Ohio\nunder the Workman law. It is the objective point at which the board\nof education is aiming in New Jersey, and other states are developing the idea of either township or of some other form of close supervision in connection with the ungraded schools.\nThe establishment of the township high school would tend to\nstrengthen the county superintendency. These schools would afford\nbetter facilities for the academic instruction of teachers. They could\n\nbe utilized as centers of normal instruction. The township superintendent would naturally become the ally of the county superintend-\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council. ]\n\n467\n\nUNGRADED SCHOOLS.\n\nent in conducting educational meetings, in grading the schools, and\nin fostering a healthy public opinion in favor of good schools, competent teachers, and liberal salaries.\n4. The adoption of the township system equalizes the burdens of\ntaxation, and renders it possible to distribute state school funds in\ninverse ratio with the wealth of the towns.\n\nIf the towns of the state\n\nhave a valuation upon a common basis, then it is just, that, to a certain extent, those lowest in the scale should receive the greatest aid\nfrom state funds, in order that every community may be sure of good\n\nschools. This is the Massachusetts plan. In some states, notably in\nMassachusetts, New Jersey, and Rhode Island, a fixed sum is set aside\nfor every school before any general distribution is made. The method\nof determining the exact amount thus placed to the credit of each\n\nschool may be different in different states, but we believe the underlying principle to be correct, that public policy demands that the\nstrong shall help bear the burdens of the weak. The remainder of\nstate or county funds should be distributed to each township in a\nratio based upon the actual attendance of pupils as shown by the\nrecord of the preceding year, with a possible discrimination in favor\nof those towns most willing to impose taxes upon themselves.\nThere is not time to discuss other points. Under the Workman\nlaw, in Ohio, many of the benefits of the township system may be obtained without abolishing subdistrict lines. Under the Boxwell law,\nin the same state, the tuition of graduates from ungraded schools\nmay be paid by the township board in the high school of any neighboring city or village of the county. Such a provision in the law is\npractically introducing the county high school, and in many states\nwould be a most desirable feature. In Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and other states, township boards are authorized to pay out of\npublic funds for the transportation of pupils to such schools as it\nseems best for them to attend. Thus they are enabled in small towns\nto bring all the children to a central school, or to unite two or more\nsmall schools, lessening the expense, and at the same time improving\nthe educational advantages of the townships. These points, with\nmany others, are all germane to our general subject, but there is not\ntime to discuss them in this connection. It must suffice to say, that\nwe can reach no other conclusion than this :\n\nThe substitution of the\n\ntownship for the district as the unit of organization is absolutely essential to the highest good of the ungraded schools.\nSUPPLY\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS .\n\nThe great question of the supply of competent teachers for the ungraded schools remains to be discussed. Of every one hundred pupils\nenrolled in the public schools, Texas reports that eighty are in the\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "468\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nungraded schools ; Indiana, sixty- five ; Illinois, forty-two ; New Jersey,\ntwenty-five; Minnesota, forty; Ohio, fifty; Wisconsin, fifty-eight; Florida, ninety ; Massachusetts reports only ten; California reports no\nungraded schools, but forty per cent of the pupils are in schools of one\nor two rooms. These figures, at best, are only approximate; but they\nare enough to show the magnitude of the question under discussion.\nUndoubtedly the number of pupils enrolled in ungraded schools will\nreach nearly, if not quite, fifty per cent of the entire enrollment. If\nwe include schools of two or three rooms having practically no super-\n\nvision, and which are but partially graded, the per cent would be\nmuch higher. It is very difficult to gather statistics which show the\nnumber of teachers in the ungraded schools having anything like an\nadequate preparation for their work. When we take into consideration the fact, that the very large percentage of graduates of our normal schools is absorbed by the schools in the cities and larger villages, and that generally the bright teachers, who have had the benefit of a partial course in the normal school, work their way into\ngraded schools as fast as possible, it is evident that the schools in\nthe country are mainly left to the care of novices without any special\ntraining.\n\nThe school age, the manner of gathering statistics, the number of\nmonths in the school year, vary so much in the different states that\nit is impossible to arrive at anything but general conclusions. In the\nnumber of trained teachers employed in the different states there is\n\na wide margin. Virginia and Kentucky report only ten of every one\nhundred teachers as having anything like an adequate preparation\nfor their work. Texas and Nebraska report only a very few. In some\nparts of California seventy per cent have professional training ; in\nothers, as low as ten.\nRhode Island. About ten per cent with only a common school education,\n\nforty per cent normal trained teachers, and the remainder having either a high\nschool or an academic training.\n\nMissouri . About twenty-five per cent of the teachers in ungraded schools are\nreally prepared to teach.\nMinnesota.-About nineteen per cent of the teachers in our common school\ndistricts have attended normal school.\n\nMichigan. About twenty or twenty-five per cent of the teachers of the schools\nhave had some normal training.\n\nWisconsin.-About fifty per cent of the teachers are really prepared for their\nwork. Two thousand six hundred and forty-four of them claim no higher preparation than that obtained in the common schools.\n\nIndiana. About fifteen to twenty-five per cent of our teachers in the ungraded\nschools have had an adequate preparation for their work.\n\nIt is not necessary to follow these statistics. They are taken from\ndifferent sections of the country and are sufficient to indicate condi\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council ]\n\nUNGRADED SCHOOLS.\n\n469\n\ntions in the rural schools. What is a fairly adequate preparation for\nthe work of these schools ? When we consider the low salaries paid,\n\nthe short term of continuance in the work,-not much if any over\nthree years,\n\nit is evident that we cannot require a high standard of\n\nscholarship nor four years' attendance at a preparatory school. A\nreasonable preparation ought to embrace these three particulars :\n1. A thorough acquaintance with the elementary branches. This\nwould include a discussion of the educational values of these\n\nbranches, both as sources of knowledge and of discipline; what studies should be introduced as best calculated to benefit the children in\n\nthe mining districts, in the farming districts, and other questions as\nincidental to the formation of courses of study, which should be sufficiently elastic to suit conditions in different sections of the same\nstate. But these all yield preference to the thought, that whatever\nthe teacher attempts to teach, that she herself must know.\n\n2. A practical knowledge of the best methods of teaching, of\nschool management, and an elementary knowledge of the principles\nof education.\n\n3. More or less practice in actual school work under a skilled\n\ntrainer. This preparation would touch the three points in which the\ncountry school teacher is weakest.\nThese are the minimum of requirements, and can possibly be com-\n\npassed in a two years' course, provided the entrance examination is\nrigid in the fundamental branches. Here we are confronted with the\n\nfact that no state provides means sufficient to give to the teachers\nadvantages for obtaining this special preparation. Massachusetts,\nwith six normal schools and with four additional schools in course of\n\nerection, comes the nearest to it. Pennsylvania has thirteen normal\nschools, each well equipped, but she has an army of 26,000 teachers.\nNew York, with eleven schools and a large number of training classes,\nis yet very far from being able to place a trained teacher in every\nschoolroom in the state. To put Iowa on an equal footing with Massachusetts would require the establishment of twenty-five normal\nschools. While the erection, in any state, of high grade normal\nschools as centers of influence and enlightenment, with courses of instruction covering three or four years, is exceedingly desirable, it is\nevident that the solution of the problem does not lie in that direction.\n\nThere are four courses open to us :\n1. The improvement of the county institute. This is not the place\nto discuss the institute system, except as regards a few particulars\nin which it touches closely the preparation of teachers for rural\nschools.\n\nIt will not do to turn the institute into a school for aca-\n\ndemic work, the aim being to enable the teachers to pass the examination. The tendency in this direction is altogether bad. The spirit\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "470\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nin which the institute was founded, calculated to create and\nfoster a professional enthusiasm among teachers and an educational enthusiasm in the entire community, should not be overlooked.\n\nIt is a very essential feature in the system. In the Western and\nSouthern States, where for a time we must depend upon the institute to aid us in preparing country teachers for their work, there\nis one point which must be insisted upon. The instructors must be\npersons who know what good teaching is. They must be men and\n\nwomen who have had a professional training, and who have made\na study of the conditions and wants of the schools in which the\nteachers in the institute are to instruct. Every exercise should be\n\nfull of professional spirit, and every recitation should be a model\nrecitation. It happens many times that the institute is the only\nopportunity given the teachers to learn by actual experience in what\na good school consists. This one point being carefully guarded, the\ninstitute may be left to take such form and shape as the conditions\n\nof the community may determine. A dead uniformity in institute\nwork even in the same state is to be dreaded.\n\n2. A system of summer or training schools under the care and\ndirection of state authority. Minnesota is making this experiment\nwith assured success. A school of six weeks' duration, if rightly con-\n\nducted, gives the teacher an opportunity to review, under a competent instructor, branches in which she is deficient. It is a new era\nin the life of many country teachers to come under the influence of\n\na scholarly and cultured person, if only for a few weeks. Even this\nminimum of training thus secured cannot but be productive of good\nto the schools.\n\n3. The state should avail itself of existing educational institutions. It is a fact which every one acquainted with educational progress in the Western States must have observed, that those colleges\nin which sound scholarship is the basis of work have produced a\nmarked effect upon the schools in the surrounding region. We ought\nto make use of the preparatory departments of these colleges in\nfitting teachers. There are in Iowa several private normal schools\nwhich carry a two years' course only, and which by arrangements\nwith school officials control the work in the public schools so as to afford the necessary practice in school work. Why should not the state\ngive them material encouragement, if they conform their course of\nstudy to the requirements of the state department of instruction and\nopen their work to state inspection ? New York, with her system\nof training schools, claims to be making progress in the direction\nof preparing teachers for the ungraded schools. These classes are\nsupported by the state, but the amount received depends upon the\ncharacter of the work done as tested by the final examination. Al\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "471\n\nUNGRADED SCHOOLS\n\nCouncil. ]\n\nthough New York has exceptional facilities for this work, in a large\nnumber of old and well-established academies, there are some features of the plan which are worth consideration in other states.\n4. The establishment of small normal schools at moderate expense\n\nas fast as possible in different places in the state. Care must be\ntaken that such schools do not take on the name of college, or ape\nthe airs of the university, and that the course of study does not become top-heavy. They must be kept down to the specific work of\nfitting the country teacher for her work in the country school.\nThe objective point to be aimed at in each of these plans is to\nbring at least a modicum of professional training to the doors of the\nteachers in the ungraded schools. When this is done we can shut\nthe schoolroom door in the face of the untrained teacher.\nThe committee reach these conclusions :\n\n1. The proper unit of taxation is in no case the district. It\nshould be either the township or the county, as the civil organization\nof the state may determine.\n2. Every community should be required to raise a certain sum\nfor the support of their schools as prerequisite for receiving their\nshare of public money. A certain definite sum should be appropriated\nto each school out of the state funds, and the remainder should be\ndivided pro rata, in accordance with the actual attendance as shown\nby the certified records of the preceding year, with a discrimination in favor of townships most willing to tax themselves for school\npurposes.\n\n3. The unit of organization should be the township, unless, as in\nsome of the newer states, the civil unit may render the county preferable.\n\nIn no case should it be the district.\n\n4. The weakness of the rural schools is in the want of skilled\n\nteaching. Therefore, it is the duty, as it is for the interest, of the\nstate to foster and encourage all available means of bringing normal\ninstruction to the doors of the teachers, with a view of rendering\nit feasible to require some degree of special preparation for the\nwork from every candidate who aspires to the position of teacher\nin the ungraded schools.\nHENRY SABIN, Chairman.\nJAMES H. CANFIELD,\nNATHAN C. SCHAEFFER,\nJOHN W. DICKINSON,\nJ. R. PRESTON,\nCommittee.\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "472\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n[REPORTED BY GEORGE P. BROWN.]\n\nMR. COOK. The ungraded school is one of the unsolved educational problems.\nThe town and city schools are working out their destiny in a vigorous and interesting way. A steady and persistent movement is noticeable all along the line. Fairly\norganized, reasonably well supervised, and with something, at least, in the way of\nschools for the preparation of their teachers, they inspire a hopeful feeling in those\nwho are studying them with any care.\nThe ungraded school, however, is not so happily conditioned. In many of the\nstates and in the older ones, too-these schools cannot claim anything approaching\ncareful organization. They are quite destitute of supervision. The conditions of\nrural life are often of such a character as to make teaching in country schools appear to be a hardship to those who have grown up in the town. It follows that such\nfields of work are not regarded as desirable. Attendance is irregular; salaries are\nlow; the terms short ; the houses are often poor and ill-equipped; boarding places\nare unsatisfactory and remote from the schoolhouse, which is to be reached as best\nit can over muddy roads .\n\nIt is not strange, then, that the ungraded schools are suffering, as perhaps no\nother schools are, from the ignorance and inexperience of their teachers. I believe\nthat these unfortunate facts will not be materially changed until the district school\nis taken out of its isolation and made a part of the system. This is impossible in\nthat old and outgrown district system to which so many states still cling. It seems\nto me that the outlook is hopeless unless we move toward the township system, or\nsome other system which provides for a large enough unit to admit of helpfulclassification. Why should the country boy or girl be denied the privileges of secondary education ? A system which looks toward a high school seems to me an\nAmerican necessity. The existence of these schools will also permit of an extension of training schools for teachers, by utilizing such institutions for elementary\npedagogical instruction.\n\nMR. KIEHLE -The problem of the rural schools is, first, that of organization,\nwhich means the transition from the democratic, individualistic form of society,\nin which every man has liberty to do what pleases himself, to that of the republican,\nin which authority is delegated and society becomes more and more centralized.\nThe transition is opposed by the people, and herein is the serious obstacle to the\naccomplishment of that which leads to the organization of a township system. In\nthe meantime it is required that we meet present exigencies and do what we can for\nthe improvement of schools and teachers under present and imperfect systems. To\ndo this in Minnesota, we encourage our high schools by special appropriations of\n$400 to each school, upon condition that they admit, free of charge, all properly\nqualified graduates from the common schools of the country about. Besides this,\nwe have a system of summer schools, one month each, about fifty in number,\nwhich furnish instruction for about 5,000 of our teachers .\n\nFor the common schools\n\nthemselves, provision is made by which as many of the schools as are able to\nmeet the conditions required, in improved teaching and longer terms, shall receive\n$200 each. In principle, I believe we have begun at the wrong end, and that we\nshould have established a complete township system of schools. Barring that, I\nbelieve that we have done the best practicable thing for the improvement of our\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\n473\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nschools and in preparing public sentiment for an early change to the township\nsystem.\n\nMR. HINSDALE -No more important subject will be brought before this Council\nor before the National Educational Association at this present annual meeting than\nthe one that has been so ably presented in the report submitted by Mr. Sabin.\nThere is an ample field and ample material for three reports embracing the subjects that have been presented by the committee. As divided by the committee the\nsubject falls into three divisions :\n\n(1) School revenues and their disbursement.\n\n(2)\n\nSchool machinery or organization. (3) The supply of properly prepared teachers in\nsufficient numbers. We have reason to congratulate ourselves, however, that the\ncommittee has made a single report covering the whole ground. These three divisions or branches are divisions or branches of the same general subject. They\n\ncohere, and cannot be separated if we are to obtain an intelligent view, either\nof the subject as a whole or of its several divisions. The end or ideal to which\nall our discussions look is good schools or good education for the youth of the land\nwho are taught in the ungraded schools ; but the securing of this end depends immediately and necessarily upon school management or control, and this again is\nconnected with the collection and disbursement of funds.\n\nWe shall never have as\n\ngood schools as we ought to have in the rural districts until something like unity\nand concentration of effort on the part of the managers is secured. Fifteen years\nago, at a time when there were about 15,000 persons teaching in the public schools\nof Ohio, there were about 44,000 school officers who were supposed to be engaged\nin employing these teachers and in supervising and directing their efforts. It is\nneedless to say to any man who understands the subject that it is impossible to secure, as a rule, good schools under such a system. I therefore indorse all that has\nbcen said relative to the importance and necessity of the township unit system. We\n\nmust not blind ourselves, however, to the fact that the difficulties standing in the\nway of this are very great. One of these is the indifference, and even positive\nopposition, of a very large majority of the people who are most immediately con-\n\ncerned. There is a large number of citizens scattered through the states where the\ndistrict system prevails who do not wish to see the petty school offices abolished\nor diminished in number. They wish to hold them, or to see their friends hold them.\nMoreover, many of these persons are interested in the emoluments and patronage\nwhich, under the present system, are in effect placed at their disposal. Another\n\nfact, and one that does these people more credit, may be mentioned. Many of\nthem-probably a large majority of them-believe that the present system is democratic while the township unit system is oligarchic or aristocratic. They believe in\n\nlocal self-government, and actually suppose, that, in standing up for the present\nsystem, they are defending the ancient political institutions of New England, and,\nin fact, of the Anglo-Saxon race. These are all facts-unquestionable facts. I\n\ndo not mean to say that they cannot be overcome. They can be. For example,\nOhio, that had really made no educational progress for many years, three or four\nyears ago arose out of her sleep and passed the Workman law that has been referred to. Still another thing should be mentioned. The American people as a\nwhole believe that they now have an excellent educational system, excellent schools,\nexcellent education; they believe that they have nothing to learn in this regard\nfrom any people in the world, which is very far from being the fact. We have\nvery much to learn from foreign countries . There can be no question that our\n\nnational self-complacency, our present satisfaction with the education that we have,\nis an obstacle in cur way, not merely in respect to the subject before us but in respect to many other subjects. This obstacle, like the others, can be removed in the\nsame way. That way is to enter at once upon a campaign of education, and then\n\nto press it with vigor; education, I mean, with respect to these very subjects.\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "474\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nMR. BROWN.- This is a timely report and one of great practical value. It is a\ncompanion report to the now celebrated one on correlation of studies. In fact, it\ndiscusses the necessary condition that must be supplied if the educational values\nof studies are to be realized to any considerable degree. But what is the Council\ngoing to do about it? I have been a member of this Council for a good many years,\nand the questions here involved have been considered many times and settled so\nfar as the opinions of the members of the Council are concerned.\n\nMr. Hinsdale speaks of difficulties in the way of procuring an adoption of the\ntownship system in the states where it does not exist, but is it not true that these\nobstacles would melt away if the people could be warmed by the conviction that\ntownship organization is best for their children and is also less expensive than the\npresent independent district system? The thing for us to do, as it seems to me,\nis to set to work at once to organize a plan of campaign of education of the public\nupon this matter of a better system of rural schools. The people want the best\n\nthing, and a proper system of taxation and distribution of money is the necessary\ncondition of realizing any plan of instruction provided for the children.\n\nDR. J. BALDWIN, Huntsville, Tex. Since more than one-half our pupils are in\nour country schools, we are bound to make these schools as efficient as our city\nschools.\n\nThe difficulties are enormous .\n\nI venture to suggest the creation of a\n\ncommittee of twenty to report on the ungraded school problem. The paper constitutes an admirable basis. What the Ten have done for secondary schools, and\nthe Fifteen for graded schools, the Twenty may do for the rural schools.\n\nThe township system is accepted by educators as a basis; but the schools of a\ntownship must be cemented into convenient organized groups. Each group must\nhave its central schools, and the teacher of the central must be principal of all the\nschools of the group. This is vital, as I think the angels could not make our country schools efficient on any other plan. Each central school will become a center\nof culture and will develop into a limited high school. The teachers of the group\nwork together as an organized faculty.\nMR. BOYDEN.- I desire to call attention to the district superintendents of Massachusetts as a means for improving the schools of the rural districts. The law\nof this state provides that two or more towns may unite to form a district which\nshall have not less than twenty-five nor more than fifty schools. The school committees of the towns which unite to form the district choose the superintendent,\nand the state pays three-fifths of his support. The first step of the superintendent\ntowards improving the schools under his supervision is to secure the best teachers\nhe can command; the second is to secure a better co-ordination of the school work;\nand third, the economical expenditure of the school funds. The effect of this system\nhas been a noticeable increase in the demand for trained teachers and a decided\n\nimprovement in the quality of the work done in the schools . The superintendent\nimproves the course of studies, holds meetings, secures better appropriations for\nthe schools, and increases by these means the public interest in the schools.\nMR. BARNES.-In my opinion, one of the most powerful influences acting upon\nthe rural teachers is the county superintendent. In four years a superintendent\ngives an educational cast to his teachers ; they quickly catch his ideas, his prejudices, his attitudes toward work and study. The same movement which has resulted in such improvement in some of our city systems, through demanding educational leadership in the superintendent, is certain to extend to the office of\ncounty superintendent.\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nINFLUENCE OF HERBARTS DOCTRINE.\n\nROUND TABLE REPORT\nTHE INFLUENCE\n\nTO\n\nTHE NATIONAL\n\n475\n\nCOUNCIL OF\n\nOF HERBART'S DOCTRINE\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE OF STUDY IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS.\n\nBY CHARLES A. MCMURRY, NORMAL, ILL.\n\n1. The purpose of this educational movement is to gather into the\nschool course as much of the world's accumulated store of culture as\n\nis suited to exert educative influence upon growing children. It is\nthe problem of collecting and arranging the best materials of culture\n\nwhich history, literature, and social and scientific progress have\nbrought to light and stored up.\n2. It seeks in our own American history and literature, as expressed in our mother English, the principal center and substance\nof culture for our common schools. It is not foreign nor exotic, but\nthoroughly domestic, Anglo-Saxon, American. It is not in search\nof foreign curiosities. Its geography begins at home and remains\nlong within our own borders. Its natural science deals chieffly, al-\n\nmost entirely, with our native plants and animals and with those\nnatural forces and phenomena with which every child may be made\nfamiliar in his own home and neighborhood. By the increased emphasis which it places upon the story of our early national life and\nhistorical development, by the more abundant use of the shorter and\nlonger masterpieces of our best American writers, it seeks for a fruitful entrance into the hearts of children of the strong and wholesome\n\ninfluence of our best American culture. It is, therefore, national\nand patriotic in the true sense.\n\n3. Secondary and supplemental to these American materials are\nthe choicest products of English and European history and litera-\n\nture. The history and literature of America, surprisingly rich as\nit is, is not complete enough to give the children the full rounded\nmeasure of culture which the experience of the world has gathered\nfor the educative enrichment of children.\n\nWe are compelled to\n\ndraw upon Europe for some of the best thought materials with which\nto fill out the course of instruction for the young.\n4. It is very evident that our course of study is deeply rooted in\nthe past, that culture and civilization are a product not to be manufactured to order, but a growth and registration in historical and literary forms of racial experience and progress. The reason why we harp\nso much upon literature and history is because they contain in potent\neducative solution the rich culture influences which we wish to see\n\nredeveloped in every child. Moral and social culture, with all their\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "476\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nhumanizing influence, are contained in the choicest literature of\nAmerica and Europe. Here are the ideals of life, revealed in their\nsupreme strength and beauty. Here are the examples of men and\nwomen who lift and inspire. Here are revealed the moral qualities\nwhich should form the backbone of character.\n\n5. If the course of study as a whole is thought of as a rope or cable, one of the important strands is a series of elementary science lessons stretching through all the grades. This fully accords with the\nimmense influence upon human life which scientific progress has\n\nalready attained. Herbartian pedagogy is in this respect thoroughly\nmodern, and stands abreast of the requirement that education shall\n\nequip a child to live up to his present opportunities, and to make use\nof the fund of scientific knowledge.\n6. This educational movement includes such a mastery of the English language and of elementary mathematics as our schools have long\naimed at, but only partially realized. It suggests no great change in\nthe scope of these studies. They are the necessary implements of\nculture and supply the forms of thought. But they should not be\nwholly isolated from the other studies, nor their separate disciplinary\n\nvalue estimated so highly as of old. The ideals, inspirations, and\noriginal sources of energy are in literature, history, and natural science. They are like deep fountains which spring from unfailing\nsources of supply.\n\n7. This educational doctrine includes the effort to grasp all the\nstudies and influences of the school course in one organized unit of influence, to so relate and combine the different forms of school discipline as to centralize and strengthen their combined effect.\n8. In addition to this effort to lay out the best school course and\nto harmonize its various studies, there has been a strong, persistent,\nand practical effort to systematize the method of instruction, to find\na set of principles sufficiently positive and definite for a common platform upon which teachers may stand and yet sufficiently elastic to\nadapt it to the variety of studies and to the individuality of teachers.\nA somewhat full course of study for first and second grade is given\nin the \"First Year Book of the Herbart Society for the Scientific\nStudy of Teaching.\"\nLeaving out arithmetic and language, which are similar to the\nusual course, a brief suggestive outline for fourth, fifth, and sixth\ngrades is appended :\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": "INFLUENCE OF HERBART'S DOCTRINE.\n\nCouncil.]\n\n477\n\nFOURTH GRADE.\n\nGEOGRAPHY.\n\nHISTORY.\n\nThirteen stories of pioneer life in the Twenty important topics in the Mississippi Valley. The Illinois river, the\nMississippi Valley: Marquette, La\nSalle, Lincoln, Clark, etc.\ncorn and wheat regions, forest belts,\ncoal fields, etc.\nREADING .\n\nNATURAL SCIENCE.\n\n\"The Wonder Book.\"\n\nThe forest trees.\n\nKingsley's \"Greek Heroes.\"\n\"Tales from Spenser.\"\n\nHardwoods: Maple, oak, hickory.\nEvergreen : Pine, etc.\n\n\"Hiawatha. \"\n\nWild animals\n\n\"Stories of the Old World.\"\n\nof Mississippi\n\nValley :\n\nDeer, bear, beaver.\nThe formation of coal .\n\nFIFTH GRADE .\n\nHISTORY.\n\nGEOGRAPHY .\n\nThe Eastern States and North America.\n\nPioneer explorers .\n\nTwelve stories of Champlain, Hudson, Twenty-five important topics, as: The\nRaleigh, Columbus,\nWashington, etc.\n\nSmith,\n\nCortes,\n\nWhite Mountains, Hudson River, New\nYork City, Washington, etc.\n\nREADING.\n\nNATURAL SCIENCE.\n\nHigginson's \"American Explorers.\"\n\"Tales from English History.\"\n\"Lays of Ancient Rome.\"\n\"Black Beauty.\"\n\nButterflies, bees and other insects.\nGrasses.\n\nPhysical experiments, pumps, engines,\ncompass, thermometer, barometer.\nWeather study.\n\nSIXTH GRADE .\n\nHISTORY.\n\nGEOGRAPHY.\n\nThe colonial period in Massachusetts, Countries of Europe and colonial possesConnecticut, New York, Virginia, Penn-\n\nsions. Twenty-five important topics.\n\nsylvania.\nFrench and Indian Wars .\nREADING.\n\n\"Grandfather's Chair.\"\n\"The Sketch Book .\"\n\nNATURAL SCIENCE.\n\nThe robin, thrush, owl, etc.\nThe frog, crayfish .\n\n\"Miles Standish .\"\n\nTurtle, fishes .\n\n\"Tales of a Grandfather.\"\n\nExperiments in combustion, the lamp,\n\n\"Birds and Bees .\"\n\n\"Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin.\"\n\nstove, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "478\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[National\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nMR. MCMURRY. Our purpose is to discuss and raise questions on this paper.\n\nQuestions will therefore be readily listened to at any point, and as far as possible\nsatisfactory answers attempted. One of the chief questions asked about education\nis, What can it do to prepare children for the civilization for the social order-in\n\nwhich they are to live ? The counter question of equal importance is, What does\ncivilization itself furnish ? What has the past worked out and delivered to us,\nwith which to prepare the children for the social state ? One of our first duties,\nthen, is to find out and gather up the culture materials of the past with which to\neducate children for the future .\n\nMR. TARBELL.-In what sense do you use the words \"principal center and substance of culture ?\"\n\nMR. MCMURRY .-The choicest materials of culture those which contribute to\n\nhigh ideals and to the strengthening of moral character-may be called the principal center and substance of culture. The American people began upon a very high\nlevel. Many of the people who first settled this country and laid the basis for our\nlaws and institutions were far above the average of even civilized peoples in their\nmoral and political standards. If we stop to trace the influence of the Puritans in\npolitics, religion, and literature, we shall find that it has penetrated to the very\nmarrow of our national life, and whatever was best and most enduring was directly\n\nowing to it. There was salt enough in the Puritans to salt a nation, and many of\nour best ideals to-day are derived directly from them. America is a young country\ncompared with the societies of Europe, and it might be supposed that educative\ninfluences of the best sort had not been stored up in the brief period of our development; but even in this short time our country has passed through great and stirring epochs, the history of which, as worked out by our best authors in prose and\nverse, not only furnishes the children with plenty to read and think about but\ngives also that moral stimulus and character development which make the essential foundation of culture. Materials furnished by this history are mentally nutritious, and furnish the minds of children with their appropriate food. By noticing\nthe fourth section of this report, it is seen that the prevailing idea is to use the\ncomplete masterpieces of American literature to teach American history, literature,\nand life.\n\nMR. WILLIAMS.-What advantage has this literature, selected and arranged,\nover the reading found in the reading-book ?\nMR. MCMURRY . -The purpose of the Herbartians is to present complete masterpieces in their full force not fragments and extracts, however choice in\nthemselves. A child that has read \"Hiawatha,\" or the \"Sketch Book,\" or Hawthorne's stories, complete, has gained much greater benefit than he could by reading short, scrappy selections. A single complete masterpiece, like \"Evangeline.\"\ncontains more culture in its make-up that three or four extracts or fragments\nwhich, taken together, contain as much reading matter as \"Evangeline.\" A longer\n\ncomplete work of literature gives greater time for the interest of the pupil to\naccumulate, and it gives the author a chance to make a strong and permanent impression upon the reader.\nThe question was raised whether the reading laid out for the fourth grade,\nsuch as Hawthorne's \"Wonder Book,\" Kingsley's \"Greek Heroes,\" etc., would not\ntake the child entirely away from home and native land; that is was not domestic,\nnot American.\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n479\n\nMR. MCMURRY.- There is a much closer connection between these Greek stories\n\nand our American history stories than appears at first sight. The Greek stories are\npersonal and heroic, and the spirit that breathes in them is closely akin to the\nspirit and exploits of our pioneer explorers. Besides, the classic stories of Europe\n\nbelong as much to us as to the European nations. They are also simpler and better\nadapted to children in the third grade than our American history stories. We use\nthese Greek stories for oral narrative and presentation in third grade, and read\nthem in the fourth grade.\n\nDR. HINSDALE. -Why do you speak of exactly thirteen stories in the fourth\ngrade?\n\nMR. MCMURRY.-The stories, of course, need not be limited to any particular\nnumber, but the number thirteen expressed here simply indicates a particular collection of stories of the Mississippi Valley used in a few of our schools.\n\nThere followed a brisk discussion of the thirteen explorers of the Mississippi\nValley.\n\nMR. JONES asked why they were taken before the colonial explorers-why\nleave out the New England stories .\n\nMR. MCMURRY.-It seems appropriate for the children of the Mississippi Valley to begin their study of history with stories of the Mississippi Valley; just as it\nis appropriate for children of New England to begin with the stories of New Eng-\n\nland. The idea is to begin at home, with the persons for whom our own towns\nand rivers were named, like Marquette and Joliet. If the lives of these men are\nspirited, heroic, and interesting, they will answer our purpose. I would defend\nthe selection of the pioneer stories of the Mississippi Valley because the quality\nof the stories is the best. New England has no better stories with which to awaken\nand stimulate the minds of children than has the Mississippi Valley. The stories\nof Marquette, La Salle, and Lincoln are as choice and high-spirited as any stories\nof our country. And no other country has any better stories, if as good. Besides\nthis, the majority of American children already live in the Mississippi Valley, if\nwe include the lake states in this region. The story of George Rogers Clark is\nremarkably heroic and stirring. He showed as much iron strength of character,\nas much grit and spirit, as any man of the Revolution. The story of Fremont is,\nin some respects, as good as that of Columbus, and is much simpler; for the story\nof Columbus involves different nations, continents, oceans, and the world-whole.\nThe history and geography of the Mississippi Valley go hand-in-hand, as is indicated by the course of study. It is not intended that we should neglect the stories\nof the East, but use them in the fifth grade. In one respect it makes very little\ndifference where we begin our pioneer history stories. Pioneer life and exploration\nare the same in their spirit, whether we begin with Columbus or Fremont. The\nchronology of these pioneer biographies is of very little importance in the fourth\nand fifth grades .\n\nMISS NICHOLSON asked if the character of George Rogers Clark was not a\nquestionable one for children to study. His life had serious flaws .\nMR. MCMURRY.-Clark's later life showed great weaknesses and faults; but\n\nthat part of his early life which is included in the story is remarkably vigorous and\ninteresting, as well as high-spirited. But the question, after all, may be fairly\nasked whether Clark's character is one that ought to be held up to children.\nThe question was asked whether boys are to be trained to be citizens of\nAmerica rather than of the world, as the Romans trained children to be citizens of\nRome; or is the Greek idea right, or training boys to be men.\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": "480\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nMR. MCMURRY.-What we need in education is to select, first, what is purest\nand best in our own national material-what has been given us from our own past.\nWas it Emerson or Thoreau who said, that a man could not be a true citizen until\nhe voted and paid taxes in his own township? [Some one suggested that it could\nnot have been Thoreau, as he wouldn't vote or pay taxes.] It is better to begin\nat home, and grow up under the full influence of the family, neighborhood, and\nthe state, and especially of our Christian civilization.\n\nNo matter what is done the\n\nchild will grow up under the full measure of the influence of his environment and\nof the civilization in which he lives. The best we can do, therefore, is to utilize the\n\nbest of our surroundings and the choicest of our historical and literary materials,\n\nand in this way we shall get the best out of our present surroundings and past\ndevelopment.\n\nMR. BALDWIN.--What is the true idea of an Herbartian regarding the object\nsought?\n\nMR. SOLDAN.-What is Herbartian, in the sense given, is the principle involved,\nand not the material. We may easily differ regarding the material, and not thus\ninterfere with the principle involved.\nThe second question is whether the child is educated for any purpose outside\nhimself. Should Paul be educated for Dombey & Son, and not for Paul himself?\nHerbart says the child must be educated for himself. His view has been unfortunately explained as being for the civilization around him and for which he acts.\n\nThe child must be brought up to feel the heart-beats of the noblest life that is\nwithin his possibility. He must attain such a condition as to lead (1) to a good\nlife with others, 2) to a useful life with others, and (3) to a happy life with others.\nIs not this what Herbart means and his followers claim ?\n\nMR. MCMURRY.-I think Mr. Soldan is right, as I understand him; and yet\nHerbart believes that what men have thought and felt and written are among the\ngreatest of all educative agencies, and supply the ideals for future development.\nMR. LUKENS asked the question whether the course of study suggested involved the theory of the \"culture epochs.\" Nothing had been said on this point,\neither in the paper or in the discussion.\nMR. MCMURRY.-In making out this outline of a course of study, I have had\nin mind the idea of the \"culture epochs ;\" that is, the theory that children develop\nas the race has developed, by a not very clear process; and, that, at certain ages\nof child life, they are in sympathy with literature belonging to certain corresponding epochs of race growth. I have chosen the work of the grades, to some extent,\nat least, under the suggestion of this theory. Nothing, however, has been specifically stated on this point in the paper or discussion.\nMR. LUKENS asked further what was the attitude of the Herbartians to the\nsubject of child study.\nMR. MCMURRY said, that, while not laying any claim to expert knowledge in\n\nthe field of child study, he thought there were important lines of sympathy and\nco-operation between the Herbartians and scientific students of child study. The\nexperiments along the lines of fatigue, physical reactions and measurements, hy-\n\ngiene, etc., have already supplied much useful help to teachers. Both schools believe in a more careful, and sympathetic, and individual study of children. The\ndoctrine of apperception brings the Herbartians into very close touch with the\nefforts of all those engaged in child study.\n\nMR. MARBLE. -Why in the fourth grade use foreign and ancient literature ?\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n481\n\nMR. MCMURRY.-- There does not seem to be too much opportunity given to\nforeign history in the Herbartian scheme. Much of the best materials for the\nearlier grades must come from Europe, as our own history and literature are\ndeficient in these.\n\nThe question was again raised whether we should not consider, first of all, the\nchild's own needs and possibilities, and educate him for complete and all-round\nmanhood rather than for the perhaps narrow civilization in which he lives. Why\nshould we impose our civilization on a child ? Why not let him be free to develop\nwhat is in him ? Child study seems thus broader and more universal as a basis.\n\nMR. Соок .-Do we not use Greek to avoid provincialism ?\nMR. HINSDALE.-The Greek is the type of the universal; the Roman is more\nnarrow. Were not both of them national in culture? Is it not simply a question\nof relativity ? The two views that of child study and the historical of Herbartare complementary, and does not much depend upon the emphasis placed on one\nor the other ?\n\nMR. COOK.-Child study does not interfere with the application of the Herbartian principles in making a course of study. We must nourish the child with\nthe materials of the civilization. The two standpoints are not antagonistic.\nMR. MCMURRY.-Child study should certainly have a full measure of recognition. On the one side, it keeps us close to childen and to the persistent needs and\n\ndifficulties that pervade education. On the other side, the history, literature, and\nother culture products of the past supply the materials of instruction. They supply,\n\nalso, the great inspiring ideals of political, social, and religious life which have\nbeen so potent in educational progress. We usually forget the powerful and pervading influence of the past upon us. We are constantly re-thinking its thoughts\nand imitating its acts. If we could blot out these historical influences and shut\n\nourselves off from the ideas and examples of such men as Longfellow, Washington,\nMilton, the Puritans, etc.; if we could actually eliminate the influences of the past\nupon our present life, we should be face to face with blank barbarism.\nEven in the education of children, child study is very narrow in its suggestiveness. There is much greater variety and depth of suggestiveness in this history of\neducation in different countries and in the works of classic writers on education\n\nthan in a whole school of people devoted to child study in a purely experimental\nway. What reason have you to think, friends, that, from your little child study,\nyou can outweigh what has been established by our seers and prophets ? Child\nstudy has its well-earned place and value, but it is no substitute for the best influences of past civilization.\nFor lack of time the discussion covered only the first part of the report. The\nplace of natural science in the course of study could not be treated.\n31\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "482\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON PEDAGOGICS. —THE LAWS\nOF MENTAL CONGRUENCE AND ENERGY APPLIED TO\nSOME PEDAGOGICAL PROBLEMS.\n\nBY B. A.\n\nHINSDALE, CHAIRMAN.\n\nThe nouns congruence and congruity, and the adjectives congruent and congruous, are derived from the Latin verb congruere, which\nmeans to come together with something, and so to agree. The nouns\nmean suitableness, appropriateness, consistency, agreement, coincidence, correspondence, fitness, harmony, and their adjectives mean\npertaining to or having this quality. The words have respect to relations, and they are favorites with those philosophers who place virtue\nin the fitness of things. For men to render obedience to God, or for a\nson to honor his father, is said to be congruous to the light of reason.\nIncongruence and incongruous are the negatives of these words. Congruence may be affirmed of physical things alone, or of psychic things\nalone, or of physical and psychic things taken together. The element\nof time is involved. Congruence is simultaneous or successive. If successive activities are congruous, the first flows naturally into the second; they blend. The first leaves the body or the mind, as the case\nmay be, in a suitable frame to enter upon the second. Particular attention may be directed to this point, because the argument of this paper will turn in large part upon the relations of successive psychic\nstates.\n\nI. Bodily Activities as Congruous or Incongruous.\n\nIt is obvious that\n\ncongruence must be affirmed of some physical activities, incongruence\nof others. No reference is here made to organic functions. Walk-\n\ning is a good preparation for leaping, wielding a hammer for shoving\na plane. But violent exercise disqualifies the muscles or nerves for\nany activity that requires careful handling or delicate touch. The surgeon could not qualify himself for a difficult operation by first engaging in the vigorous exercises of the gymnasium, nor the painter\nfit himself for putting the last touches to a fine picture by crushing\nstones with a sledge. No more does the skillful teacher place the\nwriting or the drawing lesson just after the school recess. We need\nnot dwell upon the laws that underlie these facts further than to say\nthat congruent exercises appear to involve, in whole or part, similar\nco-ordinations of the nerves and muscles and similar physical tones.\nII. Physiological and Psychological States as Congruous and Incongruous.\n\n-That certain correlations exist between the body and the mind is\ntoo plain to be disputed; also, certain oppositions or antagonisms.\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\n483\n\nLAWS OF MENTAL CONGRUENCE.\n\nMental power and tone depend upon physical power and tone, while\nstates of mind influence states of body. Repose of body conduces to\nreflection, meditation, or musing. Strong physical exercise tends to\nexclude mental exercise.\n\nStill there are obvious limits to these\n\neffects. The Greek laid stress upon maintaining balance or proportion between the body and the soul, but their great athletes and their\ngreat writers or orators were different classes of persons. Aristotle\nhas left two striking testimonies relative to this subject. * \"The evil\nof excessive training in early years is strikingly proved by the example of the Olympic victors ; for not more than two or three of them\n\nhave gained a prize both as boys and as men. Their early training\nand severe gymnastic exercises exhausted their constitutions.\" \"Men\nought not to labor at the same time with their minds and with their\nbodies, for the two kinds of labor are opposed to one another; the\nlabor of the body impedes the mind, and the labor of the mind the\n\nbody.\" This is at least measurably true, and the truth has important\npedagogical applications.\nIII.\n\nThe Primary Psychic Elements as Congruous or Incongruous . -\n\nCognition, feeling, and will are present in every fully developed state\nof consciousness. Dr. Dewey calls them \"the three aspects which\nevery consciousness presents, according to the light in which it is considered; whether as giving information, as affecting the self in a painful or pleasurable way, or as manifesting an activity of self. But\nthere is still another connection. Just as in the organic body, the\nprocess of digestion cannot go on without that of circulation, and\nboth require respiration and nerve action, which in turn are dependent upon the other processes, so, in the organic mind, knowledge is\nnot possible without feeling and will, and neither of these without\nthe other.\" This is very well as far as it goes. It does not, of course,\ntell us whether the three elements are all present in the first, or simplest, state of consciousness.\nThe further relations of the three elements are of the greatest in-\n\nterest, and must be considered more carefully. Two facts are very\nobservable. One is, that up to a certain point the three elements vary\ndirectly; the other is, that beyond this point they vary inversely. Until the mental current reaches a given height, cognition, feeling, and\nwill swell together. That point reached, any one of the three must\nswell at the cost of one or both the others. Höffding, who does not,\nhowever, generalize them into a single law, presents these interesting\nfacts :\n\n‡ \" Self- observation reveals at most only an approximation to a\nstate in which all cognitive elements have vanished.\n\nSuch an ap-\n\n\"The Politics \" (Jowett's translation), VIII . , 4.\n† \"Psychology,\" pp. 17, 18.\n\n\"Outlines of Psychology\" (translated by Mary E. Lowndes), pp. 98, 99.\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": "484\n\n[National\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nproximation is reached the more the strength of the feeling element\nincreases. Cognition and feeling must stand in inverse relation\nto one another; the more strongly the one is manifested the less the\nstrength at the command of the other. An overwhelming joy or sor-\n\nrow may drive out all ideation, all recollection; but an ecstatic con*\n\n*\n\n*\n\ndition of this kind stands on the margin of consciousness.\n\n\"It is only in the course of psychological development that differentiation between feeling and will makes its appearance. There\ncomes to be an ever-greater contrast between the two ways in which\ninner movement finds a vent. The psychological importance of the\n\nlaw of persistence of energy is here seen plainly; for the more energy\nan individual expends on the one kind of reaction the less can be expended on the other. This truth is strikingly illustrated in Saxo's\nwell-known tale of the different effect which the news of the murder\n\nof Ragner Lodbrog produced on his sons. He in whom the emotion\nwas weakest has the greatest energy for action.\"\nBut of the writers on this subject whom I have consulted Dr. Sully\ndoes it the fullest justice. Two paragraphs may be quoted:\n* \"These three kinds of mental state are, in general, clearly marked\noff from one another. A child in a state of strong emotional excitement contrasts with a child calmly thinking about something, or another child exerting his active powers in doing something. If we\ntake any one of these aspects of mind in a well-marked form, we see\nthat it is opposed to the other aspects. Thus, strong feeling is opposed to and precludes at the time calm thinking (recollecting, reasoning), as well as regulated action (will). Similarly, the intellectual\nstate of remembering or reasoning is opposed to feeling or to doing.\nThe mind cannot exhibit each kind of phenomenon in a marked degree at the same time.\n\n\"This opposition may be seen in another way. If we compare not\ndifferent states of the same mind, but different minds as a whole, we\noften find now one kind of mental state or operation, now another, in\nthe ascendant. Minds marked by much feeling (sensitive, emotional\nnatures) commonly manifest less of the intellectual and volitional aspects or properties. Similarly, minds of a high degree of intellectual\n\ncapability (inquiring or inquisitive minds), or of much active endowment (active minds), are, as a rule, relatively weak in the other kinds\nof endowment.\"\n\nFrom the premises before us two or three important pedagogical\nrules are derived. One is that a gentle glow or wave of pleasurable\nfeeling should play over the mind of the individual pupil and through\nthe school.\n\nThe intellect thrives best in a suitable emotional climate,\n\nCourage, hopefulness, appreciation, rather than their opposites\n* \"Outlines of Psychology,\" pp. 21, 22.\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council. ]\n\nLAWS OF MENTAL CONGRUENCE.\n\n485\n\nshould temper the atmosphere of the schoolroom. Optimism is more\ncongenial to the normal mind than pessimism. Another rule is, that\npupils should be protected against strongly excited feeling, no matter\nwhether the feeling is their own or that of another into which they\nenter through sympathy. The wheels of the intellect, so to speak,\nwill not revolve freely in a flood of turbulent emotion. No gusts of\nanger, cyclones of passion, or waves of sympathetic impulse in the\nschool ! Especially is the feeling that the teacher is unjust very harmful to the pupil. No immediate reference is here made to morals.\n\"Nothing retards the acquirement of the power of directing the intellectual processes,\" says Dr. Carpenter, in a striking passage, \"so much\nas the emotional disturbance which the feeling of injustice provokes.\" * Again, genuine interest may reach too high a pitch. When\nSir Isaac Newton saw that the train of reasoning which he had so\nlong been following would establish his working hypothesis, his emotions would not allow him to continue, and he was obliged to hand his\n\nmanuscripts over to a friend to complete the work.\nIV.\n\nThe Intellectual Activities as Congruous and Incongruous.-Here\n\nwe reach the application of the law of congruity to education that,\nconsidered from the point of view of the school, is the most important\nof all. So much will be admitted by those at least who regard teaching as the main function of the school. We must, therefore, proceed\nmore slowly with this division of the subject. Still, it is not proposed\nto deal in detail with the nature or the relations of the cognitive elements. These subjects are treated in every text-book of psychology;\nand, although much of the treatment may be false, the commonly accepted views will answer the present purpose.\n1. Here, as in the case of cognition, feeling, and will, we observe\nboth mutual opposition and reciprocal aid. Up to a certain point cognitive elements grow together; beyond that point, the greater the energy expended on one kind of reaction the less can be expended on\nanother kind. The complete action of perception involves memory ;\nbut energetic observation is at the expense of memory, while intense\nmemory, on the other hand, tends to withdraw attention from surrounding objects. The imagination stimulates the thought processes\nuntil a point is reached where it assumes the ascendant and reflection\n\nretires into the background. Imagination and reflection, both in an\nexcited state, cannot dwell together. Sense-perception furnishes the\nlogical faculties needed materials ; still, become too obtrusive, senseperception is fatal to thought. Men or peoples who live in the senses\ndo not live in the reason, and vice versa.\nThis point is pedagogically so important that we may well dwell\nupon it a little longer. The pedagogical realists make the sense-ele•\"Mental Physiology,\" pp. 134, 135.\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": "486\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nments of knowledge prominent in the school. Originating as a reac-\n\ntion from excessive devotion to the printed page, the realistic movement has been most fruitful of good results.\nthe great names of Comenius and Pestalozzi.\n\nWith it are identified\nTo it we are indebted\n\nfor the enlargement of science-teaching and the extended use of object-lessons and objective methods of instruction. At the same time,\nthe true limits of realism are soon reached. Knowledge begins with\nthe senses, but does not end with the senses. Properly speaking, a\ndeveloping mind soon leaves the senses behind. Sensation is but a\ncoarse form of feeling, and is subject to the same law. An excess of\nsense-elements in the mind smothers the rational elements.\n\nA blind-\n\ning flash of lightning or a deafening peal of thunder arrests the higher\nmental activities ; while less powerful sense-impressions exercise a\nmore lasting, if a less intense, effect. The great scientific discoveries\nhave not been made in immediate contact with nature, but in the retirement of the study. Nor is time the only element that is here involved; when immediate contact exists and is vital, nature may overpower the mind. It has been said that the machine may be lost to the\nmind in its parts, or the picture in the colors that compose it. Equally\nmay the universe be lost in the multitude of the stars. Concentrated\nattention upon the technique of an art retards the development of its\nhigher elements. A house-builder is not likely to excel as an architect; the practical elements of the trade exclude the ideal elements\nthat are essential to the profession. On this basis Aristotle's prejudice against useful studies rested, as is evident from the following\npassage :\n\n* \" There can be no doubt that children should be taught those use-\n\nful things which are really necessary, but not all things, for ocсираtions are divided into liberal and illiberal; and to young children\nshould be imparted only such kinds of knowledge as will be useful to\nthem without vulgarizing them. And any occupation, art, or science\nwhich makes the body, or soul, or mind of the freeman less fit for the\npractice or exercise of virtue is vulgar; wherefore we call those arts\nvulgar which tend to deform the body, and likewise all paid employments, for they absorb and degrade the mind.\"\nAbstract thinking the thinking of relations and unities-which is\n\nthe highest force of thought, is possible only when the mind has been\nunsensed or dematerialized. Whether instruction in physics should\nbegin with theory or experiment is a mooted question. Begin where\nthe teacher may, he has not taught the subject until he has taught\nthose logical elements that give it its character. Still more, an ex\"The Politics,\" VIII . , 2.\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council. ]\n\nLAWS OF MENTAL CONGRUENCE.\n\n487\n\ncess of brilliant experiments may hinder rather than hasten the work.\n\nExperiments are like examples, of which it has been said :\nExamples may be heaped until they hide\nThe rules that they were made to render plain.\n\n2. The practical application of the principles of congruence to\nteaching involves the selection and grouping of studies. It brings\nbefore us the large subject to which the terms correlation, co-ordination, organization, and concentration of studies have been somewhat\nindiscriminately applied. It is not proposed to discuss these terms\nin this report, or even the subject itself, save as it involves fundamental principles. But to do even as much as this makes it necessary\nto state the principal laws relating to mental energy. They are the\nfollowing :\n\n(a) When any stimulus, as a sense object, an idea, or a lesson, is\napplied to the mind, the mind is not at once fully energized, but some\ntime must elapse before it swells to the maximum of power.\n\n(b) This maximum of power continues for a time, or, in the language of science, mental energy tends to persist.\n(c) The maximum cannot, however, be infinitely maintained. On\nthe contrary, when the mental current reaches what may be called\nthe fatigue point, it begins to fall off in volume, but the fall is less\n\nrapid than the previous rise. Still, the volume can be temporarily renewed, in part or in whole, by the application of a stronger stimulus.\n(d) An interruption of the mental current retards the energizing\nprocess, or frustrates the reaching of the maximum of power. Such\ninterruption is caused by the introduction of incongruous materials.\nIf the incongruity be of a marked character, the mind will come to a\nstate of rest, or a new current flowing from a new center will be\nstarted .\n\n(e) Through repetition the energizing process becomes easier and\nmore rapid. Repeated activity in the same direction tends to groove\nthe mind, or, to change the figure, the stream of activity digs out for\nitself a permanent channel of discharge.\n\n(f) Mental power is of two kinds, specific and generic.\n\nIn other\n\nwords, the power that is generated in any activity can be fully used\nagain in the same kind of activity, but only partly used in other kinds\n-the measure of the difference being the relative unlikeness of the\ntwo activities.\n\n(g) Mental fatigue, like mental power, is also specific or generic.\nThe mind may need rest from a certain kind of activity, or it may\nneed rest from all kinds, or from all energetic kinds.\nThese psychic laws have their analogues in physical laws. The\nphysiological psychologists find their causes in nerve and brain action, the explanation going back to the familiar functions of waste\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "488\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nand repair. Moreover, these laws cannot be stated in quantitative\nterms. No one can tell, in general, how long it takes fully to energize\na mind at a given time, or how far removed the fatigue point is from\n\nthe initial point of greatest energy. Very much depends upon age,\ndiscipline, physical health, the character of the stimulus, and other\n\ncircumstances. As a rule, the periods lengthen as the individual\npasses from childhood to youth and from youth to manhood. That\nis, a man's mental force is less quickly aroused and mobilized than a\nchild's, and it tends to persist much longer.\n3. From the laws of congruence and energy we derive some important rules of teaching. While these are applicable to all grades\nof teaching, they are particularly important in relation to primary\nteaching. The principal of these rules may be formulated as follows :\n(a) Sufficient time must be allowed the pupil for him to collect his\nenergies, to mobilize his forces. Slow and halting recitations tend to\ndullness of mind, while rapid recitations develop either confusion or\nshallowness. There must be a certain singleness or isolation of the\nfact or idea. \"The child must be accustomed to give one impression\ntime to take root,\" says Radestock,* \"and not follow it immediately\nby a corresponding action, that it may not pass away with that action\ninto air.\"\n\nThe same writer quotes the following from Lazarus with\n\napproval : \"Deep thinking requires time ; it is therefore a great pedagogical mistake if teachers, as is now generally done, urge their pupils to answer rapidly, and praise those who immediately have an answer ready. This causes everything to be lowered to a mere effort of\nmechanical memory. The pupil should be given time for individual\ncontemplation, for deep and energetic thought labor.\" This does not\nimply that lessons are not to be well prepared and subjects well\nthought out beforehand. When the fullest preparation has been\nmade, there is still opportunity for energetic thought at the time of\nthe recitation.\n\n(b) The pupil should be held to the same subject as long as the\nmental current flows with full volume. To no new subject can all the\n\nenergy that has been aroused by any activity be transferred, and to\nsome subjects none whatever. Unnecessary changes from subject\nto subject, or from lesson to lesson, involve the dissipitation and consequent loss of both time and power, the amount of which will depend\n\nin great part upon the relative congruity or incongruity of the different subjects or activities.\n\nMore power can be transferred from Latin\n\nto Greek than from French to German.\nlogical explanation of the rule laid down :\n\nThis is Dr. Bain's physio\"We know well enough\n\nthat the nervous currents, when strongly aroused in any direction,\n* \"Habit.\" р. 36.\n† \"John Stuart Mill,\" p. 23.\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nLAWS OF MENTAL CONGRUENCE.\n\n489\n\ntend to persist for some time. In the act of learning, this persistence\nwill count in stamping a new impression; while part of the effect of a\nlesson must be lost in hurrying without a moment's break to something new, even although the change is of the nature of relief.\"\n\n(c) Advantage should be taken of favoring times to do, or to secure\nthe doing of, certain kinds of work. The more difficult subjects should\nbe pursued by a pupil or student when both body and mind are fresh\nand vigorous. It is the flood-tide, not the ebb-tide, that brings the\ngreat ships up to the dock.\n\n(d) Before the pupil reaches the fatigue point, the teacher should\npermit him either to take up another subject or to drop study for the\ntime altogether. Persistent application on a stream of falling energy\ninvolves waste of time and power, and may lead to serious results.\nTo some extent, no doubt, the needed relief can be had through a\nchange of method.\n\n(e) Whether the pupil should take up a new study, or drop all\nstudy for the time, depends upon the kind of fatigue that has supervened. Diminished power for one activity is not diminished power\nfor all activities. Thus, a pupil who has studied arithmetic or algebra\nas long as it is profitable to-day, will take up geography or history\nwith interest, and vice versa .\n\nTo a degree studies are like gases; they\n\nare vacuums one to another. As a jar that is already filled with hydrogen gas will still hold as much carbolic acid gas as a jar of the\nsame size that is empty, so a pupil that is satisfied for the present with\nmathematics will pursue literature with interest and profit.\n(f) The school course of study should be made up with constant\nreference to the psychic laws that have been laid down. Into the\nquestion how far psychology and how far environment should control\nthe educational ideal, we need not enter. No one denies that psychol-\n\nogy must largely influence the choice of studies, and almost wholly\ncontrol their co-ordination.\n\n(g) The working program of the school, in particular, should be\nmade up with reference to the same principles.\n(h) The principle of congruence and its limitations have important\napplications to elective studies in colleges and universities. In filling\n\nout election blanks, it is believed students who are left wholly to\nthemselves often choose studies that make strange bedfellows. Nor\nis this surprising ; the criteria that should govern the choice are\nvery subtle and intricate.\n\nThis topic will come before us again.\n\nThe arguments on which the three last rules rest are practically\nthe same. They involve the important subject of concentration. Congruent studies re-enforce one another with respect to both content\n\nand mental aptitude. One subject involves other subjects. The\nphysicist must be a mathematician, the Latin scholar must know\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "490\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nsomething of Greek, the historian must be acquainted with politics\nand political economy. For a time depth and breadth vary directly;\nafter that indirectly. But in the absolute sense a specialist is an impossibility. An astronomer cannot study the moon by itself, or a\nphysiologist the eye. No one object or subject can be understood\nwhen taken alone : it is related to other objects, it is a part of the universe. Still, to be effective the mind must be grooved, and this involves the repetition of the same act and of similar acts. Once more,\nif the practical requirements of the school compel a study to be discontinued before the fatigue point is reached, thus departing from the\nideal, then some related subject may be taken up, because more of\nthe power that has been accumulated can be transferred to a related\nthan to an unrelated subject. And still the distance of the fatiguepointmust be considered.\n4. But congruence alone must not dictate the course of study, the\ndaily school program, or the student's elections. Fortunately, there\nmay be power for one subject when there is none for another subject.\nWe have spoken of the mind under the similitude of a stream or current. The fact is, however, that the mind is less like a river from\nwhich you may take water for any purpose, than it is like a bank\nwhere the total amount of money that is on deposit is divided among\nmany different accounts, and is subject to check by as many different\n\npersons. This is due to specialization of powers to the difference\nbetween specific and generic force. The one-study college is, therefore, just as unphilosophical as those schools that break the work\nhours up into small crumbs of time. Thus the fundamental laws of\nmental energy, or of interest if you will, impose a veto upon an exaggerated form of concentration.\n\nIt is further to be observed that concentration is a relative term,\nat best. No wise teacher proposes to limit the pupil to a single study\nor class of exercises. To do so would in reality involve the dogma\nof formal discipline in its extreme form. Another remark is, that\nconcentration in the primary school may be overdone as easily as\nspecialization in the higher school. It has been shown time and\nagain that the child may be over-taught certain subjects. His impressible mind may be so deeply and narrowly grooved that it can\nnever be broadly cultivated. It become indurated, as it were. This\nresult may be due in part to the intensity of the activity, but it is more\ndue to its persistence. As the mind matures, there is less and less\nneed of caution on this point. The pupil gets farther and farther\naway from the mechanical elements of knowledge, becomes more and\nmore occupied with the higher logical elements, and so is less responsive to narrowing influences. While the child's activities must be duly\nlimited, his full development still calls for a profusion of educational\nmaterial.\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "LAWS OF MENTAL CONGRUENCE.\n\nCouncil.]\n\n491\n\nAt this point some very practical questions confront the teacher\nand superintendent. How long should a pupil be kept at work on the\nsame subject ? How much work should he do in one school-day ?\nHow frequently should he change from one subject to another ? How\nmany studies should he have ? No man can answer these questions in\nformulæ; the teacher or superintendent must answer them as they\narise, and to do so he will find his best observation and judgment seriously taxed. It may well be doubted whether, measurably, the\ncommon schools are not now sacrificing the best results to swollen\nprograms and short exercises. The question is one that the superintendent should study with a transcript of the facts that have been\nstated in one hand, and his course of study and time-table in the\nother.\n\nThere is no reasonable doubt that much evil in the school\n\nthat is now charged to the account of overwork should rather be\ncharged to work done in the wrong way.\n\n5. The psychic facts to which the names of congruence and energy\nhave been given demand fuller investigation than they have hitherto\nreceived. It is well known that the school programs, both in respect\nto the co-ordination of subjects and the length of exercises, commonly\n\nrest upon a rude empirical basis. The factors that control those who\nmake them appear to be the necessities of the school, real or supposed,\ntradition, and individual experience. This empiricism is not surprising, considering the meager attention that psychologists and pedagogists have given to the principles that underlie good school programs. Very little attention has been given to the time elements involved in psychic energy as applied to school exercises. When three\nheavy subjects appear upon the program for the day-subjects demanding the fixation of the attention-you will not indeed commonly\nfind them all crowded into the same session; but that is about as far\nas the attempt to accommodate the work to the pupil's ability in this\nregard has been carried.\n\nSuch delicate questions as these occur :\n\nHow much time elapses between the application of different stimuli\nto the child mind at different ages and the development of maximum\n\npsychic power ? How long is the interval between such maximum\nand the fatigue point? In respect to the swelling of the mental current to its full volume, and in respect to its persistence, how much\ndepends upon the pupil's age? How much upon the peculiar stimuli\nat different ages? And how much upon the teacher's skill? It is\neasy to translate these questions into the practical interests of the\nschool. They cannot be answered without much careful observation and collaboration of facts. The whole subject should enlist the\nserious attention of students of child study, both under its physiolog-\n\nical and psychological aspects, and it is earnestly recommended to\ntheir attention.\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "492\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\n6. The correlation of the teacher and the text-book, if one be used,\ndemands something more than passing attention. Dr. Bain has said\nthat undoubtedly the best of all ways to learn anything is to have a\ncompetent teacher \"dole out a fixed quantity of matter every day, just\nsufficient to be taken in and no more ; the pupils to apply themselves\nto the matter so imparted, and to nothing else.\" The singleness of\n\naim is favorable, he urges, to the greatest rapidity of acquirement;\ndefects should be left out of account until one thread of ideas is\n\nfirmly set in the mind.\n\nStill he admits that not unfrequently, and not\n\nimproperly, the teacher has a text-book to aid him in his work. * \"То\nmake this a help and not a hindrance demands the greatest delicacy,\n\nsince the pupil must be kept in one single line of thought, and never\nbe required to comprehend upon the same point conflicting or varying\nstatements. Even the footnotes may have to be disregarded in the\n\nfirst instance, since they act like a second author, and so keep up an\nirritating friction.\"\n\nNothing else is so essential to successful elementary teaching as\nunity or congruence of subject-matter. Dr. Bain does not exaggerate\nthe value of the \"one thread of ideas,\" or the \"one single line of\nthought. \"\n\nHis scruple about footnotes even is often justified.\n\nThese\n\nmore definite rules will determine the teacher's general relations to\nthe text-book.\n\n(a) If the book is the main source of instruction, the teacher should\nteach the book; that is, the matter of the book. If footnotes tend to\nconfuse, what shall be said of the teacher who takes an independent\nline from the beginning ? No wise teacher certainly would be so absurd as to give a pupil who is just beginning a new subject two textbooks. A good Sunday-school teacher, dealing with the life of Jesus\nin a primary class, would not try to follow all the Gospels, or even two\nof them, at the same time ; rather than do that, it would be better to\nselect his material here and there and to blend them in a new gospel\nof his own. The teacher may teach something more or something less\nthan the book teaches on a single point, but nothing different or contradictory.\n\n(b) The teacher should also follow the methods of presentation\nthat the book employs. Nothing could be more absurd than for a\nteacher who has assigned to a class a book lesson that is presented\ninductively, to go ahead and teach it deductively.\n(c) The teacher should study to make the first presentation of a\n\nlesson successful. If two or more presentations are required, besides\nthe loss of time, the mind is left in a littered-up condition that is confusing. This is the reason why it is often more difficult to teach a\n•\"Practical Essays,\" pp. 218, 219.\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nLAWS OF MENTAL CONGRUENCE.\n\n493\n\nsubject well to a pupil to whom it has been imperfectly taught than\nto a person to whom it is wholly unknown.\n\n(d) If the subject-matter of the book or of a single lesson is radically bad, or the method decidedly faulty, the book or lesson should\nbe laid aside altogether. If only certain portions are objectionable,\nor certain methods of presentation, the teacher should not assign\nthese to be studied, but should teach such subjects de novo. This observation assumes that the teacher is able to do so.\n\n(e) The wise teacher will not present a subject in more than one\nway unless the first way has failed. It is folly to explain the division\n\nof a fraction by a fraction in a second way if the first explanation\nhas been understood. The same remark will apply to casting interest\nand to many other subjects. It is well enough for the author of an\narithmetic to give two or more methods of performing these opera-\n\ntions, thus giving the teacher an option ; but the teacher should choose\nthe method which he thinks best adapted to his purpose, and then\nadhere to it. At the stage of teaching now supposed, never give more\nthan one definition or rule on a single point. Superfluous illustrations\nnot only do no good, but they do positive harm, begetting confusion\nworse confounded.\n\nIt will be understood that these rules relative to the use of the\n\ntext-book apply to the early stages in teaching particularly, and that\nthey would require very important modifications if they are to be applied to the advanced, rational, or critical stage of education. Narrow teaching must come before broad teaching. In time the pupil,\nif rightly handled, will get out of his single line of thought; will be\nable to deal with subjects; can criticise and weigh different definitions, contradictory views and rules, and opposing opinions; can use\na variety of books, compare authorities, and employ different methods of procedure. Thus Dr. Bain recommends that in geometry the\npupil should be held strictly to Euclid until he has become thoroughly\nat home on the main ideas and leading propositions ; then he is safe\nin dipping into other manuals and comparing the differences of treatment, and in widening his knowledge by additional theorems and by\nvarious modes of demonstration.\n\nBut the time when all this can be\n\ndone will not be hastened by pushing the pupil forward prematurely.\nThe teacher who inundates the pupil with all kinds of things is the pupil's worst enemy, unless, indeed, it be the teacher who keeps him too\nlong and too intensely harping on the same string. It is only the\nknowledge that really energizes the mind which is valuable.\n7. It has already been remarked that the laws of congruity and\nenergy bear on the college or university student's choice of electives.\nHow many subjects should such a student have at the same time,\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "494\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[National\n\nand what should be their relations ? Should he scatter his energies\nover a considerable field, or concentrate them on a small one ?\n*\n\nProfessor Trowbridge, discussing some years ago the subject of\neconomy in college work, urged that the Harvard student should\nstudy two subjects for at least three months, and two subjects only;\none of these should be a hard subject, giving plenty of opportunity\nfor application, while the other might be a comparatively light subject that could serve as a mental rest through the change which it\nafforded. At the end of three months two other subjects might be\ntaken up, and the first ones be relinquished for a time; and so on to\nthe end of the course.\n\nAfter observing that some studies are so\n\nnearly related that intellectual effort in one is of service to another\n\nwhile others are not; that Latin and Greek, philosophy and history,\npolitical economy and history, are examples of the one class, while\nGerman and French, chemistry or physics and philosophy, are examples of the other, he examined the nineteen or twenty subjects which\nformed in the main the elective curriculum of Harvard University.\nHe found that the division of subjects could be reduced to twelve,\n\nby grouping together the subjects which aid each other, as follows :\nLatin and Greek; French and French history; German and German\nhistory; political economy and history; chemistry alone, or in conjunction with English; Spanish and Spanish history ; philosophy and\nhistory ; physics alone ; Semitics and ancient history; fine arts and\nmusic with English, or fine arts and music as a let-up with any of the\nseverer studies ; mathematics and English; romance philology and\nits suitable language. Having twelve subjects, the student could pursue three of these in the nine months of each college year, and in four\n\nyears he could accomplish the whole twelve; provided, of course, he\nwished to take all the subjects enumerated.\nThis scheme has been introduced mainly for the sake of illustration. In criticising it we should remember that at Harvard Univer-\n\nsity all studies are elective, save only a modicum of English and physics. Although propounded for a laudable purpose, the scheme is open\nto one or more serious objections. Within the successive three months'\n\nperiod study is certainly over-specialized, and particularly in the first\ncollege years. The common freshman will not, and cannot, work up\nhis avaliable power on one main line of study. The laws of mental\nenergy are violated.\n\nThe range of interests is too narrow.\n\nIn the\n\nlater years of the course this objection would be less serious. Other\nimportant questions, as whether the time allotted would be sufficient\nfor the leading subjects, occur, but they need not be considered. This\nbranch of the subject is dismissed with the remark that college electives call for a fuller examination than they have yet received, par* \"Atlantic Monthly,\" November, 1888, pp. 671, 672.\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nLAWS OF MENTAL CONGRUENCE.\n\n495\n\nticularly in respect to the principles that shall underrun electives and\npractical administration. There is good reason to think that in some\nquarters, at least, laissez faire has been carried too far.\n8. The last topic to be mentioned is graduate study. While there\nis not, or at least should not be, a chasm between undergraduate and\ngraduate work, still there are palpable differences of ideal and method\ninvolved. The first period looks to general cultivation. The second\nperiod looks to special cultivation. The undergraduate need not lay\nequal stress upon all the studies that he pursues; he may emphasize\nsome more and some less; but he should not sacrifice general culture\n\nto Greek scholarship, Latin scholarship, mathematical scholarship, or\nany other kind of special scholarship. The graduate student, on the\nother hand, should go much farther on the road to specialization, and\nparticularly the candidate for the doctor's degree. But even here\nspecialization may be overdone.\n\nIt is not desirable that the student\n\nshould confine himself for three years to a special line of study. The\nfirst objection to such a course is that it is overgrooving the mind at\nthe time of life supposed. Even the graduate student should not lose\n\nsight of general cultivation and fall into stark professionalism. But,\nsecondly, a single study will not absorb to advantage the student's\npower. It will be carried on in derogation of the law of specific and\ngeneric fatigue. One brain tract will be overworked, while others\nare neglected. If the professional man needs a let-up, or an avocation, to keep his mind out of the ensnaring groove, still more the student who is yet lingering in the schools.\nHow many subjects then should the graduate student have? The\nanswer will depend somewhat upon the student, as well as upon other\nconsiderations. As a rule, there should be at least two distinct lines\n\nof work, one of which may be heavy and one light. The first may\ninclude different subjects chosen with reference to congruity, as\nGreek literature and Greek history ; Latin literature and Roman history; but there should certainly be a second distinct line of work,\nseparate and apart from the first one, also made up with regard to\ncongruency, that will at once cultivate breadth and also consume\ntime and power that the main subject cannot appropriate.\nAt this point a cautionary remark may be dropped. It is a mistake to suppose that subjects are congruous merely because they bear\nthe same name in part. Congruity is determined by elements and not\nby words. For example, how much have Greek literature and Greek\nantiquities, or Latin literature and Roman antiquities, in common?\nCertainly less than some enthusiastic scholars are wont to assume.\nIt will no doubt be said that this report is conservative on the\n\nsubject of specialization. This is no accident. There is in the opinion of the committee good reason for reconsidering the relations of\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n496\n\n[National\n\neducation and erudition. Professor Davidson says* it is the failure\nto draw this necessary distinction that is misleading our universities\ninto the error of allowing students to \"elect\" specialties before they\nhave completed the cycle of education; the result of which is that we\nhave few men of thorough education or of broad and comprehensive\nviews.\n\nProfessor Butcher, contending for the unity of learning, declares\nthat it is at present endangered by disintegrating tendencies. \"Conceive, if you can,\" are his words,† \"a world of specialists, in which\neach man's vision and labor are concentrated on some microscopic\npoint in the field of human activity, and the very idea of a political\nand social organism disappears. There is a point at which the subdivision of labor in the intellectual sphere must be checked, and some\nunifying principle introduced, if we are to retain any rational conception of man, or of the world, or of human life.\"\nAnd finally, Professor Paulsen sounds a note of warning from the\ngreatest of the German universities. Pleading for the unity of the\nuniversity, he speaks of the danger of disintegration through the\ndiminished influence of the faculty of arts. \"Of course,\" he says,\n\"there is no possibility of retrogression in the division of labor, upon\nwhich depend the mighty advances of scientific research. We are\ncalled upon, however, to oppose the spirit of 'specialism,' of over-narrow self-confinement and small-souled satisfaction with one's self;\nand everyone who belongs to a university is likewise called upon to\n\nhelp along the opposition.\" Dr. Paulsenį suggests several remedies,\nthe principal one of which is the maintenance of the old conception\nof liberal culture. \"In particular, the tendency toward generalization of study, the philosophical sense, which ever stands ready to turn\nthe details to good account in the service of the ultimate and highest\ninsight, must always find its proper home in the faculty of philosophy.\nHerein may be found a peculiarly appropriate field for 'public' lectures ; to present to a wider circle of hearers, to the disciples of all\nrelated branches of learning, whatever problems and results of general interest are included in a special subject.\"\nThe purpose of this report may now be briefly restated. It is to\napply the law of mental congruence as limited by the laws of mental\nenergy to some important pedagogical problems, as the fabrication\nof a course of study, the making up of a working program for a school,\nthe choice of college electives, and the whole subject of graduate\nstudy. Congruence means the meeting or bringing together of things\nthat are consonant or related ; and as applied to the problems enumerated it looks to the deepening, broadening, and strengthening of\n* \"\"The Education of the Greek People, \" p. 23.\n† \" Some Aspects of the Greek Genius,\" pp . 209, 210.\n\"The German Universities\" (translated by E. D. Perry) , p 234.\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "497\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nCouncil.]\n\nstudy and teaching by co-ordinating those studies and elements of\nstudies that by their nature tend to support and re-enforce one an\n\nother. It is hoped that the report may prove useful as a basis for fur\nther study.\n\nB. A. HINSDALE, Chairman .\nD. L. KIEHLE,\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER,\nA. R. TAYLOR,\nCHARLES A. MCMURRY,\n\nCommittee on Pedagogics.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n[REPORTED BY E. O. LYTE .]\n\nMR. BROWN.-This is another great paper.\n\nIt is a great satisfaction to live in\n\nthis educational era, when educational questions are discussed in the strong and\nmasterly way so well exemplified in this report. The author evidently had in mind\n* that other great report on the correlation of studies, and this paper is, in a sense,\ncomplementary to that. It is a basal discussion of the much- talked of question\nof concentration of studies from another point of view the psychological. The\npractical question is, What are congruent and what are incongruent studies ? In\nthe large view of the world, all things are congruent, for the universe is a unity.\nBut in the school curriculum there is seemingly much incongruence of activity,\nas the report defines the term.\n\nThe social order is an incongruous congruity.\n\nTo\n\nwhat extent shall the incongruity in the school studies control in the isolation of the\none from the other? This is the problem of concentration stated in different words.\nI wish that this Council would take up this basal question and discuss it in the\nlight and spirit of this admirable report.\n\nMR. F. LOUIS SOLDAN.-While the great majority of us will unhesitatingly\nassert that the explanation of the thoughts and actions of man are found on a\nspiritual, not a material, plane, the study of the physical conditions, which forms\npart of this thoughtful report, leads at every step to valuable practical conclusions.\nThe relation between emotion and energy is well stated in the paper. Fear saps\nenergy; a pleasurable feeling promotes the serious work of the schoolroom. The\nteacher who tries to look and be pleasant in her intercourse with her pupils produces an environment in which the child is at its best.\n\nJean Paul Richter utters\n\nthis thought in his beautiful saying : \"Serenity is the heaven under which childhood\nthrives.\"\n\nTo create a pleasurable feeling in teaching things naturally void of interest is\nthe art which the teacher has to learn. Herbart said: \"The greatest sin in instruction\n\nis to make it tedious.\" Illustration, attractive presentation, variety in the required\ndrill, keeping the pupil self-active, are means of producing a pleasurable feeling\nin receiving instruction, which we call interest. I am aware that this does not exhaust the definition of interest. There is another topic contained in Dr. Hinsdale's\nreport which invites discussion-the topic of continuity. The committee lays com\n32\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n498\n\n[National\n\nmendable stress on simplicity of instruction and coherence in teaching, the exclusion\nof profuse explanations that cloud the subject instead of clearing it and the persistence of teaching in the logical and grand lines of the subject in hand.\n\nThere should be greater continuity, however, in another direction also. I refer\nto the frequent changes of teachers during the school life of the child. In many\nof our large school buildings, as soon as the child has completed a certain task\nassigned to the grade-say, the arithmetical knowledge and use of the number\nseven, or pages 27 to 100 in some reader or geography-he is \"promoted\" into the\nnext room, where he has another teacher, whom he does not know and who does\nnot know him. Why not let there be a little more continuity in this matter, and\nlet the same teacher \"move up\" with the class, so that the friendly and intimate\nacquaintance may spring up which promotes education in every way ?\nMR. S. G. WILLIAMS. -Herbart, in an opinion on school classes, favors in\na modified degree the plan of letting the teacher go up in the school with his class\nduring the earlier years of instruction, passing the class finally to more special\nteachers when greater maturity is reached. This carries farther the idea just expressed by Professor Soldan.\n\nAs regards that part of the report which seemed to emphasize the use of textbooks, the speaker believed we could learn something useful from the practice of\nthe Germans, who, in all the earlier years of instruction, cause the pupil's work\nto be done with the teacher, thus teaching him how to study and to use his time\neconomically in gaining knowledge from books. Much time is wasted in mere cram\nof memory by our too prevalent practice of setting text-book lessons without such\npreparation for study. When a boy has learned how to study he no longer needs\nteachers.\nMR. JOSEPH BALDWIN.-For half a century I have studied these problems as\nbest I could. This paper awakens in me the burning desire to roll back the wheels\nof time that I might begin these studies over again. I realize that full half the\nenergies of teachers and pupils are wasted because of our failure to observe the\nlaws of mental congruity and mental effort. When we learn to lead our pupils\nto do their best when at their best, we will begin to realize the meaning of the art\nof manhood .\n\nThe astounding soul-waste in all our school work still dwarfs our\n\nrace. I am thinking of the future. The boundless possibilities of pupils will be\ndeveloped because teachers and pupils will work according to law.\nIn reply to several questions by Mr. James H. Baker and others. Mr. Hinsdale\n\nsaid that narrow training must precede broad training. \"In elementary teaching,\"\n\ncontinued Mr. Hinsdale, \"I am in favor of close limitations in the subject-matter, of\nworking on a single line of thought till that is established, and then the path should\nbe widened. I am opposed to electives in high schools if the choice of studies is left\nwholly to the pupil. The pupil needs the guidance of his parents and teachers in\ndetermining what studies he should pursue. At the University of Michigan about\none-half the studies are prescribed and one-half are elective. I rather favor the\n'group system,' and incline to think that the college elective system is 'overworked.' \"\n\nMR. BAKER.-You believe with me in liberty, but not license, in the election of\nstudies.\n\nMR. Z. RICHARDS.-The world is full of incongruities and contradictions, and\none part of our work in the schools should be to prepare the pupil to encounter\n\nthese incongruities and contradictions and overcome the obstacles which they place\ninhis path.\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\n499\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nMR. JOHN W. Соок-The striking feature of this paper to me is the fact that\nit is in line with the great economic movements of the modern world. It looks toward some relief from the dreadful waste which characterizes the work of the\n\nteacher. Let us hope that in some way it may go to the country so that teachers\neverywhere may find access to it.\n\nMR. L. H. JONES.-The paper of Dr. Hinsdale may make us feel discouraged,\nbut, at the same time, hopeful. We are in danger of overlooking the fact that\neducators are at work upon problems as difficult and as important as those of other\nlearned professions.\n\n7\n\nMR. N. C. SCHAEFFER.-There is a line of school work along which the report\nis defective, viz., examinations. These are a necessary evil. We cannot do without them. But the examiners seldom pay any attention to the principles of congruity, and mental energy, and fatigue announced in the report.\n\nSome of the prin-\n\nciples will have to be modified when applied to examinations; for instance, work\nmust be stopped often when the maximum of mental energy has been reached.\n\nPerhaps the author of the report did not intend to discuss this phase of the question. The importance of it makes me hope that his committee will do this at\n17\n\nsome future meeting .\n\nMR. HINSDALE, closing the discussion, made the following observations : Mr.\nSoldan has spoken of the mischiefs that flow from the too frequent changes of\n\nteachers in the schools. He has said that the principle of continuity applies to\nteachers as well as to subjects. What has been said is not only perfectly true\nbut it is very important. Few things in education are more absurd-if, indeed,\nanything is more absurd-than the too frequent changes of teachers. Suppose the\nchild had a new mother every six months or every three months ? What would be\nthe effect upon the child's life and character ? It may be replied that the analogy\ndoes not hold throughout, but it certainly does hold to a very considerable cxtent.\nIt is well understood that the Jesuits were the most accomplished school teachers\n\nof their time, in the days when they dominated the nascent intellect of Europe;\nand it is well known that one of the rules laid down in the Ratio Studiorum which\nwas constantly enforced, was, that, extending through a series of years, the teacher\nshould be promoted with the pupil or with the class. What is more, there can be\n\nno question that the success of the Jesuits as teachers, in considerable measure,\nwas due to this very fact. The regimen that now prevails in the large high schools\nof the country, so far as my observation extends, is to an extent vicious and mischievous. Suppose the pupil, on coming from the grammar school where he has\nhad but a single teacher, has three leading subjects, Latin, algebra, and physical\ngeography. Suppose, further, that he has some subordinate subjects in which he\nhas only an occasional exercise, as in drawing, reading, and the like. Suppose, still\nfurther, that he has a different teacher for each one of these subjects.\n\nThe result\n\nis, that no pupil in such a school has a teacher, and that no teacher in such a school\nhas a pupil; every pupil has several teachers, and every teacher has a great many\npieces of pupils. Who does not see that some of the most valuable results of sound\neducation are necessarily sacrificed by such a system ? It is my opinion that the\nemployment of special teachers is overdone in many of these schools, and that the\nresults would be far better if the pupil, on coming to the high school, could be in-\n\ntroduced to the rigor of the special-teacher system gradually. Let him, at first,\nhave\ntheWilliams\nsame teacher\nin two\nor have\nin three\nsubjectsthe\nat report\nleast, if\nMr.\nappears\nnot to\nunderstood\nonpossible.\nthe subject of textbooks. The report does not recommend a text-book grind, or any kind of a grind.\nThe committee expressly refrained from discussing that subject. It said nothing\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "500\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nabout the correlation of the teacher and the book. What it said was, that, if\ntext-books were to be used, then the criteria laid down should be followed. I may\nadd, however, that text-books are now used in the schools as a source of instruction, and that, to a great extent, they will continue to be so used.\nMr. Richards has told us that the world is full of incongruities and contradictions, and that one part of a school education should consist in getting the pupil\n\nready to encounter these incongruities and contradictions. Both of these statements are certainly true, but we must remember that everything should be done in\nits time.\n\nBroad teaching in the beginning will defeat broad teaching in the end.\n\nDue limitation of matter is a necessary condition precedent to successful instruction. To give every one his portion of meat in due season, is a scriptural expression.\n\nMr. Richards is a religious man, and in training his children no doubt took\n\npains to establish them in religious faith and piety. I cannot suppose, that, at\nfirst, he stated to his children some religious ideas, and then immediately added\nthat many people do not accept these ideas; that there is such a thing as infidelity\nin the world, and that, after all, it is a very serious question, in the estimation of\nsome people, whether there is any truth or value in the essential Christian doctrines.\nHe no doubt grounded his children in the faith, and introduced them to incongruities and contradictions later, as they were able to bear them.\nMr. Schaeffer has called our attention, and very properly, to the important\nsubject of examinations. The committee was not unaware of the fact that that\n\nsubject is embraced within the field of the laws of mental congruity and energy .\nIt was, however, impossible to introduce the subject into the report. I may dismiss it with the remark that the subject of examinations needs to be thoroughly\ninvestigated in the light of the fundamental psychic laws that were laid down in\nthe report. Examinations are an essential teaching process. We are not going to\ndispense with them. We are going, I hope, to relieve them of some of their abuses ;\nand this we can do only as we consider the subject in the light of fundamental\nprinciples.\n\nMr. Brown has told us, and very truly, that the great question-the really practical question is, what school subjects are congruous, what incongruous. No more\nimportant statement has been made in the course of the discussion than this.\n\nThe\n\nobject of the report was to state fundamental principles, and to refer to studies and\nthe elements of studies only in so far as was necessary to illustrate clearly the\npropositions laid down. There has never been in this country, so far as I am\naware, any thorough investigation of the question that Mr. Brown has stated;\n\nnor am I aware that such an investigation has been made abroad. It is a very\nimportant matter, and I shall close my remarks with recommending it to the further consideration of the Council .\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council. ]\n\nNORMAL EDUCATION.\n\n501\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NORMAL EDUCATION- THE\n\nKIND AND AMOUNT OF PRACTICE- WORK, AND ITS\nPLACE IN THE NORMAL SCHOOL COURSE.\n\nBY JOHN W. COOK, NORMAL, ILL.\n\nIn order that information might be obtained respecting the practice of state normal schools in this country, a circular was prepared, asking for quite detailed statements as to the courses of study\n\noffered, and especially as to the organization of practice-schools,\nthe amount of preparatory theoretical discipline given before entering upon practice-work, the size of classes in practice-schools, whether normal pupils teach these classes for a part of each day or take\n\nentire charge of a room for a number of weeks, methods of criticising\nthe work of the pupil-teacher, and the whole amount of time spent\nby them in the actual work of instructing children.\nReports were received from fifty-seven state normal schools, one\n\ncounty normal school, and five city normal schools. Twenty-nine\nstates are represented in these returns ; hence, your committee concludes that it has obtained sufficient information to enable it to de-\n\ntermine, with a fair degree of accuracy, the methods generally employed in these institutions. With four exceptions, these schools\nare provided with model or practice-schools. The number of grades\nrepresented varies from three to twelve. Eight appears to be the preferred number. Where there are but three grades but little practicework is done, the children constituting a model school or school of\nobservation rather than a practice-school.\nForty per cent of the practice-schools are public schools. In a\nfew instances they are the only public schools in their locality.\nThe instruction given by the normal pupils in these schools varies\nfrom seventeen to one hundred per cent of all of it. Since the average is about seventy-seven per cent, it appears that the children receive little instruction from any other source.\n\nThree plans are followed in the practice-work.\n\nThe first plan\n\noccupies the pupil-teacher for one, two, and sometimes three periods\neach day with the care of a class of from five to fifteen children. He\n\nis expected to carry on a portion of his regular work in the normal\ndepartment at the same time. A second plan discontinues the nor-\n\nmal pupil's recitations, and puts him in charge of a room containing\nfrom fifteen to thirty children, of whom he is to take entire charge.\nA third plan combines the first and second, requiring a preparatory\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "502\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\ndiscipline of several weeks in instructing a single class for one or two\nrecitation periods daily before taking charge of a room.\nThe large majority of normal schools use the first plan. The\nsecond has a few followers, and among them are some of the most\nreputable of our teachers' training schools. The third is followed\nin a small number of schools ; yet is more popular than the second.\nThe time in the course at which the practice-work begins is by\nno means uniform, yet there is a strikingly preponderating preference for the senior year, where the course is three or more years.\nThe number of schools in which this work begins earlier is scarcely\na third of all the schools reporting.\n\nThe time spent in practice-work varies from twelve weeks of one\nrecitation a day to the entire charge of a room for twenty weeks.\nThe average of the schools using the first plan is not far from thirty\nweeks, which would seem to be about the quantitative equivalent of\nsix weeks of regular school work, although there are considerations\nwhich render such comparisons difficult.\n\nEqual diversity is found in the organization of the critic force.\nThree quite distinct plans appear. In some cases the work is all done\nby the instructors of the normal department. The teacher of arithmetic not only instructs the normal pupils in their study of the\nsubject, but he also supervises the practice-work in the same subject.\nA second plan puts a principal over each grade, and assigns the\nsupervision of the pupil-teachers as an additional duty. A third plan\nprovides critic-teachers, whose entire time is devoted to the work\nof supervision, principals being supplied for each of the rooms, whose\nduties include the care of the children and a considerable part of\n\ntheir instruction, in order that they may be protected, at least in\npart, from the inexperience of the normal pupils. These critic-teachers take entire charge of several grades, or of specific subjects in all\nof the grades.\n\nThe methods of making the criticisms are quite uniform.\n\nThey\n\nare given in the form of general corrections in teachers' meetings,\nand in private conversations with individual teachers.\nThe reports of the various schools have proved to be very inter-\n\nesting to the members of the committee, and this opportunity is taken\nto express their appreciation of the kindness manifested by the\nseveral principals in placing the material at their disposal .\nThe committee ventures to offer a few suggestions upon some of\nthe topics presented.\nFor convenience of discussion the order of the general theme\nis inverted, and the last question receives consideration first.\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nPRACTICE- WORK IN NORMAL EDUCATION.\n\n503\n\nI.-WHERE IN THE COURSE SHALL THE PRACTICE-WORK BEGIN ?\n\nIt appears to the committee to be quite impossible to answer\nthis question with any great degree of definiteness for a large number of schools. So many varying conditions appear that each school\nmust determine it in large part for itself. The facts which will have\ngreatest weight in this determination will be the age and general\n\nscholarship of the applicants for admission, and the amount of theoretical pedagogical work possible for the early part of the normal\ncourse.\n\nA fair percentage of normal schools admits candidates who have\ncompleted the work of the eight grades below the high school. Others\n\nrequire an academic preparation substantially equivalent to that demanded by a certificate of the second grade. A small number of\nschools admit only high school graduates, or others having an equivalent preparation.\n\nYour committee is of the opinion that the qualifications first mentioned are too low. Not only is the academic preparation insufficient,\nbut such candidates are too young to undertake the serious work of\na professional school. Young people who have just emerged from the\ngrades cannot be expected to appreciate the gravity of the teacher's\ntask. If conditions are such as to render it expedient to admit candidates of so low a grade of scholarship and of such general immaturity it is evident that practice-work must begin late in the course.\nA rigorous academic training becomes the first necessity.\n\nThe-\n\noretical pedagogical work of the most elementary character is impossible with children, and to permit them to assume the role of teacher\nwould mean a revival of the long obsolete monitorial system, in\nwhich the blind led the blind, and with the usual result.\nCandidates who have received a teacher's certificate ought to be\nable to find a place in the normal school. It is certainly far better that\nthey should be there than in charge of schools, unless they have fitted\nthemselves for their work in some fairly adequate way. Such candi-\n\ndates should be able to enter upon the preparatory pedagogical discipline quite early in the course ; hence, practice-teaching will become\npossible and proper correspondingly sooner. They may be assumed\nto be fairly mature, and having secured the requisite authority for\nteaching, their stay in the school is likely to be briefer. They should\nhave an opportunity to engage in the actual work of instruction, un.\nder superior supervision, before attempting the unaided management\nof a school, if it can be done without sacrificing the theoretical work\nwhich is assumed to be indispensable.\nGraduates of good high schools are generally equipped with a degree of culture and maturity which permits them to enter at once\nupon the study of teaching as a science. A year of professional dis\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "504\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\ncipline would seem to entitle them to a place in the practice-school.\nIndeed, in many cases they may properly find themselves there after\na much shorter probationary period. Schools in which the course is\nbut one year, and \"purely professional,\" as they are termed, as in the\ncase of most of the city normal schools, begin the practice-work immediately, or after a few weeks. This seems to the committee to be\n\na dangerous custom to make universal; yet, with many pupils, it is\nprobably safe.\nA fourth class should not be overlooked. In every state normal\nschool a considerable number of persons will be found who have al-\n\nready taught for several terms. They are usually the consolation of\nthe supervisors of practice, as they are able to mitigate the evils incident to a practice-school. It is often possible to permit such persons to carry theoretical and practice-work side by side, and at the\nbeginning of their course.\nAlthough not strictly germane to the subject, your committee desires to offer a few further suggestions respecting the qualifications\nfor admission to normal schools.\n\nIn some of the states, more particularly those in which there are\nseveral training schools for teachers, a high school diploma, or an\nequivalent certificate of scholarship, is insisted upon. In some of the\n\nstates such requirements appear unwise. In the first place, the very\nlarge majority of high school graduates are girls. If all who are\ndisposed to become teachers should enter the normal schools, they\nwould not fill those schools to anything like their capacity. Moreover, statistics clearly prove, that, where such requirements are demanded, the enrollment is almost exclusively made up of girls. It is\nthe opinion of the committee that the great preponderance of women\nin the teaching force is already a grave misfortune. Such a policy\ntends to increase the evil rather than to remedy it, since the boys\n\nwho graduate from the high schools, with occasional exceptions, find\nmore remunerative, and consequently more attractive, fields elsewhere. Moreover, the country school problem should not be ignored\nin the interests of the town. Experience shows that young men and\nyoung women who have received only the instruction of district\nschools, but who have attained a good degree of maturity, quite frequently surpass the high school graduates in those qualities which\nthe normal schools especially covet. Many of them have already\nserved a considerable apprenticeship as teachers, and have thus acquired that maturity of view and that practical sagacity without\nwhich persons are teachers only in name. It is idle to expect that\ncountry schools are to be supplied with a high class of carefully pre-\n\npared teachers in the near, or comparatively near, future. There will\nbe an occasional district so favorably conditioned as to maintain a\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nPRACTICE- WORK IN NORMAL EDUCATION.\n\n505\n\nschool for eight months and to be able to pay a fair salary to its\nteacher, but the urbanizing of our population is going on at such a\nrapid rate that the size of the country school is constantly diminish-\n\ning. These schools must be supplied, in the main, by persons who are\nwilling to work for small pay. The normal school should offer educational inducements to the strongest and best-prepared students in\nthese country districts on condition that they shall return to their\nhomes and engage in teaching for a period of not less than the time\nof their attendance at the normal school.\n\nIt is a common remark of\n\nnormal principals that much of their best material comes from these\nrural schools, and that these young people have acquired such habits\nof industry and take such an intensely practical view of life, that, at\n\nthe end of a single year in the normal school, they are able to hold\ntheir own with the high school graduates. Moreover, the recognition of this class of applicants brings into the normal schools a body\nof sturdy young men, many of whom remain in the teachers' ranks\npermanently, and subsequently become principals and superintendents.\n\nThe earnestness which is so striking a characteristic of the nor-\n\nmal student, and which is so often lacking in the high school and\nthe college, finds its explanation in part in the presence of these\nyoung men and young women from the country. Their lack of education and limited acquaintance with many of the conventionalities\nof social life should not necessarily shut them out of the normal\nschool. Although the range of studies which have occupied their attention is often narrow, so much time has been spent upon the elementary studies as to give a degree of power unknown to the pupils\nof the graded schools who have traversed the same ground in a limited time.\n\nSuch young people are able to enter upon professional work profitably quite as early as many of the high school graduates, and\n\nobservation of quite large numbers of such pupils seems to demonstrate their ability to hold their own with them after a single year in\nthe normal school.\n\nMuch as normal schools need higher scholarship as a prerequisite\n\nfor admission, it is hoped that the managers of such institutions in\nthe Mississippi Valley, and perhaps in the farther West, will not be\nso captivated with the customs that may well obtain in New England\nor New York, with their numerous schools, as to shut their doors\nagainst the country youth or to defer their practice-work for such\ncandidates to the third or fourth year.\nIt is doubtless easy for a state that has a dozen state schools for\nteachers and a hundred and fifty academies or high schools receiving\nstate aid for elementary professional training to require a high\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": "506\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nstandard for admission, and then postpone its practice-work to a late\nperiod in the course, confident that most of the pupils will complete\nthe course. In states, however, where even poorly prepared normal\nstudents are in great demand, such a course seems by no means the\nwisest.\n\nYour committee is further of the opinion that the practice-work\nshould be preceded by a somewhat careful theoretical preparation,\nand that this feature of the curriculum should begin with the stu-\n\ndent's admission to the school, or very shortly thereafter.\nTo prescribe just what this work should be would transcend the\nlimits set to this report, as it would attempt to formulate the pedagogical course of the normal school. However, it should be of such\na character as to give some adequate idea of the gravity of the problem of education, and of the view which modern peoples, at least,\nhave taken of it. Some of the general facts of the nature of mind,\nthe relation of the conventional knowledges to modern life, and the\nspecial methods of instruction suitable for elementary schools should\nreceive at least some degree of attention before a pupil should be\nintrusted with the care of a class. It is of the greatest importance\nthat the normal student should be awakened to something like\n\na fair apprehension of the difficulty of his task, of the breadth of the\nfield which is open to exploration by the student of pedagogy, and of\nthe immense significance of the teacher, and this apprehension should\ncome as early in the course as possible.\nAs to the character of the practice-work, there is a wide diversity\nof opinion, as has already been stated. Shall it consist alone of the\ndaily single or double recitation ? Shall it be made to imitate as\nclosely as possible the work which the pupil is to perform when he\nshall enter upon the independent life of the teacher, or shall these\nmethods be so combined as to make the former preparatory to the\nlatter ?\n\nAs has been stated, the first method is the one employed in the\nlarge majority of normal schools. While your committee is of the\nopinion that the third method is best adapted to the securing of the\nmost admirable results, the practical difficulties in the way of its\ngeneral adoption are recognized as quite insurmountable. The interests of the children are sacred, and should be surrounded by every\npossible safeguard. It is not forgotten, however, that the average\nteacher in the public schools has not yet attained ideal perfection, and\nit has been demonstrated in many cases that practice-schools are far\nbetter that the local public schools. Indeed, it may be said in entire\nseriousness, that much of the sympathy expended upon the children of\nthe practice-schools is worse than wasted.\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nPRACTICE- WORK IN NORMAL EDUCATION.\n\n507\n\nIn defense of the first method, it may be urged that it is in accord\nwith the general principle that relative simplicity should have much\nto do in determining the sequence of steps in the acquisition of an\nart. It is far easier to instruct a single class for one or two periods\nthan to take entire charge of a room. In consequence, the practicework may begin at an earlier period than would otherwise be possible, a consideration worthy of no little respect when it is remembered, that, in a majority of normal schools, the average student attends for only a little more than one-third of the course.\nA second defense may be found in the fact that practice-schools\nof great size would be needed for the accommodation of most normal\n\nschools. Those institutions which employ the second plan defer the\npractice-work to the end of the course, and thus avoid the difficulty\nby waiting until four-fifths of their pupils have left them. If the reports are understood, there are schools of the highest repute which\nhave won their leadership by what they do for an eighth or a tenth\nof their membership, the rest having disappeared before reaching the\n\npractice-school, or even the technical pedagogical work. Since the\nmissing majority presumably become teachers, it is an interesting\nquestion whether such an adjustment is wisest. It should be remembered that the children of the schools in which this escaped contingent appears merit some consideration.\nThe novice who has spent a year or year and a half in the normal\n\nschool, and has had the pedagogical preparation possible, may safely\nbegin his practice-work with a daily recitation or two, under the\nguidance of competent critic-teachers, and may even do admirable\nwork, when it would be quite impossible to manage a room and take\ncharge of all its instruction.\n\nIf he should withdraw before the be-\n\nginning of the third year, as the majority do in most normal schools,\nhe will have had an experience that will be quite invaluable to him\nin his subsequent work. If he shall remain, the same thing may be\nsaid.\n\nThe third defense of this system appears in the fact that it permits the normal student to continue his theoretical work along with\n\nhis practice-work. The principle of apperception is involved to no\ninconsiderable degree in such an arrangement. Any plan which postpones the practice-work to the completion of the theoretical work\ndoes so at the expense of a proper appreciation of the latter. It is\noften remarked by normal students that their subsequent instruction\n\ngains immensely in significance after dropping out for a year of\nteaching. This fact compensates somewhat for the experiences which\n\nchildren have been undergoing somewhere away from the normal\ncritic or the county supervisors, but it adds point to the argument at\nleast. It is quite doubtful whether one really values pedagogical in-\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "508\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[National\n\nstruction by a proper standard until he has been obliged to officiate\nat that most interesting and quite remarkable performance which is\nexpected to eventuate in the ability to recognize a word or make a\ncomputation.\n\nIt is granted that this method of preparing teachers for the charge\nof a school is defective. In the first place, the classes are usually\nquite small, many of the reports indicating from \"five to ten\" as the\nordinary number. Such classes give small opportunity for acquiring\nskill in discipline and general management. That is a result which\ncomes ordinarily with experience. A day in charge of a school may\npresent more problems than a month with a small class. Moreover,\n\nthe single recitation plan leaves each teacher quite in the dark as to\nthe child's occupation in other subjects ; hence, the importance of\nregular teachers for a portion of the day. Doubtless the frequent\nchange in instructors has its evil effects upon the children, who need\nto have, so far as possible, a steady and persistent system of influences at work upon them, to the end that genuine stability and firmness of character may result.\n\nMany of these evil tendencies may be counteracted by judicious\nsupervision, but enough of them will remain to prevent the practiceschool from becoming ideal.\n\nIt is the opinion of your committee that each person should have\nan opportunity before graduation to take charge of a room until he\nshall have demonstrated his ability to manage it successfully alone,\nor shall have shown that he has made a serious mistake in selecting\nteaching for his vocation.\n\nAt this suggestion difficulties present themselves in great numbers. With schools of any considerable size a system including several hundred children and a large number of rooms becomes necessary. A combination of the first and second plan is possible only under such favorable conditions. A practice-school of good size, supplemented by the schools of a town or part of a city, would seem to be\nquite essential to such an arrangement of the practice-work. A modification of this plan, by which two are assigned to each school, one\nserving alone for two and a half hours, the two working together for\nan hour, and the second finishing the day, will realize good results ,\nand permit the theoretical work to run parallel with the practice.\nAs to the third point under discussion, the amount of practicework, your committee would recommend that there shall be at least\nenough to reveal the significance of the educational theories taught,\nto show their entire practicability, and also to give the pupil-teacher\na clear sense of freedom in dealing with children.\n\nSuperior skill cannot be expected, since that is the result of longcontinued practice ; but that course must be considered seriously de\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council.]\n\nPRACTICE- WORK IN NORMAL EDUCATION.\n\n509\n\nfective which does not leave the pupil-teacher well stocked with ideas\nin which he thoroughly believes, an awakened sense of power, faith in\nhis ability to put his ideas into practice, an ardent love for the schoolroom and for childhood, and an earnest desire to find a place in the\nnoblest guild of teachers.\n\nRealizing the imperfections of the normal school, and the difficulties attending the organization and administration of this indispensa-\n\nble department of its work, your committee submits this report, with\nthe hope that it may be supplemented by the more valuable experience of the Council.\n\nJOHN W. COOK, Chairman.\nR. G. BOONE,\nW. R. GARRETT,\nIRWIN SHEPARD,\n\nJAMES M. GREEN,\nCommittee on Normal Education .\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "KINDERGARTEN DEPARTMENT.\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES.\n\nFIRST SESSION.\n\nDENVER, COLO. , WEDNESDAY, July 10, 1895.\nThe department met in the auditorium of Trinity church, a large audience being\npresent. The platform was adorned with flowers and palms, placed there by the\nlocal reception committee.\n\nMrs. Hill opened the meeting with a few words of welcome. She presented to\nMiss Wheelock, as President, a gavel made of wild cherry cut at Mount Vernon,\nWashington's home, and tipped with Colorado silver.\nMiss Wheelock accepted the gavel, saying she appreciated the honor which was\nhers in wielding a gavel made of materials which were the product of two such\nfar separated states as Virginia and Colorado. She thought it typified the widespread influence of kindergarten schools and the national character of the movement.\n\nMrs. Ione T. Hanna was then introduced. She welcomed the audience on behalf\nof the Kindergarten Association of Denver and of the East Denver School Board .\n\nwhich had taken an early interest in kindergarten work, having already established\nten kindergartens and being about to open ten more in the fall.\nThe kindergarten hymn, \"Now Before We Work To-day,\" was then sung, the\naudience being led by Prof. W. J. Whiteman, Musical Instructor in the West Denver Schools.\n\nMiss Wheelock, the President of the department, in turn thanked the people of\nDenver for their cordial welcome and numerous courtesies, and then delivered a\nbrief opening address.\nHenry W. Blake of Massachusetts was chosen to act as Secretary, in the absence of Miss Agnes Mackenzie, who was unable to be present.\nMiss Amalie Hofer of Chicago, editor of the \"Kindergarten Magazine,\" read\na paper on \" The Social Settlement and the Kindergarten.\"\nMrs. S. W. Harriman of Providence, R. I. , read a paper on the \"Pestalozzi\nFroebel Haus .\"\n\n\"The Kindergarten and the Home,\" was the subject of the paper read by Mrs.\nJames L. Hughes of Toronto .\nDiscussed by Henry W. Blake of Springfield, Mass., editor of the \"Kinder-\n\ngarten News.\"\nMr. Whiteman than sang \"Little Boy Blue,\" and \" 'Tis But a Dream\" as an\nencore.\n\nShort papers on \" Mothers' Meetings\" were then read by Miss Mary C. McCulloch of St. Louis and Miss Wilhelmina T. Caldwell of Denver.\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "511\n\nKINDERGARTEN.\n\nMiss Laura E. Tefft of Greeley, Colo., also spoke on \"Mothers' Meetings\" as\nthey are conducted in Germany.\nThe following committees were appointed:\nOn Nominations.- Miss Mary B. Page of Chicago, Miss Hattie Twitchell of Milwaukee,\nand Miss Ada E.\n\nCole of Denver.\n\nOn Resolutions.-Miss Sara A. Stewart of Philadelphia and Mrs. Hughes of Toronto.\n\nThe department adjourned until Thursday, July 11th, at 3 o'clock p. m.\n1\n\nSECOND SESSION.\n\nTHURSDAY, JULY 11, 1895.\n\nThe session opened at Trinity church at 3 p. m., with a large audience.\nThe first exercise was the singing of the kindergartner's hymn, led by Mr.\nWhiteman.\n\nIn the absence of James L. Hughes of Toronto, who was not able to be present\nto read his paper on \" Comparison of the Educational Theories of Froebel and\nHerbart,\" Miss Wheelock called Dr. Z. X. Snyder, President of the State Normal\nSchool of Colorado, to the platform.\nPresident Snyder briefly addressed the department.\nMiss Sarah Arnold, Supervisor of Schools, Boston, Mass., was introduced, and\naddressed the department on \"A Knowledge of the Kindergarten Indispensable to\nPrimary Instruction.\"\n\nMrs. Eudora L. Hailman of Washington, D. C., opened the discussion of the\nsubject \"Comparison of the Educational Theories of Froebel and Herbart.\"\nDr. W. N. Hailman, Superintendent of Indian Schools, Washington, D. С.;\nCol. Francis Parker of Chicago, and Dr. Frank M. McMurry of Buffalo, N. Y. ,\ncontinued the discussion.\n\nMr. W. J. Whiteman of Denver introduced a chorus of forty children, who\nsang two beautiful songs.\n\nProf. W. L. Tomlins addressed the department on the \"Faculty and Ministry\nof Song.\"\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows:\nFor President-Miss Amalie Hofer, Chicago, I11 .\nFor Vice President-Mrs. Susan H. Harriman, Providence, R. I.\nFor Secretary-Miss Wilhelmina T. Caldwell, Denver, Colo .\n\nThe report was unanimously adopted and the nominees declared elected as officers for the ensuing year.\n\nMiss Wheelock presented the gavel to Miss Hofer with a few appropriate\nwords. Miss Hofer accepted it with graceful acknowledgments of the honorable\nservice to which she had been called.\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented the following report :\nResolved, That the Kindergarten Department of the National Educational Association\nexpress their acknowledgment and appreciation of the cordial hospitality extended by\nthe local Reception Committee, and for the welcome accorded by the Chairman of the\nReception Committee, Mrs. Hanna of the Denver School Board, and Mrs. N. P. Hill ;\nto Miss W. T. Caldwell and the Denver kindergartners, for the preliminary arrangements\nthat have contributed so largely to the pleasure of our meetings; to Mr. and Mrs. Whiteman and the children, for assistance in our music; to the press, for generous reports;\nto the trustees for the use of Trinity church; also, to Mr. Henry W. Blake for his\nhearty and efficient service in supplying the place of the absent Secretary of the department.\n\nResolved That this department recognize the importance of the co-operation of\nmothers, the influences of the home, and the social spirit and fellowship as indispensable\nfactors in education.\n\nThe department then finally adjourned.\n\nHENRY W. BLAKE,\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "512\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\n\nOPENING ADDRESS.\n\nBY MISS LUCY WHEELOCK, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nI simply wish to refer to some phases of kindergarten work which\nseem to have special prominence, and which most occupy the thought\nof all kindergartners and all interested in the progress of the kindergarten movement.\nWe are to consider the details and methods of our work with\n\nreference to the needs of the great educational field. I have a very\nstrong conviction that the kindergarten movement is only part of\nthe great educational movement, and we must get into harmony\nwith all other departments of education in order to accomplish best\nour own particular line of work.\nThere is no educational thought at present which is not important\nfor the kindergartner to consider.\nAs I look over the educational world to-day it seems to me there\nare two or three educational movements of special interest to kindergartners.\n\nFirst, child study. I have a strong feeling that kindergartners\nshould be first and foremost in the support of the child study movement. We studied our material a great deal at our previous meetings ; we talked more or less about the gifts and occupations, but I\nbelieve we are coming to see that the chief and foremost work of the\n\nkindergartner must be the study of the children themselves. So in\nall work being done by those who are forwarding the work in child\nstudy, I think we see the work which is most helpful to our particular\nfield of work.\n\nAt first, in Boston, the kindergartners were afraid that some one\nwas going to find out that possibly we had been doing too fine weaving, or that the length of our lines was not right, or that we had been\ngiving work that was not best for the development of the child; but\nI know I can speak for all those who are interested that we have\n\ntheir close sympathy in the study of the child. I believe we can\nsafely say the kindergarten does not depend upon any line or particular length of line.\n\nIf we find it is better for the child to omit some\n\nof the work, which perhaps causes nervous pressure, we feel there is\nno principle violated thereby.\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nOPENING ADDRESS.\n\n513\n\nOne other thing is the use of gifts as our attention has been called\n\nto it. I believe if we go back to Fræbel's thought in the study of the\nchild we shall discover whether we have been using the gifts in just\nthe right way.\n\nWehave heard about the symbolism of the gifts and the exaggerated use of them. No kindergartner would claim that a child may\nbe brought from a state of fretfulness into harmony and peace from\nthe fact that the sphere is a symbol of unity. But I believe, that, just\nas we hold the Book of Revelations may fill us with lofty thoughts\nwhen we read of the great white throne, and we do not mind that\nsome have perverted the symbolism, so when we come to know Frebel perfectly, if we have studied his own use of the symbolism, we\nneed not fear that we shall not make the right use of the gifts. And\nwhat I wish to claim and insist upon here is, that, as kindergartners,\nwe shall study Fræbel himself more, and his letters, and his \"Mother\nPlays,\" and his \"Education of Man,\" to discover the educational principles that are involved.\n\nAnother subject which interests us all as kindergartners is the\nmaking of programs. If we refer our thoughts back to the child\nagain, we shall see the child is to be the center of the program; that\nthe material, etc., are used only with reference to the children with\nwhom we are dealing. No ready-made program is of any use at all.\nThe interests of the children with whom we are dealing is the only\nthing to consider.\n\nThedisciples of Fræbel are the first to maintain the idea of unity\nin the work. But the kindergarten movement means more than the\nwork that we do in the two or three hours with the children. If the\n\nkindergarten movement maintains its full significance it must come\ninto touch with the life of the people, the life of the fathers and\nmothers and children in other homes.\n\nThe kindergarten means the\n\neducation of the people. The people are to be educated through the\nchildren, and one of the interesting phases of the work at present is\nthe recognition of the fact, that we come in touch with the people\nthrough the children-closely in touch with all social work. Especially is this true in the social settlement work.\n33\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "514\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nTHE SOCIAL SETTLEMENT AND THE KINDERGARTEN.\n\nBY MISS AMALIE\n\nHOFER,\n\nEDITOR OF THE \" KINDERGARTEN MAGAZINE,\"\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nThere is no more fitting subject with which to open our kindergarten section of the National Education Association, than the consideration of these two sister movements, the social settlement and\nthe kindergarten. To the latter has long been claimed the place of a\nmediator between the home and the school, a link between the family\nand the institutional life.\n\nIt is now seen to be reaching in another\n\ndirection in its work of bringing together human interests, and is\n\nrapidly becoming the tie which binds each philanthropic cause to the\nmore conventional institutions.\n\nThe consideration of the subject before us plainly indicates that\n\nthe kindergarten movement is strongly and closely allied to that\nphase of social and democratic evolution known as the social or college settlement. In recognizing the validity of social instincts, social\n\ninterests, social opportunities in every human life, the kindergarten\nhas taken the first steps toward socializing education, and of proving\n\nthat the school, as the church, is not the preparation for a future life\nbut is the actual process of living.\nAs the ancient astrologer studied the movement of the planets in\n\ntheir relationships in order that he might deduce the principle by\nwhich a solar system is governed, so the sociologist is to-day studying\nthe movements of daily life about him in order to prove the laws\nwhich control human progress. The kindergarten work is one of\nthese movements, and can only be justly weighed when considered\nparallel to the many other social and altruistic movements in simultaneous operation. Among these latter, well known to every observer,\nis that more recent endeavor on the part of humanity to make its\nwhole self righteous, known as the social or university settlement.\nThis special movement started as early as 1867, when it became the\ncustom of a few undergraduates of Oxford, England, to spend a part\nof their vacation-time in the neighborhood of St. Jude's Church, in\nthat part of the world known as the Whitechapel district of London. Their incentive to so doing was the same as that which inspires\nevery generation of young people to dedicate their entire beings to\nthe making right of some colossal wrong to the making pure and\nclean of some Whitechapel. Among the students was one Arnold\nToynbee, a young man of such sincere convictions that he called forth\nat the same time the ridicule and admiration of his fellow-students.\n\nThe former was entirely outweighed by the latter when he left college\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nSOCIAL SETTLEMENT AND KINDERGARTEN.\n\n515\n\nin 1875 and took up his lodgings-made his home-in Whitechapel.\nAt this time he wrote back to his friends, pursuing their college careers, as follows : \"Our delicate, impalpable sorrows, our keen, aching,\n\ndarling emotions ! how strange, almost unreal, they seem by the side\nof the great mass of filthy misery that clogs the life of great cities !\"\n\nHe continued his residence for eight years, living together with his\nless fortunate neighbors, at the same time calling forth the noblest\nsympathy from the Oxford fellows, who, like many of us, were indifferent only because ignorant of the actual necessities of their fellowmen. This manner of life led by Arnold Toynbee has since come to\nbe recognized under the name of the college or university settlement.\nIn memory of his impressive example and as a direct result of his influence, Toynbee Hall was opened in 1885, and has now been in operation for ten years as a culture center and democratic meeting-place\n\nfor all classes and kinds, mixing the lowliest, most ignorant, and impoverished together with the university and professional men who\nfollowed in Toynbee's footsteps.\nIt is interesting to know that John Ruskin was one of the originators in this movement of the Oxford students. The story is told, how,\non a certain visit to one of the colleges, he induced a company of undergraduates to go out and work stone on the roadway, in order that\nthey might realize as a fact and more truly estimate the conditions\nof labor. Among this company was Arnold Toynbee, who was always\ndescribed as the one man who never failed to spiritualize his daily\nlife.\n\nAmong other students who were influenced strongly at this time\nwas Mr. Percy Alden, who is well known to-day on both continents\nas one of the ablest factors in social reconstruction. Dr. Barnett,\nwho is at present in charge of the work at Toynbee Hall, has devised\na full and practicable plan for social settlement work, a plan by\nwhich the university student with his many privileges may legitimately approach those of lesser opportunities, and, through personal\ncontact, share his benefits .\n\nThe first settlement to be opened in our country, two years after\nToynbee Hall, by Dr. Stanton Coit, is known as Delancey Street University Settlement of New York City. Dr. Coit has since been called\n\nto London, where he has opened similar work in the neighborhood\nguild at Leighton Crescent.\n\nThe distinctive characteristic of the\n\nwork at Delancey Street, which may be visited by anyone going to the\ncity, is that of the self-government of the neighborhood people\nthrough well-organized clubs, and the generation of local patriotism,\nwhich is making itself felt in everything which touches the interests\nof the neighborhood. The import of such social organization among\nindividuals, too ignorant to know their own rights, cannot be under\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "516\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nestimated by the most casual observer. The president of Columbia\nCollege, Seth Lowe, is also president of the university settlement,\nwhich fact in itself is one of great significance.\n\nThere are now seven\n\nwell-organized social settlements in the city of New York, and while\nwecannot discuss as we would like the detailed work of each of these,\nthe fact itself is well-worth registering, for it means that there are\nseven social centers in our great seaport city where men and women\nof all classes and kinds may come together on the simple Christian\nplatform of being neighbors and friends, with a common opportunity\nto serve each other and be served in turn, and with no other motive\n\nthan that of democratic fellowship. Each of these settlements has, in\naddition to its many clubs for educational, municipal, and culture\npurposes, a thrifty kindergarten, which in each case is recognized as\none of the most far-reaching influences of the settlement.\n\nOne who\n\nhas given himself to make further practical this reconstructive work,\nhas made the following statement : \" The true attitude of every social\nworker is that of a member of a noble family, in which there is the\nwidest inequality, but in which equality and inequality are never\nthought of, and to whom the possession of greater knowledge and\ngreater strength means only a greater capacity to love and be of\nservice to his fellow-men.\"\n\n*The second social settlement in America was established in Chicago, and is perhaps more widely known than any other in our country. When asked, \"How did Hull House begin?\" the resident in\ncharge, Miss Jane Addams, makes the simple reply: \"Two young\nwomen were interested in this work through a knowledge of Toynbee Hall, and opened a home in the belief that the mere foothold of\na house, easily accessible, ample in space, hospitable and tolerant\nin spirit, situated in the midst of the large foreign colonies which\nso easily isolate themselves in American cities, would in itself be a\nserviceable thing for a community. And because people are hungry to be befriended, we soon had a large circle of acquaintances\nand co-workers. Hull House was opened on the theory that the dependence of classes on each other is reciprocal, and it is a positive\neffort to add the social function to democracy.\" Hull House has\nto-day extensive buildings and a most extensive influence in the daily\n\nhistory of the life of the district in which it is located a district\nwith the most variegated national and political conditions. For the\ndetailed work of this consciously organized social center, I would\nrefer you to the printed history of the work, known as \"Hull House\nMaps,\" and to the other book, \"Philanthropy and Social Progress,\"\nthe reading of either of which you will find more thrilling and interesting than that of the most acceptable historical novel.\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nSOCIAL SETTLEMENT AND KINDERGARTEN.\n\n517\n\nFrom the first month of its existence, Hull House has been a\n\nfree kindergarten, and according to the general settlement rule, that\nonly the highest and best shall be provided in every department,\nthis kindergarten has been at varying times in the hands of the most\ntalented and choice kindergartners of our city. Through the broad\nfriendship of one of these kindergartners, who is well known to many\nof you here, the Hull House Woman's Club was organized some\nthree years ago, which to-day has a membership of 200 earnest workers, who are as proud to wear the blue federation pin as the ablest\nliterary woman or public worker.\n\nThis woman's club was a direct\n\noutgrowth of the kindergarten ; or, we might better say, the influence of the kindergartner. The president frankly says : \"This club\ninterest was confined at first to the subject of children. It soon\nwidened into an interest in our mutual homes, and this brought us to\n\nfeel a responsibility for our neighborhood, and our duty to the community, until now the club has become one of the strongest and most\npowerful organizations of the settlement, taking a substantial part\nin all educational, municipal, and philanthropic movements in the\ncity. While it still continues its first interest in the children, and\nstill rallies about the kindergarten as its center post, it does not hesi-\n\ntate to discuss all matters pertaining to family life, whether that of\nan individual family or that of the greater family which constitutes a\ncity.\" The day nursery of Hull House is in charge of an experienced\nkindergartner, who also superintends the games and plays, the playground, the children's clubs, and all matters pertaining to child-life\nin the neighborhood. No city government would scarcely expect\nits police force to operate without a superintendent. Every machine\nshop has long since had its special supervisor and every steamship\nits captain. Child-life of any given district is as much more successfully operated under the charge of a scientific authority as any of\nthese other important departments, and so the social settlement does\nnot hesitate to provide for the children, as it does for the adults, the\nbest guide and the best standard that can be secured.\nSince Hull House was established there have been six more set-\n\ntlements opened in the city of Chicago.\nParallel with the opening of Hull House came an innovation which\nis worthy of recording, viz., that of establishing the first sociological\ndepartment in a theological seminary, with a special professor in\ncharge. In making a plea for greater knowledge of social conditions\nand the humanities which lend themselves to these conditions, Ed-\n\nward Everett Hale has said: \"For working purposes the theological\nstudent can spare several things from his course better than his sociology, for this is the 'Kingdom of Heaven' part of his training.\"\nThrough the efforts of Prof. Graham Taylor, who is in charge of this\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "518\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ndepartment, the Chicago Commons has been opened during the past\nyear, with the family of the professor as residents. It is now organizing a kindergarten, and hopes soon to add a kindergartner to its\ncircle of working residents.\n\nThe Northwestern University has opened a settlement, with a\ntrained kindergartner as head resident, who, in addition to the manifold duties attending this high office-such as interviewing every\nclass of needy; setting a good example as a home-keeper ; as a respecter of all alley and garbage rules ; as an attendant upon neighborhood funerals, christenings, and divorces ; securing a place for John\nof the street in the Boys' Industrial Home or attending criminal court\nas a witness ; superintending the sewing school, the gymnasium, the\nmothers' clubs, the young folks' circle, etc.-in addition to all this,\nconducts the daily kindergarten of from forty to fifty children, with\nno other assistance that that of the children themselves.\n\nConse-\n\nquent to the broader knowledge of her neighborhood and its family\nconditions, this kindergarten has been kept closely in touch with the\ndaily needs, and possesses a quality of the rarest freedom and soundest social co-operation. Again, the mothers' club is a direct corollary\nto the kindergarten, concerning which the resident of the settlement\nsaid a few days since :\n\n“Our mothers are the strength of the settle-\n\nment. They believe in us without a single grain of reserve. They\nunderstand the meaning of the settlement better than we do, for they\nsee open doors where before were closed walls, and they understand\nour ethical efforts in behalf of their children as direct means of grace\n\nand opportunity. We can command the affection of our mothers' club\nfor any work at any moment and to any extent.\"\nI could not tell you of the work of this settlement, presided over by\nakindergartner, and make it read like a fairy story; but the opportunity is open in every large city for you to visit such a place and read\nwith your own eyes such stories as that of a curbstone garden which\ngrows cottage flowers at the command of what were once the bad\nboys of the street, or the social club for men and women where long\nforgotten recitations and fatherland songs are exchanged, and understand the meaning between the lines better than I could picture it.\nDuring the entire year one or two kindergarten cadets have lived in\nthe settlement family, and have added their social endeavors to that\nof the family circle. During the present summer the morning and\nafternoon kindergarten is being conducted by these volunteers.\nThe head resident of the social settlement of the University of\nChicago, in charge during the past year, was originally the kindergartner at Hull House and the organizer of the woman's club in that\nsettlement. After the past year's demonstration in what is known\nas the Stock Yards Settlement, it may well be argued that the right\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nSOCIAL SETTLEMENT AND KINDERGARTEN.\n\n519\n\nkind of a kindergartner is the right kind of a social settler. A kindergarten of seventy children has been in daily session, conducted by\none of our ablest professional workers. Over 200 children have been\nturned away from the crowded quarters, whose parents are still waiting for an opportunity to gain them admittance. During the daily\nsessions, the doorways and windows of the settlement hall are\ncrowded with parents and friends, and many a day-laborer with his\ntin dinner pail has stopped to take a peep at the children and listen\nto their songs. This kindergarten has followed closely the general\nwork of the settlement in every line. The chief purpose of a settlement being that of co-operation, and its most potent influence being\n\nin the direction of self-help, renders it most fitting and practicable\nas a basis for the kindergarten program. The children have been led\nto consider the family and home life as the great central interest, and\nhave diligently assisted in the scrubbing, scouring, and cleaning of\ntheir own settlement kindergarten.\n\nA class of forty kindergarten normal students have found their\nway into this district two or three times each week for their regular\nclass-work; nor has the advantage been entirely to them, as they\ncome to seek professional enlightenment. Two score of bright, energetic, purposeful young women, who show in their exteriors all the\nresults of substantial family training, cannot pour through such a\nchannel of humanity without adding to the clarifying and purifying\ndirectly. Their neat gowns and active, cheerful carriage has, without\ndoubt, opened new vistas to the young women and parents of the district, as well as to the hundreds of little children lining the curbstone to see the procession go by. In the course of the year, group\nafter group of these students has served as volunteers in the settle-\n\nment kindergarten, and many have been the friendships formed between them and the children, and great has been their influence in\nfitting the affections and aspirations and ideals of these children of\nmen.\n\nNot long since one of the volunteers brought her family of ten for\na visit to the home where many of these young women live, some\ndistance from the settlement.\n\nThe great awe with which the little\n\nones looked about the house where Miss Mary and Miss Evelyn and\nMiss Marion dined and slept and kept their things was very impressive. The most skeptical person as to the advantage of these\npersonal ties would have been melted had they witnessed the intense\ninterest of these children in discovering how the other half live.\n\nWe thus find the social settlement making a wider application of\nthe principle of interdependence, which has come to be so current a\nword in the kindergartner's vocabulary. The social settlement makes\npossible a larger interchange of human interests and a nearer oppor-\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "520\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ntunity for crystallizing personal relationships into sincere potent\nfriendships. At the close of the training-school identified with this\nsettlement, the head resident put the following question to the forty\nyoung women students who have witnessed the varying daily life of\nthe settlement : \"Do you feel that any personal advantage or benefit\nhas come to you through attending class meetings here in the settlement, and have you missed any opportunities through coming to this\nless attractive neighborhood which you might have gained in a more\nselect or down-town district?\" The answers which it was her privilege to receive were conclusive evidence that modern young women\n(the cynic notwithstanding) still possess a \"passion for perfection,\"\nand still crave heroic opportunities and gladly spend themselves in\ndevotion to altruistic ideals. The expenditure of money and energy\nwhich the year's work at this settlement has caused was more than\n\nwell spent if it brought forty active, earnest, thinking women to realize the difference between a more conservative, selfish student life\nand the powerful development which comes through an insight into\nsocial human conditions.\n\nOne of the oldest kindergarten normal schools in the West, which\nhas been conducted for thirty years by that pioneer optimist, Mrs.\nAlice H. Putnam, will gather its students during the coming year\nunder a social settlement roof, in evidence of the profound conviction\nthat contact with the social conditions arising in a social settlement\nwill add to the practical value of professional kindergarten work.\nThe judgment of such an experienced leader cannot be questioned,\nand we believe this step to be of great importance to the movement.\nNo less momentous are the well-defined plans for a kindergarten\nsettlement in Boston, to be dedicated as a living memorial to Elizabeth Peabody, which will have more than a local meaning, since the\n\nprojector of this plan (no other than our worthy president, Miss\nWheelock) hopes through this means to gather up the threads of appreciation of this woman's work from all parts of the country. The\nsettlement, like the kindergarten, is not a philanthropy in the usual\nsense of that word. Like the kindergarten, it is rather a common\nmeeting-place, where the children of men may come together freely\nand frankly and find scope to express that indispensable ingredient\nin human nature, sociability. It is in no sense of cant or sentiment\nthat when we say the social settlement is a kindergarten for the\n\nadults, and the head resident, like the kindergartner, lives with her\nassociates, ever ready to honor and appreciate the slightest indication of socialization, with sufficient insight to understand those\nstrange processes by which warped human nature regains its equilib-\n\nrium. The gymnasium, the choral society, the sewing club, the\ngirls' culture circle-all these are the gifts and occupations used by\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nSOCIAL SETTLEMENT AND KINDERGARTEN.\n\nthe wise head-worker.\n\n521\n\nThe culture of his or her personality becomes\n\na background against which the aspirations, talents, and belated\npowers of friend and neighbor are thrown into relief.\nEvery kindergartner will be interested in the metamorphosis of\none of our stock stories as filtered through the comprehension of a\nsettlement protegé, viz., the Welsh milkman of the neighborhood. He\njoined us on the early morning street car, and, after the heartiest\ngreeting, said : \"Too bad you could not stay to the surprise party last\n\nnight. We had a fine time, and she (referring to the recipient of the\nsurprise party) told us a story that beats all the preachings.\"\n\"How did the story go?\" \"Well, you see it was a sort of parable,\nabout how once upon a time five brothers and sisters lived in a fine\n\ngarden and always stayed together, till one day one of them got too\ngood for the rest of the crowd, and went off by himself. The story\ntold how, after awhile, he wanted to do things, and he was like the\n\nring finger, and he could not pick berries, nor roses, nor anything\nwithout the thumb to help him. By-and-by he got sick of it and went\nback to the others, a smarter fellow. Then he gave them this advice :\n'I tell you we better just stick together, because we can't do anything\n\nif we don't. I've tried it, and you fellows better take my word for it,\nthat everybody is likely to need everybody else at some time or other,'\nand they always stuck together after that.\"\nIt is unnecessary to comment on the socialistic application made\nof this nursery tale.\nA kindergarten so conducted that it uses to the full its many opportunities will naturally expand and become a sound nucleus for a\nsocial settlement, which will have a vital, organic, permanent quality not otherwise to be gained.\nWhen asked, \"What is the sovereign influence in the home?\" we\nanswer without hesitation, the mother. When asked, \"What is the\nchiefest factor in the kindergarten?\" we as confidently make reply,\n\nthe kindergartner. Each is, by force of her position, the central\nfigure in a social organism, and if she sincerely follow the daily expanding conditions of this organism, carrying to each part its peculiar food-stuff, her obligations, as well as position, will widen till she\nis the core of a social settlement. It is the need of the individual, the\n\nneed of the neighborhood, the need of the community, which controls\nand governs the method of social work.\n\nThere is no better creed for a kindergartner whose aspiration\ncalls her to the broader work than that statement of Dr. Barnett of\n\nToynbee Hall : \"Vain will be music or higher education, or even\nthe Gospel, unless they come clothed in the life of brother men. \"\nLillian Whiting has given us the following clear statement of this\nwork, which is more easily executed than defined :\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": "522\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThere has been of late a new form of philanthropic work, which is known by\nthe general name of \"college settlements.\" It is simply for one individual, or several, to go into the poorer quarters of a city and live as a neighbor to the ignorant,\nthe defective, the very poor, or the degraded. It is less a mission than it is a ministry-the natural and informal ministry of right-doing. It is to be found a home\nwhich shall be a standing object-lesson in better ways of living; which shall illustrate the beauty of order, of cleanliness, of gentle ways, of generous thoughtful-\n\nness, of friendly sympathy. The men and women who are doing this do not keep\na house of correction, or a house of refuge, or an asylum of any kind. They keep\na home. They do not go out into the highways and by-ways to preach or to teach,\nostensibly; but they endeavor to so order their lives as to give constantly the indirect teaching of example. Perhaps it is no exaggeration to say that to a greater\nor less degree they show forth the beauty of holiness. There is a twofold blessing\nin such living as this. It blesses him who gives and him who takes; and perhaps\nof all forms of humanitarian work, it is the one best calculated to effect good results.\n\nBut if the larger number of people wait to make some specific change in life\nbefore endeavoring to realize their higher ideals in conduct; if a change of location and general rearrangement and readjustment of method and detail must pre-\n\ncede the better living, then it will be more than likely to be indefinitely postponed.\nWhy, indeed, should not the principle of the college settlement be carried into\nliving under the usual surroundings ? Why not fill one's usual place in life, do one's\nusual work, meet the customary duties, pleasures, courtesies, only meeting them\nfrom new motives and inspiring the duties with higher purposes? It is not only\nthe poor, the ignorant, or even the degraded, who need to have good done them;\nwho need the sunniness of hope, the sweetness of content, the renewal of courage,\nthe unfaltering devotion of heroism. People are not necessarily rich in happiness\nor in hope because they live in more or less luxury of the material comforts and\nprivileges of life. There is just as much need of the ministry of higher ideals to the\ncomfortable as to the uncomfortable; to the intelligent as to the ignorant; to those\nwho are reaching forward after truth and progress as to those who are receding\nfrom them.\n\nThere is a vast amount of enthusiasm in the world over helping the\n\nunfortunate and defective and degraded classes, and so far as this zeal is genuine\nand discreet it is to be commended; but the righteous as well as the sinner, the\nmoral as well as the immoral, the refined as well as the rude, are not altogether un-\n\nworthy some degree of both private and public consideration.\n\nAs the kindergarten aims to provide suitable opportunity for the\n\nactivities of the child, so the settlement would provide occasions,\nwould make the opportunity for the adult to exercise his better nature through the various avenues of social contact, literary, musical,\neven political, experiences. One of the great unnoticed events in\nAmerican history was the recent gathering in a New York social settlement, called the \"Conference of Reformers,\" bringing together\nthe men and women of varied, and often opposing, but always pro-\n\nfoundly sincere schemes for human regeneration. It is no new thing\nfor people to combine for industrial or political reasons ; nor is it an\nuncommon relationship for people to be neighbors because they осcupy the same apartments, or because their dooryards touch, or because of business profit, or because the same blood flows in their\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nSOCIAL SETTLEMENT AND KINDERGARTEN.\n\n523\n\nveins. It is not so common for people to come together for advantages which exist only because they are mutual; and yet the latter\nis the only basis for true fellowship. If it is ever your privilege to be\ninvited to a social occasion at a settlement, do not overlook it. You\nwill find a new class of society at such a reception ; you will find fresh\ntopics for conversation and an exhilaration such as comes when\n\ntraveling abroad among new surroundings.\n\nAs the kindergarten\n\nmovement, so that of the social settlement is creating a new strata\nin society, and it is far more than merely interesting to meet on a\n\ncommon social plane a boodle alderman, or your own laundress, or\nthe barkeeper's daughter with her bridegroom.\nAs the chief reason for the existence of a social settlement is that\n\nof meeting the various needs of a community, its policy must necessarily be flexible and adjustable, ready for experiment and keen to\nrecognize every avenue of assistance which is offered. The kindergarten movement, as many others, might gain great benefit by leaving to a remoter time the crystallization of its theories into a system,\nand by a more vigorous study of the immediate actual needs of child\nnature. This social settlement is daily proving that men want more\nChristianity in their daily lives. The kindergartner, as well as the\nsocial worker, needs more, not less, Christianity, and should systematically reject the temptation which argues that an indirect\nmethod will answer the same purpose of revealing the Christ. As the\nabolitionist surrendered his whole being to the great movement which\nappealed to his natural love for humanity, so the kindergartner must\nlearn to look upon her work, not merely as a scientific profession but\nas a Christian movement, carrying with it all the requirements of\nself-renunciation attendant upon such. It will then become an easy\ntask to cherish the weaker members of the profession, and every effort will be made to guard this family of workers against disintegration or deterioration, and then will come that potent recognition of all\nthose unprecedented excellencies which rise to the surface of every\nexpanding movement. The political economist proves conclusively\nthat hard times are the result of some congestion in the economic\n\nsystem of the country. A perfect circulation and interchange of\nvalues is as essential to the vitality and usefulness of an educational\n\nbody as of the body politic. If our kindergarten body is to fulfill its\npossibilities and normal activities, complete circulation must be\nmaintained. Pestalozzi wrote in 1800 the following fable: \"A king,\nwho was standing alone under a lime tree, was struck by the beauty\nof its foliage, and exclaimed : 'Oh, noble tree ; would that my subjects\nheld to me as do your leaves to your branches !\" The tree answered\nhim: I am forever carrying the sap of my roots to each of my\nleaves. \"\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "524\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nLike the social settler, the kindergartner must possess unlimited\nsocial resources, and in proportion to her sincere affection for the people of a given community will she be faithful to continue her work\nin the same locality for more than one or two years.\nWe do not hesitate to demand to-day of state legislatures state\n\nsupport of our kindergartens, and we heartily recommend to those\nin authority that the workers, including matrons, teachers, and superintendents of state institutions, shall be more or less familiar with\nthe kindergarten method of handling their peculiar problems.\nBut greater than these signs of the expansion of our work is the\ngrowing appreciation among our number for the social profit accruing to lesser communities and smaller towns from a vital, earnest\nkindergartner, who makes herself a center for the children of the\n\nlocality. Her influence does not stop at the schoolroom door, nor at\nthe neighborhood dooryards ; but it penetrates every human relationship in a community, touching parents, teachers, church workers and\nlay workers of all classes. She becomes a Christian socialist, and\nmay well say with the good gray poet, Whitman :\nBehold, I do not give lectures or a little charityWhen I give, I give myself.\n\nIn these brave days, when our national committee of fifteen have\nsubstituted in place of the despised phase, \" The three R's,\" that other\n\nphrase which appeals more readily to the heart, viz., \"Humanity\nstudies;\" in this day of schoolroom art leagues, village improvement\nsocieties, the people's church, good government clubs, neighborhood\nguilds and civic federations, the social settlement, the kindergarten\nworkers need no longer feel that they stand alone. The fraternal\n\nspirit ripens on all sides into labor unions and lodges, clubs and parties. The bricklayers and the joiners have each their brotherhood,\ntheir fraternity. The next logical step in the process of our kindergarten work is that of federation; nor must this be accomplished\nmerely for purposes of professional protection or the concentration\nof power. It must stand on that broader platform of the mutual social interest, which alone will generate the neighborliness and the\n\nfriendships essential to the life and growth of an organization, as well\nas of an individual.\n\n\"The Village Improvement Society\" says :\nsomething more than moral and beautiful.\n\n\"The village must be\n\nIt must be beautiful that\n\nit may be worthy of the love that every home should inspire.\" \"The\nPeople's Church\" declares, that there are many in the church, as well\nas out of it, who need to learn that Christianity is neither a creed nor\na ceremonial, but a life, vital, connected with the living Christ. The\nsocial settlement, as voiced by one of its eminent workers, makes the\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "PESTALOZZI- FREBEL HAUS.\n\nDepartment.]\n\n525\n\nstatement before the world-\"if we tell a man he is a son of God, we\nmust go further and say, You are a brother man.\" The kindergarten\nsays, in the words of the originator: \"It takes the whole world of\nmen and women loving each other to make up the perfect image and\nlikeness of God.\"\n\nTHE WORK OF THE PESTALOZZI-FRÆBEL HAUS.\n\nBY MRS. S. H. HARRIMAN , PROVIDENCE , R. I.\n\nAnyone who has made a study of Fræbel's \"Mother Play\" will recall one picture which shows three or four little children peeping\n\ninto a bird's nest, and watching with eager delight the young life\ntherein. It is an experience in the life of a child which Fræbel\nwould emphasize, because through it the child may be led to an understanding of his family relations, may gain a deeper insight into\nthe meaning of home life. It is hard for him to view fairly that of\nwhich he is a part; therefore, he must see the family relations, the\nhome life pictured elsewhere in this case, in a bird's nest. And we,\nas older children, know the value of stepping outside our own little\nsphere and looking at our work from another point of view. We realize that there is an inspiration which comes from seeing another's\nwork, which often takes on a glow of the ideal, perhaps for the reason\nthat we fail to see the hidden workings, which, undoubtedly to those\nmost intimately concerned, are not without friction.\nA year ago this summer it was my privilege to step outside my\nown work-outside the American work-and to catch a glimpse of\nthe German kindergarten as seen in the Pestalozzi-Fræbel Haus\n\nof Berlin. I think this work is generally acknowledged to be truer\nto Fræbel's ideas than any other work in Germany ; perhaps for the\nreason that it is under the direction of a niece of Fræbel, who as a\n\nyoung woman studied with him at Marienthal. From this view of\nthe foreign work there came to me the lesson of the bird's nest-a\ndeeper insight into my own life-work, a truer appreciation of Fræbel's\naim; and as it was a great pleasure then to observe the work, it has\nbeen a great pleasure since to tell those interested what I saw and\na great pleasure to address you to-day.\nThe Pestalozzi-Fræbel Haus is an institution whose aim is to\nadvance the educational ideas of those two educators in honor of\n\nwhom it is named. It is chiefly dependent for its support upon pri-\n\nvate benefactors, its chief patroness being the Empress Frederick,\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "526\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nvery dear to the German people as the wife of the emperor whom they\nloved to call \"Unser Fritz.\" The government, too, having satisfied\nitself as to the worth of the work, pays a small sum annually into the\ntreasury. Each pupil in attendance also pays a small tuition fee,\nsome at the rate of twelve and a half cents per week, which does not\nseem so small when we find one of the teachers in the training class,\na lady of noble birth and a personal friend of the Empress Frederick,\nreceiving a smaller salary than is usually paid an assistant in an\nAmerican kindergarten.\nIt was on a warm June morning that we made our first visit to\n\nthe Pestalozzi-Fræbel Haus. Passing through the large, roomy\nhall we entered the rooms devoted to the kindergarten, but there was\nno suggestion of the American kindergarten.\n\nThese rooms were\n\nsmall and dark, with scarcely a picture to brighten the dull bare\nwalls. The furniture was of the crudest possible type. No tables\nwith polished and checked surface ; none of the little chairs which\nwe provide for the use of Young America. In place of these were\ntables and benches of planks, roughly supported, and suggesting in\ntheir arrangement the old-fashioned schoolroom. All this, together\nwith the total lack of sunshine, was almost depressing to eyes accustomed to the brightness which we deem necessary to kindergarten\nlife; but as the children came in their round, rosy, German faces\nserved as sunlight, and one forgot the bare walls as the kindergartners followed, so kind and motherly were the faces, so cheery and\njoyous the voices. As if by magic the room was furnished. There\nare about seventy children in the different departments, and these\nwere assembled in the playroom for the morning exercises, which\n\nwere very simple, consisting of a short prayer, repeated after Frau\nRichter (at that time acting as principal), followed by a hymn; the\nchildren standing in a compact body, instead of sitting in a ring, as\nis customary with us. After the exercises the children filed out,\nsome to other rooms, some to the garden. We followed, and found\nthe little ones playing in the sand garden, where on pleasant days\nthey spent much of their time. Here was a sand garden indeed,\nshaded by trees ; not the box which we dignify by that name. Here\nthey could dig with their strong toy shovels; here they could transport the sand from place to place in their little carts. Passing\nthrough the sand garden we entered the real garden, which is the\ncharacteristic feature of the Pestalozzi-Fræbel Haus-that which\n\ndistinguishes it from the American work. Here an opportunity is\ngiven for the observation and care of plant and animal life. In one\ncorner we saw a goat, honored above its fellow in being brought\nhere as the subject for study during June. Her small stable was\nmost comfortable, and as we approached was being made ready for\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPESTALOZZI-FREBEL HAUS.\n\n527\n\nthe day by a few of the older children under the supervision of a\nmember of the training-class. Beyond was a tiny henhouse and rabbit cage, all cared for by the children. Correlation, the principle em-\n\nphasized by educators of to-day, was here lived out by the children,\nfor the grass cut by them from the lawn was given to the goat. Her\nmilk was carried to the kindergarten, carefully skimmed at the proper\ntime, churned into butter by the children, and eaten by them at\nlunch ; while the children who had been helping in the indoor work\nby shelling peas were seen carrying the pods out for the goat's dinner. Surely a practical and clear demonstration of the law of interdependence between the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms.\nIn still another quarter children picked currants, taking them to the\nsummer-house, where they were stemmed and later carefully and\nscientifically transformed into jelly, the children getting ready the\nsmall alcohol lamp, extracting the juice from the fruit, weighing the\nsugar, boiling, skimming, and testing, until at last is was poured into\na glass ready to give to a sick playmate or beloved teacher.\nBut this practical work is only one aspect of the work. Returning to the building we found a class busy with gift work, building\nfrom the fourth gift a barn for the goat by night and fencing in a\nyard for his use by day; and in each yard was a tiny paper goat,\nwhich had been the occupation work of another class the previous\nday-for the carrying home of work, which we think so desirable,\nthey look upon as undesirable, saving it for use in other classes.\nPassing on in our search for new ideas which might prove applicable\nand beneficial to our own work, we visited a room where the group\nwork, the most interesting and characteristic feature of the indoor\nwork, was being carried on.\nAsmany numbers of the training class graduate from this school\nas nursery governesses it is an important part of their training that\nthey be fitted to deal with children of different ages, To meet this\nneed, these groups are formed by bringing children from different\ndepartments together and placing them in charge of a young woman\nwhose aim it is to bring into the group an atmosphere of home life,\nand to keep the children happy and busy through interesting them\nin some simple home duty; in other words, to make the ordinary\nhome duties a means of educational training for the children in that\nhome. As we entered a family work basket seemed to be the center\n\nof interest. It was large, and full of such odds and ends as a family\nbasket would naturally contain. The little ones rewound the spools\nneatly, while a boy was busy sorting needles and placing them neatly\non a cushion. Another used the emery to free certain needles from\nrust, while an older girl, having found a bit of ribbon which suggested a doll's dress, was aided in cutting and fitting the desired gar-\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "528\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nment. A girl of seven did a bit of mending, while a pencil, rescued\nfrom the depths of the basket, was given to a boy from the transition class that he might write a simple letter to a teacher in another\nroom .\nThe value of this work as a means of developing the power\nof adaptability, of enabling a girl to turn everything to use and make\nit serve her purpose, cannot be overestimated. It is in these groups\nthat Fræbel's mother-plays are worked out in material form. In\nconnection with the goat, we saw the picture of the grass-mowing.\nThe first step was to arrange a table and cover it with sod. Then\ntiny horses and the parts of a wagon were cut from paper by the little ones and joined together by the older children, who also covered\nthe blades of the scythes with silver paper. The youngest of all-for,\nremember, the essential feature in the group work is, that the children\nshall be of different ages-sat on the floor making a dandelion stem\nchain, as suggested in the picture, while at another table the whole\nnumber took turns in churning the cream from the goat's milk re-\n\nferred to before. Such is the group work, and I think in this, as well\nas in the out-of-door work, we see the difference between the German\nand American work. We are so apt to interpret Fræbel's command\n\nas meaning \"Come, let us play with our children.\" The Germans interpret it more truly, and really live with their children. Instead of\ntrying to give a typical experience through gift work, or picture, they\ngive the real experience. No distance is too great, no day too warm,\nno material too difficult to find, no conditions too hard to master, if\nthere is anything which the lesson requires, anything which the well\nbeing of the child demands. These German girls accept as a part of\ntheir duty to the child duties which American girls would consider\nit impossible to do ; and, on the other hand, they have the power of\nmaking the children work. Elaborate work is done, for it consists\nof parts, and the kindergartner takes advantage of differing ages,\ndealing out the work according to varying ability. And do not take\nit for granted that all this work is more easily accomplished in Germany than here. The school is in the midst of a large city. The soil\nfor the garden has been brought there. Blueberry bushes brought\nfrom the woods, together with wild flowers of all kinds, while currants, gooseberries, strawberries, and other fruits are raised in small\nquantities. Beautiful roses bloom here, and bloom so freely in spite\nof the brick walls that tower on all sides that one is led to think that\n\nsomething more than rain and sunshine is vouchsafed by heaven.\nBut the rest of my time I must devote to telling you about the\nhome life of the training-class ; for herein lies the secret of the home\n\natmosphere which pervades the whole work. The fifth floor of the\nbuilding constitutes the Victoria Home, the abode of the trainingclass. I fear the accommodations would hardly suit American girls ;\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPESTALOZZI-FREBEL HAUS.\n\n529\n\nfor the tiny rooms, instead of opening on a hall-way, open one into\nanother, so that it is sometimes necessary to pass through several\nrooms to reach the stairs leading to the classrooms below. Here,\ntoo, there is the utmost simplicity of furnishings, the charm of the\nrooms being due to the daintiness of expression of individual taste\n\nin books and photographs and to the flowers which seemed to breathe\nforth happiness and peace. In such a place the spirit of Fræbel\n\nmight well love to linger, and the very atmosphere seemed a proof\nthat these girls had interpreted his messages aright. The class is\ncosmopolitan, some of them poor girls fitting themselves for positions\nas nursery governesses ; others who have enjoyed greater advantages previous to the training, hoping to go out as kindergartners ;\nwhile one, a highly cultured English girl, a graduate of Girton College, was studying the system with reference to London philanthropic\nwork. While the girls may live outside the home if they choose, the\ngreater number prefer to live in it, and subject themselves to a rigid\ncourse in domestic science. All the work in the building, excepting\nthe scrubbing, is done by these girls. On one sultry morning I sat\nin the kitchen, watching them as they worked under the direction\nof a teacher. Closet shelves were put in order, the fire kept in good\ncondition, and dishes systematically washed. Here, again, simplicity\nof material was noticeable, wisps of hay serving as dish cloths, newspapers as covering for shelves. In all this work the children have\ntheir part. In preparing dinner, they pared the potatoes ; and as\nthey worked learned of a potato's growth. Perhaps you will wonder\nwhen these girls found time for study, but they had already attended\nan early morning lecture, the house-work being left till the arrival of\nthe children.\n\nPassing into the general sittingroom, we came upon another group\nof girls busy with the week's mending; patching and darning their\nown clothes, and caring for the table and bed linen. At the same\ntime another group were receiving instruction in the bathing of children in the bathrooms, children being brought from the kindergarten\nfor the purpose. Thus domestic science in all its branches is made a\npart of the training.\nLater in the day we saw the class mounting their occupation work\nin books. This work, while more elaborate than is generally done in\nAmerica, is not as artistic, owing to the crude colors used, for the influence of the Bradley and Prang systems is not yet felt in Germany.\nAnd now I anticipate the question generally asked, How does the\nwork in Germany compare with the American work? It seems to\nme the two can hardly be compared, because of the difference in environments and aim. In the work with the children, I think we have\nmuch to learn from each other.\n34\n\nIf we could give them a little of the\n\n"}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "530\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nsunshine which emanates from light walls with their pictures, from\nthe snowy white apron, which is so prominent a feature in the American kindergarten; if we could imbue them with the lightness of our\nsinging, the grace and alertness of our motions, the real play-spirit\n\nof our games; if we could give them some of the sentiment (of which\nwe could spare a goodly amount), and have breathed in upon us in\nreturn their whole-souled interest, their practical common sense,\ntheir devotion in meeting all the needs of the child, we should both\ncome nearer the ideal.\n\nThere is still less ground for comparison when we consider the\ntraining-classes. Our requirements for admission to the trainingclass are much greater than theirs; our standard higher. Many of\nthe girls received there without detriment to the class as a whole\n\nwould be a most dangerous element in an American training-class,\nbecause of that sense of \"free and equal\" in our atmosphere which\n\nwould lead them to expect positions for which they were unfit. Here\nspecial classes with special aims are needed, and I hope the day is\nnot far distant when our college and kindergarten settlements may\nopen their doors to these girls of fifteen or sixteen years, whose advantages have been few, and give them a special training which shall\nfit them to go out as children's nurses, in place of the ignorant\nwomen so generally employed to-day, who are not only ignorant of\nevery law of child-nature, of any need beyond those of food and clothing, but of the English language.\n\nThe chief beauty of the Pestalozzi-Fræbel Haus work to me is\nwhat it does for these girls. Coming from homes devoid of luxuries,\nthey are not unfitted to return to them. No luxuries are offered them\nhere, no hours of ease, no spacious room, no expensive pleasures. On\nthe other hand, they learn perseverance, patience, thriftiness ; to\nmake the most out of what is at hand; to find the beautiful in life ;\n\nto make life worth living in whatever circumstances they may find\nthemselves. Considering the class as a whole and the practical\ntraining given to all, are we not led to look joyfully into the future\nfor a glimpse of the homes, the mothers, and the children of the next\ngeneration ? Surely a good woman will be found in many a German\nvillage living the life of the good Gertrude whom Pestalozzi gave us\nin fiction.\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nKINDERGARTEN AND HOME.\n\n531\n\nTHE KINDERGARTEN AND THE HOME.\n\nBY MRS . JAMES L. HUGHES, TORONTO, CANADA .\n\n[AN ABSTRACT. ]\n\nThe educational reforms of the next generation must be worked\nout in the home. The kindergarten and the school cannot secure the\nbest results, however sound their theories or good their methods,\nwithout the co-operative work of the home in securing from the first\nof life harmonious connectedness in the unfolding process. The es-\n\nsential principle of the kindergarten demands that this first period\nshall be intelligently and sacredly fostered in the home. Fræbel set\nthe child in the midst and turned thought toward the divinely created and organized soul waiting to unfold, and seemed to say to us,\n\"\nWait and watch, and you shall see the glory of the divine purpose\nunfold itself and come forth from within.\"\n\nShelter it and shine on it\n\nwithout anxiety or haste, and do not meddle ; childhood is holy\nground. We hear many speak of the kindergarten as the embodiment of Fræbel's educational principles, but the student of the kindergarten period soon finds herself a student of the life principles and\nthe kindergarten only a part of the organic whole, inter-related and\ninterdependent with all that goes before and all that follows after.\nFræbel shows to both teacher and parent the sacred nature of the creation; helpless now, but holding within itself the potential strength\n\nof a creative and self-creating being, made to develop through self-action, set going by a divine power, for a divine purpose.\nTeachers are slowly learning the weakness of methods which were\nplanned to mold and shape the character from the external according\nto a human pattern ; methods which emphasize the value of knowledge rather than the value of the unfolding soul of the child. Old\ntraditions cling to us and set methods are hard to soften and change.\nWe sin so often against the insight we have already gained, through\nthe force of habit and the pressure of undeveloped public opinion, and\nmost of all through the pressure of the teaching spirit. The change\nmust be gradual if it is safe. True reform is growth, not revolution.\nFræbel's view of child-nature has revealed more than the needs\n\nof the school or the value of the kindergarten in child-growth.\n\nThe\n\ninfluence of the mother and the home are seen to be divine factors\n\nin the sum of life. They have already given bias to the character,\n\nand will continue to modify the work of the kindergarten and the\nschool and determine the spirit of contact with social life. There\ncomes with ever-growing strength the conviction that educational re\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n532\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nform must not only include but be based upon clearer insight in the\nhome life.\n\nWe look for a more conscious motherhood\n\nfor a univer-\n\nsal mother-spirit-among all women; for deeper and more loving insight into child-nature among both men and women.\nThe traditional theory of an instinctive wisdom accompanying maternity, which would prove all-sufficient to guide the young mother\ninto ways of pleasantness and paths of peace, has been fairly proved\nfalse by its results. In our complex state of society, instinct alone is\nutterly inadequate to meet the necessities of both mother and child.\nEmotional love, which fills the mother's soul when she looks into the\nface of her first-born, like the emotional joy of all other physical relations, must be spiritualized by reason, by insight into the veritable\ntruth which the physical emotion only shadows, or it cannot enter\ninto the eternity of our lives. Consecrated, enlightened motherhood\nsays with that first wave of joy in possession, \"My child; our child;\nGod's child;\" and like the mother of old, she hides the growing manifestation of life in action and word in her heart and ponders over the\nstrangeness of it, but does not try to mold and fashion this responsive\nsoul according to her own pattern, but, with hands off, watches to see\nwhat shall be revealed.\n\nMother's love stands for God's love to the\n\nbabe. This is the root from which the religious influence springs.\nThe mother-love must have in it the elements of divine love, or it cannot support true life and growth. Wise unselfishness is that which\ncan endure the pain of watching the struggles of the growing life and\nnot seize its burdens, and so weaken its effort and lessen the strength\n\nit would gain in carrying them. It takes a brave heart and unclouded\nfaith to consecrate any child to any great purpose; to know that the\nstruggle will be long and often the life bitter, and yet smile and encourage the effort. The poet, the saint, and all strong souls are born\nthrough the struggle which comes. There is a loneliness in all great\nlives ; a holy of holies where none can enter, not even the mother. In\nthe home the child meets freedom and material to work out vague\n\nideas.\n\nThe mother needs patience and insight, or she will cramp the\n\nfreedom or starve the life.\n\nIn the kindergarten the child's experiences are organized for him,\nand the many impressions which crowd upon his consciousness are\nmade to move in order and singleness before him.\n\nIn the home he is\n\nhis own organizer, and there should be no cramping through interference and lack of sympathy.\nTo secure such motherhood, we must turn again to the school and\nuniversity and train the coming men and women with this in view.\n\nNot to love childhood is to be an incomplete being, either man or\nwoman.\n\nAn all-around growth demands the cultivation of the parental spirit in every individual. It may never be realized as physical\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nMOTHERS' MEETINGS.\n\n533\n\nparentage, but the spirit is necessary to the complete education and\ngrowth. Think, if you can, what change it would work in social life\nif that was the accepted universal attitude toward childhood. We\nshould not have any reason to fear the decay of the home spirit, but\nshould welcome it in its new form.\n\nA home suited to the broader\n\nand higher life of developed humanity and more complete spiritual\nideals. Motherhood would no longer be looked upon as a slavery,\nbut the crown of womanhood.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nHENRY W. BLAKE of Springfield, Mass., editor of the \"Kindergarten News,\"\nwas introduced as a kindergarten father, and spoke on the same subject. He said\nthat the kindergarten brings into the home the trained hand, the watchful eye, the\ninvigorated body, the quickened intellect, and the cultivated heart. It also brings\ninto the home the spirit of song, the love of nature, and the love of God. All\nthese things constitute an excellent platform for citizenship. Although Froebel is\nphysically dead, the influence which he exerts is more thoroughly alive than ever\nbefore. He is with us in the kindergarten and the home, when we gather the children about us in the morning circle, or when they nestle in our arms at evening,\npleading for \"one more story,\" 'ere we breathe with them the evening prayer.\n\nMOTHERS' MEETINGS-HOW TO CONDUCT THEM.\n\nBY MISS MARY C. McCULLOCH, ST . LOUIS , MO .\n\nFifty years ago in Germany, an appeal was made that impressed\na few earnest men and women with the truth that the realization of\n\nthe possibilities of the individual and the perfection of humanity\nnecessitated a knowledge of the development and needs of child-life.\n\"Come, let us live with the children,\" was a true life-call, uniting\nall in itself as in a central point ; not only uniting human beings and\nhuman life with each other and with humanity but even with the Creator who said : \"Let us make man in our image.\" To-day this call\nis answered by the efforts of leading educators to realize Fræbel's\nideals.\n\nThe widening influence of the kindergarten asserts itself in its\nextension and introduction into the public schools, in the harmonizing of primary and kindergarten methods, and in the demands for\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "534\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nteachers imbued with the spirit of the new education.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nWith each\n\nadvancing step of appreciation the purpose of education and the\nmeans to be employed become more clearly defined. In the light of\nFræbel's insight \"each stage of development of man, as in the plant,\nis from a preceding one, and the perfection of each depends upon the\none that precedes, leading back to the beginning, to the mother at the\ncradle of her child.\"\n\nTo her loving care is intrusted the unfoldment and the nourishment of the child's powers. She is baby's interpreter of the world\nthat bursts upon him-new, strange, and apparently disconnected.\nThe consciousness of a mother's relation to the spiritual life of her\nchild deepens the conviction that safe guidance demands conscious\naims and methods.\n\nMothers are awakening to the sacredness of their trust, and recognize there is a science of motherhood to be mastered to make them\nworthy of their responsibility. Child culture clubs have been organized to study the natural instincts of childhood and the tendencies\nthat mar or aid harmonious development. The revelation of Fræbel's\nteaching is an inspiration to all who are led to see that the destiny\nand life work of man is to become clearly conscious of his divine nature.\n\nTo kindergartners, mothers' meetings have become an effective\nmeans to gain the co-operation of those in the home circle. That\nconscientious efforts may be crowned with successful results, it is\nnecessary to unify the influences of the home and the kindergarten ;\ntherefore, it is fitting that there should be frequent occasions for\n\"coming together,\" to establish a sympathetic appreciation of the\nwork to be accomplished and give an opportunity for an interchange\nof views upon all subjects relating to the welfare of the children.\nThe hand upon the dial of our kindergarten experience points to\n\"mothers' meetings\" and tells me that the phase of the work demands\nunited effort to establish it as an essential factor in education. May\nwe not with Fræbel turn to the mothers to learn the secret of the\n\nmaternal spirit? May not the mothers gladly accept a message that\nreveals the meaning of their instincts and brightens the way with\ninsights into the characteristics and needs of universal childhood ?\nThe celebration of the festal days have proved favorable occasions\nto attract the mothers to the kindergarten. In the sunny atmosphere\nof love is ofttimes born a desire to understand the meaning of play.\nThe mother's desire to know and the kindergartner's desire to impart establishes a bond of mutual helpfulness, that is followed by the\n\"heart to heart\" talks on the needs of particular children. This is the\ninitiative step that leads us on to the true object of mothers' meetings, a study of child nature. For inspiration and growth we turn to\nFræbel's \" Mother Play\" book.\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nMOTHERS ' MEETINGS.\n\n535\n\nThe interpretation of the songs makes clear the spiritual truths\n\nembodied in the child's relationships, and suggests a series of experiences through which the child may be led to prepare him for the duties\nof life. To quote from Susan E. Blow, the \"Mother Play\" book\nshould be the guide of every mother who aspires to do what is best\nfor her children. It should be the favorite picture and song-book in\nevery nursery. It should be the beacon light by which each kindergartner directs her course. It should be the beating heart of every\nkindergartner. It should be the center around which revolve all the\nconcentric circles of kindergarten activities. Only by its varied use\nwill its secret be learned and the world understand the meaning of\n\"Come, let us live with our children ! \"\n\nMOTHERS'\n\nMEETINGS - HOW TO CONDUCT THEM AMONG\nTHE POOR.\n\nBY MISS WILHELMINA T. CALDWELL, DENVER, COLO .\n\nShall I have mothers' meetings ? and, How shall I conduct them ?\nare questions which confront every kindergartner in the beginning\nof her work, for in no other way can the home and kindergarten be\nbrought into the close connection necessary for the good of the child\nthan by the calling together of mothers to talk over with the teacher\n\nquestions of common interest to all. The kindergartner should have\na definite plan in conducting the meetings; but, before this can be\ncarried out, she must gain the good will and co-operation of the\nmothers who send their children to the kindergarten. The trite saying, that first impressions are lasting, is applicable to mothers' meetings, and care should be exercised in arranging for the first meeting,\nfor future success depends partly on the interest aroused. A study\nof the environment of the kindergarten should precede the meeting,\nfor in no other way can the necessary knowledge be gained for the\nwork than by visiting the children's homes. No matter how sordid\nand poor the district is in which the kindergarten is placed, the kindergartner should remember that the privacy and rights of the meanesthouse should be as sacred to her as any mansion on Capitol Hill.\nHousehold affairs do not always run smoothly in the best regulated\nfamilies; cleanliness and order are not always possible when living\nin two rooms with six children.\n\nNo unasked advice should be given\n\nat this or any other period of the work, and the visitor should have\n\n"}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n536\n\n[Kindergarten\n\neyes that see not, ears that are deaf, showing the same courtesy and\nconsideration which she would give to her friend. No matter how\n\nlow in the social world the patrons of the kindergarten may be, but\nlittle good can be accomplished unless the kindergartner remembers,\nthat, in the kindergarten, high and low meet on the same social plane.\nA day and hour convenient to all should be chosen for the meet-\n\nings. A written invitation addressed to the mother, to come and\nhelp with some work for the children, carried home by the children,\nwill always secure a good attendance, even for the first meeting. Entertainment should be provided for the little ones who cannot be left\nat home, so that the mothers may be relieved of the care of them during the hour.\n\nThere is nothing like working for a common object to draw people\ntogether. In making some simple decoration for the kindergarten or\n\na scrap-book, all formality and stiffness vanishes, a feeling of goodwill is established, and the first step is gained. Then, in working for\nthe children, it is easy to pass to the children's work in the kindergarten and its purpose.\n\nAfter some time spent in this way, some of the children's games\ncould be played or their favorite songs sung. If possible, the songs\nshould be type-printed; but if this cannot be done, have the words\nwritten on a blackboard and provide paper and pencils for copying.\nThe question of refreshments is a vexed one, but when given they\nshould be of the simplest kind. With a small alcohol stove, a cup of\ntea or coffee, with crackers, can be served, and is all that is necessary.\nLet the table-cloth and china be of the commonest kind; but the cloth\nshould be spotless and the cups and saucers as pretty as can be\nbought. If possible always have flowers on the table, even if they\nare only a handful of dandelions gathered from adjoining lot. We\nshould remember that indirect influence is often the strongest, and\nthe simplest kindergarten tea-table may teach its lesson in many\nhomes. Cheap and ugly are synonymous in too many houses.\nThe meetings should always close promptly on the hour, so that\nthose whose home duties are pressing may feel free to leave. The\nsinging of one of the kindergarten good-by songs is a good signal for\ndismissal. \"Will you come again, and help me finish the work for\nthe children?\" will bring all together again.\n\nDuring the next hour a short sketch of Fræbel's life may be given.\n\nIn the succeeding meetings, the chief principles of his educational\nsystem may be presented; but in what manner must be left to the\njudgment of the kindergartner.\nThe holding of mothers' meetings in the kindergartens connected\nwith School District No. 1 has been optional with the directors.\n\nThirty-five meetings have been held, with an average of attendance\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nMOTHERS' MEETINGS.\n\n537\n\nof thirty mothers. The same general plan as sketched in the preceding pages has been followed. After the co-operation of the neighborhood has been gained, different lines of work have succeeded. In one\nkindergarten a series of talks on typical songs from the \"Mother\nPlay\" have been given, while in others model lessons on the gifts or on\nnature study have employed the time. Some of the directors have\npreferred giving the manual work; but the last half of the hour has\nalways been spent in singing, the playing of games, and general discussions.\n\nIn one neighborhood collections of pictures have been shown to\nthe older brothers and sisters on the same day the mothers' meetings\nhave been held. A visit to the kindergarten one noon by some boys,\n\nto see the \"little ones' school,\" suggested the idea. Their interest and\ndelight with the pictures led to having a picture exhibit. Through\nthe kindness of the librarian of the East Denver Public Library a\nnumber of woodcuts, colored and uncolored prints mounted on cardboard, were hung around the kindergarten. Five of these collections\nhave been shown. At the last one, twenty minutes before the doors\nwere open the boys had collected and waited not very patiently until\nallowed to enter. Hatless, shoeless, some in rags and tatters, few with\nclean hands, they came trooping in. The general order was good,\nalthough the excitement among the boys over the voting for the fa\nvorite picture ran high. Every pencil borrowed was returned, and\nwhen the ninety grimy pieces of paper were counted it was found that\nLongfellow's portrait had received one vote, and the picture of an\nascension of a balloon was up among the forties. \"No matter,\" said\nthe director; \"many of the Italians have had toy balloons ; two boys\nhave seen a balloon go up from the gardens. So we will be Herbar\ntians, and call it an example of apperception.\"\nIn a district where it has been difficult to reach the families, on\n\naccount of the inability of the majority of mothers and their children\n\nto speak or understand English, the children's gardens have been a\nlink between home and the kindergarten. The director gives the\nfollowing report of the last mothers' meeting :\nWe went into the yard, where the mothers were much interested in the children's gardens. One woman asked the name of a brilliant geranium, so she could\nbuy one like it. Then, after being told how to plant them, each woman was given\na package of seeds, and on our way home that evening we passed a house where a\nwoman told us she had already planted her seeds .\nAnother woman said she had no place to plant her seeds, as there was no fence\nin front of the house; but a day or two later we were pleased to see a fence\naround the house. This house has been one of the worst looking in the neighbor\nhood, but a great change has come over it. A good many improvements have been\nmade. While the child was very irregular, there is now a marked change in his\nattendance.\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "538\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nEvery kindergartner should bear in mind these words of Bishop\nDunham, that, \"The true teacher gives nothing but materials, and\nopportunities, and impulse;\" and along whatever line she works, she\nshould remember that her mothers' meetings should supply the impetus and suggest means of self-improvement.\n\nCOMPARISON OF THE EDUCATIONAL THEORIES OF FREBEL AND HERBART.\n\nBY JAMES L. HUGHES, INSPECTOR OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS , TORONTO, CANADA .\n\nWhen history becomes a study of the past for the sources of life\nand light, the last part of the eighteenth and the first part of the nineteenth century will stand out clearly as the brightest period in educational development. The revelations of this productive era were\nmore important than its revolutions. The most magnificent evolutions of the period were educational ; not military nor political.\nAmong the many leaders of this era in the great work of educational reform, Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Fræbel are the great central\nfigures. If all other educational literature were destroyed, the principles of these three kingly men would still reveal all the vital forces\nthat are molding the educational systems and methods of to-day both\nin aims and processes.\nThese men were all living at the same time, and their spheres of\nlabor were not far apart. Pestalozzi was born thirty years before\nHerbart and thirty-six years before Fræbel, and to him, more than to\neither of the others, must be given the credit of the educational\nawakening. He aroused Europe, and Herbart and Fræbel must have\nbeen influenced by the favorable educational conditions into which\nthey were born. Fræbel undoubtedly owed more than did Herbart to\n\nPestalozzi, because he was a student and fellow-worker with him.\n\nMany of Pestalozzi's educational principles had been revealed by\nComenius and Rousseau ; but Pestalozzi rediscovered them and discovered other principles for himself, and his ardent enthusiasm and\ndeep sympathetic love for childhood made educational principles living forces in a new and most impressive way. His schools became\nmost suggestive object lessons, and through them his educational\nprinciples obtained a vitality that made them controlling forces\nwhich started a much-needed educational revolution .\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department .]\n\nTHEORIES OF FREBEL AND HERBART.\n\n539\n\nHerbart and Fræbel were both more scientific than Pestalozzi in\n\ntheir methods of dealing with the subject of education. They worked\nout their systems logically and constructively ; he was emotional and\ninstinctive.\n\nIn their study of the child as the basis of a sound pedagogical system, Herbart and Fræbel were in harmony in accepting the parallelism between the progress of the race and the development of the\nchild. This idea was not original with either of them. Many of the\nablest philosophers and theologians have held this view, and\nRousseau and Pestalozzi had brought it within the range of educational discussion before the time of Herbart and Fræbel.\n\nFræbel\n\nmade more use than Herbart of this idea of similarity between the\n\nculture epochs in the growth of the individual and the race. It aided\nHerbart to decide what instruction is best suited to the child, the\n\nyouth, the man, at different stages of his development; to Fræbel it\nhelped to reveal, not only suitable material for instruction but proper\nprocesses or occupations by which the child, the youth, and the man\nshould define and increase knowledge and power.\n\nBoth Herbart and Fræbel studied the child in order to lay down\na system of education that would help to ennoble man and enable\nhim to work out his highest destiny. They were fully in accord in regard to the true aim of education. Both made the development of\nmoral character the great purpose of all education, and their study\nof the child was made to find the surest way to reach this desired end.\nThere was a radical difference, however, in their attitude towards\nthe child.\n\nHerbart studied the child to find the best that could be\n\ndone for it; Fræbel studied it to learn how it could be aided in work-\n\ning out its own best development. Herbart magnified the work of\nthe teacher ; Fræbel magnified the work of the child. Herbart made\ninstruction and Fræbel made self-activity the source and cause of\ngrowth in knowledge and character.\n\nThis difference of view-point leads to the chief distinction between\nthe work of the two great educators.\n\nHerbart discusses the work of\n\nthe teacher, and shows what should be taught to the child, when it\nshould be taught, and why it should be taught, with occasional suggestions as to how it should be taught. Fræbel, on the other hand,\nconsiders chiefly the work of the child, and endeavors to lay down a\ncomplete system of education by which the child's entire nature may\nbe called into vigorous exercise. Fræbel keeps constantly in mind\nthe work of the teacher, and he has clearly defined ideas regarding\nthe order in which knowledge should be presented to the unfolding\nmind; but the basis of his pedagogical system is growth through selfactivity of the child. He discusses the same problems as Herbart ;\nbut he reveals the child's part in the work of education, and tries to\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "540\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nshow the teacher how to guide the child in doing its own work without interfering with its spontaneity. Herbart improved the work of\nhis predecessors ; Fræbel revolutionized it.\nPresident De Garmo summarizes the work of Herbart under three\n\nheads : \"(1) The development of a system of psychology capable of\nimmediate bearing on the problems of teaching. (2) The scientific\napplication of this psychology to education. (3) The revelation of\nthe possibility of making all the activities of the schoolroom, including especially instruction, bear directly upon moral character.\"\nEven those who differ from Herbart in regard to the foundation\n\nprinciple of his system of psychology must recognize the wonderful\nability with which he expounded it. His analytical power is simply\nmarvelous. He sees all sides of a question clearly, and sometimes\nexplains the details of opposing or qualifying principles so profoundly\nas to leave one somewhat doubtful as to the course of action recom-\n\nmended. A complete series of educational maxims covering the general fields of discipline, training, and teaching might be made from\nhis writings. Certainly no other writer has given dignity to so many\ncommonplace theories ; but, on the other hand, no writer has made\na closer analysis of mental operations.\nEven those who reject the Herbartian theory of soul growth by\nthe accumulation, enlargement, and modification of ideas will be\nready to acknowledge the fairness of the claims made by President\nDe Garmo in his summary of Herbart's work, with a slight explanatory statement. The third claim may be misunderstood to mean too\nmuch. The expression, \"all the activities of the schoolroom,\" means\ninfinitely less as applied to Herbart's system than when used in relation to the system of Fræbel.\n\nWith Herbart it refers chiefly to the\n\nwork done under the specific direction of the teacher; but in Fræbel's\ncase it always refers specially to the self-activity of the pupil. The\nphrase, \"including especially instruction,\" shows, that, in Herbart's\nsystem, it is the teacher's work, \"especially the work of instruction\nthat bears directly on moral character.\" Herbart makes this very\nexplicit throughout all his works, and summarizes his entire pedagogical system in two brief sentences : \"Instruction will form the\ncircle of thought and education the character. The last is nothing\n\nwithout the first.\n\nHerein is contained the whole sum of my peda-\n\ngogy.\"\n\nStarting with the idea that the soul possesses no \"germ-like faculties,\" and that it grows through the increase and enrichment of ideas,\nhe concludes that: \"The kernel of our mental being cannot be cultivated with certain results by means of experience and intercourse.\nInstruction most certainly penetrates deeper into the mind.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nTHEORIES OF FREBEL AND HERBART.\n\n541\n\nHaving laid this foundation, he is naturally led to rely on the doctrine of interest as the central element in his pedagogical system. Interest, desire, action, will, is the order of the sequence of human de-\n\nvelopment in his psychology. The doctrine of interest has been expounded by Herbart in a way that leaves little room for enrichment\nby his successors. With him interest is no passing fancy, no temporary attraction to things or subjects. It covers the whole ground\nof knowledge and of sympathy ; \"knowledge of the manifold, of its\nlaw, and of its æsthetic relations ; sympathy with humanity, with\n\nsociety, and the relation of both to the highest being.\" He describes\ninterest as, \"The joy of life and the elevation of soul which knows\nhow to part from life.\" He makes it, in the language of one of his\ngreatest interpreters (Ufer), \"the root of volition.\" He has been severely criticised for making action lead to will, instead of adopting\nthe commonly accepted idea that will leads to action; but those who\ndissent most strongly from his views regarding the relationship of\nwill and action may learn quite as much from his pedagogical use of\ninterest as those who are his most ardent admirers. Opponents as\nwell as disciples may have their ideas enlarged and defined by Herbart's discussion of interest, many-sidedness of interest, proportionate\n\nmany-sidedness, empirical interest, speculative interest, æsthetic interest, sympathetic interest, social interest, religious interest, absorption, and reflection.\n\nHerbart's system made instruction the basis of virtue. Ufer crystallizes Herbart's teaching on this point in the sentence : \"When instruction has generated knowledge that incites to volition, and that\nis controlled by ethical ideas, its task is done.\"\nIt is easy to see how essential it was for Herbart to insist on apperception and correlation or concentration of studies. Apperception to Herbart meant more than the accumulation of knowledge, or\neven of new knowledge allied to what was already in the mind. It\nmeant mind awakening, mind activity, mind defining, and mind enlargement ; not by accretion, but by assimilation of the new knowledge with the corresponding mind content to form a greater mind\ncontent, which should be a unity and not an aggregation of related\nideas.\n\nFræbel's educational system rests broadly on two great laws, the\nlaw of unity and the law of self-activity. His fundamental thought\nwas unity-unity in the elements of individual power, physical, intellectual, and spiritual; unity in the exercise of human powers, receptive, reflective, and executive; unity of the race, unity of man with\nnature, and unity of man with God. This law of unity led Fræbel to\ninsist even more strongly than Herbart on the perfect articulation\n\nand harmonious correlation of studies. He criticised severely the lack\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "542\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nof unity in the studies of the school he attended when a boy, and endeavored to remedy this defect in a school in which he taught while a\n\nstudent in Berlin. In all his after work he made unity an essential.\nHe made this law of unity the basis of his kindergarten system. Every detail of his system, in the gifts, occupations, games, songs, and\nstories, is related to this central thought. To those who see behind\nthe material and the occupations, the kindergarten is the objective\nembodiment of true concentration ; and Fræbel strongly urged that\nthis same principle of correlation should dominate the arrangement\nof school programs and the methods of teaching in the schools.\nFræbel's view of the human soul was directly opposite to that held\nby Herbart. Fræbel believed that the child has within him a selfactive soul, an element of divinity, the selfhood or individuality of the\n\nchild, and that this develops by being put forth in gaining a knowledge of its environment and in performing the duties pertaining to\nthe social relationships. These opinions led him to discover his law\nof spontaneity, or self-activity, which he made the underlying principle of all his developing and teaching processes in the kindergarten\nand in the school.\n\nHe did not mean by this law of spontaneity that the child has to\nacquire all knowledge by himself, without the aid of the teacher. He\ngave instruction its true value. He did mean, however, that no instruction really becomes a content of the child's mind in the highest\nsense until the child has made a creative use of it in some way. Fræbel's lessons always have two parts, the instructive and the creative.\nThe teacher gives new instruction, and immediately the child makes\nan original use or application or modification of it. In this way, by\n\nhis law of self-activity, Fræbel secures, to the fullest possible extent,\nactive, co-operative interest, and the most productive apperception.\nThe child must be more interested and more definitely attentive when\nusing knowledge than it can possibly be in receiving knowledge. Executive attention must be more developing than receptive attention,\neven if the pupil acts in carrying out the plans of the teacher; it becomes still more productive when the pupil executes its own plan or\ncarries out its own design.\n\nApperception, too, is more complete when the child is self-active\nthan at any other time. The mind content corresponding to the new\npresentation rises to the surface to receive it with greatest energy\nin response to an impulse to definite action in producing or accomplishing a creative purpose. In this way the assimilation of new\nknowledge with that already in the mind becomes most perfect, and\nthe mind content so produced responds with greatest freedom and\nwith most vital intensity to the subsequent presentation of new ideas.\n\nThe superiority of the active apperception of creative self-activity\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nTHEORIES OF FREBEL AND HERBART.\n\n543\n\nover the relatively passive apperception of the most interested receptive attitude of the pupil's mind results, therefore, from two\ncauses:\nThe mind acts with more potency in the first apperception,\nand the resulting mental content possesses more perfect homogeneity\nand more responsive energy. The executive tendency of the mind\nsecured only by self-activity is a most essential element in character.\nIn discipline and training Herbart was much more coercive than\nFræbel, although less so than most of his predecessors and some of\nhis successors. He made a much larger use of compulsion, both in\nforcing attention to study and in controlling the conduct, than Fræbel. Fræbel recognized the selfhood of the child as the true source\nof interest and the surest controlling force. He would not check effort, because he desired above all else positivity of character. He\nwould not stop the current of real individual energy; he would change\nits direction when it was wrong by changing the pupil's center of interest. His constant purpose was to secure reform and progress\nthrough the child, so that it might become self-directing and self-progressive. Herbart recognized with great clearness the necessity for\ncontrol ; Fræbel saw the harmony between spontaneity and control\"the perfect law of liberty.\" Yet Herbart acknowledged the individuality of the child. He wrote many wise things about it. He\nsays, for instance : \"The teacher ought to make it a point of honor\nto leave the individuality as untouched as possible.\" He criticises severely those teachers who \"dominate the feelings of the pupil, and,\nholding him by this bond, unceasingly disturb the youthful character\nto such an extent that it can never know itself.\"\n\nBut even his dis-\n\nciples acknowledge the fact that there is at least an apparent incongruity between his conception of the mind of the child as built up\n\"entirely of presentations,\" and a true recognition of individuality.\nHerbart himself saw this. It is clearly impossible to give individuality its full recognition when the conception of the soul is reduced\nto the smallest possible degree. The more the soul idea is limited the\nless important does individuality become, and the more potent does\nthe teacher become as a decider of destiny. Fræbel's conception of\nthe soul as an element of divinity in the child gave him a reverence\nfor individuality so profound that he demanded of the mother and\nteacher two things for the child: Freedom, and opportunity for creative activity in applying and extending the knowledge gained by experience and instruction.\nThe characteristics of the systems of Herbart and Fræbel may be\nsummarized as follows :\n\nBoth Herbart and Fræbel made high moral character the great\npurpose of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "544\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nHerbart limited the original capacity of the human soul to one\npower, \"that of entering into relations with the external world,\" or,\nas De Garmo defines Herbart's idea, \"he assigned to the soul merely\nthe capacity of self-preservation.\" Fræbel regarded the soul as a\ngerm of divinity that must inevitably develop in power and that\nshould develop by its own creative self-activity.\nHerbart studied the child to mold it; Fræbel studied it to guide\nit in its growth.\n\nHerbart studied the child as a philosopher ; Fræbel studied it as\na sympathetic friend.\n\nHerbart's recognition of individuality was limited by his conception of the inherent powers of the soul ; Fræbel's idea of the child\n\nsoul necessarily led him to reverence individuality as the central element in human development, and as the thing that made the increase\nof human power desirable.\nHerbart saw the need of control much more clearly than the need\nof freedom; Fræbel saw the harmony between freedom and control.\nHerbart made instruction the basis of virtue; Fræbel made mor-\n\nality depend on true living in the home and in the school, on the\nawakening of the ideal as a counterpoise to the sensual, and on the\nrecognition of and reverence for the life principle in and behind nature.\n\nHerbart made will result from action ; Froebel made action result\n\nfrom will. Self-activity developed the will according to Fræbel, but\nhe taught that the will increased in power as the result of its exercise\nin causing creative self- activity.\nHerbart's contributions to pedagogy are a matchless discussion of\n\ninterest, a thorough exposition of apperception, and a philosophic\nfoundation for co-ordination of studies, so that they may produce the\nmost definite and most beneficial results on character.\n\nFræbel re-\n\nvealed the law of creative self-activity as the source of growth, including in it the most intense and most certain interest and the most\n\nperfect apperception; and the law of universal unity, in which unity\nof studies (correlation or concentration) was definitely recognized,\nalthough it is not the most important part of Fræbel's comprehensive\nidea of unity. Fræbel's chief influence on educational forces rests\non his recognition of woman as an educational factor outside of the\n\nhome as well as in it, and his extension of the period of training by\nproviding his comprehensive kindergarten system for little children.\nThe kindergarten is an objective illustration of the results of reverent child study, and has undoubtedly led to the universal interest in\nthe systematic study of the child which during the past ten years\nhas become the most prominent characteristic of educational investigation. Fræbel influenced educational thought and practice, too, to\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n545\n\na large extent, by his use of play as an educational force. Others had\nrecognized the value of play, but Fræbel was the first to organize\nplay as an essential element in training.\nHerbart aimed to produce in his pupils the spirit and the power\nof co-operative and productive activity. In this ideal he was the\npeer of all other educators except Fræbel, and the superior of most\nof them. Fræbel's ideal was co-operative, productive, and creative\nself-activity.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nMRS. EUDORA L. HAILMAN, Washington, D. C.-In reading an account of\nHerbart's educational activity, we are surprised to see no mention of Froebel, although their life-work ran along similar paths and although Herbart was familiar\nwith Pestalozzi's work and had opportunity to familiarize himself with Froebel's.\nAmong the explanations which might be given for this the most plausible as\nwell as most charitable is found in his failure to recognize the value of early and\n\nearliest life development and his blindness to woman's share in this. All recognized education in his time was mere instruction, and even that in the hands of\n\nmen only, who, from necessity, could not divine the soul of the infant being. Infant psychology is concurrent with the advent of the woman teacher and with\nthe recognition of woman as the most important agent in the education of man-\n\nkind. From the cradle to the grave it is woman who inspires, sustains, restrains,\nencourages, and guides. It is woman who has brought to schools and colleges\nhumane methods of discipline. Therefore, any system of education which would\nlay claim to real merit must acknowledge the essential importance of early childhood. If education meant merely a logical piling up in the mind of more or less\nvaluable information, we might do well to follow the Herbartian method. But the\nworld is on a higher plane to-day in these matters than it was fifty years ago.\nThe view is broader and deeper. The two men who did most to lift us upon this\nhigher plane are Pestalozzi and Froebel.\nThe principal reason for this lies in the recognition on their part of early\nchildhood as the beginning point in the work of education, and the acknowledgment\nof the relative infallibility of woman's method of developing soul. This is the chief\ndifference as I see it between the educational schemes of Herbart and Froebel.\n\nHerbart directed his attention to the school-life of the child, or rather of the\nboy child, with reference to the advancement of learning and the establishment of\nethical character in citizenship. Froebel directed his attention to the growing development of childhood towards all-sided humanity, of which learning and citizenship are incidents. He saw and utilized the value of the first six years in child-life\nas essential in the development of soul. He emphasized what Herbart failed to appreciate sufficiently-the careful attention to the training of the senses, both in seeing and doing, through which all percepts, concepts, appercepts, or whatnots of\nidea life are set in motion.\n\nHerbart emphasizes the importance of stimulating interest in the child's mind,\nbut does not recognize in his work the child's spontaneity upon which Froebel based\na doctrine of interest broader, deeper, and more vital than that of Herbart. He\n35\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n546\n\n[Kindergarten\n\npaid too much regard to the correlation, co-ordination, concentration, and other\nexternalities in school studies, but failed to grasp the nature of the child. Hence\nmuch artificial formalism and little natural development; possible enhancement\nof talent and certain arrest of genius ; much accumulation of traditional lore,\nbut atrophy of the creative impulses upon which human progress, or, as Froebel\nwould say, the revelation of God in man depends.\nHerbart strikes a keynote of the pedagogics of the kindergarten in what he\ncalls interests arising from association with others, but fails to provide means\nfor unfolding these interests in a truly helpful life of benevolent co-ordination.\nHerbart makes much of voluntary attention, but fails to build it on the strong\nfoundation of illumined spontaneous interest of which Froebel never loses sight.\nVoluntary attention not so founded is cold and unimpassioned, lacks vitality, dies\nin erudition, and fails of life- fruitage.\n\nHerbart and Herbartism is rich in devices, artificial courses of study, forced\nadaptations of painfully selected ex cathedra details to cruder generalizations of\nchild-life-schedulings without end; but fails in regard for the child's individuality,\nin which Froebel sees the renewed promise of the ultimate revelation of God in\nman.\n\nBoth Herbart and Froebel emphasize the importance of experience in mental\nlife. But Herbart limits it to its value in the apperception of stored treasures of\nlearning, while Froebel extends it to all the varied moods of self-expression in an\nactive, beneficent life. Herbart's child learns to see how to do; Froebel's child\nsees and does all along the line.\nI confess that I realize keenly the difficulty of a comparison between Herbart\nand Froebel without constant danger of seeming unfairness to Herbart. Herbart\nhas done much for which he deserves the gratitude of teachers with reference\nto school instruction and its value in character training; but Froebel's work em-\n\nbraces every phase of soul-unfolding. To compare the two is like comparing Pike's\nPeak with the Rocky Mountains. To compare Herbart's \"General Principles of\nPedagogics\" with Froebel's \"Education of Man\" is like comparing a commentary\non one of the books of the Bible with the Bible as a whole.\n\nAll honor to the commentary as far as it goes, and let us sincerely thank the\nauthor for the light he throws on the particular book of which he treats, but let\nus not fall into the error of taking the texts for life sermons in our work from the\ncommentary.\n\nDR. W. N. HAILMAN, Washington, D. C.-I agree with the proposition, that it\nis always an injury in the work of education if those who teach follow some one\nleader and not the child. I think one of the chief hindrances to the development of\n\nHerbartism is its name. We have in the kindergarten gotten entirely rid of\nFroebel.\n\nWe don't call ourselves Froebellian any more. We are followers of the\n\nkindergarten idea. Men die and women die, but the principles live forever, and\nwe follow the principles. Froebel himself was bitterly opposed to the term Froebelliau. \"Personal foliowing,\" he said, \"separates, and principles alone unite. Follow the principles I have indicated, but not me. I am but the weak exponent of the\ndawn of insight into that principle, and you, who do this work, must see it more\nclearly than I have done.\"\nTo place the name of any man at the head of a system will necessarily narrow\nand weaken its development. The comparison between Froebel and Herbart seems\nalmost impossible, for the reason already given, that Herbartism deals with a\ncourse of study in school. It does not deal with education; it looks primarily upon\ninstruction. Froebel looks primarily upon the child, and uses instruction as a\nmethod of development. This is a very important difference between the two.\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n547\n\nHerbart transmits the tradition of the race to the child; the kindergarten and its\n\neducational principles seek to unfold a divinity that lives in the child. The kindergarten deals always with the child-helps the process of evolution. Herbart goes\nupon the idea of culture epochs-declares that every human being in its development must pass through all the various periods of development through which the\nhuman race has gone.\n\nYet, granting that this is true, it does not follow that it is a correct educational\nprinciple to fix the child successively in all these periods; to make him for a little\nwhile a savage, and for another little while a half savage, and then a civilized\nbeing.\n\nThis arrests development. We want to give the children the best ideals of the\npresent. Upon these ideals shall they stand. When these are firmly impressed on\ntheir souls, when they have the attitude towards the ideals of the present and\nfuture, then they can look with profit upon the ideals of the past which we have\ndismissed.\n\nWe don't want to arrest development. I was brought up in Switzerland. My\nteachers had heard of Herbart and we were taught some upon Herbartian methods .\n\nWe were taught, more particularly, the Bible history. I remember the influence\nwhich Bible history had upon my mind. I see it with a sort of dread even now.\nI had been taught in my daily life to look with reverence upon social institutions.\nI saw my father and mother a unit in the family of which I was a part. Then I\nlearned about the patriarchs, whom we were almost taught to worship, having\nseveral wives, and it impressed itself upon me that possibly my father might indulge in several wives, and that possibly when I grew up I might be as fortunate\nas the patriarchs. This had to be undone in my mind. My moral status was demoralized. So in regard to other things about patriarchs which even at that day\nI could not appreciate. I went to school to a little town that was two or three\nmiles away from the village. Every morning I walked the three miles and in the\nevening I walked the three miles back to my home. I remember one day after\nwe had been taught that history in which Jacob deceived Esau out of his birthright with the approval of God, I walked home the whole way protesting against\nthe injustice on the part of God.\nI called him, in a childish way, all sorts of ugly names, all to myself. There\nis some of the effect of the culture epoch. How does the kindergarten handle this ?\nIt says we must give only the best. How does nature handle it in the physical\ndevelopment? Does she give to the little child food which it cannot digest ? No ;\n\nshe makes him strong first before she subjects him to the task of taking less digestible food.\nNow, the kindergarten does the same.\n\nThe kindergarten would make the child\n\na social being, and therefore places him, not into a savage state but into an ideal\nlittle society, in which everything is kindliness and helpfulness, in which there is\nnot competition but co-ordination, in which one helps and appreciates the help of\nanother.\n\nThen, when this attitude is established, it shows him that in life there are not\nideal societies, but that he must labor, and forward, and strive towards this, which\nhas been made his attitude.\n\nEducation and instruction are two different things. Herbart would teach: the\nkindergarten would develop-would develop soul. Erudition and life are the outcomes of the two- erudition of Herbart and life of kindergarten, but life includes\nerudition; therefore it is all that Herbartism would be.\n\nThe kindergarten, then, as I take it, has no quarrel with Herbart. The kindergarten accepts everything that Herbart has given us, and the followers of these\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "548\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nprinciples accept gratefully this one great achievement of Herbart, that instruction\nmust, at every step, develop character.\n\nThat is good. Let us hold that fast. But\n\nthe kindergarten has the same, and all good teaching for some time has had the\nsame idea and ideal.\n\nHerbart has taught it well. The kindergarten would acknowledge gratefully\nthe contribution, if you choose to call it so, of Herbart to educational science, that\neverything that is done in instruction must be based upon the child's previous experience. All these things and several others I think the kindergarten would gratefully acknowledge, but not substitute these for the wider, higher, broader, deeper\naim of education as presented to us in the \"Education of Man.\"\nIn the \"Education of Man\" we are told that the destiny of mankind is to un-\n\nfold the divinity that lies within, and the divinity is never unfolded within us by\ngoing back to previous periods and resting upon those. May I follow the example\nof Miss Arnold, and also close with a piece of advice ?\nOne of the outcomes of this epoch is the present prevalent notion that children\n\nshould be fed as early as possible with myths and fairy stories, representing an\nearly culture epoch in man. Now, in regard to this, I would advise great caution.\nUpon the myth I look as one of the most highly developed creatures of human\ngenius; as an effort to represent in poetic form the theory of life and the theory\nof nature, as it appeals to a mature, earnest, poetic mind. To bring this to a child,\nit seems to me, is a desecration of the myth, as well as a sin against childhood.\nIn the first place, the child cannot appreciate the soul of the myth. The child\nlacks maturity, lacks the knowledge, lacks the experience, lacks the insight into\nthings and relations of things which are absolutely necessary in order to appreciate\nthe soul of the myth. Hence he gets from the myth merely certain externalities of\nplot or form, but not the meanings or soul of it. Something similar, it seems to me,\napplies to a fairy story. The fairy story is the outcome of a rich, vivid fancy, imagination. It pleases the child, but perhaps not all things that please a child are good,\nand in the selection of a fairy story we should be exceedingly cautious to see to it\nthat its teaching should be in the right direction; that it should not lead the child\n\nback into former epochs ; should not give him wrong ideas. I can tell you some\nstories from my lonesome walks to school. I was fed on stories, and I labor under\nthe pernicious effects of them to this day.\nI used to go home from school after hearing a fairy story and imagine myself\nthe hero of that story, and I should blush to relate to you the absurd wickedness\nthat came to my mind and which I fancied and acted out under the influence of the\n\nfairy story. There was, among other things on the road, an old castle. I visited\nthat castle sometimes during the spring summer months. I went down into its\ndeeper vaults, and there I communed with those persons who played with bones\nof skeletons, etc., and cruelty grew in my heart and much disregard for the sweet\nand beautiful things of life. And a taste for the hideous grew, and my mother\nhad trouble to get that out, and I have labored to this day to help my mother in\nthe work.\n\nGive to the child the truth; that is not fairy story. Give him the truth to stand\non, the truth to love, the truth to see always, the truth as he can see it; not the\ntruth as you can see it, but the truth as he can see it. Is not nature beautiful ?\nIs not the sunrise beautiful ? And the sunset ? The life of the flower, and the\nvarious animals of which the child can take loving care ?\n\nIn the daily intercourse of one child with another, are not there ample opportunities for beautiful teaching, helpful, material, instructive situations ? Why\nnot take these, instead of those things which merely confuse, pervert, mislead the\nchild's mind, and therefore arrest development? Let us hold fast to the truth; not\nfollow names. Principles only are strong and will lead us to success.\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n549\n\nCOL. F. W. PARKER of Chicago, Ill. The initial movement in education in this\n\ncentury was made by the kindergarten. History will confirm this statement. The\nnext great organized movement now coming in with zeal and earnestness and\n\nscholarship is the Herbartian method. I am neither a Froebellian nor a Herbartian.\nI don't like the word \"follower\" in this country. From both we get methods and\nprinciples of priceless value. Froebel recognized the divinity of the child. Herbart did not find that inherent, and therefore Herbart will have to be modified,\nfor I believe Froebel was right. The child is possessed of marvelous powers of\nbody and mind, and all the progress of education in the past and the future will\ngrow out of it.\nHere is the difference between these men : Froebel discovered the great dignity\n\nof the child. The great failure of Herbart is, he believes in class education. There\nis no class education in Froebel. That is the reason he was driven out of Prussia\nin 1848. Froebel meant the entire freedom of man. It is not his gifts and methods\n\nwe quarrel over. He believed in the principle of freedom for every child-a democratic freedom. The aristocratic instinct knew what that meant, and so it drove\nhim out.\n\nHerbart and his followers did not arrive at that.\n\nThe greatest thing in the kindergarten, which is above all, superior to all else,\n\nis the community life, which the child cannot have at home because he has nothing\nto do for others. The only way to educate a human being is to set him to work for\nothers. You can make a pedant of him, but you cannot develop him in the highest\nway without giving him something to do for others. Morality is thinking and seeking what you can do for others, and ethics is putting it into execution. Froebel\n\nrecognized that thought, and put the children into the community life, to give them\nsomething to do for others before selfishness seized upon them. Froebel and Herbart are working in the same direction. I believe in the work of Herbart, only I\nwant to say, don't be followers of Herbart. Be followers of his spirit. Don't be\ndisciples of Froebel, but interpret his spirit and apply it. The ideal school is the\nideal community. The child is not in school to gain knowledge. He is there to\nlive and to put his life into the community in which he lives. This is the future of\neducation. We must abandon the quantity view, the knowledge view, and remember that the society of to-morrow is the school of to-day. We can only make the\nsociety good, the state good, as we make these little communities of children love\neach other and put their work in each other's lives, and so the world will move\nforward.\n\nFRANK M. MCMURRY, Buffalo, N. Y.-My special topic is the relationship of\nHerbart and Froebel. Not long ago President Eliot remarked that the problem\nof education was the same, whether we spoke of the kindergarten, or the school, or\nthe university. He declared that the laws of teaching, if true, are universal in\ntheir application. We have in this country to-day an enthusiastic body of kindergartners; likewise we have those interested in Herbart's teachings.\n\nIf the laws of\n\ninstruction are universal, there is no reason why these two bodies should stand\naloof from one another. They ought to recognize the unity of their efforts. During the past year my experience has led me to feel we are losing much because we\nstand away from one another, thinking about topics which really are closely related. I have not a very long-time acquaintance with the ideas of Froebel, but\nall my work has led me to think of the relationship between these two men. Knowledge and discipline are not the primary objects of either of these schools by any\nmeans. I am going to touch upon the points of similarity. Knowledge does not\nstand first in the minds of the Herbartians in Germany to-day. Neither of these\nschools is utilitarian. Knowledge is an instrument and not a thing in itself. Both\nof these men keep in mind the condition under which knowledge can be gained.\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EducaTIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n550\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThe attitude of the child toward the studies-that is what we are thinking about.\nBoth schools are aiming primarily, not at character, not at knowledge, not at discipline, but at the right attitude of the child toward the thoughts given him. The\n\ndevelopment of taste is a strong test among Herbartians ; also, the development of\na religious, social, sympathetic, speculative interest and scientific interest. Herbart\ndivided the work of instruction into these six fields.\n\nIn each line the purpose is\n\nto develop a love for one or the other, or all of these lines. Then we agree in\nattempting to develop primarily the tastes, the loves, in the leading fields of knowledge. I hope, that, if I misinterpret the kindergarten standpoint, the mistake can\nbe pointed out here this afternoon. I am preaching from the standpoint of Herbart, but it seems to me it is the standpoint of Froebel also.\nTo both of these schools, what is taught in the school is an exceedingly important matter.\n\nWe don't agree on the whole with the common statement that it\n\nmakes little difference what children study. We agree, that, through clear and\naccurate ideas, a strong character is to be developed, provided a lively interest in\nthose thoughts is aroused. Here is possibly a difference : I am not certain whether\nthe followers of Froebel believe that ideas themselves are the chief means through\nwhich a live interest can be aroused.\nI saw during the past year a morning circle in a kindergarten in which corals\n\nwere the topic, and the teacher presented a quantity of thought which was so\ndifficult that I would not have attempted to give it in three or four recitations with\n\nten-year-old children. The Herbart standpoint is that a lively interest is based\nupon clear, accurate thoughts. Whether that is the kindergartner's standpoint or\nnot, I am not quite sure. We see, then, that both of these schools do not aim at\ndiscipline primarily. We are interested in choosing ideas which fit the child. Ap-\n\nperception is one of the most common words among Herbartians. Child study is\none of the most common phrases. We are interested in just the same kind of work.\nWe both realize that the school is for the child.\n\nThe standpoint in this country\n\nto-day is not that. As I understand common schools, the teacher feels the curriculum is superior to the child. As I understand it, the kindergartners and Herbartians are opposed to that. The curriculum must be sacrificed for the children.\n\nI think the principle of going from the whole to parts is emphasized vastly more\nby the kindergartners than by the followers of Herbart. A part may be a whole,\na whole may be a part; it depends upon how we look at it. On that account, the\nHerbartians emphasize the law of apperception. Begin with the thought which is\nnearest the child. We might begin with a tree or a part of a tree; for instance,\nthe roots, if the roots of a tree are nearest the child's interest. So the law of apperception guides us in making our choice.\nComing down to the arrangement of subject-matter, I think the kindergartners\nare accomplishing concentration more nicely than the followers of Herbart.\n\nI have\n\nnever seen such beautifully connected work in the common schools as in the kindergarten. The morning circle in which the ideas are presented which guide the work\nin occupations and gifts, it seems to me, is the center of interest there, the center\nof concentration, and the day's work in the kindergarten is better associated than\nin the common school; and many weeks' work is better associated in the mind of\nthe child than the different weeks' work in the common school. I think teachers have a great deal to learn from the kindergartner. I don't believe we can ever\n\napply the kindergarten idea fully, and I don't think it desirable quite, but I find\nthe ideal relationship of the day's work there.\n\nFurther, both the kindergartners and Herbartians have brought into the world\na new conception of what a recitation is. I heard two university presidents a short\ntime ago state, that, in the universities, text-books and lectures were being given\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nMINISTRY OF SONG.\n\n551\n\nup largely, especially lectures. I believe it is, to a considerable extent, owing to\nthese two schools. The kindergarten shows us that a recitation should be, primarily, a conversation. We see it above all in the circle work. It is certainly\n\nweak when we find people reciting what is in a book or listening to a lecture. The\nkindergarten gives us the ideal method of instruction.\n\nWe meet face to face in\n\nthe morning circle. The old plan of Socrates is coming into vogue to-day. The\nrelationship of the occupations, the games, and the gifts is that largely of the application of the thoughts gotten in the morning circle. In no instruction anywhere\nis the application of the ideas, the doing of what is talked about, so emphasized as\nin the kindergarten work, and there is no point which is so vital to proper instruction.\n\nThe common schools and colleges do not to-day recognize that the moral\n\nthoughts gotten in history and literature should be applied in character. The\nkindergarten is leading us in that thought. The Herbartians are urging that point\ncontinually, when they say that the fifth formal step, viz., the application of\nthoughts in all studies, is one of the points of universal importance. The Herbartian primary school, then, if we agree as to these fundamental points, is practically a continuation of the kindergarten. If we had to-day our primary schools\narranged as the Herbartian school insists, viz., with a rich course of study in literature and in nature a rich thought contained-it seems to me that it would be a\nproper continuation of the kindergarten. We feel the kindergarten gives to children, first of all, attractive ideas. We feel in kindergarten a love for literature is\ngained thoroughly imaginative literature. Here we provide for imaginative literature, like the myths and fairy tales. We feel that they are true. Myths and fairy\ntales are true just as poetry is true. The underlying thought in classic literature is\ntrue. In brief, then, I would say, simply, that we are working along the same lines .\nThe principles we insist upon are universal.\n\nTHE FACULTY AND MINISTRY OF SONG.\nBY W. L. TOMLINS , CHICAGO , ILL.\n\nTo speak of music or to write of music is not to express it. Music\nspeaks for itself. Music tells for itself what words can never tell for\nit. Yet there are so many misconceptions abroad in regard to the\nfaculty of song, and so much of that misconception in schools, that a\ngreat deal of harm is being done. I am very glad this afternoon to\nsimply talk to you, talk to you as a workman coming from a workshop (for I am used to the workshop rather than the platform), and if\npossible suggest along certain lines what I think may help those of\nyou who are workers.\n\nFirst, we may speak of the universality of music. Music is appreciated by all peoples, and under almost all possible conditions from\nthe cradle to the grave, as the lullaby in the cradle, the lover's song,\nthe anthem, the battle hymn, the funeral march, and the dirge. Rus\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "552\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nkin says that music will not lend itself to anything that is ignoble,\nand uses the illustration that a girl may mourn in song the loss of\nher lover ; a miser cannot voice in song his loss of gold. There are\npeople who say that there is something unwholesome in music-in\n\ncertain kinds of dance music. If you will bring me music which you\nclaim to be unwholesome, I will put my finger on the spots which\nprove it not to be true music.\n\nIt is not necessary to understand music to appreciate it. It rather\nseems to understand us. When we come together music is appropriate. It sympathizes in our joys, consoles us in our sorrows. The\npower of music is almost magic. A year or two ago I remember\nstanding on the corner of State and Madison streets, in Chicago, on\na very busy day when everybody was hurrying along surrounded with\nthe rush and turmoil of Chicago life. Suddenly a military band was\nheard, and at once it was a holiday. There was joyousness in every\nstep, such was the power of even the more material music.\n\nIn song,\n\na higher form of music, the effect is very much greater. Some of you\nmay remember how John B. Gough, the great temperance orator, used\nto begin his lectures and continue them for some time by telling a\nnumber of stories. Some thought he merely wished to get his audience interested, but he had a much more profound motive. His stories had a method in them. He would tell a story exciting laughter;\nanother, pity; another, indignation ; another, courage, sympathy, reverence; in short, he would go the round, the gamut of the emotions,\nand when he had touched the entire audience in every point of their\nemotional nature, then he struck. What Mr. Gough accomplished\nwith these stories, systematically taking thirty or forty minutes to\nget his audience stirred, Patti would do in forty seconds, and do it\nvery much better. One line of \"Home, Sweet Home,\" and the entire\naudience was at her feet, her slaves. Not only Patti, but Nilsson,\nwith the \"Suwanee River,\" would affect people to a greater degree\nthan John B. Gough. For instance, a man in that audience who was\nwrought up to intensity of mind, would be let down at once, and the\npoor woman at his side, who with weary watching was worn out,\nwould be lifted up. Each one in the audience would be brought to his\nequilibrium. They were more themselves than before the song began. With their sympathetic response to the singer, they became\nequal to each other and equal to her. People who would sit, as people are too apt to sit, afraid to approach a neighbor on either side,\n\nwould turn with a smile, and maybe a handshake, so much did\nthe song bring about the feeling of equality and brotherhood.\nWhat is this spirit of song ? Do we get it in books? I think not.\nYou get in the books a great deal about flats, and sharps, and scales,\nand naturals, and keys, but that does not make you a musician. I\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINISTRY OF SONG.\n\nDepartment. ]\n\n553\n\nknow people who know ever so much about those things ; they are not\nmusicians. I know others who learn to sing up and down, loud and\n\nsoft, fast and slow, but they are not singers. They can know all those\nthings and not be musicians. Not only are you alive, if you are a musician, but you are capable of giving life to others. If my voice is\nfervent, vital with the song thought-if I sorrow, you will sorrow ; if\nI am glad, your eyes will dry in response. The song voice, the voice\nof the inner self, the real self, the individual, is unique.\nIn my hand here I hold a piece of paper. It is limited in its length,\npossibly six or eight inches. If it were a scale of miles on a map of\nthe state, it might represent 500 miles. On a map of the continent\n\nit might represent 5,000, but whether inches or miles, it is finite in its\ncapacity, and if I move across it I have to come back again. If I\nbend it and curve it in form, it is still finite, until I make a complete\ncircle; then it is infinite. Anything can pass around it millions of\ntimes. It is the symbol of infinity.\nHere I will hold in my hand in imagination a bell. I strike it and\nthe vibration will go freely around the bell. All of it will speak and\nits individuality will be announced. It will say to you, \"I am a bell.\"\nListen to it (strikes it)-bell-1-1-1-1-1. It voices itself. Its individuality comes from its completeness. I will take something else, which\nI will call a gong. In its completeness it voices itself, and says, \"I\nam a gong.\" Let us see (strikes it)-gong-ng-ng-ng-ng. Take the\ngong in my hand now and muffle it, so that only half of it can speak.\nStrike it and listen to it.\n\nLet me take the bell and muffle half of that\n\nand strike it. Is there any difference ? It says, \"chink, chink.\" When\nwe are fractional, and only part of ourselves, we say, \"chink.\" When\nwe are complete, as the bell, we say, I am a bell, a man, a singer, a\nchild. The singers are altogether too full of chinks. We have not\nenough of individuality. The people who came in prosaic with everyday work were only a fraction of themselves when they came to hear\nPatti sing. Among others was the man striving for No. 1, trying to\nget ahead of everybody else. That is the last possible way of being\nyourself. Take care of No. 1, and you will never be anything. It is\nonly in going out to others you can be something. These people came\nin and what did they hear ? Patti's voice complete. As that piano\nresponds to my voice, the people responded to Patti's voice, and for\na moment they were really themselves, instead of the abnormal halfself which they were when they came into the room.\n\nSuch was the\n\ninfluence of Patti's voice, in which her completeness so influenced\nthem that for the first time in years they were complete selves.\nAre we all Pattis ?\n\nI don't think so.\n\nIt is not necessary that we\n\nshould be. It is not necessary that my voice should be as beautiful\nas Patti's, or that people should flock to hear me. But because my\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "554\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nvoice is not equal to Patti's, am I denied the right to be myself? Not\nat all. If my voice is not as beautiful, shall I not then be able to look\nout with love from my eyes, smile with tenderness, accomplish with\nenthusiasm; am I to be denied all that because my face is not beautiful, and white, and regular? Not at all. A year or two\nago I saw in a \"Century Magazine\" a picture of Abraham\nLincoln. His face is not beautiful, but in that picture I saw a\ntype of fine Americanism, and there can be no more beautiful thing\nthan looked out from his eyes.\n\nWe have this power to express our-\n\nselves, whether or not our voices are as beautiful as Patti's. Another\npoint comes here. Why is the effect so transient? If I had met\nthose listeners as they came out of the concert rushing for a horse-car,\nand not feeling very well because they had to stand up, could I still\nsee that which came in response to Patti ? If it only lasted a few minutes, what is the good of it? Why is it transient? Fifty years ago\nthe lightning illuminated everything for a moment. Is the lightning\nany good ? Why doesn't it continue? Look at the electric lights in\nthis church. Electricity is no greater power than music. God flashes\nmusic into our lives, and says : \"That is what you ought to be all the\ntime-normal, complete, manly. Individuality, nobility, spirituality,\n-higher and higher,-these are your real qualities.\" God did not intend we could get this illumination in one minute by hearing a line\nof Patti's song. He has arranged that we should be seventy years in\nthis world, and there is no patent arrangement for music or anything\nelse that could do God's work in one minute. God said, \"So order\nyour life that you may realize permanently what I give you temporarily.\"\n\nIf music is so great a power, are people who deal in music more\nthan any others, professional musicians,-are these looked up to as\nthe greatest people in the world ? A few years ago, in Chicago, there\nwas a boy singer who sang in one of the Episcopal churches, and sang\nvery well. He made a great deal of money, which the trustees of the\nchurch put by for him. When his voice broke he was taken for a journey around the world. After twelve or eighteen months, when the\nboy was expected back, the people were talking about this boy, wondering how the money could be invested. One said to me : \"We have\ndone all this, and now do you know we have just received word from\nhim, and he says he is going to be a musician. It is altogether too\nbad; it is extra bad because the boy has brains, Mr. Tomlins.\"\nWe are apt to have the drudgery of prosaic work in everyday life.\nCares drag us down, and music comes with balloon-like elasticity to\nlift us up, that we may better carry our load. It invigorates us, inspires us. I should say that a ballast of prosaics needs this balloon\n\nelasticity, but it is just as apt to be all balloon and no ballast, and\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nMINISTRY OF SONG.\n\n555\n\nsome of our friends are just that. They indulge in music for some selfish motive. The higher purpose of music does not come to them. It\nis not connected with their work in life and does not lift it up as it\nshould. The buoyancy of the balloon without the ballast is the result. But Wagner himself, in 1844, made a statement of which I can\ngive you the substance only. He said: \"Not to you, supersensitives\nin music; not to you, great artists, is the future of music intrusted.\nYou go on and up and up, with your higher culture and your supersensitiveness; but the future of music is that it shall come down in\n\nharmony, and love, and helpfulness to those who toil in the fields, to\nthe worker, that there shall be fragrance in the life of him who only\ndigs. And to you, who lift up music in its superexcellence as some\npeople take fragrance from the flowers,--the attar of roses, for instance, and leave the dead leaves repulsive,-it was not intended in\n\nnature that the leaves should be without fragrance; and it was not\n\nintended that lives should be without fragrance; and do you know,\nsupersensitives, that in God's nostrils you are as offensive as the\nleaves are to us?\" The going down to the root soil of everyday lifethis is to be the future ministry of music.\nLet us go back to the illustration of the bell. Let us go up in the\nbelfry and strike the large church bell, so that it proclaims the hour\nto the whole town.\n\nBoom-m-m-m, and as that deep tone dies away\n\nand grows softer, you will hear the higher harmonics of that bellyou will hear thousands of them like little bells. This is the inner\nthought, the inner life of the bell, made up of those little sound circles at the top of the bell. It is they that give quality to the tone of\nthe bell. The quality of the bell is, therefore, according to the harmonics of the bell, their number and relationship. The bell is always\nthe same. It is somber or clear-toned according as the harmonics\nare so. The tone of our voice goes out to the world. But we are different from the bell in this respect, that we may change the harmonics. We may be somber or be joyful, or entreat or command, or\nmake sorrow or joy, or have faith, or hope, or love.\nThe inner quality of the voice in its harmonics may be divided into\nthree parts, which may stand for the thought, the feeling, and the\nwill. The artistic voice must possess these three elements. You\ncannot have a good song without all three. Some people think love\nsongs, which in singing is not enough. The young man will not\nsucceed with a lady if he goes to her saying: \"My dear lady, I think\nI love you.\" It is not sufficient in a song. Some people feel a great\ndeal ; their voices are quite sympathetic and they are so sorry for\neverybody, and wish they could help them. This again is not song,\nfor there must be an element of will as well as of feeling. The voice\nwith only domination is masculine to brutality; with only sympathy,\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "556\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nit is feminine to effeminacy; both the masculine and feminine must\nbe in the voice.\n\nThere are three departments in music, as there are the three elements in the voice. Corresponding to the thought in singing is melody; corresponding to feeling is harmony; and corresponding to will\nis rhythm. These come together in what in music is called a beat. A\nbeat in music is like a step in walking. The singer sings by beats in\nmusic, the soldier steps to the beat of the drum. When a recruit is\nput into the hands of the drill sergeant his chief idea in marching is\nself- consciousness. He lives on each step. He has no thought of\ngoing anywhere. He simply says, \"I live on my left foot, I live on my\nright foot. \" He simply exists on his feet; he does not live at all. The\nlowest musicianship is that of the banjo player. He never plays his\nbanjo except he uses his heel. So a soldier marches on his heel.\n\nAfter awhile he has a purpose and the instep comes in play, and then\nhe walks to his sentry duty and back to the barracks. He goes some-\n\nwhere and comes from somewhere. In the case of the singer, the\nsingle pulse becomes a series of impulses; it is an impulse not only\nlike the step of the soldier, which comes from somewhere and goes\n\nsomewhere, but the impulse remembers the past and expects and\nhopes a future. This impulse is a little piece of eternity. It has a\nhistory in the past which you recognize; it has the destiny of its\nfuture, which you feel.\nAll thought is for what purpose? To go out to you, my brother,\nand in going out with all my strength to you I enlarge my own\ncapacity. In giving I get. This is what music is good for-to express brotherhood. The highest form of music is yet to come in the\nworld. Fifty years from now if you look back to 1895 you will think\nit the dark ages of musical execution, when men sang with contentment for themselves-sang with self-consciousness. There was a\nrosebud one day in a garden. You know what is the proper experience for rosebuds. As long as they are incomplete and immature, the\nleaves simply bind over each other and the rose hides itself from the\nworld. When maturity comes, each leaf laps outward and gives what\nis beauty of form and color to the rose for the world in its garden.\nBut this little rosebud which was so very beautiful, said to itself: “I\nwill have my beauty, fragrance, and color for my own satisfaction.\"\nThe days went on, and it did not open, but faded away and fell at last\nto the ground. As it fell apart worms came out of it. It had rotted\nin its selfishness. Even so there is much danger in dealing with music. If you neglect the use of music, the ministration of music ; if\n\nyou do not go out to your fellows in encouragement, helpfulness, good\nwill, in sympathy, and most of all in love, music may become a very\ndangerous thing.\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nKNOWLEDGE OF THE KINDERGARTEN.\n\n557\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nThe informal round table which had been arranged for the further discussion\n\nof the \"Faculty of Music\" by Mr. Tomlins, on the day following, grew in proportions, until it was a more formal gathering of several hundred representative\nkindergartners. Mr. Tomlins gave an hour's discourse, practically illustrating\nthe influence of music-that composite language which utters many qualities of\nfeeling and meaning in a single tone-word . He gave illustrations from the great\noratorios, showing how one strain from Handel may express the mingled sentiment of reverence, grief, tenderness, profound conviction or emphatic declaration.\nHe added many practical illustrations of how a teacher may work with children\nand secure the pure tone, which shall reveal the individual in his truest nature.\nThe quality of tone to be secured through the chorus voice was carefully dis-\n\ncussed, Mr. Tomlins indicating how the better part of each individual voice contributes to the beautiful effect of the whole.\n\nA KNOWLEDGE OF THE KINDERGARTEN INDISPENSABLE\nIN PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.\n\nBY MISS SARAH L. ARNOLD , SUPERVISOR OF SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nFELLOW TEACHERS : AS I have sat looking upon your faces, 1\nhave been reminded of a poem read over and over again in childhood. I give you simply the thought. A weary man going on his\n\nway to his work passed a group of merry children, who were trying\nto climb up the steps of a schoolhouse. The steps were covered\nwith ice, and they fell back again and again. One little girl said to\nthe other, \"It is easier taking hold of hands.\" So, all our work is\neasier when we take hold of hands.\n\nThe happy thing about this gathering is, that the primary teachers and kindergartners are meeting together. They are realizing\nthat they have a common work together. I am happy to take hold\nof hands with you this afternoon, and to feel for myself new courage and new interest, because I know of the good work you are doing in your place.\nOne of the most beautiful signs of the times is that we are forgetting to cut the education of the child into slices, as though we\nwere concerned with only one year of the child-life, and then to pass\nhim over to some one to take charge of another period of his existence. The university looks down upon the secondary schools\nand finds help, and the high schools look down upon the primary, and\nnow the National Council has appointed a committee to decide how\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n558\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthe child in the ungraded schools can be better taken care of.\n\nWe\n\nare learning that we are teachers of the child, and not teachers of a\nsection. Our work is a common one, and if we understand the work\nour sisters and brothers are doing in their line, we can better do\nour own work.\n\nWe must learn from it how to do our work in our\n\npath well, and we can never do our work thoroughly unless we\nknow how it is being done by others who look at it from a different\nstandpoint.\n\nThe subject allotted to me, \"A Knowledge of the Kindergarten Indispensable to Primary Instruction,\" I shall not attempt to adhere\nvery closely to; but I want to say, first, to you, that there are two\ndistinct lines in which the kindergarten has been of inestimable serv-\n\nice to the primary work. It has been so in some cases without the\nknowledge of the primary teachers. We have found that the truth\nthat has been dearest to us all our lives is the truth you have been\ntrying to express, that the child must grow through his own activity and not through the teacher's will impressed upon him. I\nthink you would be glad to see how that ideal is being followed in\nthese schools. The impressing of a teacher's will upon a child's\nwill in the primary school is a thing of the past, as I have seen it.\nThe teachers are working in harmony with the children, and are\nstriving to lead the child to express the truth that is in him, instead\nof endeavoring to impress upon him their own personality.\nAgain, the primary schools have been largely permeated-in\nsome places much more than in others-by the beautiful spirit of\nthe kindergarten. I cannot tell you how deeply I feel in regard to\nthis.\n\nWe must ask much of ourselves as teachers.\n\nWe must de-\n\nmand the highest of all who would be teachers of little children.\nWhen I look into the face of a little child, and realize what a difference there must be in his life because of our ideals, our strength,\nour courage, I think we never can be too pure, or too strong, or too\nnoble to teach these children as they should be taught.\nAs I look in the faces of children and think of this, I realize more\nand more surely every year that the great thing for us is the spirit\nof our work. We are disturbed if other people differ from us in\nmethods ; and yet, after all, it is true if we are wise enough to recognize the right end in our work, if we are in sympathy with our\nchildren, if we love our work and have the right spirit, all the other\nthings shall be added unto us. If the teacher does recognize the\ngreat end she must reach, she will overcome the difficulties that lie\nin the way in technique, etc. You will learn the right method of\nteaching the child if you are right heartily consecrated.\nThe power to recognize in the immediate act of the child something that will make or mar his entire future is something that you\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\n559\n\nKNOWLEDGE OF THE KINDERGARTEN.\n\nhave given to us and something for which we are under an unending debt of gratitude.\nIt seems to me that the great mistake of the primary and gram-\n\nmar schools, and some kindergartens, of the past has been, that we\nhave looked upon every act as if it were a thing of itself. We have\ntaught the arithmetic lesson, and called it done and put it away.\nWe have insisted upon obedience, and not thought upon what the\nresult of that obedience or disobedience is to be.\n\nWe have now\n\ncome to learn that every act of a child is for the making of a habit\nwhich will prove wings or fetters to him.\nOne of the beautiful things is, that we have come to recognize\nthe ultimate end of our work and to see farther than the single act\n\nof to-day. These three things-the spirit of the kindergarten, the\npower to help the child to work with his own activity, the power\nto recognize the great end of our work and the deep meaning that\nunderlies it-these have come to us from the kindergarten.\n\nWe are constantly questioning how the kindergarten may be\nbrought closer to the public schools. We think we must get the\nchild through the primary schools, through the grammar grades,\netc., in a shorter time. If we can plunge him out of the kindergarten\ninto the primary, and out of the primary into the grammar grades,\netc. , at a little earlier age, we think we are doing him great good.\nIt seems to me that it is a mistake. The work of the kindergarten\nshould be the pure work of the kindergarten until the child is ready\nto go into the primary school. The work of the primary school\nshould be in entire harmony with the work of the kindergarten.\nLet me illustrate in the subject of reading, for example. We\nhave always felt that the first business of the child is to learn to\nread, write, and spell. We remember how we learned to read, write,\n\ness of learning to read, we find\nand spell. As we study the process\nthat we may recognize the words and never get the thought that\nwas intended to be expressed. I recently saw a class reading about\nthe village blacksmith.\n\nThese children lived in a tenement in a\n\ncity. I found not one of them had an idea of what a village was.\nFinally, I got a little boy who had a grandfather who lived in the\ncountry to describe a village, the blacksmith, etc. Until then, the\nchildren could have had no conception of what they were reading.\nImagine the Esquimaux reading the \"Song of the Brook!\" But\nsuppose we told the boy who lived in the tenement district something about the life which is about the brook or took him to see one.\n\nThe first thing we must do for the child is to widen his experience.\nThe city boy must know something of nature if he is to read the\npoems of nature. The child who has lived away from labor of all\nkinds must visit the blacksmith, etc. So we are doing most for the\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "560\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nchild, we are best helping him to learn to read, when we are widening his experience, when we teach him to develop his power of\nimagination.\n\nWhen you have your children play in the kindergarten the little\ngames where they impersonate, they are learning to make real the\nthings which by-and-by they will read about, and that is the best\npossible preparation for a primary school. It is the best possible\nway for shortening the course.\n\nWe shall never learn to do our\n\nwork well until we learn that these realities must precede the work\nthat comes later.\n\nI want to congratulate you upon meeting in this broader way,\n\nupon your taking hold of hands with those who are enjoying this\ncommon work and common privilege.\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION.\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES.\n\nFIRST SESSION.\n\nTHURSDAY, JULY 11, 1895.\n\nThe department was called to order at 3 p. m., in Unity church.\nMr. F. Treudley, Superintendent of Schools, Youngstown, Ohio, President of\nthe department, in a few earnest words welcomed the audience.\nMr. Lewis D. Bonebrake, Superintendent of Schools, Mount Vernon, Ohio, was\nappointed Secretary pro tem. in the absence of Mr. Warfield.\nA chorus of 100 girls and boys of District No. 2, Denver, under the direction\nof Supervisor W. J. Whiteman, rendered a musical selection.\nDr. J. M. Rice, New York City, read a paper on \"The Substitution of the\nTeacher for the Text-Book . \"\n\nThe discussion was opened by Supt. James McGinnis of Owensboro, Ky. He\nwas followed by Henry G. Schneider, Grammar School No. 90. New York City ;\nSupt. U. T. Curran, Santa Fé, N. Mex.; Channing Stebbins, Brooklyn, N. Y.; Mr.\nF. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo. The discussion was closed by Dr. Rice.\nVocal Solo, \"Hindu Song,\" by Mrs. W. J. Whiteman, Denver.\nIn the absence of Supt. W. M. Davidson, Topeka, Kan., the President introduced Supt. C. B. Gilbert, St. Paul, Minn., who spoke briefly on the subject,\n\"Higher Education and the Elementary Teacher.\"\nMiss Bettie A. Dutton of Cleveland, Ohio, followed in the discussion.\n\nThe chair then appointed as a nominating committee the following persons : J.\nA. Shawan, Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, Ohio ; J. M. Fendley, Galveston,\nTex.; Miss Mack, Denver, Colo.\nAdjournment.\n\nSECOND SESSION- FRIDAY, JULY 12, 1895.\nThe department met at 3 p. m., Friday, July 12th, in Unity church.\nMiss Sarah L. Arnold, Supervisor of Schools, Boston, was introduced , and\n\nspoke on \"Nature Study and Literature.\"\nThe address was discussed by the following :\n\nMiss Brooks of St. Paul, Minn.;\n\nMiss Dutton of Cleveland, Ohio ; Superintendent Wolfe of Missouri; Mr. James\nof California: Mr. Reed of Nebraska; Mr. Beggs of Denver ; Miss Barnard of\nChicago.\n\nSolo by Miss Jean Fritch of Denver ; also, \"Old Folks at Home,\" by Girls'\nHigh School Chorus Club, District No. 2, Denver.\n\nPrincipal J. M. Fendley, Avenue \" L\" School, Galveston, Tex. , read a paper on\n\"Departmental Teaching in Grammar Grades .\"\n\nThe paper was discussed by Superintendent Glotfelter, Hutchinson, Kan.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows :\nPresident-S . T. Dutton, Brookline. Mass .\nVice President-J . K. Stableton, Lexington, Neb .\nSecretary. Henrietta B. Ayres , Denver, Colo .\n\nOn motion, the report was unanimously adopted.\nAdjourned.\n36\n\nLEWIS D. BONEBRAKE,\nSecretary pro tem.\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "562\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\n[Elementary\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\n\nSUBSTITUTION OF THE TEACHER FOR THE TEXT-BOOK.\n\nBY DR. J. M. RICE , NEW YORK CITY.\n\nIn my opinion, the greatest fault in the schools of our country\nlies in the professional weakness of our teachers. Consequently,\nin my judgment, the next step in raising the standard of our schools\nshould be directed toward increasing the professional strength of\nthe teachers. In the present paper I shall endeavor to point out\njust where the weakness lies, as well as to suggest a remedy, which\nmight serve to improve the conditions .\n\nBy professional strength I understand the ability to apply expert knowledge in practice. In the domain of medicine, for example,\nprofessional strength must be measured by the degree of ability to\ndiagnosticate disease and apply the proper remedy. From this\nstandpoint, an individual may possess all the traits of moral character desirable in an ideal physician, such as sympathy, cautiousness .\n\npunctuality, conscientiousness, and yet be a weak diagnostician; and.\nconsequently, a poor practitioner.\nJust as the professional strength of the physician depends fundamentally upon the degree of ability to diagnosticate and treat disease, so the professional strength of the teacher must be measured\n\nby the ability properly to apply recognized educational principles\nin practice. While, in order to be an ideal teacher, more is required\nthan the ability to conduct a recitation scientifically, yet the ability\nto teach is fundamental. One who does not possess a character\ndestined to exert a good moral influence on the child should never\n\nbe granted a license to teach; yet moral strength, in itself, no more\nconstitutes professional strength in pedagogy than it does in medicine. Before our ideal individual is worthy the name of teacher he\nmust add to his moral traits a knowledge of pedagogical principles\nand skill in their practical application.\nIn stating that the teachers in our country lack professional\nstrength , I do not refer alone to the schools of low standard; I refer to the better class of schools as well.\n\nWhile the difference be\n\ntween our best and our poorest schools is, in certain respects, enormous, the variations are great mainly in regard to professional spirit\nand ideals and in the general plan of work, the difference in the\nquality of the teaching being confined within much narrower limits .\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nSUBSTITUTION OF TEACHER FOR TEXT- BOOK.\n\n563\n\nIn a word, the weakness on the part of the growing teachers does not\n\nlie in ignoring scientific principles nor in the lack of desire and effort to do the best for the child ; it lies simply in the lack of the\nrequired knowledge and skill properly to apply recognized principles\nin teaching.\n\nThe rapid spread of professional enthusiasm among our teachers\nis certainly a hopeful indication; but we must guard against falling\ninto the common error of mistaking it for professional strength .\n\nTo\n\nentertain the belief, that enthusiasm coupled with an earnest desire\nto do the best for the child is all that can be desired in a teacher, is\nto arrest the growth of our schools at a very early stage of development. That additional elements are needed to place the instruction\non a scientific basis I shall now endeavor to show.\n\nIn my opinion, the fundamental purposes in elementary teaching are two : First, to develop power-the power to observe, to\n\nreason, to do; and, secondly, to aid the child in storing in his mind\na fund of useful knowledge. Other factors, however important\n\nthey may be, are nevertheless merely incidental.\nOf the old school of teaching it may be said, that the end and\naim is the acquisition of knowledge; it appeals almost exclusively\nto the memory, and does but little toward the development of power.\nOn the other hand, our most radical reformers are inclined to look\n\nlightly on the acquisition of knowledge, and to recognize as important only the development of power. Of course, on sober thought,\nwe cannot fail to realize that both sides must receive due attention .\n\nThe school that would turn out pupils with a mass of information\nbut without the ability to think, and the school that would send into\nthe world pupils able to reason yet absolutely ignorant of facts,\nwould present equally sorry spectacles. While the broader aim is\nfully recognized by our progressive teachers, it nevertheless so happens, in the vast majority of instances, that, for lack of sufficient\n\nprofessional knowledge and skill, they fail to carry their theories\ninto practice that in spite of their severe condemnation of the\nmemory system they themselves are slaves to it.\n\nThat the mode of teaching in vogue in our progressive as well\nas in our non-progressive schools is destined to cultivate the memory rather than the power to reason, is proved alone by the fact, that,\nin the subjects particularly adapted to appeal to the reasoning\nfaculties, the so-called thought studies, the pupil is required to\nobtain his ideas by reading the text-book in advance of the recitation. If it be the teacher's aim to lead the child to think, it is neces-\n\nsary for her to apply the principle, that the child must be told nothing that he is able to find out for himself. To compel the child to\nstudy the lesson from the text-book in advance of the recitation, is\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "564\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nto violate this principle in toto;\n\n[Elementary\n\nbecause, by this means, he is di-\n\nrectly told by the text-book every point that he might be able to\nreason out for himself. In order properly to apply the principle it\nis necessary to bring the new matter before the pupil for the first\ntime during the recitation period. It is then, and then only, that\nthe teacher is enabled, by means of skillful questioning, to lead the\nchild to find out for himself whatever it is possible for him to discover.\n\nFacts that the child is unable to discover must be told to\n\nhim by the teacher. Simply to hear children recite lessons that they\nhave committed to memory is a very easy matter, and requires no\nexpert knowledge and skill; but, by means of questions, to lead the\nchild to think, involves both science and art.\nMoreover, it is not only in regard to power but also from the\nstandpoint of knowledge that the ordinary use of the text-book renders impossible the application of the principles of scientific teaching. In regard to knowledge, it is recognized by the new school\nthat more is required than to lead the child to store in his mind a\nchaotic mass of cut-and-dried facts. This, indeed, is regarded as\nthe bane of the memory system. The aim of the progressive teachers is, to aid the pupil in building, so to say, a solid and permanent\nmental structure, consisting of fundamental ideas, based upon concrete facts , which themselves shall ever remain fresh and active,\nforming a fund of ready knowledge. In short, what they desire to\n\nsecure is, not dead knowledge, but knowledge which, in itself, is\nstimulating-which will create a many- sided interest in the affairs\n\nof life, and which will lead to activity when the schooldays are over.\nTo construct a mental fabric of this nature, it is necessary to\nbring the ideas to the notice of the pupil in a psychological order.\n\nIt is only when we progress slowly and systematically, from the\nknown to the unknown, and from the concrete to the abstract, that\nthe facts may be properly welded together, and lead to the formation\nof clear fundamental ideas.\n\nTo employ the ordinary text-book method means a failure to apply these principles, for two reasons : First, in the text-book the\nfacts are not arranged in a psychological order, but merely in a\nlogical one. Second, in the text-book the facts are presented in too\n\nrapid succession. We frequently find on a single page of a textbook sufficient mental food for many lessons. The average child is\nable to commit to memory a very large number of facts in a comparatively short time, and thus aid the teacher in covering ground.\nBut facts committed to memory in rapid succession serve no per-\n\nmanent purpose because they are not digested, and consequently do\nnot become an organic part of the individual.\n\nThey serve to carry\n\nthe pupil through a recitation or an examination ; but, when this\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nSUBSTITUTION OF TEACHER FOR TEXT-BOOK.\n\n565\n\ntemporary end has been realized, they lose their vitality, and are\nsoon lost in oblivion.\n\nIn order that the mind of the child may be properly led from the\nknown to the unknown, and from the concrete to the abstract, the\nteacher herself is obliged to take an active part in the work. Owing\n\nto a lack of psychological arrangement and the crowding of facts in\nthe text-book, it is necessary for the teacher to digest the ideas that\nshe wishes her pupils to obtain, and to make such plans for the\nrecitation as will enable her to bring these ideas before the class\nwith sufficient deliberation and in a psychological order of succession. It is only under these circumstances that the recitations will\nextend beyond the sphere of lesson-hearing and partake of the nature\nof actual instruction.\n\nIn our schools it is rare to find recitations that may be regarded\nin the light of instruction. In the thought studies, where scientific\nteaching is particularly required, the mechanical teachers attempt to\ndo little, if anything, beyond hearing the pupils recite their lessons,\neither in the words of the book or in their own words. The progressive teachers , in addition to hearing the pupils recite what they\nhave studied from the text-book, will take pains to explain obscure\n\nmatters ; to elaborate, and, when possible, to illustrate points by\nmeans of pictures, charts, and apparatus of various kinds. But it\nis clear, that, even in the latter instance, the recitations are based\non lessons studied in advance from the text-book, so that they still\nmust be regarded as lesson-hearing, though in a modified form.\nTrue instruction will not be obtained until the text-book is sub-\n\nstituted by the teacher, as it is only then that the principles of teaching can be properly applied. To suggest the removal of the text-\n\nbook without recommending anything in its stead, might justly be\nregarded as destructive criticism; but surely no one can construe\nmy remarks in this light when I offer as a substitute the teacher\nherself.\n\nOf course, merely to discard the text-book does not in itself suffice to render the instruction scientific; it simply constitutes the first\nessential step toward placing the teaching on a scientific foundation.\nIndeed, the early attempts to teach without a text-book are necessarily exceedingly feeble. The music of the hand-organ is immeasurably superior to that produced by one in his first efforts on the\npiano; yet one who would become a performer is obliged to pass\nthrough this infantile stage. To reach any degree of proficiency in\nscientific teaching is difficult, and involves years of study and practice. If we, as Americans, should feel unequal to the task, it will\nbe better to retain the text-book.\n\nBut, if we believe that we are\n\nable to do what our German colleagues have long since accomplished,\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n566\n\n[Elementary\n\nthen there is nothing to be gained by waiting. There is a constant\ncomplaint on the part of our teachers that the profession is not\nproperly appreciated in our country. In my opinion, it will not be\nuntil it is made worthy of appreciation. As long as the American\nstandard remains so low that a graduate of a district school, without\n\nfurther preparation, is eligible to become a member of the profession,\na license to teach cannot command any special respect. In Germany\nthe word teacher stands for something ; in our own country it stands\nfor nothing.\n\nThe argument concerning the text-book method applies, of course,\nto the thought rather than the formal side of education. Where\nthere is no thought content, as in the mechanism of reading, writing,\narithmetic, drawing, and music, the text-book question scarcely\ncomes into play. In those studies, which necessarily involve an\nenormous amount of repetition of identical facts and processes, a\nfair degree of proficiency may be obtained by the ordinary mechanical teacher. A child that reads and adds every day of his schoollife cannot help learning to read and add, provided his mental condition be normal. In the formal lines, much can be done to improve\nthe results simply by a skillful application of modern methods and\ndevices, even when the principles of scientific teaching are not\nstrictly observed. And in these lines, some of our teachers are doing admirable work.\n\nIt is in the subjects involved in building up the thought content\nof the mind that the teacher finds the golden opportunity to carry\nher ideals into practice. It is from the ideas presented in them that\nthe child secures that fund of knowledge which will exert a strong\ninfluence in determining his ideals and interests in life. The most\nprominent among these studies are geography, history, and the\nnatural sciences. While, in the old school, the time devoted to these\nstudies is small as compared with that given to the formal ones, in\nthe growing school the tendency is to bring the thought studies\nmore and more to the foreground. Indeed, in our most progressive\nschools there is an effort on the part of our teachers to center all\nthe school work around them, and to teach the formal studies, which\nare simply modes of expression, in large part, incidentally.\nThe fact that the thought studies are destined to come ever more\n\ninto prominence, renders doubly urgent the necessity for teaching\nthem in a way that will do most toward the development of the\n\nfaculties -moral as well as intellectual. It is admitted by perhaps\nall our educators, that, of the standard subjects in the curriculum,\ngeography and history are the most poorly taught. In my opinion,\nthey will not be taught satisfactorily until the text-book method is\nabandoned and the principles of teaching are properly applied.\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nSUBSTITUTION OF TEACHER FOR TEXT-BOOK.\n\n567\n\nAs to the natural sciences, it may be said, that, in some of our\nschools, the work is conducted on scientific principles. But, taken\nall in all, there has been, thus far, very little science teaching in our\ncountry.\n\nMost superintendents have hesitated to introduce this\n\nline of work, on the ground that the teachers are not prepared to\ncare for it properly. Those that have held sway longest are perhaps physics and physiology; and these, in all but individual instances, are still taught by the text-book method.\nIn spite of their bar to scientific teaching, there has been strong\nopposition to the removal of the text-books, and particularly for two\nreasons : First, it is claimed, that, if the text-book should be abolished, the child would not acquire the ability to use books ; second,\nthat the removal of the text-book would cause the teacher to do\n\nthe work for the pupil, so that the child's mind would be no longer\nproperly disciplined. Both these objections, in my opinion, are entirely unfounded.\n\nFirst, the fundamental purpose of education does not lie in teaching the child how to use books ; this is simply an important incident,\nwhich it is well for the teacher to bear in mind. Again, to study a\nlesson from the text-book does not teach the child how to use books ;\n\nit simply leads him to perform a task, either to please his teacher\nor to avoid punishment. To know how to use books is to understand how to look up sources of information, and this ability cannot be acquired by committing to memory the words of the textbook. By directing the pupils to write compositions, and by fre-\n\nquently calling for debates, in each instance suggesting lists of\nworks to be used for reference, more can be done in a few exercises\n\nthan can be accomplished by years of lesson study. Further, the\nideal does not lie simply in teaching the child how to use books ; it\nlies rather in developing a love for them, and, consequently, the\ndesire to seek them. Under proper instruction, the pupil will become so much interested in his subject that he will, on his own account, go to books for further information. In my opinion, there is\nnothing that so much tends to destroy the love for them as the\ndrudgery involved in committing lessons to memory. For many\na child the happiest day of his life is the day on which he hands in\nhis,books. Last, to abolish the text-book does not by any means\nimply to discard the use of books; in certain subjects, they will always be required.\nSecond, when the teacher takes the place of the text-book, the\nchild is by no means relieved of a task ; on the contrary, in a recita-\n\ntion conducted on scientific principles the child is obliged to perform intellectual labor more severe in character, though less dull\nand mechanical, than when he commits the contents of the text-\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "568\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Elementary\n\nbook to memory. When he studies the text-book, he acquires his\ninformation simply by exercising his memory; in a scientific recitation, on the other hand, he is obliged to bring many of his faculties\ninto play in order to accomplish his task.\nA consideration of the reasons for the lack of professional\nstrength in our country will now be in order. With a clear comprehension of the causes, the remedies will suggest themselves.\nFirst, the demand for good teachers is very small, the conditions under which licenses are granted being exceedingly liberal .\nThe management of the school system in our country being a purely\nlocal affair, it is entirely at the mercy of local politicians, who can\nraise or lower the standard at their pleasure. In perhaps the ma\njority of instances, the teachers' examinations are of an order so\nlow that a certificate can be earned by one who has enjoyed no\nmore than a grammar school education, with or without a little extra coaching. In some localities, a high school education is required, and, in a few instances, appointments are given only to those\nwho, in addition to a fair amount of scholarship, have obtained some\nprofessional training in a normal school. Of course, to guard\nagainst this extreme laxity, nothing would suffice short of the adoption of a national standard ; which, however, for the present, cannot be expected.\n\nIn the places where trained teachers are sought, there is, of\ncourse, a demand for professional strength. But, is the teaching\n\nin these places markedly superior to that in other localities ? The\nquestion, unfortunately, must be answered in the negative ; for the\n\ndegree of excellence in the teaching found in a given locality is by\nno means determined by the proportion of trained teachers in the\ncorps. This condition of affairs, naturally, can be interpreted in\nonly one way, namely, that the normal schools fail to graduate their\npupils with the required foundation.\nIn thus throwing the blame for the lack of professional strength\non the normal schools, I do not wish to imply that the work of those\ninstitutions has in no way proved valuable. On the contrary, it\ncannot be doubted, that, through their instrumentality, much has\nbeen done to spread the doctrine of scientific teaching and to imbue\nwith professional spirit even many of those who have not had the\nadvantage of a professional training. But, while, in the theory of\neducation, the work of the professional schools has been very helpful, from the standpoint of practice they have, in my opinion, for the\nmost part, proved unsuccessful .\n* That professional schools cannot be expected to turn out perfect\npractitioners is clear; but what we have a right to expect is, that\ntheir students will be graduated with a foundation that will enable\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nSUBSTITUTION OF TEACHER FOR TEXT- BOOK.\n\n569\n\nthem later to develop in the right direction. That this foundation,\nas a rule, is wanting, is proved by the fact to which I have already\nalluded, namely, that the quality of the teaching in a given locality\nis determined by local conditions rather than by the influence of\nnormal school training. If the graduates of normal schools have\nnot sufficient strength to rise above their immediate surroundings,\n\nand thus show their superiority over the untrained teachers, then\nsomething must be wrong with the institutions in which they received their special education.\nThat, in the vast majority of instances, the work of the practice\ndepartments has been unsatisfactory, is but the natural result of\ntheir organization. The fundamental error lies in the plain and\nsimple fact, that, in the selection of teachers for these departments,\nthe question of fitness receives far too little consideration.\n\nIf the\n\nstudents are educated in the art of teaching by those who themselves have not the slightest knowledge of the art, how can we expect the results to be favorable ?\n\nIn most cases, when a city training school is established, the\nmain consideration appears to be to find a building easy of access,\nand containing a room in which the students may conveniently receive their instruction in theory. The absurdity lies in the fact,\nthat, without further ado, the building in which the training class is\nplaced is converted into a school of practice, and the regular staff of\ninstructors are promoted to the rank of model teachers. The students now acquire the art of teaching by observing the work of these\nclass teachers and instructing under their guidance. As the foundation for their future work is laid by what they here observe and do,\nis it difficult to account for the fact, that, after graduation, they can-\n\nnot be readily distinguished from untrained teachers ?\nIn the state normal schools a more direct effort is made to select\n\nspecially qualified persons as model teachers. But even in these\ninstitutions, individuals really competent to instruct in the art of\nteaching are, comparatively speaking, very rarely found.\nIn view of these facts, it is clear that what is most needed in\norder that the professional strength of the teachers of our country\n\nmay be increased is to establish, in connection with the normal\nschools, training departments, in which students may receive such\npractical instruction in the art of teaching that they will leave the\ninstitutions with a foundation that will enable them, in due course\nof time, to develop into scientific teachers .\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "570\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Elementary\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nJAMES MCGINNIS, Superintendent of Schools, Owensboro, Ky.-I am disposed to agree with Dr. Rice's paper in the main points, and unreservedly so far as\nthe spirit is concerned. He claims, and I believe, that much of our teaching in elementary work is lame and that we lean too much upon text-books. He does not\nso much propose to rob us of a crutch as to cure our lameness ; not to do away\nwith the text-book, but to give us teachers who shall make proper use of text-books.\nWhat we need is a trained teaching force. We must both learn and know before we can teach, and then we must learn how to teach. As it now stands in\nthousands of cases over the land, our teachers have not gone beyond the grammar\nschool themselves, and have not been trained ; or, as set forth by Dr. Rice, they\nhave been mistrained.\n\nI maintain that there should be increased facilities for nor-\n\nmal training; that this training should be of the right kind ; that none should be\n\nadmitted to the normal school at all who have not at least passed through the secondary or high school.\n\nOur requirements are too low.\n\nWe must raise the standard\n\nfor the certification of teachers, which of itself will do much to bring about the\ndesired training on the part of candidates for teaching .\n\nI accept the doctor's definition of professional strength-that it is the ability\nto apply expert knowledge in practice. We must ask for knowledge, and for expert knowledge, and for a trained practitioner.\nThere is a fearful difference in teachers ; between the empty teacher and the\n\nfull teacher; the mechanical and the enthusiastic ; the stagnant pool and the running brook. What we plead for is the teacher endowed, instructed, and trained.\nIf there be a lack of such teachers now, the demand for them will bring them.\nDr. Rice has required in his paper that the text-book be used in its proper\nplace. In a recitation, as in photography, there are three elements. There must\nbe a clear image, a sensitive plate for it to fall upon, and a fixing process. There\nmust be a clear bringing out of the subject to be taught, there must be keen ,\n\ninterested minds made ready to receive, and then there must be the fixing process\nof study and recitation. Dr. Rice claims that the use of the text-book is the third\nstep in this process, and not the first as it is so often now. I agree with him.\n\nNATURE STUDY AND LITERATURE.\n\nBY MISS SARAH L. ARNOLD , SUPERVISOR OF SCHOOLS, BOSTON , MASS .\n\n[ABSTRACT BY THE AUTHOR. ]\n\nThe subject of my paper grew out of a conversation with a superintendent of schools, who remarked: \"You believe in nature study,\nbut I would teach literature instead.\"\n\n\"But can the one be substi-\n\ntuted for the other?\" questioned his listener.\n\n\"Are not both neces-\n\nsary to the child, and is not each necessary to the other?\" My purpose is to attempt to answer these questions, and in so doing I ask\nyour attention to three lines of thought.\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nNATURE STUDY AND LITERATURE.\n\n571\n\nFirst-Nature study, as it should be presented in our primary\nschools, demands the aid of literature.\nSecond-Interpretation of literature involves knowledge of nature\n-full and sympathetic.\n\nThird-The greatest good is derived from both nature study and\nliterature when they are begun in childhood.\nWhat benefits are derived from nature study? The question has\noften been discussed, and the advantages have been as often stated.\nThe power of observation is developed; thought power is quickened ;\nthe child grows in accuracy of expression; he gains knowledge of\nfundamental facts of science ; becomes interested in his environment.\n\nThese results have repeatedly been emphasized by teachers of elementary science. But the young child should gain from nature study more\nthan these-a deep, full, abiding love of Nature,\"communion with her\nvisible forms,\" power to interpret her \"various language,\" a reverent\nspirit, a talent for rejoicing in beauty. Soul and spirit, imagination and feeling, should develop with the seeing eye, the hearing ear, the thinking brain. The child should see in the flower, not\nmerely a member of a certain family, marked by various deflections from the type; not alone a particular arrangement of floral organs, with peculiar form and coloring. Science must give him this\npower and more; must lead him to recognize the marvelous adaptation of form and color to function-teaching him to lift up his thought\n\nto the Creator.\n\nBut the poet must add his lesson-must teach the\n\nchild how to \"love the wood-rose and leave it on its stalk ; \" must lift\n\ntheheart in reverence to the Maker of flower and bee; must help him\nto read the lessons written for his eternal welfare in flower and field.\n\nOnly the poet and the child can truly read these lessons.\nWhat grace and beauty, what dignity, are associated with the\ncornfield in the thought of one who knows and loves Whittier's \"Corn\nSong,\" or Longfellow's \"Blessing of the Cornfields!\" What an inspiration enters into our lives when Holmes sings his \"Chambered\nNautilus,\" or Sidney Lanier pours forth the \"Song of the Chattahoochee!\" What message for you have the \"lilies of the field,\" the \"tares\nand the wheat,\" the \"grain of mustard seed?\" Shall we not share with\nthe children these priceless associations? Nature study is incomplete without the treasures of literature.\n\nAgain, any study of literature, however elementary, shows us that\nfamiliarity with nature is indispensable to intelligent reading. We\neasily recognize this truth when we turn to the poems of Nature.\nTennyson's \"Song of the Brook,\" Bryant's \"To a Waterfall,\" Lowell's\n\"Vision of Sir Launfal,\" cannot reveal their exquisite beauty to one\nwho has never loved a brook, or watched the flight of birds toward\nthe sunset, or rejoiced in the treasures of the snow. But careful\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n572\n\n[Elementary\n\nstudy would convince us that our choicest figures of speech are largely\nborrowed from nature, as are our common proverbs ; witness, \"a rolling stone,\" \"birds of a feather,\" \"an ill wind,\" \"sour grapes.\" One\nmust live with nature as well as with men, to read Ruskin, Emerson,\nTennyson, and the rest. He who brings to the world of books the\nmind filled with beautiful pictures, the practiced eye, the listening\near, the quick sympathy, the trained imagination, the reverent soul,\nwhich the study of nature has developed, can indeed find and appropriate treasures hidden from the seeker who claims no fellowship\n\nwith nature.\n\nIt is not upon Peter Bell that the wealth of the poets\n\nis lavished .\nThe primrose by the river's brim\nA yellow primrose is to him,\nAnd it is nothing more.\n\nThe treasure house of literature is only unlocked to him to whom\n\"the meanest flower that blows\" can bring \"thoughts that do lie too\ndeep for tears.\"\n\nFinally, our own experience is daily revealing to us the truth that\nchildhood associations are dearer and more enduring than all others.\nBeside the fact that knowledge of nature is fundamental, and therefore should be early imparted, we must place the equally imperative\none-that habit, sympathy, interest, association, grow with the child's\ngrowth and strengthen with his strength. The impulses and yearnings of the child heart will be wrought into the ideals of the man.\nThe great truths written in the pages of nature and in the books\nwhich chronicle the life and aspirations of men may be the companions of the boy and girl. If the boy is taught to rejoice in the beau-\n\nties of nature, how is the happiness of the man insured! If the girl\nlearns to \" look through nature up to nature's God,\" she cannot fail\n\nof reverent and serene womanhood. This is teaching worthy of our\nnoblest effort. And it must be given to children.\n\nThe child is\n\nfather of the man.\n\nDEPARTMENTAL TEACHING IN GRAMMAR GRADES.\n\nBY J. M. FENDLEY, GALVESTON, TEX.\n\nThe spirit of progress that characterizes this age has in the last\ndecade wrought wonderful improvements in our schools. The grammar school, however, has not felt that large and quickening impulse\ntoward better things that is so perceptible in the primary school and\nin the high school.\n\nLet us seek for the cause of this difference.\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nDEPARTMENTAL TEACHING.\n\n573\n\nTo the teacher who would achieve the highest success in his work\n\nthree things are essential. He must have a full, thorough, and exact\nknowledge of the subject that he would teach; he must be skilled in\nthe best methods of presenting his subject; and he must conduct the\nlesson with that life and enthusiasm that beget a like spirit in his pupils. The first of these essentials-a knowledge of subject-matterthe primary teacher possesses before she takes charge of a class. The\nprimary teacher, moreover, is relieved from the drudgery of correcting written exercises out of school hours, and her hours in school are\nusually shorter than those of other teachers. The high school teacher\nis likewise well equipped with a knowledge of subject-matter, for he\nis selected with special reference to his scholarship. After being\nelected, he is not required to teach all the subjects of the curriculum ;\nbut he has his favorite subject, and to this he gives his whole time.\nHe can therefore become master of his subject, and work up an enthusiasm among his pupils. The grammar school teacher has neither\nthe scholarship of the high school teacher nor the knowledge of methods possessed by the primary teacher; yet both are as essential here\nas in any other part of the work.\n\nTo teach geography according to the latest and best methods, the\nteacher must have on hand a vast fund of ready information on which\n\nshe can draw to supplement the text-book; she must be good at\nsketching, and map-drawing, and molding; she must keep up with the\n\nlatest geographical knowledge, and she must be familiar with the\nbooks of King, Frye, Parker, Ritter, Guyot, and other specialists in\nthis line.\n\nOr, if she would teach natural science, she must understand the\ndifferent branches of the subject and be a close student of nature;\nshe must go with the children into the field and assist them in mak-\n\ning collections of specimens from the animal, vegetable, and mineral\nkingdoms; she must know how to devise simple home-made apparatus\nfor illustrating the laws of physics; and she must be able to explain\nand get the children interested in the natural phenomena of everyday\nlife.\n\nAn equal amount of special preparation is necessary for teaching\nmathematics, history, language, and literature, to say nothing of vocal music and drawing. While the teacher may delight in making\nthis special preparation in one or two studies, when she undertakes\nit in all the subjects now taught in our upper grammar grades she is\nlikely to exhaust her strength, become discouraged, and lose the vital\nelement of enthusiasm. As a rule, the teachers of our upper grammar grades work harder and accomplish less than any other teachers\nin the corps.\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "574\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Elementary\n\nA consideration of these facts makes it evident, that, if possible,\nsomething ought to be done to relieve over-worked teachers, and at\nthe same time secure better results in teaching. A very satisfactory\nsolution of the problem has been worked out in the Galveston schools\nby adopting and adapting a form of what is known as the departmental plan of instruction. I will give a brief description of this plan\nas it has been in operation in my school for the past two years, and\nname some of the advantages that it seems to possess.\n\nIf an apology\n\nis needed for this somewhat personal reference, it is, that I prefer to\nspeak of work that is actually being done and results as I see them,\nrather than to theorize on what might, could, would, or should be\ndone under certain circumstances and conditions.\n\nThis plan is in operation in our four upper grammar grades, where\nwe have about 130 pupils, averaging near fourteen years of age. The\nwork is divided among four teachers. One has charge of history and\ngeography, another of mathematics and science, another of language\nand drawing, another of reading and literature. The principal usually\nteaches some one of these subjects.\nEach teacher has a room and charge of a class which report to this\nroom at the opening of the session. This is their room. Here their\nbooks and wraps are kept ; here they prepare their lessons; here they\nare to be found when not assigned elsewhere. This class teacher\nkeeps all records of attendance, scholarship, deportment, etc., and\nmakes all reports ; the special teachers furnishing her with the grades\nin their departments. She is closer to her class than any other teacher,\nand feels a more direct responsibility for their attendance, deportment, and general success in school work.\nEach recitation in the principal studies is preceded by a study\nperiod averaging about twenty-five minutes in length. At given signals, the pupils all march to the rooms of the special teachers for recitation, then back to their own rooms for study. It would be simpler,\nof course, for the teacher to change and allow the pupils to remain all\nthe time in the same room; but our plan is better, for the change of\nposition and surroundings, the rest and physical exercise afforded\nby the marching, have an invigorating effect upon the minds of the\npupils ; moreover, the necessity for throwing wide open all the doors,\nand passing through the fresh, pure air of the halls, lessens very much\nthe chances for poor ventilation-a matter that is so easily forgotten.\nDuring the study period, the pupils are under the supervision of\nthe class teacher. She sees that they are busy, but gives them no assistance whatever; nor is she even supposed to know what lesson is\nassigned them. This is much better than having them study under\nthe teacher to whom they recite, for then the pupils would be tempted\nto ask needless questions, and the teacher to repeat directions and\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nDEPARTMENTAL TEACHING.\n\n575\n\nexplanations that ought to be remembered, thus seriously interrupting the proper work of the study period. We desire that the study\nperiod should be devoted exclusively to quiet, uninterrupted study.\nThe tendency is to explain too much. The pupils need to be trained\nin right habits of study, that they may be able to learn for themselves.\nThey should be thrown on their own resources, and taught independence and self-reliance as soon as possible.\nTwice a week all the pupils are taught vocal music by one of the\nteachers who understands music, knows how to sing, and knows how\nto get the pupils to sing. Once a week, and sometimes oftener, the\nclasses are all assembled in the hall for general exercises.\nThe plan thus briefly outlined has many advantages, some of\nwhich I will mention.\n\nIt gives teachers an opportunity to do that work which is most\nagreeable to them, and for which they are best prepared. Almost\nevery teacher has her favorite subjects, in which she does much better work than others. It not infrequently happens that a teacher who\nis highly successful in one line of work is almost a failure in another\nline. Require a teacher to instruct in a subject for which she is not\nprepared either by nature or training, and it is not surprising that\nshe will enter upon it reluctantly, teach it in a mechanical way, and\nleave it as soon as possible. Give her, on the contrary, a subject that\nshe loves, and the lesson is transformed from a dull, mechanical task\nto a stirring, thought-provoking exercise, in which teacher and pupils\ntake a lively interest. We all delight in doing that which we can\ndo well .\n\nIt gives relief to overworked teachers, improves their health, and\nincreases their teaching power. Few people have such a tax upon\ntheir time and their strength as teachers have. Besides the daily\nroutine of correcting papers, making reports, etc., the conscientious\nteacher will carefully plan each lesson, and endeavor to make thorough preparation for teaching it. With the long list of subjects that\nthe grammar school curriculum presents, this preparation consumes\nmuch of her time, and even then often proves unsatisfactory to herself. Then consider the great burden of responsibility and anxiety\nthat she feels for the success of her class in so many different lines of\n\nstudy, and the reason is clear why she is so often physically exhausted before vacation brings the much-needed rest.\n\nIf, on the con-\n\ntrary, preparation is necessary in only one line of work, and that a\ncongenial one, she has more time for rest and recuperation out of\nschool hours, with less cause for worry and anxiety. This gives her\na larger supply of energy to expend in the schoolroom in the actual\nwork of teaching, where all the life, and vigor, and enthusiasm of\nwhich she is capable are needed to arouse thought and stimulate the\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "576\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\npupils to put forth their best efforts.\n\n[Elementary\n\nI have had the same teachers\n\ndoing the same work in this department for four successive terms,\nand during this time not one of them has had to lose a single day on\naccount of sickness.\n\nIt gives the teacher an opportunity to achieve the highest excel.\n\nlence in her department of work. With only one study to teach, or\nat most two or three allied studies, she has plenty of time to broaden\nand deepen her knowledge of the subject-matter and to become familiar with the best methods of teaching it. She becomes an authority\nand an expert in her line. She knows not only what to teach but\nwhat not to teach. Her teaching is not circumscribed by the textbook. She is fully prepared to answer any question that may arise\nduring the lesson. She has surveyed the field so carefully that she\nknows every obstacle and how to approach it. She learns to teach\nso as to interest the pupils and awaken in them a love for learning.\nThus she become an artist.\n\nIt makes it possible for the teacher to buy the books and appliances needed in her work.\n\nBooks are to the teacher what tools are\n\nto the workman. She must have them, and they cost money. To be\nfully equipped for teaching any one subject, the teacher must have\nenough books on subject-matter and methods to make quite a little\nlibrary.\n\nA short time ago I saw a collection of books that one of our\n\nteachers had made in the subject of geography alone that could not\nhave been purchased for less than fifty or sixty dollars. Multiply\nthis amount by the number of studies in the grammar school and the\nresult represents an expenditure of money that the average teacher\ncannot afford to make, however much she may desire to do so.\nIt gives unity to the work. A strong objection to the grade system is, that the teaching is broken, jagged, fragmentary. A little bit\nis chipped out from the middle of the subject and the teacher is given\nfour months in which to teach it. By the time she gets well acquainted with the pupils and works up an interest in the subjectsometimes before she does this the term ends, and her class passes\ninto another's hands. But when she has only one line of work, she\nteaches the same pupils for several successive terms. She knows\nwhat has been done the preceding term, and wastes no time in deciding where to begin. She views not an isolated part of the subject\nbut the whole subject. She teaches not for one grade only but for\nall the grades. She knows, that, if any part of the subject is poorly\ntaught, the defect will be seen in succeeding grades, and will be\nchargeable to no one but herself. She sees the end from the beginning. Thus she gives to her work unity, consistency, and complete\nness .\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nDEPARTMENTAL TEACHING .\n\n577\n\nI have been principal of this school ten years, and, comparing the\nwork of these grades for the past two years with what was formerly\ndone when each teacher tried to teach all the subjects, I see that the\nteaching is vastly improved and that the discipline is equally good\nand of a higher order. Arithmetic is no longer the bugbear that it\n\nonce was. Geography and history are co-ordinated and taught together by a teacher who keeps herself well informed, so that the pupils drink from a running stream instead of a stagnant pool. In\nreading and literature the pupils have been led into an attractive\nfield, and have been taught to appreciate some of the great master-\n\npieces of literature. Inspired by the teacher, the pupils have, through\ntheir own efforts, purchased a library of 200 of the choicest books\nsuited to their age, and have adorned the hall with fine portraits of\nthe great authors. Drawing has been taught so as to have a real\neducative value; while in vocal music the results are incomparably\nbetter than those accomplished by the perfunctory efforts of grade\nteachers.\n\nThe department plan of instruction has been tried in the grammar grades of a number of the best schools in our country. Speaking\nof these experiments, the last report of the United States Commissioner of Education says (p. 667) : \"The results accomplished under it\n\n(the department plan) are so far superior to what had been done without it that a further extension seems inevitable.\n\nIt is like going to\n\nanother world to leave an alleged musical exercise in a school whose\nteacher has had little musical training and less talent, and who attempts to teach what she herself does not know, with no other guide\nthan the ' course of study' and hand-book-and then to pass into a\nschool in which a skilled musician has infused a liberal share of his\n\nown enthusiasm and devotion to the art. Such differences as appear\nunder these opposite conditions are the strongest arguments for\nspecialization. It is altogether fitting and proper, that, if a subject is\nto be taught at all, it should be placed under the most favorable conditions ; and specializing the work of all teachers, at least in the\nhigher grades, seems to be the most probable outcome of the educational experiences and experiments of the last few years.\"\nThe limits of this paper will permit but a brief reference to the\nvarious objections that have been urged by educational writers\nagainst specialization. The point most strongly insisted upon is, that,\nowing to the large number of pupils that come under the instruction\nof the special teacher, her moral influence will be much less than\nthat of the grade teacher. The objection would hold if the grade\nteacher kept her pupils for any considerable time; but it is customary for the grade teacher to keep the same pupils only one term, and\nit takes her that long to get well acquainted with them. The special\n37\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "578\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nteacher has seen her pupils come up through the different grades, and\nhas a knowledge of their peculiarities and individual traits of character that can only come by long acquaintance. Character is a plant\nof slow growth, and the opportunities for its development are far better when the teacher has the same pupil for several successive terms,\neven though it be for only an hour a day, than when she receives him\nas a stranger, keeps him for one short term, and then loses sight of\nhim again.\n\nIt is claimed that the special teacher will get an exaggerated idea\nof the importance of her subject; that she will lead the pupils into\ndetails and difficulties beyond their comprehension ; that she will not\n\nproperly harmonize her work with that done in the other subjects ;\nthat there will be conflicting claims upon the time of the pupils, etc.\nThese fears seem to proceed from the assumption that there is no\nhead to the system and no co-operation among the teachers ; for I do\n\nnot see how such a state of affairs could exist under the right kind of\na principal.\n\nI should not expect the plan to succeed without close\n\norganization and competent direction. Among my teachers in this\ndepartment there is the most perfect harmony. All work together\nfor one common end. Frequent conferences are held, at which are\n\ndiscussed questions of general interest, such as, individual pupils and\nhow best to deal with them; the kind and amount of home work that\n\nshould be assigned; how the work in each subject may be made to fit\nin with and re-enforce that done in the other studies, etc.\n\nCertain\n\nit is, that we have reached better results in these grades under this\nsystem than when one teacher taught all the subjects. It may be\nthat the success of our work is as much due to this warm spirit of\nco-operation among the teachers as to any inherent virtue in the plan\nitself ; but I believe that the plan of specialization which I have described is founded on sound principles, and that its introduction into\n\nupper grammar grades would be a long step toward securing better\nteaching in our schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION.\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES.\n\nFIRST SESSION.- WEDNESDAY, JULY 10, 1895, 3 Р. М.\nThe department met in the assembly room of the high school, District No. 1,\nW. H. Smiley, President, in the chair.\nPresident Smiley delivered an original and suggestive opening address.\nPrincipal O. D. Robinson of the high school, Albany, N. Y., read a paper on\nthe topic, \"Should Electives in High Schools Be in Courses or Subjects ?\"\nPrincipal Isaac T. Johnson, Friends' School, Wilmington, Del., presented a\npaper, discussing the same topic.\nProf. William Carey Jones of the University of California, Berkeley, Cal. ,\nread a paper on the subject, \"What Action Ought to Be Taken by Universities\nand Secondary Schools to Promote the Introduction of the Programs Recommended by the Committee of Ten?\"\nDiscussion of the paper was led by Dr. B. A. Hinsdale of the University of\n\nMichigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nThe discussion was continued by A. F. Nightingale, Chicago, Ill .;\n\nW. F.\n\nHall, Vacaville, Cal.; C. M. Lacey Sites, Washington, D. C.; J. R. Bishop, Cincinnati, Ohio ; Prof. E. E. Brown, Berkeley, Cal.; Mr. Dickinson of California;\nT. O. Baker, Yonkers, N. Y.\nThe chair appointed the following Committee on Nominations :\nA. F. Nightingale, Chicago, Ill.; O. D. Robinson, Albany, N. Y.; Principal\nBrown, Columbus, Ohio ; Miss F. A. Adams, Cleveland, Ohio; Principal Barber,\nNorth Platte, Neb .\nOn motion of the Secretary, the following committee was appointed to report\na plan of action on the basis of Professor Jones' paper:\n\nWm. Carey Jones, Berkeley, Cal.; C. H. Thurber, Hamilton, N. Y.; A. F.\nNightingale, Chicago, Ill.; J. R. Bishop, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nDepartment adjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION.\n\nTHURSDAY, JULY 11, 1895 .\n\nThe department was called to order by the President at 3:15 p. m.\nThe following report was presented:\nThe committee appointed at the close of yesterday's session to report a plan of action\non the basis of Professor Jones' paper recommended to the department the adoption of the\nfollowing resolution:\nWhereas, The most pressing need for higher education in this country is a better\n\nunderstanding between the secondary schools and the colleges and universities in regard\nto requirements for admission; therefore,\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n580\n\n[Secondary\n\nResolved, That the Department of Secondary Education appoint a committee of five,\nof which the present President shall be one, and requests the appointment of a similar\ncommittee by the Department of Higher Education, the two to compose a Committee of\nConference, whose duty it shall be to report at the next annual meeting a plan for the\naccomplishment of this end, so urgently demanded by the interests of higher education.\nWM. CARY JONES ,\nA. F. NIGHTINGALE,\nJ. REMSEN BISHOP,\nC. H. THURBER,\nCommittee.\n\nThis resolution was unanimously adopted, and the result communicated to the\nDepartment of Higher Education, from which the following reply was presently\nreceived:\nSecretary Thurber,\nDEAR SIR: The Department of Higher Education has arranged to have a committee\n\nappointed to co-operate with the Committee on Secondary Education in regard to requirements for admission to colleges and universities.\nVery truly,\nJOSEPH SWAIN,\nSecretary .\n1\n\nThe President announced the appointment of the following committee in accordance with the above action :\n\nWm. Carey Jones, Berkeley, Cal .; A. F. Nightingale, Chicago, Ill.; C. Н.\nThurber, Hamilton, N. Y.; J. R. Bishop, Cincinnati, Ohio; in addition to the\nPresident, W. H. Smiley, Denver, Colo.\nThe program was then taken up as follows:\n\"First Year Science in High Schools-Its Possibilities and Difficulties.\"\n(a) On biology.\nO. S. Wescott, Principal of the North Division High School , Chicago. Ill.\n(b) On physical geography.\nEdward L. Harris, Principal of the Central High School, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\nThese papers were discussed by A. F. Nightingale, Chicago, Ill.; W. F. Hall,\nVacaville, Cal.; E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio ; F. Y. Moseley, Boulder, Colo.;\nA. V. Storm, Storm Lake, Iowa ; J. T. Buchanan, Kansas City, Mo.; and Principal Wood, Cleveland, Ohio.\nThe recommendations of the Head Masters' Association were read by Principal J. T. Buchanan, and on his motion referred to the Conference Committee.\nRECOMMENDATIONS OF HEAD MASTERS' ASSOCIATION OF BOSTON .\n1.\n\nIt is desirable that such colleges as prescribe the reading of certain books in\n\nLatin, as a condition of admission, should introduce more variety of reading into their\nrequirements. For example, some part of Nepos might be required as an equivalent for\none or more books of Caesar's \"Gallic War; \" some part of Ovid as an equivalent for a\nportion of Virgil; selections from Cicero's \"Letters,\" or other writings, as an equivalent\nfor one or more orations .\n\n2.\n\nIt is desirable, both as a guide for teachers and for the sake of uniformity in the\n\nreading preparation for college, that colleges admitting candidates by certificate, and\nothers admitting mainly on examinations in reading \"at sight,\" should recommend a\ncourse of reading in Latin for preparatory schools. If, moreover, such colleges would\nunite with those having definite requirements, in a recommended course of reading, the\ngain to preparatory schools would be great.\n3. Both in the case of prescribed and recommended reading, it is desirable that\nchanges be made from time to time after due notice, as is now done by the Associated\nNew England Colleges in regard to English, French, and German.\n4. It is desirable that the colleges should recommend that some months be spent in\nreading easy Latin, both modern and classic, before authors of the difficulty of Nepos\nand Caesar are taken up. Such a recommendation from the colleges would have great\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nMINUTES.\n\n581\n\nweight with secondary schools ; would, if followed, diminish difficulties and discouragements in the earlier part of the Latin course, and tend to the improvement of elementary\nteaching.\n\n5. The writing of Latin, based on certain prescribed and limited portions of Latin\ntext, to be changed from time to time, ought to be made a part of college entrance\nexaminations wherever Latin is prescribed for admission.\n6. The foregoing five recommendations ought to be made in regard to Greek, so far as\nthey are applicable.\n\n7. The requirement that parts of Homer be read, in preparation for college, ought\nto be maintained, but the examination ought not to be confined to books of the \"Iliad.\"\n8. It is desirable that the colleges designate the more important subjects of grammar,\n\nboth Greek and Latin, in which students come up to college poorly grounded.\n9. It is the opinion of this association that passages set for sight translation, par-\n\nticularly in Cicero's \" Orations,\" are often too difficult, considering the circumstances of\nthe entrance examinations.\n\nPrincipal B. C. Matthews of the High School, Newark, N. J., presented a\npaper on \"Ethical Instruction Through Sociology .\"\n\nThis paper was discussed by A. F. Nightingale, Chicago, Ill.; C. M. Lacey\nSites, Washington, D. C.; Mr. Southworth, Denver, Colo.\nThe chair called attention to the reception tendered by the Woman's Club .\nThe Committee on Nominations made the following report :\nFor President - E . L. Harris , Principal Cleveland (Ohio) High School.\nFor Vice President--F. L. Bliss, Principal Detroit (Mich.) High School .\nFor Secretary-C . H. Thurber, Principal Colgate Academy, Hamilton, N. Y.\n\nThe Secretary was unanimously instructed to cast the ballot of the department in favor of these officers, who were duly declared elected.\n\nOn motion of C. M. L. Sites of Washington, D. C., the address of the Committee of Twelve of the American Philological Association was referred for consideration to the Conference Committee.\n\nA. F. Nightingale, Chicago, Ill. , and the chair both urged upon the department\nthe importance of signing this address .\nMr. Nightingale moved that a vote of thanks be extended to the President for\nhis admirable administration .\n\nThe motion unanimously prevailed, as also a similar motion in regard to the\nSecretary.\n\nThe retiring President expressed his appreciation of the assistance rendered\nby the department in carrying on the meeting, and presented to the department\nthe President-elect.\n\nOn motion, the department adjourned .\nC. H. THURBER,\nSecretary\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "582\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\n[Secondary\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\n\nPRESIDENT'S OPENING ADDRESS.\n\nBY PRINCIPAL WM.\n\nH. SMILEY, DENVER, COLO .\n\nThe pleasure one feels in welcoming any portion of the throng\nthat has gathered here, near the crest of the continent, to partici-\n\npate in the discussion of questions, the issues of which are identical\nwhether they arise on the Pacific or the Atlantic, on the Lakes or\nthe Gulf, is equaled only by one's wonder at the extraordinary\ngrowth of this national spirit in education. Examine the programs\nof our state teachers' associations, so many of which occur at the\nsame time each year. You will find ninety per cent of the subjects\nidentical in spirit and probably in form. Does the Schoolmasters '\nClub of Boston discuss the elective system for high schools, then will\nthe Schoolmasters' Club of San Francisco probably be found doing\nthe same.\n\nSo the tide of educational reform sets in much the same\n\ndirection, rises to equal height, and ebbs at about the same time,\nthe country over.\n\nTherefore, we are glad to welcome you ; glad to feel the pulsing\nof this tide of common interest ; glad to share with this representative throng in the inspiration and enthusiasm that comes from clasping hands and looking in each other's eyes with faith in the promise\nof mutual helpfulness.\nThere is no need to review at length the problems of the hour.\n\nThe educational press, with singular activity, chronicles every movement and experiment. Your personal interest and professional\nspirit keep you in touch and make you familiar with them. At the\n\nrecent classical conference at Ann Arbor, Dr. Nightingale, superintendent of Chicago High Schools, referred to the report of the\ncommittee of ten as the New Testament of secondary education.\nColorado teachers may be allowed a pardonable pride in this now\nfamous document, because the meeting and movement out of which\nits conception came was called by the former principal of this high\nschool, and doubtless from the vigorous sermons preached from its\n\ntexts in teachers' gatherings everywhere has come, in large measure,\nthis energized national interest.\n\nI am aware that a chairman's privilege and duty is to do no talking himself, but to introduce his speakers and to direct discussion ;\nyet I would call your attention for the few minutes I shall take from\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.\n\n583\n\nthe formal work of the afternoon to a topic not touched in the report alluded to above, and one, indeed, that has not received the attention it deserves, because of the very minuteness and earnestness\n\nof the discussion of the important questions raised therein. The question to which I would invite your attention is this : \"How can the\nstudents of a secondary school, whether large or small, be made to\nfeel that they form a united society existing, not simply for the cultivation of intellectual power in the individual but for the realization in the mass of certain ideal standards of feeling and conduct\n\nstandards to which the individual, consciously or unconsciously,\nsubmits and which he is careful of offending ; a body moved by a\npublic opinion which each student is conscious of shaping and in\nwhich he sees reflected his own noblest aims and impulses?\" I am\n\nconfident that this is a question as worthy of careful study and as\neasy of solution as that of the relative educational values of physics\nand chemistry, or their proper sequence in a course of study.\nIt is perhaps hardly strange, in a period so marked by the spirit\nof individualism as are all lines of intellectual activity, that this\n\ninfluence should be strongly felt in all problems of school organization. Realizing as never before the preciousness of individuality and\nthe necessity of conserving it, we have bent all our energies to the\ntask of devising ways and means for its development, granting privilege after privilege to the individual student without considering\nor calling his attention to the duties owed in return to the social\n\nbody to which he stands indebted for his growth in culture. This\ntendency appears in many forms. I see it in the high value set\nupon individual versus class instruction; I read it in a high school\nprogram recently published, where it states that a pupil regularly\npromoted may, \"at the request of parent or guardian and with the\napproval of the principal, study any subject in the 'Course of Instruction' which the daily program will permit;\" I hear it from the\nlips of the professor of pedagogy in one of the greatest American\nuniversities, when he declares that he does not know of a single subject of the secondary school course that he would regard as absolutely essential. Now, all this may be very right, if the school that\ngives greatest freedom to the individual student's development secures with equal care opportunities for the exercise of his social instincts ; but there can be no question that the specializing spirit\noften leads to the cultivation of personal power at the serious loss\nof personal sensitiveness to the just claims of the school upon his\nactive, public support of those principles affecting conduct that receive cordial assent from the majority of students when presented\nto them as individuals. Yet, how often, when we have occasion to\nremind a student of St. Paul's passionate affirmation, that \"No man\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n584\n\n[Secondary\n\nliveth to himself,\" are we met by the reply, \"I can answer only for\nmy own actions ; I have no responsibility for those of others. \" In\nbrief, we have as yet found no way of focusing the best sentiment\n\nof the whole school body in a positive manner upon the evils we\nwould reform.\n\nYet there are no societies among students that bring\n\nto their work greater energy, enthusiasm, honesty of purpose, and,\nin the main, better judgment in execution, than high school organizations .\n\nTo make clear the application of my general statement, let me\ngive a single illustration. Belonging to the two high schools of this\ndistrict is a cadet battalion.\n\nIts commissioned officers are elected\n\nby its members ; its non-commissioned officers receive appointments\nby united action of the commissioned officers and the major of the\n\nbattalion, Mr. Bradley, the present principal of the Manual Training High School. The cadets have rarely failed to elect boys of\nhonorable and forceful character to important positions.\n\nCertain\n\nof these commissioned officers sit as a court martial for the trial of\n\noffenses of various kinds. It has been my privilege to be present at\nsome of these trials.\n\nThe boy who is summoned before the court\n\nmartial for the first time is inclined to regard the whole affair as a\n\nhuge joke from which he intends get some fun at the expense of his\n\nsuperiors. He consequently appears with a jaunty look and anything but a military bearing. The dignity and seriousness, however, with which he is met, the sharp criticism of his dress and the\nunsoldierly attitudes into which from nervousness he constantly\nfalls, sober him quickly. He has come most likely with flimsy or\nfeigned excuse ; the flaws in which soon appear beneath the skillful\n\nexamination of his judges. Often, dropping his show of bravado,\nhe pleads guilty and is dismissed, sometimes reprimanded, sometimes fined, and always with most excellent advice as to his future\nconduct.\n\nHe walks out with a far more business-like air than he\n\nentered, and often with a sense of shame and mortification at his\nfoolishness. The boy may appeal from the decision of the court\nmartial, and bring his case before the battalion at its monthly meeting; its decision, however, is rarely reversed. Thus the cadet brings\nhimself or is brought by his fellows to the recognition and practice\nof soldierly bearing, honorable dealing, and unquestioning obedience.\nNow, I sincerely believe that in this self-governing organization we\nhave a type that may be imitated in form and spirit for the maintenance and preservation of many other ideals.\nCheating in examinations has disappeared from several colleges,\nnotably from Princeton, because the student body, by public action,\ndecided, that, if they were left unwatched, the man who was dishonorable enough to cheat and was detected by his classmates must\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.\n\n585\n\nsever his connection with the college; a conclusion voluntarily ас-\n\ncepted by several offenders. You object, perhaps, that we can\nhardly expect of the high school student what we may of the col-\n\nlegian. I answer, that much more may be expected in the way of\npositive action, if students be rightly guided step by step and encouraged to its use. Boys and girls of high school age are no\ncasuists ; with them an action is absolutely right or absolutely\nwrong. They weave no fine-spun excuses for themselves over the\nmixture of good and evil in yielding to inclination; they do wrong\n\ndeliberately, sometimes for the purpose of judging you severely, if\nyou overlook too easily their offenses. They object to no punishment of which the school approves, but you will hardly get them to\ndo that which they believe their mates would not accept as just. It\nsometimes becomes necessary to discover their feelings towards a\nmovement requiring their co-operation. Have you ever noted with\nwhat marvelous rapidity, by glance of eye, they take note of each\nother's position before hazarding opinions ? Their appeal is, not\nto the reasonableness of your proposition but to their classmates '\nconclusion.\n\nIn this universal appeal to a common consciousness and desire\nfor mutual support we may find if we will the strongest force we have\nfor the upbuilding and controlling of individual character. Therefore, encourage its growth, by giving every possible opportunity to\nthe school for the expression of its feeling and opinion, through\nunited or representative action. In this way only can the school\nlearn to co-ordinate the action of its heart with its brain, its feeling\nwith its intelligence. Trust your students, and you will have no\nreason to fear in them lack of taste or wisdom.\n\nLet them learn the\n\nstrength and weakness of concerted action; better mistakes now\nthan when they try to serve in later years a large community. Do\nnot keep them in pupilage too long. Give them credit for an increasing power of social action, that keeps pace with their growth in\njudgment. If we expect mature society to cleanse itself of cheating,\n\nlying, stealing, and impurity, we cannot begin too early to invite\ntheir co - operation in the cure of these ills.\n\nIt is not difficult to make\n\nthem realize that these evils entail more serious consequences upon\nschool society than upon the individual offender. When our stu-\n\ndents once believe this, our work is practically done. Later they\nwill leave us with faith in their fellows, hope in the power of united\naction, charity for the weakness of individuals, and some ability to\nmake their knowledge efficient in a society of which the school after\nall is a faithful though possibly a flattering counterpart.\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "586\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Secondary\n\nSHOULD ELECTIVES IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS BE BY COURSES\nOR BY SUBJECTS?\n\nBY OSCAR D. ROBINSON, PRINCIPAL OF HIGH SCHOOL, ALBANY, N. Y.\n\nSuch was the question assigned us in the wisdom of your committee, and feeling thoroughly convinced that courses of study are,\nand for a long time must remain, a necessity in our school economy,\nwe are forced to occupy the unfortunate position of defending that\nwhich to the minds of probably more than ninety per cent of this\naudience needs no defense. If it be true that there is always a fair\npresumption in favor of existing conditions and institutions, then\nthe burden of argument should be upon those who demand a change\nin the existing order, and the subject should have been opened by\nthose who would attack, and not by those who would defend, a system which we have reached through wearisome years of effort and\nevolution. Among the prominent educators in the country we know\nof only one who unreservedly advocates the abolition of all courses of\nstudy in high schools, and but for the products of his prolific pen\nfor the past few month this discussion would seem almost a waste\n\nof time. But the mere fact that our course-of-study system has been\nopenly and repeatedly attacked by so eminent an authority as Dr.\nSamuel Thurber is perhaps sufficient reason why some of the valuable time of this association should be devoted to the question as\nproposed by the committee. Let us bear in mind, that, in a discussion of this kind, all the favorable conditions for argument are\non the side of the untried, the merely theoretical.\nIn favor of choice by courses of study we can cite the established\norder of things (needing improvement, to be sure; but so elastic\nas to readily admit of improvement), the approval of thousandsin fact, almost the entire body-of our best educators, and results\n(which, while not all that could be wished, are certainly far above\nwhat could reasonably be expected in the absence of this system).\nOn the other hand, in favor of choice by electives we have no end\nof brilliant arguments and glowing statements of what the results\nwould be, and that's all. Any facts supporting the theory of choice\nby electives in secondary schools are as difficult to find as the traditional dentes gallinarum. It is worthy of note, also, that Mr. Thurber\ndoes not even hint at the desirability or possibility of conducting\nthe great endowed or private schools in any other manner than by\nstudy courses.\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nELECTIVES BY COURSES OR SUBJECTS ?\n\n587\n\nHere, then, at the very outset, let us state what we are to understand by the expressions \"electives by courses\" and \"electives by\nsubjects.\" By the first we mean simply this : That all the subjects\nwhich pupils may be allowed to pursue in a given school are so arranged that each is awarded a certain ratio of the whole time (say\nof a four-years' course), and that each takes its place in a fixed order\nwith reference to the other subjects. As more subjects are admitted in the curriculum of most schools than every pupil can profit-\n\nably pursue, these are arranged in groups, often differing by only a\nsingle subject, and by a rather awkward nomenclature are called\n\"courses of study.\" Critics and iconoclasts seem to take delight in\n\nspeaking of these so-called courses as though they were entirely\nseparate and distinct from each other, each with a distinct set of\npupils and a separate set of teachers, a form of statement very misleading and entirely at variance with the facts. The much criticised\n\n(and in some respects justly criticised) specimen programs of the\ncommittee of ten furnish a good illustration of fixed courses. These\n\ndifferentiate almost wholly along the line of language studies, and\nwe all know that there is no necessary separation of pupils except\nin the one or more subjects which differentiate one course from another. In the first year, for example, the classical and Latin-scientific courses are identical, and in the second year they differ but\nslightly. As a matter of fact, all those pursuing algebra through a\ngiven year, in whatever course, would recite to the same set of teachers; the same is true of physics, geometry, Latin, etc. The classicals\nare not separated from the others in branches common to all, but\nonly in the one subject of Greek, and so on through the whole. Undoubtedly many secondary schools make a silly display of multiform \" courses of study,\" much to the satisfaction of the reformers,\nbut it is well to bear in mind, when citing the terrible example of a\nschool with \"seven courses of study,\" that the \" Latin course\" of such\na school may differ from the \"French course\" by a single subject, and\nvery likely not by a single teacher. I find, that, in most of the few\nhigh schools where Greek is allowed, four so-called courses are the\noutside limit, and in schools omitting Greek three is the maximum\nnumber. The numbers are much more likely to be three and two. So\nmuch for the number of courses. We repeat, then, that, by the\ncourse method, the mathematics of each of the four years is fixed\nin amount and in the order of succession, and all the pupils of a\ngiven grade pursue their mathematics as though they were in the\nsame course . The same is true of those other substantial subjects\nwhich make up the bulk of the high school curricula. Students of\nthe same grade, in subjects common to all the courses, are grouped\nas if belonging to the same course, and are separated only in the\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "588\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\ndifferentiating subjects. Under these conditions a principal, knowing from experience the probable number that will select the vari-\n\nous courses, can arrange the teaching force at his disposal (which,\nby the way, Mr. Thurber never seems to regard as a limited force),\n\nin the manner to secure the best possible results.\n\nNor does this\n\nsystem involve any such procrustean method as our opponents would\nhave us suppose. I know of no high schools that prohibit pupils\nfrom entering upon any single study in which classes are already\nformed for those in course, provided they are qualified and can show\nany good reason for so doing, whether of poor health or other necessity. On the other hand, we are all glad to have a student in one\ncourse take an additional subject belonging to another, provided he\nhas the mental and physical ability; and, while we more frequently\nadvise students to lengthen than to shorten the time assigned, we\nnever object to their taking all the Latin or mathematics assigned\n\nfor two years (or even more) in a single year, provided they are able.\nLiberal substitutions are also allowed in most schools, along kindred\nlines, so that there is under the course system great opportunity for\nselection if not for election .\n\nWhat the schools do say, what they have a right to say, is ir\nsubstance this : \"We require such and such minimum attainments\nin mathematics, in literature, in science, etc., before we give you our\ndiploma. If you double the amount of literature and omit the mathematics, or increase the mathematics and omit the prescribed science,\nwe will not put the stamp of our approval upon it in the form of a\ndiploma.\" Consequently all the talk about pupils being obliged to\nforego the privileges of education, or take to the completion certain\n\ndefinite courses of study in certain periods of time, is mere buncombe.\nBut I believe every principal who has watched the progress of\npupils who have been allowed to elect this and that from various\ncourses will agree with the statement, that, notwithstanding a few\nexceptions, these efforts have for the most part resulted in misera-\n\nble failures. In fact, when a high school pupil begins to have an\nitching for \" electives \" or a \"partial course,\" unless on account of\n\nill-health or unavoidable necessity, it generally marks the first stages\nof the disease known as \"going all to pieces.\"\n\nNow, what is choosing studies by electives ? As I understand\nthe plan, it is as follows : The school authorities shall simply prescribe in advance the list of subjects that may be pursued (and some\n\nwould delegate even this to the choice of the pupils), leaving order,\nsequence, and time to be decided by the children. If, for instance,\nyour school consists of 500 pupils, by the elective system 475 might\nchoose French, physics, and botany and the remaining twenty-five\nmight be distributed variously among the other studies allowed.\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\n589\n\nELECTIVES BY COURSES OR SUBJECTS?\n\nwith from three to five in each trio of subjects. Now, suppose you\nget your teaching force adjusted to this unique arrangement, and\nat the close of the semester the popular sentiment of the school has\nchanged (as it is almost sure to do), and 475 wish to take literature,\nastronomy, and German, and the remaining twenty-five distribute\nthemselves among a new set of trios. What glorious headway we\nshould make !-aiming at nothing, and sure to hit it; traveling to\nnowhere, and bound to get there. But you may say this is not\na fair statement but only an absurd caricature of the elective system. Very well, we will take the evidence of the great exponent of\nthis system, and let him state his own case. From an article by Dr.\nThurber, in the \"Journal of Education\" of Feb. 14, 1895, I take the\nfollowing extracts :\nThe very idea of a course of study-apart from any contemplated plan of rewards in honors and degrees, which have no essential relation to the philosophy\n\nof the matter-is nothing less than absurd. To assume that certain studies, in\ncertain proportions, naturally articulate together so as to form something like an\norganic unity, is a piece of pedantry hardly to be paralleled outside the province\nof pedagogy.\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\nThe high school should cease to constrain minds to mingle subjects together\nregardless of the effects of the mingling on the minds themselves. This comes\npretty near to saying that high schools should have no courses of study; and\nthis is precisely what I wish to say.\nA prescribed grouping of studies is just as necessary for a high school as it\n*\n\nis for Harvard College; that is, it is not necessary at all .\n\n*\n\n*\n\nThe ideal high\n\nschool will have a large and pleasant room for study, where there shall be a sufficient library and teachers ever on duty to preside over discipline and to give aid\n\nand guidance in the use of books. The pupils in this room will have freedom of\nmovement and of conversation, so far as these freedoms are natural and inevitable\nin associated work. Of carrying home of books, except for voluntary reading,\n\nthere shall be none at all. The first step towards the realization of this ideal\nis the abolition of the course of study. This does not mean at all that any study\nwill necessarily be erased from the program.\n\nTalk about caricature !\n\nYou can no more caricature such a\n\nscheme than you can caricature Coxey's army. Such an \"ideal\"\nhigh school would seem absurd enough if composed of 100 pupils\nand four or five teachers ; but suppose it to be a mixed high school\n\nof 800 or 1,000 pupils and twenty-five or thirty teachers ; enlarge\nyour room and increase your books proportionately, and then say to\nthese girls and boys : \"This is a purely local option school; choose\nyour own subjects, exercise all necessary freedom in conversation\nand movement, and call upon your teachers for assistance when you\nneed it. \"\n\nI think if we failed of an ideal school under these condi-\n\ntions we might feel sure of an ideal bedlam.\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "590\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nHaving discussed at considerable length the method of procedure\nin these two systems, let us see what is claimed for the reform, or\nelective, system. However numerous the reformers may be, Dr.\nThurber appears, up to date, to be the only outspoken champion, and\nsurely his colleagues could not desire one more courageous nor expect to find an abler. In addition to the brief article in the \"Journal\nof Education\" for February 14th, from which we have just quoted,\nI find in the same periodical of May 2d an abstract of a paper on the\nsame subject, read before the Massachusetts Association of Classical\nand High School Teachers ; also, an article in the \"School Review\"\nfor April, on \"Rigid Courses versus Optional Studies;\" and, lastly,\na very able paper in the \"Journal of Pedagogy\" for June, on \"Courses\nof Study in Secondary Schools.\" We have in these papers a severe\narraignment of \"philosophers\" and \"decemviri,\" who attempt to\nmake courses of study and persuade others to adopt them, and much\nwholesome criticism of over-crowded courses and under-disciplined\nhigh school graduates, always coupled with the assumption that all\nthese evils would disappear if we would abolish courses of study.\nNow, we maintain that the evils against which he declaims can\n\nbe better remedied under the course system than they could possibly\nbe under the elective system. If observation teaches anything in\nthis line, it is, that the inexperienced pupil, if allowed to choose his\nsubjects, rarely chooses wisely either in number or kind. To abolish\ncourses of study because there are evils connected with them is to\nadopt the plan of the anarchist, who, because there are defects in\n\norganized society, would have organized society abolished. But\nagain, we affirm that the course system as such is in no way responsible for the evils which we are all interested to remedy. It is no\nmore necessary that this system should demand more than three\n\nsubjects to be carried on continuously than that an elective system\nshould, and this procrustean, cast-iron process against which these\npointed shafts are aimed is but a figment of the imagination-an\nideal realm of the hero who sighs for a new world to conquer. We\ndo not deny the existence of many errors in our present arrangement\n-God save us from the day when we shall say, \"We have reached\n\nperfection! \"-but we deny the efficacy of the remedy proposed. In\nall the articles above referred to, the author, when enumerating defects, seems to be dealing with conditions as they are; but when he\nproposes his panacea for these defects, and prophesies the results,\nhe enters an ideal realm, or at least one unknown to the ordinary\nhigh school teacher. Nothing short of ideal pupils, ideal teachers,\nideal boards of education, and ideal equipments would harmonize\nwith his proposed scheme, and these we do not look for in real lifeespecially the life of the teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nELECTIVES BY COURSES OR SUBJECTS ?\n\n591\n\nIt is all very well to plead Harvard College as an example, but the\nordinary village and city high schools are very different institutions\nfrom Harvard College. Call to mind the high school pupils as you\nand I have known them. They enter at ages varying from thirteen\nto fifteen. All of them come from homes of respectability, but few\nfrom homes of wealth, and fewer still from homes of culture.\n\nTheir\n\nstock of ideas is yet too limited to enable them to decide what studies\nare best for them, or even what subjects they are likely to pursue\nwith most interest. Their ideas of education, if indeed they can be\n\nsaid to have such ideas, are exceedingly crude. To talk of such\nchildren choosing the branches of study which will be best for them,\n\nfollowing their own tastes, etc., is worse than pedantry. They have\nno reliable data on which to found a choice; and, as for taste, their\nonly conception of the word has reference to the palate. These\nchildren are the raw material-very raw, generally-out of which,\n\nwith proper training, will come men and women, the glory and pride\nof our schools, but who are at present as incapable of selecting the\nsubjects or order of their studies as I should be of deciding upon an\nagricultural system for the inhabitants of Mars, and for the same\nreason-lack of proper experience or knowledge. Nor, in most cases,\nare the parents any better fitted to make this selection than are the\nchildren, while it is a well-known fact that the most intelligent and\nbest educated as a rule select for their children the most rigid\ncourses of study. We maintain, then, that to throw away our\ncourses of study would be to go back from organization to chaos.\nThere is ample opportunity for those who wish to do so to try the\nexperiment. If it succeeds, as they claim that it will, the rest will\nquickly enough follow. On the side of electives there is, as we have\nshown, nothing but argument and prophecy. On the side of the\nfixed courses we have the experience of all our past history, and,\nwhile faults still inhere, they are easily eradicable ; we point to results which we believe could have been attained in no other way.\n\nWe may wish for a better guide than experience, but there is none.\nResults may seem meager when compared with prophecy, but they\nare sure ; and certainty is a great deal in this life. Our fixed courses\nalready afford large scope for electives, while they give to the uncultured youth who pursue them a preparation for collegiate, technical, professional, or independent study which no one, in the light\nof present experience, would claim could be secured, under our necessary limitations, by any other system.\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n592\n\n[Secondary\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nISAAC T. JOHNSON, Friends' School, Wilmington, Del.-A system of electives\nin high school courses seems to be a necessary part of the high school work. For\nafter a boy has mastered the elements of an English education and begins to do\nhigher work his inclinations or his own or his parents' hopes for the future require\nthat he specialize more or less, or that from several possible courses or subjects of\nstudy he choose only such as will fit his needs.\nFarther than this, the tendency now is to begin to elect earlier than the high\nschool and to exclude such elementary work in the grammar school as may be\nbrought in with the high school course or may be undertaken to better advantage\nlater. The colleges claim, and with some degree of justice, that the boy should\nbe prepared at an earlier age than eighteen or nineteen for admission, or else be\nmore thoroughly equipped for advanced work at the age he now enters .\nOn the other hand, the community demands in its turn, that, in the ten or\ntwelve years during which the school has the boy, he should be trained and prepared\nin the best possible manner for the duties of life. But just what is the best preparation for the duties of life is where there is some difference of opinion; as one\nwill claim that the best preparation lies in the course which gives the best discipline\nof the mind and control of the faculties irrespective of the dollar-earning value of\nthe course, while another claims that the dollar-earning value of the study as well\nas the disciplinary may be found also in the subjects studied. In a very few large\ncities and wealthy communities both ideas are met by the regularly organized English high school, Latin school, and manual training school. But these are so few\nthat they cannot be considered as types. We must take rather the high school\nof our smaller cities and larger towns where separate schools cannot be organized .\n\nThe same public sentiment which is found in the larger one must be considered\nin the smaller community.\n\nThere is the boy who is preparing for one of the many courses offered by the\ncollege or university; the boy of mechanical turn, who will serve his apprenticeship at a trade; and a third, who will enter upon a business career or the work\nof the farm.\n\nFor the first (who is in a decided minority) provision must be made, and with\nthe idea constantly in view that success in preparing the college boy will raise\nthe tone of the work in all other courses. For the second, some variation from the\ncourse of the first must be made, that he may attempt only the work which will\neither be complete in itself or be so well started that it may be completed by the\npupil by his own unaided efforts after he has left school. As far as possible, also,\nit should be of value to him in his trade.\n\nFor the other and far larger class, the community seems to demand that the\nspecial college and technical work be excluded, and that such work be given as\nwill give both the best discipline of mind and such general knowledge as will be\nof value to the citizen.\nThe question before us asks whether all these demands can be best met by\n\ngiving electives in subjects or in courses.\nIf we analyze carefully the work required of the high school we shall agree,\nthat we must have such work done as will secure for all the best discipline of\nmind and development of character; that, to secure this, the work done by each\nchild must have a system in its arrangement and such a relationship in the succession of studies that it will secure the desired training as well as secure the\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "Education . ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n593\n\npractical ends desired. This consideration in itself will preclude all selections by\nsubjects except the subjects be in themselves arranged in courses, and preclude all\nselections which may be made to gratify a feeling that one subject is \"easier\" than\nanother.\n\nAccording to the principle just laid down we should outline a few courses in\nthe high school from which the pupil should make his selection of a course. Then,\n\nif possible, in the last two of a four years' course, opportunity should be given\nof substituting for some of the prescribed work elective subjects, elected for the\npurpose of doing more advanced work in lines already undertaken or to meet the\nrequirements of college or business.\n\nThe number and character of the courses\n\nto be offered in a particular school will depend largely upon the resources of the\nschool, upon the teaching force, and upon the equipment. No school should offer\nmore courses than it can teach well.\n\nAll schools can offer at least two courses for a part of the four years, if not\nfor all. These two courses will be arranged differently in different communities.\nSome will have a classical or language course and a scientific course. Others\nmay have an English course with the manual training work and a classical course.\nIn all schools and among those pursuing every course are found a few who\nseem, we might say, incapacitated for mastering some one subject but who display a genius in some other line. For these some provision should be made, as\nwell as for those who, for special reasons, desire and are able to do advanced\nwork in any one subject. The election and substitution of work by subjects in\nsuch cases must be limited by the resources of the school and exercised entirely at\nthe discretion of the teachers in charge.\nThe practical considerations of teaching force and making of programs must\nbe considered. The larger the number of electives offered and chosen the greater\nwill be the tax upon the teaching force and the greater will be the difficulty in\n\narranging time cards. This often amounts to the task of trying to accomplish the\nimpossible.\nThe high school is organized for the greatest good to the greatest number, and\n\nwhen it so happens that by a system of electives the teacher is forced to conduct\na large number of recitations per day, and in many subjects, the work in no one\nsubject will be of a high order nor results satisfactory. It will result, that, in\nattempting to satisfy a few, all will be dissatisfied.\nIt is a mistaken idea, that, as the high school is supported by public funds,\nit should necessarily offer the opportunity to every one to pursue at public expense\nstudies which may be considered by parent or pupil of special advantage after\nleaving school.\n\nWhen the state offers opportunities for the best training of all the faculties\nof the child and the development of character, and when it employs the best\nexpert talent at its command to accomplish this end, all has been done that should\nbe done by the state; and the question whether the work will be best done by\ncourses or by subjects, or by both, will be determined variously by those who try\nhonestly to do their duty in the locality in which they work.\n38\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "594\n\nNATIONAL educational ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nTHE PROSPECTS FOR A FEDERAL EDUCATIONAL UNION.\n\nBY WM . CAREY JONES , UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL.\n\nA state school system, in the sense of a series of schools, completely organized, thoroughly articulated, from the kindergarten to\nthe university, under the express and direct control of the sovereign\nauthority, does not exist in the United States.\n\nThe state has universally established the elementary school, with\nplans for natural connection between its successive years. It has, or\nhas not, made legal provision for high schools. If so, then generally\nwithout any definite and necessary connection with the elementary\nschools. It has, or has not, made provision for a university. If it\nhas, then generally without imposing any obligation of inter-relation\nwith the high school. It has not, in general, sent down the tap-root\nof education-the public kindergarten. The state has, at best, arranged for an independent existence of kindergarten, elementary\nschool, secondary school, and university. Whatever there is of a harmoniously working combination of the several grades has come from .\nthe voluntary and spontaneous co-operation of these several separate\n\nand legally independent parts.\nIn some portions of the country, particularly in the West and on\nthe Pacific Coast, this voluntary association of educational interests\nhas developed to such a degree that we may distinctly see an emergence from former chaotic conditions and may view with confidence\n\nthe probable tolerably complete articulation of the several parts of\nthe series in one connected whole. The study of educational theory,\nthe discussion of definite questions and problems, the establishment\nof educational journals, an increasing body of highly educated and\nprofessionally trained teachers, the growth of kindergartens, and the\nawakened interest of colleges and universities in the whole question\nof education, have been among the influences that have been working\nto the amelioration of our educational condition and to the production of real educational systems.\nTo my thinking, among the most potent factors in this construc-\n\ntion of the new education have been the kindergartens in their influence on the first years of the elementary school and the universities\nin their policy of co-operating with the secondary school. The practical exemplification of a natural and true method by the kindergarten has impelled the thought of theorists and teachers to correction\nof the methods and improvement of the studies of the lower grades,\n\nand co-operation with college and university has given to the high\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nFEDERAL EDUCATIONAL UNION.\n\n595\n\nschool in many portions of the country a tone, a life, a vigor that\nmake it an active and efficient agent in the enlightenment of the people. If it has been true that the most discouraging problem in educational America has been how to give a conscious aim and purpose to\nthe formerly dead-and-alive secondary school, this is no longer, at\nleast universally, true. But while the elevating influences of the re-\n\nanimated high school are pervading, too, the next preceding school\nyears, the greatest waste of energy to-day in the educational life of\nthe child is found mainly in the years midway between the kindergarten and the high school. I refer to this chiefly for one reason,\nnamely, to draw attention to the fact, that, when the desiderated extension of the secondary school course to six years-not upwards,\nbut downwards-shall have been accomplished, the contents of the\nwhole school curriculum may be easily strengthened and enriched.\nNow, this voluntary co-operation, and hence, the inception of a system of education, has, as a rule, at least, come from the initiative of\nthe university. The university has reached down to the high school\nand sought to bring about a real connection between secondary and\nhigher education. This action may have been prompted by motives\nof self-protection or self-aggrandizement. But, if this has been generally true in the beginning, it has not long remained so; especially\nnot in the state with whose educational history I am best acquainted.\n\nThere (in California) the contact between university professor and\nhigh school teacher soon resulted in opening the mind of each and in\nproducing in the university professor an intense interest in the cause\n\nof secondary education; and, indeed, in the whole education of child\nand youth.\n\nSo successful have we been in California in beginning the work of\narticulating the several parts and grades of the educational series,\nthat I cannot do better than give the history, present status, and prospects of the accrediting or diploma system in California-the Californian plan for uniting secondary school and university.\nThe accrediting of schools by the University of California was authorized by the governing body in 1884. The faculty laid out a careful, thoroughgoing, and conservative scheme of action. They offered\nto high schools, and later to private schools, to inspect, upon request,\ntheir courses of study and the extent and quality of their work. They\npromised, that, if, after a searching inspection, these were found satis-\n\nfactory, the graduates of such schools might, on the personal recommendation of the principal, be received into the university without\nexamination. The official inspection has in each case been conducted\nby experts in the several departments of study-classics, English, history, mathematics, science. The visit to the school is repeated yearly,\nwith occasional exceptions in particular branches. I think that no\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "596\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nschool has ever been passed for a single year without visits from several university officers. The accrediting is for a single year only. Accompanying the yearly application for accrediting must come the\n\ncourse of study in the school, the list of teachers, and specimen papers\nshowing the style of work. Some regard is paid to the record which\nrecommended students make in the university during their first year.\nAt first the schools responded slowly to the proffered inspection.\nThey had been living long their retired, independent, self-sufficient\nlife. They did not court interference from without. In 1888 there\nwere but six schools that had become affiliated with the university.\nIn the fall of that year, however, and during several following years,\na messenger, a missionary, went forth from the university, up and\ndown the length of the state, explaining to the teachers and officials\nof the schools the methods and purposes of the university in the proposed affiliation. The result was a rapid and steady increase in the\nnumber of accredited schools, which grew, in successive years, from\nnine in 1889 to fifty-one in 1894.\nTo render the work of useful connection between secondary\n\nschools and university in California more difficult, the constitution\nof 1879 had taken away from and denied to high schools any state pecuniary assistance. This caused the death of many high schools\nwhich had sprung into existence during the previous decade. In 1889\nthere were only twenty-one high schools (and some of them called so\nonly by courtesy) within the whole state. These were supported by\nlocal taxation. But, in 1890, through the operation of the accrediting system, without any change in the organic law, the interest in secondary education had become so stimulated that thirty-seven schools\nwere flourishing. And these have grown until, in 1894, there were\nninety-four.\n\nTo recapitulate, the features of the Californian accrediting system are : (1) The careful yearly inspection, by a body of experts ,\nof every school desiring affiliation; (2) the acceptance of graduates\nof accredited schools, upon presentation of a personal recommendation from the principal. The diploma alone will not admit; the\nrecommendation alone will not admit.\n\nEntrance examinations con-\n\ntinue to be held as though the accrediting plan did not exist. These\nexaminations are open to all-to those from non-accredited schools\nand to those from accredited schools who have not received the\n\nprincipal's recommendation.\nIt may be suggested that the system will fail through overweight. And so it will, if it be not modified. How can it be modified without sacrificing the elements that give it strength? We\nCalifornians think it can be done, even to the improvement of our\npresent methods. What we are thinking of just now is this : We\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nFEDERAL EDUCATIONAL UNION.\n\n597\n\npropose to form, instead of our present examining committee consisting of six or seven men, who are also charged with full teaching\nduties in the university, a smaller committee of, say, three. These\nthree shall be, perhaps, clothed with the title of assistant professor\nor associate professor, together with that of university examiner.\nThey may, perhaps, be attached to the department of pedagogy.\nThey will be men of extensive knowledge, competent to inspect the\nwork of the schools; one, say, in the classics, one in mathemathics and science, and one in English and history. German\nand French may be assigned to one or another, according to circumstances. These men may, perchance, be required to devote all their\ntime to school visiting, and similar work, or they may be able to\nconduct work in the university during a portion of the year. Their\ninspection of schools may be supplemented or replaced, in particular\ninstances, by the department professors.\nThe most effective method of correlating the university and high\nschool now in practice in America is, probably, that which is being\ncarried out in California. The fairest promise of a thoroughgoing\nsystematization of school work along the whole line exists, too, I\nbelieve, in California; and this promise is mainly dependent on the\nintimate connection created between high school and university.\nWhat has been done in California may be done in every other\nstate.\n\nThe difficulties on the Pacific seemed at first insurmountable.\n\nBut those who determined on the conquest adhered to their resolu-\n\ntion, and the many difficulties that still remain toward perfecting\nthe system will not deter us from pursuing our work until the\nwhole field is conquered. I plead, in behalf of the systematization\nof our state school work, (1) for the adoption of an effective, thorough , well-guarded scheme of accrediting, where none now exists ;\n(2) for the strengthening and safeguarding of existing accrediting\n\nschemes; (3) for the abandonment of all certificating of schools by\ncolleges and universities, whether open and aboveboard or sub rosa,\nwithout inspection of the actual work of the school . *\nSuch are the prospects for a systematization of our educational\ninstitutions in some of our states, and such are the means by which\n\na like systematization may be effected in many others. What are,\nnow, the prospects for inter-state co-operation, and what the means\nof promoting such co-operation in order that we may finally arrive\nat a federation of educational systems? Foremost among the influences in breaking down everything like sectionalism, as Principal\nC. H. Thurber has well shown, and in creating a national sentiment\nin education, is the report of the committee of ten. The body of ex\n* The different methods of admission to college are well explained by Miss Lucy M. Salmon in the \"Educational Review.\" Her article is a valuable contribution on the subject of\nthis paper.\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "598\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\npert opinion contained in its several conference discussions furnishes\na basis for study and a guide for action everywhere in the country.\nIts programs constitute a working theory for the organization of the\nsecondary school and for promoting its right connection with the\nuniversity. The curricula are to be regarded as \"sample programs,\" and as such essentially practical. I cannot see anything\n\"ideal\" in them. They are types, and are capable of many readjustments. They include at least almost all the subjects that profitably\nfall within the purview of the secondary school. Whether the time\nallotments are the best need not be at all considered here.\n\nEither independently of the report of the committee of ten, or in\n\ndiscussion and execution of its recommendations, much is being\ndone in various parts of the country to bring about co-operation\nwithin limited circles. These efforts have, too, to a greater or less\nextent, an influence beyond the boundaries of their nominal spheres.\nThe New England Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools\nand the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the\nMiddle States and Maryland have, for instance, furthered greatly\nthe uniformity of relations between college and school. The committee of fifteen of the National Department of Superintendence has\n\ncontributed to the nationalization of educational thought by its recent admirable report. Two associations whose fields of activity\nare avowedly within single states may also be specially mentioned,\nbecause their example is one worthy of imitation and because they\nare engaged on lines of work which have a national import. I refer\nto the Michigan Schoolmasters' Club, whose valuable proceedings\nhave been published in the journals, and the State Educational\nConferences held under the auspices of the University of California.\nIn fact, I do not know but that this latter body has done one piece\n\nof work which, by further extension, may not be taken as a practical\nbasis for the general readjustment of the relations of university and\nhigh school. This particular work is a report made by a committee\n\nof the California conference, consisting of Principal W. F. Hall,\nPrincipal T. L. Heaton, and Prof. Frederick Slate. The collecting,\ncollating, and digesting of the statistics of this report was done\nby Mr. Hall. It is an exhaustive examination of the courses of\nstudy actually in vogue in nearly all the high schools and in the\n\nleading private preparatory schools in California, together with\nspecimen curricula of a representative list of similar schools in the\nEastern and Middle States .\n\nProf. Nicholas Murray Butler has said : \"The colleges have been\n\ninjuring higher education in America by giving their own idiosyncrasies as to admission examinations free scope, instead of agreeing\ntogether upon a policy.\" In fact, the present chaos of college entrance requirements is the greatest obstacle in the way of giving\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nFEDERAL EDUCATIONAL UNION.\n\n599\n\na national character to our higher education, as well as of bringing\nabout the unification of our educational interest at large. Thedifferences that characterize these entrance requirements are utterly\n\nirrational and indefensible. They represent whims and idiosyncrasies, or antiquated theory, or ill-considered radical notions, or\nunworthy concessions to ignorant demands.\n\nThey block the road\n\nto the improvement of the secondary school. They are a travesty\nupon our claims to be authorities in matters educational.\n\nIn order to rise from the particularistic and provincial self-sufficiency of this condition, we must establish an inter- collegiate policy\non the subject of entrance requirements. To effect such a policy\nI would suggest and recommend that the programs of the committee of ten, in their character of types, and with suitable and various\nredistribution of subjects be, so far as they go, indorsed by the universities and adopted by the high schools of the country; that the\nuniversities hold examinations in, or accredit on, all the subjects included in these programs; that state universities, where such existor other universities, where the state institutions do not exist-\n\nadopt an accrediting system drawn on careful and well-guarded\nlines; and that a system of reciprocity be established among the\nlarger universities, whereby matriculates in one university may be\nreceived into another with full credit so far as valid difference of\n\nentrance requirements will allow.\nFinally, I wish to recommend that a committee of considerable\nsize, composed of representatives of the larger universities and of\ntypical high schools, with proper regard to geographical distribution, be organized to devise plans for carrying out such suggestions\nas I have made, or for otherwise promoting a federation of our educational institutions. In the suggestion that the representatives be\ntaken from the larger universities, I am not careless of the interests of the college as distinguished from the university, nor indifferent to the sphere and functions of the college. I am not seeking\nto have it overlooked, displaced, or overwhelmed. But we are in\nthe face of many dangers : dangers of low standards, low ideals ;\ndangers of idiosyncrasy, of aimlessness ; dangers of confusionconfusion of college and university, confusion of college and high\nschool ; dangers of pernicious rivalry of universities ; dangers of\nexcessive increase of entrance requirements to academic work ;\ndangers of low standards in the professional school. Now, it is imperative that the universities-the dozen larger universities of the\ncountry-should meet together, through delegates, to discuss these\nand like questions ; to seek to obviate these dangers ; to establish\na modus vivendi among themselves ; to abandon their unessential\ndifferences, and yet maintain their inherent and characteristic aims ;\nto fix and regulate the quantum and standard of admission require-\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "600\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nments; in consultation with representatives of the colleges, to come\nto a common understanding of the sphere of college and university\nrespectively, and the relation between the two ; and, in consultation with representatives of the high school, to regulate the relations between secondary school and university.\nWithout discouraging or disparaging the formation of local associations, whose services in the causes are indispensable, I favor\nfor the purposes here suggested a national congress rather than\nsectional conferences.\n\nThe results obtained through the delibera-\n\ntions of such a body are more likely to be of a broader character\nand stronger foundation. Their recommendations would command\ngreater attention and respect. A little union of a dozen, or even\nhalf-dozen, universities, knowing no sectional boundaries, would be\na nucleus for the ultimate federation of our educational realm .\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nPROF. B. A. HINSDALE. -The spirit of our educational organization is quite\ndifferent from that of Europe. We cannot depend upon any central power. We\nmust resort to persuasion. I should like to ask two questions in regard to Professor Jones' paper. Is it proposed in California that hereafter the examinations\nare to be made annually ? We may perhaps assume that such is the plan of the\ninstitution. Is the examining faculty to be permanent or to be changed from time\nto time ? If this faculty is to be a permanent body, is it not to be feared that it\nmay, in some degree, grow out of sympathy with the work that is being done in\nthe university itself, and pass upon the institutions examined from an abstract\npoint of view ?\n\nLet us consider for a moment the real question under discussion. What shall\nbe done towards securing the adoption of the secondary school program of the\ncommittee of ten? In urging action along this line Professor Jones has spoken\nof these programs as types. I do not understand that they were ever intended\n\nto be anything else. They are what may perhaps be called norms, that are to\nbe in some degree and in some manner filled out as we advance in the discussion.\nI do not know that any educational authorities recommend the adoption of these\n\ncourses as they are formulated. What we should do is to do all we can to secure\na movement along these lines, using these courses, not as finalities but as types\nwhich can guide us in achieving something better. What can be done ? It is certain that we can do nothing at present, working from the legal or state administration standpoint.\n\nOur educational foundations are not along these lines.\n\nWe\n\nmust seek the accomplishment of our ends by way of discussion and action on\nthe part of universities and colleges in their individual capacity. This is the first\nstep. In regard to the final point of Professor Jones, such an organization as he\nproposes should, as a matter of course, look towards a national organization of\nthis sort. In the meantime, in my judgment, results that will be wholesome and\nsalutary within certain limits may be achieved by local organizations of this kind;\nas, for example, one on the Pacific Coast, one in the Mississippi Valley, and one\nin New England.\n\nPROFESSOR JONES stated, that, in the opinion of the faculty of the University\nof California, it would be so difficult as to be almost impossible for one man to\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n601\n\ndo the proper supervision, and they therefore preferred a committee. It was their\nopinion that this committee should be reasonably permanent.\nSUPT. A. F. NIGHTINGALE of Chicago, Ill. Standing in the rarefied atmosphere of the leading silver city of America, I do not know that it would be safe\nfor a Chicago man to present any golden opinions on this subject, even if he were\nconceited enough to believe that he had any. I am not in sympathy with the\ncharge made, that the colleges of the country are so engaged with their various\nidiosyncrasies as not to be in sympathy with the work done in our high schools.\nThe best high schools and the best colleges are in very close sympathy, and the\npoor colleges and the poor high schools are also in harmony. The college-men of\nthis country are too wise to draw far away from the high schools, upon whose\nsuccess their own longevity and vitality depend; and the high school men are too\nwise not to so strengthen their courses of study as to prepare amply for any\ncollege. Practically, the high schools of this country are all accredited by the\ncolleges of the country. All colleges and universities except Harvard and Yale\nreceive pupils on certificates or their equivalent. We cannot expect that the\ngraduates of our schools can be received into any college unless we do the work\n\nthat college requires. The high schools are uplifting with much greater rapidity\nthan the colleges of the country are uplifting themselves. The educational progress of this country to-day is such that we must individualize our work in the\nschools of the country. The time is past when we can take the children and put\nthem all through identically the same course of study. I am proud to have my\nLame signed to this protest of the American Philological Association against any\ncourse receiving the name of classical which does not provide for at least five\nrecitations a week in Latin through four years and for the study of Greek through\nthree years; but, at the same time, I am persuaded that it is a crime to try to\npersuade some pupils to study either Latin or Greek and it is a crime to induce\nothers to go into the depths of scientific study. It is our duty to develop mental\npower along the line indicated by the endowments of the Creator. One course\nof study in a high school is enough, but it should be so provided with electives\nthat every student can find in it what appeals to his individual powers. There\nshould be, of course, a general admixture of all if the pupil is able to receive\nsomething of all. It is the individual that we should study. I am glad that the\nhigh schools and the colleges of the country are drawing so closely together. I\nbelieve that the colleges are of great inspiration to the high schools. I believe\nthat the high schools are able to occupy the entire field, a large part of which has\nhitherto been occupied by private and endowed schools. The high schools hold\nthe key to the situation. Let us not throw it away. What the high schools are\nprepared to do the universities will accept, and what the universities demand the\nF. to\nHALL\nof California. The discussion and method of attack,\nhighPRINCIPAL\nschools areW.\nable\naccomplish.\n\nin the article on \"Electives by Course or Subjects,\" does not seem to be quite fair,\nin that the position of those who advocate election by subjects was not fairly\nstated. Election by subjects does not mean that the school authorities shall prescribe a list of subjects that shall be pursued without order and sequence of time.\nIt means that there shall be due regard to both order and sequence of time.\nThose who urge option in courses have never tried option in subjects. Those who\nurge option by courses are those who always have been bound by the ties of\nhistory and tradition. They say that the results obtained by option by courses\ncould not have been secured otherwise.\n\nLet us thank God that they could not.\n\nI\n\nam convinced, that, by the method of option by subjects, I have been able to get\nstronger personal hold upon my pupils, able to lead them better, and I do not see\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "602\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Secondary\n\nthat any of the evil results in regard to lack of definiteness of purpose which have\nbeen urged against this method have resulted.\nThere are four good reasons which may be given for options in subjects as\nagainst courses :\n\nFirst-The greater opportunity afforded the student for his adjustment to his\ncivilization and environment through specialization.\nSecond-The increased strength of character in the student resulting from thus\nearly learning to think out the problems of this adjustment.\nThird-The opportunity afforded to thoughtful scientific educators for finding\nout something practical about relative educational values.\nFourth-The better opportunity for finding out early the student's line of interest, and then for leading him along the line of these interests from what he is\n\nto what he ought to be; and this, it seems to me, is the end of all systems, and\nof all courses, and of all subjects .\nFinally, the system of election by courses recognizes only the formative value\n\nof subjects ; the system of election by subjects mainly their practical value. The\nultimate solution must recognize both values, and, while giving an all-round\nmental development, must, at the same time, give to each individual student the\nbest opportunity for solving the problems growing out of his adjustment to his\nenvironment on the practical side.\n\nPRINCIPAL C. M. LACEY SITES, Eastern High School, Washington, D. C.It is too late in the morning of this new day of educational progress for a person\nto stand upon the platform of such a meeting as this to advocate the strict hold-\n\ning to courses in our high schools. I have heard it stated in the Department of\nHigher Education that it is a tremendous responsibility to undertake to fix a\n\ncourse for a college student. Do we meet our responsibility by mapping out fixed\ncourses in the secondary school? While our course in the Washington High\n\nSchool is not one that I should care to present as a model, we do have in the\nthird and fourth years a wide range of electives not arranged in courses, and we\nfind the plan productive of earnest interest and substantial results. The greatest\n\ngood of the greatest number is not the true ideal. Our motto ought to be, the\nhighest good of every individual. I have heard it said that a principal ought to\nbe more than a program-maker and a bell-ringer, yet these terms, if understood in\nthe sense of planning the work and inspiring the activity of individual lives, may\n\nwell imply the highest praise. A program-maker does not simply make a program\nand turn a pupil loose on it. He sees to it that every individual has opportunity to\ndevelop the full possibilities of the capacities within him. We heard this morning\ndiscussion of the correlation of studies in the elementary schools. There was a very\nclear presentation and comparison of two ideals, viz., fitting the program to the demands of the civilization of the day, and fitting the program to the demands of the\nnature of the child.\n\nThe latter was set forth as the true ideal.\n\nThe test of the\n\nreality of the success of our work, as secondary teachers, is, that we reach every\nindividual child, and, by studying the individual case, by breaking away from mere\nfacilities of organzation, we give the widest possible range to the development of\nthe powers of the young lives committed to our care.\nJ. REMSEN BISHOP, Walnut Hills High School, Cincinnati.-I am tired of\nhearing of the report that worried the superintendent that worried the principal\nthat worried the teacher that worried the pupil. It undoubtedly did a great work,\nbut I should now like to let it go down the avenues of time without interfering\nwith its progress. Now, I hear Professor Jones recommend that the high schools\ntentatively adopt the courses proposed by the committee of ten. That recommendation is my objection to the admirable paper to which we have been listening. I\ndo not like those courses of study. I have received a great deal of suggestion\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n603\n\nfrom them, but I should be most unwilling to have any one of them adopted in\n\na school in which I was teaching. It is not necessary to state the objections to\nthe courses.\n\nThe mere fact that there were so many objections proves that there\n\nwere great defects. I believe that if the colleges of this country were to throw\nopen their doors upon some such conditions as seem to have been accepted in California, we could send a vastly increased number of pupils to the colleges. I think\nthat this could be safely done by the colleges. I feel somewhat jealous myself\nof the standing of the colleges. If throwing.open the doors would lower the standard, it should be opposed. When we consider the character of the professors in\nour colleges, to ask the question, Would these men allow the standard to be lowered ? is to answer it.\n\nThe high schools would come up.\n\nPROF. E. E. BROWN, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. The vital suggestion in Professor Jones' paper is, that there should be a conference in connection with this department that should take steps looking toward the calling of\nsome such congress or senate as he proposes. The report of the committee of ten left\nthis matter in an unfinished state, or rather the real problem is one not touched\nby the committee of ten. As regards state organization in this country, we are,\nfor the most part, either on foot or on horseback. We have a sort of middle form\nof organization that is mostly lack of organization. Of our states, perhaps five\nhave systematically undertaken secondary education, properly so-called. New York\nhas; also , Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Indiana.\n\nWe have in other states some-\n\nthing approaching state systems of education which have grown up through the\ncharacter and influence of the state universities.\n\nMichigan, California, and Minne-\n\nsota, and some others, are in this class. The problem of the formation of state\nsystems of secondary education is strongly emphasized by the relations of the secondary schools to the colleges and universities, the relation that is emphasized by\nthe report of the committee of ten. But the report passes over the fact that these\nrelations cannot be achieved permanently without a system. How much can be\ndone in this direction is a very serious question, but it is a question for such a\nbody, as that which is proposed, to consider.\nPRINCIPAL DICKENSON of California. Ten years ago there was very little\nsympathy between the University of California and general education throughout California. Little by little a different spirit entered. When Stanford Uni-\n\nversity was created, a great impetus was felt. It brought a department of pedagogy with it. The university at Berkeley very soon had a similar department.\nbut Professor Barnes at Palo Alto and Professor Brown at Berkeley did not take\nthe ground that they were unwilling to lower the standards of the universities\n\nin order to meet the high schools. They came down a little, and did their share\ntowards bridging the gulf. If the example of California should be imitated. and\nthe colleges should be willing to lower their standard a little to meet the high\nschools, the result would be a great growth and strengthening of sympathy between the two .\n\nT. O. BAKER, Yonkers, N. Y.-If there is anything we ought to be proud of it\nis the work of the committee of ten.\n\nI do not think that a single member of that\n\ncommittee dreamt that the schools would adopt the programs recommended. The\nquestion is, What action ought to be taken to promote the introduction of the\nprograms recommended by the committee of ten ? There ought to be in the\nUnited States three steps in education-elementary, secondary, university. I have\nnot heard Colorado mentioned in this discussion, and yet I think that this state\n\nhas approached this ideal organization perhaps as near as any. The high schools\nhave been brought to a certain standard. Now, we need to take another step,\nwhich is to bring the universities to something like par. Our entire system should\nbe uniform throughout the United States.\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "604\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nBIOLOGY IN THE FIRST YEAR OF THE SECONDARY\nSCHOOLS.\n\nBY O. S. WESTCOTT , PRINCIPAL NORTH DIVISION HIGH SCHOOL ,\nCHICAGO , ILL.\n\nWhen, last January, there came to me from the president of this\n\ndepartment an urgent solicitation to undertake to expound biological\ninstruction in the first year of high school life, the letter which contained this solicitation was so plausibly written, that, possibly without due reflection, the recipient shouldered rather willingly what has\nproved to be a heavy and somewhat embarrassing, though not in\nevery particular a disagreeable, burden.\nI was told, that \"there is the utmost diversity of practice as regards the science subject for the first year of the high school course\nof study ; that the tendency seems to be to teach the elements of\nphysiology and hygiene in the grammar grades ; that two subjects\nin the main at present claim a place in the first year of high school\n\nscience-botany and zoology (classed together often as biology) and\nphysical geography;\" that the time is ripe for the presentation of\nthe merits and demands of these branches of science for this part\nof the high school curriculum .\nThis complex of statements so plausible induced me to agree to\npresent for your consideration a resumé of what appear to be the\ndifficulties and the possibilities incident to the study of biology in\nthe first year of the high school.\nFor many years there seems to have been a tacit agreement\namong school authorities that there should be three regular lines of\nwork in secondary schools-work in language, work in mathematics,\nwork in science. Naturally we would expect the inclinations of\nteachers to be toward the least abstruse line of science for pupils\nin the ninth grade. If it appears that a decision is likely to be made\nbetween physical geography and biology, I shall by no means be\nreluctant to stand as the confessed champion of biology. It may\nseem unnecessary to state, that by biology I understand what has\nmany times been expressed by the term natural history; i. e. , zoology\nand botany. In a broad sense, biology would naturally include\nvastly more; so that I am at a loss to understand what a recent\ncommentator on the report of the committee of ten means, when he\nasserts that the committee have inserted too many science studies in\n\ntheir suggested programs, and illustrates his statement by saying\nthat the committee have added botany or zoology to biology.\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nBIOLOGY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.\n\n605\n\nThe objectors and the objections to the study of biology in so\nlow a grade as the first year in the high school are marvelously\nnumerous . The biologist himself would gladly have his work assigned to a higher grade, even the twelfth ; but I have yet to meet\nthe high school teacher who wishes his work assigned to a lower\ngrade or who is satisfied to have it remain where it is. The physicist\nknows that his work belongs in the last year of the high school, after\npupils have finished their mathematics and their chemistry. The\nastronomer is equally positive in the same direction; so is also the\ngeologist. Surely geology presupposes a knowledge of zoology, of\nphysics, of chemistry, and a scientific cultivation of the imagination.\nIt is evident, then, that the inclinations, not to say the idiosyncrasies,\nof the instructors themselves cannot be consulted, but the sequence\nof scientific study in the high schools must be determined by supervising authority, and there must be a yielding in certain directions\nthat greater difficulties may not be encountered.\n\nThe objection broadest in its scope, however, is the one propounded by the father of one of my pupils a year or two ago. The\npupil said to me that his father did not believe that either I or my\nteachers knew anything about the science of life, which he understood to be the definition of biology. While it is unfortunately true\nthat we are all lamentably ignorant of what life is, it is at least\nsupposable that we would hardly have harmed the young man had\nwe been permitted to familiarize him somewhat with some of its\nphenomena; but the young man was excused from the study by our\ngood-natured if not too susceptible supervising superintendent.\nWhen, more than two decades ago , I left the office of educational\ncolporteur to assume again the toga pedagogica, I found that pupils\ncould be rendered emulous-and, indeed, enthusiastic-by being encouraged to discover that some certain organism was regarded by\nscientists as belonging to the animal kingdom, because it had life,\nsensation, voluntary motion, breathed the oxygen of the air, lived\non organic food, and had a calcerous skeleton. What if future discoveries assured them of the existence of vegetable organisms having separately every one of these characteristics or possibilities !\nTheir belief in animal organisms was not thereby rudely shattered.\nA knowledge of the differing life of the vegetable kingdom, of the\nsensitiveness if not the sensation of the mimosa, of the voluntary\nmotion of the diatoms and the desmids, of the organic food of Dionæa\nmuscipula, of the inspiration of oxygen by plants under cover of\ndarkness, of the cystoliths in the cells of Ficus clastica, of the aciculate crystals of oxalate of lime in tradescantia, etc., merely served to\nfix the knowledge of the law and make the lesson a lasting one.\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "606\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nAfter this determination of the fundamental fact, it was not entirely uninteresting, even to the tyro, to be able to proceed to say\nfurther, that the organism belonged to the branch —, because\n; to the class\n\n, because\n\n; to the order , because\n\n-; to the family —\n, because\n; to the genus\n, because\n- -, and to the species , because —. It was a simple thing,\nand a natural one in this connection, to suggest the significance of\nprefixes like sub and super so often, so conveniently, and so accurately used by classicists. *\nIf the present generation of instructors in biology would do a\nlittle more in the direction of classification, they would thus accomplish two or three very desirable things. They would conciliate\nmany objectors who were more or less instructed on what may be\ncalled the old lines. Furthermore, they surely would not find the\ntime employed in this direction misspent. There is really no harm\nin allowing the student to become familiar with more than one\nanimal or plant in a branch, class, order, etc., instead of confining\nhis attention to the special one some one has selected as a type. It\nis possibly all very well for the masters in zoology to disregard almost\nin toto analytical keys (if they do), as if they were of no use. The\n\nfact remains, nevertheless, that organisms must in some way be\nidentified before any information can be communicated with regard\n\nto them. A fact or a phenomenon brought to light by an independent observer is not known to be new until he has read up the\nliterature of the organism under consideration. He must, hence,\n\nfirst identify it.\n\nTo get credit for his possible discovery, its state-\n\nment must, of course, be published in connection with the known\nname of the identical organism. The use of analytical keys draws\nthe attention of the student to the very points which will sharpen\n\nhis powers of observation, while at the same time it avoids an otherwise great waste of time employed in investigating trivial characteristics ; interesting, indeed, but not of emphatically scientific value.\nIt is more than possible, it is even probable,-that, following the\ntrend of modern laboratory practice, we are many times in danger\nof losing by neglect one of the most efficient means of attaining the\nobject which we claim to be seeking to attain. How better than by\ntheir careful use can the student develop that necessary power of\nThis work, crude as it was in comparison with the work of the present day, was\nnevertheless beneficial. It required careful investigation on the part of the pupil, an\ninvestigation which was so deliberate as to insure the retention of the facts , and, more\nimportant still, the growth of the power of observation, the formulation of exact statements, and the development of the power of classification and abstraction.\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nBIOLOGY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.\n\n607\n\nabstraction without which his reasoning faculties can never be developed?*\n\nThat school supervisors themselves in particular, the superintendents and principals of schools are often not familiar with biological work as arranged by competent instructors, is also unfortunate. When some years ago the superintendent of schools in a large\ncity asked the members of an institute composed principally of ladies, how long a butterfly lives, he unconsciously opened a field of\ninvestigation never before tilled by but a few of his interested auditors. It is not science so often as ignorance that asks embarrassing\nquestions. When, in Illinois, the law was first enacted that schoolteachers, to hold a first-grade certificate, must show themselves\nsomewhat proficient in natural history, there was naturally a vigorous effort on the part of the self-conscious ignorant to amend themselves. The institute was the channel by means of which their weaknesses were to be purged away. I remember hearing a self-styled\nlecturer in natural history electrifying at least some attendants at\none institute by telling of the rhizopody, the infusiory, and the gherrygonida. The rhizopoda and the infusoria were not entirely hidden\nby this peculiar orthoëpy, but that the gherrygonida were intended\nfor the gregarinidæ was not at first so apparent. The unfortunate\npart of the effort was that teachers were endeavoring simply to\namass facts . Facts are but secondary. The office of biology in the\nschools should be rather to educate than to instruct.\n\nThe work\n\nshould be so planned as to give a power of observation, of discrimination, of delineation, of description. There will be no lack of phenomena upon which this power may be subsequently exercised.\n\nThat the number of good teachers in biology is limited, is an\nobjection having a certain amount of weight. But the opportunities for improvement are especially numerous, and enthusiastic professors in summer schools are ready and eager to guide the inquiring\nsoul aright. Wood's Holl sends out annually many teachers whose\nequipment has been greatly improved. The post-graduate courses\n* When the teacher in biology was unfortunately absent by reason of the grippe\nbeing no respecter of persons, the task of keeping the work apparently going fell upon\n\nthe principal. To be ready at a day's notice with material for 300 pupils was a difficult\nbut not an impossible task. I had, when in California and Colorado in 1892, not been\nsparing of effort in collecting material illustrating the insect fauna of these states, and\n\nI unearthed a sufficient number of one insect to supply the students each with a\nspecimen. They had done little or no work at that time in entomology, but it was gratifying to see with what avidity they attacked the differing material. To educe from the\n\npupils the facts of animal, anthropod, insect, hexapod, coleopter, pentameron, telephorid,\nchauliognathus, limbicollis, proved a much lighter task for a forty-minute exercise than\nI should have found it without their previous experience in critical observation and\n\ndefinite statement. The effect of their previous work in observation was immediately\napparent.\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "608\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nin many of our universities are particularly strong in biology. Illinois State University has already established a flourishing out-door\nsummer school which is peculiarly well adapted for furnishing instruction in biology. So, too, is the school at Madison, conducted\nby the officers of the State University of Wisconsin, and many other\nsimilar schools have been or are to be established. There is no danger\nthat the supply will fail to keep pace with the demand.\n\nThe lack of sympathy with the work on the part of parents and\nschool officers is not especially strange.\n\nTheir own school life pre-\n\nsented no equivalent to our present biological work, and conservatism, until differently instructed, usually expects or wishes its offspring to be educated precisely in its father's and grandfather's way.\n\nI have a very distinct recollection of having been repeatedly told\nin my youth, that, if I could cast interest and could cipher and do\nsums in the rule of three in \"Daboll's Arithmetic,\" my mathematical\neducation was sufficient.\n\nWe may as well admit that the science of\n\neducation is not yet complete ; that our children should have advantages denied to us, and be thankful rather than jealous that improvement in the schools is to some extent keeping pace with the\nimprovement of the world in other directions .\nBut the chronic objectors say that it is impossible to obtain\nneeded apparatus. This would be no objection with the principal\nof a high school not a thousand miles from mine, who, only two years\nago, strenuously objected to the use of a microscope in school at all.\nHe took the strange position that pupils would not use their eyesindeed, would lose their keenness of vision-if they were allowed\nto use a microscope. I have never experienced this difficulty, and\ndo not anticipate any danger from an over-supply of microscopes or\nother desirable apparatus. But let us remember, that, in a lack\nof all modern laboratory facilities, much in the right direction may\nalways be accomplished by the enthusiastic and enterprising teacher.\nThe slothful saith: \"A lion in the way.\" A few tin pans and glass\ntumblers, with simple microscopes-hand-lenses-make an excellent\nbeginning. Indeed, it is a serious question sometimes whether more\nis not accomplished by the poorly-equipped than by the richly-endowed. The boy who has been educated in a manual training school,\nwhere are all modern mechanical appliances, the best of tools, lathes\ndriven by steam or electric power, etc., is not at first a brilliant suc-\n\ncess when deprived of these implements. But the boy whose backsaw and jack- plane are his treasures because to him an expense is\nfertile in expedients, and more often makes the skilled mechanic.\n\nThere is, then, no reason to despair if some school authorities are as\nyet unwilling to invest in compound microscopes and other ex-\n\npensive apparatus. Their education is one of the things now to be\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "BIOLOGY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.\n\nDepartment.]\n\n609\n\nvigorously undertaken. Their sympathies and those of the parents\nwill be secured so soon as they note the inevitable educatory effects\nupon the pupils. *\n\nThere is sometimes a certain amount of repugnance with fastidious and over-sensitive pupils with regard to the work. The judicious\nteacher will very easily and inoffensively deal with such cases. It\nis a curious but common experience that the most timid frequently\nbecome the most interested, the most inquisitive, the most bold.\nSometimes a prejudiced parent gives the pupil no opportunity for\nchange of mind. A lady in a Michigan city objected to her daughter's studying physiology on account of its inherent disagreeabilities .\nThe comment of the instructress was blunt but perhaps not altogether inappropriate. She told the mother that she regretted that\nthe daughter was to be so reared as, like the mother, to be ashamed\nof her own body.\n\nThe public press is always only too ready to circulate anything\nstartling in character, so I was not surprised a few months ago to\nnote in the alleged newspaper of a small city an item to the effect\nthat vivisection was a thing constantly practiced in Chicago high\nschools. Indeed, I received a letter from an eminent surgeon of\nCook county, Illinois, making inquiry as to our practices, and shortly\nafterward I noticed in print an indignant epistle from a lady, repre-\n\nsenting, I think, some anti-vivisection organization, in which she\nappeared to look with holy horror upon our barbarous practices.\n\nAnd justly, indeed, if such practices existed. There were none such\nin my bailiwick, and I have never been able to learn of any in our\ncity.\n\nI have recently received a circular issued by the American Humane Association, the object of which is to induce people in official\nschool positions to allow their views in the matter of vivisection to\n\nbe published.\nstricted ?\n\nShould it be abolished?\n\nShould it be legally re-\n\nShould it be left unrestrained ?\n\nOne would think that the second of these questions is the only\none likely to obtain a general affirmative response. In the present\n* The instructor in biology in the North Division High School of the City of Chicago\nduring the last year is not a man to be baffled or even greatly hindered by such a trifie\nas lack of suitable apparatus. With nearly 300 pupils to deal with, and these placed in\nsix different rooms, he was nevertheless up to the occasion. It was his common practice\nto keep fifty pupils at work, nearly one-half engaged with our limited supply of but\nnineteen microscopes, while the others were engaged in some grosser work, as, for\n\nexample, investigating the external anatomy of cray-fish or star-fish. We had living\nstar-fish as well as living cray-fish. I had some hundreds of star-fish packed in rockweed (Fucus vesiculosus) thoroughly drenched with the salt water of Narragansett bay\nand shipped to me by express. They reached me in splendid condition, and, barring their\npossible discomfort in transitu, nothing was done with them which could possibly affront\nthe honest convictions of our friends of the Humanitarian Society. Ir. a small way, the\n\noyster men were glad to see even a few of their enemies made useful in death.\n39\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "610\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Secondary\n\ncondition of unrestraint there is no doubt that liberty too often becomes an inexcusable license. On the other hand, utterly to abolish\nthe practice is to deprive science of one of its most useful modes of\ndiscovery and instruction. Personally, I do not believe with the oftquoted poet that\nThe poor beetle that we tread upon\nIn corporal sufferance finds a pang as great\nAs when a giant dies.\n\nWhen an animal organism has the power of reproducing lost\nparts, and, indeed, after they have been voluntarily cast aside for\ngood and sufficient reason, and, for aught we know, in actual anticipation of the exercise of this convenient function, it is hard for us\nto believe that its sensations are as acute as we know them to be\n\nwith more highly organized creatures. That lobsters, crabs, and\ncray-fish are excellent articles of diet one would hardly question,\nyet it is true that unless they are prepared for the epicure's stomach\nwhile they are still alive they are exceedingly unwholesome comestibles. The lady who at once refused to continue her favorite repast\nof raw oysters when she learned that they were still alive upon her\nplate, was perhaps more sensitive than sensible. That the simplyorganized common star-fish and the humble hydra are only multiplied\nrather than destroyed by repeated fission goes to indicate the extreme obtuseness of their sensations.\n\nThat the numerous still more\n\nlowly creatures with which pupils become acquainted by reason of\nour modern school course in the zoological part of biology have, in\nmany instances, the same power, exercised indeed without extraneous\ninterference, indicates the same thing.\n\nLet, then, the self-styled humane and anti-vivisection organizations make some distinction in the grades of animal life. Let vertebrate vivisection be confined to the surgical schools; let it occur\nonly when its utility is beyond question; and let the subject always\nbe anæsthetized that the operation be painless. Our public schools\nhave enough to do without trenching unnecessarily upon the field\nof the scientific specialist. I have never discovered that the officers\nof humane societies decline to take their annual summer fishing excursion. The gasping, dying fish do not seem to appeal to their\nconsciences so strongly as the cruel treatment of a domestic animal\n\nby its owner. Nor am I specially disposed to criticise them.\n\nWe\n\nare not yet willing to follow the plan of the pious Buddhist, who,\nin his respect for life, declines to destroy even the vermin which may\nbe to him a great annoyance. Our occidental consciences will have\nto be marvelously softened before the flies and the mosquitoes shall\ncease to be molested by the thrifty housewife, or the ownerless\nyellow curs of the city streets be freed from their fear of the noose of\nthe dog- catcher.\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nBIOLOGY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.\n\n611\n\nNo hard-heartedness is inculcated by practical lessons in biology.\n\nCertainly my own children would never needlessly set foot upon\na spider or a caterpillar. By reason of the family interest in entomology, either one would much sooner be brought to me for coveted\ninformation. Even what seems to be a natural antipathy to snakes\nis greatly modified by a study of their habits and an examination of\n\ntheir personal adornments. Toads are petted and recognized as benefactors ; non-venomous snakes are unmolested ; spiders and cater-\n\npillars are left unharmed and are no longer slandered. Thus, nothing can better serve the interests of truth and morality. Surely the\nfirst year in the high school is not too early a stage at which to\nfamiliarize children with lessons so practical as these. Long before\n-even in the primary school-should they have been brought to\ntheir attention .\n\nIf chloroform or potassic cyanide, or some other anesthetic, is\nbrought into requisition, painlessly to terminate the life of an animal organism, it is often from a humane standpoint the most desirable thing that could have happened. The butterfly, that, having\nmissed the end and aim of its existence, is fluttering about in con-\n\nstant anxiety as to the possibility of its escaping the maw of some\npursuing, rapacious bird, is surely mercifully consigned through\nanæsthetics to a painless death, when otherwise his almost certain\ndestiny is to be pulled asunder and devoured piecemeal.\nBut, say some of our correspondents and reporters for the city\npress, the work is shockingly plain. Topics are introduced for discussion that are tabooed by all genteel society. If some of the reporters could be shocked into a little thoughtful attention, perhaps\nwe might extend the benefits of our instruction beyond the walls of\n\nthe schoolhouse. The reporter, or possibly the editor, of one of the\ngreat Chicago dailies last January referred to Dr. O. P. Hay, the wellknown herpetologist, as a great reptilian, and the same paper on the\nfollowing day had occasion to speak of the diamond-back turtle as\n\na crustacean. Such censurers must have been instructed by the\nlecturer on the rhizopody, the infusiory, and the gherrygonida. And\ntheir modesty is shocked! Think of it! People who write up, and\nevidently gloat over, all forms of crime and debasement ; who dote\non criminal courts, and who carefully select for publication all the\nprurient items from prominent divorce cases, are shocked at the\nmerest intimation as to the origin of life! Pistillate and staminate\nflowers are to them the height of impropriety. They are shocked\nat the plainness of speech indulged in by the biologist. So far as I\nam able to judge, there is far less occasion for prudery to criticise\nthis department of our schools than the literary department, where\nShakespeare, and Burns, and Conan Doyle, and other plain-spoken\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "612\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\npersons dispute for precedence, and where all such are reverenced,\nwith no one daring to say nay. For my daughters I fear much rather\nthe contamination of the daily press and of the alleged English\nclassics that are furnished for our home reading than I do that of\nany of the treatises on biology I have had the fortune to see. Think\n\nof criticising the plainness of biological instruction in college, and\nthen step into the next room and hear mixed classes read Plautus and\nTerence. Faugh !\n\nThe interest awakened in school by the study of life is equaled\n\nby the study of hardly anything else. In the first year of the high\nschool it is peculiarly useful in insuring a prompt attendance. The\nwinter months too often are marked by numerous defections from\nthe ranks, especially in this grade. But our membership at the close\nof last March was exactly the same as it was at the close of February; and, indeed, one more than the attendance at the close of January. Some of this persistency of attendance I believe fairly at\ntributable to the enterprise and enthusiasm, contagious as they\nwere, of our teacher in biology. This interest extends even beyond\nthe school contingent. The parents themselves seem to realize that,\nmany times, powers hitherto dormant have been awakened in the\n\nchildren through the influence of this work, and their own attention\nis consequently awakened.\nThe line of work now marked out by most teachers in biology in\nsecondary schools introduces the student to a new world.\n\nEven in\n\nthe primary grades, the study of the common domestic animals does\nnot prove to be a matter of absorbing interest.\n\nThe child of tender\n\nyears frequently knows more about a cat from actual observation\nthan the teacher herself. Hence, the latter can hardly be expected\nto make the subject particularly attractive.\nBut protozoic organisms are, even to the high school pupil, marvelously attractive, if only for their novelty. The preparation for\ntheir study is an education. To manipulate successfully a compound\nmicroscope is possible only to the adept. Slides must be thoroughly\ncleaned; thin glass covers must be deftly handled to avoid breakage;\nfacility in handling the mirror must be attained, that a clear field\nmay always be at command on which to project the object to be\nexamined; the object itself, especially if living, must be handled as\nIzaak Walton handled the worm, as if he loved him; the fine adjustment of the microscope must be carefully studied, that objects for\nexamination be brought promptly and accurately in focus; and, if\nstudy stopped right here, the effect on the pupil should and does result in a carefulness of manipulation, a delicacy of touch, itself of\nthe greatest value.\n\nBut, when this preparation is supplemented by study which familiarizes the student with the several types and varieties of structure\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nBIOLOGY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.\n\n613\n\nwhich have been evolved from the common ancestor or from the\n\noriginal idea of a creative mind, the value is plainly inestimable. As\nthese pass successively before his mind, to them as kindred may\nsubsequently be referred the new acquaintances that he is constantly\nto meet in his future life of investigation.\n\nBy the laboratory method in biology pupils are thus taught to\n\nsee accurately, hear accurately, draw accurately, talk accurately,\nwrite accurately. This magnificent work, it must be remembered,\n\ncould never be accomplished simply by the presentation of a mass\nof facts, either from book or from teacher. The learner needs, not\nso much facts themselves as an ability to appreciate facts when presented. Facts and phenomena will be thrust upon his attention all\nthrough his life. If he has been taught to investigate phenomena\nand facts and has been taught to draw logical inferences, he is\nindeed well equipped. He is educated rather than instructed.\nThe great utility of the constant reproduction of things seen\nneeds hardly be mentioned. If there is a little personal expense for\ndrawing and other materials, so much the better. In a life spent almost entirely in school work, it has often occurred to me that the\nNew England rate-bill of a half century ago had special advantages.\nWhat costs nothing is too often regarded as worth nothing.\nBy many it is claimed that it is impossible in school to do the line\nof work indicated in such a laboratory manual as the one authorized\nfor use in the schools of Chicago. Besides doing much work not\nsuggested in the manual, our biologist has this year substantially\ndone the work of the manual ; the omissions being a part of the work\nin vertebrate anatomy. This apparent neglect of the vertebrates is\nstrictly in accord with the fundamental thought in education and\ninstruction, viz., that the most time shall be spent upon what is\nleast known. Ameba, actinophrys, paramecium, stentor, spongilla, vorticella, daphnia, cypris, hydra, cyclops, etc., as well as\nnumerous higher organisms, have heretofore been entire strangers\nto the pupil. They are now his companions and provocative of constant investigation and further intimate acquaintance. The work\nin physiology in the grammar grades has familiarized the pupils\nanatomically with the vertebrate type, and this may therefore with\ngood reason be somewhat slighted in the high school. I can hardly\nbe alone in this opinion, if one is to infer opinions from conduct,\nsince the biologists, to a man, seem to have avoided any thorough\ntreatment of the warm-blooded vertebrates of the text-book used as\n\nour laboratory manual. Indeed, the author of the manual himself\ntells us, that, by reason of lack of good facilities, he has felt compelled to omit some of the suggested work on the vertebrates, especially that on the pigeon and the cat. I sincerely hope that there\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "614\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Secondary\n\nwas another underlying motive which prompted his action, a motive\nin line with that of the humanitarians. For the past three years\nthe biology teachers of the Chicago high schools, whether with or\nwithout modern laboratory facilities, have had no special difficulty\nin completing all other work of the manual. The omissions suggested should to some extent do away with some of the objections\nenumerated.\n\nIf sufficient material of a desired kind is difficult to\n\nobtain the ingenious teacher will be ready to utilize the material\nathand. *\n\nA former conservative superintendent of Chicago schools was\ntoo frequently regarded as a decided opponent of what has been\ntermed the new education.\n\nThe truth is, that he was far in advance\n\nof the noisy and reckless self-styled avant-couriers of alleged reform. I have a very distinct recollection of his having once provided\nfor the use of the students of his high school at his own expense a\nsuite of the birds of Colorado, at a time when many of the present\nteachers of biology had not yet aspired to the dignity of trousers.\nFar away from his inner consciousness was any opposition to the\n\nteaching or the teachings of science. His only anxiety was lest the\n*As indicative of work which may be substituted for the exact work of the manual,\n\nI append memoranda of a study of Fucus vesiculosus which we had in abundance by reason of its utility as packing material for the transportation of our star-fish.\nFUCUS VESICULOSUS (ROCK-WEED) .\n(Example of the Oöphyta instead of Study III. )\n\nHabitat. Usually growing to rocks , etc. , in the salt water near the tide mark.\nLABORATORY\nGeneral Morphology.\n\nWORK.\n\n(Vegetative condition.*)\n\nA. Whatis the general appearance and color ?\nTo what can you compare its feeling ? Its texture ?\nIs chlorophyll evident?\nWhat reagent would you use to find whether chlorophyll is present ?\nHow would the plant be less adapted to its surroundings (environment) could it\nstand upright?\nDistinguish stem branches and diski to the thallus .\nIs there an upper and a lower side to the thallus ?\nB. Is the stem elastic ? What is its shape ? How do the branches differ from the ordi-\n\nnary branches of a shrub or a tree ? What is the common sense in the difference ?\nExamine a tip and find the terminal pit. (In this pit is the delicate apical cell upon\nthe fission of which the growth of the plant depends .) Why the terminal pit?\nC.\n\nDescribe one of the bladder-like vesicles .\n\nWhere on the thallus are they most abundant ? Why ?\nHow do you think they are formed ? What do they contain?\nOf what use are they to the plant ?\nEXPLANATIONS .\n\n• The reproductive condition will be described later.\n† The disk will be in most cases absent, being left attached to the rock.\n(See \"Boyer's Manual\" for definition. )\n\n(For the inspection of those interested, I have also similar studies of Agaracus,\nEchinus, Campanularia, Eudendrium, and Lucanus.)\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.\n\n615\n\nhaste of the builders of the foundation should cause the edifice to\n\ntopple before the roof was in place or even the walls had been car-\n\nried up. As many of us remember, he was equally conservative in\nnot yielding to the first pressure for the use of entire classic models\nin place of reading-books crammed with disconnected material from\nall sources. In these and similar instances we can hardly go astray\nif we follow the lead of one who made few mistakes because his\n\nmotto ever was \"Festina lente; \" or, as monosyllabically expressed\nin our own vernacular, \"Go slow!\"\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY- ITS POSSIBILITIES AND\nDIFFICULTIES,\n\nBY EDWARD L. HARRIS , PRINCIPAL OF THE CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL,\nCLEVELAND, OHIO .\n\nThere was a decided difference of opinion between the conference\nand the general committees on secondary schools as to the relative\npositions of physics and chemistry in the school curriculum. In-\n\nstead of following the recommendation that chemistry should precede physics and that both should be placed as late in the course\nas possible, the general committee proposed that physics come first\nand be placed even as early as the second year. We agree with\nthe one committee, that physics and not chemistry should precede\nthe other, and, with the other committee, that both should be postponed as late as is consistent with this in order that there may be\nmore maturity of mind and a more nearly adequate mathematical\npreparation on the part of the pupil. We suggest physical geography for the second year. Change this subject from the one\nsemester of the first year to the full time of the second.\n\nThis will\n\ngive as a required course in natural science for the four years ,\n\nzoology or natural history, physical geography, physics, and chemistry, with botany, geology, and astronomy elective.\nAs geography has been presented in many works and by many\nteachers the subject has been uninteresting, not instructive, and\nalmost wholly without educational value. Nothing short of the\nwhole earth seemed sufficient in the treatment. Each continent,\neach island, in its formation, must be studied in detail . The catalogue of the vegetable and animal life of the different zones must\nbe committed. It was of little importance that the causes that invariably lead to the same result should be understood ; causes which,\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "616\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nif understood, might easily be applied to any location or to any\nclimate. In some schools the subject has been placed in the senior\nyear in order to serve as a recapitulation of all the natural sciences\n\ntaught therein.\n\nThat the study of physical geography might be and\n\nshould be made attractive there is no doubt.\n\nDr. Houston has well\n\nsaid that this subject should \"form the natural introduction to elementary natural science, since it treats of the causes and effects\nof the things that are constantly before the child's observation.\"\n\nThe study of this branch, then, in educational value, should have\ntwo objects : First, the understanding of the causes upon which\nthe form of the land depends; second, the introduction to other\nnatural sciences, especially physics and chemistry. The entire\ntreatment should point to life and to mankind.\nI have not a clear understanding of that vague term physiog-\n\nraphy, as applied by some scientists. I do understand the meaning\nwhich Professor Huxley gave to the term. I prefer the old name,\nphysical geography.\nTHE POSSIBILITIES .\n\nThe possibilities that await the modern, energetic teacher of this\nsubject will be appreciated more readily from practical illustrations\nthan from a statement of theory. It is not my purpose to lay out a\nlogical course for the year, but to take up different topics under\ndifferent headings. This will show the method of work suggested.\nThe essential parts of the text should be taken, supplemented\nby experimental work on the part of the teacher. The pupil should\nbe prepared with a note-book, in which he may place all supple-\n\nmentary work, including the experiments made by the teacher and\nby himself.\nGeology. At the beginning of the text comes the description of\nthe form of the earth. \"The earth is an oblate spheroid, being\n\nslightly compressed about the poles and slightly bulging in the\nequatorial regions.\" This is a statement of the fact in the text. It\nconveys to the pupil little idea of the cause of the shape of the earth ;\nif, indeed, it does of the shape itself. Here at once is an opportunity for experimental work. Use the whirling table. Show, by\nthe depression of the flexible hoops, the flattening at the poles and\nthe bulging at the equator. The probable cause of the shape of\n\nthe earth, formed while in a plastic state, is seen and understood,\nand in addition you will have helped to attain the second object,\n\"the introduction to other natural sciences.\"\n\nYou have Newton's\n\nfirst law of motion. Urge the child to continue the experiment with\nhis old friend, the sling ; tell him to watch the course of the stone\nwhen it is released; make an application of the law to the earth\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nPHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.\n\n617\n\nin its orbit; to the earth in its relation to the other members of the\nsolar family.\n\nDrainage. There are many experiments that may be made in\ntreating of the internal heat of the earth and its evidences.\n\nTo\n\nillustrate the geyser, the lowest one-third part of a narrow glass\ntube, three-fourths filled with water, may be heated in a Bunsen\nflame. This will produce ejections of hot water and steam similar\nto those of a geyser. Incidentally the boiling point of water and\nthe effect of hydrostatic pressure upon it is brought out.\nToo little attention is given in our texts to the formation of soil\nand to erosion.\n\nIt takes little to turn the mind of the child already\n\nfamiliar with nature to the agencies that are wearing away the\nrocks and carrying the soil to other places. He is somewhat acquainted with sand, clay, and mud. He should know from what\nkind of rocks these different kinds of soil came and are constantly\n\ncoming. After any storm he can see the effects of the little rivers ;\nhe should recognize that each little brook or large river is doing\nits share in proportion to its size and its rapidity of work (or rather,\nin the proportion to the second and sixth power of its rapidity).\nIn the explanation of the intermittent spring the term siphon is\nused, a term which the average pupil understands fully as well as\nhe does the intermittent spring itself. I have known teachers to\npass over this subject with only a definition of the siphon. I have\nseen another teacher with two battery jars, a glass tube bent for\nthe purpose and some water, not only show what the siphon is but\nobtain also from the pupils the cause of the action of the water. It\ntook some time.\n\nOne thought it was due to the suction of the at-\n\nmosphere ; another to the weight of the water. It was worth all\nthe time spent when the children themselves said that it was due\nto the pressure of the atmosphere. It takes only one more jar and\none more tube to have a model intermittent spring, seen in active\noperation and thoroughly understood.\nPhysical and Chemical Changes.-It will be of much assistance to\nshow early in the course the difference between physical and chemical changes. Chemistry will be a willing and powerful ally in the\nexplanation of many phenomena connected with this subject. The\nobject should be, not to teach the chemistry or to show the reactions\nbut to bring about, by her assistance, certain results. This very\ntreatment will prompt the pupil to investigate, to ask questions. It\nwill furnish some little idea of what chemistry will be to him, and\nit will tend to hold him through the high school course.\nThe difference between the physical and chemical changes should\nbe shown by experiment. Heat some iron wire and then allow it to\ncool; heat some iron filings and sulphur; dissolve some salt and\nrecrystallize it; heat some red oxide of mercury. Note carefully\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "618\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe changes in each experiment. Such a line of work will thoroughly\nfix in the mind of the child the essential difference between physics\nand chemistry. This may be followed with definitions, discussion,\nand illustrations of the general properties of matter. Take, for example, indestructibility. This was well illustrated in a class as follows : Three test tubes containing a solution of silver nitrate, hydrochloric acid, and ammonia water were balanced by a weight\non an equal arm balance. Silver chloride was then precipitated by\npouring a portion of the acid into the silver solution. The same\nweights would still counterbalance the two with their contents, thus\nshowing the increase of matter to be an apparent one only. Again,\nthe precipitate was dissolved in the ammonia water and again no\nchange was observed.\n\nImpenetrability may be shown by placing a bell jar over a float\nin a battery jar. By pushing the former into the water the water\nis seen to rise in the battery jar, not in the bell jar, showing conclusively to the pupil that air and water cannot occupy the same\nspace at the same time. So through all the general properties .\nExperiments may be given in class and others suggested to the\npupils that will fix the clearly understood principles in their minds.\nThe properties of liquids may be treated in a like manner ; the level\nof water in connecting vessels, the downward pressure, the upward\n\npressure, Archimedes' principle, specific gravity.\nOcean Currents.-Without some external force acting on the water\n\nof the sea there would be no disturbances, no such phenomena as\nwaves, tides, currents. What an opportunity there is, then, to\nbring forward and illustrate such terms as motion, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force. Right here may follow Newton's remaining two laws of motion, stated, tested, applied in such a manner\nthat there may be no doubt as to their proofs, in the mind of the\nchild. Naturally the parallelogram of forces follows ; not the simple statement but the demonstration. The pupil will now understand why the polar currents do not move in a direct line but are\n\nleft a little behind the meridian on which they started. It will be\napparent to him why the gulf stream takes a northeasterly direction. Again is the second object gained the introduction to the\nnatural science, physics. The pupil will find friendly terms greeting him as he enters that subject the third year. I would better\nsay that he would never know when he enters, being at all times\nsurrounded by friends.\nThe Atmosphere. In a text at my command I find this analysis\nof the first section on the subject of atmosphere: (1) Its relation to\nother elements. (2) Its composition and elasticity. (3) Its weight\nand pressure. (4) Its density. (5) Its height.\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nPHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.\n\n619\n\nNotice the terms used : Element, composition, weight, density.\nAll properly used, and used as if thoroughly understood by the\nreader. What possibilities here await the live teacher, to interest,\nto educate, to introduce. The law of gravitation will easily follow\nthe supplementary work in force. Then follows the definition and\nillustration of weight; the demonstration of the weight of the atmosphere by weighing a hollow sphere, first with stop-cock open\nand then with air exhausted ; the further illustration of the pres-\n\nsure of the atmosphere by the Magdeburg hemispheres. The child\nis ready to understand the action of the force pump and lifting pump\nas well. He should sketch and explain them fully. Here and not\nin physics is the place to study the barometer ; not to study about\nthe barometer, that it is \"from two Greek words,\" etc. The instrument should be made in the presence of the pupils, and perhaps by\nthe pupils themselves afterwards. It takes only a glass tube, a\nflame, a measuring rod, some clamps, some mercury and a teacher\nwith a little mechanical ability and common sense. After this experiment the pupil will understand the barometer in its various\nuses .\n\nHeat. In discussing the sources or causes of heat, it will be\nshown that motion causes heat and that heat causes motion ; that\n\nfriction causes heat; that chemical action produces heat and that\nheat produces chemical action. The mixture of sulphuric acid and\nwater, the striking of a match, will illustrate this. Here, again, are\npossibilities realized by cutting away from the dry text and by\nshowing the eager mind a glimpse of a broader field. Here is the\nsubject of energy; the different kinds; the conservation of energy;\nthe sun as the source of all energy, sending forth that energy in light\nand heat, which, as potential, is stored up in the plant and imprisoned in coal, to be transformed again by the animal into the powerful energy of motion.\nI cannot dwell here upon the subject of the diffusion of heat.\nIn this generation it is not sufficient to have the terms conduction,\n\nconvection, radiation, given and defined. Each should be thoroughly shown. The pupils' attention should be called to the different methods of diffusion by the many illustrations in everyday life.\nThere will be pupils in the class who can furnish examples of the\neffect of heat in expanding solids, liquids, and even gases. All will\nhave seen the thermometer, but few will have heretofore understood\nit. A thorough explanation should be made with the thermometer\nin the hands of the child. Afterwards let him test the boiling point,\n\nblood heat, and the freezing point. Evaporation, distillation, condensation, the dew point and all other terms may be clearly shown\nby experiment in the classroom. The mind of the child may be\ncalled to many methods of experimental work at home. There is\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "620\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe weather report, the daily reading and recording of the barome\nter, of the thermometer, and numerous other things that the active\nmind of the teacher who is so inclined will suggest. As before indicated, my purpose has been to show the possibilities in this fertile\nsubject, keeping in mind the two objects, first, the philosophical explanations of the causes of the phenomena, and, second, the introduction to other natural sciences .\nTHE DIFFICULTIES .\n\nI have little time to speak of the difficulties ; they are few, indeed. The first that will naturally arise is the lack of suitable apparatus. In this age of manual training schools there is little trou-\n\nble in this respect in the cities. In any place, if the second difficulty\nis overcome the first entirely disappears. That second difficulty\nis the procuring of a suitable teacher. He must be thoroughly in-\n\nformed on his subject; full of it ; a specialist in each division; not\nonly capable of making the experiments but of originating them\nand of making what simple apparatus is necessary. He should\nhave a special training in a school where modern experimental science work is part of the curriculum. There is no excuse in the\nprincipal's handing the class over to inexperienced hands, or to\none who chances to have a vacant period. Experienced teachers\nare to be had. It has been my pleasure to have had just such a\nteacher during the past year. There is still one other difficulty:\nThe lack of an enlightened public opinion in some localities ; an\nopinion that will cause suitable teachers and proper equipment to\nbe furnished. This kind of practical work naturally appeals to the\naverage business man or woman. Under a superintendent or a\nprincipal who favors the work and himself understands the object\nto be attained, I firmly believe all other difficulties will disappear\nand the great possibilities be realized.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nSUPT. A. F. NIGHTINGALE, Chicago, Ill. It may be trite for me to say to a\ncompany that I suppose is composed largely of scientists that we are able to obtain our alcohol in bond free of duty and also to import our microscope free of\n\nduty at a cost of fifteen dollars each, less two per cent discount for cash. I believe that no wise board of education (and we know that most boards of education\nare full of wisdom) will be unwilling to furnish a live teacher with the apparatus\nand material necessary for proper instruction in this department. I believe that\nnone of us should hesitate about establishing a laboratory in biology for fear that\n\nwe may not be able to obtain proper apparatus. The greatest advances along edu\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n621\n\ncational lines in the past ten years have been in science-biology, physics, and\nchemistry-and I think we owe very much to the enthusiastic scientists of this\ncountry for pushing the laboratory teaching of sciences to the front. They set the\nhigh schools of the country a magnificent example which we ought to more fully\nfollow in teaching of English, mathematics, and history. I hope the time will come\nwhen all subjects will be more largely taught in laboratory form. The advance in\nthe teaching of science in the last few years has been most marvelous, and so\nmarvelous that it seems strange to me that we should ever have taught natural\nhistory by the use of text-book alone, measuring out the lessons by the foot and\nyard for our pupils to commit and reproduce to a lazy teacher the next day. Yet\nsuch was the method in use only within the last few years. We should abandon\nthis antiquated method of teaching in other departments as well as in science.\nBiology has been a first year study in the Chicago high schools for four years.\nPupils have not only obtained very valuable knowledge of this subject, but their\npowers of observation have been greatly awakened and their love for investigation,\nand research, and discrimination has been greatly developed, so that they have been\nsplendidly prepared for the after study of physics, chemistry, and geology, and I\nbelieve that the great value of biology as a first year study in the high schools\nis in this fact. Many a boy has been kept in our high schools because of the study\nof biology in the first year. This study has been mainly in the hands of men,\nwhile, perhaps, algebra and English have been mainly in the hands of women ;\nand while I value an equal balance of men and women, I do feel that it is a great\nnecessity that the children should be under some male influence in the teaching\nof the first year, and I believe, that, by giving biology very largely into the hands\nof men, boys are retained in the schools and their love for study is greatly increased. I hope no lady will consider I am discounting her ability as a teacher of\nbiology, for I am proud to say that two or three of the best teachers of biology\nin Chicago are women, and we are looking for more. But it is important that\nthere should be this admixture of woman's influence and man's influence in the\n\nfirst year of the high school. There is no study that is more attractive to the\nboys in the first year of the high schools than the study of biology, and I know\nit is equally attractive to the girls. Principal Westcott has gone so well over this\nsubject that he leaves very little to say. I agree most heartily with his paper.\nPRINCIPAL W. F. HALL, of California. It has always seemed to me necessary\nin science, as in other things, to begin with the child along the lines of his previous\nexperience, and to take him from where he is to where he ought to be. Now, the\n\nlines of the child's previous experience have been the gross plant forms and the\ngross animal forms; so I should say, that, unless the children have had this work\nin gross forms, they ought to have it in the high school before they have any work\n\nwith the microscope, and I believe it is a mistake to take children fresh from the\ngrammar school and put them at once to microscopical work. That ought to be\nled up to through a study of the gross forms. With regard to the other paper, some\nof you may be interested in an experiment I have been trying the past year in the\nline of physical geography. Instead of using a text-book, and illustrating various\npoints by experiments, as suggested in the paper, I have dropped the text-book\nwork entirely and devoted an hour or two each evening during the past year to\nwriting out experiments and questions upon these experiments which would lead\n\nthe students of my high school to get for themselves very largely the facts of\nphysical geography, leaving out of consideration the general matters that they\nshould have previously learned. The first exercise was to develop the idea of mass\nand density in a simple way. I told them nothing. I tried to plan so that the\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "622\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nquestions following the experiments would lead them to see what I wanted them\nto see. I was surprised myself to find how many of the facts of practical astronomy, geology, physics, and chemistry I could bring into these experiments, and\nI was also surprised at the amount of interest I was able to develop in this way.\n\nPRINCIPAL E. W. COY, Cincinnati, Ohio .-I sympathize largely with the views\nof the gentleman who has just spoken. But on one point my experience is different. At the beginning of this year we thought we would try commencing with\nmicroscopic work. One trial is not sufficient to establish the advantages of it.\nYet I was very agreeably disappointed in the results, especially in the interest\nawakened. I had not believed it was practicable to introduce the study of the\ncell with the microscope in a class of young pupils, but I am trying it this year.\nI find an amount of interest that has greatly surprised me. If it should continue\nin this way I should be entirely converted to a view that the microscope is the\nthing with which to begin. While we have had considerable interest before, yet it\nhas seemed to me that there has been a lack of scientific value in the work. It\n\nhas not proceeded on the lines it should. By beginning with the microscope I\nthink we shall get better scientific results .\n\nF. Y. MOSELY, Boulder, Colo. In regard to text-books, I should like to give\nthis advice:\n\nTake that one which tells the student the least about the plants and\n\nanimals he is going to study. I have tried both of the methods that have been\nmentioned. First, beginning with the frog as a type ; and, in the second, beginning with the amoeba, and then working up in logical order of evolution. The second method is greatly superior. There is no special difficulty in looking through\na microscope. It would be well to caution students when using the microscope to\nkeep both eyes open. The strain of closing one eye has a very considerable effect\nupon the sight in the course of time.\nPROF. A. V. STORM, Storm Lake, Iowa.-I want to say a word about physical\ngeography. The remarks that have been made simply indicate that physical geography as usually taught is practically hash. If we take away from physical geography, astronomy, geology, biology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, and a few other\nauxiliary sciences, what would we have left? The question arises in my mind\nwhether or not it is better for the child to take the elements of each of these\n\nsciences which concern physical geography, or whether it would be better for him\nto take these sciences in their fullness-by laboratory methods, of course-and then\nhave a brief course (I should say three or four months would suffice) to apply\nall of these to the earth.\n\nWhile the suggestions made are most excellent, this work\n\nwill not be work in physical geography, but will be simply work in the various\nsciences. I see one objection to this plan; that is, that the pupils who do not complete the high school course fully will not get this application of the sciences to\nthe earth. Whether or not that objection is sufficient to overbalance the advan-\n\ntages that would come from studying these various subjects in the logical order\nand at the proper time, is a question for us to consider. I believe that when these\nstudies are pursued by laboratory methods three months' time would be sufficient\nto cover all the work in physical geography. I know of no text-book that would\npermit us to follow that plan. Perhaps there is an opening for some enterprising\npublisher to supply a need in that line.\n\nPRINCIPAL J. T. BUCHANAN, Kansas City, Mo.-I regret that I did not hear\nthe papers that are under discussion. Some things that I have heard in the discussion make me think that I am laboring under a mistake. I had supposed that\nin a little high school somewhere in the western part of the Mississippi Valley was\n\nfound the only biological department that was taught on purely laboratory plans.\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nI am converted to the microscpoe first.\n\n623\n\nIn this school to which I refer we have\n\nbiology two years-zoology the first year, botany the second; both on the laboratory\nplan. Every pupil this year has made as many as 150 slides himself, to be used in\nthe work. That is a great step in the right direction. I find, that, under the influence of the master mind that is teaching this subject, they have not only been\nable to make useful apparatus, but they have, by reversing the microscope, been\nable to cast upon a screen a large picture of the subject that they were examining.\nProfessor Harvey has had a special lens made which they used in the reversed\nmicroscope, and by means of a large screen what is visible to the eye of one student is made visible to all.\n\nWithin the last four years we have put biology on a\n\npurely scientific basis, using pure laboratory method. Our pupils have a greater\ninterest in high school work than they have ever had before. We have scientific\nwork in every year in the course, the first year zoology, in the second botany, the\n\nthird year chemistry, and the fourth year physics ; and we find that the preparation\ngiven in the first years of the course makes easy sailing over what used to be\nrough seas in the later years. The pupils in the school are more easily controlled,\nand I attribute this very largely to the interest gained through the study of subjects in the natural way.\n\nMR. WOOD, Cleveland, Ohio.-I should like to answer the objection to introducing physical geography early in the course. I heartily agree with those who\nurge the value of laboratory work in biology, chemistry, and physics. For that\nvery reason I believe in beginning physical geography in the second year. The\nstudent will be expected to do quantitative work in physics, and at least qualitative, if not quantitative, work in chemistry in the high school. If he is expected\nto do quantitative work in physics, he should certainly have had some previous\ntraining in physical principles, and should know what an experiment means ; otherwise he will lose himself in the difficulties of manipulation. I also wish to answer\nthe objections of the gentleman to the use of the text-book. I think Principal\nHarris' remarks in regard to text-books were misinterpreted. We do not illustrate\nthe text-book. Experimental work and the careful preparation of note-books, containing drawing, descriptions, and explanations, precede the assignment of any\nwork in the text-book; but it is not wise to get away from the text-book entirely.\nThe pupil must have something that he can tie to. The text thus serves as a re-\n\nview, and the physical principles are applied directly to physical geography. It is\nlikewise a valuable, and almost necessary, aid to those unavoidably absent from\nthe class and in the work of recapitulation at the close of the year. I cannot urge\ntoo strongly the devoting of a full year's time in the second year to physical geoggraphy when taught in accordance with this method.\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "624\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Secondary\n\nETHICAL INSTRUCTION THROUGH SOCIOLOGY.\n\nBY B. C. MATHEWS , PRINCIPAL OF HIGH SCHOOL, NEWARK, N. J.\n\nThe fact that there is great social discontent throughout the\nentire Western world requires no demonstration. The forms in\nwhich it manifests itself are numerous.\n\nIn the various forms of\n\nsocialism, and in the form of nihilism, it permeates every department of European life. In the rural portions of our own country\nthe same spirit of discontent, though in a much milder form, mani-\n\nfests itself in the Farmers' Alliance and in the Populist movement.\nIn our cities and towns it appears in labor organizations and in\nsocialistic societies .\n\nThe adjustment of the parts of our social organism is certainly\nnot harmonious. Collisions between classes whose interests are opposed have at times paralyzed domestic commerce, have involved\nthe comforts of the nation, and have reminded thoughtful men and\n\nwomen of conditions preceding revolution. Not infrequently state\nmilitia, and even the United States troops, have been called out to\nprotect life and property and to quell riots .\nIt is important that educators should inquire whether the schools\nare in any degree responsible for this unfortunate condition of affairs. We are compelled to acknowledge that we think they are,\nthough other agencies are responsible in a higher degree. The responsibility of the schools is not a blameworthy responsibility, for\nthe forces of no other agency have been guided with purer motives.\nHence, there is no place for condemnation. The relation of the\nschools to society, however, is so intimate, and their influences are\nso potent in their formative effects, that it would be folly to claim\nthat they are entirely free from responsibility in this grave matter ;\n\nsince, even if they have not contributed directly and purposely to it,\nthey have not studied to prevent it. They have cultivated-unintentionally, of course those characteristics of the race which have\nproduced it, and have failed to cultivate, except incidentally, those\nbetter characteristics which must correct it.\n\nThroughout the whole course of the development of our public\nschools, their relation to the child as an individual, with personal\nends in life to be attained, has always been a prominent feature and\n\na determining factor, while their relation to the child as a member\nof society has never been sufficiently emphasized. The effort, therefore, on the part of the schools has uniformly been to enable the\nchild, when grown to manhood, to successfully guard his personal\ninterests and secure his personal ends. There is no general or con\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nETHICAL INSTRUCTION.\n\n625\n\ntinued effort to so train and so develop him that he will contribute\nto the welfare of society. The result has been to center and to\nfasten his attention upon his personal interests, and to cultivate in\nhim selfishness instead of an altruistic spirit, which alone is the\n\ntruly social spirit, and which alone will produce harmony among the\nclasses now in collision.\n\nWhy has the child been taught to read,\n\nto write, to cipher ? Primarily, because a knowledge of these has\nseemed to be absolutely essential in securing his so-called rights\namong his fellows. Only recently has his relation to society been\nseriously considered. His ethical side is now demanding cultivation more loudly than ever. So far as education is purely intellectual, it only trains him for a fiercer part in the great human struggle for personal ends, and tends to diminish the severity of that struggle in such degree only as purely intellectual culture indirectly contributes to the ethical, through attention to subjects related to the\nethical.\n\nBack of all social discontent, and back of all forms in which it\n\nappears, we find the primary cause of social disorders in the presence of erroneous ideas among men, particularly the presence of\nerroneous notions concerning the relations which exist among men.\nThere are certain fundamental ideas upon which the social edifice\nis built ; pivotal ideas about which the social world turns. In each\nof these, ten thousand others germinate; and the ten thousand are\nwrong if the one is wrong. The following are samples of these\nfundamental, pivotal ideas which have become stock notions of\nthe people : Cæsars and Napoleons are civilizers ; royalty is related\nto the gods ; the Creator made some to be served, others to serve ;\nlegality is justice; standard belief is more important than standard\ncharacter ; morality divorced from religion is dangerous. Any social structure founded upon such ideas alone is a monstrosity. Today we stand face to face with the fact that these ideas, and others\n\nlike them, form a large part - entirely too large a part\n\nof the\n\nfoundation of modern society.\n\nAll existing government, and all other institutions, have been\nat some time simply abstract ideas in the brain of their originators ,\nand afterwards have become concrete realities ; right ideas giving\nbirth to right institutions, wrong ones to wrong institutions. This\nsame relation of cause and effect which exists between ideas and\ninstitutions exists also between ideas and the character of individuals and between ideas and the character of the relations which\n\nexist among individuals. So far as individual character and existing relations among men are right, they are the product of right\nideas ; so far as they are wrong, they are the product of wrong ideas .\nIf, as we think, the presence among men of erroneous ideas is\n\nthe cause of social disorders, the cure will be their displacement,\n40\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "626\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nthrough educational processes, with such as will produce right\ncharacter in men and inspire right relations among men. We believe this is entirely possible, and we think that both the agencies\nand the methods are in sight. Both must be educational. All political and legislative schemes, the single tax theory, the nationalization of land and industries, all socialistic projects, all co-operative\nremedies, will prove of little avail they aim at curing social disorders by improving the environment only of the man. The man\nhimself is wrong. He is the thing that needs improvement and correction; not the world in which he lives, or the form of government\nunder which he lives. The only possible way of correcting him,\nand through him of curing social disorders, is through the processes\nof education, education of the child with the potential man in him.\nThe church, the press, and the schools are the agencies which,\n\nsupplemented by other forces, have determined the existing fundamental ideas of society. If these agencies have been able to formulate and fix these, they certainly can modify them, or even displace\nthem with others. Their functions, and their methods in the execution of these functions, however, must be modified, some even revolutionized. Although the church and the press (the discussion of\nwhose functions and methods the limits of our paper forbid) are\n\npowerful agencies whose influence is beyond all computation, or\neven conjecture,-agencies which must be employed in the improvement of social conditions,-yet they are not the agency upon which\ngreatest reliance can be placed. This agency is found in the schools\n-the great free public school system. There is greatest hope in\nthis agency for many reasons ; particularly, because its organization is fully adapted to the requirements of the situation; because\nit deals with the child which is a moldable, and not a crystallized,\nthing ; and because the schools are the agency which, in large degree, determines the character of all other agencies.\nOur hope, then, is in the schools ; but their function and methods\nmust be modified, because they are not giving to the world the best\nthey can give. They are not giving what the world most needs :\nthe best possible character, which results very largely from a careful, rational study of our relations to others, from a right understanding of all those relations which are interwoven everywhere\namong men in all phases and departments of life. Nothing is more\nimportant for our children and youth to understand than the nature\nand character of human relations; but these are ignored as if there\nwere no such relations. Here, in our judgment, is the most serious\ndefect of our schools, and not in the lack of proper correlation of\nstudies .\n\nWhether this is the province of the schools we cannot stop to\ndiscuss ; but I pass it with the remark that the schools belong to\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nETHICAL INSTRUCTION.\n\n627\n\nthe people, and the people have the right to do what they please\nwith their own. They can make the function of the schools whatsoever they choose to make it, whatsoever will serve themselves best.\nHow, then, can this most serious defect be remedied? By introducing instruction in pure human ethics divorced from religion,\nwhich then becomes a study of the relations which exist among\nmen in this real world. One great difficulty in the way of providing\ninstruction in ethics heretofore has been the lack of a clear distinc-\n\ntion in the minds of the people between ethics and religion. The\nChristian world has been in the habit of thinking, and of claiming,\nthat there can be no valid system of ethics except that which is\n\nbased upon the existence of God, and upon the relations which we\nsuppose exist between him and us. This claim has never been\nsubstantiated in a manner satisfactory to scientific thought. Religion is a system of beliefs and worship, and points to an after-life\nfor which we all hope; while ethics is a system of principles of\nconduct for man as a social being in this life which we are all living.\nEthics deals with realities ; with a real life in a real world.\n\nIts\n\nrealm is entirely a realm of actualities; while the realm of religion,\ndefined in a scientific manner, is one of beliefs and hopes. So far\nas these beliefs and hopes are determining factors in the conduct\nof man to man, the realm of religion affects the realm of ethics.\nBut, apart from this, if, by some magic power, the realm of beliefs\nand hopes were annihilated, the realm of ethics would remain absolutely undisturbed. Does ethics, then, find its basis in religion ?\nDoes that which is real depend for its existence upon that which we\nsuppose to be real ? It may, providing that which we suppose to\nbe real is actually real ; but when, as in this case, it is beyond human powers to determine whether it is real or not, it is about as\nunphilosophical to declare that something which is known to be\nreal depends for its existence upon another something which we\nsuppose to be real as to declare that the Himalayas hang upon the\n\nsky. The only possibility of substantiating the claim that ethics\nand religion cannot be divorced is found in so formulating a definition of one of them as to embrace in it the realm of the other.\n\nBut\n\nsuch an attempt would be futile in this scientific age of discrimination and definition. Ethics and religion are both right, and have\ntheir separate and appropriate missions and fields, which, as we\nhave indicated above, overlap; but their bases are two distinct\n\nthings in reality, and ought to be made so in definition. The sooner\nthis distinction is recognized, the more rapid will be the moral\nour race.\ndevelopment\nUpon what,ofthen,\ncan we base a system of ethics ? Upon the fact\nof human relations. If there were only one human being in the\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "628\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nworld, there would be no need of an ethical system; because there\nwould be no other being to whom he could have any relations. Neither would there be any need of it, if the inhabitants were few and\n\nwere so scattered over the earth that no one of them, in securing\nfor himself the necessities of life, would ever come into contact\nwith any one of all the others. But just as soon as any one place\non the earth becomes the common abode of two, so soon relations\nare established between them and there is need of principles of conduct governing each in his acts which in any way affect the other.\nAn ethical system to control the actions of these two men alone\nwould be very simple. But when, from increase of population or\nfrom motives of common interest, individuals unite and form a\ntribe, there comes to be tribal ethics.\n\nWhen two tribes come into\n\ncontact, inter-tribal relations are formed; and when tribes grow\ninto nations, national and inter-national ethics arise. And as the\n\nlife of the individual becomes more complex within itself, and more\ninvolved in its relations to other members of the same tribe or nation,\n\nand as the nations increase in size and number, the rules governing this increased complexity must become more and still more\n\ncomplex, until we have the most possible complex system of ethics\ngoverning the most highly developed society. It is here, in this fact\nof human relations, we find a basis for human ethics. It is instruction of our children and youth in these relations for which we\nplead, as a remedy for social disorders. Some recent modifications\nof school work point toward such instruction; but, in our judgment,\nnone of them are calculated to satisfy the demand of our day. The\nmoral results of the work in the kindergarten, where the little ones\nare unconsciously instructed in their relations to each other, cannot be overestimated. Similar results ought to be produced all\n\nalong the line of educational work, but these cannot be secured\nthrough kindergarten methods with children beyond kindergarten\nage. Other methods must be invented.\nIf the study of human relations is so important, how can our\nchildren and youth be instructed in them? We venture to reply\n\nthat this end can be attained by the introduction, in undeveloped\nand elementary forms, of the new science of sociology, which, if\nnot scientifically defined as the science of human relations, certainly\ntreats of the whole realm of these relations, and no other science\ndoes .\n\nThere is evidence that \"the education of the future will be\n\nsociological ; that the supremacy which has been accorded to the\n\nclassics, and which is now accorded to the physical sciences, will\nbe transferred to sociological study.\" * The tendency is certainly in\nthis direction.\n\nIt is seen in the methods employed and in the char\n\n* Professor Fulcomer, lecturer in Chicago University.\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nETHICAL INSTRUCTION.\n\n629\n\nacter of the work done in the kindergarten; in the comparatively\nfruitless effort to extract moral lessons from subjects already\ntaught; in the use now being made of the story and myth in literature; in the making of text-books with a view to moral impression ;\nin the provision made for manual training ; and in the preference\nshown by the committee of fifteen for \"an objective and practical\nbasis of selection of topics for the course of study, rather than the\nsubjective basis so long favored by educational writers.\" All this\nis in response to a demand that the schools must do something more\nthan to cultivate brain power.\n\nThey must also guide it.\n\nThis de-\n\nmand, however, can be more fully met through the medium of sociological studies, which can be made the vehicle for effective moral\nimpression.\n\nAside from the ethical character of this new science, which renders it superior to all other subjects for ethical purposes, it possesses two very important advantages which disarm two classes of\nobjectors to ethical instruction. One class is composed of those\nwho say we cannot teach ethics because that means religious instruction. This objection falls to the ground through that separation of\nethics and religion which this new science establishes. Since this\nis so, and since the ethical codes of all parties interested in the\nschools are substantially the same, and since there is no hope that\nthe state will ever provide for religious instruction, may we not hope,\nthat, on this ethical ground which sociological studies furnish, a compromise may be effected through which something may be accomplished in the schools of vastly greater importance to humanity\nthan any degree of manual training, or even of purely intellectual\ndevelopment. Those who are opposed to religious instruction would\nnot be losing their case, since ethics is not religion. All who desire religious instruction would, from their point of view, be gaining their object in part, since they include ethics in religion. To\nno party would this be a sacrifice of principle.\nThe second class of objectors to ethical instruction declare that\ndirect moral instruction would be abortive ; that all moral impres-\n\nsion must be made indirectly. This is an assumption to which the\nfacts of experience are opposed. However, without stopping to\nargue the point, we present to this class of objectors this same subject, which can be so handled, if it is desired, as to slyly insinuate\n\nmoral lessons into the boys and girls when they are off guard-sideflank them. With this notion we have no sympathy. Moral training must be known as moral training. An importance of its own\n\nmust be attached to it by placing it on the same level with, or even\nabove, every other branch.\n\nOn the other hand, sociological studies\n\ncan be so employed as to openly, frankly, teach matters of right and\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "630\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nwrong, and stamp such an importance upon the right as to make\nprofound impression.\n\nThe ways and means for teaching this new science must be discovered by trial. Whatever is here said in reference to it is purely\nsuggestive and tentative. The present undeveloped condition of the\nscience requires that first effort shall be made with the most ma-\n\nture pupils ; hence, in the high schools. Later, without doubt, what\nmay be called elementary sociology will be developed and adapted to\nthe other grades. Child sociology is already taught in a practical\nway in the kindergartens. The primary aim ought not to be to\nacquaint high school pupils with the theory of sociology, desirable\n\nas that may be, but to make them as familiar as possible with the\nmultifarious relations of life before they enter upon them as individuals independent of parental protection and guidance.\nPerhaps I can indicate most clearly the line of work as it lies in\nmy own mind by venturing a few thoughts upon the character of a\ntext-book suitable for this work.\n\nI would devote the introductory\n\nchapters to the establishment upon a philosophic basis of some universally accepted ethical principles with which actions are to be\ncompared and adjudged as right or wrong. The best, the simplest,\nthe most easily understood, and the most generally accepted, is, \"Do\nunto others as you would have them do unto you.\" In our judgment,\nthis is entirely sufficient. Nothing better is known ; and I would\nmake a text-book sing the spirit of this beautiful principle of social\n\nlife upon every page. It is the condensed epitome of all the ethical\nteachings of the Great Master of ethics, as they are recorded in the\nNew Testament ; hence, acceptable at least to all Christian peoples\nand institutions. This principle can be based upon a philosophic\n\ninduction from social data. This, perhaps, would clothe it with\nrenewed authority, which, because it is heard so often and is so universally ignored, it unfortunately does not now possess. A similar\ninduction might be made to result in some other general principle,\nif that is desired; like that of Bentham, which, without philosophic\nverbiage, is, that that is right for this world which aims at the greatest degree of true happiness to the largest number of persons. These\nand other like generally accepted principles are sufficient guides\nfor all in all ordinary situations in life.\nAfter they have been established, they must be so stamped upon\n-so burnt into the mental fiber of every pupil that he must, by\nnecessity, carry them through life; that he cannot, by any possible\nline of conduct, cause them to fade out, or by logical process silence\ntheir voice.\n\nThis result I would make the aim of the remainder of\n\nthe book, which should embrace civics in all its branches, business\nand industrial relations in all their ramifications ; natural rights and\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nETHICAL INSTRUCTION.\n\n631\n\nduties of the individual; the object, rights, and obligations of society, and all kindred subjects.\nCivics embrace duties to country and whatever contributes to\nbest citizenship. Under this topic I would direct attention to political abuses of all sorts, and impress the importance of living by\nthe same moral code in politics as in religion. I would discuss\nwhatsoever would bring plainly to view the individual's ethical\nduties and obligations to country and government. In the treatment\nof business relations I would go into the details of the various\nbranches. It seems entirely practicable, for a man familiar with\nbusiness life and methods, to conduct students, equipped with their\ncode of universally accepted moral principles, according to which\nhuman acts are to be classified as right or wrong, into and through\nthe ten thousand ramifications of all kinds of business,-behind the\n\ncounter, into the bank, into the boards of trade, into the business\nand professional office, into the exchanges, into the council chambers\nof great corporations, into every corner of the business world, and\nstudy the relations which exist among all who are occupied there,\nas well as between these branches of business and the great world\noutside .\n\nHere the like relations of the industrial world should be\n\nconsidered; the relations between those who possess capital and\nthose who labor ; between those who employ and those who are\nemployed : the rights and duties of each to the other.\nIn treating of the natural rights and duties of the individual, I\nwould attempt to impress the ethical relations between individuals\nwhich arise from the fact of birth. All are in the world through\nno fault or merit of their own ; hence, no blame or credit attaches to\n\nthe fact of being here in any case. No man brought anything with\nhim which every other man did not bring; hence, all by nature are\nendowed with equal rights and entitled to equal opportunities. This\nopens up an immense field of thought in the direction of modifying\nthe existing conditions of unequal rights and unequal opportunities,\nwhich all students of social questions recognize with serious misgivings.\n\nClosely allied with this subject are the objects of social organization, the relations which exist between society and the individual,\nthe rights of each, and the duties of each to the other. Society is\na necessity. Being a necessity, it ought to be so organized as to\ncontinue and perform its functions with the least possible friction\nand with the greatest possible comfort and happiness to all who compose it. Hence, the immeasurable importance of investigating, and\nof establishing in the minds of the rising generation an ethical adjustment of the parts of the social organism.\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "632\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nSUPT. A. F. NIGHTINGALE Chicago, Ill.-I should like to inquire when the supremacy of the classics was transferred to the physical sciences. I have always\nthought that the perfection of scientific study depended upon the study of the\nclassics, and I believe, that, in the future as in the past, language study will always be the basis of educational work. So long as the truth remains, that out of\nthe heart are the issues of life, the best book for the teaching of ethics will always be the open book of a great teacher, whose example and influence shall be\npowerfully felt by the pupils with whom he comes in contact.\nPRINCIPAL C. M. L. SITES, Washington, D. C.-It seems to me that I should\nwrong myself, and it would be a wrong for us, to allow the possibility of misinterpretation of a paper in respect to a certain tone that might be understood from it of\nunder-estimating religion.\n\nThe gentleman says that faith and hope are elements of\n\nuncertainty upon which we must not hang something of which we know positively.\nHe does not say that the basis of ethics is the third element in the great trinity,\n\nlove. What is the world to do without faith, and where would we get our ethical\nrelations without the love that was taught by the Great Teacher?\n\nMaterialistic\n\nscience, self-centered and self-sufficient, tends to carry the moral world out of its\nnormal orbit. Faith and love are the centripetal and coherent forces that hold\nsociety in right relations to the source of light and life.\n\nMR. SOUTHWORTH. Denver, Colo. This admirable paper shows that society\nalone makes your work as teachers of any value. Since the application of the\ninductive theory of Bacon, the world has been gradually drawn toward giving the\nfirst place to natural sciences and the second place to linguistic study. We want\na thinker behind the language. The supremacy of the natural sciences needs no\ndiscussion.\n\nADDRESS OF THE COMMITTEE OF TWELVE OF THE\nAMERICAN PHILOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nTo Teachers of the Classics and To All Friends of Sound Learning in the United States:\nThe American Philological Association, at a large meeting held in Philadelphia,\nDec. 28, 1894, unanimously adopted the following resolution, proposed by Professor\nHale of Chicago :\nResolved, That, in the opinion of the American Philological Association, in any\n\nprogram designed to prepare students for the classical course, not less than three years\nof instruction in Greek should be required.\n\nThe resolution expresses the opinion of the association, that every school which\nprepares pupils for what is known as \"the classical course\" in many colleges, or\npupils who intend to study the classics in any college, should provide a course of\nat least three years' instruction in Greek, which all such pupils are expected to\nfollow. In the judgment of the most experienced teachers, three years is the shortest time in which the preparatory course now offered by our best schools in the\nreading of simple Attic prose and of Homer or Herodotus (or both), in the essentials of Greek grammar, and in the elements of Greek composition, can be\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nAMERICAN PHILOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nproperly accomplished.\n\n633\n\nThis resolution, it will be seen, concerns itself only with\n\ncourses of study which profess to be \"classical.\" It does not imply that any school\nmay not prepare pupils for courses not so described, in the case of colleges which\nadmit such students, with a shorter term and a smaller amount of study in Greek.\nThe immediate occasion of this resolution was the proposal made to various\nassociations of teachers to recommend to the schools and colleges which they rep-\n\nresent the adoption of the four programs recently submitted by the committee of\nten as providing adequate preparation in all lines of study for the colleges and scientific schools of the United States. Only one of these four programs includes\nGreek at all, and this is styled the \"Classical Program;\" its general adoption would\ntherefore do much to fix the standard of preparation in classics for all our colleges.\nThis so-called \"Classical Program\" provides that Greek shall normally begin in\nthe third year of the four years' preparatory course, and that only two years shall\nbe given to it. It is true, that, in certain exceptional cases (mentioned in a footnote) , schools may \" substitute\" Greek for German or French in the second year ;\n\nbut this substitution is evidently not what the authors of the program desire or\nexpect, or they would have made this the regular, and not the exceptional, arrangement. Nothing can be more obvious than the deliberate intention of the committee\nof ten (at least of those members who accept the report in full) to confine Greek\nto the last two years of preparation for college, and gradually to establish two\nyears as the maximum of time which even the best schools will regularly give to\nthat language.\n\nIt is of the highest importance that all classical teachers in both schools and\ncolleges, and all who have the direction of schools in which classical students are\n\nprepared for college, should understand what this \"Classical Program\" means.\nIt means that the standard of preparation in Greek for our colleges is to be low-\n\nered to what has been known as the \"elementary Greek\" or the \"minimum Greek\"\nin elective schemes of admission; in other words, that there is to be no systematic\nstudy of Homer, or Herodotus, or of Greek composition, in even our best schools ;\n\nand that no provision is to be regularly made, even for pupils who show special aptitude for classical study, to advance beyond the merest elements in Greek. It\nmeans that our schools are seriously advised to adopt a course of study which now\nwould not admit their pupils at all to any first-class college having fixed requisites\nfor admission, and would not admit them to any of the freshman Greek courses\nwhich are regularly taken by classical students and are necessary to prepare them\nfor the higher courses in any college having elective requisites for admission. The\nscheme is therefore unintelligible unless it anticipates a reduction of the grade of\nall the regular Greek courses in the colleges, so that the work now done in the\nlast year of school shall become the ordinary work of the first year in college,\n\nwith a corresponding reduction of all the higher work. There is no escape from\nthis alternative.\n\nEither the schools which adopt this \"Classical Program\" must\n\ncease to prepare pupils for the ordinary classical courses in our colleges, or the\ncolleges must lower their standard in Greek by a whole year to suit such schools.\nEither of these results would be disastrous ; and we can hardly believe that either\n\nof them, with all its consequences , was seriously contemplated by the framers\nof the proposed program.\n\nThe bad effects just indicated would not be confined to the classical courses in\ncollege. The importance of Greek to students who intend to devote themselves to\nthe study of English or any other modern language, whether from the literary or\nthe philological point of view, has never been denied in Europe, and is not denied\n\nby any competent American scholar in these departments of learning. For students\nspecially interested in English literature, for example, to enter college with no\nknowledge of Homer, under the impression that their time has been spent to the\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "634\n\nNATIONAL EducaTIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Secondary\n\nbest advantage in the preparatory school, would be a grave error. For such students to be forced to begin their acquaintance with Greek literature in the freshman year would seriously cripple their work in their chosen department. And\nthis would be the result if the program in question were adopted; for it is not\ntill he reaches Homer or Herodotus that a boy begins to understand, that, in\nstudying Greek, he is dealing with a great literature. The elementary or minimum\nGreek generally does not acquaint him with literary material that appeals to him.\nThese objections apply with equal force to students who intend to make a special\n\nstudy of the literary history of any modern tongue.\nThe department of theology would feel the proposed reduction of Greek as a\nsevere blow. It is difficult now for theological schools to require of their students\nsuch a knowledge of Greek as is necessary for the study of the New Testament :\n\nthe discouragement which would result from this plan would aggravate this evil\nimmensely, and would be felt in every school of theology in the country.\n\nThis \"Classical Program\" is exceedingly liberal to all departments except the\nclassics. It requires four years' study of English, and provides for three of history,\nthree of German or French, and four of mathematics (including trigonometry and\n\nhigher algebra) . In these studies, therefore, pupils might be carried a year beyond\nthe ordinary requisites for admission to most colleges, while in Greek they would\nfall short of these requisites by just a year, so that Greek would be degraded\nrelatively by two years. It is well known that there is a vigorous and increasing\ndemand for putting back either geometry or algebra and a modern language into\n\nthe grammar schools ; and this has actually been done in some important schools.\nThe pressure of other studies in the high schools-the only excuse which is made\nfor depriving Greek of a year-is, therefore, likely to be temporary, while the reduction of Greek to two years , if once accepted, will be permanent.\nThe committee of ten asked and received the advice of nine conferences, com-\n\nposed of experts in nine departments of study, and they justly attribute great\nweight to the careful judgments of these conferences, which give the proposals of\nthe committee their chief authority in matters of detail. It may surprise many to\nlearn that the Greek conference introduced its recommendations with the following\ngeneral statement :\nThe conference recommends that the study of Greek be begun at least three years before\nthe close of the course preparatory to college.\n\nThis primary recommendation, which is the basis of the whole report of the\nGreek conference, is set aside by the committee of ten almost without consideration.\nThis is, we believe, the only case in which the decided opinion of one of the conferences, on such a fundamental matter, has been so summarily rejected. It is true\nthat other studies are not allowed by the committee all the increase which they\ndesire; but Greek alone is to be reduced and crippled. The resolution of the Philological Association is simply an appeal from the decision of the committee to the\njudgment of the experts who advised the committee. The unanimous and enthusiastic approval of the action of the Philological Association expressed by the large\nclassical conference recently held at Ann Arbor shows that scholars in the West\n\nare in perfect harmony with their colleagues in the East on this important subject.\nThe plan of the committee, if adopted, would aggravate most unnecessarily one\nof the greatest evils in our system of education-that the colleges are compelled to\ndo work which belongs to the schools, and which in most other countries is done\nby the schools with much greater efficiency and at much less cost. This evil is\n\nacknowledged and deplored by all; and yet the colleges are to be asked to lower\ntheir standard of classical scholarship that they may assume a new burden of elementary work, which the schools are now doing with ever-increasing efficiency. On\nthe other hand, the loss of this work would be seriously felt in the schools. Every\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nAMERICAN PHILOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n635\n\nstep which limits the range and quality of study in school increases the difficulty\nof obtaining and keeping able and enthusiastic teachers, and nothing attracts men\nof taste and cultivation to teach in a classical school more than the literary work\nof the higher classes in Greek .\n\nThe undersigned believe that both colleges and schools have a common interest\nin opposing a scheme which threatens to degrade them both at the expense of good\n\nscholarship. They therefore appeal earnestly to all who have the interests of\nsound learning at heart to unite with them in opposing the introduction of the socalled \"Classical Program\" of the committee of ten into the schools of the United\nStates.\n\nWILLIAM W. GOODWIN, Professor of Greek, Harvard University, Chairman.\nCECIL F. P. BANCROFT, Principal of Phillips Andover Academy.\nFRANKLIN CARTER, President of Williams College.\nWILLIAM G. HALE, Professor of Latin , University of Chicago.\nWILLIAM R. HARPER, President of the University of Chicago.\nFRANCIS W. KELSEY, Professor of Latin, University of Michigan.\nGEORGE L. KITTREDGE, Professor of English, Harvard University.\nABBY LEACH, Professor of Greek, Vassar College.\nTHOMAS D. SEYMOUR, Professor of Greek, Yale University.\nCHARLES F. SMITH, Professor of Greek, University of Wisconsin.\nMINTON WARREN, Professor of Latin, Johns Hopkins University.\nANDREW F. WEST, Professor of Latin, Princeton University.\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION.\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES.\n\nFIRST SESSION.-THURSDAY, JULY 11, 1895.\nThe Department of Higher Education met in the high school building, at 3\no'clock p. m., President Baker of the University of Colorado in the chair.\nPresident Swain of the University of Indiana was elected Secretary in the\nabsence of Secretary Horace Goodhue.\nOn motion, it was ordered that hereafter the regular officers of this department should constitute the Executive Committee.\n\nBy the request of the Department of Secondary Education of the National Educational Association, it was determined that the officers elected for 1896 should appoint a committee of five to confer with a committee from the department of Secondary Education to consider questions suggested by the following resolution:\nWhereas , The most pressing need for higher education in this country is a better\nunderstanding between the secondary schools and the colleges and universities in regard\nto requirements for admission; therefore,\n\nResolved. That the Department of Secondary Education appoint a committee of five,\nof which the present President shall be one, and request the appointment of a similar\ncommittee by the Department of Higher Education, these ten to compose a Committee\nof Conference, whose duty it shall be to report at the next annual meeting a plan for\nthe accomplishment of this end so urgently demanded by the interests of higher education.\n\nThis resolution was reported as adopted by the Department of Secondary Education, and the following Committee on Conference as appointed from that department:\n\nPrincipal W. H. Smiley, Denver; Prof. William Carey Jones, University of\nCalifornia; Supt. A. F. Nightingale, Chicago, Ill.; J. Remsen Bishop, Cincinnati,\nOhio; Principal C. H. Thurber, Hamilton, N. Y.\nProf. W. H. Fraser of the University of Toronto not being present, his paper\non \"The University of Toronto\" was read by Dr. Charles S. Palmer of the University of Colorado .\n\nThe next paper, by Dr. Richard T. Ely, University of Wisconsin, was entitled\n\" The Future Organization of Higher Education in America.\"\nA discussion of Dr. Ely's paper followed, by D. R. Boyd, University of Oklahoma; William O. Thompson, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio; H. H. Freer, Cornell College, lowa; Richard T. Ely, University of Wisconsin; A. A. Johnson, University of Wyoming; W. H. Black, Missouri Valley College, Marshall, Mo .; B. A.\n\nHinsdale, University of Michigan, and was closed by Dr. Ely.\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES.\n\n637\n\nPresident Baker appointed the following as members of the nominating committee for the Department of Higher Education :\n\nProf. William C. Jones, University of California; President Robert B. Fulton, University of Mississippi, and President William Thompson, Miami University.\n\nSECOND SESSION.- FRIDAY, JULY 12, 1895.\nIn the absence of Professor Perrin of Yale College, Prof. James E. Russell\nopened the discussion on the subject, \" Conservative View of College Electives.\"\nThe discussion was continued by Prof. Edward Channing, Harvard University;\nProf. W. R. Rothwell, William Jewell College, Missouri ; President Richard H.\n\nJesse, University of Missouri ; Dr. A. B. Hyde, University of Denver.\nDr. J. N. Hall, Secretary State Board of Medical Examiners, Colorado, read a\npaper upon \"Standard of Admission to Professional Schools.\"\nProf. T. R. Bacon of the University of California read a paper on the \"Relation of College Courses to Professional Schools .\"\nThe Chairman of the Committee on Nominations made the following report :\nThe Committee on Nomination of Officers for 1895-96 begs leave to introduce the following resolution:\n\nResolved, That, for the more useful and effective work in the Department of Higher\nEducation, closer relations should be cultivated between the colleges and universities\n\nand the National Educational Association; that to this end, the Department of Higher\nEducation should mark out a line of policy, and make every effort to give it a continuous and well-defined character; that the President of the department be invited to\nmake an address at the opening of the session in 1896, which shall set forth the lines\n\nupon which the work of the department may be most profitably conducted.\nThe committee respectfully reports the following as its nominees for officers of the\nDepartment of Higher Education for 1805-06 :\nForPresident- James H. Baker, University of Colorado.\n\nFor Vice President-Dabney Lipscomb, University of Mississippi.\nFor Secretary-Joseph Swain, University of Indiana.\n\n. CAREY JONES ,\nWM\nR. B. FULTON,\nWILLIAM THOMPSON,\nCommittee.\n\nThis report was adopted by the department.\nThe following Committee on Uniformity of Requirements for College Admission was appointed to co-operate with committee of the Department of Secondary\nEducation :\n\nDr. Nicholas Murray Butler, Columbia College; Prof. Paul H. Hanus, Har\nvard University ; Dr. B. A. Hinsdale, Michigan University ; Dr. James E. Rus\nsell, University of Colorado; Principal John T. Buchanan, Kansas City High\nSchool .\n\nAfter two very successful and well-attended sessions the department adjourned\nuntil the next annual meeting.\nJOSEPH SWAIN ,\n\nSecretary pro tem.\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "638\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nPAPERS AND\n\n[\nHigher\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\n\nTHE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO.\n\nBY PROF . W. H. FRASER\n\nOF THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO .\n\nThe University of Toronto is the non-denominational state university of Ontario, one of the provinces of the Dominion of Canada,\n\nwith a population of 2,114,000. The university is a teaching body in\narts and medicine, and a degree-conferring body in arts, medicine,\nlaw, applied science, dentistry, pharmacy, agriculture, music, and\npedagogy.\n\nIts management is intrusted to the provincial govern-\n\nment (representing the crown), the board of trustees, the senate, convocation, the university council, the council of University College,\nwith the co-operation of federated universities and colleges.\nThe present apparently complex organization is so largely the re-\n\nsult of modifications of the university act of 1853, and this act is so\nclosely connected with previous acts, that the functions of the abovementioned bodies will be more readily understood if the description\nof them is undertaken in connection with a brief historical sketch\n\nof university legislation.\nThe original charter dates from 1827, previous to which the university had been endowed by large grants of crown lands, in anticipation of its establishment. By this charter the teaching, examining,\n\nand management were practically intrusted to the chancellor, the\npresident, and the professors. In 1837 this governing body was increased from nine to twelve members-four non-academic-and all\n\nreligious tests previously in force were abolished. Only in 1842,\nhowever, was the work of teaching begun, at which date faculties of\narts, medicine, law, and divinity were established. In 1843, and\nagain in 1846, legislation was considered, but not finally passed, looking to a federation of all existing colleges in Ontario into one university. In 1849 the faculty of divinity was abolished, the institution\nreorganized, and its name changed from \"King's College\" to \"The\nUniversity of Toronto.\"\nThis reorganization was so fundamental as to demand more ex-\n\ntended reference here. Under the reorganization the body of supreme\ncontrol was the senate, consisting of the chancellor, vice chancellor,\nall the professors, and twelve representatives, six appointed by government from among non-ecclesiastic graduates of at least five years'\nstanding and six by various independent colleges of divinity. The\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO.\n\n639\n\nchancellor was elected by convocation, and must not be a clergyman\nor a professor. The president was appointed by government. The\nvice chancellor was elected annually by senate, and must either be or\nhave been a professor of or in the university. The powers of the senate were very extensive, and affected curriculum, teaching, examinations, degrees, duties of chancellor, vice chancellor, professors, salaries ,\netc.; and it nominated, also, candidates for professorships, from among\nwhom the government was bound to make an appointment. Its acts\n\nwere subject to governmental veto, if exercised within two years.\nUnder the senate was the caput, consisting of the president, deans of\nfaculties, and one representative of convocation. The caput had delegated powers over all ordinary discipline and government of the university, and control, also, of the acts of the president and vice chancellor. It was charged to report annually to senate, and had besides\nthe duty of preliminary report to senate on candidates for professorships. The vice chancellor, under the senate, had power to maintain\nobservance of statutes by the president and faculties, but had no powers over students. The president, under the caput and senate, exercised general superintendence over students, members, officers and\nservants, studies, lectures, examinations, and literary pursuits, except\ncertain privileges of deans of faculties. The faculties elected their\nown deans, and made by-laws not contrary to the charter or statutes\nof senate, subject to veto of the senate. Finally, an endowment board\nof five members, appointed severally by government, senate, caput,\ncollege council, and Upper Canada College, managed property and reported to senate, the property being vested in the university corporation. The organization effected by this act was very complete. Each\npart had a definite and logical relation to each other part, and as a\nwhole it provided for every detail of university administration.\nIn 1853 a new university act was passed. The teaching faculties\nof law and medicine were abolished, and the institution reorganized\nafter the model of the University of London, as was said, into two\n\npractically independent parts, (1) an examining and degree-conferring\nbody, with the name of \"The University of Toronto,\" and controlled\nby the senate, and (2) a teaching body with the name of \"University\nCollege,\" controlled by the president and professors. Appointments\nwere henceforth under direct control of the government, which continued to exercise veto power over legislation of senate and college\ncouncil. This act left the organization essentially as it now is, the\nfundamental principle being a division into teaching and non-teaching bodies.\n\nIn 1887, however, an act was passed with the object of uniting the\nvarious denominational universities of Ontario with the University\n\nof Toronto. Under this act Victoria University (Methodist), St.\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n640\n\n[\nHigher\n\nMichael's College (Roman Catholic), Knox College (Presbyterian), and\nWycliffe College (Anglican) have entered into federation with the\nUniversity of Toronto, which latter has also, under this act, a teaching faculty in arts and medicine. Latin, Greek, ancient history, English, French, German, oriental literature, and ethics are taught both\nby University College and Victoria University. Certain optional subjects allowed to theological students are taught by Victoria University and the other colleges above mentioned, while St. Michael's College co-operates in teaching modern history and philosophy. By this\n\narrangement (largely one of convenience) all other subjects in arts\nand all subjects in medicine are left to the teaching faculty of the\nUniversity of Toronto. Various institutions, such as the school of\npractical science, the agricultural college, etc., have entered into\naffiliation with the university and enjoy representation on the sen-\n\nate; which, in turn, prescribes their curricula and examines their\nstudents .\n\nThis preliminary sketch will, it is hoped, facilitate the description\nof the functions of the various bodies given in the following paragraphs:\n\n1. The Crown .-The supreme authority in all matters is vested in\nthe crown, represented by the government of the province. The property is vested in the crown in trust, and is managed by the bursar, a\ncrown officer. Annual appropriations are authorized by the crown,\nas also expenditure of endowment, subject in the latter case to the\nlegislature. The crown exercises veto power as to statutes of senate\nand councils, and makes all appointments in the university and University College.\n2. The Board of Trustees . This board consists of chancellor, vice\nchancellor, and president, five members appointed by senate, and\ntwo by University College. It advises the crown, through the bursar,\nas to conservation, increase, and expenditure of endowment and income, and management of property in general.\n3. The Senate.-This body makes curricula, examines, grants degrees and standing, but does not teach. It has sixty members (nine\nex officio) , namely, the minister of education, the president of University College, the president of each federated institution, the chancellor\n\nand vice chancellor, and all past chancellors and vice chancellors ;\ntwenty-six appointed members from various educational bodies, and\nnine members appointed by the crown; twenty-three members elected\nby graduates, and two elected by the high school teachers.\n\n4. Convocation. This consists of the whole body of graduates, and\nelects representatives to senate in arts, medicine, and law. It has also\ndeliberative and advisory functions, seldom exercised.\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO.\n\n641\n\n5. The University Council.-This body consists of the president and\nprofessors of the university in arts, medicine, and law. It is intrusted with teaching and discipline of students.\n6. The University College Council.-This council consists of the president and professors of University College, and has parallel duties and\npowers to the university council.\n7.\n\nFederated Universities and Colleges .\n\nThese assist in teaching\n\nthe arts curriculum, and they control their own students.\nI may now be permitted to add some observations regarding the\norganization, embodying the main points of criticism of it which from\ntime to time have been expressed by educators familiar with its\nworking. The most general objection to the organization as a whole\nis taken with regard to its complexity, and the opinion has sometimes\nbeen expressed that only the most complete harmony and co-operation between the different parts can render the administration of the\nuniversity possible. In this connection, it should be remembered that\nthe consideration of the whole question of organization has never\nbeen undertaken by the legislature since 1849. The act of 1853 was\nevidently a makeshift, consisting of a more or less crude adaptation\nof the London University system, which, whatever may be said regarding its application in England at the time, could not reasonably\nbe expected to meet fully the circumstances of Canada. The various\namendments to the act of 1853 have been of the nature of adaptations suggested by expediency.\n\nAmong the more special considerations affecting the system, one\nof the most fundamental is undoubtedly that of government control.\nOn this point there is a wide divergence of opinion. It will be observed, that, theoretically, the government of the province controls\nultimately the whole administration. Practically and directly, however, this control is exercised in two matters, namely, in the finances\nand in the appointments. Expenditures are made only on the authorization of the government, and all appointments are also so made,\nafter such inquiry and report as may be considered necessary. Among\nthose who advocate a complete separation of the university from gov-\n\nernmental control is Dr. Goldwin Smith, who recently expressed himself as follows on this question :\nThe most important of the suggestions which I have to offer and which I be\nlieve will meet with extensive concurrence is, that the university should be separated from the political government of the province, and placed, like the English\nuniversities, under a government of its own, subject only to the law of the land\nand to any external check on its legislation which it may be deemed expedient\nto impose. The reason for this is general, and involves no disparagement of the\nintentions or of the actions of the Ontario Government.\n\n*\n\n씀\n\nAmidst the\n*\n\nchances of party warfare and the necessities imposed upon leaders of party in\nthe distribution of political offices, it is not likely that a cabinet will often, much\n41\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "642\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Higher\n\nless that it will always, contain a member fitted by his turn of mind and by his\nexperience of academical matters to regulate a university.\n\nFear of political in-\n\nfluence has operated in one instance at least to deter a Canadian college from\ncoming into university confederation. It is well known also that connection with\ngovernment operates as a bar to private benefaction. The government would lose\n* * *\nlittle by the change, while it would be relieved of some embarrassments.\nI would venture to suggest, therefore, that the estate should be made over to\nthe university, to be managed by its trustees or through a committee of the\nsenate, perhaps with the vice chancellor in the chair, and, of course, with a professional bursar. The nominations to the presidency and the professorships I\nwould give to the chancellor, but require him to submit them for acceptance or\nrejection to the senate. I would require him, before sending a name to the senate\nfor a professorship, to communicate it to the president of the university and hear\n*\n\nwhat the president has to say.\n\n*\n\nLegislation would be the function of the\n\nsenate, which, in any case involving a draft upon the revenues, would, of course,\nconsult the trustees or its managing committee. At Oxford and Cambridge, such\nof the university and college statutes as have been framed or ratified under parliamentary authority can be amended only with the consent of the privy council,\nwhich in England is not a political body. Submission to the lieutenant-governor\nmight form a similar safeguard here.\n\nThese remarks of Dr. Goldwin Smith express so fully the point of\nview of those who advocate such a change that nothing need be\nadded. On the other hand, it is urged by many that, as the endowments of the university are vested in trust in the government for the\nbenefit of the province, the ministers of the crown should be responsible to the legislature and ultimately to the people for the administration of this trust, as for any other branch of the public service.\nAs to the board of trustees, little need be said. It consists at\npresent mainly of gentlemen of large experience in business and high\nfinancial standing, who give their services gratuitously to the university. The opinion seems to be general that this board is well suited\nto the work intrusted to it, and that it discharges its functions in a\nhighly satisfactory manner.\n\nThe most remarkable feature of the organization consists, undoubtedly, in the division of the whole academic work of the institution, introduced in principle by the act of 1853, between the senate,\nthe councils of the university and of University College, and the federated institutions. Each of these bodies is entirely independent of the\ncontrol of the others. The senate prescribes the curricula in the various faculties, conducts examinations, and grants degrees and standing, as stated above. The councils and federated institutions undertake the work of instruction and discipline. The most general exception taken to this arrangement is that it is illogical and impractica- .\nble, on the ground, that, in the nature of things, no proper line of\ndivision can be drawn as between prescription of studies, instruction,\ndiscipline, and examination.\n\nWhen the constitution of the senate is\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO.\n\n643\n\nexamined into, the grounds for the objection become more apparent.\nThis body consists at present of sixty members, with indefinite possibilities of increase through new affiliations.\n\nOf these about one-half\n\nare not directly connected in any way with academic work, and of the\nremainder only three represent the university council, and one the\ncouncil of University College. Since the legislation of the senate\nmainly affects the work of the councils, determining, as it does, the\nnature of the teaching by the prescription of the curriculum in arts\nand medicine, it is held by many to be unreasonable that a body practically independent, and lacking in technical knowledge of the matters\non which it passes judgment, should, legally and theoretically at least,\ndetermine the nature of the academic work of the university. As a\nmatter of fact, however, it should be explained, that, in practice, the\ncurriculum is revised according to the recommendations of the profes-\n\nsoriate in arts and medicine, and by this amicable but anomalous arrangement the difficulty is largely overcome, although instances have\noccurred in which the senate has overruled the recommendations of\nthe professoriate.\n\nThe argument used in favor of the present arrangement is, that it\nsecures additional broadness in the work of the university, inasmuch\nas it removes, in theory at least, the determination of the curriculum\n\nand the standard of scholarship from the teaching body. Some persons even maintain that professors should be entirely excluded from\nthe senate. As supporting the opposite theory I might again quote\nDr. Goldwin Smith, who recently, in suggesting improvements of the\nsystem, expressed himself thus : \"In any case, it will be most reasonable and necessary to give all the university professors, who constitute\nthe working body of the constitution, seats in the senate, their representation in which is manifestly inadequate.\" At one time, in extreme application of this principle of division, it was customary to debar professors from even acting as examiners under the senate. This\nrestriction, however, was found to be impracticable, and at present\nmost of the senate examiners are chosen from the teaching faculties.\n\nTo the constitution of the councils, objections have been urged,\nsomewhat analogous to those mentioned above, regarding the division\nof academic work between the councils and the senate. The councils,\nIt will be remembered, are the teaching and disciplinary bodies, independent of each other, but concerned in the teaching and discipline of\nabody of students who come for the most part under the authority\nof both the councils. This arrangement has been shown in practice\nto have given rise to difficulties evidently not foreseen by the federation act of 1887, which, to quote from the report of the recent university commission of inquiry, \"contains expressions so vague as to ob-\n\nscure the distinction in jurisdiction and control of the senate, the uni-\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n644\n\nversity council and the University College council.\"\n\n[Higher\n\nFor instance, it\n\nhas been found difficult to determine whether certain student-socie-\n\nties were amenable to one council or the other. Moreover, when the\nquestion of responsibility was settled, it became doubtful whether effective discipline could be exercised without the co-operation of the\ncouncil not concerned, or whether, this point being determined, effect\ncould be given to disciplinary measures without the co-operation of\nthe senate. Besides, it still remains undetermined whether or not the\nuniversity council has powers of discipline as regards Victoria University student-societies and those of other federated institutions. A\n\nsimilar confusion of authority has been experienced in the powers of\nthe two councils as to control of buildings, grounds, the admission of\noutside lecturers, the allotment of rooms, the preparation of estimates, the compilation of the time-table, and the control of the college\nresidence.\n\nA further anomaly has been pointed out in the fact, that,\n\nin the university council, which is responsible for discipline of students both in arts and medicine, the majority of the council are pro-\n\nfessors in medicine, who for the most part are occupied only incidentally in academic work.\n\nOn the whole, the organization of the university may be fairly described as tentative.\n\nThe work of the institution has undergone very\n\nconsiderable expansion during the last few years. It now numbers\nupwards of 1,200 students, and at commencement in 1895 conferred\ndegrees on 366 persons. Its circumstances have also been very materially altered by the operation of the federation act, necessitating\nat least three bodies of instruction and discipline instead of one as\nbefore. To such an extent have these factors affected the question\nof organization that an early revision of the act, taking account of all\nthe altered circumstances, is generally considered to be desirable. In\nundertaking such a revision the inconveniences arising from the illogical principle of division of academic function introduced by the act of\n1853 would demand serious consideration, and an effort to secure\nsomething of the unity and cohesion of the act of 1849 should undoubtedly be made.\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nORGANIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION.\n\n645\n\nTHE FUTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE HIGHER EDUCATION\nIN THE UNITED STATES.\n\nBY RICHARD T. ELY, Ph. D., LL. D. , DIRECTOR OF THE SCHOOL OF ECONO-\n\nMICS, POLITICAL SCIENCE , AND HISTORY , IN THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN.\n\nThe title of the present address suggests at once the question,\nWhat do we mean by the higher education? Roughly speaking,\neducational institutions may be divided into three classes-primary,\nsecondary, and higher. The higher education in this country at the\npresent time includes the college and the university and excludes\neverything below the college. Probably no one will deny that this\nis what is generally understood by the expression \"the higher education.\"\n\nA careful observer, however, cannot fail to note the fact, that,\nin our higher education, we have to do with two quite distinct kinds\nof instruction. The college, in its old and strict sense, is concerned\nwith disciplinary studies ; the purpose of the college is general\nculture. The college carries forward the work which the high school\nor the academy has begun, and carries it forward in much the same\nspirit. The chief difference consists in the larger and better equipment of the college, the broader and more catholic spirit, and the\nadvanced character of the disciplinary studies pursued. They have,\nhowever, in many respects, the same methods. There is the same\ngeneral supervision of the students, the same enforced attendance\nupon exercises, secured by roll-call and penalties for absence ; the\nsame regular examinations ; nearly the same amount of routine\nwork, with a large number of hours for the professors. This is the\ncollege, as the expression has been used in the past and is still generally used. The essentially similar nature of the work of the college and of the high school can be seen in the fact, that, in Germany,\nthe two are not separated. The German gymnasium combines both,\nand the pupil passes from what we call high school studies to the\ncollege studies without any break. The German gymnasium may\nnot include some of the studies which are ordinarily embraced in\nthe college curriculum, but other studies are carried further, and its\nthoroughness is so admirable, that, ordinarily, its graduate is better\nprepared for the more advanced work than is the graduate of the\nAmerican college. There may be a few lines in which this is not\ntrue, but in other lines-as for example, the classics-the difference\nis decidedly in favor of the graduate of the German gymnasium.\nThe university, strictly speaking, begins where the college leaves\n\noff.\n\nUniversity work is advanced special work, and not work pur- '\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "646\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Higher\n\nsued primarily for general culture. University work has some definite aim. It is, in the widest sense, as a rule, professional work.\nIt may be work preparatory for the professions of law, medicine,\n\ntheology, or the teaching profession, or the public service as a profession. There are, in fact, many new professions which are not included in the three so-called liberal professions of earlier times, but\nwhich are equally liberal in their character. The work of the true\nuniversity includes, further, a large amount of original investigation. Its aim is, not only to diffuse education but to carry further\nforward the bounds of knowledge.\n\nThis is one of the chief and one\n\nof the most beneficent functions of the university. In a university\nworthy to be called such, original investigation, research, and authorship constitute a very considerable part of the professor's work.\n\nTime is given him for work of this kind, and the elaborate apparatus\nand costly collections of many sorts which he requires are provided.\nIt is not only the professors but students as well who engage in\noriginal research and investigation. Work of this kind calls out\nand helps to unfold latent capacities in the talented youth of the\nland, and also affords the best preparation for a liberal profession,\nelevating the entire standard of professional life. University education, furthermore, is distinguished by its broad and liberal spirit.\nThe pursuit of truth in the university is free. Every guarantee for\nfree and untrammeled inquiry must be afforded. The true spirit of\nthe university in this respect has perhaps never found nobler expression than in the words of a committee of the regents of the\nUniversity of Wisconsin, in a report unanimously adopted by that\nbody. These words, which deserve to become classic, are as follows :\nWe cannot for a moment believe that knowledge has reached its final goal, or\nthat the present condition of society is perfect. We must therefore welcome from\nour teachers such discussions as shall suggest the means and prepare the way\n\nby which knowledge may be extended, present evils be removed, and others prevented. We feel that we would be unworthy of the position we hold if we did\nnot believe in progress in all departments of knowledge. In all lines of academic\ninvestigation it is of the utmost importance that the investigator should be absolutely free to follow the indications of truth, wherever they may lead. Whatever may be the limitations which trammel inquiry elsewhere, we believe the great\nState University of Wisconsin should ever encourage that continual and fearless\nsifting and winnowing by which alone the truth can be found.\n\nWhat has been said brings out the fact that the higher education\nin the United States is in a confused condition. The high school\nis not separated from the college by any clearly defined line, and\nthere is no uniformity of practice in regard to the point at which the\nline is drawn. On the other hand, the line which separates college\n\nfrom university is still more uncertain. There is not infrequently\nan attempt to attach to the closing years of a college education uni\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nORGANIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION.\n\n647\n\nversity work, while in our universities much college work is included,\nand often included under the name of \"university work.\" The re-\n\nsult is, in every grade, a lack of thoroughness in preparation, and\ncorrespondingly a failure to reach that excellence which the capacity\nof those receiving the instruction would warrant. It is probably\nsafe to say, as the result, that no thoughtful person is entirely satisfied with our present situation.\nWhen we turn to the professional schools, so-called, a still worse\ncondition of things confronts us. A college education is required\npreparatory to beginning such studies only in the rarest instances ;\nin fact, in instances so rare that they need hardly be considered.\nNot even a high school education is ordinarily required. On the\ncontrary, the professional schools are often a sort of dumping\nground in which students are thrown when they cannot maintain\nthemselves in the other departments of the university.\n\nAs a further\n\nresult, there is a general unwillingness on the part of the authorities\nof our universities to regard the studies of law, medicine, and theology as ranking with true university studies; that is, post-graduate\nstudies. There is generally a provision that our fellowships cannot be held by those carrying on legal, medical, and theological\nstudies ; although there is no reason why these studies are not in\nthe United States as worthy of high rank as are any post-graduate\nstudies. They do not rank differently in any German university.\nOne great difficulty with us (apart from other difficulties which\nlimited time does not permit me to mention) is the absence-and, under the circumstances, the necessary absence of a liberal university\nspirit in these special schools .\nThe future organization of the higher education in the United\nStates, if its development is to be satisfactory, will bring order out\nof confusion in the particulars named. We can, indeed, see already\npromising beginnings in this direction, although we cannot say that\nanything more than a beginning has been made. Probably we must\nconcede to the Johns Hopkins University the most efficient service\nin the separation of university work from collegiate work. President Gilman of that institution, as early as 1876, drew a sharp line\nbetween the two, and the success of that institution-the more remarkable when its limited means are considered-is to be attributed\n\nas largely to this clear distinction as to any other one thing. Re-\n\ncently, in the establishment of its medical school, it has placed\nmedical education upon the same footing with post-graduate study ;\nthat is to say, university studies, in the strict sense of the term. It\nwould be interesting, if time permitted, to speak about the valuable\n\nservices rendered by Harvard University in the establishment of\nhigher standards in medical and legal schools. It seems to me, how\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "648\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[\nHigher\n\never, that, in the academic department, as it is usually called, or\nin what the Germans would call the philosophical faculty,-the authorities of Harvard have not drawn so clear a line as might be desired between collegiate and university studies. Time, however, is\ntoo brief to allow further mention of the services of Harvard; and\n\nother institutions like Columbia and the University of Pennsylvania\ncan be merely mentioned with the statement, that they deserve praise\nfor their efforts to improve the organization of the higher education .\n\nThe expression, \"the higher education,\" suggests a part of a larger\nwhole, and it must be so conceived if it is to bring the greatest success .\nThe importance of unity in our educational institutions cannot well be overestimated. Probably those most familiar with German education will attribute no inconsiderable part of its achieve-\n\nments to the fact, that the education of the youth who enjoys the\nadvantages of a higher education is a unity of harmoniously adjusted parts. American students in the German universities are\nfrequently at a disadvantage, owing to the lack of any clear, distinct\naim which has dominated their previous intellectual training.\nThe Eastern States of the American Union are less fortunate than\n\nare the Western States with respect to the unity of their educational\ninstitutions. In the Eastern States the higher institutions are private foundations, and the primary and secondary schools are for the\nmost part public, although there are numerous private preparatory\nschools and academies. The result is that we have parts of a whole\nnot closely related and adjusted. Every state in the Union, however, west of New York has a unified educational system in process\nof development. The primary and grammar schools lead to the high\nschools, and the high schools lead to the university. The full advantages of this unity are not yet generally perceived, because the West\n\nis a new country; but they are becoming apparent to all close observers . It is clear, that, in the higher education, the West is to\nbecome more and more influential.\n\nBut even the West has, outside of its complete educational systems, a very large number of private foundations, mostly denominational institutions. Almost every city of any size in the West has\n\nits college, and some have more than one, while denominational\nacademies are increasing in number. We have, thus, in this part of\nthe country two classes of institutions developing side by side.\nThose who would shape wisely our higher education in the United\nStates must reckon with the existing situation. It is not what\n\nwould be desired, but what exists, and it must be made the foundation of better things.\n\nIt is apparent, first of all, that we are to have a different organization of the higher education in one part of the country from that\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "ORGANIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION.\n\nDepartment.]\n\n649\n\nin another. In New England, and for the most part in the Middle\nStates, we can scarcely look for organic unity in our educational\nsystems beyond secondary education. The private colleges and\nacademies and the public schools controlled by different kinds of\nauthorities will develop such a unity as may be compatible with more\nor less conflicting aims and purposes. There can be no doubt, however, that progress will be made in this direction because it will be\nfound to be to the mutual advantage of all parties concerned.\n\nCornell University, in New York State, offers valuable suggestions in its publicly controlled scholarships, over 500 in number,\nwhich are open to graduates of the public schools in the different\nassembly districts of the state.\n\nAs is well known, these are awarded\n\ncompetitively, and form a close tie between Cornell and the secondary schools.\n\nBut as time goes on, the West must mean more and more, both\nabsolutely and relatively. The West will, in the next century, embrace the great bulk of the population of the United States, and\nwith its activity, energy, enterprise, and trained intelligence will\ncontrol the destinies of the country. Youth is always most interesting, and it is this developing part of the country that deserves\nspecial consideration.\nIt is most fortunate that the whole education of the citizen has\n\nbeen conceived by the entire West as a public function. The West\nhas adopted the best thought of the greatest American statesmen,\n\nlike Washington and Jefferson, concerning the educational functions of the state. This cannot be emphasized too strongly. Any\neducational system which does not embrace the university is incomplete and radically imperfect.\nThe subject is such a large one that it is not easy in any short\ntime even to indicate the advantages which result from the state\nuniversity. These advantages are both direct and indirect. The\nstate university is the best expression of democracy. The whole\npeople, organized collectively, act together for the noblest aims, and\nthis cannot fail to have an uplifting influence on the entire life of\nthe state\n\nan influence which in our West will be felt more and\n\nmore strongly with each succeeding year. The state university\nrepresents all the people, and no class or section of the people. Like\nother parts of the educational system, it represents the principle\nof self-help on the part of the people. The state university is not\ndependent upon the bounty of rich men, but, supported by the entire state, accomplishes its aim in the fearless pursuit of truth.\nWhile it gladly receives the gifts of the rich, it can live and thrive\nwithout them. It has no antagonism to the wealthy, but quite the\ncontrary, for it seeks to promote all social interests. It stands no\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "650\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[\nHigher\n\nmore for the poor as opposed to the rich than for the rich as opposed\nto the poor.\n\nAll those connected with private foundations know that there\nis a solicitude on the part of their managers in regard to the views\nand feelings of possible benefactors, and an uneasiness if these views\nand feelings are supposed to conflict with the views and sentiments\ninculcated in these universities by the instructional force. I myself .\nhave heard the president of a great private university say, before a\ntable full of people, in speaking about the conflicts between workingmen and capitalists, that he was \"with the capitalists every time,\"\nbecause it was from them that he looked for endowments.\n\nThis\n\nmay not have been said with full consciousness of what it implied,\nand I do not claim that other presidents of private universities would\nrepeat these words ; but the incident at least indicates a danger from\nwhich the state universities are free. Of course, it will be readily\nadmitted that all state universities do not live up to the full measure\nof their freedom-although most of them deserve high praise on account of their large and free atmosphere. On the other hand, the\nfearlessness in the pursuit of truth in many private institutions will\nbe cheerfully acknowledged.\nBut the West has the problems indicated in the beginning of this\npaper. Here, as elsewhere, there must be a separation between the\ncollege and university instruction, and professional schools must be\nraised to the university level. How shall this be accomplished ? It\nis manifest that the standards of the high schools must be raised.\nThe state universities are everywhere year by year lifting up all the\nschools of lower rank. It is especially the inspection of high schools\nby universities which has accomplished this purpose; but will the\nhigh schools grow until they include all that education which is designed simply for general culture ?\nIt is evident that it will, at any rate, be a long time before they\nreach this level. But there are other public schools which may in\nsome states fill the intervening gap between the high school and the\nuniversity.\n\nIn Wisconsin we now have normal schools which al-\n\nready partially fill the gap between the high school and the university. It would seem to me, that, in Wisconsin (and I presume\nthe situation in Wisconsin is like that in many other states), the\nnormal schools can be developed much further and become colleges\nin the strict sense of the word, as well as normal schools.\n\nThis im-\n\nplies, of course, a still further development on their part and a large\nincrease of their funds. But as our commonwealths grow in wealth\nthey will be quite equal to this expenditure. It would be beneficial\nto the normal schools and to the cities in which they are located.\nIt would also give more time for their true work to the state universi-\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nORGANIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION.\n\n651\n\nties, by reducing the number of students in their lower classes.\nWhere there are in a state two or more public schools of the higher\ngrade, as agricultural college, mining school, and state university,\nthe more advanced university work should, of course, so far as\npossible, be centralized in one of them. At this time and place simple suggestions can be thrown out.\nBut we have the private colleges of which mention has been\nmade. Some of these are doing fine work and deserve generous support. Their work will improve more and more as they place themselves in connection with the public educational systems of the West.\nThey should not attempt to do university work. In fact, at the\n\npresent time, with the increasing expensiveness of such work, it\nshould hardly be attempted by an institution with less than a quarter\nof a million dollars a year, while to do full university work requires\nat least a million dollars a year. But these colleges, to which the\nacademies and high schools are preparatory, can do excellent college\nwork. They can develop special characteristics and render most\n\nvaluable public service. They can not only prepare students for the\nstate university but also relieve the state university of a great burden of college work. Such co-operation would be far better for all\nconcerned than is the unseemly antagonism between public and private institutions which we have often witnessed in the past. Those\nconnected with the private foundations must remember that they\nare citizens as well, and have a duty to public institutions, which,\nas loyal citizens, they must desire to see flourish.\nBut for all the states in the Union-those in the East, and the\nWest, and the South-the University of the State of New York offers valuable suggestions. Founded over one hundred years ago\nand fostered by men of the stamp of Alexander Hamilton, De Witt\nClinton, and John Jay, it has developed an admirable activity within\n\nthe last few years under the secretaryship of Mr. Melvil Dewey.\nThe University of the State of New York includes the high schools,\nacademies, colleges, and universities of the state. Its object, as\ndefined by law, is \"to encourage and promote education in advance\nof the common elementary branches. Its field includes, not only\nthe work of academies, colleges, universities, professional and technical schools, but also educational work connected with libraries ,\nmuseums, university extension courses, and similar agencies.\"\nThe regents have the power to control the charters of all educational institutions above the grade of those engaged in imparting\ninstruction in the common elementary branches. It supervises examinations in the entire higher and secondary work of the state. It\nis not a teaching institution, but a federation of over 500 institutions of higher and secondary education, suggesting, in the words\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "652\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Higher\n\nof one of the official publications of the university, \"the form of the\nEnglish universities of Oxford and Cambridge made by the union\nof their various colleges.\" No charter is granted for a college or\nother institution of higher education in the State of New York unless the regents are satisfied that it is able to do creditable work.\nA college of arts must have as a minimum $100,000, besides provision for suitable buildings, furniture, and apparatus a minimum\nwhich, in my opinion, is too low rather than too high. It has now\nbeen settled in New York State that the high school course must be\n\nrequired as preliminary education for entering the professional and\ntechnical schools. Law, medicine, dentistry, and veterinary medicine\nare already included in this requirement, and it is expected to add\nthe other professional and technical schools rapidly. In a letter\nrecently received from the secretary, he expresses further hopes in\nthe following words :\nAnother point that I am deeply interested in is the admission to the colleges\nof any graduate of any registered high school, regardless of whether he has taken\nthe traditional preparatory course or not. I consider this vitally important. You\nwill find my statement of the case in the proceedings of the College Association\n*\n\nof the Middle States and Maryland, held at Swarthmore two years ago. * *\nAnother great feature is to make the library, museum, extension courses, and other\nallied educational work an integral part of our educational system.\n\nIt is thus that New York State is trying to bring harmony into\nits educational system, and to unite effectively all forces both public\nand private. I most earnestly recommend to the careful consideration of all educational authorities the New York system, and would\nrecommend that the powers of the New York regents be added to\n\nthose already possessed by the regents of other states, especially\nthe Western and Southern States .\n\nWe have reason to anticipate, that, in future, private effort will\nco-operate to a larger extent than previously with public effort in\n\nthe higher education.\n\nIt is especially important that broad-minded\n\nmen of means should give of their wealth to public schools of every\n\ngrade, including the state university. It is the office of the private\nindividual of insight and large resources to go ahead of public opin-\n\nion and to enlighten it. I claim without hesitation that no money\ngiven to educational institutions accomplishes more than that given\n\nto those which are public. In our state universities there is a large\nfield for private work in endowing scholarships, fellowships, and in\nthe endowment of original research and investigation.\nA further opportunity for private persons of wealth is to surround the higher education furnished by the state with religious influences, according to the wise plans of Jefferson. It is desirable\n\nthat religious denominations should establish at the site of the state\nuniversity halls and colleges and theological seminaries, furnishing\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n653\n\nhomes and religious instruction for the students; in short, supplying\nthose needs which, according to our American ideas, it is not the\nfunction of the state to satisfy. There is already in progress a movement in this direction which must not be neglected by those dealing\nwith the future organization of the higher education in the United\nStates.\n\nOne prominent religious denomination will establish in the\n\ncoming fall a hall of this kind in connection with the University of\nWest Virginia, and it is planned to establish halls or colleges under\nthe auspices of this same religious denomination in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and South Dakota. Several denominations have made a beginning of this kind in connection with the University of Michigan,\nalthough it is scarcely more than a beginning.\nIt is in following out these lines of development that we may\nhope to combine the advantages of public and private effort. There\nare great advantages in private effort, and many private schools furnish rare opportunities and unusual safeguards to those enjoying\ntheir advantages. On the other hand, we should not overlook the\nefficiency of the public schools in the development of manliness in\nthose trained in them.\n\nThose acquainted with our best state uni-\n\nversities cannot help noticing the virility displayed by their students,\ncoupled with a sound democratic spirit. Public institutions naturally keep in touch with the people. The advantages of public\neducation must be borne in mind, as well as those excellencies that\nmay be secured by private effort. It must always be our aim to\ncombine all these advantages, as far as it is possible ; and to a very\nhigh degree I claim that it is possible.\nI must close abruptly with many things left unsaid; but I want\nto leave with you, in connection with my topic, \"The Future Development of the Higher Education in the United States,\" these words of\nthe late Professor Huxley :\nI believe no educational system in this country (England) will be worthy\nof the name of national, or will fulfill the great object expected of it, unless it\nbe one which establishes a great educational ladder, the bottom of which shall\nbe the gutter, and the top of which shall be those universities of which we are\njustly so proud.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nD. R. BOYD, President of the University of Oklahoma. The portion of Dr.\nEly's paper that alludes to the affiliation of denominational institutions should be\nespecially enforced, and is of especial interest to the states west of the Mississippi\nriver.\n\nIn those states the denominational schools are not generally well endowed,\n\nand depend for support on tuition, while in the state institution the tuition is free\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "654\n\nto students.\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Higher\n\nIt is here that the field for affiliation is most open and availa-\n\nble. It seems entirely practicable to erect \"Houses\" or \"Homes\" about state universities, where sectarian or denominational instruction and the means of religious\nculture may be given, while the students may attend those classes of the university in which the subjects are only slightly religious or entirely non-religious or\nnon-sectarian. This would be greatly to the mutual advantage of the denominations and the universities .\n\nPRESIDENT WILLIAM O. THOMPSON, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.-I am\nheartily in sympathy with the paper of Professor Ely, and desire to emphasize\none point made, namely, that of the necessity of honesty. One great evil in our\ncountry is the desire for bigness, as if bigness were a virtue and littleness a vice.\nI am glad for the distinction between the college and the university, and hope it\nmay be still further emphasized. A just criticism has been made upon our denominational colleges for attempting what they could not do, and upon our state\nuniversities for not being willing to be what their names suggest. They have been\nwilling to have on their roll students who ought not to be in college at all. I shall\nhail with joy the day when our catalogues may be read by all with the assurance\nthat they mean just what they say. Let us encourage our colleges to be strictly\ncolleges and our universities to be universities .\n\nH. H. FREER, Cornell College, Iowa. It is perhaps unkind to criticise a single\npoint in so excellent a paper as that to which we have just listened, but there\nwas one incident, related which I wish had been omitted. I refer to the story of\n\nthe college president who stated, that, in all the contests between labor and capital,\nhe was on the side of capital because he obtained donations from capitalists. If\nthis president was not jesting, he was unworthy his position. The implication that\ndenominational colleges are subservient to capital is not true, as donations to these\ninstitutions come largely from farmers, professional men, and working men. Such\ninstitutions are, above all others, free to teach and manage as their faculties see\nfit. If they are ever hampered by wealthy friends they are no more restricted\nthan state schools that depend on politicians for annual appropriations. Those of\nus in denominational or private colleges will say the kindest things concerning the\nstate universities, and ask that those connected with the universities do not accuse\nus of being the creatures of capitalists.\nPROFESSOR ELY -Colleges supported by farmers and professional men are very\nadvantageously situated so far as freedom of discussion is concerned. I think the\nclasses which President Freer mentioned will generally be found to be disposed to\n\ninsist upon the largest freedom in instruction. I have in mind one college in the\nstate from which President Freer comes which is a conspicuous illustration of a\n\ncollege managed in a large and generous spirit. I do not mean to imply that all\nprivate foundations are on the side of the capitalists because they expect from them\nmoney. Nevertheless, the quotation which I gave from the president of the university was one which illustrates a danger not to be lost sight of and one from\nwhich the state universities are comparatively free, as they are dependent upon the\nwhole people and not upon any one individual or class of individuals. The words\n\nwhich I quoted I can assure you were not spoken in jest.\nIn conclusion, I would like to say, that, so far as I have been able to observe,\nthe best universities are not hampered by dependence on politicians for annual appropriations. These universities-I speak now of the better class of state universities are supported by tax laws which operate continuously. Many suppose that each\nyear a state university depends for its life upon what the last legislature granted.\nThis a great mistake. In the second place, politicians have learned to keep their\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "655\n\nDepartment.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nhands off the state universities.\n\nI know from experience that there is no inter-\n\nference from politicians in my department at the University of Wisconsin, and that\nis the department which would be most likely to have such interference. The at\nmosphere of the University of Wisconsin is delightful because it is such a large and\n\nfree one, one worthy of the noble commonwealth whose name it bears.\nPRESIDENT A. A. JOHNSON, University of Wyoming. I rise simply to indorse\nthe most excellent paper of Dr. Ely, and the broad and generous spirit which\npermeated the address. We must remember that the subject which Dr. Ely discussed was \"The Future Organization of Higher Education in America, \" and he\nhas surely and truly given us the trend of this age towards a better organization\nof our institutions of higher education. As one who labors in the West, I desire to\n\nsay that Professor Ely has correctly stated the tendency in some of our Western\nStates to lay the foundations of higher education upon the broad principles outlined in his address .\n\nI do not believe a denominational college will ever be founded in Wyoming.\nThe churches are rallying around the State University, and are erecting halls to\ntake care of the home and religious life of the students. I believe this is a good\n\nthing for the churches, and a most excellent thing for the university.\nPRESIDENT W. H. BLACK, Missouri Valley College, Marshall, Mo.--The paper\non the organization of the University of Toronto, together with Dr. Ely's suggestions concerning the University of New York, should receive more consideration\n\non account of the fact, that, taken together, they outline a plan by which the private schools, which do sixty-five per cent of the higher educational work of the\nnation, can be made a part of the national or state scheme. As it is, the private\nschools are chartered to do everything, and no requirements made of them except in New York and Michigan. These should be made to conform to recognized\nstandards of work or surrender their charters. The colleges should confine themselves to undergraduate work.\n\nDR. B. A. HINSDALE of Michigan University. I wish to direct attention to\n\ntwo points. First, is it a profitable expenditure of time to attempt a definition of\nthe term \" university\" that should be of universal value and application ? There\nwas a time when that could be done; but it is well known that the German uni-\n\nversities, the Italian universities , the French universities, and the English universities have developed each along their own lines of movement. The definition\nthat Professor Ely has formulated applies well to a German university, in a less\nmeasure to a French university, and to an English university hardly at all. In\nAmerica we have grossly abused the term; but, in the attempt to rescue it, it is\n\nvery questionable whether it is wise to adopt a definition, that, at the present time,\nwill apply to the German universities alone .\n\nCertain it is, that, no matter what\n\ntype of university may be finally established in the United States, we are not\ngoing to rob the English institutions of higher learning of the name that they have\n\nborne for centuries. Still further, it is more than questionable, in my opinion,\nwhether the typical American university of the future will be an institution that\nwill answer to Professor Ely's definition. The second point is closely connected\nwith the first one. It is presented in the question, whether institutions that shall\ndo graduate work, exclusively or characteristically, in the German sense, if they\nare to be developed at all, can best be developed out of our state universities. They\nare creatures of the state ; they are dependent upon the state legislatures and upon\npublic favor. American institutions and American society are democratic, and\nthe question arises whether it will not be necessary indefinitely to keep these institutions in close and vital touch with the commonwealths that maintain them.\n\nCer\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "656\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[\nHigher\n\ntain I am, that there is no American state in which you will find at the present\ntime a public opinion that would support the establishment and maintenance of a\nuniversity of the German type.\n\nDo not the very facts that constitute the environ-\n\nment of these institutions compel them to be, and will they not compel them to be,\npopular institutions, that shall touch the life of the commonwealth at other points\nthan those that are embraced in what our German-American friends call university\nwork ? I have often questioned whether a foundation private in its character,\nlike Harvard, Yale, Columbia, or Chicago, does not offer peculiar advantages for the\ndevelopment of an institution that shall devote itself to graduate teaching ex-\n\nclusively. I neither affirm nor deny, but I have often thought about the question.\nSo saying, I wish to add, that I belong to a state university, that I believe in the\nstate universities, and that I allow no man to question my loyalty to the institution to which I belong.\n\nPROFESSOR ELY, taking up the suggestions of Professor Hinsdale, spoke as follows: \" I have not presented a goal which I thought the state university could\nreach at once, but rather an idea towards which it should work in order to bring\nharmony out of our chaotic educational situation. The state universities have con-\n\ntinually raised their standards, and have met with the approval of the people in so\ndoing. The fact must not be overlooked, that the policy which I have outlined\nwould bring new support to the state universities. I see no reason to doubt that\nthe state universities will be able to undertake advanced special work, and will\nmeet with support from the people in so doing. It seems to me that anyone who\nstudies our educational history may expect this with confidence. What we are\nnow doing in the state universities would have seemed impossible, and I think was\ndeclared impossible by many, a few years ago. There is no reason why the state\nuniversities should, on account of the advanced character of their work, separate\nthemselves from the people.\" *\nIn reply to the question of Prof. J. H. Paul of Utah Agricultural College, in\nregard to the agricultural college, which seemed to him to carry on university work\n\naccording to the definition given in the paper, Professor Ely replied, that, of course,\nsome work of a university naturally would have to be done in other institutions\nthan the state universities in those states in which the agricultural college, schools\nof mines, etc., were separate and distinct institutions from the state university. The\nthought of the paper was, that the resources for the most special and advanced\nwork should, so far as practicable, be centralized at some one point in the state..\n\n* It may be remarked that no departure on the part of the university has been\nreceived with more favor than the establishment of the School of Economics , Political\n\nScience, and History three years ago, although it was openly said at the time that it\nwas designed especially for graduate students. The movement received only warm praise\nfrom newspapers in close touch with the people.\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCOLLEGE ELECTIVES- DISCUSSION.\n\n657\n\nA CONSERVATIVE VIEW OF COLLEGE ELECTIVES.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nDR. JAMES E. RUSSELL, Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy in the University of Colorado.-The American college is an outgrowth of English university\nideals modified by comparatively recent German influences. Its early growth was\ndetermined by conditions inherent in American life.\n\nEven the largest institutions\n\ncould not maintain a variety of courses. As wealth increased and public demands\nbecame greater additional facilities were offered, until the curriculum contained\ntoo much for any one student to take.\n\nSelections became necessary. At about\n\nthis time men trained in German universities became influential in shaping courses.\nThe German ideal came to the front, and, consciously or unconsciously, it has increasingly dominated American progress .\nWhat is the German ideal? The German student enters the university after\n\na nine-years' prescribed course of study-prescribed not only in subjects and\namount but also in order of development and general treatment. So well organized\nis the German secondary school system that its graduates have a remarkably\nuniform mental equipment. The university teacher knows precisely what he has\nto work on; the student is well aware from tradition what to expect. Thus, up\nto his eighteenth or nineteenth year, the student follows a definite course of study,\nand all (with few exceptions) have the same course of study. The university,\nhowever, makes its work elective, but elective only in definite lines. Whatever\nfreedom a student might have is lost sight of in the uniform practice of preparing\nfor definite ends. The German university is essentially a group of professional\nschools; its students are almost to a man engaged in professional study, be it\nphilosophy, science, law, medicine, or theology.\nIn following the lead of Germany, whether intentionally or not, it behooves\nus to consider carefully the German ideal. At bottom, that ideal is, that every\nstudent should first receive a liberal training before advancing to professional\nwork. The German student upon entering the university is probably in most\nrespects the equal of the average American student at the end of the sophomore\nyear. At that point the Germans consider the student capable of profiting from\nspecial lines of study ; special lines of study, I say, rather than indiscriminate\nchoice. And here, I believe, is the vital point for us to consider. A system of\nelection which amounts to license is not worthy of consideration.\n\nA rational\n\nselection based upon a deep interest in certain lines of work already partially\ndeveloped and prepared for in a broad course of liberal study is not only desirable\nbut necessary to our American colleges.\nTheoretically we are bound to provide for some system of electives. Prac-\n\ntically, too, we must accede to the demands of the times for more and better\ntraining in special lines. The very fact that we are unable to agree upon a particular course of study either for our secondary schools or colleges suggests uncertainty as to whether we are capable of giving precisely that liberal training\nin our schools and colleges which we may consider essential to future success.\nSo long as we are ourselves in doubt, we can scarcely expect our students to fol-\n\nlow blindly our lead, or to convince the world at large that there is no better or\n42\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": "658\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[\nHigher\n\nbroader way. From the practical point of view I apprehend little danger from\nan elective system-even from one as liberal as that prevailing at Harvard; provided, always, that the standard of admission is high and faithfully adhered to.\n\nAs a matter of fact, under any system, it is the personality of the instructor\nwhich is of most worth. The elective system puts every professor on his mettle,\nmakes all feel that success is to be found in leading rather than in driving.\n\nThere\n\nis little danger, too, that students will select those lines of study which present\nleast resistance. The reports given out from Harvard University finally settle\nthat question. Again, in conclusion, I urge that the vital points for discussion are:\nFirst, at what stage in our educational system can we say that the student has\nattained a liberal culture-such culture as fits him to pursue professional study\nwith profit to himself and safety to others; second, how shall we best promote\nrational selection in courses of study that the student may secure depth of insight\nand power of application within his chosen sphere ?\nPROF. EDWARD CHANNING of Harvard University, being called on, said that\nhe had listened with great interest to the able and suggestive paper presented by\nDr. Russell. His own knowledge of the elective system related more to its workings and results than to its pedagogical foundations. This knowledge was derived from experience, first as a student, and later as a teacher, in Harvard University, during the twenty years from 1875 to 1895. In 1875 about one-half of\nthe work demanded for the degree of bachelor of arts was elective; the remainder\nof the work was prescribed. The freshman year was still wholly prescribed, and\nvarious odds and ends of history, economics, philosophy, rhetoric, and physics were\ncombined with practice in writing English to occupy about one-half of the sophomore year, one-third of the junior year, and one-fifth of the senior year. At the\npresent time the course is entirely elective with the exception of work in rhetoric\nand in writing English. Experience gathered during these years shows, among\nother things : (1) That the establishment of the elective system led to a great\n\nimprovement in the work of both teachers and students; (2) that it brought about\na complete change in the relations of a teacher to his class; (3) that the so-called\nevil of \"soft snaps\" does not exist; and (4) that the establishment of the elective\nsystem does not mean that the students are given complete freedom of choice.\nThere has undoubtedly been a great improvement in teaching in what may be\ndescribed as the \"prescribed- curriculum-colleges\" and in the secondary schools in\nthe last twenty years, and the difference between the two kinds of teaching are\n\nprobably not so great now as they were then.\nAt Harvard College at that time there was a great difference between the spirit\nof the teaching and results accomplished in prescribed and in elective courses. The\nteachers of the freshman year appeared to know about as much of their subjects\nand to take about as much interest in their work as the teachers in the earlier fit-\n\nting school. The college teaching was certainly less effective than the school teaching; but this was no doubt due for the most part to the deculiar difficulties besetting the college teachers and not to the teachers themselves.\n\nSchool methods ap-\n\nplied to the solution of college problems produced disheartening results. In the\nsophomore year the two systems were brought into sharp contrast, as in that year\ncourses on the same subject were pursued side by side, and, as a matter of fact,\nunder the same teacher. The prescribed course was the most unprofitable expenditure of time while in college. The elective study, on the other hand, aroused an\ninterest which altered the whole course of one student's life. In the one study the\ninstructor listened with a bored look to the recital of a text-book; in the elective\n\ncourse he stated the results of his own researches ; he required large amounts of\nreading in very hard books; and he gave out small jobs in research. In one case\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCOLLEGE ELECTIVES- DISCUSSION.\n\n659\n\nthe time devoted to the study was wholly wasted; in the other case the discovery\nwas made (of considerable importance to a young man) that there was at least one\nbranch of learning worthy of further investigation. The elective system is certainly\nof great benefit to teachers, and leads to improvement in the mode of teaching, both\nof which things must inure greatly to the advantage of the students, and, therefore,\nto the cause of sound learning in our country as a whole.\n\nAnother benefit resulting from the adoption of the elective system has been the\nchange for the better which has come over the relations of the teacher and his\nstudent, bringing about a marvelous improvement in the atmosphere of the class-\n\nroom. Under the prescribed system a student is with a particular instructor in a\nparticular study because the regulations place him there. Under the elective system a student places himself under the guidance of a particular teacher in this or\nthat study. He elects a certain study either because the subject matter interests\n\nhim or because the teacher is a man of reputation. Some persons seem to think,\nthat, under these circumstances, an instructor will be tempted to let down the bars\nto attract men from other subjects and to increase the number of students in his\nown particular field. But this does not appear to be the case at all.\n\nOn the other\n\nhand, an instructor soon learns that the best way to build up his course is to make\nithard (not unreasonably so, of course) ; to make the students feel that they are\nreally learning something. The teacher in an elective study demands far more\n\nthan the teacher in the same subject demanded in the days of prescription. In\nthose old days it was unfair to exact of the unwilling and uninterested student\nthe same amount of time and application that one feels justified in demanding of\nthose who come voluntarily to him to study in their chosen field. He can also insist\n\non more courteous behavior on the part of every one of his students, and can request-nay, insist that any student who is not willing to do the work demanded\nand to act as a gentleman should take the first opportunity to seek some other\nstudy and instructor. At the present time the elective system is apparently understood to apply only to subjects. It might well be extended to include a choice between several instructors in the same fields. The resulting competition, judging\nfrom the past, would be sure to bring about a still further improvement in these\nregards.\nThe idea that any considerable body of students elect easy courses because\n\nthey are easy, is not borne out by experience. Of course, there are shirks even in\na great university as there are in a \"prescribed-curriculum-college;\" but the proportion is very small. Nearly every man seems to find something that appeals to\nhim sooner or later, and having found such an opening the shirk often becomes a\nmost energetic student. Many of the easiest courses at Harvard are among the\n\nsmallest; and, on the other hand, two of three of the largest elective courses are\nregarded as distinctly hard courses. The students take these two courses because\nthey deal with two most important and interesting subjects (always provided for\nin a prescribed curriculum), because they are conducted on most energetic lines,\nand because they are the gates leading to other courses in the same fields. On the\nother hand, among the half-dozen largest courses are two of the reputed \"snaps.\"\nBut are these courses large because they are easy, or is there not some other way\nto account for their size ? They are given by two men who stand at the head of\ntheir respective professions ; two men of national-nay, international-reputations ;\nof great force of character and power to stimulate young men. One instructor, at\nleast, advises every young man who honors him by seeking his advice to listen to\nthese two lecturers while at the university. In short, there is little or no evidence\nto show that students select courses because they are easy; there is an abundance\nof evidence to prove that they select courses which seem to be best adapted for\ncompassing some particular end in life.\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "660\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Higher\n\nIt is a common error to suppose that an elective system means the offering to\na student a large list of courses, some three hundred or so, and telling him to take\nhis choice. Some persons have even supposed that the making the freshman year\nelective meant the placing within the freshman's reach the whole resources of the\nuniversity. Now, the elective system means simply, that, of the courses offered, a\nstudent will be admitted to such as he is competent to pursue. Not even the \"thirdyear graduate\"-the most considered student in the institution-can elect any study\n\nhe sees fit. He must first prove his competence. The number of possible electives\nis therefore not three hundred nor one hundred for any ordinary student.\n\nThe\n\nfreshman is further restricted to a list of courses printed in the regulations. This\nlist comprises courses in the subjects usually pursued in the freshman and sophomore years in an ordinary curriculum college, with a few additions, such as a course\nin Italian or in design. The tendency at the present time is to enlarge this list,\nand there would seem to be no good reason why a freshman should be debarred\n\nfrom electing any study which he is competent to pursue simply because he is a\nnewcomer to the college. It is desirable that he should not specialize so early in\nhis college career, and hence he is properly forbidden to take more than two\ncourses in any one department of study. He is also obliged to secure the approval\nof his adviser before his list of studies will be accepted by the proper officer. In\nthe president's report for 1884-85 the choices of two college classes for the last\n\nthree years of their courses are printed at length (the freshman year was not then\nelective) . A study of that table convinces one that the students, with rare excерtions, exercise care and intelligence in laying out plans of study, and that in forming these plans they have almost invariably some definite purpose in view. Three\nyears of experience as a freshman adviser confirms this view.\n\nThe adviser is\n\nseldom obliged to interfere, except in a friendly way to point out how the purpose\na student has in mind can be best accomplished.\nThe gravest objection to the establishment of the elective system is the great\n\nincrease of expenditure it necessarily involves. Many more instructors are necessary, some of whom will teach very few students. A complicated and extensive\nplant is required, much of which can be of service to a very small number of persons .\nThese are very grave objections to its introduction in a small college, too\noften starving under an insufficient endowment. Probably the interests of American education are best served by confining the elective system to the larger and\n\nwealthier institutions, like Harvard, Chicago, and Columbia. Let the real reason\nbe given, however, frankly and freely given, and not concealed under a false\ngloss of \"soft snaps,\" \"absurd choices,\" and the like.\nDR. KING, Cornell College, Iowa. First, What system of advice have you at\nHarvard ? Second, How do you assign students ? Third, Has the result of the\nsystem shown that the students under the adviser's care trend to the adviser's department?\n\nPROFESSOR CHANNING .-The freshmen are assigned alphabetically to the members of a large committee, composed mainly of instructors in the freshman courses\n-about twenty students to an instructor. There is no reason to suppose that the\nstudents under an adviser's care trend to the adviser's department.\n\nDR . RUSSELL .-For what reason is this freedom given so early in the course?\nPROFESSOR CHANNING .-Because it is better for the students .\n\nDR . HINSDALE. What is the nature of the work freshmen are required or\npermitted to take in Harvard? Is there as much difference, then, between Harvard and Yale as at first thought would appear ?\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nADMISSION TO PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS.\n\n661\n\nPROFESSOR CHANNING .-The freshmen, as a body, pursue about the same\nstudies that were prescribed for the freshman and sophomores twenty years ago .\n\nThese studies are probably not unlike so far as the subject-matter is concernedthe prescribed work of the freshman and sophomore years at Yale. Probably the\nprincipal difference would be found, not in the subject-matter studied but in the\n\nmethods of study and the use made by the students of their opportunities, as\nlibrary facilities, laboratories, etc.\n\nPROF. W. R. ROTHWELL, William Jewell College, Missouri, expressed himself\nas greatly gratified that the paper read historically developed the fact, that we are,\nin the United States of America, by a growth springing out of the needs and means\nof our people, forming genuine universities. As in Germany in 500 years there\nhad developed the German university, and as in England in like manner had arisen\nthe English university, so in 250 years in America, since the founding of Harvard,\n\nand Yale, and Princeton, and Brown, we are historically developing the American\nuniversity. And as the German university is a growth in Germany and is best\nsuited to Germany, and as the English university is a growth in England and\nmeets English wants and character, so the American university is a growth from\nour colonial days, has developed with our great country, and we have and are to\nhave in yet higher perfection the American university. It will best suit the American people who are forging to the very front of the Christian civilization of the\nnations of the world. The unprecedented growth of the wealth of this country\nwill supply the means of providing the best possible facilities for university education. Such gifts as founded Leland Stanford University and the University of\nChicago are peculiarly American.\nPRESIDENT RICHARD H. JESSE, University of Missouri.-The elective system\nwas established in 1825 by Jefferson. Jefferson was the greatest pedagogical\nthinker of his century. If he had not been a politician he would have a much\nhigher place in higher education.\nDR. A. B. HYDE, of the University of Denver.-The teacher is far more competent to decide than any student what should be his course of study. The line of\ncollegiate study has for centuries been the result of care and experience on the part\nof \"lords of the human mind,\" and is effective as preparatory for all special attainments, and so it still remains. Therefore, electives must be carefully kept to\nthe closest limit, and discipline be chiefly gained by studies which teachers must\nnot hesitate to prescribe.\n\nSTANDARD OF ADMISSION TO PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS.\nBY J. N. HALL, M. D., SECRETARY COLORADO STATE BOARD MEDICAL EXAMINERS, DENVER, COLO .\n\nMy experience in the study and practice of medicine, in teaching\nmedicine, and in six years of work in the examination of candidates\n\nfor license to practice medicine in Colorado, has led me to study\nclosely the standards of admission in various medical schools, and\n\nalso, in a more general way, the matter of the best preliminary education for professional study. With characteristic haste, we early de\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n662\n\n[\nHigher\n\nparted in this country from the older method of granting the professional degree only after the attainment of a bachelor's degree in arts,\nnot only in medical but in other professional schools. Since the taking of this step many modifying circumstances have arisen, so that\nthe whole matter is upon a very different footing from that of two or\nthree generations ago.\n\nIn the first place, the collegiate course has gradually been added\nto until now the degree of A. B. is not attained before the average age\n\nof twenty-two years in our best colleges. The schools of law, theology, and medicine now require three or four years of study, instead\nof two, as formerly. In my own profession, the crying need for practical clinical work after graduation leads many of the best men to\ntake a year or two in a hospital as interne. If thereafter he goes\nabroad for a year, as is getting to be very common, the physician's age\n\nis brought up to nearly thirty years before he is really prepared to\nearn his own living. With the growing competition in the work, it is\nlikely to be several years yet before he is fairly upon his feet, financially speaking.\n\nTwo grave objections exist to this condition of things. The physician comes to his work only after so expensive a training that he is\nburdened with debt if responsible for his own education; and, more\nserious still, he has lost some of his best years so far as the practice\nof his profession is concerned, during which he should have been coming into closer contact with those amongst whom he must earn his\nliving. There is certainly danger of educating one away from his\nwork, so that, although better fitted professionally to treat the sick,\nthe physician is less thoroughly adapted to-and, worse yet, less\nadaptable to\n\nthe work before him.\n\nOne should come to his life-work\n\nbefore age has so fixed him that he cannot readily adapt himself to\nthe different conditions which prevail in private practice as compared\nwith school and hospital experience.\n\nThis leads us directly to the study of the standards of admission\nfor professional study. To our disgrace, it must be said, that, up to\nabout twenty-five years ago, there were practically no such standards,\nand they are still lamentably low. Evidence upon these points is too\nabundant.\n\nIn registering somewhat more than one thousand physi-\n\ncians in Colorado, I have seen scores of affidavits presented, setting\nforth that the affiants had received the degree of doctor of medicine\nfrom some medical college spelled with two \"d's\" in the word \"medical,\" or an extra one in the word \"college.\" We have rejected upon\nexamination many of those holding the degree mentioned, but from\nschools so low in their requirements as to fail to be \"recognized\" by\n\nthe board, whose papers, so far as the proper use of the English lan\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nADMISSION TO PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS.\n\n663\n\nguage is concerned, would absolutely bar them from admission to the\nordinary high school.\nThe place to prevent the study of medicine, or other professional\nstudy, by such students, is at the very beginning of the work. An\nefficient preliminary examination would have prevented them from\nhaving wasted years in a vain attempt to master the deeper sciences\nbefore acquiring a mastery of the rudimentary branches.\nMuch improvement has been made in these matters within a few\nyears past, partly because the American Association of Medical Colleges has raised the standard of admission, and partly because by the\nconcerted action of the various state licensing boards, led on by the\nIllinois State Board of Health, steps were taken to refuse recognition\nto the medical graduates of any school not requiring a proper preliminary examination. If sufficient power could only be granted to\nthe authorities mentioned, the matter would be easily settled.\nBut the standard is still too low, and, from the best information\nthat I can obtain, I judge that it is no higher in the other professional\nschools, if the average be taken. The real secret of the matter lies\n\nin the fact that many of the schools in question depend largely for\ntheir existence upon the fees received from students, and, unfortunately, teachers are apt to look with great leniency upon any shortcomings as to preliminary education in applicants who are able to\npay lecture fees. Johns Hopkins University, with a boldness born of\nlarge endowments as much as of high aims, requires the equivalent\nof the B. A. degree for entrance to her medical school. To the best\nof our knowledge, few other schools require more than the equivalent\nof the ordinary high school diploma, and more than ninety per cent\nof the American medical colleges require much less than this ; and,\nas a whole, the condition regarding the schools of law and theology\nis but little better.\n\nAs regards the holding of the bachelor's degree as a prerequisite\nfor admission to professional study, it should be understood upon the\nthreshold, that, if any great proportion of those studying medicine\nare to meet such a requirement, it can be only by such a shortening\nof the course for the bachelor's degree as shall enable students to enter upon medical study at nineteen or twenty years of age. The constant falling off in the proportion of college-bred men in the medical\n\ndepartment of Harvard University during the past dozen years\nteaches us that this must be so, if we would attract these desirable\ncandidates to our ranks.\n\nThe time has certainly gone by, in my opinion, when we can reason-\n\nably ask of candidates for professional courses many years' study of\nLatin and Greek. Before the present development of science there\nwere fewer studies demanding the student's attention, and these\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "664\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Higher\n\nbranches undoubtedly filled an important place in education, as did\n\nthe higher mathematics. Not that, in any way, these things are objectionable now, but it is obvious that they cannot all be required\n\nwithout making the start in the business of life too late ; and, to most\nof us, this is most important .\nConcerning all mathematics beyond the ordinary college course in\n\ntrigonometry, if we except something in the way of astronomy, we\nmay speak as we have of advanced Latin and Greek, for, however\n\nvaluable they may be, there is not time for them in this age.\nThe plan suggested some years since, by the faculty of Harvard\nMedical School, of granting the degrees of A. B. and M. D. after a\ncombined course lasting seven years, thus saving a year to the stu-\n\ndent, is, I think, a good one, but not sufficiently radical. Even this\nmodification met with no support from the university authorities.\nMy own suggestion would be, that, for medical study at least, the\npreparatory course, regardless of the degree to which it may lead,\nshould contain not over two years' study of either Latin or Greek, and\nno mathematics beyond the point indicated. A portion of the time\nsaved could be much better spent in the acquisition of a speaking\n\nknowledge of German and French, which are of infinitely more importance to the physician than the studies indicated, and, I think,\nequally valuable as elements of proper training. Natural sciences,\nand especially general chemistry, which will soon be required for entrance to the better medical schools, will also need attention beyond\nthe point reached at present.\n\nSuch a course as indicated, which would furnish a really liberal\ntraining, whether it led to the degree of A. B., S. B., or otherwise,\nmight be finished by the age of nineteen years, and would, I believe,\nmeet the present requirements better than anything we have. As it\nis now, many students, discouraged at the time taken to obtain the\ncollege degree, leave after one or two years of study to enter the medical schools. The plan proposed is meant to be a step toward leading\nthese men to complete their college work by offering a course equally\nvaluable for professional study, which may be taken without the\nsacrifice of time incident to the present arrangement. Whatever the\nadvantages of the latter, we cannot afford to assume a position which\ndrives many of the best college-men from our ranks, because of the\ntime consumed in getting ready for the work of a lifetime.\nI have the honor of being a member of the American Academy of\nMedicine, the prime object of which was, at the time of its foundation,\nto encourage the taking of the degree in arts or its equivalent before\nentering upon the study of medicine. I do not wish to appear in the\nlight of attempting to oppose such an end, for I am heartily in sym-\n\npathy with it. I wish, rather, to try to indicate what steps we must\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCOLLEGE COURSE AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS.\n\n665\n\ntake, in my poor judgment, to avoid driving from our medical schools,\nand hence from our profession, many excellent men who cannot afford\nto study medicine as things are at present arranged, and who would,\nprovided they did take up the study, come too late to their life work\nto make the best practitioners of the healing art. It is to be under-\n\nstood that we wish to train scientists, but that the thing of first importance in our labor is, that we shall so train them that they shall\n\nbe able to work in harmony with their surroundings, to the attainment of the greatest good for the community, and not to the end that\n\nthey shall be able to accumulate the greatest amount of abstract\nknowledge.\n\nTHE RELATION OF A COLLEGE COURSE TO THE PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS.\n\nBY T. R.\n\nBACON, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.\n\nThe subject of which I have undertaken to speak is one of the\nmost perplexing problems which is now vexing those who have the\ninterests of the higher education at heart. It is so complicated that\nI can hardly hope to do more than state it, and perhaps state one or\ntwo more principles which must govern its solution without undertaking their complete application. It may be said that the problem\ninvolves the whole theory of education ; certainly in that phase\nof the theory which is just now engrossing attention, viz., the relations of liberal culture and specialization.\n\nIn order to understand fully the present conditions, it is necessary to recall some facts in the history of the higher education in\nAmerica, the purpose for which our earliest colleges were founded,\nand how the first professional schools came to be. Without such\nknowledge in mind, it is impossible for us to apprehend the terms of\nthe problem.\n\nOur first colleges were founded for purposes of liberal culture ;\nnot for technical or professional education. While the orginators\nof Harvard and Yale had especially in mind the provision of an\neducated ministry, the curriculum was not molded with special reference to theological training, but rather with a view to such learning\n\nas would produce cultivated men, who might subsequently build up\ntheir professional training upon the broad basis afforded by the college course. The aim was to produce cultivated men without refer-\n\nence to their subsequent pursuits. On this principle the curriculum\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "666\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nwas constructed.\n\n[Higher\n\nIt consisted in the main of the ancient languages,\n\nmathematics, dialectics, and so much theology as was then considered an essential part of the education of a gentleman.\n\nWhen we\n\nconsider the aim and the conditions of time and place, no one can\nthink that the curriculum was ill- conceived.\n\nThe student, having graduated in the arts, then set himself to the\nstudy of his profession. Whether he chose theology, medicine, or\nlaw, the obvious, and, in fact, the only feasible, plan was to put\nhimself under the tuition of some successful practitioner of the profession. A man who was distinguished both for his professional\neminence and for his skill as a teacher would gather around him a\n\nlittle group of students, which really constituted a professional\nschool. Such was the theological school that grew up at Bethlehem,\nConn., whose pupils sat at the feet of Joseph Bellamy; such was\nthe famous law school at Litchfield, opened in the latter part of the\neighteenth century by Judge Tapping Reeve, and carried down well\ninto the nineteenth by Judge James Gould. Such schools, of a more\nor less formal character, dotted the hills and valleys of New England\nat different times for parts of two centuries. Commonly they grew\nwith the fame and power of a single teacher, declined with his de-\n\nclining years, and died with his death. The school at Litchfield\nwas an accidental exception as regards permanence. What was thus\ntrue of New England-the cradle of American education-was true\n\nin varying degrees elsewhere, the variation being in a ratio to the\ngeneral interest in education .\n\nAs these earliest professional schools were purely private, the\nterms of admission varied with the judgment or whim of the instructor. It was universally admitted that a college course constituted a proper basis for professional studies, but there was no power\nwhich could possibly restrain any man from receiving pupils who had\nnot this qualification. The judgment of the instructor was the sole\npower which could determine the fitness of an applicant for professional instruction. If the applicant could not satisfy the instructor as\nto his fitness, it was easy for him to find another who was not so\n\nsqueamish. The preliminary college course was rarely dispensed\nwith in theology, somewhat oftener in law, very commonly in medicine. But whatever might be the practice, the theory was held with\ntenacity, that the proper training for a professional man was four\nyears of humanistic study in college and a technical training of such\nlength as circumstances might favor or require.\n\nThe rise of the professional schools from such beginnings was\nnatural and easy, as was also their establishing of organic relations\nwith the colleges.\n\nFrom an ephemeral school with a single instructor\n\nthe transition was inevitable to a school in which two or more should\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCOLLEGE COURSE AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS.\n\n667\n\nassociate themselves to divide the work and the profits; and in this\nincrease of the teaching force the principle of permanence was almost\nnecessarily involved, as it was unlikely that the whole faculty would\ndie on the same day. It was inevitable, also, that such schools should\ngravitate toward the colleges, and at last enter into close relation\nwith them. This is what happened. Some of the professional schools\nwhich are a part of our older universities were originally started as\nmore or less private enterprises, and were adopted by the institution\non whose doorstep they were left by their parents. Others were organized in connection with the college. In either case, they carried\nover into this new relation the old characteristics, and in many of\nthe professional schools of our own time we may trace some of the\nfaults of their remote ancestors. For a long time after the professional schools were brought into these new relations, the requirements for admission were almost as vague as in the old days of the\nindependent instructor. Indeed, the policy was commonly adopted of\nadmitting any person who showed a pious desire, and allowing him\nto take his chances of profiting by such instruction as was given. It\nis only of late years that we have begun to see a considerable degree\nof strictness in the requirements for admission, and the steady tendency is toward a high standard in this regard. As we glance over\nthe catalogues of some of our Eastern universities we find that some\n\nof the professional schools (a very few) require a college course, or\nits equivalent, as a condition of entrance. Such are the Harvard\nDivinity School and the Johns Hopkins Medical School. Others re-\n\nquire a high school course or its equivalent, and others are satisfied\nwith a preparation requiring much less time.\n\nIt is but right to say,\n\nhowever, that these last-mentioned stand frankly upon the principle\nthat it is well to take anyone who comes, and let him make good his\nposition, if he can.\nA good deal might be said for this principle were the means of ascertaining the pupil's progress in the school at all adequate. Unfortunately another inheritance of the professional schools from their\nforebears was an almost total lack of examinations worthy of the\nname. When professional students were private pupils, living under\nthe eye, and often in the household, of their instructors, formal examinations were entirely unnecessary. When formal examinations\nwere introduced with the full-fledged professional school, all the emphasis was laid upon the formality and none upon the examination.\nThe older ones among us can remember the time when examinations\nin a professional school were regarded as a farce. This is a condition\nof things which is rapidly passing away. In our best professional\nschools, especially those which are attached to the leading universities, the examinations are of great and ever-growing strictness. It\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "668\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Higher\n\nmust be confessed, however, that there are some schools which seem\nstill to have for their aim the graduation of pupils without any special\nreference to abilities or acquirements.\n\nAnother characteristic which was essential to the old private\nschools, and which in large measure passed over into their successors,\nwas their dependence upon the reputation and power of a single individual. When I first remember, the Yale Law School depended for\nits reputation and success upon the teaching of Governor Dutton, and\nthe Yale Divinity School upon the teaching of Dr. N. W. Taylor.\n\nWith the passing away of the two men, the two schools collapsed,\nand had to be slowly and painfully reconstructed upon other lines, so\nthat they should not owe their value and prosperity to the life of an\nindividual. One of the most conspicuous, and one of the latest, illustrations of this characteristic is found in the history of the Columbia\nLaw School under the regime of Theodore Dwight. The school was\n\nconducted practically as a private enterprise, although nominally a\ndepartment of Columbia College. The extraordinary powers of Professor Dwight made it the leading law school of the country, but he\nwas really all there was of it. There might be other professors, but\nhis attractive powers and rare gifts as a teacher made it what it was.\nHis retirement shortly before his death and the assumption of real\ncontrol by Columbia mark, as exactly as any one event can mark, the\nend of an old order and the beginning of a new one in the professional\nschools of the United States.\n\nThe pertinence of the present discussion is due to changed condi-\n\ntions in the educational system of the country, and to certain propositions which have been put forth by prominent educators in view of\nthese changed conditions. What the changes are in reference to the\nprofessional schools themselves has perhaps been sufficiently indicated already. These schools have become, or are becoming, more\nstrict in their requirements for entrance and for graduation. Moreover, they are organized like any other schools, without reference to\nthe peculiar gifts of any individual instructor and without depending\nupon the life or death of any one man.\n\nThe changes in college education have been even more important.\nThe raising of the standards has had the result, that now a student\nat the end of his sophomore year in college has had as much general\nculture in school and college as had the graduate of fifty years ago.\nProbably he has had more. His age has correspondingly increased.\nHe used to graduate at eighteen or twenty; now he graduates at\ntwenty-two or twenty-four. The great increase of human knowledge,\nespecially in the natural and social sciences, and the discovery that\nthe modern languages and literatures, as well as the ancient ones, are\n\nworthy of attention, have so enlarged the possible scope of liberal\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCOLLEGE COURSE AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS.\n\n669\n\nculture as to force upon the colleges-even upon the most conservative ones-the allowance of some choice of studies to the undergraduate student. In the exercise of this option the student who has already decided upon a profession is pretty sure to choose those which\nhave some direct bearing upon his future career, and such he will\neasily find among the undergraduate courses offered by his college.\nThere are many such courses which in themselves are liberal studies\nif pursued for their own sake, and which may become technical\nstudies if pursued with reference to the student's chosen vocation.\nThese changed circumstances have brought forth certain sugges-\n\ntions, some of which have been put into operation. Although these\nsuggestions are different in form, they are the same in essence. They\nall look to the shortening of the preparatory work of the professional\nman. The simplest form of suggestion is, that studies taken as undergraduate work, which have direct bearing on the profession, should\nbe accepted by the professional school as fulfilling part of the requirements of its curriculum. For instance, if the student who intends to\nstudy law should devote a large part of the last two years of his college course to such subjects as constitutional history, Roman law\nand jurisprudence, he should be given credit in the law school for one\n\nyear's work, thus reducing his time in the law school from\nthree to two years. In the same way, a student who has spent a good\ndeal of his time in college in studying biology, zoology, chemistry,\nbotany, and physiology should be permitted to finish his medical\nstudies in less time than one who has had no such scientific preparation. I do not know that any such suggestion has been made con .\ncerning undergraduate studies which may bear on a theological\ncourse, but they are equally pertinent. A year or two devoted to such\nsubjects as Semitic philology, philosophy, Hellenistic Greek, and\ncomparative religion, will certainly give the student in a theological\nseminary an immeasurable advantage over his classmates. Why\nshould not that advantage be recognized officially? Not only have\nsuch suggestions as these been made, but in some cases they have\nbeen reduced to practice. There are universities where work done\nin the undergraduate courses is recognized and accredited in the professional schools.\n\nPresident Eliot's famous and much misunderstood\n\nproposition to reduce the college course from four to three years, in\nsome cases, was really a proposition to reduce the whole university\ncourse of the professional man from seven or eight years to six or\nseven years. Recently a very distinguished educator, who is president of a large university, has advocated the plan of bringing the\nwhole professional training of the lawyer inside of the academic curriculum. This proposition differs in degree, but not in kind, from the\nothers .\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "670\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[\nHigher\n\nThese suggestions are all supported by a single argument. There\nare other subsidiary reasons brought forward in support or justification, but the main one is, that the time occupied in preparation for\n\nprofessional life is too long-far longer than it used to be, and longer\nthan it ought to be in consideration of the normal length of human\n\nlife. At nineteen, or later, a young man enters college; at twentythree he takes his first degree; at twenty-six or twenty-seven he takes\n\nhis professional degree. If he thinks best, as many do, to spend a\nyear or two more in further professional study, he is nearly thirty before he can so much as begin to wait for business in his chosen work.\n\nIn view of these considerations, suggestions have been made which, if\nput in practice, would result in reducing the length of this preparation one, two, or even three years.\nIt is certain that this argument is one of very great weight from\nthe point of view of the individual student. He is anxious to get on,\nand get to work in the business of his profession. There are many\nreasons for this anxiety, not the least of which is the pecuniary one.\nEvery pitiful soul must feel sympathy for this hurrying zeal of the\nyouth who is strenuous to begin his work, but every pitiful soul ought\nalso to abstract itself from individual considerations and feel some\n\nsympathy for a suffering world. There are a great many young men,\nmany of great worth, who are earnest to be up and doing just as soon\nas possible in the ranks of the learned professions. But it must be\nborne in mind that there is no corresponding yearning on the part of\nthe world for any more preachers, or lawyers, or doctors of the same\naverage ability and worth as those it has at present. It seems to be\naware that there are enough half-baked professional men already,possibly, more than enough, and does not desire that the supply\nshould be increased by inventing short cuts into these callings. Especially is it to be deprecated that men should come into these callings with all the prestige of university training, but less perfectly prepared than they are now. The world does need some better trained\nmen in all the professions ; it also needs fewer pettifoggers, and\nquacks, and mountebanks. To this end, it is desirable to make the\napproaches to professional life harder rather than easier. The whole\nseries of suggestions has its rise partly in a weak and mistaken compassion for the desires of the individual student for whose sake it is\n\nproposed to sacrifice the welfare of the world; partly to a sad confusion of many eminent minds which leads them to desire to adapt to\nthe uses of American universities certain incongruous features of\nEuropean education. I mean that these suggestions are nonsensical,\nand that so far as they have been put in practice they are a step in the\nwrong direction.\n\nIt may be asked whether a student should not devote much of his\ntime in college to studies in the general line of his life-work? My\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCOLLEGE COURSE AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS.\n\n671\n\nanswer would be a very emphatic \"Yes,\" provided such studies be\ngeneral rather than narrowly technical in their character. Such\nstudies will be at once liberalizing and professionally useful. A student has ordinarily a far better opportunity of mastering the philosophy and history of law in college than he can have in the law school.\n\nThe professional course has to be occupied mainly with technique.\nSuch undergraduate study is none the less valuable because it is only\nindirectly available in the practice of law. It is rather the more valu-\n\nable.\n\nSo it is with many studies which lead up to professional\n\ncourses in theology and medicine. Here is enough to do in these\nyears of college life, and this will make better men and better lawyers,\ndoctors, and ministers.\nThe whole system of American education, from the primary school\nto the highest development of university training, is a growth out of\nthe soil, and a growth of a very healthful and beneficent character.\nYet a great many persons are continually quarreling with it because\nit is not something else than what it is. Especially because our universities are not German universities are they the objects of much\ncarping on the part of a certain kind of critics.\n\nSuch criticism would\n\nnot be worthy of notice did it not often come from men of great\nweight and ability. The proposition to pluck down the growth of\ncenturies, which has bent to every need of our peculiar national conditions and has in turn influenced our civilization continually toward\nbetter things, and to put in its place a structure imported from\nbeyond the seas which has done the like for an alien race, is so\nstrange that no weight of distinguished names can make it seem sane.\nYet beneath these suggestions of a change in the relations between\nthe college and the professional school there is, I am sure, just such\nintention. It is not advanced as an argument, but it is present as a\ncause. Because professional education is acquired in one way in Germany, it should be acquired in the same way here, however different\nour circumstances and antecedents ! Such feeling is quite without\njustification. We should always be docile to learn good things from\nany quarter (and Germany especially has much to teach us in educational matters) ; we should never seek to alter the essential nature of\ninstitutions which have sprung from the needs and character of the\npeople.\n\nI may be criticised for treating my subject narrowly, in that I have\ntaken into account none but what used to be called the three liberal\n\nprofessions ; but time fails me to speak of others, and especially of\nthose which have arisen from the application of natural sciences to\nhuman affairs. Moreover, I have understood that the subject was\nnot intended by those who selected it to have larger scope than I\nhave given to it.\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "-\n\nDEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS.\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES.\n\nFIRST DAY. -WEDNESDAY, JULY 10TH, 3. P. M.\nThe Department of Normal Schools held its first session in the West Denver\n\nHigh School building, with President James M. Green, Trenton, N. J., in the chair.\nIn the absence of the Secretary, Mr. C. C. Van Liew, Normal, Ill., James H.\nHays, Vice President Colorado State Normal, Greeley, Colo., was chosen Secretary\npro tem .\n\nOn assuming the chair President Green made interesting and valuable remarks\non the increase of normal schools, and brief suggestions as to some of the real problems of these schools.\n\n\"Psychology in Normal Schools\" was discussed by Dr. Z. X. Snyder, President\nColorado State Normal, Greeley, Colo.\nThe discussion of the same subject was continued by Prof. M. V. O'Shea, State\nNormal, Mankato, Minn.\n\"The Real Province of Method\" was then discussed by Prof. Howard Sandison, State Normal, Terre Haute, Ind.\n\nIn the absence of President James M. Milne, State Normal, Oneonta, N. Y. , on\nmotion, his paper, continuing the same discussion, was ordered to be printed as a\npart of these proceedings.\nThe following committee on nomination of officers of the department for the\nensuing year was announced by the chair :\nDr. W. N. Barringer, Newark, N. J.; President Edward T. Pierce, Los Angeles,\nCal.; President H. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nThe general discussion of the several papers then ensued, the following persons\ntaking part: President Cook of Illinois ; President Snyder of Colorado ; President\nNorton of Nebraska; President A. R. Taylor of Kansas ; Dr. Barringer of New\nJersey; Professor Shoemaker of Minnesota ; Miss Sutherland of Columbus, Ohio;\nMrs. Sudborough of Omaha, Neb.; Vice President Kleeberger of San Jose, Cal.\nOn motion, the department adjourned to meet Friday, July 12th, at 2:30 p. m. ,\nin the Principal's room of the East Denver High School.\n\nSECOND DAY. -FRIDAY, JULY 12, 1895.\nThe department met pursuant to adjournment, President Green in the chair.\nThe first subject of the session, \"Organization of Training Schools and Practice\nTeaching,\" was discussed by Miss Kate D. Stout, State Normal School, Trenton,\nN. J., and Prof. J. N. Wilkinson, State Normal, Emporia, Kan.\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "673\n\nMINUTES.\n\nAt the suggestion of President A. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan., the general discussion of these papers was postponed until after the reading of the remaining papers.\n\"Concentration or Co-ordination of Studies in the Normal School\" was taken\n\nup by State Supt. N. C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa.\nPresident John W. Cook, State Normal University, Normal, Ill., read a paper on\nthe same subject.\n\nAt the close of Dr. Cook's paper a general discussion was begun.\nProf. Louis H. Galbreath, Winona, Minn.; Dr. A. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan. ,\nand Professor Kleeberger, San Jose, Cal., asked questions of Dr. Cook.\nDr. Cook replied to each at length.\n\nDr. Z. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo., thought that no two persons entertained the\nsame idea of the term \"concentration\" as applied to psychology .\nDr. Cook could not agree. He thought that Dr. Snyder's different definitions\nwere simply different applications of the term.\nDr. Schaeffer continued the discussion.\n\nThe order of business was next taken up.\n\nDr. Z. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo ., offered the following resolution, which was\nadopted:\n\nWhereas , We deem it necessary for the development and the efficiency of the Normal\nDepartment,\nResolved, That a committee of five be appointed by the President to meet during the\nyear and formulate a report, to be presented at the next meeting, upon such educational\ntopics as directly concern the department.\nIn pursuance of the resolution, the following committee was announced :\nDr. Z. X. Snyder, Colorado ; President E. T. Pierce, California; President H.\n\nH. Seerley, Iowa; Hon. N. C. Schaeffer, Pennsylvania; Miss Lillie A. Williams,\nNew Jersey.\n\nChairman Seerley of the nominating committee made the following report of\nofficers for the ensuing year:\nFor President-John W. Cook of Illinois.\nFor Vice President -Geo . R. Kleeberger of California.\nFor Secretary-A. G. Boyden of Massachusetts .\n\nOn motion, the report was unanimously received, and the Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the department for the officers nominated .\n\nDr. Snyder presented the President-elect.\nAfter brief remarks, President Cook assumed the chair.\nOn motion, the department adjourned.\nJAMES H. HAYS,\nSecretary pro tem .\n43\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "674\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS.\n\nPSYCHOLOGY IN NORMAL SCHOOLS.\n\nBY Z. X. SNYDER, GREELEY, COLO .\n\nHISTORY.\n\nIn all times there have been teachers who have, consciously or unconsciously, based their work upon some notion of mind and its relation to the external world or the future, or both. It mattered not\nthe end in view-if it were knowledge by which to make a living ; if\ngaining intellectual power by which to overcome his competitors in\nmental combat; or if attaining a culture which should result in the\nhighest happiness for himself and others-there was always some no\ntion of the relation of the mind to these ends implied.\n\nSocrates' method of teaching was based upon the innateness of\nideas.\n\nThe teacher's function was to call them into consciousness\n\nby questioning. His was the metaphysical doctrine of maieutics.\nHe did not know how near he was to the modern doctrine of apperception. Through the power and influence of the knowledge possessed\nby the learner and its operation upon what was being learned, he lost\nsight of the latter and declared that everything is already in the mind.\nIn the Socratic doctrine of the innateness of ideas is found the root\n\nof the idealistic philosophy. Many writers have drawn inspiration\nfrom him and have enlarged upon this conception. Bacon's method,\ncalled the inductive, was based upon the senses. In the Baconian\ndoctrine of empiricism is found the root of the realistic philosophy.\nMany are they who have become his followers. Out of this doctrine\nhas grown most of our progress in elementary education, through\nRatich, Pestalozzi, Comenius, and Fræbel. Darwin's method (the scientific) was based upon experiment, observation, and induction. His\ndoctrine of evolution, based upon natural selection, has changed the\nmethod of thought in all departments of learning. In the Darwinian\ndoctrine of natural selection is found a solution for many problems\nthat previous to its recognition remained unsolved.\nTo many these doctrines have been vague; by many abused; by\nmany thought and rethought. They have been refined and defined.\nThey have been subject to the crucible of investigation for years\nand ages ; and as chemistry has grown out of alchemy, astronomy out\n\nof astrology, medicine out of hocus-pocus, law out of mythology, civili\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY IN NORMAL SCHOOLS.\n\n675\n\nzation out of savagery, so has modern psychology grown, and is growing, out of metaphysics and the various philosophies that have existed from the earliest times to the present. There may yet remain\ntraces of alchemy in chemistry, astrology in astronomy, hocus-pocus\nin medicine, myth in law, savagery in civilization, and philosophy,\nmetaphysics, and nonsense in psychology.\nIt seems that every department of learning, in its evolution, has\npassed or is passing through the three stages-myth, philosophy, and\nscience. Psychology may be said to have passed the first, is passing\nthrough the second, and has in some respects entered the third.\nA scientific psychology cannot be had until it has largely entered\nthe third stage; and until there is a scientific psychology there cannot be a scientific pedagogy. Scientific agriculture is based upon the\nscience of chemistry. It is the application of certain chemical principles found true by experiment. The practice of surgery is based\nupon a scientific knowledge of anatomy; the science of medicine on\nthat of physiology, both normal and abnormal. Mechanics is based\nupon physics. It is the scientific application of certain physical principles found true by experiment and observation. So the science\nand art of teaching-scientific pedagogy-must be based upon scientific psychology.\n\nThe normal school, of all institutions, should stand for a scientific\npedagogy. To stand for such it must stand for a scientific psychology.\nThe purport of what follows in this discussion will be, largely, what\nis meant by a scientific psychology and its relation to the teacher,\nespecially the public school teacher.\nA teacher should have a knowledge of, and an insight into, the\ntriple nature of the child as a living, mental, and spiritual reality,\nthat he may work intelligently and efficiently in his profound mission.\nHe should have a knowledge and a keen sense of the interdependence\nof body, mind, and spirit-the body as a phenomenon of life; mind as\na phenomenon of body and spirit, manifested entirely through the\nbody; and spirit as a part of God, the intelligent and personal Ruler\nof the Universe. This requires a pedagogy founded in1. A knowledge of the body, its systems, its organs, their functions, and the laws which regulate physical growth and development,\nnervous and muscular action, and their relation to mental processes.\n2. A knowledge of mind, its nature, its functions, the laws which\nregulate mental growth, development, and culture, and the relation\nof the conscious process to the nervous process and to movements.\n3. A knowledge of the spiritual nature, its relation to body and\nmind, and of the laws which regulate spiritual growth and development.\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "676\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n「Normal\n\n4. A knowledge of the dependence of all these natures, their relations to externalities,-earth and man, and their consummate blending and uniting in adjusting the individual to his surroundings, and\ntheir united effort to interpret the universe.\nA scientific pedagogy must contain some such conception. Such\na conception cannot grow out of or be founded in the speculative or\nrational psychology alone.\n\nIt must come out of a scientific investiga-\n\ntion and interpretation of human life, as made up, on the one side, of\nbody, mind, spirit, and, on the other, of externality, with all its manifestations of force as comprehended in earth and man.\nRational psychology has had its place in the development of psychological study, and still has a place. It has been descriptive rather\nthan investigative. In its richest form it gives a view of mental phenomena only from one standpoint-the introspective. Because of its\ninsufficiency to give a broad and scientific view of mental life, it is\nmaking room in a large measure for other methods-the genetic, the\nphysiological, the observational, the experimental, and the comparative. In the investigation of a psychological problem, it may be that\nno one of these methods can be relied upon alone, but all of them may\nbe necessary.\nIn illustrating the meaning and use of these different methods the\n\nscope of work that a normal school should do will be developed.\nI.-GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY.\n\nThat a biologist may understand the history and development of\nan organism, he must understand the doctrine of organic evolution,\nand vice versa. The relation of the individual to the species is so\nclose that it requires a knowledge of both to understand either. That\na psychologist may understand the development of a human being,physical, mental, and spiritual, he must understand the development\nof the race in the same directions.\n\nIf this statement be construed to\n\nmean the primary evolution of mind, it would involve a study of\ngenetic psychology-the evolution of the individual and the race\nmind. If it means the unfolding of a mind in potentia,- that is,\nwhere all the internal conditions are present for the making of a\nmind (present by heredity), this mind to correspond to the great race\nmind as revealed in history and literature,-it involves a study of\nchild and race psychology.\n11.-CHILD PSYCHOLOGY.\n\nThe study of child psychology is the study of a natural science. It\nis based upon experiment and observation. Psychology is indebted\nto science for this innovation. Note, however, that, while data are\ngotten by experiment and observation, we use somewhat the compara\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY IN NORMAL SCHOOLS.\n\n677\n\ntive method to interpret them through our own mental phenomena\ngotten by introspection.\n\nThe child's body stands for life, for mind, for spirit. Whatever\nlife is in him, whatever mind is in him, whatever spirit is in him, the\nbody expresses them. The child is studied through his motor activities. Out of these come four species of movements the impulsive,\nthe reflexive, the instinctive, the ideative. These movements express\n\nwhat is going on in the organism, or in the organism and mind. They\ncomplete the circuit of physiological process.\nEither the organism itself or some externality stimulates the nervous system, and it ends in movement affecting the organism or exter-\n\nnality, or both. There is no line of psychological investigation that\nbids so fair to be fruitful to the teacher.\n\nConsiderable importance\n\nis already being attached to the subject of child study. This importance is growing.\n\nTeachers on all hands are inquiring about it-\n\nwhat to do, how to do, what books will help them, etc.\nA child study based on close observations of the activities reaches\nfurther, and wider, and deeper than the mere notion how to help his\n\nintellectual nature. It regards the child's physical growth, his\nhealth, his exercise, his life ; the relation of these to his intellectual,\nmoral, and spiritual growth and training.\n\nA power also attained by\n\nthe teacher grows out of what we would call the psychological spirit.\nThe result of a study of children does not always depend upon a\ndefinite amount of knowledge gained, but upon the spirit of investigation that becomes a part of the individual who is really in earnest in\nhis work. Experience shows that the teacher who is an unconscious\n\nstudent of child-life ; who knows intuitively the right thing to do at\nthe right time ; who does not formulate anything to guide her; who\ncannot tell you why she does the right thing is the teacher who\nfashions the school spirit after the home spirit and whose heart is\nnear the heart of the common people. This same spirit will follow\nmore intelligently when the individual has made this work a part of\nhimself.\n\nThe universal study of child-life will make the teacher a greater\nspiritual influence. She will become a greater leader and inspirer\nthrough sympathetic guidance. A great deal of aptitude in this\nworld goes to waste for want of a little help or direction. It becomes\n\nthe duty, then, of those who are preparing young people to go out to\nteach to lead and inspire them to have a pleasure in coming into\nclose contact with the life of little children and in studying that life.\n\nIt is imperative, then, upon the normal schools to recognize this\nphase of psychological study and prepare to make it an essential\npart of the course.\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "678\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Normal\n\nIII .-RACE PSYCHOLOGY.\n\nThat the race repeats itself in the individual is a fact accepted by\n\nbiologists. This is an outgrowth of the doctrine of evolution. Psychologists having a biological turn use the same principle in regard\nto the human mind-that the race mind repeats itself in the individual\nmind. Out of this grows the pedagogical maxim, that there are in\nthe unfolding of an individual human mind stages which correspond\nto historic epochs in the evolution of the race mind.\n\nThe race life or character is the expression of the race mind\nthrough its motor activities. The common stages of correspondence\n\nbetween the individual and the race are wonder, courage, hunting,\nbarter, and reflection and sentiment. Literature pertaining to these\nhistoric race epochs seems necessary to the development of the corresponding epochs in the individual. This is a favorite notion of the\nHerbartians.\n\nThe race mind is the integration of the minds of the past working\nout according to the laws of racial development. In it are the mental\n\nelements common to the individual-thought, sentiment, choice, hope,\nfaith, and love. These are embalmed in the history and literature of\nthe ages. To know this race mind requires a study of race evolution\nas a natural as well as a civic organism, through its natural history\nand its history and literature. Because of the relation existing\nbetween the education of an individual and the development of\n\nthe race, the study of race psychology should become a substantial\npart of the course in the scientific psychology of the normal schools.\nIV.-PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY .\n\nThe very close relation that exists between the nervous system\non the one side and the muscular system on the other of the conscious\n\nprocess in every deliberative act, has led to the physiological method\nin the treatment of psychology, or to physiological psychology. The\napplication of the principles of physics and physiology to the interpretation of psychical phenomena is scientific, whatever may be true of the\ndoctrine of the parallelism of the nervous and conscious processes.\nIt would seem that an individual born without a sense organ, special\nor general, would never have an idea. He would never have a movement. He would embody the possibilities only of a human life. He\nwould be a veritable persona incognita . Hence, it would seem, that, at\nthe very outset in the development of a human mind, an understanding of physical and physiological processes is necessary. Eliminate the\ncerebral portion of the nervous system and the individual would never\nhave an idea.\n\nHe would never have a deliberate movement.\n\nThere\n\nwould be only such movements as are organic necessities. It would\n\nseem that the upper brain is a necessary condition, at least, in the\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY IN NORMAL SCHOOLS.\n\n679\n\nconscious processes. Here physical and physiological processes perform an indispensable part with consciousness.\nEliminate or subject to slight pressure the posterior part of the\nthird frontal convolution of the left hemisphere and there is a loss\nof oral speech. Many other motor centers have been found until\nthere is what is known as the localization of functions in the nervous\nmatter.\n\nIt means that definite areas of nervous matter control and\n\nregulate particular motor activities .\n\nThe only satisfactory and scientific explanation of the retention,\nassociation, and reproduction of ideas is given by physiological psychology.\n\nBiology and physiology only are competent to explain the appearance of the race element in the development of the individual.\nOnly physiological psychology can explain that mental phenomena\nconsist in adjusting the organism to its environments-these being\nphysical, family, political, and religious. \"In this,\" says Mercier, \"the\nphysiological function of the nervous system is to adjust the parts\nto one another; the psychological function is to adjust the organism\nas a whole to its environments. Physiology deals with movements ;\npsychology, with acts. The co-ordination of movements to an end\nconstitutes an act.\n\nThe co- ordination of acts to an end constitutes\n\nconduct. The nervous system effects both of these co-ordinations.\"\nRunning parallel to or with these nervous processes is consciousness.\nThe development of the motor activities from the central to the\n\nperipheral movements, from the development of a series of nervous\ncenters in a like order, is one of the unique results of experimental\n\nand physiological psychology. Out of it has come some very wholesome pedagogical doctrine.\n\nThe psychological unit in the development of the motor activities\nis the nervous process ; when transmitted to muscles it results in a\nmovement accompanied by a mental state. This brings, according\n\nto Mercier, physiological psychology under three heads for treatment\n-nervous process, conduct, and consciousness.\n\nThe importance of a study of physiological psychology becomes\napparent from the foregoing. It enables the teacher to know more\nof the organic and the mental life of his pupils and to treat them\nmore rationally. It should become a part of the normal school course.\nV.- EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY.\n\nWhile in child, race, and physiological psychology experiment is\nused more or less, there is a line of work that does not belong directly\nto either of them. It is a distinctly experimental work, aided by introspection, observation, and comparison. It is the experiments upon\n\nthe students themselves by themselves and others. The application\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "680\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\nof experiment to the senses and to all the mental processes is a fruitful line of investigation. For this work, as well as for that falling\nunder other methods, there should be a laboratory especially fitted\nup. This is not only coming, it has come in a number of the progressive normal schools of this country.\nFrom the foregoing it would appear that an individual to be properly prepared to start out as a teacher of children should have such\n\na training in psychology as will make him familiar with child-life in\nthe widest sense. It requires a working knowledge in child, race,\nphysiological, and experimental psychology. Such a knowledge cannot to be gotten in the time usually devoted to the subject. Upon the\npart of normal school students it will require two years.\n\nScientific psychology is the Blackstone of scientific pedagogy. To\nmake an intelligent, thoughtful, and practical teacher in this subject\nrequires time. The mental maturity and discipline of the juniors and\nseniors of the normal schools are quite sufficient to comprehend and\nappreciate the subject through the new methods. If they cannot get\nhold of the subject by the methods of the new psychology, and its application of teaching, they cannot from the old.\nTo what extent the normal schools are up to the requirements set\nforth, we shall consider for a moment. Thirty of the leading normal\nschools of the United States devote, on an average, twenty-nine weeks\nto the subject. One devotes sixty weeks ; one, fifty-three; one, fortytwo; seven, forty; four, thirty; four, twenty-five; nine, twenty; one,\ntwelve. Many of the normal schools that have not been taken into\nthe reckoning devote from twelve to twenty-five weeks to the subject.\nNo normal school student can get a working knowledge of the subject\nin the average time given to it. The time is too short, it matters not\nwhat the method may be. This is one of the reasons why the normal\nschool does not have a higher professional standing. Here is where\nwe want to commence to raise our standard.\n\nAgain, the method used by students and teachers has been, and is\nyet, largely a process of learning words and then thinking they know\nsomething about psychology. Out of these thirty schools eleven use\nan eclectic method. They use the rational, with a little of the physiological psychology. The time they give to the subject is insufficient. To read only about child, race, physiological, and experimental psychology is as profitless as reading the old. Seven of the\nthirty use the rational exclusively; three, the physiological almost\n\nentirely; nine, the rational supplemented by the physiological. Three\nout of the thirty have laboratories fitted up to do work in scientific\npsychology.\nBy a careful examination of the reports received from these thirty\nnormal schools of the United States, and taking into consideration\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS.\n\n681\n\nthe time devoted to the subject, the method or system used, it is ap-\n\nparent that there is a large per cent that adhere to the old psychology\nand its accompanying methods.\nThe general conclusion drawn from this discussion is, that the normal schools of the country have not a high standard in the subject of\n\npsychology, neither from the standpoint of quantity nor quality.\n\nPSYCHOLOGY FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS.\n\nBY M. V. O'SHEA, MANKATO , MINN.\n\nI.-AIM .\n\nWhile it seems, that, in our own country, the normal school must\ncontinue for some time yet to provide opportunities for general education and culture, still it properly belongs to the class of professional or special schools, as does the school of medicine, of law, of\ncivil engineering, or of any of the arts and professions ; and its particular province must be to lead its students to become acquainted\nwith all that body of information, both as to theory and art, that is\ndirectly related to the work of instruction, so far as this is undertaken in the public schools. Since instruction is the process of consciously stimulating and developing aright the mind and character\nof pupils, it follows that the one who proposes to teach must know\nwhat agencies are best adapted to accomplish this aim and how\nthey may be used to the greatest advantage at every step in the\npupil's education. This implies that the teacher must comprehend :\n\n(1) The psychology of the learning mind-how it learns, whether the\nlearning of special subject-matter confers general or only special\npower, whether the activities of the mind may be reduced to one\n\nfundamental principle, or whether each faculty, so-called, has laws\nand methods peculiar to itself, and so on; (2) she must understand\nthe office of school government and discipline and of intellectual\ntraining in the development of emotional and volitional characteris-\n\ntics and tendencies-that is, the formation of character; (3) if she\nwould deal most effectively with each individual under her charge,\nshe must understand the limiting and determining influence of\nheredity and environment and of physical types and conditions upon\nthe mind and character of school-children; and (4) at the completion\nof her study of psychology she should be able to discover with some\nskill and accuracy the intellectual, emotional, and volitional factors\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "682\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Normal\n\nthat have made her pupils what they are and that determine their\npresent capacities and dispositions ; and she should know how to\ndeal with each factor if she would develop or change the personality\nas she finds it.\n\nIn the opinion of the writer this indicates the aim and character\nof psychological study in the normal school. The statement made\nrecently by one of the most distinguished psychologists of this country that tact, interest, and sympathy are of greater worth to the\nteacher than all the psychological laboratories in the country may\nbe true in a measure in reference to laboratory psychology, but it\ndoes not seem to be true of psychological study of all kinds. It\nmust indeed be true that interest and sympathy are primary requisites for successful teaching; but native tact may be made much\nmore keen and efficient by special study of the nature and problems\nof teaching. In so far as undisciplined tact gives perfect insight\ninto the nature of the child-mind, the method of its development,\nand the manner of adapting material of instruction to it,-psychological study would seem to be unnecessary; but these conditions do\nnot exist in the case of most teachers. The old maxim, that teachers are born not made, seems not to be wholly true; and believing\nthis, the modern educational world has provided elaborate means\nfor the making of teachers, or at least for improving upon what\nnature has done for them. Perhaps one may teach those things\nwhich he has been taught without ever thinking of their effect upon\nthe intellect and character of pupils, or of their peculiar value in\ncertain cases and lack of it in others. One may perhaps teach in\nthis way and do much good, but his power must be vastly increased\nif he be able to tell, from his understanding of the nature of the\n\nmind, the effect upon pupils of the different kinds of stimuli in the\nform of material of instruction.\n\nThere are probably kinds of psycho-\n\nlogical study that are of little direct value to the teacher; but the\npsychology of the learning mind cannot fail to give her clearer and\n\ndeeper insight, and hence greater skill in dealing with the problems\nof the schoolroom .\nII.- SCOPE .\n\nIn a paper of this length it is impossible to indicate with sufficient detail and clearness the scope of psychology for normal\nschools, so only the barest outline may be attempted. To begin\nwith, the conditions which exist in most schools will not admit of\na comprehensive study of formal or pure psychology. For the present, at least, there are not many normal schools in which the study\nof psychology, apart from its applications in general and special\nmethods, which will not be regarded here, can be pursued for longer\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS .\n\n683\n\nthan one year of fifty minutes each day; and, in many cases, not more\nthan one-half of this time can be given, especially in the elementary\ncourses, in which the great majority of students are to be found. It\nis imperative, then, that the scope of psychological study should be\nlimited to the psychology of school education, other phases being\ntouched upon only in so far as is necessary to give the teacher an\nappreciation of the influences that are always at work outside of\nthe schoolroom in determining the personality of her pupils. It\nshould be said here that there is no intention to disparage the cul-\n\nture and disciplinary value, and, perhaps, in a general way, the practical value, of the study of pure psychology; but the problem is\nsimply to determine what is best for the prospective teacher under\nthe limiting conditions that are necessarily imposed upon her. Students in the normal schools have not that breadth of philosophical\ntraining and culture that will make them intelligent and ready in\nthe application of the general principles of pure psychology to concrete instances of classroom instruction; and there has, no doubt,\nbeen much study of psychology in the immediate as well as more\nremote past that was so far away from the problems and conditions\nof the schoolroom that the work of instruction was not affected ma-\n\nterially one way or the other thereby. Psychology is such a comparatively new science, however, although a very old subject, that it\nis a matter of no great surprise that it has not yet become very extensively applied, as a science, to the determination of the nature and\nmethod of teaching.\nAt the risk of seeming dogmatic the following brief outline of\n\ntopics is suggested as adapted to the capacities, needs, and conditions of the most of normal school students :\n\n1. The relation of mind and body, to the extent that the teacher\n\nmay comprehend how physical types and conditions limit and determine the capacity of the individual for intellectual, emotional ,\nand volitional activity and development. No one can deal wisely\nwith pupils who cannot discern in particular instances the influence\nof the physical over the spiritual. Yet this subject seems not to\nreceive in many schools the attention which it manifestly deserves.\nThe reason is, no doubt, that it has been generally believed that\nmental conditions and activities, so far as these are of concern to\nthe teacher, are independent of any determining influences from\nphysical causes; and even now the majority of teachers, perhaps,\nnever attribute any intellectual and emotional phenomena, whether\n\nthese be favorable or unfavorable, to physical causes, which, were\nthey keener observers, they might easily eliminate. It should be\nsaid in this connection that the dependency of intellectual, and hence,\nin some degree, emotional and volitional activity, upon the keenness\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "684\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\nand accuracy of the senses in responding to all the stimuli in the\nclassroom and environment should be thoroughly understood, and\nthe teacher should be able to ascertain whether keenness and ac-\n\ncuracy are possible in particular cases .\n\nShe should understand the\n\nrelations of mind and body from the standpoint of the connection of\nphysical expression with corresponding mental phenomena. It seems\nthat the study of physical expression as a reliable index to the activities of the mind has been neglected in the normal schools to the\n\ngreat disadvantage of apprentice teachers. The training and discipline of the classroom can never be of greatest worth until the\nteacher is keen in noting constantly the effect these have upon the\nintellect, emotions, and will, as portrayed through the various avenues of expression.\n\n2. The normal school should lead its students to appreciate the\ninfluence of race, heredity, and environment upon intellectual and\nemotional personality in the classroom. There may not be a large\n\namount of established knowledge upon this subject in such form\nthat the pupil-teacher can be made familiar with it; but this is\nprobably because there has not been a great amount of attention\ngiven to the subject by teachers. However, we are not entirely\ndestitute of information along this line, and if the prospective teacher\ncan become familiar with what little is already known and can be\nled to observe the influence of these factors in concrete cases during\n\nher psychological study, she will be able, at least in a general way,\nto estimate their influence in her own schoolroom.\n\n3. Students should study in detail the nature of intellectual activity and the method of its stimulation by the work of the schoolroom. The factors of perception, apperception, memory, imagination, and reasoning should be understood in detail as to the nature\nof each, its importance in determining intellectual personality, its\noffice in the various kinds of work in the classroom, when it is cараble of working at its best, what conditions will interfere with its\nproper activity, and so on.\nIn speaking of the factors of perception, apperception, memory,\netc. , it should not be understood that these are entirely different\nprocesses bearing no relation to each other ; but rather they should\nbe regarded as different phases of one fundamental process of the\nlearning mind. The writer believes that great care should be taken\nto preserve the essential unity of all intellectual activity, and the\ndependency of faculties, as perception and reasoning, upon one com-\n\nprehensive principle. The history of psychological teaching shows,\nthat, at first, the mind was regarded as a composite of faculties of\nthe nature of compartments, each more or less independent of the\nother in character and activity. This view has given place to the\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS.\n\n685\n\none now prevalent that faculties are but ways in which the mind\nmanifests itself, yet they are radically different from each other.\nBoth of these views are apt to lead to confusion in the mind of the\n\nyoung teacher, and there is a failure to appreciate the intimate relation between all the activities of the learning mind. This is not\nthe time for an exposition of a psychological system; but it will\n\nnot be out of place to say, that, for the purposes of the teacher, the\nvarious faculties-perception, apperception, memory, imagination,\n\nconception, judgment, and reasoning-may be regarded as phases\nof the one process of apperception, to supply the conditions for which\nalong various lines is the whole business of instruction. At all events,\nit is but just to say, that the analytic study of mental phenomena is\nincomplete without the final act of synthesis ; and it is believed that\nin this synthesis there may be found unity in the midst of apparent\ndiversity.\n4. The emotions and will should be studied in the same manner\n\nas the intellect, especial regard being paid to the influence of intellectual training and of school discipline upon emotional and volitional\ntendencies. The influence of experience in and out of the schoolroom, and of the \"circle of thought\" in creating and determining the\npupil's interest, should be carefully considered. The teacher should\nbe made to realize that the material of instruction has emotional\n\nand volitional as well as mere intellectual value ; that ideas have a\n\nshaping influence upon character.\n\nUnity should be seen in emo-\n\ntional and volitional as well as in intellectual life; and it should be\n\nmade emphatic that instruction of whatever kind affects, not simply\none faculty but the whole child-intellect, emotions, and will .\n5. And finally, the teacher ought to comprehend in a general way\nthe psychology of individual and social life as it exists in the world\nabout herself and her pupils. The public school must prepare the\npupil for the conditions he will meet when he leaves the schoolroom,\nand for this reason teachers should be students of the life around\n\nthem, and should apply their psychology to the interpretation of\nsocial phenomena.\nIII .-METHOD .\n\nIt seems that a great deal of psychological teaching in the normal\nschool does not illustrate the principle that beginnings in every\nscience should proceed upon concrete experiences, and that generalizations should be derived from the examination of particular examples. In the formal study of psychology, which is still followed\nin many places, the mind is regarded as a lifeless object composed\nof parts or faculties, each more or less independent of the others,\nand which may be described in some such manner as can the parts\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "686\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\nof a plant or of any organic body. Such study must be based almost wholly upon text-books, and students gain from it what may\nbe called a logical knowledge of the mind, somewhat as in the study\nof text-book chemistry a logical knowledge of the composition of\nsubstances and the deportment of elements under various conditions\n\nmay be gained. In either case, since the study has been divorced\nfrom concrete examples, the knowledge acquired is of very little\npractical value, because its connection with common affairs has\nnever been traced by the student. Many teachers can remember\nhow little of everyday value they gained from the study of pure or\nformal psychology, because this was not illuminated and explained\nby reference to things that came within their experience. It is\nonly after long and careful training that one is able to apply the\ntheories of formal psychology to the manifestations of mental phenomena occurring in the schoolroom every moment; and in most\ncases there is an appeal almost wholly to the verbal memory, without understanding of what is being memorized, because the generalizations are far above, and, for the young student, entirely divorced\nfrom, the particular instances by which they are made intelligible.\nIt seems strange, that, in the study of educational psychology, the\nspecific purpose of which is to relate and describe the movements\nof the learning mind, the very fundamental principles which it declares should be observed in all instances are violated in its own\ncase.\n\nThe study of this subject, then, should begin with analysis of the\nlearner's experience. Every individual who is ready for the study\nof psychology has the whole science, so far as it is related to educa-\n\ntion, within his own experience ; and it is the duty of the instructor\nto guide him in the observation and study of that experience so as\nto discover the common truths and laws to be found in it.\n\nIt is as\n\npertinent in matters of the mind as in other things that we do not observe essential characteristics until we have been led to do so by one\nwho knows what they are, and who by wise questioning has directed\n\nour minds to intelligently examine what has always been within our\nenvironment, but which has not really become a part of our experience.\nMost normal school students have at first little apperceptive\n\nknowledge that will enable them to observe and study mental phenomena; and it is really the business of the teacher to create this\nbody of information, so that when his students undertake the work\nof teachers they will have some basal knowledge for the observation\nand interpretation of mental phenomena occurring in their school-\n\nrooms. Now, this aim can never be accomplished by the study of\nprinciples of psychology without first, or at least finally, studying\nconcretely instances from which these principles may be derived..\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS.\n\nThese instances may be found:\n\n(1) In the pupil's own life.\n\n687\n\n(2) They\n\nmay be observed in the lives of those with whom the student as-\n\nsociates. (3) They maybe gained from the observation of pupils in\nthe process of responding to the stimuli of the classroom. (4) They\nmay be studied in history and literature of every form and description. (5) Lastly, they may be gained from text-books in which concrete instances of the various kinds of mental phenomena are given.\nThe most important of all these ways are, in the opinion of the\nwriter, the analysis of personal experience; the observation and\nstudy of pupils in performing the regular work of the schoolroom ;\nand the investigation of types and conditions of life in the environment of the student.\n\nThe wise instructor may guide any teacher to\n\na complete and comprehensive study of educational psychology\nthrough these means, for surely the material is unlimited in abun-\n\ndance and always at hand. In such study the pupil is made eye,\near, and thought-minded to manifestations of mental phenomena,\nand by the aid of the instructor is enabled to interpret correctly what\nhe has observed ; and this is the summum bonum in the teacher's\n\nstudy of psychology.\nIt may seem desirable in most schools that students should use\na text as a guide, this to be constantly illustrated and amplified\n\nby the concrete study of the subject. When such a text is used, it\nis certainly important that its subject-matter be of the nature of\neducational rather than of general or pure psychology; and its\nmethod of treating the subject should be such as will stimulate the\npupil to investigate for himself, rather than to give him examples\nand principles to learn, even though these are directly connected\nwith educational work.\n\nFinally, the ability to observe and interpret correctly mental\nphenomena in the schoolroom can be most serviceably acquired by\nthe study of children while under the influence of school training.\nIt is perhaps true that study of this character cannot be intelligently\nand profitably undertaken until the student-teacher has, under the\nguidance of the instructor, acquired some skill and readiness in observing and interpreting mental and emotional phenomena from\nanalysis of her own experience ; so that child study (or perhaps objective study) may not be most profitably begun until the teacher\n\nhas acquired some body of apperceptive knowledge for psychological\nphenomena. In the analysis of her own mental life the teacher\nshould be led especially to review the experiences of her childhood\nso as to discover intellectual, emotional, and volitional characteristics of that period which she may now have outgrown, but which are\ncommon to all children, and upon which the matter and method of\nteaching must depend. In the study of children in the normal school\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "688\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\nit should not be the purpose to establish new facts concerning child\nnature so much as to lead prospective teachers to see in all childhood illustrations of principles already well known, and to be able\nto always observe these in their teaching, as well as to deal wisely\nwith those who may diverge in any way from the normal or perfect\n\ntype. This does not imply, however, that the normal school should\nnot add to the body of information already established about childhood ; indeed, the contrary is more true, for the sympathetic study of\n\nchildren by anyone who is constantly in contact with them must\nat least tend to illuminate and verify what is now but imperfectly\nunderstood.\n\nIn summary, then, it may be said : (1) That the aim of psychology\nin the normal school should be to lead students to become acquainted\nwith the nature and laws of the learning mind, and of the effect of\nvarious kinds of material of instruction and discipline in the school-\n\nroom, and of influences in the environment upon the intellectual,\nemotional, and volitional nature of children. (2) The scope of the\nwork should include a study of all those conditions that will enable\nthe teacher to use the material of instruction, and to organize her\ngovernment and discipline in the classroom to the best advantage\nin training the intellect and developing moral character. To accom-\n\nplish this there should be careful study of the following principal\nsubjects : The influence of physical types and conditions upon intellect, emotions, and will ; the relation between mental conditions\nand activities and their physical expression ; the determining influence of heredity and environment upon child nature in all its aspects ;\nthe nature of and connection between perception, apperception,\nmemory, imagination, and reasoning, and the desirability of regarding all these as phases of the one general process of apperception ;\nthe influence of interest upon intellectual activity, and the tendency\nof experience to create and determine interest ; the nature and kinds\nof emotions and will, and the connection between intellectual training and emotional and volitional activity; the relation between the\n\ncircle of thought and character; finally, the psychology of individual\nand social life in the environment of teacher and pupils. (3) The\nmethod of study should be concrete-in the analysis of experience,\nin the observation and study of individuals in the student's environment, and of pupils while engaged in the regular work of the schoolroom. A text may be used as a guide, and to aid in stating principles that have first been observed concretely, or that may be illuminated and verified by reference to facts that can be observed. Finally,\nthere should be much definite, practical work in the study of children, so that the teacher may better understand child nature, and\nmay be able to determine the capacities of each pupil for the work\nof the classroom.\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nTHE REAL PROVINCE OF METHOD .\n\n689\n\nTHE REAL PROVINCE OF METHOD.\n\nBY JAMES M. MILNE , ONEONTA , N. Y.\n\nThat to-day and yesterday are never alike cannot be better shown\nthan in the changed and changing educational horizons. The facts\nof yesterday are the fancies of to-day, and yesterday's nebulous\nreveries are to-day's richest revealings. The ebb and flow of changing conditions, more exacting demands, and coming requirements\nare washing to our shores of thought all the educational salvage of\nthe centuries. This wreckage is being carefully overhauled and\nscrutinized to find parts to fit into the educational theories and practices of to-day. The terrestrial battles of a few years ago on educational practices have been transferred to the upper air, and there the\ncontests are now raging on educational theories intrenched in the\nbeliefs of rival schools of philosophy. However the antagonisms\nmay appear when viewed from the different points of vision in\nthe upper air, the educational foundations remain unmoved, and\nthe activity generated only lends truth to the aphorism of Wendell\nPhillips, that education is the only interest worthy the deep controlling anxiety of the thoughtful man.\nNo new factor has been introduced into the educational problem.\nNo broader view of the purpose of education has been given since\nthe Greek philosophers stated that a good education consists in giv-\n\ning to the body, mind, and spirit all the perfection of which they\nare susceptible. In teaching, we recognize1. The being to be educated.\n\n2. Knowledge-means or material to be employed.\n3. Method-the process or plan used.\n4. The teacher-the master of the process.\nThe teacher must have knowledge of the being to be taughthis physical, intellectual, and moral capacities and activities ; must\nknow the law of this triune unfolding.\n\nThe teacher cannot direct\n\nthe mind of the child, nor can he change its order of development.\nNature marks out what is the order of the mind's development ; the\nteacher studies the facts and gets his method. Nature is first as a\nteacher; the schools occupy only second place in the mind's development. Education changes, not the kind but the quantity.\nThe teacher must have, as well, a knowledge of the subject-mat-\n\nter to be taught. His scholastic accuracy will largely prefigure the\nmethod employed, as scholarship is used as a means of securing a\nmethod.\n44\n\nMethod is the process employed in education, or is the\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "690\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\ntool used in the fashioning. The what to teach is the scholastic\nlimit ; the how to teach is the method outlook.\nMethods of education and methods of teaching are frequently\nconfounded. Methods of education belong to the centuries, and are\nthe product of their growth. They are principles of processes that\nare common to all subjects. They are deeply rooted in philosophical\naxioms and psychological verities. Of slow growth, they are of\nnecessity difficult of modification and change. Methods of teaching draw their nutriment from general methods of education. They\n\nbelong to different times, are modified by application to different\nsubjects and individuals, and are capable of change. Methods of\neducation direct attention to educational beliefs ; methods of teaching to educational practices. From that standpoint it can be apprehended that the true method of teaching leads to the true method\nof thinking. Methods of teaching must not alone know the mind\nand its processes, but must know how to summon them into activity\n-must know how to reach and stimulate the self-activity of the\n\nmind. While the principles on which methods rest are common to\nall subjects, the details of the process will be colored by the individual genius and aptitudes of the teacher.\nMethod is not the arbitrary dictum of an individual, nor do long\nestablished forms or plans necessarily measure method. A plan\nrises to the dignity of a method when it rests on psychological principles. Systematic instruction and methodical teaching are different both in aim and result.\n\nThe one is scientific in its process ; the\n\nother natural. The one seeks to link together the nexus of truthto establish truth; the other seeks to apply the truth found to the\nnatural aptitude of the child, to apprehend it, and transmute it into\nstrength. The stress in method falls, not on the system but on the\nmind to be developed. A device belongs to the mechanism of method,\n\nbut is not method. The much boasted \"my method\" will generally\nbe found on the plane of the plan, or device, or mannerism. Methods are much alike, only the applications differ with differing individuals and differing conditions.\n\nWe have already claimed that method, for its best apprehension,\npresupposes accuracy in scholarship, but it is not allied with it.\n\nScholarship is the material ; method the tools. The product is what\nis fashioned or arranged for the apprehension. To be educated, material is necessary, tools are useful. A training in wood-working\n\nneeds not alone a knowledge of the grain of the timber and the\npowers and peculiarities of the wood in its different states, but as\nwell a knowledge of tools and how to use them. In like manner is\ntraining in teaching. Many can fashion forms out of wood with a\njack-knife, but have no knowledge how to use other tools to accom\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nTHE REAL PROVINCE OF METHOD .\n\n691\n\nplish the same ends, at a great saving of time and effort. Now, at\nbest, they are but jack-knife artists. If you will permit the comparison, it may be as truly said that many teaching in our schools never\nrise above the dignity of jack-knife teachers. At great sacrifice of\ntime and toil, with an extravagant waste of effort, their pupils\nwhittle out the years in school; and, so far as the schools are concerned, are left to carve their way through life with simply a jackknife training.\nLet it not be understood in this connection that methods with-\n\nout knowledge have power. Methods without knowledge are barren\nformulas. Principles of methods have no power unless apprehended.\nMaster methods, and they multiply the strength of the teacher manyfold; be mastered by methods, and professional suicide is at hand.\nHe has mastered method who can show the relations of his practice\n\nto the fundamental principles of education; whose theories are\nbedded in truth, and whose practices are power producing.\nThus far your attention has been directed toward marking the\nconfines of method-its limitations, its powers, and its processes.\nSuch an outlook was needful for the clearer apprehension of our\nclaims of the real province of method. Method has as its province\nthe development of the pupil toward highest strength, and the development of the teacher toward a clearer and broader comprehen-\n\nsion of the educational problem.\n\nThis real province of method as\n\noutlined can be measured by the attitude of the child toward the\n\nacquisition of knowledge and the ingathering of strength. Is the\nattitude of the child hopeful and the work pleasurable ? Does the\nprocess appeal to the child's powers; the task bring eagerness to\nrepeat the pleasure? Is darkness or gloom at the end of the child's\nperspective ? Then lack of interest pronounces sentence on the\npseudo-method. Ability to pass grade requirements is not an absolute test of whether method is within its real province. The\ntrouble may be with the requirements or the latency of the child's\npowers of development. Unfortunately the true test of method lies\n\nin the years beyond the schoolroom. The best method only gives\ndirection to the powers that the varied experiences, activities, and\ndivinings of life shall bring forth to the rarest fruition.\nIt is the real province of method to reveal to the teacher the\nlimitations in the teaching process and mark the essentials from\nnon-essentials. Says Dugald Stewart: \"What is the whole business of education but a practical application of rules deduced from\nour own experiments, or from those of others, on the most effectual\nmodes of developing and cultivating the intellectual faculties and\n\nthe moral principles?\" De Quincey says, that a man who takes up\nany pursuit without knowing what advances others have made in it\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "692\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\nworks at a great disadvantage. He does not apply his strength in\nthe right direction ; he troubles himself about small matters and\nneglects great ones ; he falls into errors long since exploded. The\nlarge success in life is in a great measure due to the power to grasp\nthe gathered thoughts of the ages and turn them to profitable account.\n\nIt is as well the real province of method to develop the individuality of the teacher. The claim that method is an absolute form\nfor carrying out an educational process arises from a wrong appre\n\nhension of the term. As before stated, there are no letters patent\non method. It is as broad as humanity and co-extensive with eternity. Its beginning and ending center in Him who is without beginning and without end. Its limitations are only revealed to him\nwhose vision is limited.\n\nMan's horizon does not measure the un-\n\nfathomable. On the other hand, man distinctly individualizes himself only as he separates himself by placing on his works the coinage that has the stamp and superscription of his own personality.\nThe wider the range of vision, the greater the possible height to be\nreached, and the more clearly will the individuality stand forth.\nMethod makes greater individuality possible by giving greater opportunity for its growth and its expression. It invites effort and\nmarks out its path. To individuality method is continually saying,\n\"This is the way; walk ye in it.\"\nThe real province of method is to direct and strengthen the\nteacher in the adaptability of knowledge to varying capacities. The\nprocess of presentation demands on the part of the teacher an inquiry into the capacity and power of comprehension of the child. It\ncompels a continual modification of man's plan on the basis of the\nchild's plan, and a modification of the typical child's plan to fit the\ncase of the individual child's need. The varying capacity at different\nages and different stages of work must ever be a consideration in\nforming the basis of the teacher's method. Reaching of capacities\nis shown in the methodical mechanism of the lesson; in questioning,\nin stimuli, in development of motive, in the strengthening personality, in the accuracy of acquisition, in the enlarging desires and\nambitions. The teacher's plan is wrought on the child's plane, and\nthe apprehension on the part of the child will be the directing and\ncontrolling force in guiding the teacher's future efforts .\nThe real province of method is to add to inspiration, multiply enthusiasm, and give greater power to the life-giving and life-creating factors of the teacher. As the relations of knowledge are made\nmore evident to the teacher and their adaptability to the child's\ncomprehension is more clearly revealed, the teacher's outlook is\nbroadened, his opportunity and responsibility are lifted to a higher\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nTHE REAL PROVINCE OF METHOD.\n\n693\n\nplane. Personal bias is weakened; individual eccentricity modified.\nThe God with us is translated into the God in us, and then the\nteacher has reached the altitudes of enthusiasm.\n\n\"Teaching is such\n\na grind,\" said a teacher to me a little while ago. So it is when the\nwork lies between the millstones, but not when we are above them.\nWith ripening experience; with widening knowledge of child nature,\nits capacities and vagaries ; with the ever-changing values of subject-matter to the child's powers and the child's needs, method keeps\nthe teacher out of the desert land of grind and on the heights of\nenthusiastic service.\n\nThe real province of method as regards the teacher leads to the\ncorrelating of studies and to developing concentration of attention\non the part of the child. In the province of method, the time element and the effort element and the accruing strength must ever be\nthe considerations. The grouping power and the grasping potentiality are great factors in the time element. The comprehensive\nsweep of vision, the focalizing power, are the richest products of\nthe perceptive faculties. The repeating process is not of necessity\nthe strengthening process. The dictum of the repeating element\nas laid down in the answer given to Wesley by his wife, when he\nasked why she had the child repeat an answer twenty times, and she\n\nreplied because nineteen times was not enough, is false in theory and\nvicious in practice. Correlate the fact to the child's experience or\nacquisitions, and you abridge time without loss of strength. A\n\nchild does not necessarily grow skillful in picking apples because\nhe goes down the ladder to carry separately each apple picked.\nGather all within reach before moving and move only when all\n\nwithin reach are gathered, is the more practical way, is the more\nrational process. In the mental-gathering process, the true method\nwill always detect the waste brought about by changing and multiplying of subjects. When the teacher is skillful in reading into a\nstudy greater riches than the subject seems to possess, it is by the\nsuggestiveness of the subject and the correlation of thoughts and\n\nideas in the teacher's mind; \"That reminds me,\" is always summoned\ninto existence, and the greater the frequency the stronger the correlation. This outlook that must come to the teacher, not of necessity as a new discovery in pedagogy or a new utterance of philosophy,\nwill be found within the confines of the real province of method as\na practice and the creation of a theory of true method.\nMethod is not of the man, but is in the man; resting on principles that shall direct processes; and such direction shall abridge\neffort, add pleasure, increase strength, widen opportunity, and emphasize truth.\n\nThe province of method is such that it shall widen\n\nthe horizon of the child's knowledge, concentrate his effort, illumine\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "694\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\nhis purposes, and direct his doings ; and to the teacher it shall be,\nnot alone a way of life but as well a light in the way.\n\nMethod, in brief, rests on the assumption that life is fragmentary\nunless connected with the past.\n\nKnowledge of the way, whence\n\nits coming and whither its going,-knowledge of failures, is needful;\nfor even failures are partial successes, and ultimate success is simply\ncrowned failure. Rediscovery is not so needful as to know the limits of discovery, and our investigations must reach back to first\nprinciples. In the language of Phillips Brooks : \"If the teacher's\nart be in any sense a high art at all it must have a philosophy behind it. If you would not allow it to sink into a mere set of rules,\nand depend for its success on certain mere tricks or knacks, it must\nforever refresh itself out of the fountain of first principles, and inspire itself with the contemplation of ever- unattainable ideals . \"\n\nTHE REAL PROVINCE OF METHOD.\n\nBY HOWARD SANDISON, TERRE HAUTE , IND .\n\nIn this case the mere title is itself significant. It implies that the\nboundary line between the realm of method and that of something else\nis indistinct. That something else may be scholarship; it may be the\nrealm of means, of external appliances, of devices. In the title there\nis the implication that method is, or has been, occupying an unreal,\nfictitious province. This fictitiousness may arise from the fact that\nscholarship is wanting, and that the attempt to determine a set of\nprinciples to control in that given realm in which scholarship is wanting results in an unreal province for method. Outer doing, devices,\nexternal means, with little or no attention to the truths that underlie\nthem, may be pressed to the front as method. This would constitute\na fictitious province for method. Scholarship alone may be exalted,\nas if it were all in all. In that case method would not possess its real\nprovince. Of all these things the mere title is significant. It means\nthat an indistinctness prevails as to the true realm of method. To\nremove this indistinctness is the problem of this discussion.\nIt is but natural that a certain indefiniteness-that a given degree\nof indistinctness-should prevail as to the real province of method,\nin distinction from that of both scholarship and mere external means.\nThe reason for this is that activity is the one thing to be found in the\nuniverse. Sometimes one speaks of a thing, and of activity upon it.\nBut what is the thing itself other than activity ? A block of the most\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nTHE REAL PROVINCE OF METHOD.\n\n695\n\ncompact steel seems perfectly motionless ; yet every atom in it has a\nspace of its own, and exists in a continual dance. Thus it is with every atom in the hardest granite. It seems that only activity is. This\nactivity rises from its most passive form in space until it becomes an\nactivity that can become aware of itself, as in consciousness. Scholarship, then, concerns itself with activity, and with activity only.\nMethod, too, must deal with activity, and with that alone. The realm\nofdevice, of external means, is also one of doing-of activity. In this\nfact-that device is activity ; that method deals with activity; that\nthe subject-matter of scholarship is activity-rests the source of the\nindistinctness as to their respective provinces. The activity that\nscholarship investigates appears in ever-recurring types. This activity may, therefore, appropriately take unto itself the term method.\nEvery branch of study investigates activity as type or law; and law\nis method, and method is law. The past makes us its debtor by handing over to us this thought in the very term method itself. The word\nmethod signifies \"according to a way.\" But what is it that is according to a way? And what is meant by a way? If the thought above presented, viz., that there is nothing in the universe other than activity,\nbe true, then it must be activity that is according to a way. And,\nmoreover, the way itself is necessarily an activity. Then it becomes\nclear that the past transfers to us this thought which it had garnered\nfrom the fields of experience : A method is an activity according to,\nor in harmony with, an activity. The first activity mentioned must\nbe the real one, the one actually occurring the one exhibiting itself\nin someproduct. The second activity referred to must be the ideal\n\none, the typical activity, the norm; it is both the end and the criterion\nof the real activity, of the one that is actually occurring. A method,\nthen, is a real activity according to, or in harmony with, an ideal activity. It now becomes somewhat more clear that close thought only will\n\nrender distinct the provinces of scholarship, method, and devices, and\nlikewise their unity.\n\nEvery branch of study has for its subject-matter certain particulars, certain phenomena that are essentially its own. These phenomena may appear in other branches of study as well as in this one,\nbut they do not appear in those other branches in the same aspect that\n\nthey do is this. The cotton plant appears as a fact in geography. It is\nalso present as one of the phenomena considered in botany. As a geo-\n\ngraphical fact, however, it is not identical with itself as a botanical\nfact. If in this sense each branch of study has its own set of particulars, the activity that produces any one of these particulars must be\n\ntypical. Why does one, in looking at a piece of sandstone, say, \"This\nis not a good specimen?\" It is because the activity that produced it\nwas not according to the type, to the ideal. The activity that pro\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n696\n\n[Normal\n\nduces the facts in history or in geology must be an activity according\nto the type, according to the ideal. Hence, in this sense, activity is\na method. The activity that produces a grammatical fact, the activity that produces a geographical fact, the activity that produces an\n\nhistorical fact is a method, because it is an activity which has as\nits end and criterion an ideal. Identity with this ideal must be the\nend of the activity, and the ideal is its criterion. It is with such a\n\nthought in mind that one says :\n\n\"This is not truly a geographical\n\nfact; that is not really a grammatical fact; that ought not to be\n\ntermed an historical fact.\" There is, then, a method in the subject,\nand this method is the activity that produces the individuals compos-\n\ning the subject-matter. Such activity is in the realm of scholarship.\nThe problem in a given branch of study is to investigate the nature\n\nof the activity that produces its facts ; to determine the various\nphases thereof and their relations to one another. For example, the\nnoun is a fact in grammar. The activity that produces it is different\nfrom the activity that produces the lily of the valley. Grammar must\n\ninvestigate the first activity, botany the second. Each branch of\nstudy is, however, an investigation of the method that creates the in-\n\ndividuals in its subject-matter. This activity may be termed the objective method.\n\nEvery branch of study, therefore, has its objective method. By\nthis is meant the method, the activity, the force, the energy that produces the different individuals composing the subject-matter. For\nexample, the subject of reading has what may be termed its objective\nmethod. This is the energy, the force, the activity required to produce the various individuals in the subject-matter, such as \"Thano-\n\ntopsis,\" \"Evangeline,\" \"The Burial of Sir John Moore,\" \"The Legend\nof Sleepy Hollow,\" etc. Grammar has its objective method. This je\nthe activity, the energy, the force that creates the various individuals\nincluded in the subject-matter of grammar, as the noun, the adverb,\n\nthe preposition, etc. History as a branch of study has its objective\nmethod. This is the activity, the energy, the force that created the\nvarious individuals in the subject-matter, as \"The Battle of Bunker\nHill;\" \"The Hartford Convention ;\" \"The Secession Ordinance,\" etc.\nThe investigation of such activities and their products is within the\nrealm of scholarship.\n\nWhen scholarship has revealed the essential nature of this activity-this objective method of the subject-it has grasped the true\nbasis from which may be inferred two important things. One of these\nis the scope of the subject-matter. It is the function of scholarship to\ndetermine this; to decide which facts belong within the range of the\nsubject, and which ones are excluded. The other important thing that\nmay be inferred is the divisions within this subject-matter. Scholar\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nTHE REAL PROVINCE OF METHOD.\n\n697\n\nship takes upon itself the determination of these. In any branch of\nstudy, therefore, scholarship is to seek out and make clear the essential nature of the creative activity that produces the individuals of\nthe subject. It is then to infer from the nature of this activity the\nscope, the extent of the subject-matter, the boundary lines of the subject.\nIts third great line of work is to determine from the nature of this\n\nactivity the divisions and subdivisions belonging to the subject-matter, carrying such down to the particulars.\n\nIt is then, in the fourth place, to investigate these particulars,\nmarking their unities and distinctions. Such in any branch of study\nseems to be scholarship's province.\nIn such investigation the subject-matter is assumed to be a fact\ndistinct from the examining mind; but there constantly arises a peculiar set of questions, such as : What is the relative value of this\ndivision compared with that? of this subdivision compared with\nthat ? of this particular compared with that? Then it at once becomes evident that there is a factor to be considered over against all\nthis with which scholarship has seemed to concern itself, and this\nfactor is the mind which is to do the investigating. When one says :\n\"\nWhat is the relative value of this fact as compared with that?\" he\nevidently means the relative value to him, the investigator, arising\nfrom making subjective-from making an element of his consciousness-this fact, as compared with doing the same with that fact.\nWhen this inquiry arises, one begins to pass from the realm of scholarship over into the real province of method. For, in such inquiry,\nwhat is it hinted? A second activity ; a new activity. The activity\nthat produces any fact in the subject of botany may be termed the objective method in botany. But here is another activity-the activity\n\nwhich renders this fact of botany subjective to the inquiring mind ;\nthe activity which transmutes the external fact of botany into self,\ninto consciousness. This activity is distinctive; that is, the act of\nconsciousness which transmutes a fact of botany into self has distinguishing marks that set it off from the activity which renders a\nfact of geology an element of consciousness. The activity that produces a fact, an individual, in the subject of physics is the objective\nmethod in physics; but the activity of the inquiring mind necessary\nto make this fact of physics subjective-necessary to make it an element of self, of consciousness is the subjective method in physics.\nEvery branch of study, therefore, has both its objective method\nand its subjective method. The objective method is the activity, the\nenergy, the force that produces the various individuals that constitute\nits subject-matter. The subjective method is the activity of mind\nnecessary to transmute into the self any one of these facts of the sub\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "698\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\nject-matter. The investigation of this subjective method, this activity of the self necessary to make its own any one of the facts of the\nsubject, is within the real province of method. For example, the\nactivity that produces the various facts in the subject of botany is\nthe objective method in botany, and is within the realm of scholarship.\n\nThe scope of the facts determined is also in the realm of scholarship; as are likewise the divisions, the subdivisions, and the distinctions and unities of the particulars. But the nature of the activity\nthat the mind performs in mastering any one of these facts, and the\nrelative value of the divisions, and subdivisions, and facts because of\nthe nature of this mental activity-these things are in the real province of method.\n\nWhen method, working in its own real province, has determined\nthe essential nature of this conscious activity put forth by the inquiring mind in mastering a fact of the subject, it is able to make two\nimportant inferences. These inferences belong also to the real province of method, and the examination of the things inferred falls likewise within that province.\n\nWhat are the things to be inferred from\n\nthe nature of the mind's activity in mastering a fact of a given subject? The first is the effect produced upon the mind by thinking this\nfact, by identifying itself with it. This effect appears, first, as a\ndefinite mental swing-a certain habitude of mind which the given\nsubject alone is fitted to establish. For example, in language the\ndefinite mental swing begins with the conceiving of an object. The\nmind may first seize the object in sense-perception, memory, or imagination; but it ends by conceiving it, by generalizing it. The next\nmovement in this definite mental swing is the forming of a purpose\n\nto express the object to another. Thereupon, the mind conceives or\nimages the expression, and then contemplates the harmony, the correspondence, between the object to be expressed and the expression.\nNo subject other than language is fitted to establish just this habitude,\njust this mental process. This may be termed the language act.\nThere is also the historical act.\n\nIn such an act the mind first con-\n\nceives the disposition, the mental condition of the people. This is\nsucceeded by the consideration of the event or object produced by this\ncondition of the minds of the people. In the third place, the mind becomes aware of the new disposition, of the new mental state, belonging to the people as produced by this event. In the historical act,\nthen, any event-as, for example, the Civil War-appears as the result\nof a certain state of mind in the people, and as an active cause producing a succeeding result in their minds. To conceive a certain state\n\nof the public mind, to apprehend this taking shape in some event or\nstatute, to seize the new state of the public mind as an effect of this\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nTHE REAL PROVINCE OF METHOD.\n\n699\n\nevent or statute, is the peculiar mental swing in the subject of history. This central effect, this essential process belonging to every\nsubject, is one of the effects to be studied. The determination of the\nexact nature of this effect in relation to any given subject belongs to\nthe real province of method.\nIn addition to this, under the head of effect, is to be noted the\nemotional response. In history there arises an interest in the state\nof the public mind, in the event to be produced thereby, and in the\nreflex influence of this event. Just the nature of this, the various opportunities that life affords for its play and its value, compared with\nthe knowledge of specific gravity and other ideas and emotions-the\ndiscussion of all such things belongs under the real province of\nmethod. It would pertain to the real province of method to determine the main and the subordinate emotions to be awakened by the\nstudy of Dickens\" \"Hard Times,\" by the study of \"Evangeline,\" by the\nperusal in Dante's \"Divine Comedy\" of the lines setting forth the condition of the angry and the sullen. The occasions in life affording\nopportunity for the exercise of these feelings, and the relative value\nof such mental states compared with a knowledge of cube root, with\naknowledge of the surface of the United States, etc., would belong\nunder the realm of method.\n\nA third thing to be noted under effect is the volitional development-the tendency to a prompt and decisive choice, and to persistence in that choice. It would belong to the real province of method\nto determine just what tendencies toward choice and toward perseverance in a given course would be awakened and stimulated by a\nstudy of the condition of the inhabitants in the vestibule to the In-\n\nferno ; by a study of Tito, shown in George Eliot's \"Romola,\" as an\nexample of fixation of character; by a study of David's action as exhibited in Browning's \"Saul ;\" by a study of Taylor's persistence in\nthe Mexican War, and Grant's in the Civil War. The real province of\nmethod would claim as its own the determination of the various occa-\n\nsions in life that would call for prompt choosing and persistence, and\nthe weighing of the value of such mental traits along with those arising from the study of book-keeping, compound numbers, etc.\nMethod, then, takes unto itself the examination and valuation of\nthe entire realm of effects produced upon the self in its mastery of\n\nthe facts of any subject. Herein is seen the value to the teacher arising from a study of such subjects as æsthetics, ethics, logic, psychology, and philosophy.\nA second thing to be inferred from the subjective method in any\nsubject that is, from the main mental process in mastering a subject-the second thing to be inferred from this is the relative edu-\n\ncational value of the subject; its value as a subject compared with\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "700\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\nother subjects; the relative value of the divisions and subdivisions\nunder the subject; the relative value of the different individuals of\nthe subject. The consideration of all these things pertains to the real\nprovince of method.\nThere is a third thing to be inferred from the main mental process\nemployed in mastering a given subject. This is the means, the devices, the instrumentalities appropriate to the direction and stimulation of this main mental process-appropriate to the awakening\nand fixing of the mental effects naturally belonging to the subject.\nThis includes a consideration of the teacher himself; of the range of\nhis scholarship, of his disposition, of the trend of his sympathies, of\nthe harmony of his character, of his industry, of his quickness of insight, of his ability as a questioner, of his spirit as an inquirer, and\nof the relation of all these qualities to the stimulating and directing\nof the mental process in the learner. Under this third head would be\nincluded, not only the determining of the devices but also the deciding\nof the order of their employment and the grounds therefor. Under\nthe real province of method would be included all these things.\n\nIt seems, therefore, that to every branch of study belongs an objective method, or the activity which creates the individuals of the\nsubject-matter, a scope or range of the subject-matter determined\ntherefrom, and various divisions, subdivisions, and attributes of distinction and unity in the particulars likewise determined therefrom ;\nand a subjective method, viz., the mental activity involved in mastering any fact of the subject-matter, together with the effects, relative\nvalue, and instrumentalities to be inferred therefrom.\nThe real province of scholarship includes all that pertains to the\nobjective method and its inferences; and the real province of method\nincludes all found in the subjective method and the inferences essentially involved therein.\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF\n\nTRAINING SCHOOLS AND\n\nPRACTICE\n\nTEACHING.\n\nBY MISS KATE D. STOUT, TRENTON, N. J.\n\nIn speaking of the financial difficulties of our country, President\n\nCleveland made this remark, \"It is not a theory but a condition\nwhich confronts us.\"\n\nSo it is with the young teacher when first he\n\nenters upon the duties of the schoolroom. For the time being, the\ntheory of teaching, mastered to a degree by his previous training,\nretires to a place in the background of his thoughts, and the art of\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nTRAINING SCHOOLS AND PRACTICE TEACHING.\n\n701\n\nteaching and of managing rushes to the foreground and commands\nhis undivided attention. However correct his knowledge of the child's\nmind, however clear his understanding of the principles of teaching,\nhe is a failure in the schoolroom if he cannot secure and hold the\n\nattention of his pupils and make clear the difficult problem of the\nlesson. In recognition of this fact that is, that teaching is not\nonly a science but an art-a system for the training of teachers has\ncome to include some definite means of learning the art, under com-\n\npetent and sympathetic supervision, which shall spare the teacher\nmuch wasted time and energy and save his pupils from many of the\nevils attending undirected experimentation. This means we know\nas the practice school. Here the teacher-in-training may exhibit his\npower to make use of principles learned in his psychology and method\nclasses, and test his skill in controlling and directing pupils by actually teaching-under guidance careful of his success and watchful\nof the interests of his pupils.\nThe organization of the practice school has taken three general\nforms : First, there is the school which is wholly under normal authority. The course of study is laid out by the principal of the\nnormal school, and the methods used in teaching are subject to his\nsupervision. This form is often known as the model school. Second, there is the school in which the normal and city divide the authority. The course of study is planned by the city, though some\nliberty of variation is allowed for the sake of experiment, and the\nexpense of the school is shared by the normal authorities, in return\nfor which the normal students enjoy the privilege of observation and\npractice. Third, there is the school which is independent of normal\nauthority. The course of study followed and the methods employed\nare of city origin, and the normal students practice as assistants to\nthe city teachers.\n\nDoubtless much may be said in favor of each of these forms of\nthe practice school. The circumstances of every normal school are\ndifferent from those of every other, and time is an important ele-\n\nment demanding consideration; hence, the difficulty in attaining\nthe ideal in the organization of practice schools. In this discussion,\nhowever, I may be allowed to favor a system which has been found\nto be practical under our own conditions. It includes training under both the first and third forms of organization ; that is, first, a\ncourse of practice in the model school entirely under normal super-\n\nvision ; and, second, a period of a month or six weeks' practice in\nthe city schools which are independent of normal supervision.\nThe practice school which is under normal supervision seems to\nbe the field for beginning teaching under the most favorable circumstances. Here the pupil-teacher finds that harmony of theory\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "702\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nand practice which is so essential to his clear understanding.\n\n[Normal\n\nWhen\n\nthe school is located near to the normal school another feature con-\n\nducive to the success of the young teacher is found in his familiarity\nwith some of the pupils. He has watched them with interest on\n\nthe play-ground, in the halls, and in the classroom, and daily\nhas recorded some observation for use in the psychology class. And\nagain, he has frequently seen them in classes, when called by his\nhis method-teacher to observe some concrete illustration of theoret-\n\nical instruction. Under these favorable conditions, the pupil-teacher\nis more likely to succeed in his new and, at the best, difficult undertaking than if he were plunged at once into these difficulties under\nstrange authority and among strange children. His training is practical, for his classes are of average size, such as he will meet in a\nschool of his own, and the lessons he teaches are of such a nature as\ncan be adapted to his own classes in a district or city school.\nThe chief objections which have been raised to this type of practice teaching are, first, that the perfect harmony between the theory\nof the normal school and the practice of the training school causes\nthe children to respond with unnatural readiness to the pupil-teacher's efforts, and so he is apt to make the method, not the child, the\ncenter of his teaching; and, second, that the organization of the\nschool gives too little room for the development of the governing\npower .\n\nThose who have had anything to do with the training of teachers in such a practice school no doubt will agree that these objections contain some truth.\n\nBut I believe that the advantages more\n\nthan balance the disadvantages at the beginning stage of teaching.\nHowever, the power to meet unforeseen difficulty in teaching and\nskill in management are elements of success too important to be\nslighted. As Mr. Russell has said, substantially, scope in teaching is desirable as well as precision, and ability to control is a necessity. Hence the advisability of supplementing the practice in the\nmodel school by teaching under conditions which shall still further\ndevelop the pupil-teacher in the directions above referred to. In\nour own experience, we have found these conditions in the city\nschools independent of normal authority. Here the pupil-teacher\nacts as an assistant to the regular teacher. Fortified by his model\nschool practice, he is ready to adapt himself to the differing personalities of the schoolroom and the variation in the course of study\nand methods, and he is generally a success.\nHaving thus reviewed the general organization of the practice\nschool, it will be my purpose to speak of the supervision of practice\n\nteaching there. Here again, as with the general organization, the\nvarying conditions of normal schools have occasioned a variety\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nTRAINING SCHOOLS AND PRACTICE TEACHING.\n\n703\n\nin the form of supervision, and for this reason it cannot be said\nthat any one form is the best for all schools. We have, first,\nthe system under which all the teaching in the school is by novices,\nwho work under the direction of a general critic having absolute\n\nauthority.\n\nSecond, we have the supervision by department critics ;\n\nthe head of the department of English in the normal directs all the\n\npractice teaching in language, and so in the other departments.\nThird, the planning and criticism of work are found in the hands\n\nof grade teachers, while assignments and transfers of pupil-teachers\n\nare made by the head of the normal school. A fourth variety is a\ncombination substantially of the first and last; each class in the\npractice school is in charge of a teacher selected for superior merit\n\nin her profession, who acts as critic of the practice teaching in her\nroom, while a general critic from the normal side assigns all practice-work and has general oversight of practice teaching in all rooms.\nWhile each of these forms of supervision has its virtues, and no\n\ndoubt meets the necessity out of which it has grown, I think it may\nfairly be said that some are open to much more criticism than others.\n\nOne of the purposes of the practice school, as has been said, is to\nsave children from the evils of experimentation. Now if all the\nteaching is by novices and no one competent teacher is responsible\nfor the progress of the class, it would seem impossible for the children to escape much harm that might be avoided by a closer supervision. As for the young teacher himself, under this system he\nworks at a disadvantage and loses valuable time, as many of his\nefforts are unwitnessed and therefore unaided.\n\nWhen the training\n\nclass is small the danger in both directions is less, as the general\ncritic is able to give more time to each pupil-teacher and his class .\nArguments in favor of the plan of supervision by department\ncritics are evident, but it has this serious drawback : However\nbroadly a method-teacher may present his subject, the suggestions\nhave gone out to the student stamped with the teacher's authority\nand have been received by him with little if any question. If he\ncontinue under the same supervision, there is danger that his view\nof the subject will be narrow, and that he will imitate rather than\noriginate. It is desirable to arouse in him a healthful skepticism,\nand this can be done best by placing him under new though harmonious direction.\n\nWhen the supervision of practice-work is entirely in the hands\nof different grade teachers it is exceedingly difficult to develop the\npupil-teacher to his highest ability. For to accomplish this end\nit is necessary to know the pupil-teacher as he began and as he has\nimproved. His weakness must be converted into strength and his\nstrength increased. In passing from one critic or grade teacher to\nanother it is possible that he may lose the ground he has just won\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "704\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\nunless there is some one who has known him from the beginning\nto encourage, to advise him, or to give him special work; and, in so\ndoing, not only to hold him to the point gained but also to urge him\nforward. In a large normal school it is impossible for the principal\nto give this general direction with any degree of satisfaction. Out\nof these conditions has grown the position of general critic. It is\n\nnot difficult to conclude by inference from all that has been said\nthat the writer considers the last-mentioned form of supervision,\nthat by the grade teacher and the general critic, the best form. It\nis unnecessary to recapitulate at this point all the advantages which\nI have intimated, but I may be permitted to emphasize by repeating\njust two points. First, the supervision of the grade teacher secures\nthe interest of the children on one hand, and, on the other, it impresses the pupil-teacher with the important truth, that one of the\ntests of his success is the progress of his class. Second, the supervision of the general critic enables the pupil-teacher to advance\nsteadily along all lines, and, at last, to develop in that line of work\nfor which he has shown special adaptation.\nIt is objected that the presence of the grade teacher in the room\nprevents the rapid growth of the disciplinary power. This is true\nas regards self-dependent discipline, but it is believed that the above\nadvantages compensate for the loss at this time, and that the power\nwill be strengthened later in the city schools, as was indicated in the\nearly part of this discussion.\n\nI have already intimated something of the order of development\n\nof the pupil-teacher, but of this point I will now speak further.\nThere are two ways of learning any art, each incomplete without\nthe other : First, by seeing how to do, and, second, by doing ; in\nother words, by observation and practice.\nBefore the pupil-teacher, then, begins to practice, he should ob-\n\nserve many lessons in different grades, in different subjects, and\nby different teachers.\n\nOf the several plans which suggest them-\n\nselves to the general critic for conducting this observation, the best\nway is that which presents superior teaching under the most practical conditions. This plan would seem to be observation of the\nregular grade teacher of the model school. The general critic should\nbe present during the lesson, and should discuss it with the training\nclass afterwards .\n\nAt first the class should be directed to look for only one point ;\n\nas, How was the attention held ? or, What was the relation of this\nlesson to others ?\n\nLater, the class may be given an outline for com-\n\nplete criticism, including teaching, training, children, and teacher.\nThe early work in observation should be thus carefully directed for\ntwo reasons :\n\nFirst, the more skillful the teaching the less appar-\n\nent has been the method, especially to young observers ; second, it\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nTRAINING SCHOOLS AND PRACTICE TEACHING.\n\n705\n\nis true that we see only what we are trained to see, therefore the\npupil-teachers will see little more than they are directed to see,\neither by question before the lesson or through discussion after it\nis given.\nAs a result of the directed observation and criticism of lessons\n\na pupil-teacher should be profoundly impressed with at least two\npoints-the unity of subjects in a course of study, and the variety\nin the application of the same principles of teaching and training\nin the hands of different teachers. It is plain that the young teacher's pedagogical horizon must have widened, and he should begin\nhis actual practice with a broader intelligence and a greater depth\nof purpose.\n\nHaving seen how good teaching is accomplished, he is ready now\nto \" learn to do by doing.\" It has been found profitable to have him\nbegin with what has been termed the mechanics of teaching. By superintending seat work, preparing and distributing material, calling\n\nand dismissing classes, and performing other mechanical duties of\nthe schoolroom, the young teacher becomes accustomed to move\namong the pupils in the attitude of a leader. His self-consciousness\ngrows less apparent, and when a class is given into his hands to\nteach, the lesson is much more likely to be given smoothly in consequence of this preparatory training.\nThe next step in training should be the teaching and managing\nof regular classes in the model school. The progress of the pupilteacher and the class in his charge demands a certain watchfulness\nover his preparation at first. An ounce of prevention is worth a\npound of cure on both sides. Hence the custom of requiring a written plan for every lesson during the first four or five months' practice. This plan should be subjected to the criticism of the grade\nteacher and general critic, who, working in harmony with each\nother, should make suggestions to the pupil-teacher and inspire him\nwith faith in himself and the possibilities of his pupils. The plan\nshould not be over-criticised, for freedom in teaching is thus made\nimpossible, and it is as essential to the success of the beginner as\nfreedom of speaking is to the five-year-old child in his first language\nlessons .\n\nAt the end of four or five months, or when the pupil-teacher exhibits an appreciation of the importance of faithful preparation, and\nshows considerable ability in classification and adaptation of subject-matter, he may be relieved from formal plan-writing with bene-\n\nfit to himself and without detriment to his class. This independent\nwork develops a real sense of responsibility for results ; the pupilteacher becomes self-reliant and original; and, what is perhaps best\nof all, he grows in power to readjust both matter and plan to meet\n\nthe unexpected\nneeds of his class. On the other hand, the presence\n45\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "706\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\nof the grade teacher prevents any serious harm coming to the children.\n\nThe general critic should visit the pupil-teachers frequently. She\nshould also receive written reports of their work from the grade\nteachers. She is thus in a position to see the practice teaching as\na whole and to look at each individual's work as a whole.\n\nShe\n\nshould see that all pupil-teachers have practice in most of the primary and grammar grades. All the essentials of the art of teaching may be learned here, and an opportunity is afforded to discover\n\nthe special weakness or strength of any pupil-teacher.\nThe general critic should make it possible for the older and more\ncapable pupil-teacher to receive a broader training than the less\nmature or slower could compass. This can be done by giving special work under her own supervision, or by promoting out of regular time from one grade to another. This is an important duty of\nthe general critic which should not be neglected.\nThe city school practice completes the regular training course\nas I have outlined it. When there is opportunity for a short term\nof special attention to one department of work, so much the better\nfor those who can embrace it. This should come properly toward\nthe close of the course, either just before or after the city school\npractice. I have already spoken of the value of the independent\ncity practice as a factor in the development of the pupil-teacher.\nThe general critic should visit each pupil-teacher at least once during his practice, and reports of the work should be sent to the normal\nschool at the close of the period. During this time an opportunity\nshould be given the pupil-teacher to report his failures or successes\nto the general critic, and he should feel as much confidence in approaching her for advice and suggestion as he felt in the days of\nmodel school practice.\nThis leads me to speak of the last point which I shall considerthe nature of criticism.\n\nI am not of the opinion that it should cover\n\nthe ground of mistakes. Detailed advice, especially if it take the\nnegative form, is apt to bewilder the novice and deprive him of all\nfreedom in teaching ; or, as some one has said, in a better way,\n\"Though fault-finding may keep down the weeds, it tends to produce\nsterility by chilling the soil of courageous endeavor.\"\nWith a course of training in teaching such as has been outlined\nI feel convinced that the average pupil-teacher goes out to take his\nplace in the ranks of public school teachers fairly, and even generously, equipped for his work. He himself should feel a wholesome dissatisfaction with the degree of excellence which he has attained, and knowing wherein his weakness lies, he should be alert\nto use every opportunity to reach the standard of his highest cараbility.\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPRACTICE TEACHING IN NORMAL SCHOOLS.\n\n707\n\nTHE ORGANIZATION OF PRACTICE TEACHING IN NORMAL\nSCHOOLS.\n\nBY J. N. WILKINSON, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL OF KANSAS .\n\nThe wording of this subject is not designed to include the city\ntraining school. The organization of practice teaching in a school\nwhose students have all been taught in the same system of city\nschools, in the same subjects, by the same methods, and who are expecting to teach in the selfsame system of schools the same subjects\nand by the same methods, is not the organization suited to normal\nschools in general.\nPractice teaching is not understood to mean such experience as a\n\nstudent may obtain by conducting the recitations of his classmates.\nIf the subject studied is such as to extend the field of knowledge for\nall the class, and thus lies partly beyond their present vision, then,\nin teaching done by one of their number, we have \"the blind leading\nthe blind.\" A presiding officer whose decision of points under discussion is liable to be reversed by the adverse opinion of the majority is\nnot a teacher, and it should not be imagined that he who leads a class\nunder similar circumstances is getting practice in teaching. If one\nis giving sham instruction to sham pupils in subjects far below their\nactual attainments, he does not come in contact with the real difficulties which he should learn to master. Playing school is not learning to teach school. Genuine practice in teaching is not to be found\nwith equals as teacher and pupils.\nThe practice department may be said to include observation as\nwell as actual teaching. It is not necessary that all of any one pupilteacher's observation in this department precede all his attempts at\nteaching, but it is important that he begin his observation and teaching with a basis of pedagogic philosophy. He should be able to settle\nall questions as to the methods he observes and the methods he uses\n\nby referring them to the fundamental principles of scientific teaching.\nIf he can do this, he can observe with profit the teaching of persons\nwho are not experts, and can get therefrom courage to take up the\nwork himself while learning what errors to avoid. He will take, in\nchallenging questionable methods, liberties that the novice cannot\nbe led to assume with the work of a regular model teacher.\n\nUnder\n\nthe proper guidance of critic-teachers he can spend a short time with\neach of several pupil-teachers, analyzing their work with less danger\nof copying their errors than there would be of his imitating the foi-\n\nbles which may be the most striking characteristic of a so-called\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "708\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\nmodel teacher. Normal schools could not easily keep an observation\ndepartment distinct from the practice department if they would; and\nthere is at least one normal school in this country that would not if it\ncould.\n\nThe course of study laid down for the guidance of pupil-teachers\nin teaching their classes should be minute enough to prevent a teacher\nfrom covering ground that is located elsewhere in the course, and yet\nshould leave much freedom to the teacher and the observers in out-\n\nlining lessons for the approval of the critic-teacher. The plan for presenting each subject should be worked out by the pupil-teacher according to the best light he has been able to obtain, and then should\nbe improved as much as possible in a conference with the trainingteacher before the subject is taught. Even after all this has been\ndone the pupil-teacher should feel at liberty to depart from this plan\nas far as unforeseen circumstances may require, but he should give\ngood reasons for so doing. This plan of shaping work for the classes\nwill not create an elaborate organism of devices to be fossilized, but\nwill allow as much variety of philosophic method as may be consistent with the healthy mental growth of the children who are taught\nby the pupil-teachers. The city training school may perhaps be content with a drill as automatic as that of the soldier in the regular\narmy, but normals training for general school work should develop\nthe power of self-direction and wise adaptation.\nThe pupil-teachers do not all need exactly the same course to fit\nthem for the profession of teaching. In many state normal schools,\nmost of those who enter the training department have already had\nsuch experience as comes from teaching a district school, and have,\nbecause of their real or imagined success, thought it worth while to\nmake some further investment in the business.\n\nThese teachers show,\n\nwhen they study pedagogy, a more intelligent appreciation of educational principles because of their experience, but they do not necessarily have greater success in the training department. Such as have\nformed good habits of teaching should be allowed to shorten the usual\nterm of practice; others will need, in order to break their bad habits,\nmore training than those who have never taught.\nThe training needed may differ in direction as well as in extent.\nSome need most of all to increase their power of discipline by acquiring more system, greater firmness, and warmer sympathy. Others\nshould learn, in giving instruction, such arts as holding attention and\nat the same time holding their own tongues to the specific work of\ngiving concise and clear explanations. Many lack adaptability to the\nwork of certain grades, and wish to take their practice in grades to\nwhich they think they are suited. Later, when seeking positions ,\nthey do not make so great objection to the distasteful work if the\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES IN NORMAL SCHOOLS.\n\n709\n\nsalary which attaches is more inviting than any other in reach. The\nfrequency of such cases shows the need of giving practice along the\nlines of greatest weakness. The pupil-teacher in a training department should be assigned and firmly held to such a course of experience as he needs.\n\nNot all who complete a course in a training department should\n\nbe allowed to attempt every grade of its work. The task of general\nsupervision, for instance, and of representing the school in the settlement of misunderstandings with parents is a kind of practice to\nwhich only those who may hope to prepare for positions of such responsibility should be admitted. Among those who attain this distinction might be found teachers who would do such work as is in-\n\ntrusted to the over-teachers in the training school at Jena, Germany ;\nbut, as normal students, unlike those in this German University,\nusually decline to do teaching work that does not count in time and\ncredits toward graduation, it is not likely that mature men will here,\nas in that school, devote to teaching almost their entire time for\nmonths without some special recognition beyond the diploma given\nto those completing a course that requires only the minimum of\npractice teaching. Training departments can, with benefit to themselves and increased benefit to the cause of education, provide at least\ntwo grades of practice and give distinctive certificates or diplomas\nfor each grade.\n\nIn conclusion, it is conceded that the organization of practice\nteaching as here outlined is not easily maintained, and it is suggested\nthat the most ample and capable force of training, critic, and model\nteachers will find their full time and strength necessary to sustain\nand enforce even the most thorough and efficient organization.\n\nTHE CORRELATION OF STUDIES IN A NORMAL SCHOOL.\n\nBY N. C. SCHAEFFER, HARRISBURG, PA.\n\nIn discussing the course of study for a normal school it is necessary to bear in mind, on the one hand, the difference between a high\nschool and a professional school; and, on the other, the difference\nbetween a normal school and a college.\nThe normal school is not a high school, and a curriculum of study\nproperly co-ordinated for a high school necessarily differs from a curriculum adapted to the needs of students in a normal school.\n\nBoth\n\nin aim and method the high school differs from the professional\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "710\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\nschool. The military academy and the naval academy aim to educate\nofficers for the army and the navy. Every other interest is subordinated to that of making soldiers and mariners. When the interests\n\nof the individual are in conflict with this primary aim, he is expected\nto resign his cadetship and to sever his connection with the school.\nThe same is very largely true of the law school, the medical college,\nand the theological seminary ; and it should be more largely true than\nit is of the normal school.\n\nThe whole question of preparing courses of study is very much\n\nsimplified as soon as we adopt the theory that it is not the function\nof the high school to prepare teachers. Who ever heard of a high\nschool trying to fit its pupils to practice law or medicine ? Equally\nabsurd is it to expect a high school to perform the functions of a\ntraining school for teachers. For years Philadelphia tried to combine a normal school and a girls' high school in one institution, but\nthe experiment was at last given up to make room for a better plan.\nFrom the nature of the case it could not succeed. Many pupils who\nare not fitted either by talent or by temperament to become teachers,\nare nevertheless greatly benefited by a course of high school study in\nwhich the interests of the individual are not subordinated to professional aims. The teacher in a high school can be well satisfied if his\npupils acquire a knowledge of the branches adequate for more advanced study. The normal school, on the other hand, must aim at\nthe thorough and exhaustive knowledge of the branches which the\nlearner needs in order to teach.\n\nA model school designed to furnish\n\nobservation and practice to the pupil-teacher may rise to the level of\na high school in its more advanced classes; but it is a pedagogical\nsin in the training of the average high school pupil to emphasize preparation for a vocation at the expense of that general culture and discipline which are calculated to make the most of the God-given powers and possibilities of the individual.\nThe high school aims at culture; the professional school aims at\npreparation for a specific vocation, which implies special skill and\nspecial training based upon a general education. In one respect the\ncollege is like the high school. Both aim at general culture, at the\ncomplete development of the student's powers. College studies differ\nfrom those of the high school in their adaptation to minds of greater\nmaturity, and from those of the normal school in not subordinating\nthe interests of the pupil to a specific calling. Here, then, we uncover the first difference in the principles of co-ordination in the\nstudies of the high school and the college as compared with the studies\nof a professional school. The studies of the high school and the college must be co-ordinated so as to beget the fullest development of\nthe individual's powers and talents. Any shaping of the studies with\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\n711\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES IN NORMAL SCHOOLS.\n\na view to some special calling is justifiable only in so far as it does\nnot interfere with this complete development. In the professional\nschool the arrangement of studies proceeds upon the assumption that\nthe interests of culture are subsumed in the interests of a specific calling; that the individual is to be trained as means to an end.\n\nThe\n\nculture of the individual is not complete without a knowledge and\nappreciation of classic literature, but since a knowledge of classic\nliterature is not essential to the practice of medicine, the faculty of a\nmedical college cannot afford to spend time upon the imparting of this\nkind of knowledge. The mastery of the details of anatomy and materia medica may involve the worst sort of memory cram and seriously interfere with the harmonious activity of the other faculties.\nNevertheless, the medical school must lay stress upon these details,\nbecause without them the practitioner cannot be successful.\n\nIn like\n\nmanner, the course of study in the normal school is shaped by the\nnecessities of the calling to which the graduates are to devote themselves.\n\nThe nature of the profession is, therefore, the central idea which\nregulates the selection and arrangement of the studies in a professional school. In the normal school this central idea is the practice\nof teaching. Here we must not be misled by narrow or exaggerated\n\nnotions of the value of mere practice. Let me put my thought as\nconcretely as possible. Two brothers grew up under the influence of\nthe maxims, \"Practice makes perfect,\" and \"We learn to do by doing.\"\nBoth entered upon life with exalted notions of the value of practice.\nOne became a city superintendent, and found no peace until he had\nestablished a practice school for the training of teachers. Those in\ntraining practiced, not only upon the immortal minds of growing\nchildren but also upon one another, while going through the motions\nof hearing and teaching lessons with which all were familiar. It was\na veritable summer school of methods continued all the seasons of the\n\nyear. The other brother became the superintendent of an orphans'\nhome. For the purpose of giving the orphans practice in the art of\nmastication, he furnished them copious supplies of chewing gum.\nBut the orphans grèw lean in spite of all their practice in the motions\nand methods of chewing gum, just as the pupil-teachers under the\ncare of the first brother grew intellectually lean in spite of all their\npractice in methods of teaching. The orphans need daily supplies of\nnourishing food if they are to grow strong, and healthy, and vigorous ;\nthe pupil-teachers need daily supplies of intellectual food gathered\nfrom the realms of science, mathematics, and philosophy, of history,\ngeography, and literature, if they are not to grow lean during their\nyears of training. Many people cherish totally wrong conceptions of\nprofessional schools, especially professional schools for teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n712\n\n[Normal\n\nTheological seminaries spend far more time in teaching what to\n\npreach than in teaching how to preach. Law schools, instead of\nspending their strength upon the details of practice, aim chiefly and\nprimarily to give the learner a knowledge of the law. A medical college would soon cease to exist if it gave the students nothing except\nclinics and practice in diagnosing and in prescribing drugs. Equally\nabsurd is it to expect that the student in a normal school shall devote the major portion of his time to the study of methods and to\nactual practice in teaching. The normal school faculty cannot be\nsatisfied if the student simply gains a knowledge of the branches\nadequate for more advanced study; they must aim to impart a thorough and exhaustive knowledge of the branches to be taught-a\nknowledge enabling the pupil-teacher to see the subject-matter of instruction in all its bearings and relations.\n\nDr. Harris called the late\n\nHelen Shafer the best teacher of algebra he ever knew, because she\nknew exactly what formulæ and principles and operations were most\nfrequently required in all subsequent study of mathematics. Here\nevidently is a fundamental principle of correlation. The best teacher\n\nof geography is (other things being equal) he who knows what the\npupil will need in his subsequent career, either as a student or as a\nman of affairs. This holds true of every branch which the candidatein-training may be expected to teach.\n\nThe instructor who lacks this\n\nbroad outlook may cause the pupils to waste their time and strength\nupon non-essential details.\nAlongside of this correlation which looks into the future is an-\n\nother of equal importance, calculated to economize the intellectual\neffort at different stages of progress. When a pupil is studying the\nhistory of Greece under one instructor it is wise at the same time to\n\nconcentrate study upon the geography of that country in the geography class. When a pupil-teacher is giving lessons in the fundamental\noperations of arithmetic, what a flood of light it throws upon his work\nif he is taught to read and write numbers and to construct addition\nand multiplication tables on some scale other than ten! While it\nwould be a criminal waste of time to require the average pupil to\n\nlearn the duodecimal arithmetic, it pays any teacher to familiarize\nhimself sufficiently with the scale of twelve to think in the symbols\nand terminology of the duodecimal scale. He will then appreciate\nthe problem before the child, which, in addition to acquiring the ideas\nof number, must also learn the manipulation of the symbols of the\nordinary scale.\n\nHow much easier it is to teach the demonstration\n\ninvolving incommensurable quantities in geometry when the teacher\nhas investigated incommensurable quantities in arithmetic ! What a\nflood of light the algebraic equation throws upon many questions of\narithmetical analysis ! Some of these days a genius will construct a\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCORRELATION OF STUDIES IN NORMAL SCHOOLS.\n\n713\n\ntext-book on elementary mathematics to show pupil-teachers the inner nexus between arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, and how this\ninner connection may help in economizing the efforts of the average\nboy below the age of fourteen. If teaching is to be a profession,\nthose who follow it must acquire much collateral knowledge in addition to the subjects they profess to teach. Just as a physician is\nexpected to know many things of which other people can well afford\nto be ignorant, so the teacher should know many things in science,\nmathematics, history, and language of which the average man or\nwoman can afford to be ignorant as having no bearing upon their\nspecific life-work.\n\nAll practice in teaching a given branch should be correlated witn\nobservation of the best teaching in the same line of work.\n\npractice never makes perfect.\n\nMere\n\nWe learn to do, not by blind or care-\n\nless doing but by intelligent, painstaking doing. Hence, all work\nin the practice-rooms should be carefully correlated with intelligent\nobservation of similar work by model teachers. The normal schools\nwhich combine a department of observation with the department of\npractice in the model school have shaped their policy in accordance\nwith one of the most important principles of correlation in professional training.\n\nA more important principle of correlation remains to be considered. Said a keen observer not long ago : \"I have noticed, that, when\nby accident a rich man's daughter is led to take a session or two at\na normal school, she returns home with the conviction that teaching\nis the noblest calling in which a human being can engage. Even if\nshe is afterwards persuaded to exchange this vocation for that of\nmatrimony, she never loses her estimate of the dignity of teaching ;\nand so long as she lives she is never satisfied unless she has charge\nof a class at Sunday-school.\" The professional spirit which students\nimbibe in the atmosphere of normal schools, the zeal which these\nschools infuse, the stimulation which they give, the interest in childhood and the love for children which they create is worth more than\nscholarship and practice combined. The most pitiable sight on the\nface of the earth is a college professor who has read all the classic\nGreek ever written ; who knows in his line all that is to be known;\n\nwho, having lost his interest in Greek, has also lost his power to\nstimulate others ; who is gradually sinking into innocuous desuetude ;\nand whom, in view of former usefulness, the trustees finally put upon\nthe emeritus list, as the most decent form of burial ever invented for\na living human being. The specimens of this sort which our college\nfaculties contain show the need of something additional to scholarship and practice in cataloguing the elements of success in teaching.\nChurch history reveals to the student of theology the achievements\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "714\n\nNATIONAL EducaTIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Normal\n\nof gospel in the two great missionary periods of the past, and helps\nto give him an adequate conception of the calling in which the apostles were engaged. The history of education brings the normal school\nstudent into contact with the great teachers who have revolutionized\nthe world's life. A proper co-ordination of the curriculum requires\ndue regard to the studies which beget the professional spirit.\nFinally, the solution of the problem of co-ordination is found, not\nin the program but in the individual. The conflicting claims of the\nhome, the church, and the state present a problem which finds its\nsolution in the life and personality of the individual who is a proper\nexponent of the home, a faithful member of the church, and a loyal\ncitizen of the republic. The conflicting claims of the several principles of co-ordination find their reconciliation in the concrete life of\n\nthe student.\n\nObservation and practice, scholarship and training, pro-\n\nfessional zeal and wise self-control must be so correlated that the\n\nquintessence of each and all of the studies may be subsumed and sub-\n\nlimated in the new product of nineteenth century developmentthe professional teacher.\n\nCONCENTRATION OR CO- ORDINATION OF STUDIES IN THE\nNORMAL SCHOOL.\n\n[A DISCUSSION OF THE PRECEDING PAPER. ]\n\nBY JOHN W. COOK, NORMAL, ILL.\n\nIt will be admitted, of course, that the curriculum of the normal\nschool is to be determined by the necessities of the calling to which\nthe graduates are to devote themselves. It is only thus that an institution comes to be a normal school. Since, as has been said, prepa-\n\nration for the practice of teaching is the central idea, the course of\nstudy and practice must be adjusted to the accomplishment of this\nparticular end.\n\nIn the face of these propositions, however, it is difficult to understand (and here I quote from the paper) how \"it is absurd to expect\nthat the student in a normal school shall devote the major part of his\ntime to the study of methods and to actual practice.\" What is a\nmethod but the organization and presentation of a body of knowledge\nin accordance with the laws of mental assimilation ?\n\nAnd what is\n\npractice-work but one aspect of method-work ? I confess my inabil\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCO- ORDINATION OF STUDIES IN NORMAL SCHOOLS.\n\n715\n\nity to understand the slighting reference to practice-work, and am\nquite wholly unable to see the application of the interesting incident\nof the two brothers. The old maxim, \"Practice makes perfect,\" implies some distinctive activity which has been consciously selected,\nand it is absolutely true that perfection in that particular act comes\nonly through repetition. To attempt to separate practice from theory\nis, to my mind, to attempt an absurdity. Practice without a clear\nand explicit notion of what is to be practiced is quite unthinkable.\nIt seems to be the doctrine of the paper that the chief purpose of\nthe normal school is (again I quote) \"to impart a thorough and exhaustive knowledge of the branches to be taught.\" With this proposition I wish to take clear and unequivocal issue.\n\nSo far as the nor-\n\nmal school devotes itself simply to that work it usurps the work of\nthe high school or college. That it must deal with the knowledges\nI am not only willing to admit but will insist, but the peculiar spirit\nof the treatment makes such work essentially professional. As the\nmedical and theological schools demand a general education as a prerequisite, so should the normal schools.\nBut what correlations are insisted upon ?\n\n1. A correlation of the elements of any given subject, so that it\nshall become an organic unity.\nBut is this treatment in any sense peculiar to a normal school ?\nShould not the various topics of arithmetic be so presented that the\npupil shall discover the relations of dependence subsisting between\nthem?\n\nIs not this one of the salient features of the reform for which\n\nthe \"Correlationists\" are pressing so vigorously? So far as the normal school presents academic phases it should conform to the highest\nrequirements of academic instruction. In its theoretical discipline it\nshould press the same principle. Its system of pedagogy should assume the same closely organized aspect, so far as it is possible to\nachieve such a result in the imperfectly developed condition of that\nscience.\n\n2. The paper also recommends the correlation of related subjects,\n\nas geography and history. Of course, this should be accomplished\nso far as possible; but in what respect should this correlation in the\nnormal school differ from that of the elementary or secondary school ?\n3. I quote : \"All practice teaching should be correlated with observation of best teaching in the same line of work.\" Doubtless the\npupil-teacher should derive the greatest possible assistance from his\nobservation of the work of the critic-teachers, but I had not thought\nof that as a phase of correlation, as the term is used in this discussion.\n4. Again I quote: \"A proper co-ordination of the curriculum requires due regard to the studies which beget the professional spirit.\"\nThe case of the rich man's daughter is given as an illustration of the\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n716\n\n[Normal\n\npoint suggested. Are we to understand that studies are to be pursued simply for the purpose of arousing a professional spirit ? If\nthat temper of soul shall not appear with the pupil's growth in professional knowledge and skill, no adventitious help will be of much\navail.\n\n5. \"Finally,\" I quote, \"the solution of the problem of co-ordination\nis found, not in the program but in the individual.\" He is to correlate himself as a representative of the home, the church, and the\nstate, as they have conflicting claims. But is this correlation in any\nsense peculiar to the teacher? Is it not alike incumbent upon all\ngood citizens ? Let us hope that the teacher may be included under\nthat category.\n\n\"The conflicting claims of the several principles of co-ordination\nfind their reconciliation in the concrete life of the student.\n\nObserva-\n\ntion and practice, scholarship and training, professional zeal and\nwise self-control must be so correlated that the quintessence of each\nand all of the studies may be subsumed and sublimated in the new\nproduct of nineteenth century development-the professional teacher.\" I cannot quote the foregoing from the paper of the distinguished\nspeaker without yielding it my approval ; yet I may be pardoned, perhaps, if I fail to see its full application to the discussion. If I might\nassume the constructive rather than the critical attitude, I should\n\nsuggest that we should have a clear understanding of the terms used.\nDr. Harris has suggested that concentration and correlation are not\nsynonymous terms, but are rather opposite in meaning. The latter\nimplies certain distinct unities which are supplementary, while the\nformer implies a synthesis of these unities into a higher organic unity.\nI have no desire to quibble, however, in respect to the meaning of\nterms, but will assume that what is here meant is that somewhat\nthoroughgoing synthesis by which each feature of the curriculum is\nbrought into close and sympathetic connection with every other. In\na professional school the professional idea must determine the main\nline of movement and the center of correlation, so far as there shall\nbe a center. As the practice school is the focal point of the work of\na normal school, it would seem that it should reveal in an especial\nway the principle of concentration at work in the solution of the\nproblem which the school has set for itself. All of the theory of the\nnormal school is supposed to find its application and crucial test in\nthe actual work of the pupil-teacher with the children. The aim\nwhich is set up in that department, consequently, ought to furnish\nthe key to the whole process of concentration. If the purpose of the\nschool is declared to be the production of a clear and distinct personality, in which the ethical will is to determine the life, then all\n\nthe work of the school is to be organized upon that distinct purpose.\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCO- ORDINATION OF STUDIES IN NORMAL SCHOOLS.\n\n717\n\nIt should be kept in mind that the practice school should be exсерtional only in its excellence. It should be a typical school in which\nthe pupil-teacher can anticipate the tasks that await him in the public school.\n\nIt seems to me, therefore, that the first correlating idea of the\nnormal school is its function as a professional school. Its aim is the\npreparation of men and women for the practice of the art of teaching.\nAll of the effort of the institution must move toward the accomplish-\n\nment of that supreme purpose. But as this aim is general rather\nthan specific until the aim of education itself is determined, the really\npractical working principle must await determination until that important question is settled. If the formation of good moral character be the conscious end and aim of education, then a touchstone is\n\nfurnished, it seems to me, by which subjects may be tested, and a\nfundamental and correlating principle is at hand.\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF\n\nMANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES.\n\nFIRST SESSION.-WEDNESDAY, JULY 10тн.\nThe meeting was called to order in the Manual Training High School, at 3 p.\nm., by E. R. Booth of the Cincinnati Technical School, President of the department.\n\nPresident Booth delivered the President's address on \"The Philosophy of Manual Training.\"\n\nThe discussion of this and the following paper was deferred until all the papers\nof the session had been presented.\nCharles H. Keyes of the Throop Polytechnic School, Pasadena, Cal., addressed\nthe department on \"The Modifications of Secondary School Courses Most Demanded by the Conditions of To-day and Most Ignored by the Committee of Ten.\"\nApaper on \"Industrial Education a Necessity of the Times\" was presented by\nAlbert R. Robinson, Principal of the English High and Manual Training School,\nChicago, Ill.\n\nThe papers of the session were then discussed.\nThe President appointed the Committee on Nomination of Officers, as follows:\nJ. E. Hoyt of Wisconsin, J. J. Smith of Colorado, W. H. Magruder of Mississippi, Miss Anne Murray of Illinois, and Miss H. M. Chamberlain of Connecticut.\nAdjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION.\n\nTHURSDAY, JULY 11тн.\n\nIn the absence of Superintendent Search the Secretary, Charles D. Larkins,\npresented a report on the \"Effects of Manual Training.\"\nMiss M. A. Pinney, New Haven, Conn., presented \"A Plea for the Systematic\nExtension of Industrial Work from Kindergarten to Grammar Grade.\"\n\nSupt. R. H. Pratt, United States Indian School Service, Carlisle, Pa., addressed the department on the subject of \"Industrial Training as Applied to Indian Schools .\"\n\nThe discussion of the afternoon's papers was then taken up.\nThe Committee on Nominations made the following report :\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "719\n\nMINUTES.\n\nTo the Officers and Members of the Department of Manual and Industrial Education :\nYour Committee on Nominations would report the following names for the offices\nfor the ensuing year:\n\nFor President- President Chas. H. Keyes of Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena,\nCal.\n\nFor Vice President-Prof. W. H. Magruder of Mississippi Agricultural and MechanIcal College.\n\nFor Secretary-Miss Abby L. Marlatt of the Manual Training High School, Providence, R. I.\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nJ. E. HOYT,\n\nW. H. MAGRUDER,\nJOHN J. SMITH,\nANNE MURRAY,\nCommittee.\n\nThe report of the committee was unanimously adopted.\nThe meeting then adjourned sine die.\nCHARLES D. LARKINS,\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n720\n\nPAPERS AND\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\n[Industrial\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\n\nADDRESS. — THE PHILOSOPHY OF MANUAL\nTRAINING.\n\nUM\n\n* BY E. R. BOOTH, PRINCIPAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL, CINCINNATI, OHIO .\n\nBR\nLEFT CERE\nESS\n\nIOUSN\n\nCONSC\n\nAND\n\nMEMORY\n\nON\n\nITI\n\nVOL\n\nPOS\nE\nINT D\nELL\nECT\nU\n\nAL\n\nPSYCHO - MOTOR AREA\n\nA\nARE\n\nSUP\n\nE\n\nB\nLON\n\nLOWER EXTREMITY\n\nA\nARE Y\nSOR\n\nSO SON\nOMPARI REA\n\nC\n\nARM\n\nHAND\n\nTACTILE SENSE\n\nN\n\nIO\n\nASSOCI\n\nOCCIPLOBE\nITAL\n\nATION\n\nSEN\n\nO\nFR\n\nL\nPARIETA LOBE\n\nL\n\nA\nNT\n\nFINGERS\n\nPAIN SENSE\n\nT\nEA\n\nID\n\nTEMPERATURE SENSE\nFACE\n\nT\n\nEN\n\nGM\n\nD\nJU\n\nLIPS\n\nTONGUE\n\nVISUAL\nPERCEPTION\n\nPERCEPTION OF SOUND\n\nBE ONCEALED\n(C\n)\"\n\nLO\nE\nAG\n\nTEMPORAL LOBE\n\nRE\n\nU\n\nNG\n\nLA\n\nNT\n\nCO-CRO\n\nCE\n\nCORPUS STRIATUM MOVEM\nVOL.\nCO-ORD.ENTS\n\nCO-ORDINIO\n.OF\nNS\nSENSAT\n\nCE\nRE\nBE\nLL\nUM\n\nL\n\nRA\n\nNT\n\nCE\n\nL\nEL\nSM TE\nS\nA\nT\n\nVISUAL\nWAL\nOPTIC\nLOBE\nTAIORN\n\nIBRUAL\n\nUSC\n\nEQUIML\n\nAND\n\nILITY\n\nCT\nTONIC CONTRA\n\nATION\nCO-ORDIUNNTARY OF\n\n.N\nORDI\nC-O\nMUS.C\n\nOPTIC THALAMUS\n\nVOLLUNTARYAND\nINVO EMENTS\nMOV\n\nPONSVAROLII\n⑤\nFACIAL SENSATION...\nEYE ABDUCTION....\n\n8\n\nFACIAL EXPRESSION\n\n9\n\nNUMBERS REFER TO\n\nHEARING\n.....\nCORRESPONDING\n\nTASTE AND DEGLUTITION\n\n10\n\nMEDULLA\n\nCRANIAL NERVE CENTRES\n\nOBLONGATA\n\nCIRCULATION, RESPIRATION & DIGESTION.\n12\n\nEXTRAORDINARY RESPIRATION\n\nTONGUE MOVEMENTS...\n\nSPINAL\nFig. 1.\n\nProfile view of the brain centers.\n\nCORD\n\n(Diagrammatic.) It shows the portions that\nare involved in most forms of conscious\nactivity.\nEXTRAORDINARY\nRESPIRATION\n\n*The author is indebted to Dr. F. W. Langdon. Professor of Nervous Diseases , Miami\n\nMedical College, Cincinnati, for Figs . 1 and\n\n(\nSPINAL ACCESSONY CENTREE\n)\nCENTRES\n\n8; and to Dr. W. L. Andriezen, London, for\n\nOF\n\nFigs. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7, which appeared in\n\"Brain. \" Fig . 6 is modified from \"Brain. \"\n\nREFLEXACTION\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.\n\nDepartment.]\n\n721\n\nIt is my purpose to deal only with the simplest truths in this paper. I accept the well-established facts of science and philosophy.\nThe following statement is my creed: Mind unfolds with, and manifests itself through, the nervous system.\n\nIt is very important at this stage of the discussion of manual\ntraining to have clear ideas as to what is positively known of the organism through which the hand and the mind work. The location\nof the functions of the brain, substantially as shown in Fig. 1, is no\nlonger questioned by any scientist. But back of this, other facts have\nbeen discovered which are even more important to the educator.\nThese have been so completely presented in an article in \"Brain\" for\nthe last quarter of 1894, by Dr. W. L. Andriezen of London, that I will\nsummarize those parts of it bearing directly upon my subject.\nThe neuron is the unit of all nervous functions considered from\n\nthe standpoint of anatomy, physiology, pathology, embryology, or psychology. It is the ultimate element involved in all animal functions .\nThe sensitive neuron is the sim-\n\nplest nervous structure, and the\none first to appear in the evolution\n\nof the animal kingdom. Ascending a little higher the motor neuron\n\nsuc\n\nappears.\n\nThe sensitive neuron is\n\nsbi.c\n\nconnected with a sensitive surface\n2\n\n(Fig. 2) by an afferent nerve fiber;\nthe motor neuron, with a muscle,\nor other contractile tissue. These\ntwo forms constitute the whole of\n\nthe nervous system of the higher\ninvertebrates, and are the fundaFig.\n2.\nHighest\nreflex\ntype\nof\nneurons,\nsuch as are found in the spinal cord of\nfishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mental elements in the nervous\nmammals. s-Sensitive surface. a-Afferent(sensory) nerve. s, u, c-Sensitive uni- mechanism of all vertebrates, inpolar cell. s, bi, c-Sensitive bipolar cell .\nc\n-Motor cell. e\n-Efferent (motor) cluding man.\nm\n,\nnerve. m-Muscular tissue. x-Other nerve\ncells with fibers going to y- i. e., other\n\nThere are also found in verte-\n\nparts of\nthe nervous\nsystem.\nNere\ncoming\nfrom other\nparts, as\nthe brates two other types of neurons\nbrain.\nwith their nerve fibers.\n\nOne kind\n\nLeave out the parts represented by x,\n\ny,\nand z, and we have the higher reflex called association or connective\ntype of neurons as found in the higher invertebrates and the lowest vertebrates .\ncells, form a linear series extending\nthe entire length of the cord. (Fig. 2, x.) The other, called commissural cells, connect opposite sides. These four groups of cells, the\nsensitive, the motor, the association, and the commissural, are necessary constituents in a vertebrate spinal cord. The mechanism\nthus found is so complete that a great variety of reflex actions is\npossible without involving more than the spinal cord and the nerve\nfibers issuing from it laterally.\n46\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "722\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Industrial\n\nlayer--3d\n\nsystem, i. e. , the brain, is dominant.\nThe portion of this organ of most importance in this discussion is the cortex or outside layer of gray substance.\nThis layer is itself composed of several clearly defined, yet closely connected layers. (Fig. 3.) The first on\nthe outside (Fig. 4) is the part of the\n\n2d\n.\n1st\n1.\n\nBut in higher animals, especially man, the spinal cord and its appendages form the lowest level of the nervous system. The cerebral\n\nbrain where the several kinds of sen-\n\nsory nerve fibers coming from different\n\nparts of the body discharge their energy. Many of the fibers from it extend down through the second layer\n\ninto the third.\n\nThe second (Fig. 5) con-\n\ntains cells with processes extending up-\n\ninto the third.\n\nand\n\ndownward\n\nThe third layer (Fig.\n\n6) contains cells with still longer projections outward than those in the\nsecond layer. These cells in the sec-\n\nlayer4th\n\nward into the first\n\nond and third layers are the sensory\ncells of the cortex.\n\nThey are aroused\n\ninto activity simultaneously by the excitation of the first layer.\n\nThe fibers\n\nconnecting different parts of the brain w\nbegin to appear with the development\nof the third layer.\nThe distinctive features of the first\n\nlayer are present in all parts of the\ncortex, not only of man but of lower\nanimals. It is therefore an early de-\n\nFig. 3. The nerve fiber system\nand plexuses of the cortex, or gray\nouter portion of the brain. The four\n\nlayers are shown approximately. W\n-is the outer part of the white\nsubstance. Amphibians have only\nthe first two layers ; reptilians , the\nthird also ; and mammals all four.\n\nvelopment in the process of evolution. In reptiles the second and third layers appear, but they are not clearly separated from one another. Furthermore, the processes or projections\nfrom the cells of the third layer in the lower types of brains and in\n\nthe brains of the young of the higher orders are undeveloped.\n\nBut\n\nin the higher animals and in adult human beings the connections\n\nformed by these developed cells with their projections suggest the\npossibility of functions far more complex than those of the lower\n\nclasses of animals and children.\nand reflex action only.\n\nBut they are powers of sensation\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.\n\n723\n\nBut this complete development of the second and third layers is\nnot the climax. A fourth (Fig. 7) is found in the highest mammalian\nbrain to have reached a wonderful complexity. It increases in thickness as well as complexity in a series of mammals as the animal or\n152\n12\n\n22\n3d1\n\n3\n\nFig. 5. Cells of the second layer.\n\nFig. 4. Fiber cells of the first layer of the\nbrain cortex. The dotted lines show the\nlimits of the layers .\n\n2គន\n\n25/\nFig. 6. Cells of the third layer. The enlarged portions of the fibers extending into\nFig. 7. Several varieties of cells of the\nthe first layer show the first stages of soft- fourth layer. b-Bundles of sensory fibers\n\nening and swelling due to alcoholic poison- passing directly to the first layer.\ning.\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n724\n\n[Industrial\n\nders ascend. In the monkey it is about one-fourth and in man onethird to one-half the whole thickness of the cortex. (Fig. 3.) With\nthe development of this layer, the commissural and association fibers\nwhich we have found to exist in the spinal cord and the brain of reptiles connect all parts of both sides of the cortex of the brain.\n\nBe-\n\nsides, \"the whole system of association and commissural fibers grows\nin accordance with the degree of brain evolution, and these, together\nwith the cell elements of the fourth layer, attain their highest reiative\nand absolute development in the human brain.\"\nLet it be remembered that a nerve cell is a place in which energy\nis elaborated and stored, and from which discharges of energy may\ntake place.\n\nNow there are three fundamental causes for the dis-\n\ncharge of nervous energy : \"(1) As the result of direct excitation by\nincoming nerve currents; (2) as the result of its own (rhythmic)\nnutritive activity, apart from the influence of incoming excitations ;\n(3) as the result of the revival of previous nerve activity\nwhich may be caused by the transmission of the molecular effects of\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\nan excitation elsewhere in the brain.\"\nThe number of cortical cells in the brains of most animals does\n\nnot increase after birth, but the differentiation and integration continue, and the individual neurons go on developing. The cell increases\nin mass after birth, but very soon reaches its maximum as to size.\nThis accounts for the great strength of an infant as compared with\nits weight. Its energy is exerted en masse, but it shows lack of skill\nin every movement. But new and more complex connections are\nmade, apparently, till the adult condition of the animal or the child\nis reached. This accounts for the continual growth of general brain\npower as shown in greater skill, and for the increased power of per-\n\nception, of will, and of judgment. This is the meaning of the whole\nprocess of education. By exercising the motor and sensory areas\nalong new lines structural changes are made in them, and by the intimate connection of these, through the association fibers, with each\nother and with the special psychical area, all are, in turn, stimulated\nto their proper action. The movements become more varied and accurate, the sensations more acute, the ideas clearer, and the judgment more correct. Thus \"we can come to faintly realize the potentialities and capacities for the various forms of sensorial, psychical,\n\nand psycho-motor life which the active brain is capable of during a\nhealthy and well-trained life . \"\n\nBut sensory, motor, and even psycho-motor life is not all of the\nmental life of man. Attention and will power are more important.\n\nAny conscious action of a sensory center produces a certain degree of\nattention which, therefore, has its seat in the sensory center so af-\n\nfected.\n\nNow, attention differs from complete volition, yet the two\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.\n\n725\n\nare very closely allied. Volition proper, as applied to motion, is \" a specialized and intensive discharge from the sensory to the motor side.\n\n(Fig. 1.) It is thus the passing from attention to execution.\" Its location in the brain is the fourth layer of an area underlapping the psycho-motor sphere on one side and the sensory on the other. As volition, properly speaking, is a late step in the process of evolution, we\n\nwould naturally expect it to be located in the fourth layer, where, indeed, it is found.\n\nA percept involves the association of the ideas of an object obtained through the several sensory channels. Two or more sensations produced by the same object must be unified before a percept\nof the object is evolved. Furthermore, the conjunction of sensations\nproduces in the mind a corresponding combination of perceptions ;\nand the sequence of sensations produces a sequence of perceptions.\n\nHence the association of ideas, one of the most potent factors in education.\n\nThe ideas and thoughts which were at first associated with sensation may become causes which react upon the sensorium, produce new\ncombinations and new sensory experiences which, in their turn, produce new motor experiences. These give the child something new; it\nis constantly, figuratively speaking, striking against something to it\nhitherto unknown. In this way it reaches the stage of apperception,\ni. e. , perception of itself; a knowledge of itself as something else than\nits environments. This ego, or self, grows with every obstruction it\nencounters, and with its growth the highest nervous mechanism is\nbeing adjusted to the changed and changing conditions. Mental as\nwell as physical traits are becoming fixed.\nWe must therefore readily see that running, leaping, throwing,\nwrestling, sparring, and most of the common movements are useful,\nnatural, and practically unconscious modes of activity bequeathed to\nus by inheritance, or acquired by us in early childhood. Such movements do not require a high degree of intelligence or a decided effort\nof the will. When they are once acquired the lower nerve centers with\ntheir nerves of transmission do the rest. Upon the other hand, the\nconstant effort to devise and carry into effect new and untried movements require the exercise of neurons whose functions have not be-\n\ncome established, and therefore subject to conscious effort; that is,\nto a direct application of will power.\nBut mental activity does not end with the application of will to\nthe control of the muscles. In order that muscular activity may be\neffective in securing results hitherto unknown to the individual\nthrough inheritance or previous conscious effort, a definite aim must\nexist in the mind and a new and intelligent co-ordination of movements must be secured which will produce these new results. In\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "726\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\nthese we have the highest function of which the mind is capable.\nThey make man more than a machine. He must act on rational principles. He becomes a creator. But so long as he moves at the beck\nand call of another, or by mere impulse, he sinks his rationality and\nbecomes a machine or an automaton.\n\nThe motor areas represented in Fig. 1, if well fed, are surcharged\nwith energy, which must dissipate itself through the regular channels\nleading from them, i. e.. the motor nerves. If motion only is required to satisfy the inclination of these centers, running, jumping,\nshuffling the feet, shaking the desk, upsetting chairs, or a good roughand-tumble, go-as-you-please romp, fulfill every want. Then the child\nwill subside into that complete state of indolence which is so familiar\nto all who have observed the habits of the lower animals.\n\nBut mo-\n\ntion of the arm as a whole is not sufficient in a state of high physical\ndevelopment. The shoulder, the humerus, the forearm, the wrist,\nthe hand, and the thumb and fingers must be trained to perform myriads of movements, in every conceivable direction and with ever-varying force, in order to do work that taxes the skill of the expert workman. Hence it is that these larger areas which in general preside\nover the larger, or massive, movements of a coarser and more general nature, are subdivided as indicated in Fig. 1. Manual skill has\ninvariably accompanied every advance in civilization; and every\nstoppage or decline in civilization has been accompanied by\na stoppage or decline in the arts requiring such skill. Therefore\n\ncivilized man is possessed of a set of highly differentiated\nnervous centers, capable of correlating the most varied and delicate\nof muscular actions. These, as well as the coarser and more general\nmotor centers, must, if properly nourished, have their appropriate exercise, which will appear through the delicate movements of the hands\n\nespecially. Therefore, it is impossible for a normal civilized child\nto subside into complete inactivity during its waking hours.\nIf the cerebrum has, by inheritance, centers that are adapted to the\ngreat variety and delicacy of movements, to which attention has been\ncalled, they must find some outlet for their activity, or they must soon\ncease to act. The inclination to act causes us, if not otherwise em-\n\nployed, to whittle sticks, to draw or carve pictures, to play with a\nstring, to drum with our fingers, or to do one or another of a thou-\n\nsand little things that may, to say the least, be annoying. 'Tis true\nthese actions may be checked by restraint. But restraint only is annihilation ; unintelligent direction is automatism; the only thing\ngained is the dissipation of surplus energy in the brain centers .\n\nActivity being the function of nerve cells, they cannot be content\nto be at rest, except when recuperating from fatigue. If unemployed\nthere must be a feeling of uneasiness prompting to activity. Satis\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.\n\nDepartment. ]\n\n727\n\nfaction is demanded. This activity may be brought about in one of\ntwo ways, viz., by giving them natural employment and by stimulation. Their natural employment is found in receiving sensations,\ncombining these sensations into conceptions, and executing ideas\nthrough the psycho-motor powers or abstract thought. Unnatural\nstimulation is generally effected by the use of narcotics or alcohol.\n\nA\n\nA\n\nT\nT\n\nT\n\nV\n\nE\n\nT\n\nEYE\n\nP\n\nR\n7\n\nM\n\n*\n:00\nco.\nco\nCO\n\nCo\n\nco\n\n*\nORIGINS OF FACIAL\nGLOSSO\n\nPHARYNGEAL\n\nAND HYPOELOSSAL\n\nNERVES\n10 LIPS\n7\nTONGUE\n\nFORAMEN\nLARYNX\nFACIAL MUSCLES\n\nMAGNUM\n\nETC.\n\nFig. 8. Diagram to illustrate the anatomy of a train of thought and its expression.\nR-Receiving end organ (eye). T- Transmitting fibers. Co-Co-ordinating centers , or\ncells. (I doubt the propriety of representing these as separate cells.-E. R. B.) A—\nAssociation cells (comparison, reason, judgment). I-Ideation cells . V-Volition cells.\nE-Expression cells (center for articulate speech) . Arrows indicate direction of nerve\ncurrents .\n\nWork is natural, hence healthy; stimulation by any other means is\nunnatural, hence destructive. Both are followed by a period of relaxation.\n\nOne is the sweet sleep of childhood or of honest toil ; the\n\nother is the unrest or the oblivion of dissipation.\nmanent results.\n\nBoth produce per-\n\nOne produces nerve cells of improved quality; the\n\nother, stunted if not diseased cells. Both in turn tell upon the mind.\nOne makes it powerful and energetic ; the other weak and vacillating.\nLet the significant fact be kept in mind that man is the least instinctive of all animals, but the most intelligent ; that each child\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "728\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\nstarts out to acquire the knowledge and the skill of the race, and not\nsimply to exercise his instincts. The first movements of the limbs\ndoubtless are instinctive or merely reflexive; but they are almost\n\nuseless for accomplishing any definite results until controlled by intelligence. This control brings into action all the higher mental powers of the child. The results attained, as shown in the vast store of\nknowledge and skill that the child acquires in two or three years,\nleads us to believe that the mind of the child up to the age of three\nor four years is working at its full capacity. It is evident, also, that\nevery part of the brain has had its appropriate exercise.\n\n:\n\nEach of the\n\nsix senses, the more general and coarser movements which are necessary to a reasonably high order of physical existence, and the intellectual (not instinctive) power to control these movements have all\nbeen trained. Here, alas ! this perfect harmony in education often\nceases ; and unless the child is trained in the kindergarten, or a home\n\nakin to it, or by a cruel fate is driven to the performance of duties requiring greater variety and exactness of movements, the differentiation of the motor functions is not secured.\n\nThe child remains a\n\nclumsy automaton ; its work is of a coarser nature and becomes play\nor drudgery, never accompanied by the pleasure of creating. It has\nreached the stage of advancement characterizing a fairly well-developed animal. If the process of development is not continued, the\nanimal propensities become more prominent, self-gratification, indolence, or movements purposeless or with evil intent control the life.\nThe child is no longer the angel it was in infancy, when all its powers\nwere at work at their highest tension; but it is the torment of the\nhome and of the school, in danger of becoming also a curse to society. Most of its actions have become reflex; that is, they are induced by sensation instead of mentation. The result is, as you can\nreadily see by reference to Fig. 1, the great exercise of the spinal\ncord, the cerebellum and the several ganglia at the base of the brain,\nslight exercise of the back and sides of the cerebrum, and little exercise of the front.\n\nIt is pretty generally conceded that most children learn more be-\n\nfore they are six years old than in all their subsequent lives ; that\nfew make any very great progress in knowledge, or culture, or skill\nafter reaching their majority ; and that he who continues to progress\nafter middle life is the exception. This is not to be wondered at when\nwe consider the life the child must lead.\n\nBut it should not be so.\n\nMental progress should not cease with infancy, or with childhood, or\neven manhood; but should continue to old age, and fill the whole life\n\nwith the happiness of youth, toned down but widened by richer experiences.\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.\n\n729\n\nAfter a careful study of the foregoing facts, I believe you will accept the following conclusions. Some of them are simply corollaries\ndepending upon what has already been said; others are susceptible\nof further proof by other lines of argument :\nQuality, not quantity, of brain determines mental power.\nExercise improves directly the quality of the part exercised, and\nindirectly the parts most intimately associated with it.\nExercise of the brain within reasonable limits is conducive to its\n\ngrowth in power, and a great variety of exercise is absolutely necessary to the growth of all its parts.\nConstant or oft-repeated exercise of one kind produces automatism\nin the part of the brain exercised. Disuse produces atrophy of the\nparts not exercised.\n\nStimulation to sensation may give knowledge, but not power\nto do.\n\nOften the child receives no sensation because the nerve cells of\n\nthe second and third layers are not developed.\nIf the sensation is received, the child may be powerless to perform\nan intelligent act because the cells in and fibers connected with the\n\nfourth layer may not be developed or educated. We are liable, therefore, to over-rate the young child's power of feeling and doing. Its\nnatural impulses are its guide. It can be trained, but not forced.\nThe psycho-motor area is the executive part of the brain relative\nto all movements, and through it only are the thoughts of one person\n\ntransmitted to another. By it also the physical world is transformed.\nThe cultivation of motor power is the cultivation of will power.\nBy cultivation, I mean the development or increase of power, and\nnot merely the exercise of a power already acquired.\nPhysical training is the cultivation of will power only so long as\na conscious effort to control the actions is made.\n\nTherefore educa-\n\ntion of the will ceases as soon as the power to do is thoroughly acquired.\n\nNo portion of the brain should remain unexercised ; hence training\n\nto ambidexterity and in great variety of movements is more educative\nthan skill of movement resulting in automatic actions.\nEducative work should stop short of skill in movement, except in\nthose cases where the movement is simply a necessary means to an\nend. For example, speaking and writing are necessary means to the\nhigh purpose of expressing thought, and should become automatic.\nThe school should be so planned and so administered as to develop\nall the higher functions of the brain as well as the mind, so as to\nenable both brain and mind to act in harmony. Through this cultivation of nervous power the body is made the willing tool of the mind.\nIn schools in which the motor and sensory areas are not systematically trained, much mental power must remain undeveloped.\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": "730\n\nNATIONAL, EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\nBy using all the powers of the mind and the brain more can be\ndone than if only part of them be used. Hence, schools which utilize\nthe sensory, the motor, the intellectual, and the volitional powers in\nwork may-yea, should-do more work than those using only part of\nthese powers.\n\nThe capacity for improvement is practically unlimited so long as\nthe physical organism, especially the brain, is in its normal condition.\nThe normal condition being a tendency to activity, it must be exercised; if not, it will crave something that will excite it to activity artificially, as a stimulant ; or something that will suppress its yearnings, as an opiate ; or something that will do both, as a narcotic.\n\nLearning, being simply the exercise of the functions of the part\ninvolved in learning, is a pleasure to every healthy chid.\nWork involving a variety of acts is man's natural activity.\n\nIt is\n\nmore pleasant than play, because it involves the natural use of a\ngreater number of powers.\n\nPlay is activity along lines already well established; hence, but\nslightly educative.\n\nIt must also soon become automatic.\n\nBut its\n\nimportance in the child's development should not be overlooked.\nPhysical exercises cease to be educative-i. e. , cease to develop\nmind power-just as soon as they become automatic or reflex. Simultaneous action on the part of a great number of persons is almost\nprima facie evidence that such a point has been reached. Calisthenics, gymnastics, and military drill cease to be educative as soon as\nthey become a means of attractive display.\nThe performance of unusual or hitherto unperformed movements\n\nrequires the creative influence of the higher psychical functions and\nthe exercise of the higher psychical brain areas.\nAll movements that must become automatic in order to be effect-\n\nive, as in eating, walking, speaking, etc., should be learned very early,\nwhen the nerve elements are susceptible; but they should be learned\n\ncorrectly, or the work of eradicating a habit acquired and establishing a new one becomes necessary, thus wasting much energy.\nThe child must think in the concrete ; all that which seems to be\n\nabstract thought by the young child comes through an inherited\ncondition of the brain.\n\nThe custom, well-nigh universal, of helping the child at every turn,\nand especially when it first encounters a difficulty, is ruinous to a\npleasant and a vigorous growth.\nCharacter is not built up by allowing a pupil to follow his own impulses. No one can become strong except by exercising the power of\ninhibition ; i. e. , by making his higher psychical powers control the\nphysical and the lower psychical powers.\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nMODIFICATIONS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL COURSES.\n\n731\n\nIdeas that are constantly associated with the physical powers are\nlow, and if indulged in will sooner or later determine the individual's\ncharacter. Sensuality is found first in the mind, not in the body.\nThe moter area acts as a result of some stimulus. This generally\ncomes from the sensory area, but the higher psychical area may,\nthrough the direct application of will, bring about motion.\nAll conscious mental effort to control the body so as to make it\nperform definite, predetermined acts, is an exercise of the highest\npsychical powers.\nThe person who has not learned to control his powers is not educated mentally. His animal powers only may be developed, but the\nimpulse controlling them may be almost entirely on the sensory side\nof the psycho-motor area.\n\nAll education, whether of the hand, the head, the heart, the spirit,\nis a unit. Education of a certain kind means that the training accompanying education has taken a certain direction.\n\nA study of man as a physical, a mental, a social, or a spiritual being leads to the one conclusion, that a broad education is pre-eminently the demand of the age.\n\nTHE MODIFICATIONS\n\nOF SECONDARY SCHOOL\n\nCOURSES\n\nMOST DEMANDED BY THE CONDITIONS OF TO-DAY,\nAND\n\nMOST\n\nIGNORED BY THE COMMITTEE OF TEN.\n\nBY PRESIDENT CHARLES H. KEYES\n\nOF THE THROOP POLYTECHNIC INSTI.\n\nTUTE, PASADENA, CAL.\n\nThe chief modification of the secondary school curriculum which\n\nis demanded by the conditions that surround us to-day is the general introduction of industrial education.\n\nIndustrial education includes both manual training and technical\ninstruction. By the former is meant training the mind to use hand\n\nand eye in connection with other sense organs in acquiring knowledge from well-planned and graded contacts with objects, in giving expression to the thought stimulated by these contacts, and\nin transforming, by tool and machine, crude matter into forms of\n\nbeauty and utility. Its aim is the development of conscious, skillful energy and the subordination of every other power of body and\nmind to the action of the will. Its chief product is never the ac-\n\ncurate drawing, the beautiful sketch, the well-made garment, the\nwell- cooked dinner, the exactly fitted joint, the perfectly adjusted\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "732\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\nmachine, the intricate and ornamental iron-work, the thing of beauty\nwhich seems to speak to us from wood or clay; but it is the self-controlled, self- centered young man or woman, who \"has learned how to\n\nlive,\" and prepared himself to easily learn \"how to get a living.\"\nIt is the boy who is to be a man rather than simply a machinist, a\n\ncitizen rather than simply a carpenter. It is the boy who aspires\nfirst to the high estate of right living, and afterward to the successful following of the calling for which he has, in his training, discovered his adaptability. The girl trained in such a school will\n\ncome to honor the demand of society and home as an intelligent,\ncareful, noble woman, who can be, when occasion demands it, the\ntrue friend, the helpful wife, or the worthy mother.\nThe teachers in manual training schools must be not simply expert carpenters, designers, blacksmiths, machinists, draughtsmen,\nseamstresses, dressmakers, milliners, or cooks, but all should be\nartists in one thing, and that one thing is teaching. Their chief study\nshould be \"How boys and girls grow.\" The average intelligent\nblacksmith is no more fitted to manage and teach boys in the iron\nshop of a manual training school than the average book-keeper is\nto teach arithmetic and writing in a good grammar school.\nTechnical instruction, on the other hand, is demanded in the trade\nschool. Dr. Balliett of Springfield, indicating the difference in function between these schools, says : \"The muscular movements involved in the handling of tools are made at first by nerve energy\nwhich comes from the brain ; but after these movements become\nautomatic by practice the brain relegates them almost wholly to the\nspinal cord.\n\nSuch movements cease to be of much educational value\n\nwhen they are no longer directed consciously by the brain. Any\nprocess in manual training ought to stop when it ceases to be brain\nwork.\n\nHere we have the difference between the manual training\n\nschool and the trade school. The manual training school stops\n\nwhen the point mentioned is reached. Its purpose is purely educational . The trade school continues the training in skill, even after\nthe process is relegated to the spinal cord, in order that the person\nmay develop the power of producing as large a quantity as possible\nof goods of high grade of finish in a given time for the market. Its\npurpose is economic.\"\nBoth manual training and technical instruction should find a\n\nplace in our scheme of secondary education for reasons which I\nshall briefly endeavor to set forth. In justifying this position I shall\nkeep in mind that the burden of proof as to the desirability and\npracticability of any reform is always with its advocate. I shall\nkeep ever in mind the criticism, which I admit to be well founded,\nthat our high schools are already attempting more than they can\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\ndo well.\n\nMODIFICATIONS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL COURSES.\n\n733\n\nI shall also accept for the manual training high school\n\nthe commission of fitting any of its pupils who may desire it for\nentrance to college.\n\n1. I believe it is desirable to make manual training a part of the\nhigh school curriculum, because I believe in body culture, and because almost all the traditional high school work is in the direction\nof bodily destruction. In most instances our highest aim is to give\nour boys and girls a high school education and bring them out at\nthe end of four years with bodies no weaker than they were at the\ncommencement. And when I think of our alarmingly numerous\nfailures to do even this, when I recall such reports as that of the\nimperial commission on eyesight of German school childhood, I do\nnot wonder that the poet in a moment of disgust with our civilization should make the hero in \"Locksley Hall\" determine upon the alliance of barbarism, where his children should be reared :\nIron-joined, supple- sinewed, who should dive, and who should run,\nCatch the wild goat by the hair and hurl their lances in the sun,\n\nWhistle back the parrot's call and leap the rainbows of the brooks ;\nNot with blinded eyesight poring over miserable books.\n\nWe can obviate this by doing all that is valuable in the present high school courses in fewer hours and devoting those remaining to that which shall train both bodily powers and mental faculties. Make respectable manual training a feature of every high\nschool curriculum and the bodily improvement of the students will\nmore than keep pace with their intellectual growth .\n2. I believe it is desirable to incorporate manual training in the\n\nsecondary school curriculum, because it will bring into the high\nschools a vast army of boys and girls who now leave at the end of\n\nor during their grammar school course. A portion of these leave\nbecause of the general impression that what follows has no practical\nbearings, and is neither a fitting for living nor for getting a living.\nWhere manual training has been introduced scores of these pupils\n\nenroll and take with great zest, along with their manual training,\nthe very subjects lack of interest in which drove them out of the\nregular school. Another class, largely boys, leave because it really\nhas no interest in the major fraction of that which occupies the\nhigh school student, an admission that by no means implies that\nthe deserting students are dullards.\n\n3. Manual training should constitute a part of every high school\ncurriculum in order to prevent the wicked waste of time now indulged in and to stimulate pupils to intellectual concentration. For\nfour years pupils devote their energy for five or six hours daily in\npreparing for college or completing an equivalent course of study.\nThe manual training high school, on the other hand, gives practically\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "734\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION .\n\n[Industrial\n\nhalf of each day to hand and eye culture, and sends its graduate out\nprepared for the best colleges of the country, even when tested by\nstandards that ignore all efforts save those of the traditional lines.\nCertainly any modification that enables students to do a given work\nwith thoroughness in half the time usually allotted to it is \"a consummation devoutly to be wished.\" To one who has not had opportunity to compare both modes of secondary education this conclusion, that we could do all that is worth doing in our present high\nschool courses in one-half the time now devoted to them, seems\nparadoxical. And yet it is not so strange when we pause to give\nproper heed to two important considerations. First, we spend too\nmuch time in our high schools on that which is neither preparation\nfor life nor for college, judged by the standards of either. We\nmay have ceased to teach our boys and girlsThe royal genealogies of Oviedo,\nThe internal laws of the Burmese empire,\nBy how many feet Mr. Chimborazo outsoars the Teneriffe,\nAnd what census of the year 5 was taken in Klagenfurt,\n\nbut when the Browning of another day shall sing the \"Aurora Leigh\"\nof ours there will be no dearth of facts on which to base this self-\n\nsame plaint of wasted time.\n\nThe second consideration-the time limit to mental receptivity\nthrough ordinary class or study methods-is so aptly set forth by\nthe experience of the English Child Labor Commission of 1883 that\nI desire briefly to call your attention to it. This committee, with the\neminent Sir Edwin Chadwick at its head, was appointed by parliament to inquire into the condition of child labor in the factories.\n\nIt\n\ndiscovered that for many years thousands of children had been employed twelve hours per day, and thus kept from all school advantages. A population was rapidly growing up which, by its intellectual and moral degradation, must sooner or later become a danger-\n\nous menace to the whole social structure. The commission, to remedy this condition, recommended and secured the enactment of a\nlaw compelling factories to require of each of their child employes\na certificate from a competent teacher in a fitting school to the effect\n\nthat the child had been under instruction every school day of the\npreceding week. This was subsequently modified so that children\nwere working in the factories in two shifts, one in the morning while\nthe other was at school, the other in the afternoon when the morn-\n\ning laborers became the pupils. Within a few years eminent medical authorities were testifying to superior physical growth; police\nauthorities and philanthropists to improved moral tone; and employers to higher grade of work. All this was to have been expected.\nBut the surprise came, says Mrs. H. M. Plunket, in her admirable\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nMODIFICATIONS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL COURSES.\n\n735\n\narticle on the \"Kindergarten and Manual Training,\" when, after\ntwelve years of careful study of more than 12,000 children involved,\nMr. Chadwick was able to report and demonstrate, not only that\nhalf-timers were doing better work in school than whole-timers, that\nthey were characterized by superior mental activity, but that the\nfull-time scholar in the board school found himself at his fourteenth\n\nyear three years behind the half-timer from school and factory.\nWhat wonder then that Mr. Chadwick should say, in 1882, after\nhaving given fifty years to the study and observation of the elements of this great problem : \"Unfortunately the primary principle\nof education-the capacity of the recipient; the mind is not understood or regarded. The receptivity of the minds of the great mass\nof students for direct class teaching is less than three hours, and\nwhen these limits are undistinguished and disregarded the consequences are displayed in wearisome efforts to get quarts into mental\ncapacities of pints and gallons into quarts, with prolonged sedentary\ndetentions for this foolish purpose and with grievous bodily as well\nas mental injury.\"\n4. The student who has taken a regular course in a good manual\ntraining school will, at the end, have mastered the tools, machines,\nand underlying principles of over a hundred callings, and will be able\nto determine with some degree of wisdom the calling of his liking ;\n\nand, what is more important, will have banished many early illusions\nas to his own adaptability.\n\n5. Manual training should have a place in our secondary schools (\nbecause it will teach boys and girls to entertain real respect for\nhonest labor.\n\nWe live in a day in which the conflict between labor\n\nand capital is taking ominous form ; in a day in which the struggle\nbetween the masses and the classes warns us of impending danger.\nAll is born of the fact that two lines of false education prevail .\n\nThe illiterate voter is being taught by the professional political agitator that the intellectually or financially more favored classes have\n\nentered into a conspiracy to inthrall labor; that for it they entertain no regard. And again, the masses of good citizens who are\ngiving their boys and girls any but the most elementary education\n\nare doing so under the conditions that beget no sympathy for labor\nand no respect for the laborer. During each succeeding political\ncampaign we go out and cheer to the echo the sonorously eloquent\n\ndeclaration of our stump speakers concerning the nobility of labor\nand the special love and regard which the party entertains for the\nhorny-handed son of toil. We go home to realize in a cooler moment that we have been deluged with torrents of rhetorical bluebosh.\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "736\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\nWe appreciate, when too late to rebuke, the insincerity of the\nman who simply talks in that way to win votes, but we go on educacating our boys to prefer to associate with any quack of a doctor or\nshyster of a lawyer rather than to fraternize with him who has\nhonestly earned the right to existence even at the expense of smutting his hand or browning his face. Deny it how we will, our sons\nand daughters, too, are being educated to believe that true gentility\nand manual labor are incompatible.\n\nWhat wonder then that the\n\nAmerican boy more easily becomes an agent than an artisan ? For\nfifty years parents have been urging boys and girls to study hard in\nschool that they might not be compelled to work for a living when\nthey grow up. The advice did not contemplate that the young people\nshould fit themselves \"to beat the world out of a living.\" It was\nborn of two convictions ; one erroneous, the other well founded. The\nsmall class who urged diligence in school on this basis had in mind\nthe avoidance of manual effort, because they believed it harder than\nother forms of exertion, and naturally desired careers of comparative ease for their children. The large class, however, appreciated,\nthat, not only the prizes of life fell to those in the professions but\nthat the world had small respect for the laborer. What wonder,\nthen, that, under these conditions, we should speedily reach the day\nof importing our skilled workmen, our master artisans, and directors of manual effort from foreign lands ? What wonder, then,\nthat so many of our American boys grow up to join the army of the\ndissatisfied-the unemployed? We have not trained them to live\notherwise. The remedy that alone can save us from becoming\nThe land to hastening ills a prey ,\n\nWhere wealth accumulates and men decay,\n\nis to give our boys and girls some such experience as the manual\ntraining school offers. There will be no occasion for such to be\ntaught that labor is honorable in just the degree that it is intelligent.\nThis sentiment will have become a part of their natures and a large\n\nelement of their self-respect. No boy who has, with his own hands,\nused the tools of the woodshop, the pattern shop, the smithy, and the\nmachine shop, has known what it is to earn directive intelligence by\nthe sweat of his brow, can ever fail to recognize in every honest\ntoiler a brother man. No girl who has, along with her Latin and\nher mathematics, mastered the elements of the arts that invite her\nto the clayroom, the carving-room, the sewing and the dressmakingroom, or the kitchen of the manual training school will ever grow\n\nup to be the woman who dreads association with working people, or\nthe mother whose sons are naturally dudes. She will be less apt\nto furnish long letters for the Sunday newspapers on \"What is the\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nMODIFICATIONS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL COURSES.\n\n737\n\nmatter with the servant girls of to-day?\" But she will, because she\nrecognizes that these poor, dissatisfied creatures have not lost their\nright to be known as sister women simply because they toil, be better able to make them see the necessity for being artists in their\nhumble calling. She will be better able to appreciate the lesson of\nthat wonderful picture of which William Cullen Gannett tells in\n\"Blessed be Drudgery.\"\nLouvre.\n\nHe found it in one of the galleries of the\n\nIt was the interior of a convent kitchen, and there were\n\nbusy at work, not slatternly women in slovenly old dresses but beau-\n\ntiful white-winged angels, with a little cherub running here and\nthere, getting in the way and trying to help. Each seemed to have\nidealized her real, if not realized her ideal, so that, in some way, you\nforgot that pots were pots, kettles were kettles, and pans were pans,\nand only thought, \"How beautiful kitchen work is; just the thing\nthe angels would choose to do, of course.\"\n6. Manual training in our high schools will make respectable\n\nscience work, which is now almost unknown in such schools, both\npossible and easy. The difficulty of all science teaching in high\nschools to-day is that there is no real laboratory work. When even\nmeager opportunity is provided, the absence of all collateral training of hand and eye makes the pupil so bungling in manipulation\nand inaccurate in observation that the teacher is tempted to the\nmiserable \"showing, illustrating, and expounding method,\" that\nmakes a farce of so much of our science work. When pupils are\nconstantly trained to use hands and eyes they can be trusted to use\nthem in the scientific laboratory. Again, the presence of the shops\nand their equipment makes individual apparatus possible without\nlarge cost.\n\nThe training in drawing makes it possible for the young\n\nscience student to see twice as well and to submit to his instructor\n\ntwice as speedily accurate evidence as to what he has seen. So\ngreatly does manual training improve the opportunity of the science\nteacher and student that it does not seem to me unreasonable to\n\nrequire of manual training high schools double the accomplishment\nin natural science lines that is possible in the traditional secondary\nschools, a fact which alone should be enough to determine the modification in question.\n\n7. Manual training in our high schools is desirable because it\nwill give boys and girls the highest kind of moral culture. In the\nmanual lines of work a sham of any form or dishonesty is so certain\nto reveal itself that the pupil not only learns that virtue is its own\nreward but that dishonesty advertises itself, and by its very form\ninvites the rebuke of teacher and classmates.\n\nDefects in the ef-\n\nfort at preparation of the lesson in history, or mathematics, or English may escape the vigilance of even the experienced teacher; but\n17\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n738\n\n[Industrial\n\nthe doctored exercise of the shop cries aloud \"Behold my deformity !\"\nThus honesty is made easy and dishonesty painful, and the correct\nhabit is formed.\n\n1\n\nThe moral nature is strengthened, too, by such training because it\n\nplants the habit of industry, the chief barrier to idleness, which is\nthe beginning of crime. The pupil who learns to labor at his books\nhas, of course, acquired this habit in large degree; but when he has\nalso learned to labor with his hands, he has come to feel the necessity to be ever doing. He knows \"the devil never comes when he\nhears the anvil ring.\" His heart is full of the sentiment which\n\nGeorge Eliot puts upon the lips of her hero in her poem \"Stradivarius.\" She makes the old violin-maker, whose instruments are\nnow worth their weight in gold, say:\nIf my hand slacked I should rob God,\nWho is fullest good, leaving a blank\nInstead of violins ; for He could not make\nAntonio Stradivari's violins without Antonio.\n\n8. As urged heretofore, manual training tends to break down class\ndistinctions and to teach the universal brotherhood of man . These dis-\n\ntinctions exist to-day not alone because of the attitude of the wealthier and more fortunate class, but the lines of demarcation are strongly\nemphasized by the position taken by the vast army of illiterate handworkers who assume that the man who wears a white shirt and a\n\nblack coat necessarily desires to hold himself aloof from common\ntoilers. You know how difficult it often is to induce working people\nto attend a church having a large membership among the well-to-do\nclass.\n\nIt is due to the same mistaken notion that all who do not\n\ntoil with their hands are necessarily antagonistic to the hand-workWhen the son of the poor man works side by side with the son\nof the rich man in the manual training shop, and each discovers that\nthe other has increased his self-respect and his respectability by the\nefficient, faithful performance of the labors assigned, there will grow\nup a mutual, spontaneous sympathy that will never ask, \"Master,\nwho is my neighbor ?\" that will never cry out, \"I am not my brother's\nkeeper. \" There will grow up a class of working people too intelligent to be misled by the cheap agitator and demagogue whose chief\nstock in trade is a copious supply of denunciatory adjectives generously used in the abuse of every one more fortunate or more industrious than himself. There will grow up a class of capitalists whose\nexperience will have made them genuine respecters of all intelligent\n\ners.\n\neffort, whether of head or hand.\n\n9. Manual training in our secondary schools will help us to give\nevery student the desire to be, not simply good but good for something. The duty of society to itself is but partly discharged when it\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nMODIFICATIONS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL COURSES.\n\n739\n\nhas provided means whereby its youth may be trained to live. It\n\nis also important that young men, and women, too, shall be trained\nto earn a living. This must be the function of the special secondary\nschool, or trade school. The training school has laid broad foundations and given general development to all powers of body and mind.\nIf upon these foundations safe character is to be builded, then must\nfollow special training which will fit the citizen to help himself;\nwhich will equip him to support and educate his posterity; which\nwill put him in the category of those who not only strive to do something perfectly, but in the list of those who aspire to know that which\nis perfect and him who is perfection. The colleges and universities\nof our land furnish ample training for the professions. Nearly every\ncommonwealth sustains at public expense its schools of law and\nmedicine. Almost all our higher education to-day is aimed at the\n\nprofessional, literary, non-mechanical, or industrial classes, which\nconstitute less than thirty per cent of our population. For the remaining seventy per cent little or no technical training is provided\nin this age with its intense demand for specialists-trained men and\nwomen-everywhere. Thus our young men and women are coming\nup without being trained to any calling which will permit them to\nbe honest. Think of the army of young men who go into merchandising simply because they have never been specially trained to any\nservice. Do you wonder, then, that thirty-two per cent of all who\nembark in mercantile lines fail? Think of the army of men who,\nfor no better reason, seek to practice law or medicine, and then\nwonder why two of the noblest professions of earth are cursed with\na contingent of dishonest and disreputable followers whose presence\nin the social body is a constant menace to the advancement of our\ncommon civilization.\n\nThink of the thousands of men and women\n\nwho, for want of special training in any line, undertake to teach the\nyoung, and no longer wonder that in every state and every county\nof our land whole schoolhouses full of children are being crippled\nphysically, morally, and intellectually. Think of the vast array\nthat, with no better reason, invade the pulpits of our churches, and\nno longer wonder why so many preach to empty seats. Think of the\ngreater army of men, and women, too, who, for want of special training, drift idly out into the world to find an easy way to lives of vice,\nand shame, and crime. Remember, then, that society has made all\nthese; that by our neglect to provide means whereby, in early youth ,\nthey might have discovered their adaptations, and later might have\ngiven themselves the special training that would make independence\nand integrity possible, we have merited the fate their present condition has inflicted.\n\nHow much cheaper for the average state a\n\ndozen schools each calling for a million of dollars to found and equip\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "740\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Industrial\n\nand a hundred thousand annually to sustain than the maintenance,\ntoleration, or defense against half the worthless, dangerous classes\njust enumerated! Do you doubt that industrial education would\nremedy this ? Have you ever investigated the training of a body\nof tramps or vagrants ? If so, have you ever found a tramp black.\nsmith, a tramp machinist, a tramp carpenter who was really a\ntrained and sober man?\n\nEven in this present period of widespread depression the great\nitinerant army of the unemployed is an army of untrained men. The\ndemand of the hour is for trained men, men who can do some one\n\nthing well, and it is time for us to stop our half-hearted paltering\nwith the question of souphouses for these unfortunates of the present day, or the question of furnishing them work which they cannot\nor will not do, and address ourselves, in part, at least, to the graver\nquestion of educating the tramp out of the civilization of the next\ngeneration. The physician who, for a distemper of the blood disclosing itself in cutaneous eruptions, would simply apply lotions or\npoultices to the cicatrixed surface, would meet the derision which his\nprocedure would merit. So, too, if we would escape the well-merited ridicule of posterity we must stop our endeavors to cure too\ndeep- seated distempers of the social body by the sole applications of\nany such sanctified and deodorized iodine as free soup.\n\nIndustrial\n\neducation is the remedy for our children. Have we the intelligence\nand the devotion to administer it, and thus get at the seat of the\ndisease ?\n\n10. Again, the relation of woman to new economic and social conditions calls strenuously for this industrial education, if either ethics\nor religion are to be conserved.\n\n(a) A vast body of young women in this country go annually to\nlives of shame and vice solely because they lack the training which\nwould give them an honest living and keep them out of the environ-\n\nments which eventually work their ruin. California to-day cannot\nfind enough trained young women for any line of service from the\nkitchen to the college classroom at more generous wages than obtain\nin almost any other part of the Union, and yet annually this state\ncontributes its full contingent to this fallen untrained army.\n(b) Young women are to-day entering on marriage alliances in\norder to have a home and because they lack independence-because\nthey are without industrial education. They are ordaining themselves to be miserable wives and wretched mothers ; they are preparing to meet that brute of a husband in the divorce court; they are\ncondemning their children to an environment both pitiable and degrading. Shall not all this be saved when woman is trained to stand\n\nalone, if need be ? so trained that if she take a husband's hand she\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION A NECESSITY.\n\n741\n\ngoes to him a true help-meet? And just here I would have you think\nof no narrow range of training, but one that would reach down to\nthe humblest girl or give free play to the aspirations of the most\nambitious woman.\n\n(c) Still other girls are starting out in life loving and loved, with\nevery prospect bright for all the happiness that the ideal home may\nhave in store for her who holds its destinies in her well-trained hand.\n\nA few short years, in which she can neither serve herself and her\nown nor train others to do it, and all is changed. Sorrow and misery begin their inroads on the home, from which, a little later, a sad-\n\neyed women and a cynical man depart forever, each vowing that\n\"the times are out of joint ! Oh, cursed spite, that ever I was born to\nset them right!\"\n\nThe wife of the future will need more and more the training\nwhich our schools do not now give. Is the integrity of the home of\nsufficient moment to society and to religion to warrant our striving\nto put such training within the reach of every girl ?\nFor these reasons, thus hurriedly set forth, I believe it to be the\neducation the youth of our country demands ; the education which,\nas George William Curtis has said, \"shall, with one hand, point\nthe young American to the secrets of material skill and fullest intercourse with all mankind, while with the other she shall point to\nlofty thought and commerce with the skies .\"\n\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION A NECESSITY OF THE TIMES.\n\nBY ALBERT R. ROBINSON, PRINCIPAL CHICAGO ENGLISH HIGH AND MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL .\n\nSome wiseacre has said, \"The first necessity of man is to live; his\nfirst duty to work.\"\nAt no period in the history of the human race has this problem of\nliving and working been brought face to face with so many emergencies as at the present time. All \"isms\" and every \"ist\" the world\nover seem to be indulging in a \"free-for-all fight\" over the life and\nlabor of the people who do the work of the world.\nThe last fifty years have been years of social revolution; years of\ninvention and progress so unexpected and unparalleled that new industries had to be discovered and new economic adjustments brought\nabout to meet them .\n\nHuman nature does not adapt itself easily or rapidly as a whole\nto new conditions.\n\nEnforced change more than once in the history\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "742\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\nof the race has driven whole peoples into the oblivion of extinction.\nOur sighs for the good old days when \"Adam ploughed and Eve span; \"\nour yearly retreats to the mountain where we may indulge our inclinations to hunt, fish, and roam in the forests inclinations inherited from far remote ancestors ; our belief that cool shades, murmuring streams, and fresh air are far more agreeable than stuffy offices,\nhot, dusty streets, and the noise and bustle of trade, indicate that we\n\nare not fully adjusted to what we are pleased to call civilization,\nprogress, and business.\nLet us take a brief view of the economic and social conditions\n\nthat surround us and see if we may not aid in the solution of the\nproblem.\n\nNot many years back of the present (indeed, many of us who are\nnot yet rated as old can remember the time), American men and\nwomen were masters of many trades that are now under the control\nof great consolidations of labor and capital. At home the household\nduties made it necessary for the men to know at least the elements\n\nof carpentry, blacksmithing, harnessmaking, shoemaking, coopering,\netc., in order that the products of the farm might be properly cared\nfor and spare hours employed. The women carded, spun, wove into\ncloth, and planned and made into garments the wool and flax produced on the farm; they learned to dry, pickle, and preserve the fruits\nof the orchards and gardens ; they were noted for their cookery-\n\nand good home cookery is an \"open sesame\" to palates that still\nretain their unspoiled youthful vigor.\nAt that time the greater part of the population lived in the rural\ndistricts, where the industrial training mentioned above was the rule,\nwhile in the towns and cities the apprentice system was still in full\nforce, so that anyone whose parents were so disposed or who had the\ninclination himself could acquire all the skill the times demanded in\nsome useful handicraft. The small shops of that time had a tendency\nto develop the independent manhood of the mechanic, as in most\ncases he had to be the planner, the architect, or the engineer of the\nwork he accomplished.\n\nAs a character-builder the little shop of the\n\ncross-roads was far superior to the great factories of to-day, where\npiece-work tends rather to stultify than to elevate those who are compelled to follow it.\n\nAt the present time the home duties of the boy brought up in town\nare almost nothing. There is no wood to cut, no water to carry, no\nfences to build, no axes to grind; nothing to worry him but school\nand play. No wonder he falls into evil ways. No greater truth ever\nwas written than those old lines,\nSatan finds some mishief still\nFor idle hands to do.\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION A NECESSITY.\n\n743\n\nThe nimble-fingered pickpocket, the expert dodger of the police,\nthe skillful burglar, and many vices that are the pride of the\nvicious, are but types of misdirected power. The good and useful\n\ndid not take them and train them, and evil stood ready offering them\nan easy place and full pay from the start .\nThe boy's school duties employ but one-fourth of his time, and the\ntime not necessary for eating and sleep is absolutely at his own disposal. His nature demands something to do, while his school work\noffers only something to think about, and that thing suspended in the\nrealm of pure abstraction.\nThe few fortunate ones who are preparing for a profession, if they\nsurvive the environments just mentioned, may take a course in a\ntechnical or professional school later on, and thus prepare themselves\nfor their chosen work.\n\nThe girl has the same abstract education as her brothers ; but\nwhen her school and social duties and music are done but little time\nis left for learning the practical questions of life. She may snatch\na few moments to embroider a motto, like \"God Bless Our Home !\" (a\nthing which our homes are beginning to need sorely) ; but aside from\nbeing a place to hold social functions, to sleep, and to eat (if the hire-\n\nling deigns to prepare the meals), the average woman of to-day has\nbut little idea of what a home truly is.\nThere is nothing in a girl's education that offsets what the boy\n\ndesigned for a profession must have. By her nature she must be a\nhome-maker, but her education never mentions things of that character. She knows that there is a thing called money, which will hire\ncooks and servants, which will buy dresses and pay dressmakers' bills,\nwill pay nurse girls and tuition charges at the kindergarten; but of\nthe real power of money to make home healthful, beautiful, economical, and consequently happy, she knows less than the birds of the air ;\nfor, indeed, they know the kind of a home suited to their needs.\nThe records of our divorce courts are filled with the recital of\ntroubles that would have never materialized had the woman been as\n\nable to manage the economics of the household as the man was to\nearn a support for the family.\nAs the founder of Pratt Institute says : \"The man who earns ten\ndollars per week will have a more attractive and happy home with\na wife trained in household economy than a man who receives twice\nas much whose wife has had no training in domestic economy and\nthrift.\"\n\nThe changes in general industries have been greater if possible\nthan those arising out of social conditions.\nThe segregation of manufacturing interests into large shops is a\nthing of recent date. Under the old regime it was possible for any\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "744\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\none desirous of learning a trade to find an opportunity to learn it.\nThe influx of foreign labor, attracted by the promise of more lucrative employments, with prejudices formed in countries where competition was whetted to its keenest edge, where the possibility of earning a living depended upon reducing the number of workmen in a\ngiven trade to a minimum, had not yet rendered so barren the field of\nmechanical industries as it is now.\n\nAt that time the apprentice sys-\n\ntem was in full force, and though it was, as a whole, a poor makeshift,\nyet it did not amount to total prohibition as the present lack of\nmethod does.\n\nThe number of apprentices in almost every trade now is very\nsmall. It is next to impossible to find an American workman in\nthe cities who has learned his trade in the city. Such as know the\n\ntrade have acquired it in the country, or stolen it, so to speak, by\nlearning it from some friend or relative, or have taken it up through\nnatural aptitude and with but little practice.\nThis condition of affairs is one that fills the minds of those who\n\nhave the responsibility of shaping the future of our youth with no little dismay.\n\nOne father who wished his sons to be trained in hand as\n\nwell as in head threatened to have them enrolled among the criminal\nclasses, in order that they might have the mechanical training that\nour prisons afford. This man was no empty boaster, but a man who,\nas a prison inspector, was able to judge of the effects of hand training\nby seeing it elevate, if not ennoble, many criminals brought under its\ninfluence.\n\nIt seems that something must be done, or, in accordance with the\ntheories of evolution, the hands of the children of men will wither\nand in time drop off as useless appendages.\nWhere shall we seek the remedy ? The schools are made for the\npeople, and why not seek it there?\nI do not believe with a certain learned \"specialist\" of the burean\nof education, who, in a report on the subject of industrial education\na few years ago, said, \"The place for learning the facts and forces of\nthe world with which the child is brought face to face is the school\nof the world, and not the public schools.\"\nWould it not have been much wiser to have said that anything\nnot having as its solid base \"the facts and forces of the world\" should\nbe relegated to its own sphere, until such a time as in the order of\nnature it may become one of the \"facts and forces of the world ?\"\nEffete forms and dead customs can give us but few intimations of\ntruth compared with what may be learned from the broad, throbbing,\n\nrushing stream of everyday life by which we are carried along. A\nstudy of the reign of Cambyses will not elucidate the social problems\nof the reign of Cleveland, nor do the agrarian laws of the ancient Ro\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION A NECESSITY.\n\n745\n\nmans offer a solution of the communistic and labor troubles of the\npresent day. How much more in touch with the spirit of the times\nare the words of the secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Educa-\n\ntion when he says :\n\n\"Here are the visible, tangible, constructive sides\n\nof this great throbbing world-houses, stores, and churches ; facto\nries, machines, and processes ; streets, waterways, and railroads. Why\nshould not a system of education hold some close and carefully\nthought-out relation to important sections of the world's activity as\nit does to those other sections where law, medicine, scientific attainment, and literary culture play each its active part ? Then, too, there\nis the boy himself who must work for his living. Should not a part\n\nof his training, at least, recognize more fully than at present the\nprimal law, that by the sweat of his brow he must earn his bread ?\"\nLife soon would not be worth living if we continued to spend the\n\nmost fertile years of it in learning what would never be of any possible use to us during the remaining portion. It comes to me more\nand more as the years go on that the first duty of the school is to equip\nits students for life-productive, active, and aggressive. The education that best fits its recipient for earning a comfortable living, respectably and honestly, insures to the family the best parents, to the\ncommunity the best citizens, and to the country the best patriots.\nEndow an anarchist with property and he becomes a law-and-order\nman; decorate a whig with titles and he becomes on ardent tory ;\ngive to nine out of ten criminals the opportunity to earn an honest\nlivelihood and they will take it and thereafter live as honest men.\nOur streets are filled with loafers, our roads with tramps, and our\nprisons with criminals largely because no fitness for earning bread\nhonestly was present at some critical period of life.\n\nHolmes, in his \"Autocrat,\" says : \"If there is any improvement\nin modern theology, it is getting out of the regions of pure abstractions and taking the everyday working forces of the world into account.\"\n\nThis is as true of our schools as it is of our churches.\n\nWe\n\nmust get rid of the old monkish traditions that ever since the middle\n\nages have rested like a cloud of incubi upon our schools. Pure mental attainment was deified. An accusation that anything on a school\ncurriculum was useful met with an immediate rejoinder that the\nschool was for mental training. The useful was considered degrad-\n\ning. Labor had no dignity. The clerk, the lawyer, the doctor were\nextolled above the artisan whose work was an evidence of the train-\n\ning of both mind and hand.\nWe need the introduction of the studies that pertain to life,-human life, I mean, rather than the cadaver-like studies in dead languages of dead nations and dry-as-dust customs. We need teachers\n\nwho will be willing and able to place their pupils at the apex of hu\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "746\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\nman progress as it is to-day, and with the momentum of the past behind them push the \"flying wedge\" of truth through doubt, and error,\nand opposition to a more commanding relation to the \"facts and\nforces of the world.\" We need schools in every community where\nthe young of both sexes may learn the practical things of life blended\nwith the theoretical ; where the abstract theory which is the basis\nof everything shall have its demonstration in the concrete object;\nschools where, as one of our journals lately said, even genius may be\ntaught to earn a living; where all shall learn that a successful life\n\nshould be measured by its value to the community and not by its\nheaped up gold; where it will be taught that addition to me should\nnot mean subtraction from my neighbor; where the boy shall learn\nhow to earn a proper support for the home which by the right of nature is his, and where the girl who is to inherit this same home shall\n\nlearn her responsibility as a copartner of that home; where patriotism shall be taught, not in the empty form of hurrahing for the\nflag but in being an honest, self-supporting member of the state, ready\nto take a share in bearing the burdens of the body politic and in do-\n\ning everything possible to make our nation loved, honored, and re1\n\nspected the world over.\n\n1\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nPRINCIPAL CHARLES A. BRADLEY, Manual Training High School, Denver, Colo.\n-Industrial and manual training as a part of the public school system is a growth\nof so recent date that its real purpose is but little understood or appreciated by\nmany outside of the teaching profession; and, indeed, I may say, by some inside\nof that profession, also.\n\nThe reasons for this kind of training becoming a necessity have been so well\nset forth by Principal Robinson that I shall only touch upon a few of the practical\nfeatures suggested by his paper.\n\nWhen studying the subject of industrial education, we naturally turn to Europe\nfor information, because there the whole matter has been so fully and maturely\nconsidered and elaborated. Trade and industrial schools in European countries\nare renowned for their thoroughness and comprehension of detail. And yet, after\nsurveying that field, so admirable in system and completeness, we turn to our own\nsurroundings with the feeling that we must elaborate something entirely different\nto suit American needs and characteristics. While European school systems are\nno doubt admirably suited to the communities in which they exist, we cannot,\nnor do we wish to, transplant them to our own soil without great modification in\nplan and detail.\n\nIn this country the problem of public industrial education is still unsolved; we\nare still in the experimental stage. Each community is striving independently to\nwork out a system suited to its own needs and wishes.\n\nThe expressions of opinion\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n747\n\nwhich we shall hear from the body of workers here represented will be helpful, I\nam sure, to unify our work and furnish new material for thought and action during\nthe coming year.\n\nSince the advent of manual training schools in this country, the boys have\nreceived the greater share of thought and attention; but the girls cannot be longer\nignored. They must, and should, receive equal advantages with the boys. It is\nto this matter that I wish to call especial attention. What kinds of industrial\nand manual training are best suited to American girls ? Shall we give them the\nsame kind of work that we give the boys, or shall we provide a different line of\nwork ? If we begin with the same kind for both, at what time shall we provide\nfor different kinds, if this seems desirable? These and many other similar questions must be met and answered. Doubtless some of our number have already\n\nfound more or less satisfactory answers . I trust that we shall hear from them at\nthis meeting.\n\nAfter all, the most important consideration is the character of the instruction,\nrather than the quantity or kind of work. We must have systematic and scientific\ntraining and cultivation of all of the perceptive faculties of the child. Manual\ntraining should be provided through all the grades of the public schools, from the\nkindergarten up; and in the higher grammar grades and high school especial attention should be paid to developing executive and constructive ability.\nIt is within the power of this department to do much to secure this desired\nresult, by shaping and directing public opinion.\nAlong with this training should go physical culture, conducted upon common\nsense lines, and aiming to produce erect and graceful carriage and complete control of the muscles of the body.\n\nAs a nation we Americans have paid too little attention in past years to the\ntraining of the body. We are just beginning to awaken to a proper recognition of\nthe subject. Manual training and physical culture are closely related, and should\nbe so recognized and treated.\n\nPRINCIPAL CHARLES D. LARKINS of the Brooklyn Manual Training High School,\n-For many years the advocates of manual training have been called upon to give\na reason for their faith, and to show cause why manual training should be given\na place in education. To-day three papers have reversed the condition of affairs.\nIf the three papers read are true, and they seem to be incontrovertible, manual\ntraining is no longer upon the defensive, but its opponents are. The methods of\nthe psychological laboratory, or, rather, that of the brain anatomist, have clearly\ndemonstrated that manual training is not only an element in complete brain development, but that such development is impossible without it. Hence, manual\ntraining has a place in education, and cannot be kept out. I should like to have\nbeen present at the meeting of old line high school principals where President Keyes\nasserted that of two boys, equally endowed by nature and equally well prepared,\nthe one going to the manual training high school could be prepared and ought to\nbe required to pass an examination in mathematics one-fourth harder, and in\nscience one-half harder than his fellow who entered the high school not having\nmanual training. He might with equal confidence assert that the same boy could\nbe made and ought to be made to pass an examination one-third harder in English\nand modern languages. Manual training, when properly correlated with other lines\nof work, greatly increases the power of the student. It is an additional method of\nintellectual expression, and contributes as much to his power as any other method\nof expression. Again I wish to say that the opponents of manual training are today put upon the defensive.\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "748\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\nTHE EFFECTS OF MANUAL TRAINING .\nBY PRINCIPAL CHARLES D. LARKINS\nOF THE MANUAL\nSCHOOL , BROOKLYN, N. Y.\n\nTRAINING HIGH\n\nManual training is an outgrowth of a mixed desire on the part of\nboth the educational and the general public, born of dissatisfaction\nwith conditions existing a dozen or fifteen years ago and a craving\nfor more useful training than the schools of that day gave.\n\nLike an\n\nexploring expedition, the effort to found a manual training school\nwas a plunge into an unknown region, and was made in the dark.\nThe whole matter was an experiment. With a desire to determine\nthe effects of the training and the results obtained by means of it, the\n\npresident of this department sent out a circular letter to all schools\nknown to him in which manual training was a part of the course,\nasking replies to the following questions :\nFavor- Unfaable. vorable.\n\n1.\n\nNeutral .\n\nBlanks.\n\nWhat grade of work have you in mind while an-\n\nswering these questions ?\n\n0\n\n2\n\nlarity in eating, use of narcotics , etc.\n7. Development of the perceptive powers .\n8. Power of forming concepts\n9. Cheerfulness in work\n10. Incentives to work\n\n18\n\n0\n\n33\n\n0\n\n0\n\n9\n\n348\n\n0\n\n31\n15\n\n1\n\n24\n\n0\n\n603\n\n31\n\n4. Effect upon physical development .\n5. Effect upon eyesight\n6. Effect upon personal physical habits, such as regu-\n\n010\n\n2. Age of pupils\n3. Effect upon general health\n\n27\n\n0\n\n1\n\n2\n\n33\n\n0\n\n0\n\n1\n\n11. Persistence in the performance of duty .\n\n25\n\n0\n\n3\n\n5\n\n12.\n\n32\n\n0\n\n0\n\n2\n\n13. Discipline in the school .\n14. Effect upon the imagination\n15. Effect upon the judgment\n\n29\n\n1\n\n3\n\n2\n\n22\n28\n\n0\n\n5\n\n8\n\n0\n\n3\n\n3\n\n16. Interest in mathematics .\n17. Interest in science...\n18. Interest in language .\n19. Interest in history .\n20. Interest in literature\n21. Continuance in school....\n22. Chances for success while in school .\n23. Chances for success after leaving school .\n\n21\n\n0\n\n4\n\n9\n\n23\n\n0\n\n2\n\n9\n\n9\n\n3\n1\n\n10\n\n12\n\n7\n\n13\n\n13\n\n6\n\n2\n\n12\n\n14\n\n29\n\n0\n\n2\n\n3\n\n24\n\n0\n\n1\n\n9\n\n30\n\n0\n\n0\n\n4\n\n24.\n\nSelf-reliance\n\n9\n\n7\n\nInclination to go on with college, university, or\nprofessional work\nStanding in higher work\n\n18\n19\n\n1\n\n7\n\n7\n\n25.\n\n1\n\n4\n\n10\n\n26.\n\nDemand for services\n\n27\n\n0\n\n0\n\n7\n\n27.\n\nGenerosity\nUnselfishness\nRegard for truth\n\n12\n\n0\n\n6\n\n16\n\n28 .\n\n29.\n\n30. Appreciation of beauty\n31. Moral purpose\n32. Sentiment among the people as to manual training\nschools\n\n8\n\n1\n\n6\n\n19\n\n16\n\n0\n\n6\n\n13\n\n21\n\n1\n\n2\n\n10\n\n17\n\n0\n\n4\n\n13\n\n28\n\n0\n\n2\n\n4\n\n31\n\n0\n\n0\n\n3\n\n33. Sentiment among teachers who have given the subject attention\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nEFFECTS OF MANUAL TRAINING.\n\n749\n\nThe answers obtained have been tabulated and are before you. In\nthis report they will be combined into groups, so far as is possible,\nand the general opinion to be gleaned from them will be given.\nThirty-six schools, covering all grades from the primary to the college, made replies. Of this number, twenty-eight are high schools\nor colleges, thirteen represent only grades below the high school, and\nfive cover both high school and lower grades. The pupils represent\nall ages from five to twenty-six, the greater part being from fourteen\nto nineteen years of age. Some schools admit as students boys only ;\nothers both boys and girls, and all either had a complete course in\nbook work and drawing or were connected with schools having such\na course, in which schools the pupils did the book-work. The report\n\nwill close with a discussion of the present status of the subject, and\ndoes not necessarily express the opinion of either the president or\nsecretary of this department, but, on the contrary, is intended to be\na summation of the opinions expressed in the replies obtained.\nSo far as the effect upon the health is concerned, the answers\nplace no small stress upon the fact that the effect of manual training\nis very beneficial. Not one person expresses a contrary opinion. It\nis admitted, that, at the beginning of shop-work, the result is sometimes overwork, lameness, blisters, bruises, and other small bodily\ndiscomforts; but these pass away quickly. All agree that the effect\nis to improve the general health, increase growth, and more fully de-\n\nvelop the body. This is particularly noticeable in the second year,\nand the graduates are generally large, strong, and healthy.\nThere are two adverse opinions regarding the effect upon the eyesight. In all others the report is favorable, and the concensus of\nopinion is that the improvement of the general health reacts on weak\nand defective eyes to their advantage. These two adverse reports\nlead one to wonder whether the injury to the eyes is not a result of\nthe particular exercises used, or of the conditions regarding light that\nsurround the student.\n\nAlthough the amount of physical exercise obtained from the shopwork is slight, it is regular in both time and quantity, and tends to\nfixed bodily habits. The bodily organs perform their functions with\nregularity. This tends to do away with unnatural cravings of appetite. For example, the smoking of cigarettes is comparatively slight\nin manual training schools. It may also be said, in passing, that the\nwork in such schools is usually destructive to school athletics. Indeed, it is a rare thing for a manual training school to maintain a\nbaseball or a football team that is a credit to the school as such.\n\nIn-\n\ndeed, little in the way of athletics, or anything else, is thought of outside of the regular school work.\nIt is the universal testimony of the answers obtained that the\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "750\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\nwork of these schools as a whole produces an unusually beneficial\neffect upon the purely intellectual processes. By it the power to command and concentrate the attention is greatly increased.\n\nAccuracy\n\nof observation is secured, the perception is enlivened, and the generalizations are quick and accurate. The effect upon the imagination is\nvery marked. The reproductive imagination is stimulated, and its\nimages are clear and correct. The work in literature and design\ngives unusual opportunity for the cultivation of the constructive imagination. This culture is almost entirely absent in other schools.\nNo one thing impresses itself upon the mind of one visiting a manual\n\ntraining school for the first time so much as the power shown by the\npupils in original work. The training also results in great good to\nthe pupil's judgment. He learns not only what to do and how to do\nit, but he learns to decide quickly and accurately. The forge-work\nis specially valuable in this respect.\nThe fact that it is necessary in nearly every manual training\nschool to make a rule requiring the pupils to leave the school\npromptly at the close of the session, to prevent their working after\nschool so long as to retard the next day's work, is an evidence that\nmanual training is a great incentive to work. It is to be specially\nmentioned that all who are engaged in the work agree, that, when\n\nonce a pupil has become interested in any single line of school work,\nhis interest will usually spread to all other lines. He is cheerful and\nenthusiastic ; considerate of his fellows ; helpful to others when\nnecessary ; sympathetic, generous, and unselfish ; persistent in the\nperformance of his duties; self-reliant ; keeps himself in order without restraint, and takes pride in the good name and good work of his\nschool . Since only one person declares that manual training tends to\ndestroy discipline in school, we are again led to question local conditions, and to suspect that it is not the manual training but something else that pulls down the discipline.\nThe testimony that the training is very beneficial in case of mathematics and science is unanimous, but there seems to be a difference\nof opinion as to the other scholastic subjects. Three to one who give\nan opinion assert that the effect is increased interest in language and\nliterature, and seven to one that such is the case in history; while\na large proportion contend that there is no perceptible effect upon\n\nthese subjects. In the Brooklyn Manual Training High School the\neffect has been to increase the interest very greatly in all language\nand literary work, as well as in history. The possibilities of making\nthe drawing and shop-work contribute to the work in these branches\nare great, and full advantage has been taken of them. The writer\n\nhas the impression that some schools are not making the best of the\nconditions.\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nEFFECTS OF MANUAL TRAINING.\n\n751\n\nThe economic advantages of manual training are clearly brought\n\nout in the answers.\n\nThe first great gain is a longer school-life on the\n\npart of the student.\n\nThis is an advantage to both the student and\n\nthe state. The chances of his success are greatly increased, both during his school-work and after his leaving school. He more readily\nobtains employment, and nearly, if not quite always, secures greater\nremuneration for his services than those who have not had such\n\ntraining. The concensus of opinion seems to be that the course\nusually urges a student on to a higher training, and enables him to\nmaintain a high standing in advanced work; but there is one person\nwho expresses a contrary opinion, and several think it makes no difference. Local conditions may again account for the contrary\nopinion.\n\nThe answers regarding questions 29 and 31 surprise the writer\nmost. Less than half of the replies recognize the good effect of the\nsystem upon the moral nature of the student.\n\nNo one asserts that\n\nit is bad, but many either see no effect or they express no opinion. In\nthe writer's many years of experience he has never met so potent a\nfactor in ethical culture as manual training. He finds it a rare thing\nfor a pupil who has had much of this training to be dishonest or untrue in anything that those words imply.\nWhether the training increases the love for and appreciation of\nthe beautiful seems to depend upon the course of studies in the particular school. In some schools great stress is laid upon æsthetical\nculture ; in others it receives no attention. Some schools have pride\nin the fact that nothing is taught in them except what is practical.\nFreehand drawing, modeling, and kindred work is eliminated. Other\nschools make those subjects a part of the course.\n\nThis may account\n\nfor the great diversity of opinions expressed. It is evident that\ntwenty-one out of thirty-six give some attention to æsthetics, and it is\nto be hoped that all will do so in the near future. The danger, if any\nexists, is that manual training will be wrecked upon the rock of practicality. If manual training has any excuse for a place in school\nwork, it is a factor in general education.\nProbably the term \"manual training\" is the most misunderstood\nterm in educational science. By it not only the uninformed public\nbut some teachers as well include everything from the mere learning\nof a trade to an elaborate technical education. A school principal,\nendowed with the right to be called \"Doctor,\" told me that he had\nfour boys who had failed to pass the necessary examination for graduation from the grammar school, and who were so dull that they could\nnever do the book-work of the high school, and asked that I should\nviolate the rules of the board of education by admitting them to my\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "752\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\nschool, because, he said, they were just the kind of boys I wanted;\nand he assured me that if they did not learn a trade they would never\namount to anything. From this complete and persistent misunderstanding the cause is suffering; but it is a subject for congratulation that the best informed educators and philosophers of the time\nhave placed themselves squarely on the side of manual training.\nWithin the past year the writer has heard Professor James of\n\nHarvard, Professor Sargent of Yale, Dr. G. Stanley Hall, and several\nothers of almost equal prominence contend that manual training is\n\nnot only a necessity in education, but also that it bears promise of\nbeing one of the most potent factors in the working out of the great\neducational problems of the day.\n\nPerhaps there can be no more fitting conclusion to this report\nthan the following verbatim extract from the letter of W. A. McAn-\n\ndrew, director of Pratt Institute High School, Brooklyn, when replying to the above questions. Mr. McAndrew says:\nIn general, I should like to say, that three years' careful observation of the\ninfluence of manual training upon young men and women has convinced me thoroughly that it is the nearest to the ideal scheme of American education yet dis-\n\ncovered. I was graduated from the classical course at college myself, and I began\nmy teaching as an instructor in Latin and Greek; was then the principal of a\npublic classical school in Hyde Park, a suburb of Chicago, and after a short experience in the employ of a railroad company, returned eagerly to the pursuit of\nteaching, as I had an opportunity to ally myself with an academy where art and\nmanual instruction were essential parts of the system.\nThe aim of the manual training school, I think, should be the same as that of\n\nany academy-to fit for useful, industrious American citizenship. It is the business\nof the directors of such a school to select the subjects of instruction which seem\n\nmost likely to develop the powers needed by the ideal citizen. Almost every subject taught in any school seems to me to have training and strengthening powers,\nbut there is not time for all. Every course of study must be a compromise. In\nour course we have endeavored to select those things which combine the largest\n\npossibilities for a board education with the subjects most likely to work directly\nand pertinently towards strengthening the will, the feelings, and the intellect.\nThe senior boys in this school (and our course is but three years long) are\nquicker, readier, broader, more enterprising, as a class, than the seniors at the end\nof four years' classical instruction in the other schools with which I have been\nconnected.\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "A PLEA FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING.\n\nDepartment. ]\n\n753\n\nA PLEA FOR THE SYSTEMATIC EXTENSION OF INDUSTRIAL\nTRAINING FROM THE KINDERGARTEN TO GRAMMAR\nSCHOOLS.\nBY MISS MARY A. PINNEY, NEW HAVEN, CONN.\n\nThe kindergarten, a link between home and school, has for its\naim development of character and ability ; growth through self-activity in all powers of body and mind.\nThe processes of the kindergarten increase the accuracy of sense\n\nimpressions, and through them render the child observant, executive ;\ninduce mental and creative effort; cultivate the moral nature. Systematic development is resultant. Its methods are economical and\nprogressive ; its spirit is cheerful and truthful.\nIn its plays the kindergarten deals with symbols. By means of\nthese it gives ideas of the problems of life, which bring consciousness of individual responsibility in society. Through its occupations\nit stimulates the will as a power over matter, thus converting material to use and making it representative of ideas ; and, in so doing,\ndevelops faculties of mind by deftness of hand.\nThe child's world is one of things. By observation he recognizes\ntheir qualities ; through sense perceptions he gains a partial knowledge of their physical properties, their practical use and relations.\nBy the process of construction, by making or reproducing, he acquires, not only knowledge of things, not merely creative skill, but\nthat confidence in self which in later years will enable him to master\ncircumstances and make success of life.\n\nThe child at home has educated himself through spontaneity of\nwill. His doing has been freely expressed, but his discoveries and\nexperiences have been generally accidental, his observations too\nbrief to be fruitful.\n\nIn the kindergarten directed effort has carried forward the child's\neducation by opening new fields for the exercise of the faculties, thus\ngiving definiteness to desultory action. Observation caused by curiosity and concentrated by interest has given him clear and permanent\nconceptions.\n\nWhen the symbolic stage is passed; when increased intellectual\nactivity demands those educational factors of human learning, the\nacquiring of the thoughts of others by reading, the expressing of\nthought by writing, the recognizing of facts of number and science,then the child enters school.\n\nHere is a transition from play to work, from voluntary effort to\nduty, from arbitrary will to will subjected by reason.\n48\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "754\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\nIn the school learning to do by doing has a stronger meaning\nthan in the kindergarten, for with added years comes increased ac-\n\ntivity, requiring work such as shall satisfy the growing brain and\nfirmly fix right habits of mind.\nWhen one imagines a kindergarten without its industrial elements, robbed of its power to express objectively, possibly then can\nbe gained a perception of the loss in the first years of school life.\nUpon work depends all social progress. The work of the world\nmust be done. The most willing laborers most truly serve their fellow-men. Hence, children should be taught to love work because\nit is right and brings real happiness to the cheerful doer.\nManifestly the child has grown away from the form of instruction\nin the kindergarten, but the spirit of its methods should remain to\nactuate the work of every succeeding year of study. Fræbel tells\nus, that \" education, to be worthy of a human being, must be continuous ; must proceed upon the same plan from the beginning\nthrough a progressive sequence.\" An eminent American educator\njustly remarks that, \"the school should utilize the development\nwhich the child has obtained in the kindergarten.\" Unfortunately\nfor childhood, the general school concerns itself chiefly with the\nthree R's, those \"tools of intercourse,\" giving greater time and placing far more stress upon their attainment than upon the unfoldment\nof mind and soul .\n\nThe school deprives the child of much of his natural activity. It\nlessens the education that comes through the senses. Ignoring the\nnatural inclination of the child to employ himself through his hands,\nthe school insists upon knowledge of facts rather than things, and\nforces instruction for the value of which the child has little com-\n\nprehension ; hence, often little interest. He is made a recipient of\nknowledge which has no present relation to his thought or desire.\nThe school seems to forget that it cares for the same child who was\n\nin the kindergarten; for whom the benefit of the all-sided natural\ntraining there given is equally imperative and equally his right to receive in every grade of instruction. Because of unattractive or\npoorly adapted work, may not the formation of habits of inattention,\nidleness, dislike towards effort begin, by which the child's powers\nwill weaken instead of strengthen? Is there not danger of forming,\nnot alone bad school habits but bad habits of life? for to know that\n\none can do and yet leave undone is to produce moral degeneracy.\nThe purpose of education is the gain of power for living and\nlearning ; to bring the child to man's estate with clear, true knowledge of life's great need,-the common, universal need of labor,the well-doing of which is its glory, and in whose perfect execution\nis full reward ; to make a man of character and ability, possessed\nof valuable information, skillful execution, and moral stamina.\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nA PLEA FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING.\n\n755\n\nThe endeavor of the school should be to render a child observant,\naccurate, truthful, self-controlled, self-reliant ; able to do thorough,\nexact work. But only by providing such work as a child will love\nand cheerfully perform, and which has most happy variety of repetition, thus making the best and most permanent effect upon the memory, will he become such a worker. To do this, material capable of\n\ntransformation must furnish a means whereby present knowledge\nand skill may be employed in new creations, which may be compared and combined with previous productions. Thus is the child\nhelped to make the transition from sensuous to intellectual knowl-\n\nedge, judgment and reason are acquired, and use of material gives\nvisible test of power.\nIt is self-evident that the child must gain ideas, not only of relations of quantities but of the arbitrary symbols of their expression,\nfor commercial purposes, the demands of social and business interests, the needs of life.\nThe elements of natural science must be obtained that the child\n\nmay enter the world of nature and have sympathy therewith ; and\nit clearly follows that he must learn to read, for reading is the gateway of literature, giving him entrance to the inner world of man.\nDrawing, as a general discipline, as introductory to all arts and\ntrades, as a means of expression in all sciences and of æsthetical\ntaste, must be acquired.\nBut to acquire the mechanics of number, music, written and\nprinted language ; to comply with the requirements of penmanship,\ncoupled with our unphonetic spelling, obligates the child to strive\nfor the mastery of abstract and arbitrary signs, the frequent recurrence of whose unreasonable arrangements implies drudgery. The\nnecessary training of memory is irksome to the small reason of the\nlearner. Intellectual effort, however desirable in itself, if too long\ncontinued, wearies and disgusts, and defeats its own object. How\nshall we elevate-aye, transform-this drudgery ?\nBy the study of things before facts. By presenting in variety\nobjects structurally typical, yet familiar and enjoyable such as are\nsuited to the child's faculties and appeal to his emotions ; objects\n\nwhich, through their indefiniteness, may be widely suggestive. By\nsupplying material adapted to the production of definite things. By\npermitting every mental impression, as far as possible, to have its\nmanual expression.\n\nThen may intellectual drudgery become mental\n\npleasure.\n\nLet the child handle those objects he would know.\n\nThis includes\n\na study of solids, of planes and their boundaries, as leading to drawing and mathematics. Let him handle plants, animals, and minerals\n\nas a foundation for the study of science ; type and script symbols\nas leading to a knowledge of letters, and through them, of literature.\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "756\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\nFrom the beginning let knowledge of things and knowledge of\nhow to work be co-ordinated, so that the requirements of delicate\nneatness, accurate amount, good workmanship, dispatch, will teach\neconomy of time and material, and react beneficially upon all literary\nwork and general behavior.\n\nWhen work helps children to a higher plan in thinking and act-\n\ning, when it impresses more powerfully the memory than any other\nmeans, it becomes a valuable and necessary auxiliary of the intellectual processes of the school. If in changing material into forms\nof will children gain patience, steadfast purpose, careful doing, reliability, then will moral development be added to mental and manual development.\n\nInterdependence of study can avail as a time-saving agent ;\n\nscience and study of form may aid in interpreting language and\narithmetic ; reading, language, and art teach, not alone of external\nthings, of nature and human life but may interpret the higher life\nof thought and spiritual living.\n\nAnalytical processes, the observation of things by which discoveries are made, should give intellectual development. The converting of material to use should cause creative power by application of knowledge obtained. What the mind conceives, the hand\nshould execute ; how the hand executes impresses the mind, and for\ngood or ill molds the moral character.\nHow shall this be effected ?\n\nHow shall the ideas of children be\n\nput into concrete form ?\n\nBy use of the hand, that God-given mediator between the outer\n\nand inner world ; that restless, asking hand, imploring in no unmistakable way for education by manual contact. Let the child know\nof life and living things, seeing beauty, and goodness, and wisdom,\n\nand finding power of expression by creative skill.\nWith hand and eye, at first unaided by tools, let the child observe,\n\ninvestigate, experiment, test; learning of natural forces, concrete\nquantities, chemical changes ; of measures, of position, direction,\nand space. So he gains ineffaceable impressions.\nLet him collect specimens , care for plant and animal; let him represent form by modeling; let him illustrate orally, pictorially, or\nby arrangement; let him build and construct, and thus find expression.\n\nThe first industrial work should be that which gives faith in self,\nconfidence in present endeavor, assurance of success in future efforts .\n\nIt shouldbe fundamental in essence, enjoyable in kind, simple to\nthe comprehension, progressive in scope.\nAs power increases and knowledge enlarges, let organs of sense,\nincluding the sense of measurement by aid of that master tool of\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nA PLEA FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING.\n\n757\n\nlabor, the hand, examine more complex objects ; record impressions\nby pen, or pencil, or brush ; construct larger models; deal with\nmore difficult material.\n\nTo aid the hand, tools common to the home may be used at\nschool to render work permanent. Later, tools of specific measure\nmay be added for the gain of perfect accuracy. Use the fewest and\nsimplest tools possible. When tools are used, let them be the best\nof their kind. Never let a poor tool excuse poor work.\nIf by the use of suitable tools delicacy and precision of touch be\ncultivated, an advantage is gained which will be useful in any line\nof work that ultimately may be adopted.\nMaterial subjective to many changes or inventions holds most\ncharm, most cultivating efficacy. Plastic material-notably sand,\nclay, or wax-develops conscious ability, gives recognizance of power\nfrom within and without. By its aid, form is studied as a whole,\nand solids in nature and manufactures are represented. It is a\nbasis for mathematics and geography, because clear ideas of dimensions are gained. With use of clay begins graphic construction or\ndrawing.\n\nWere children permitted to draw what they see, what\n\nthey make, what they imagine, they would give visible demonstration of knowledge by manual expression.\nFræbel declared that \"drawing develops in the child observation\nand attentiveness, a conception of the whole, memory and thought,\nthe power of combining and inventing, imagination. In general,\nit opens the way for the corresponding use of the creative power\nof man, enriches the spirit, the mind, and the soul with clear notions, true thoughts, and beautiful ideas.\"\nTextiles teach much of natural science and industries.\n\nWork in paper and cardboard gives instruction in space, perception of measures, of parts. By its use geometrical surfaces and\n\nsolids, harmony of color and elementary decoration may be studied.\nA working drawing is involved.\nNo material is so wholly to the child's liking, none so fully\nteaches carefulness and truthfulness as wood, and whenever feas-\n\nible its early use in the workroom, united with many industrial exercises in the schoolroom, combines most happiness with most discipline. Work done in wood is not perishable. The child can make\nan article whose use is appreciated by himself. \"This arouses and\nsustains interest; helps the child understand reasons for careful\nactions. \" If what he makes is for another, unselfishness is developed; and generosity of spirit is a rich heritage.\nSince continuity of educational effort is logical, reasonable, desirable, and productive of best results, should not the work of the\nkindergarten be carried forward into every grade, and the work of\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "758\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\neach grade be related to a higher one, as are now reading, number,\nand music ? Might not outlining with needle upon cardboard be\nrelated to cording and chain-stitching upon cloth, at last merging\ninto the work of the sewing supervisor? Might not paper folding\nand cutting show multiples of simplest measures ? Might not testing of objective measurement with use of ruler lead to construction\nin paper sloyd, and paper sloyd by use of knife and compass lead to\nwood sloyd? Cannot \"baby\" wood sloyd become the beginning of\nwork done in manual training high schools ? Ought not industrial\nwork in every grade to have such manual elements that trainingsystematic, pleasurable, valuable-be given, and each grade's work\nbuild unto the grade beyond?\n\nDemonstrating that this is done, and showing the importance attached to work for primarians, may be cited a few typical reports:\nIn Liege, Belgium, 4,700 children in 1891 attended the kindergarten, thence passing through a transition class to primary schools\nwhich extended Fræbel's manual exercises by simple forms of hand\nlabor with clay, pasteboard, and paper. \"The results were reported\nvery satisfactory.\"\n\nAt Armentieres, France, the kindergarten gives one hour daily\nto hand work, and aims directly to prepare the way for further instruction by all its methods. \"The children seem to take the greatest interest in what they do.\"\nIn Göteborg, Sweden, in one primary school, 240 pupils receive\na graded course of wood sloyd from the kindergarten upwards. \"The\nchildren never weary of their work. \"\nAt Geneva, Switzerland, the primary schools follow the studies\nof the kindergarten through every grade till trade schools are\nreached, deeming uniform advancement indispensable to complete\neducation.\n\nTo defer industrial occupations till a child can attain to a technical school is to deprive many of hand skill. This is proven by the\nfact that the elementary school affects a much larger proportion of\nthe community than can higher grades, for its ratio of enrollment is\n\nfive to one. It is estimated that nine-tenths of all pupils enrolled\nleave school to enter upon business pursuits before arriving at high\n\nschool age. These children must depend largely upon manual dexterity for their livelihood. Therefore should not training for ability\nin manipulation, delicacy and rapidity of touch be begun and continued in early youth-for skill acquired is useful in every occupation\n\nof life ? The older a child, the more difficulty to acquire new phases\nof manual skill, the less the love for labor; and unskilled labor is\nproven to cause crime and pauperism, to menace national as well as\nindividual safety. Nine-tenths of all criminals arraigned and convicted are persons who have no technical instruction.\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nINDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN INDIAN SCHOOLS.\n\n759\n\nIt has been well said that \" Solicitude for childhood is one of the\n\nsigns of a growing civilization.\" The most important question of\nany generation is, What education should be given to the succeeding generation ? Do we not agree with Edward Everett Hale, that\n\"the great duty of the state is to make the most of every child born\nin that state ?\"\n\nEmanuel Kant tells us that \"children ought to be educated ac-\n\ncording to a better possible condition in the future ; that is to say,\naccording to the idea of humanity and its completed destiny.\"\nIt is demonstrated that industrial work quickens perceptive faculties ; requires exact seeing of form, position, and change; demands\nexact arranging, making and decorating, coupled with neatness and\nperfection of finish. This demand includes, obviously, wide-awake,\nattentive senses. It teaches self-denial, patience, and self-control;\nit calls for purpose in effort, truthfulness of execution ; it advances\nscience and art ; it is invaluable to the needs of life; it benefits humanity.\n\nShould not its value as an educational factor be acknowl-\n\nedged and adopted? for both nature and philosophy declare the\nnecessity of acquiring individual experience through exercise of the\ncreative powers.\n\nThe present general scheme of primary education now furthers\nmental development with much success, yet is its tone too theoretical.\nTechnical aptitude is not developed. We plead that the training\nof the hand be added to its every part; that there be given to the\nchild's environment every impelling force to persuade him to his best\neffort in joyful response to the daily life in school, causing him to\nprogress from suitable impressions to worthy habits. Thus shall\nthe mind and soul receive for time and eternity the knowledge and\ntraining that fits the child of nature to be an inheritor of the kingdom of heaven .\n\nINDUSTRIAL TRAINING AS APPLIED TO INDIAN SCHOCLS.\n\nBY CAPT. R. H. PRATT, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE UNITED STATES INDIAN\nSCHOOL, CARLISLE, PA .\n\nNo system of American training or education is right that does\nnot seek to enlarge and develop all the abilities and open the way to\n\nwidest opportunities for the individual, to remove prejudice against\nlabor, and to give the courage to compete. The school can be just\nas potent an engine to create prejudice, stifle ability, and narrow opportunity as it can be to extend these qualities. This needs no\nargument.\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "760\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\nWe have an Indian problem because the Indian is ignorant of the\n\nlanguage of the country and industrially untrained to take his place\namong our other people. The problem will remain as long as the Indians are continued in masses apart from our other people, because\nby such massing they are held to their industrial inability and their\n\nignorance of our language. Having for generations failed to induct\nthem into the nation by our attempts to educate and train them sepa-\n\nrately in tribes, and having fully demonstrated that that method only\nleaves them tribes, we should now make all our future attempts at\n\neducation and industrial training for them positive influences to\nbring them into the nation through giving them the full use of the\nlanguage of the country and the full ability to meet and compete industrially with the other inhabitants.\n\nIn justice to itself, the Indians, and all the people, the govern\nment should have but one aim in all it may do for them, and that aim\n\nbe to transform them individually into worthy, productive American\ncitizens .\n\nThe Indian is a man like other men.\n\nHe has no innate\n\nqualities that condemn him either to prolonged separation from other\nmen or to generations of slow development. He can acquire all the\nqualities of good, useful citizenship in about the same time that other\nmen acquire them. He is hindered or facilitated in acquiring them\n\nonly by conditions and environments that would equally hinder or\nfacilitate other men in acquiring the same qualities.\nIf the Indian has not had the chance to acquire industrial knowl-\n\nedge and the language of the country, he is not to be blamed for not\nhaving these qualities equally with us. If he is not acquiring these\nqualities now as rapidly as he might and ought, it is because the\ncontrivances we force upon him hinder. In all we do for him, we\nmust necessarily consider first, the English language quality; for\nwithout that he is condemned to perpetual disability. How is a\nusable knowledge of any language to be quickest and best gained?\nManifestly through association with those who use it. Neither\nbooks nor a special teacher are necessary. The subject, placed where\nhe can hear the language constantly in use, gets the language.\nWise American parents desiring their children to learn a foreign\nlanguage, send them into the foreign country or into constant association with that language.\n\nWhy not, then, when the school is so wide\n\nand free, contrive that the Indian have this same opportunity to learn\nthe almost universal language of the country in which he lives, and\nwhich he must learn in order to be at one with the great body of its\npeople?\n\nUpon his having a usable knowledge of the English language\nhinges all his success in his industrial training. Ignorant of the lan-\n\nguage, he is walled out industrially and in every other way.\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nINDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN INDIAN SCHOOLS.\n\n761\n\nSuccessful industrial training follows in the same line. His industrial needs are nothing more and nothing less than sufficient skill\nin some industry to enable him to successfully compete with other\npeople. How is this competitive skill to be acquired ? There seems\nno other proper way but to follow exactly the same lines indicated to\nbe necessary in acquiring the language. The best agricultural school\nis the agriculturalist on his own farm, where the daily pressure of\n\nnecessity to get the work done, and where the living and something\nmore hinge upon industry, skill, and intelligent management.\nIn the same way, to make a blacksmith or a carpenter, the blacksmith shop and the carpenter shop, with a competent head and surrounded by competent workmen, is the true place. Working with the\nfarmer and the mechanic, the Indian learns what a real day's work\nis, and becomes in every way a part of the situation. He acquires\nanother most essential quality, seldom or never taken into consideration in estimating his needs, and that is the courage of civilization,\nthe courage of language, the courage of industry.\nAt his home in his tribe, he measures himself and his needs only\n\nby the conditions of progress there, simply because he has no other\nexperience or observation to guide. Gauging his needs by these weak\nexamples, he is in no sense prepared for competition with the more\nskillful, aggressive, and productive race. This is why he goes to the\nwall when brought into such competition.\n\nThe courage and ability\n\nfor the higher competition are only to be acquired by actual experiences in that competition. There is therefore all the greater need that\nevery part of the education of the Indian should be carried forward\n\nunder the association and competition indicated.\n\nThe tribe and all\n\ntribalizing influences are the enemies of the individual if he is to be-\n\ncome American and a citizen ; for, immersed in the tribe, how is the\nindividual to take on anything foreign to the tribe?\nWe have failed in our efforts for the Indian in the past, and are\nnot materially successful now, because we have not recognized that\nthe Indian is to be merged into our American system.\n\nThe Indian is\n\nto save his life by being consumed and lost in America, which is comparatively a simple matter. In other words, the best way to get civilization into the Indian is to get the Indian into civilization; ergo, the\nbestway to get industry and industrial skill into the Indian is to get\nthe Indian into industry and industrial skill. Attempting to get\n\ncivilization into the Indian by keeping him out of and away from\nthese is the cause of all our failures .\n\nThe Indian system, or an Indian system, is the real barrier to the\nIndian's progress towards becoming a civilized useful man and citizen.\n\nWhen we established the reservation system we got out the In-\n\ndian's coffin, and every plan we adopt which makes him a specialty\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": "762\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Industrial\n\ncrowds him into that coffin. If there were no Indian reservations,\nno Indian bureau, no Indian annuities, no Indian schools, and the Indianhad had to \"root, hog, or die\" like the rest of us from the start,\nthere would be more live Indians to-day than there are, and we should\nnot be confronted with an Indian problem. We, and not the Indian,\nare to blame for his being a burden. The seven to ten millions of\nmoney spent yearly in the Indian service is an expenditure of our\nown creation, and very much more in the interest of the white man\nthan the Indian.\n\nBut to my subject. We must not depend too much on industrial\ntraining in Indian schools, however practical or however promising\nthe conditions. The best Indian industrial school can only inaugurate the industrial idea and give a smattering of industrial usefulness.\nThe bone and sinew of real industrial worth come only through actual\ncompetition with the real industrial bread-winner.\n\nIn order that we\n\nmay not in our industrial training of the Indian get too far away from\nthis vital principle, the most practical real mechanics and farmers\nare our best industrial school instructors,-all the school shops\nshould be like the shops of regular every-day mechanics. The best\ndivision of time is half day at industries and half day at books. One\nrecompenses the other and saves from weariness.\n\nThe subject should generally be held to one trade, so that there\n\nmay be something of the old apprenticeship system through which\nthe greatest skill will be reached. The largest results that may be secured through industrial school training for Indian youth will only\nbe obtained through locating the schools in our civilized and industrial communities, so that the examples of our own industry and skill\nmay be always before the pupils. There need be no limit to the variety of industries taught. Distribution of occupation will aid to\ndistribution of Indians, and the consequent breaking up of Indianism\nand tribalism.\n\nThe question is often asked, \"Can the Indian acquire mechanical\nskill and habits of industry?\" and too often is answered in the negative by self-constituted judges who are without experience and generally with little or no observation. A man of sixty, born and raised\non the borders of an Indian reservation in Western New York, who\n\nhad seen Indians almost every day of his life, on visiting Carlisle,\nsaid to me : \"You may be able to do something with the Western\nIndians, but the Indians of New York are utterly worthless and incompetent. They can pick a few berries, dig a little sassafras root,\nmake a few beaded articles and some baskets to sell, but that is about\nthe extent of their industries. You cannot educate them, nor can you\ntrain them to trades.\" The man was a jeweler. He had been on the\neducational board in the large town in which he lived for thirty-five\nyears. I said to him: \"Has there ever been any attempt in your\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nINDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN INDIAN SCHOOLS.\n\n763\n\ntown to take young Indians into your public schools to try and find\nout what they are capable of in a contest for knowledge with the children of your town?\" He said that he did not know of any young Indians ever in the public school system; that the state had given them\na public school system of their own on their reservations, and paid the\nteachers ; that the great difficulty was to keep up the attendance in\nthese schools. I asked if there was any prejudice against Indians attending the public schools. He said he thought not, but that the\nstate had been paying to keep up these Indian schools, and they were\nconceded to be failures. I said: \"You have no right to judge of the\n\npossibilities of Indian education until you have given the young Indians the same chance to get an education that you give the white\nyouth. Now, you are a jeweler. You have had many apprentices in\nthe years in which you have carried on business. Did you ever take\na young Indian as an apprentice to see whether, if he had a really\ngood chance, as he would have in your store, he might not learn to\nbe a jeweler? Have the other business men of your town taken\nyoung Indians into their shops and business, and attempted to teach\nthem as they do white youth?\" He admitted that no such attempt\nhad been made by any of the artisans or business men of his town,\nand that he himself had never once thought of doing such a thing.\n\"Then,\" I said, \"You have no right to condemn the young Indian as\nincapable. He is entitled to just the same opportunity to acquire\nan occupation that the young people of our own race have, and if he\nthen fails, there may be some show of justice in sending him to the\nrear.\"\n\nGreater thoroughness in teaching and more prolonged effort may\nbe justly considered as necessary when the individual has had a bad\nstart. Very little is to be conceded to generations of savage ancestry. Weaknesses do come from associating in the beginning years\n\nof life with a savage ancestry. But these acquired weaknesses are\nnot insuperable, and those who have reached maturity under savage\n\nenvironments, if properly handled, may be made of some industrial\nworth. Heredity of birth has not much to do with it. Heredity of\nof environment is the potent factor. Carefully raised and well civilized white men, through savage and worthless environment, easily\nbecome degraded, savage, and worthless. So, too, savage born and\n\nrudely raised red men become civilized, enlightened, useful, through\nwell-civilized and enlightened environments. It is but a step either\nway.\n\nFrom long experience and wide observation I have come to have\nlittle patience with the science or ethnology that consigns any man or\nrace of men to generations of slow development. The world is full\nof evidences to prove the contrary. To make an independent and in-\n\ndustrious individual man, the individuality and personal responsibili\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n764\n\n[Industrial\n\nties of the subject must be recognized in every part of his preparation.\nHe must not, because of birth or for other reason, be tied to any set\nof individuals.\n\nThank God for the American principle which recognizes the independence and individuality of every man and does give to so many\nof our diverse and vast population such individual opportunities;\nand, also, for that great typical American and poet who so quaintly\nand truly stated it all when he said :\n\"The great American idea is to make a man a man, and then to\nlet him be.\"\n\nDISCUSSION.\nMR. H. E. WILSON, United States Indian Service, Kansas.-The best way to\ncivilize the Indian is to get him into industrial civilization. Labor combined with\nintellectual improvement will accomplish more in the civilization of the Indian than\nboth religion and the school proper. I have not been able to discover any natural\ndifference in the intellectuality of the Indian child and that of the white child. The\n\ndifference, if any, arises as the result of many years of inactivity of the Indian\nintellectually and industrially. Stimulate him to labor by teaching him the value\nof money, which can be done by teaching him the use and application of money.\n\nThe educated Indian youth must not be compelled to return to the reservation life\nof idleness. We must establish industries suited to their taste and capabilities.\nThe public must be educated to employ the Indian as it would the white man or\nwoman. The Indian is not naturally an agriculturalist, but is mechanical. The\nIndian girls make fair domestics, but, like the men, are mechanical.\n\nPROFESSOR BAKELESS, Indian Industrial School, Carlisle, Pa.-I cannot let this\ndiscussion close without adding a word of testimony to the capability of the Indian\nchild. He is just as capable as any white pupil I have ever had. With regard to\nindustrial training, I would say, that, after years of work in school, where no attention was given to this subject, comparing results secured in the training school with\nresults by the old academic plan, preponderance is greatly in favor of the training\nschool. I am thoroughly convinced that the feature of manual training is a needed\nfeature to make our American schools a success, and our boys and girls cannot be\nconsidered educated in the true sense of the word until they all receive this systematic training in addition to their academic work.\n\nMR. ZALMON RICHARDS, Washington, D. C., asked Captain Pratt if he thought\nthe aptitudes of the intellectual faculties of the Indian are essentially different from\nthose of the white race .\n\nCAPTAIN PRATT answered that he did not think they were, as his experience did\nnot prove it.\n\nMR. RICHARDS then said, that, if Captain Pratt's method of training Indians is\ncorrect, as he believed it to be, why is it not the correct method for training in our\nwhite schools ? He said he believed that one-half the time of our children for the\n\nbrst six years of school-life is worse than wasted, because of unnatural methods\nof training. Captain Pratt's methods begin with making the young Indian master\n\nof the English language. This is one of the secrets of his success. The value of\nindustrial training in our elementary schools depends upon the ability which the\nchildren acquire in using the language of the employments and professions of life.\nWe are educated only as we have a command of our language.\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION.\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES.\n\nFIRST SESSION.-WEDNESDAY, JULY 10, 1895.\nThe opening session of this department was called to order at 2:30 o'clock by the\nPresident, Mr. N. Coe Stewart, Cleveland, Ohio.\nThe Male Principals' Quartette of Chicago sang a very pleasing number and\nresponded to a hearty encore.\n\nPrayer by Rev. J. W. Ingram, pastor First Christian Church.\nThe President then gave his annual address.\n\nMr. F. Treudley, Superintendent City Schools, Youngstown, Ohio, read a paper\non \"The Purpose of Music Study in the Public Schools.\"\nThe audience was next favored with a double number, \"From Grief I cannot\n\nMeasure\" (Frary) and \"The Snowflakes\" (Cowen), by Miss Elizabeth Dodge, Boston.\n\nMr. C. H. Congdon, St. Paul, Minn., read a paper on \"How the Average Child\nLearns to Know and To Do in Music.\"\n\nMr. A. J. Gantvoort, Cincinnati, Ohio, next presented a paper on \"A Course\nin Music for the Public Schools .\"\n\nMiss Sarah L. Arnold, Boston, Mass., delivered an address on the subject,\n\"The Relation of Music to Other Branches of Study.\"\nMr. W. J. Whiteman of District No. 2, Denver, conducted a class in song-singing.\n\nThe children did some excellent work in vocalizing and in intervals.\n\nThe\n\nobligato and chorus work done by the young soloist and the children was very attractive, and deservedly so .\n\nSECOND SESSION.\n\nTHURSDAY, JULY 11, 1895.\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:30 o'clock, and was opened with prayer\nby Rev. W. S. Priest, pastor First Baptist Church, Denver.\nThe President next named the Committee on Nominations, as follows:\n\nHerbert Griggs, Denver; P. C. Hayden, Quincy, Ill.; A. J. Gantvoort, Cincinnati , Ohio .\n\nThe first paper of the day was \"Children's Voices,\" by Miss Linn M. Hawn,\nSaginaw, Mich.\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n766\n\n[Music\n\nMiss Fannie Arnold, Omaha, Neb., next read a short paper on \"Children's\nSongs,\" and illustrated her paper by singing several beautiful little songs for lower\ngrades.\n\nMr. Theodore H. Johnston, Cleveland, Ohio, then gave a paper on \"Mind and\nMusic.\"\n\nMr. Griggs, Denver, next gave an exercise showing methods in music. The\nchildrendid some excellent work in reading, singing intervals, and in part-work;\nbut their ability to read and sing intelligently at sight was shown when they sang\nwithout hesitation and without a blunder some exercises in two-part music given\nthem by Mr. Gantvoort.\nMr. H. E. Holt, Boston, Mass., next gave a paper on \"Vocal Harmony--a\nPlea for an Oral Language With Which to Express Our Thoughts in Music.\"\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows :\nFor President-C. H. Congdon, St. Paul, Minn.\nFor Vice President -P. C. Hayden, Quincy, III.\nFor Secretary-Miss Linn M. Hawn, Saginaw, Mich.\n\nThe Secretary was instructed to cast a unanimous ballot in favor of the nominees.\n\nMr. N. L. Glover, Akron, Ohio, next gave a lesson in \" Time and Tone Lengths,\"\nshowing method of teaching and drilling.\nMr. Glover next made the report of the Committee of Twelve, on \"Children's\nSongs.\" He said, that, contrary to the expectations and intentions of those who\nappointed this committee last year, the songs had not been written and sent in, so\nthere could really be no report.\n\nMiss May Acton, Chicago, Ill., sang, very beautifully, \"First Aria\" from\n\"Lucia di Lammermoor.\"\n\nMr. Glover sang one of his songs to words published in \"Primary Education.\"\nMr. Hayden sang an Arbor Day song.\nAfter considerable discussion as to the usefulness of the committee and the use\n\nto which these songs shall be put when written, Mr. Hayden finally submitted the\nfollowing motion, which was carried, viz .:\nResolved, That a committee of three be appointed to receive the songs offered by this\ncommittee and other members of this association, Mr. N. Coe Stewart to be chairman,\n\nand Miss Fannie Arnold of Omaha and Mr. H. A. Griggs of Denver his associates ; the\ncommittee to report at the next meeting of this section.\n\nMr. Weeks of Ottawa, Ill., thought sufficient time was not given to discussing\nthe papers read. He suggested that next year fewer papers be read and more time\ngiven for discussion.\n\nMr. Griggs of Denver said the experiment had been tried of discussing papers\nin public, and had failed. A round table or question box brought out discussion.\n\nMr. Bach of Colorado Springs moved that the Executive Committee be asked,\nnext year, to grant an additional meeting for a round table. Carried.\nAdjourned.\n\nMARY A. GRANDY,\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.\n\n767\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS.\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.\n\nBY N. COE STEWART, CLEVELAND, OHIO .\n\nLadies and Gentlemen; Members of the Department of Music Education of\nthe National Educational Association and Friends :\n\nIt becomes my duty, and it is a great pleasure, to greet you ; to\nwelcome you to this council ; to wish for most abundant success to\nthe purposes of this department ; and to wish for the individual members the greatest professional uplift and enjoyment from our annual\ngathering.\n\nI now declare our department open, and ready to begin the prosecution of its advertised program.\nThe work which has been done in music instruction in the schools\n\nof the United States and elsewhere during the past few years has\ndemonstrated most clearly several things. A number of these things\nit becomes my duty to state to you, not only as a matter of information to some but as indicating imperatively the work to be done, for\nthis is a national organization to which is deputed the management\n\nof the Music Education Department of the National Educational Association.\n\nTo place before you in as forcible manner as I may be able as\nmany of these things as can be crowded into the brief time I must occupy, I merely state the several facts or things, only hinting at the\nreasons in some instances and giving only the statement in others,\nfor subsequent papers of these programs and well authenticated experience will prove and has proven them. In other cases, the reasons\nare obvious.\n\nThe matter of learning music is no longer a mysterious and uncertain affair, but may be reckoned upon as certain and positive; for\npeople learn music both as a science and as an art precisely as they\nlearn other things, viz., by seeking and following the laws which nature has given. God is true in this as in all things, and compliance\nwith his terms invariably brings the promised results.\nIt is reasonable to conclude that the study of the science of music,\nfrom its first principles clear through to a complete knowledge of and\nthe ability to write its most complex forms of composition, will do as\nmuch, at least, to develop the mind, to give facts which may be classified and made ready for use, as will the study of any other sciences.\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "768\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Music\n\nFor music has its real objects or things which of themselves and in\ntheir many relationships, in the almost endless variety and combinations of musical thoughts or ideas, are to be comprehended and by\nmuch repetition are to become familiar or worked into the \"very warp\nand woof\" of the mind before the subject is comprehended and mastered.\n\nAgain, acoustics, which is a part of music study, is valuable to\nthe mind as a mathematical study. The study of music may be said\nalso to be a practical application of mathematical study.\nAnother branch of music study is musical history. This gives\nto the mind the value in acquirement and drill of any historical study.\nIn addition to this study of objects and their relationships, like\nother sciences, the fact, that, coming through the ear, music is gone\nto the senses, or vanishes as soon as it is heard, gives music study additional value as a disciplinary agent; for the impression made when\nmusic is heard must be retained and held ready for use in the process\nof assimilation which builds up the musical structure in the individual. It will thus be seen that memory, concentration, and judgment are all developed in a peculiar and admirable manner.\nAgain, the thorough understanding of the science of music requires considerable proficiency in its art, which demands that the\nperformance shall be in measured time. Thus the mind is trained\nto act quickly, surely, and steadily, and because several things are to\nbe comprehended at the same time and decisions made instantly,\nbreadth and development in various ways are given to the mind as no\nother study gives so well.\nThese results are, of course, premised upon right study, and not\nupon the desultory and meaningless repetition of songs, the parroting answers, and time-killing indulgence in various things commonly\ncalled musical study.\n\nMusic is peculiarly useful in developing the æsthetic nature; for\nin melody, harmony, and counterpoint it is replete with beautiful\nforms or creations, which, when understood and appreciated, both of\nthemselves and in their suggestiveness, awaken and cultivate a sense\nof the beautiful and excite the purest emotions. This is true to a degree in all who listen attentively to music, whether they understand\nit or not. But when music is studied from a mental standpoint rather\nthan a sentimental (the only true way to study), these beautiful\nforms coming through the ear, evolved through mental consciousness,\naccepted by the judgment, appropriated by the feelings, and retained\nby the memory are a present and continual source of beauty and of\nsatisfaction. This shows also that music is a powerful and legitimate agent in developing the emotions and nobler sentiments. Especially is this the case when music is associated with words, the sen\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.\n\n769\n\ntiment of which must be appropriated by the singer and sung with\nearnestness and feeling, and it be well sung. In fact, it argues that\nmusic is the proper medium for the growth and development of the\nnobler virtues ; and, also, that music should be rightly studied.\nIt is a fact that all intelligent young people may understand and\nmay master the fundamental principles of music so they can learn\n\nany written vocal music, can sing new music of ordinary difficulty\nreadily at sight, and can write correctly music which they may hear\nand musical thoughts they may have in their minds, thus preparing\nthem to enter upon and to master the entire field of part songs and\nchoral compositions and to perform well the musical demands of life.\nIt is a fact that pupils in school may learn to use their voices intelligently and with absolute correctness, and may have them\ntrained until they can perform well, in beautiful tones, the demands\nmade upon the voice by ordinary musical compositions.\nIt is a fact that melodies and contrapuntal forms may be so well\nunderstood and mastered that children can phrase their songs well\nand sing them with correct expression and with proper spirit.\nIt is a fact that music is a universal language; since it enters into\n\nand will continue to enter into all social life. It is heard everywhere.\nNot a day and scarcely an hour passes that its strains do not fall\nupon the ear. It is heard intelligently or unintelligently. To hear\n\nit unintelligently is, in a sense, demoralizing and vitiating. Hence,\nmusic should be taught rightly.\nIt is a fact that the right study of music in school is also the best\npreparation for the study of other things; and at the same time it\nis so different from other work as to make it a positive rest and create in the schoolroom an atmosphere of cheer.\nIt is a fact, that, as a rule, school people, boards of education, su-\n\nperintendents, teachers, music teachers in school, professional musicians (outside and inside the schools), and the people generally do\nnot know and do not appreciate that music study has the aforementioned and other real and necessary values, and that each intelligent\nchild in the schools may thus learn the science of music and become\nproficient in its art.\n\nPeople do not seem to comprehend that God has made laws for\nthe acquirement of all these things, and that we have but to seek these\nnatural laws and follow them and the results are certain; thus say-\n\ning that there is a positive method in music study by which children\nand young people may as certainly learn to sing as that they can\nlearn anything else, or that things grow or decay according to natural\nlaw.\n\nAfter these considerations it becomes easy to say that the important work of this organization is to raise the educational and profes\n49\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "770\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Music\n\nsional world and the people generally up to appreciation of the foregoing facts, to show them the educational lines along which the work\nshould proceed, and then to arouse them to activity, that proper legislation may be made, that the teaching force may be properly educated and trained, that place shall be made in the curriculum and\nample time daily shall be provided for music study and drill; and\nthus inaugurate, cultivate, drill, and persevere until right music\nstudy with its attendant benefits shall everywhere prevail.\n\nThe task of lifting people from an imperfect and wrong conceрtion or plane which they occupy and which they conceive to be correct, or with which they are satisfied, up to a correct and higher plane\nor standard is a very difficult one. It is an Herculean task. It is to\ncreate in them a belief that another, and an infinitely better country\nthan the one they inhabit has been discovered, which it is their\nbounden duty to seek and to possess ; then to quicken this knowledge and desire into activity until the start shall be made, the journey shall be prosecuted, and the goal reached.\nThe labors of Balboa, Columbus, and Livingston were easy compared to this.\n\nBut it can be done.\n\nIt must and shall be done, be-\n\ncause the best education of the race depends upon it. By applying\nthe same principle which is applied in actually going to any given\nplace, viz., \" Take the right road and keep going,\" we shall surely get\nthere.\n\nThis is, in brief, the important work of our department. Other\ndepartments and the great national organization itself must be informed of our purpose and must act with us, as must also the organized educational forces elsewhere.\n\nThe program for the present session was formed upon a scheme\nwhich had the above things in mind; as, for example, \"The Purpose\nof Music Study,\" \"How Children Learn,\" \"A Course of Music Study,\"\n\nand related topics, by persons from various educational fields, caраble to discuss the several themes and to awaken thought in the right\ndirection. Subsequent programs should be made along schemes\nwhich have in view the entire field which is to be covered and not\n\nmerely to entertain, nor alone to edify and instruct. By constantly\nplanning the annual program to lead systematically and surely to the\naccomplishment of this great work; by agitating the matter in the\n\nvarious educational journals, in school gatherings everywhere ; by\nteachers and music directors striving, to know, to become, and to\ndo better and better work; and by putting all the agencies into intelligent activity, the high plan of musical development, musical appreciation, and musical uses will eventually be reached.\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nTHE PURPOSE OF MUSIC STUDY.\n\n771\n\nTHE PURPOSE OF MUSIC STUDY IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS.\n\nBY SUPT. F. TREUDLEY, YOUNGSTOWN, OHIO .\n\nI present this paper with a due degree of diffidence, because I\nam conscious of my own relative unfitness to discuss subjects partaking of a special character before a body of people in whose minds\nali phases of it lie, presumably, clear and complete.\nA superintendent's interest as well as insight must necessarily\nbe general, and the only object which I can hope to accomplish is to\npresent to you, who are students of and specialists in this divine art,\na brief statement of the way this work is viewed by others, and the\nconsiderations which appeal to us and persuade us to stand with you\nin promoting its more thorough and widespread study and practice.\nWe may not express ourselves in terms of philosophic language,\nbut all of us at least, all of us who are fit for our work-are not\nwholly unconscious of the melody of music when sung by children's\nvoices and interpreted in childhood's heart, and we are not unobservant of the fact, that, as an accompaniment, wonderfully fitted\nto heighten the charm, is the grace of perfect innocence and simplicity, reflection of the soul's harmony, as yet undisturbed by days\nof unmastered evil, as face and form, and glowing color, and changing attitude, and radiant beauty reveal the simple pleasures of this\nart and add their melodies to the melody of song.\nI, for one, do not say that music should have a place in the curriculum of the public schools. I say, rather, that it ought to be a\nmatter of wonder that any question about it should arise at any\ntime.\n\nI speak here as a disciple, not as a teacher; with blundering\ntongue and crude thought. But if the purposes of a noble creation,\nof whose glories even yet \"eye hath not seen and ear not heard,\" are\nbest served by filling its sounding halls with music ; if the visible\nmusic in the procession of the stars or audible music as in the notes\nof the wood-robin, dropping down like silver bars from her high\nperch, or the possibilities of music lying along the silvery strings\nof the piano or involved in the depths of some great organ, to leap\nforth into embodied form when the master touches the keys, or to\nrise even like mist from the slender fibers over which sweep the\nobedient fingers of a Paganini or a Remenyi, as the matchless artist\nbends in submission to his art; if there be implanted in the very\n\nstructure of the voice that chord which you, versed in harmony, call\nthe \"dominant seventh,\" only satisfied in its production of unrest\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": "772\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Music\n\nand expectancy by what the tonic chord gives utterance to ;-all\nthese are but signs and symbols of what are fit agents in the development of the soul .\n\nOf course, this matter is complicated somewhat by what we may\nregard, in the terms of Aristotle, the \"final cause\" of education.\n\nI like ability to endure hardness and the quality of an abiding\nfaith.\n\nI know that Ulysses was no exception to the seeming law\n\nwhich levies upon the powers that be, to thwart, apparently, high\npurpose and noble ambition.\nI recall the rather utilitarian definition of Edward Everett as to\n\nwhat constitutes a liberal education, and I know, as you know, that\ngenerations will yet pass in strife with nature before the reign of\nthe Muses shall be so established in our land, and bees shall touch\nthe lips of our babes in cradles, and Parthenons shall crown the summits of our hills. But better times than Greece ever saw are coming,\nand sweeter strains than Apollo ever struck from his lyre are receiving audible expression, for \"humanity sweeps onward,\" and far above\nthe classic beauty of ancient art is what the world is coming to\nrealize, though dimly as yet, in the \"beauty of holiness.\"\nNow, briefly, a man appears to me well educated in proportion as\nhe has made himself responsive to these subtle influences, messengers from the powers that be, which come, appealing for courage,\nfor love, for sympathy, for help.\nTheir name is legion. They spring from everywhere. They are,\nlike the quality of mercy, \"twice blessed.\"\nAs the lips of the statue of Memnon were said to burst into music\n\nor the petals of the pond lily, as Thoreau most delicately observed,\nto open to their fullest bloom with the first touching of the sun's\nray, so ought man's soul to become, as it were, sensitized to whatever comes of worth, be it clothed in whatsoever form of delicacy or\nwith feet shod with whatsoever fabric of finest wool.\n\nSo came the\n\ngods in olden days, and suppose they come but once !\n\nSocrates was truly educated, but not Alcibiades. Aristotle received a profound education, as is shown by the sweep of his\nthoughts. Pestalozzi was nobly educated, as his life proves. The\nlate Earl Shaftesbury was educated, as was shown by the countless\nbanners that lined the streets down which the funeral procession\nmoved, for they bore the motto : \"I was an hungered, and ye gave\nme meat; thirsty, and ye gave me drink.\" These were educated men\nbecause they had been trained to believe in the glowing words of\nBalfour, in his \"Foundations of Belief:\" \"That somewhere and for\n\nsome Being there shines an unchanging splendor of beauty, of which\nin nature and in art we see, each of us from our own standpoint,\nonly passing glances and stray reflections ; whose different aspects\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nTHE PURPOSE OF MUSIC STUDY.\n\n773\n\nwe cannot now co-ordinate ; whose import we cannot fully comprehend; but which, at least, is something other than the chance play\nof subjective sensibility or the far-off echo of ancestral lust.\"\nI am not wandering from my theme, for only as each one determines for himself what the true end of education is can he ground\nthe argument for any element of training.\n\nWe know perfectly well that the only real disorder in the world\nis moral disorder. We know, as sight gives way to insight and the\nsubtle deeper harmonies of creation become revealed, that what we\ncall order, rhythm, symmetry, are expressions of the same central\nBeing, and become known by the same general processes, and are\nunder the control of the same general laws.\nWe know that what we call the fine arts are but different forms\n\nof expression of the same thoughts, emotions, perceptions of harmony. Goethe used to say that he loved to dwell amidst \"permanent\nrelations,\" and here alone you find them.\n\nThe line of Pindar which drove the sense of time from the experience of Emerson is kindred to that form of marble which crowned\n\nthe Acropolis of Athens, whose surpassing beauty only those can\ndescribe who have seen.\n\nWe call Raffaelle great because we read him in the Madonnas of\n\nhis creation.\n\nWe group him, because we must, in that Italian hier-\n\narchy of genius, strange flowering of a corrupt age, which reflected\nthe innocence of heaven with the stern justice of an avenging Deity ;\nwhich, with equal skill, made the canvas glow with aspiration and\nmarble represent invincible determination, and which proved, in that\n\"Medieval Miracle of Song,\"\nWhat agonies of heart and brain,\n\nWhat exultation trampling on despair,\nWhat tenderness, what tears, what hate of wrong,\nWhat passionate victory of a soul in pain,\n\nare necessary to the deepest insight into the mysteries of life.\nPassing to things fundamental, I hold that the supreme purpose\nof music study in the school is to educate our youth to keen perceptions of this order, harmony, beauty, and thus to drive away care and\nbring in peace, which is in itself a sign of moral order; to create\naspirations for ideal good, and to make them more receptive to all\nthat is of approved worth. Have you ever known a genuine lover\nof music without natural or acquired refinement ?\nHow sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank!\nHere will we sit, and let the sounds of music\n\nCreep in our ears; soft stillness, and the night,\nBecome the touches of sweet harmony.\nSit, Jessica. Look, how the floor of heaven\n\nIs thick inlaid with patines of bright gold.\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n774\n\n[Music\n\nThere's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st\n\nBut in his motion like an angel sings,\nStill quiring to the young-eyed cherubim;\nSuch harmony is in immortal souls ;\nBut whilst this muddy vesture of decay\nDoth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it.\nJessica. I am never merry when I hear sweet music.\n\nLorenzo.\n\nThe reason is, your spirits are attentive :\n\nFor do but note a wild and wanton herd,\nOr race of youthful and unhandled colts,\n\nFetching mad bounds, bellowing, and neighing loud,\nWhich is the hot condition of their blood,\n\nIf they but hear perchance a trumpet sound,\nOr any air of music touch their ears,\n\nYou shall perceive them make a mutual stand,\nTheir savage eyes turn'd to a modest gaze\n\nBy the sweet power of music ; therefore the poet\nDid feign that Orpheus drew trees, stones, andfloods ;\nSince none so stockish, hard, and full of rage\nBut music for the time doth change his nature.\nThe man that hath no music in himself,\nNor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds,\nIs fit for treasons, strategems, and spoils;\nThe motions of his spirit are dull as night.\nLet no such man be trusted .\n\nBut further, and by virtue of this close relation between various\nfields of art, the worth of music is enhanced by its influence upon\ninterpretive power along other lines of inquiry-literature, architecture, painting. Introduction into the realm of its principles and\ncanons of taste means introduction, not only into \"permanent relations\" but into universal relations .\n\nAnd more than this appears the truth to me, viz., that no other\ntraining can take its place.\nWhen we consider the subtle power of music in the tones of the\nvoice, or as favored and expressed by the widespread use of musical\ninstruments of rare delicacy; when we consider the organs and function of hearing; when we add to this the ease with which the masses\nmay be reached and trained ; when we further consider the real in-\n\ntellectual value of this training; and when, finally, we take into\naccount the peculiarly powerful influences capable of being exerted\nover the soul, to which philosophers and poets have testified from\nthe days when the \"morning stars sang together, and the sons of men\nshouted for joy,\" we are bound to say that no room can be left for\nquestion.\n\nNot in vain are we told that Ulysses filled the ears of his\n\nsailors with wax to shield them against the strains of music from\nCirce's isle, but Orpheus drew strains yet more beautiful from his\nlyre.\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nTHE PURPOSE OF MUSIC STUDY.\n\n775\n\nNay, from the beginning of life to its close; from the days when\nthe restless babe is nestled to sleep by the sweet lullaby of its\n\nmother's voice, until, as with Mirabeau, old age may desire to go out\namidst the sounds of sweet music, its power is confessedly the same\nand its empire embraces every created thing.\nIf we turn now to an examination of the human mind and make\n\na survey of its powers, from it spring the same convictions. We\nfind, not technically speaking, a mind that thinks, and feels, and\nwills with the strength of personality and possessed of intellectual\npowers bearing the names of observation, imagination, memory, reasoning, judgment. Wefind springing up under the activity of these\npowers what we call sensibilities, in the form of emotion, of fear,\nhate, love, joy, sympathy. And still further we find, on analysis,\nthat, under the influence of the emotions, the will moves swiftly to\nits choice.\n\nAnalyze, if you please, a masterful speech, such as Demosthenes\ncould make or Antony delivered.\n\nThe highest tribute that can be paid to eloquence is, not that it\nmoves us to conviction but that it inspires us to action. We all\nknow the wonderful influence of those triune forms, one face of\nwhich bears upon it the word truth, the second, good, the third,\nbeauty, for whenever you see one you see the other; for nothing is\ntruly beautiful which is not good, and nothing could be good which\nis not true .\n\nTruth appeals to the intellect and is accepted. Embodied in\npractice it becomes the good. Out of the good springs the sense of\nbeauty which appeals to the sensibilities, and awakens that passionate desire to attain it which will not rest.\n\nMany a Mount of Transfiguration has been ascended by earnest\nsouls and many a shining form has been disclosed to weary eyes, to\nbe wrapt away by unseen hands, for \"we see as in a glass darkly,\"\nbut sometime \"we shall see face to face.\"\n\nBut these shining ones constitute the world's ideals. They\npeople the \"Isles of the Blest.\" Their footfalls even may now and\nthen be heard upon the far-off boundaries of the world of sense.\nSocrates heard them as he sat in the midst of the Athenian youth\n\ndiscoursing upon justice, temperance, courage, or defending himself\nin that immortal speech, some sense of which we catch in the \"Apology\" of Plato. Augustine, by the favor of heaven, moved by the\nprayers and tears of Monica, heard them ere \"The City of God\" fell\nfrom his hands. To Pestalozzi they appeared as he bent over the\nsleeping forms of his little ones in those immortal days at Stanz.\nFrancis of Assissi trod a cruel earth in rags, but the birds saw in\nhim a kindred soul, and over his dead form they sang the \"Te Deum\"\nof their kind.\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "776\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Music\n\nIs not music good? Is it not beautiful? Is it not true ? Is\nthere an utterance of truth possible without music constituting a\ncomponent part ? You have read the \"Idyls of the King,\" and remember \" The Passing of Arthur :\"\nWhat statelier music ever came from master's hand than this :\nAnd slowly answered Arthur from the barge:\n\"The old order changeth, yielding place to new,\nAnd God fulfills himself in many ways ,\nLest one good custom should corrupt the world.\nI have lived my life, and that which I have done,\n\nMay He within Himself make pure. But thou,\nIf thou shouldst never see my face again,\nPray for my soul. More things are wrought by prayer\nThan this world dreams of.\n\nWherefore, let thy voice\n\nRisę like a fountain for me night and day.\nFor what are men better than sheep or goats\n\nThat nourish a blind life within the brain,\nIf, knowing God, they lift not hands of prayer\nBoth for themselves and those who call them friends ?\n\nFor so the whole round earth is every way\nBound by gold chains about the feet of God.\n\nBut now, farewell! I am going a long way\nWith these thou seest-if indeed I go\n\n(For all my mind is clouded with a doubt)To the island-valley of Avalon ;\n\nWhere falls not hail, or rain, or any snow,\nNor ever wind blows loudly; but it lies\nDeep-meadow'd, happy, fair with orchard-lawns\nAnd bowery hollows crown'd with summer sea,\nWhere I will heal me of my grievous wound.\"\nSo said he, and the barge with oar and sail\n\nMoved from the brink, like some full-breasted swan\nThat, fluting a wild carol ere her death ,\n\nRuffles her pure cold plume, and takes the flood\nWith swarthy webs. Long stood Sir Bedivere\nRevolving many memories, 'till the hull\nLook'd one black dot against the verge of dawn,\nAnd on the mere the wailing died away.\nThen from the dawn it seem'd there came, but faint\n\nAs from beyond the limit of the world,\nLike the last echo born of a great cry\nSounds, as if some fair city were one voice\nAround a king returning from his wars .\nThereat once more he moved about, and clomb\nE'en to the highest he could climb, and saw,\nStraining his eyes beneath an arch of hand,\n\nOr thought he saw, the speck that bare the king\nDown that long water opening on the deep\n\nSomewhere far off, pass on and on, and go\nFrom less to less and vanish into light.\nAnd the new sun rose-bringing the new year.\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nTHE PURPOSE OF MUSIC STUDY.\n\n777\n\nNay, music, rather, is the fundamental basis of the fine arts.\nArchitecture has been beautifully called \"frozen music.\" We speak\nof \"The Psalm of Life,\" and the first words are \" Tell me not in\nmournful numbers .\"\n\nTruth comes into the soul upon the wings of music under its most\nsubtle and persuasive forms. In our crude thinking, we speak of it\nas appealing to the emotions. So it does, but only as it appeals first\nto the intellect under the forms of truth .\n\nWhat did I hear when once I heard Albani sing those strains in\n\n\" Il Trovatore,\" which, when once sung by such a voice, are not to be\nforgotten ? What were my thoughts when one day I stood above\nthe grave in Oak Hill Cemetery, Washington, where reposes the\ndust of the author of \"Home, Sweet Home ?\"\n\nWhat was that com-\n\nmunication which came to a friend of mine who once told me of\n\nhearing the assembled hosts of Sherman, more than 100,000 men and\na hundred bands of music, peal forth that stirring war song, \"We'll\nRally Round the Flag, Boys,\" ere they swung on their southward\nmarch to Atlanta? \"Eye hath not seen, and ear hath not heard,\"\nand voice cannot express, either in melody or speech, what the soul\nis capable of in its most receptive moments.\n\nThis is my thought : That music is the chief handmaid of beauty,\nof goodness, and of truth; and if so, what excuse can be alleged for\nher neglect ? I have not gone into details, for I am incompetent.\nI have even trespassed upon your time beyond a reasonable limit. I\nhave spoken with indirection, I fear, and in feebleness. But I join\nyou in the devout wish, that, if much has been done, it may sometimes appear to have been but a mere beginning.\n\nBut when Music\n\nshall have come to her kingdom, earth will no longer be earth, for the\nshadow, as Plato would have it, will have passed into its substance,\nand in the world of light all creation will join in her language to\nrender appropriate thanks for the gift of her-God's highest gift to\nhis creation.\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "778\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Music\n\nHOW PUPILS LEARN TO KNOW AND DO IN MUSIC.\n\nBY C. H. CONGDON, SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, ST. PAUL, MINN.\n\nNow that the purpose of music study in the public schools has\nbeen so masterfully set forth, there is no longer any doubt as to its\nutility, and the question \"How pupils learn to know and do in mu-\n\nsic ?\" naturally follows. It is the great problem of music education\nto-day. We have given us the child, and on an average fifteen minutes each day during his school-life in which to accomplish the wonderful results claimed by the ardent advocates of music in the public schools .\n\nWe have also the musical literature of the world at our\n\ncommand; for, in music, we are not limited by the confines of mother\ntongue. Music is a universal language. The staff notation is used\nin every civilized country in the world, and its printed page is found\nin every cultured home. Let us first consider the child, and doing\nso we may inquire as to the extent to which the music faculty exists\nin the human mind. Horace Mann says : \"The preadaptation of\nthe human mind to seek and find pleasure in music is proved by the\nuniversality with which the vocal art has been practiced among men.\nEach nation and age steps forward as a separate witness to prove the\nexistence of musical faculties and desires in the race.\"\n\nIt is a nar-\n\nrow life, indeed, that has no desire to express its feelings and emotions in song. The ability of one to sing before an audience, small\n\nor great, is but one of the manifold ways in which the individual\nmay \" seek and find pleasure in music\" and shed abroad its mysterious influence. Repeating the words of President D. B. Hager,\n\"The mother's lullaby, the merry glee that scatters joy amid the so-\n\ncial gathering, the serenade, the thrilling song that fires the patriot's\nsoul, the solemn hymn that soars to heaven wherever Christians\nmeet-all reveal the mighty power of music,\" and prove that the music faculty is universal and music is a universal language of the\n\nsoul. It is not, therefore, the province of the public school to cultivate prima donnas nor to develop the clever few to the neglect of\nthe masses. We have, then, the average child, endowed with mu\nsical faculties ; a musical literature that is almost inexhaustible;\nthe machinery and teaching force of our public schools; and, as before stated, an average of fifteen minutes per day to devote to in-\n\nstruction in this branch. The question is, how the average child\nlearns to \" know\" and \"do\" in music.\n\nThe music faculty is manifest in most children at an early age.\nIn a few, however, tone imitation must be cultivated. Experience\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": null, "text": "HOW PUPILS LEARN IN MUSIC.\n\nDepartment.]\n\n779\n\nshows that those who are tone-blind, or, if you please, tone-deaf, at\nthe beginning can, as a rule, be reclaimed before they reach the\nage of seven. Such pupils, usually called \"monotones,\" should receive special treatment until tone perception has been awakened.\nThey should not be discouraged in their attempts to sing; but in case\ntheir voices become strongly discordant, they should be asked, for\na part of the time, at least, to listen.\nMany monotones, however, have voices that are pleasant in quality, and if they are required to sing softly their tones will not interrupt the current of melody that usually flows where good intonation\nhas been established. It is necessary, furthermore, for the monotone\nto listen at times, for his own benefit. He usually sings with great\nenthusiasm, with a conception only of rhythm. He does not recognize pitch unless his attention is called to it and he is trained to\nlisten. The mind must be open to impressions before it can receive\nthem.\n\nI shall not dwell at length upon this point, as undoubtedly our\nexperiences have brought us all to nearly the same conclusions.\nHaving in a way disposed of the monotone, we may now proceed to\nunfold a scheme for the development of the average pupil, who\nis able, as most children are from the time they enter school, to\nlearn songs readily by rote and to sing the scale correctly. From\nnow on I shall take for granted that pupils can do this much, at\nleast.\n\n1\n\nInterest is the basis of all mental development.\n\nWithout it no\n\ntrue progress can be made. To interest children in any subject is\nthe great test of teaching ability. As I am supposed to discuss\nmethods instead of teachers, I shall try to show some of the things,\noutside of the teacher's power, which I consider necessary to awaken\ninterest in the study of music.\nIn the first place, I believe the true kindergarten idea of song\nshould extend through all the grades.\n\nChildren should learn to\n\nlove and appreciate good music, and sing because they love to sing.\nTo be always studying music without singing something will extinguish any spark of interest that may exist.\nThe new education demands that the song shall be held up as the\nideal, and that the child shall be led naturally through thought and\nexpression to the mastery of technique.\n\nThe a-b-c method of teach-\n\ning sight-singing cannot obtain so long as language is taught so\nsuccessfully by other methods.\nTen years ago music obtained a foothold in many of our public\nschools because children could be taught in a short time to \"sing\n\nby note\" and make difficult leaps in the major scale. These performances seemed wonderful to the average educator, who, as a\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "780\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Music\n\nrule, was uneducated in music. To-day they are looking for a realization of some of the purposes outlined in the paper which has\njust preceded mine.\nIt is claimed that the moral influence of music sinks deeper and\nis more lasting than word or precept ; that as an aid to school discipline it is invaluable, for its charms subdue the rebellious spirit\nand create a bond of sympathy between teacher and pupil; that\n\nmusic encourages social intercourse of the highest order, for the\nability to sing is a passport to good society; and that the love of\nmusic turns the footsteps of many a young man from the saloon\nand gambling-room to the church and home.\n\nThese things are not brought about, however, by forever practicing the wearisome solfeggio. The small boy is often disgusted\nwith such nonsense, and gets even with the stern wielder of the\nbaton by yelling \"Do, re, mi !\" at him on the street. If any teacher\npresent desires to weaken my belief in his veracity, let him deny\nany such experiences.\n\nRegardless of the precautions of our worthy president to avert\n\nan onslaught against the Italian syllables by assigning me another\nsubject, I take this opportunity to still have my say. I believe\nthat I am one of only five supervisors of music in the United States\nwho have abandoned the use of these syllables. If there are others\nI have not heard of their work. My argument against them is, that\nthey add one more mental process to the act of reading music at\nsight and they encourage mechanical singing.\n\nMr. Kelsey of Saratoga Springs says that pupils trained with\nthem \"go lame\" without them; and there is much truth in the statement. Our school curriculum is already crowded to its fullest\ncapacity. The short music period necessitates the elimination of\neverything that is not absolutely necessary. Crutches are used to\nassist the lame in walking; but the average pupil is not mentally\nlame. The law of association is a legitimate aid to the memory ;\nbut it can be proved that the utilization of the number sense is\nmore economical than the use of a senseless formula.\n\nWe read\n\nstaff distances, or intervals, by numerical calculation. We also\ncontemplate the tones of the scale by a similar process. These\ntones find recognition in the mind through the notes upon the staff,\nand thus the number sense is brought into use in a twofold manner,\nmaking the law of association doubly strong. By this process the\nmind is not diverted to a useless syllable, calling for an extra mental\nprocess. Some claim, however, that there is something in the sounds\nof the syllables peculiarly suggestive of the character of the tones\nthey respectively designate. This fallacy is shown by the fact that\ndo and sol have the same vowel ; as do also fa and la, and si and mi.\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nHOW PUPILS LEARN IN MUSIC.\n\n781\n\nA conception of a tone, or of an interval which involves the relationship of tones, is dependent, first, upon tone perception ; and, second,\nupon the imagination and memory. The memory is aided by the law\nof association. A mental image to be recalled must first be designated. The tones of the scale are naturally designated by the numerals, and the numeral names furnish as good an opportunity for\nassociation as the syllables..\nProfessor Zuchtmann says : \"When we use the do, re, mi, or any\nother vocalized or objective formula by which to read the staff intervals, we burden the process of thought by carrying in the mind\nan extra standard, slavishly used at every step to interpret the intervals of the staff, which, properly learned, need no such interpreter.\"\n\nIt is further claimed that the Italian syllables are needed for\nsake of euphony. Far from my door lay the charge of sacrificing\nsense to euphony. One cannot learn to sing in English by practic-\n\ning Italian.\n\nIn learning to ride a bicycle it is not advisable to prac-\n\ntice first upon a tricycle because it is easier. Whatever pure vowel\npractice is necessary can be accomplished by using the syllables, ah,\nla, o, oo, etc. I suppose, now, that I am accused of wandering from\nmy subject and of tearing down more than I build. I would remind my accusers, however, of the fact that instruction in vocal\nmusic consists largely in training pupils to avoid that which is objectionable or pernicious and to prevent the formation of bad habits .\nIn trying to show how pupils learn to know and do in music, this\nis an important line of argument.\nIt is necessary for the teacher to continually use the pruning\nknife and pull the weeds. Vicious growths will spring up that must\nnot be allowed to go to seed. It is a difficult thing to tell children\nhow to sing ; but we can easily point out defects that they can\navoid. In singing children have the advantage over older people.\nWhile adults are studying how to arrange the vocal organs and\n\"place the voice\" properly, children just open their mouths and sing ;\nthe tone becomes an object of thought, and the vocal organs naturally relax to give expression to the emotions within. With children it is more mind training than voice training, and a cultivation\nof musical perception will lead them to form correct habits of voice\nproduction.\n\nMany children, however, labor under congenital defects which\nare frequently absorbed by those with whom they are constantly\nbrought in contact. This, coupled with a certain degree of carelessness on the part of both teacher and pupils, leads to bad pronunciation, throaty and nasal delivery, and indistinct enunciation .\nWords are swallowed, jerked out and run together in a most un-\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": "782\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Music\n\nsingable fashion, with no attention to phrasing, accent, or rhythm.\nAll this is encouraged by shallow, imperfect breathing and improper positions of the body. The majority of children's voices,\nhowever, are beautiful, and possess the quality of extreme sweetness .\nThe work in voice-training should be directed to developing\nand establishing this quality. Pattern singing, by the teacher, if\nshe has the voice, or by pupils whose voices are pure and resonant,\nwill wonderfully aid in overcoming the faults above described. A\nbad pattern is usually imitated as readily as a good one, and for this\nreason voices that tend to contaminate the tone of the whole class\n\nshould be brought under subjection. It is best to seat such pupils\nin front where they will be under the constant surveillance of the\nteacher, and in a position to be influenced by the pure voices. The\nteacher having thus learned to pull the weeds, the growth of all\nthat is desirable will be a natural result.\n\n•\n\nShe must remember that\n\nshe is dealing more directly with minds than with throats, and\nhence the necessity for application of psychological principles in\nmusic as well as all other branches. Children may be taught by\nimitation to open their mouths properly and gracefully and to assume a correct position of the body, but devices for placing the\nvoice are, as a rule, impracticable in the schoolroom. Move the\nsoul with \" concord of sweet sounds,\" and the voice will place itself.\nSoft singing is an important principle of voice training. Harsh,\nstrident tones are usually the result of forcing the voice. This habit\nis altogether too prevalent in the schoolroom, and we should insist\nwith all the power at our command that no amount of tone shall be\nallowed beyond that which the children can produce with perfect\nease.\n\nIt must be remembered that enthusiasm does not always en-\n\ngender musical perception. Children in their enthusiasm often sing\ntoo loud and carry the broad open quality of the lower tones to the\nupper register, thus producing shouts instead of the beautiful head\n\ntones so desirable in all singing. As the voice ascends it should\ndiminish in force but not in brilliancy. A ringing head tone can\nbe made without the too violent use of the vocal organs.\n\nHaving awakened interest by the use of music that is fired by\nthe soul of genius, touching a responsive chord in the hearts of the\npupils and holding them like a magic spell, the question now arises,\nHow can we take them down from this elevated position and teach\nthem the mechanical side ?\n\nHow shall we teach them the art of\n\nreading music at sight ? This most desirable accomplishment, like\nlanguage reading, places the whole field of vocal music at the com\nmand of its possessor ; but it is the result of diligent practice only.\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nHOW PUPILS LEARN IN MUSIC.\n\n783\n\nIt should be observed here, that, while I have stated that the\nkindergarten idea should extend through all the grades, I have not\nadvocated the teaching of songs by rote to that extent. Rote-singing has a proper place at the foundation of any correct course in\nmusic. It should be practiced, not only for recreation, moral effect,\netc., but for the purpose of cultivating in the children a taste for\nmusic, and for furnishing them ideals of time and tune to which\nall subsequent lessons in sight-singing should point, and ultimately\nlead.\n\nThe ability to read music, however, must be developed by a\nprocess entirely different from the one employed in teaching songs\nby rote. Children learn to read language, not by memorizing selections of prose and poetry but by reading many simple, graded sentences. They learn to read by reading, and the same methods of\nlearning by doing must be followed in teaching them to read music.\nSuperintendent Gove says that song-singing by rote is related\nto the regular work in sight-singing as is a special reading, declamation. or oration to the study of language reading. Songs should\nbe taught by rote more or less through the primary grades, but\nafter note-singing is begun there should be gradually less and less\nof rote-singing until the former shall entirely supplant the latter,\nthe children having acquired the ability to read the music of their\nsongs .\n\nIn beginning the work in sight-singing I recommend the following plan: Teach by rote the major scale and the scale melodies,trichords, tetrachords, pentachords, etc., with a few imitation exercises in passing key note. Practice both the scale and these melodies from the number ladder, the teacher pointing slowly. This\nis the first step in reading music.\n\nThe teacher should not lead with\n\nher voice, for singing with children during their efforts to read music, either by note or by number, defeats the object of the lesson\nand converts the exercise into rote practice. The teacher may, however, add inspiration and brighten the pitch by lending her voice\n\njudiciously to certain notes without revealing the melody. The\nnext step is to practice upon a blank music staff the work already\noutlined for the number ladder, taking different positions for the\n\n\" one,\" or, if you will have it, the \"do\" place. It is quite important\nthat this preliminary, and subsequently parallel, practice should\nbe done from a blank staff. It is done for the purpose of teaching the pupils to read the staff. This drill work is usually done\n\nfrom notes representing the tones of the scale consecutively. In\nthis case the staff cuts no figure, as far as the children are concerned, as an experiment will show that the same work can be performed from notes written conjunctively without the staff. Note\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": "784\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Music\n\nreading should begin as soon as the pupils are able to understand\nthe simple scheme of the staff notation and to think tones readily.\nIt is a mistake to suppose that all the intervals of the scale should\nbe taught before the work in sight-singing begins.\nThe graphic representation with notes, upon the staff, of the\nrelative pitch of sounds aids the pupils to think tones relatively.\nThe music staff is so simple and the reading of it can be so easily\ntaught that there is no valid reason why it should not be used almost from the beginning.\nAny child, however young, that can be taught to sing the major\nscale and a few scale melodies correctly-ascending and descending\n-can be taught in a few lessons to sing by note easy exercises in\nany key, and apply the words at the same time. Pupils even in the\nhigher grades find it difficult to attend simultaneously to all the\nmental processes that go to make up sight-reading, such as recognizing notes, thinking the pitch and length of tones, accenting,\n\napplying words, correct phrasing, etc. It is necessary, therefore,\nthat the songs or exercises for sight-singing practice should, at the\nbeginning, be very easy, and so carefully graded that the pupils\nwill scarcely realize that they are singing more difficult music as\nthey advance.\n\nEvery music lesson should be prefaced with a short tone drill,\ngiven either orally or from the ladder or blank staff, and developing\nin advance of the note-reading the intervals which occur in the\nsight- reading exercises or songs.\nIt is desirable to be able to read in all keys equally well and to\nchange keys readily. It is a delusion to suppose that remaining in\none key for a long time is necessary to success in another key. In\nchanging keys, with beginners, no explanation should be given further than to sound the key tone and to designate the key-note place.\nBy thus omitting the theory of keys and signatures with primary\nclasses, the study becomes simply one of relative pitch and relative\nposition, making the reading in all keys equally easy.\nOwing to the length of my paper I shall be obliged to omit the\nsubject of time. I will state briefly, however, that rote-singing and\nphysical exercise develop to a great extent the sense of rhythm.\nI object to the practice of beating time by the pupil for the same\nreason that I disapprove the use of the syllables. The sense of\nrhythm must be made subjective. It is a mode of expression which,\nin singing, should be centered entirely in the voice. If the mind\nis able to conceive regular accent it can be expressed with the voice\nas well as with the foot or hand, and much more artistically.\nYou have now had a glimpse of my plan for unfolding the scheme\nof the staff notation. I must forego further discussion of details.\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nMUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS.\n\n785\n\nThe new education demands that every attempt at sight-singing\n\nshall point directly to and embody the spirit of song. For this\nreason the exercises should at first consist of short themes with\n\nwords, leading very slowly to more elaborate music. Every melody,\nas well as every verse or couplet, should be a gem.\nParallel with this work should be the ideal school song preced-\n\ning every lesson, ever holding the pupils in that realm of emotion\nfrom whence they can absorb the mechanical or master the technique with intense interest.\n\nI have spoken of the parallelism of study and song, and it is a\nstriking illustration of a case where parallels meet.\nThe soul of pure music, the united interest and enthusiasm of\nteacher and pupils, and the exhilarating effect of the ensemble of\nsweet voices are the vital carrying forces of music in the public\nschool. The brief daily exercises devoted to music instruction is\nthought by some to be insufficient for practical results. But the\nhuman mind is like a camera. With a perfect exposure it will receive instantaneous impressions. The kinetoscope presents a series\nof such impressions blended together into a living picture. In like\nmanner the properly developed child reveals a series of mental impressions taken under conditions of intense interest. They are\nspread out upon the ribbon of memory; revolving on the wheel of\ndaily action, in the panorama of life, we behold a perfect living\npicture.\n\nA COURSE OF MUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS.\n\nBY A. J. GANTVOORT, COLLEGE OF MUSIC, CINCINNATI, OHIO .\n\nThe title of this paper is so comprehensive and so broad that it\ntook me some time before I could make up my mind to accept the\ninvitation of the president of this department to read a paper on the\ntopic. However, I accepted, and will proceed to submit to you some\nof my ideas as to a course in music for public schools.\n\nFirst, then, what is the purpose of a course in music? Has it any\npurpose similar to a course in reading or arithmetic, or other important studies ?\nWe music teachers are a unit in answering this question by an\naffirmative, so strong and full as to be heard from one end of the\n\neducational field to the other. But do we always prove it in our\nwork to the satisfaction of those teachers and superintendents who\nare skeptical on this subject, and who think music nice and pleas\n50\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "786\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Music\n\nant in the schoolrooms ; who even express their love for it in no unmeasured terms, and then proceed to prove their appreciation of its\nvalue by only using it as a recreation, a pleasure, a rest from other\nstudies, overlooking its disciplinary powers ?\nA course in music should embody training or discipline for all the\npowers of man-the physical, the mental, and the emotional, including the will. If it does this, then a course in music may not only\nbe an aid in the education of the child, but it may almost become an\neducation in itself, as it was among the early Greeks.\nThe strongest power of the child when it comes to school is probably its emotional power; that is, it is governed more by its desires\nthan by its reasoning faculties. It wants this or wants that, never\nmind why. It does not want to do this thing or that, being swayed\nentirely by its emotions.\nA course in music should aid in bringing these desires or nondesires under subjection to the intelligent will, and it can do so if\nrightly constructed of the right kind of materials and rightly taught.\nThus it will bring the child's original nature in subjection to its ideal\nnature, which is the true province of education.\n\nA course in music should also provide for the development of some\nof the physical powers of the child. It should help to give him increased capacity and power of the lungs, which will induce the in-\n\nhalation of more oxygen, and consequently will give purer blood and\na more active brain. It should give him sufficient control of the organs of speech to enable him to give the principal vowels and consonants their true phonetic value, which can easily be done when eartraining is a part of the course.\nFor the mental powers of the child, a course in music should do as\nmuch as any other branch of study, and that it can do so is evident\nenough to all of us who are practical music teachers. But the point\nis, not to convince ourselves but to convince the regular teachers and\nsuperintendent and general public by our work, if we wish to have\ntheir full co-operation and sympathy. We must prove to them that\nthe study of music cultivates the perceptive faculties, the memory,\nthe mathematical side, the emotional side, etc. If we do that, we\nwill have their full sympathy and co-operation.\nSo much, then, for the aims which a course in music should haveto develop in harmony and co-ordinately with other studies the physical, mental, and emotional powers of the child.\nWhat should a course in music finally accomplish ? For the emo-\n\ntional powers, it should bring the child in harmony with his surroundings, making him generous, patriotic, sympathetic ; a lover of what is\ngood, noble, beautiful, just, right; an ardent lover of music as a di-\n\nvine art, which will bring the best in him to the surface. That is, it\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nMUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS.\n\n787\n\nwill make the best in him become evident in his every action, which\nwill always be governed by his feeling for others, etc.\nFor the mental and physical powers combined, it should make him\na quick, accurate observer of the slightest differences and details of\n\nlength and pitch of tones, the characters which represent the pitch\nand length, so that he may hear the tones with his eyes and see them\nwith his ears . It should give him a concentration of mind far superior to any which he would have obtained without pursuing such a\ncourse in music. It should aid powerfully in making his judgment\n\naccurate, his sense of proportion almost perfect, a memory capable\nof remembering small details. It should give him in this way also\nthe ability to read music at sight, intelligently, and with pleasure to\nhimself and others .\n\nPhysically alone it should make him possess a healthy pair of\nlungs, with the knowledge how to use them to best advantage in\nkeeping himself healthy and active. It should give him such a power\nof enunciation, by a knowledge of the phonetic value and construc-\n\ntion of pure vowels and the cultivation of the tongue, palate, lips,\nand ear, as to make his speech and song equally pleasant to the ear,\nand thus enable him to take his part in all social and musical exercises, and thus become a more valuable member of any community.\nCan a course in music accomplish all this ?\nIt can and should do so.\n\nIt can do so if the materials of a course\n\nof instruction, the songs, the exercises, and the teaching are of the\nbest, based upon pedagogical principles and thoroughly in sympathy\nwith child-life, its development, its joys, its hopes, its desires, its powers of understanding, etc.\nA few words, then, about the materials of such a course in music :\nFirst of all, a teacher of music who is a musician and a student,\na lover of children as well as of music, and who can be a child among\nchildren.\n\nSecond, a series of exercises so carefully graded and arranged as to\nbe nearly always very slightly in advance of the power of the child\nfrom the first year to the end of school-life.\n\nThird, a series of songs about everything that a child loves, expressed in words that do not need explanation, thoughts that do not\nrequire diagramming, and whose tonal and rhythmical difficulties are\nso thoroughly adapted to the words as to be a natural expression of\nthe thought conveyed by the words; songs which will establish a coordination of studies such as has not yet obtained anywhere in any\nschool as fully as desired, because of the lack of a course embodying\nthese ideas ; songs which shall live in the heart and mind of the child\nlong after he becomes an adult; songs whose emotional power will\nlift him out of himself, and bring his ideal nature in the ascendancy\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": "788\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Music\n\nover his original nature ; songs, in one word, that will never lose\ntheir power over him in bringing before him ideals of truth, nature,\npatriotism, moral life, and divine life.\nSuch a course in music will be hailed with joy by all educators\nand will be worthy of having applied to it the thought thatMusic is the only art of heaven made ;\nThe only art of earth we take to heaven.\n\nMUSIC IN RELATION TO OTHER STUDIES.\n\nBY SARAH L. ARNOLD .\n\n[ABSTRACT BY THE AUTHOR.]\n\nTwo strong tendencies in opposite directions may be marked in\nthe education of to-day. One is the tendency toward separation of\nstudies, specialization,-as evinced by the new impulse in depart-\n\nmental teaching. The other is the attempt to centralize, to co-ordinate, represented in a high degree by the Herbartians. Both tendencies must force us to inquire into the interdependence of the subjects taught in our schools; and, in pursuing our investigation, we\nnaturally arrive at the question, What is the relation of music to the\nother branches of study? A thoughtful observation of a complete\nexercise in music will convince us, first, that the study has a vital\nrelation to the other subjects, through its effect upon the fundamental conditions of all study; and, second, that it reacts closely\nupon the specific work in certain branches, as reading, language, na-\n\nture study, and literature. Observe a class in music. See how the\nsuccess of the exercise depends upon their working together. Now\nthey sing in unison-in perfect time and tune. Now they are learn-\n\ning the more difficult; harmony, where the failure of one part brings\ninevitable discord to all-where the success of the whole rests with\n\neach individual. Estimate, if you can, the value of such unison, and,\nhigher still, of such harmony, in the discipline of the school, where\nthe great lesson to be learned is the power of working together, the\n\ntalent of keeping step, the secret of co-operation.\nAgain, follow the pupils into the schoolroom, after a free noisy\nrecess on a hot day. Watch the transition from the free and uncontrolled movement of the play ground to the quiet attention of the\nschoolroom, through the medium of a song. Differences are forgotten,\nquarrels are healed ; license gives way to self-control, roughness to\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nMUSIC IN RELATION TO OTHER STUDIES.\n\n789\n\ngentleness, under the influence of the music. Ah, if teachers but knew\nhow to use the song, we should hear less of the rod! In the harmony of interests, begotten by music, willfulness and strife are forgotten. In both senses of discipline, the philosophic and the common school use of the term, music is of inestimable value, and good\ndiscipline is indispensable to all study. The inference is obvious.\nAgain, music develops in a marked degree the power of concentration and the habit of attention which are essential to study. Have\nwe measured the achievement of the little child who successfully sings\na strain of music? He must recognize shapes and relative position\nof notes, translating the characters into sounds of certain pitch and\nlength. Later, he must in addition associate words with these tones,\nin proper measure and with true expression; and perhaps do this\nwhen others are singing other words to other tones. Compared with\nthe attention demanded by simple reading, this exercise is very difficult. It demands attention of the highest order-a concentrated\npower of attending to one's own business which must inevitably tell\nfavorably upon all other phases of work. But again, and quite as\nsurely, music helps in special as well as general lines. Every lesson\nin sight-singing makes the sight-reading easier to the child, for both\nrequire the exercise of the same powers. But further than this, music helps, as no other agent can, in the expression of thought and feeling. I would plead, on this ground, for a closer association of music\nand nature study, and music and literature. The choicest songs\nshould find a place in the nature lessons, and the thought in the song\nshould be clearly expressed. Snow and rain, seed-time and harvest,\nflowers and bird, sunshine and storm, have their messages for us,\nwhich should sing themselves through our lives, so that we may make\n\"melody in our hearts\" unto the Giver of all life and beauty. And\nin like manner the exquisite gems of the poets, when set to sweet music, will echo and re-echo through the chambers of the soul in darkest\nhours of need, if their threads have been interwoven with our childhood experience. In the tumult of the busy street, amongst the\nclanging of machines, or in the more wearing clash of striving, clamoring passions and ambitions, the sweet old song is suggested to us by\nsome wandering musician's strain, some boy's whistle, or some child's\nclear voice, and all unconsciously we become deaf to the clangor, the\nclashing, the tumult, and find ourselves quietly walking by still\nwaters in paths of peace.\n\nBind fast together, then, the music and the poem, and let nature\nexpress herself through both. Make glad the heart of the child so\nthat he grows happy as, all unconsciously, he grows wise, and so bid\nthe fountain of the man's memory to pour forth the sweet associations of a well-taught and truly inspired childhood.\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n790\n\n[Music\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nMR. HAYDEN, Quincy, Ill. It makes no difference whether syllables are used\nor not if thought is not behind it. The way to localize tone is by using consonants\nto place tone. I use blank staff in teaching the reading of music.\nMR. BACH, Colorado Springs, Colo ., believed in judicious use of syllables.\nUsed blank staff.\n\nMR. H. E. HOLT, Boston, Mass . A teacher who can teach music need not be\nconfined to any routine. However, twenty classes can be taught to read accurately\nby using syllables where one can be taught without their use.\nDR. SCHAUFFLER, New York City. Syllables should be used ; not abused. If\n\nused correctly and judiciously the child gains greater power than without them.\nTime-beating may be used to establish rhythm, and then done away with. I believe\ninharmony in primary grades. Syllables, if wisely used, are of great aid here.\nMR. GRIGGS, Denver, Colo.-Teaching with and without use of syllables has\nbeen tried in the Denver schools, with the result that more and better work may\n\nbe done using than without using them. Beating of time by children has been\ndiscarded.\n\nMR. GLOVER. We work in music by relationship.\n\nUse of syllables is most\n\nvaluable in establishing relative pitch. Beating time is visible means to the teacher\nof children's thought.\n\nCHILDREN'S VOICES.\n\nBY MISS LINN MARIE HAWN, SAGINAW, MICH.\n\nWhen the great Teacher of Life emphasized the dignified estate of\nchildhood with love and attention, he establishd a precedent for every\nskilled, conscientious, truth-dealing member of our honorable profes-\n\nsion. No apology is required in presenting the claim of the child for\nvoice-training. It is an absolute necessity to the full symmetrical\ndevelopment of the child.\n\nNecessity implies duty. If we regard the question through a lens\nof that power and quality, it wears its natural, honest aspect, and\nfully answers, \"Why should we train children's voices ?\" A child's\nvoice should be trained because it is as natural to sing as to speak.\nShould we particularize, we offer some of the various reasons in sup-\n\nport: (1) Physical, (2) intellectual, (3) moral. As early as a child\ncan speak, he can be taught elementary elocution, and so eminent an\nauthority as Dr. Morell Mackenzie declares that the singing voice\nmay begin as early as the age of three.\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.」\n\nCHILDREN'S VOICES.\n\n791\n\nA certain amount of simple vocal discipline may be administered\nand little airs of limited compass ought to be sung, that co-ordination\nof the laryngeal muscles with the ear (which is aptly styled the conscience of the voice) may be thoroughly established. The character\nof these exercises and songs should be adapted to the child's capacity,\nand intended to develop idea and sweetness of tone. Exercises for\nadults would be disastrous to the soft, sweet quality of the childvoice. We live in an age when hygiene is receiving merited attention. Hygienic consideration of the vocal apparatus makes us pause\nto consider this one fact among others: Training voices means, in\nsome instances, cultivation; in others, restraint. Thorough voice hygiene does double duty, in that it develops and strengthens while\nprotecting and preserving. All this requires skillful direction, for\nthe larynx is a delicate organ, susceptible of great and lasting injury.\nThe ear, \" the conscience of the voice,\" is of even more delicate fibre,\nand requires great care also. We cannot dissociate tone-perception\nand voice in this instance. We need to emphasize intelligent toneperception. The distance from piano to forte is an arc of truest curve,\n\nyet the ear of the child may be trained to the nicest discrimination\nin its rendering.\n\nThe teacher who presents the lesson should employ well-rounded\ntones, refraining from abnormal quality of voice, both in speaking\n\nand singing, because children are ready imitators, and appropriate\ndefects as naturally as they copy merits. Their ear is, so to speak, in\nits nascent stage in early childhood, and develops so rapidly that oftrepeated tolerance of unnatural tone renders it less impressible to\nthe clear, full, resonant quality. Therefore the children should hear\nfrequently the proper songs sung perfectly, that is, with right voice,\nphrasing, expression, and spirit,-that right ideals in this regard\nmay be formed. An eminent elocutionist has said, \"An octave in\nmusic will do more to nationalize our speech and destroy ill-toned\ndialects than millions of school-readers and years of reading. \"\nNote the responsibility of the teacher. It is a lamentable fact\nthat many voices are impaired in public schools by improper use in\n\nsinging. Too little stress is placed in these instances upon quality\nof tone.\n\nWe are all aware of the magnetic influence of the teacher's\n\nvoice.\n\nIn early childhood the throaty, nasal tones, if they be natural\n\nor acquired, may be overcome with less difficulty than in the adult\n\nage where these characteristics are embodied by long usage. Let us\nbeware of radical measures. Emphasis of musical notation, vocal\ngymnastics, rote-singing, etc., to the exclusion of any one or of all\n\nothers, is deplorable. Pure, sweet tone is the great desideratum. It\nis of paramount importance that the timbre of the voice precede all\nelse. In this, the educated ear alone pronounces judgment. Mme.\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "792\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Music\n\nSeiler has said : \" The most beautiful timbre possible is to be attained\nonly by beginning the tone with a moderate expenditure of breath,\n\nand with a quick, light, elastic touch. A correct knowledge of respiration is required of the teacher, but the child cannot deal with\ntechnical terms, although he practices along the lines which those\nwho do deal with them have marked out for him. He must be taught\n\nperfect respiration incidentally. The natural, unrestricted breathing\nof the child, sufficient for conversation, we ordinarily term correct\nbreathing; but in its scientific application it is not perfect breathing, because the inhalation is faulty. He does not retain the breath\nproperly ; he is not naturally capable of economic exhalation.\nErect carriage means chest development. Chest development\n\nmeans nothing to the child's mind, but everything to his health. Correct singing is properly a form of physical culture. Regarding that\nphase of its character, it ought not to be combined with other modes\nof physical exercise.\n\nMotion songs are of questionable utility. They direct the blood\nto the throat and lungs, and cause too much muscular action in connection with the process of vocalization. We need not tell the child\nthis. Control of breath-exhalation and right direction of the vocal\ncurrent may also be taught incidentally. The natural place for the\nchild to sing is the middle register; therefore, in the infant department, from kindergarten to seventh year, and in the junior department, from seven to ten years, the vocal exercises and songs should be\nadapted to their limited capacity. As the work is pursued in the\nsenior department, from ten years up, an individual test is necessary\nfor the purpose of classifying for part-singing. The timbre of the\nchild's voice decides whether he is to sing first soprano, second soprano, etc. This leads us to the subject of adolescence. To quote\nGuttman: \"During the period of mutation, if the voice is to develop\nnaturally and to advantage, the vocal organs should be spared, but it\nis not absolutely necessary that all exercise in singing should cease.\nOn the contrary, even in this period, exercises for the voice are very\nadvantageous for the development of the vocal cords. The exercises,\nhowever, must be easy, very moderate, and in no way forced nor long\ncontinued.\"\n\nFacial expression affects quality of tone.\n\nThe countenance is an\n\nindex to the mind. If the child frowns while singing, it is probable\nthat he is straining his voice.\n\nRigidity of feature accompanies\n\nthroaty, nasal tones.\n\nMusic has its psychological causes and effects. Culture of the\nvoice trains for precision. It requires concentration of the faculties,\nand for mental discipline it is an urgent necessity. It refines literary taste by association and controls the emotions by its combina\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "SONGS FOR CHILDREN.\n\nDepartment. ]\n\n793\n\ntion of sentiment and sounds. The efficacy of the chant in fervent intonation ; the lullaby for sweet, soft tone; the festival song for bright,\nhappy tone ; the dramatic song for artistic tone, express the emotions\nmore forcibly than mere oral recitation can possibly do.\nThe child's lack of self-consciousness, his spontaneity and freedom of action, his highly developed imitative power, make him a delightful pupil-companion.\n\nIf a doubt exists as to what the child's\n\nconception of his song may be, observe how the idea, \"the image\nin mind,\" as Cady styles it, is translated by a very young child.\nHis fidelity is astonishing; he feels the emotion. Melody, harmony,\nand rhythm are the a-b-c of his inner life. Character building is\nthe end of all culture. The sentiment of the child's song ingrains\nitself into his moral fibre.\n\nReverence is the heart-impulse in re-\n\nsponse to noble appeal of melody and thought. A child lives a pure\nlife while he breathes a pure song atmosphere.\nThese influences are far-reaching and penetrating, and like the lifegiving sunlight warm and develop the germ latent in every child's\nheart. Apropos of this, our beloved Fræbel says: \"The most difficult and the most important part of the training of children consists\nin the development of their inner and higher life of feeling and of\nsoul.\" The study of music should accomplish this. To continue :\n\"This, then, is the object or purpose of our work; to purify the child\nnature, so that his voice is as sweet as he is sweet ; to ennoble him by\ncontact with the highest in thought and feeling that brain and\nthought can produce; to have him know that his fellow is his brother,\nand that God is his Father. \"\n\nThis is the use to which we put music, and measurably we accomplish our purpose.\n\nSONGS FOR CHILDREN.\n\nBY MISS FANNIE ARNOLD, OMAHA, NEB .\n\nWhen Mr. Stewart, president of the Department of Music, wrote,\nasking that I contribute something about \"Songs for Children,\" it\n\nseemed quite an easy task, looking from February beyond to July ;\nbut when I began to think over the matter I found I did not believe\nin songs, or many songs, for the intermediate grades.\nThe idea is to teach the scale, intervals, three kinds of time, and\nrecommend about ten songs, one per month, for the first year, and\nreduce the number to four or five the second year.\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n794\n\n[Music\n\nMusic is a distinct language, represented by signs. Musical lan-\n\nguage is very positive, while words are vague, and frequently add\nnothing to that which is already complete. Children should become\nacquainted with the language of music, by singing exercises, \"songs\nwithout words,\" written by composers who know how to write\nfor the voice; not instrumentalists who may be able to score well and\nwrite a remarkably beautiful \"piano fantasie,\" but one who can think\nmusic, through that most beautiful of all instruments, the human\n\nvoice.\n\nPupils of the third, fourth, and fifth year become greatly in-\n\nterested in writing melodies of their own in different keys and the\nsimpler kinds of time, and while we may not find any great originality\nin their little tunes, who can doubt the knowledge of the representa-\n\ntive signs of the divine language gained by this fascinating drill, and\nthat many embryo creators of exquisite composition may get their\nfirst suggestions in the grades of our public schools.\n\nWhen a melody of some merit is written, the little composer, who\ndoesn't always happen to be a boy, goes to the blackboard, reproduces the inspiration, and is rewarded by the entire school singing\nthe song without words.\n\nWhen teachers pay more attention to the educational side of music, and disabuse their minds of the old-fashioned idea that children\ncan be developed into good sight-readers, with a refined taste for only\nthe best in musical compositions, by the frequent singing of vapid,\ninane songs, it is quite possible that the committee of fifteen will devote more than four or five lines to the subject of music, \"the sister\nto reading, correct intonation, and enunciation.\"\n\nMr. Stewart has asked me to sing some of the songs we have been\nmost successful in using in the first and second years, giving some little explanation as a preface to each.\n\n\"Hum, Honey Bee ; Hum !\" a delightful song, credited to my predecessor, Miss Lucia Rogers, is well adapted to placing tones forward,\ngiving the sweetest of quality, and the sustained notes are conducive\nto the development of proper breathing. [Song.]\n\"Bye, Baby, Night is Come,\" a dainty classic from Wilson G. Smith,\nto be sung mezzo-voce, introduces octaves and intervals somewhat difficult for first year pupils, yet this song has been most successfully\ntaught by our Omaha teachers. [Song.]\n\n\"Early to Bed,\" a bright, jolly song by our president, Mr. N. Coe\nStewart, is doted on by our little people, and is always sung with\ngreat dash and spirit.\n\n[Song.]\n\n\"Going to London,\" by Arthur Foote, contains one difficulty in\nthe sharp 2, and is sometimes misunderstood by first grade teachers ;\nbut the vision of the rocking-chair excursion makes it a song full of\ninterest to the little folks. [Song. ]\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nMIND AND MUSIC.\n\n795\n\n\"Going to the Fair,\" by Chadwick, is a song very fascinating to\nthe second-year pupils, and while we have chromatic tones again,\nand the long, sustained effect on seven of the scale, it has a go and\nspirit about it that makes it a success always. [Song.]\n\"The Minuet,\" by Leopold Damrosch, is another artistic song for\nsecond year, and again come the chromatic difficulties ; but it can be\n\ntaught by scale names on the blackboard very successfully. [Song.]\nThe last, \" A Song from a Child's Garden of Verse,\" by Stevenson\n(musicby Nevin), finishes this impromptu song recital, and if, in singing these songs, I have suggested the simplest point that may be of\nvalue to any teacher present, the end is attained. [Song.]\n\nMIND AND MUSIC.\n\nBY THEO . H. JOHNSTON, CLEVELAND , OHIO .\n\nThe tie which in this life binds man to woman and knits together\nfor eternity the souls which love is not more organic nor more vital\nthan the natural union of mind and music. What God has joined\ntogether let no schoolman put asunder. But during 2,000 years\nmusic has suffered and deserved the calumny and humiliation of\nunnatural and demoralizing grass-widowhood.\nThe Greek was near enough Nature to feel her rhythmic movement and hear the quiring of her whirling orbs. For him music\n\nwas a divinity, co-ordinate in rank and dignity with those who gave\nto men the wisdom of the gods. But the stolid, practical folk who\nforced upon Europe their laws and language had neither imagination nor sense of harmony. From what time Rome began to dominate music lost rank and has never regained it.\nThe man that hath no music in himself is fit for treasons, and he\nwho has it within him and cannot utter it is, in his emotional nature, a dwarf or a cripple. The mystery of the world of sense, the\nhigh stirrings of the intellect, the longings of the heart, and the\neternal underlying purpose of it all, music, and music alone, can\nharmonize. Like an echo of the invisible world, she gives to us the\nground tone of that divine concord which the entire universe is\n\ndestined one day to sound; she restores the counterpoint of life.\nCan I tell you what it is, this counterpoint? Have you listened to\nthe ceaseless lapping of tiny waves against a boat keel; have you\nheard their silvery ripple over shoals, their purling through the\npebbles of a brookbed, their sough and swirl against the tide rocks,\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n796\n\n[Music\n\ntheir soft sobbing on the sea shore? Blend in these an obligato of\n\nhuman heart cries, and you have counterpoint - the tumultuous\nsweep of the most immeasurable force in nature.\n\nOf all the arts seemingly so nearly akin, music, poetry, painting, sculpture,-music alone has neither an historic past nor a\nmaster whose canons of criticism are universally recognized; no\nHomer to fix forever the laws of epic narration ; no Phidias to give\nthe world a changeless ideal in statuary; no Angelo or Raphael to\nset the utmost limit of the creative hand ; no Shakespeare encircling,\nembracing, containing in his single cosmic soul the total of human\nexperience.\n\nMusic has no such master, and cannot have. For every word of\nuttered passion, for every spoken sigh of love or hate, of high ambition or unholy greed, a thousand waves of passion have broken\nnoiseless, unheard, unknown, against the unechoing cliffs of silence.\nWhat countless fears and hopes, what joys and griefs arise in us\nand die unuttered! Ceaselessly by day and in the dreams of night\nthe heavy hand of life sweeps unresting across the harpstrung human soul, but how rarely the vibrations break the open air of speech.\nNot all the myriad stars which sang together at creation's dawn\ncould voice them; no master's hand could grasp their various chords,\neven though he had the thousand fingers of Aurora. Here, then,\na reason why music has no Shakespeare, no all-resounding voice\nagainst which the stormiest individual cry is but the thin chirping\nof a bird against a tempest. \"Painting, sculpture, and poetry of\nnecessity involve some reference to nature ; music does not. They\nare dependent for their subjects upon material physical phenomena\nexternal to the artists ; music is not. Music could exist if there\nwere no world of nature. Raphael's Madonna may not be a copy\nof a beautiful woman, but unless there were beautiful women, it\ncould never have been painted. Shakespeare did not draw his characters from life, but life must supply us with the facts through\nwhich alone we recognize them as human. Even seers and dreamers, like Shelley and Blake, whose thought is farthest removed from\nour everyday prosaic world, were yet compelled to weave their\n\nimagery from the rainbow, and storm cloud, and leaping flame.\nTake away from poetry the material facts of nature and life, and\n\nthere would be nothing left but melodious nonsense.\" Separate\nthese arts from the world of objects and they cease to exist ; their\n\nbasis and essence is physical. Music, on the other hand, is psychological. Given sound as a plastic medium and it asks nothing more.\nIt lives of itself, and creates by spontaneous activity. It is in all\nand around all, like the ether out of whose movements the nothingness of primal chaos grew into the universe of worlds.\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nMIND AND MUSIC.\n\n797\n\nWe live and move and have our being in an all-environing sea of\n\nharmony. On this ocean floats our tiny life-craft, and at the end\nwe but sink into it as the Buddhist into the all-composing Nirvana.\nIn grief and in gladness, from the highest flights of fancy as from\nthe dull business of bread-winning, we modulate with a few deft\nchords into the joyous major of universal harmony.\nWhat shall it profit a man if he gain the whole gross world of\nsense and have not this language of the soul? if he catch not the keynote of life and accord not himself to the rhythm of eternity ?\nIt is much to learn a foreign language; it adds to our own another world. But he who masters the keyboard possesses the secret\nthings of the universe.\n\nThese coarse animal bodies of ours hunger and thirst daily for\nfood and drink. We spend most of life to feed and clothe them.\nBut there is a breath of the abiding God in us which daily hungers\nand thirsts for the eternal verities. Shall we feed the passing, the\n\ndeath-marked, the decaying, and feed not the deathless, the divine ?\nI hold with the Athenian that the father who educates not his\n\nchild has in old age no claim upon him. It is a crime to beget those\nwhom we cannot or do not prepare for a well-rounded life. To\ntrain a child in the three R's, to give him a trade or even a profession, neglecting that emotional side of his nature, which speaks the\nlanguage of art and music, or else is dumb, is likewise criminal ;\nlike allowing him to enter upon life a cripple when a surgeon's hand\ncould straighten his body.\n\nWith hardly an exception, the great musicians were masters of\nthe keyboard at ten or twelve. In Germany this is accomplished\nby children of ordinary capacity. I need not tell you what every\nacrobat knows that the greatest dexterity can be gained in these\nearly years only; but I may be allowed to emphasize the fact, that,\nwith the keyboard well in hand at twelve or fifteen, the time of\nmost rapid emotional development finds the youth equipped for its\nadequate and rational expression, and every year of ripening judgment broadens and deepens the maturing emotional nature.\nI say nothing in this scheme of the child's wishes.\n\nWhen it\n\nis proven that the infant knows more and has sounder judgment\nthan men and women of maturity, it will be soon enough to model\nour educational systems upon the views of babes and sucklings.\nIt is the parents' most solemn duty to train the child, with his will\nor against it, to meet successfully the natural demands of body and\nsoul. Music is not merely an exquisite delight-not alone the purest diversion of which our natures are capable. It is co-ordinate in\ndignity and creative power with the highest intellectual faculties ;\nin truth, is inseparable from them. \"The undevout astronomer is\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "798\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION .\n\n[Music\n\nmad,\" say the fathers of the church, and I say to you that the uneducated musician is a monstrosity for the pickle jars of the museums .\n\nWhat here too often passes for education in music is mere\n\nmanual dexterity with less soul than a well ground hand-organ.\nDo you remember that bit of savage humor in Du Maurier, the man\nwhose \" Trilby\" is just now getting there with both feet, as one may\n\nsay ? Let me recall it. It was an evening crush, a \"sore-eye musicale,\"\nthey called it. The athletic daughter of the hostess, just returned\nfrom some great school, was pounding an innocent, helpless piano\nas you pound a tough steak. The lion of the occasion was a really\ngreat musician. The poor piano is still at last, and the hostess\nbillows up to the artist. \"Dear professor; what do you think of her\nexecution ? Isn't her execution wonderful?\" \"Mattam, dot was\nnot oxegushun; dot was morrder!\"\n\nIn the old French church at Berne some years ago, they were\ngiving the final rehearsal of the \"Messiah.\" The chief singer was\na great queenly creature, with an ample snow-white bust which\nmight have pillowed the head of Olympian Jove. Her full, generous\nvoice was faultless. An orchestra of one hundred pieces and three\nhundred voices led up to that glorious aria, \"I Know that My Redeemed Liveth,\" and she sang it in flawless style. She had \"school,\"\nbut it was like the unexpected touch of marble-as if that Juno bust\nwas stone. Old Father Reichel popped out of the director's box in\na frenzy. \"Woman, do you know what you say-what you sing ?\nDo you know that Christ was dead and now lives again, and that\nthus you will live again, and I shall live again? And don't you care\na continental?\" There was in her something of a child-like simplicity, without which no one was ever truly a musician. She put her\nhands on the old man's shoulders and faced him with her honest\n\neyes. \"Father Reichel, you know I am glad.\" \"Well, then, feel\nit !-say it !-sing it!\" The slender old yellow baton which had\nmarked time for heart-beats in every court in Europe gave a sharp\n\nsignal.\n\nThe orchestra began with perceptible verve, and the chorus\n\nsurged up like a wave. Then came the aria again, but no longer some\none's school ; no longer style, but the sweet tumultuous outflow of\na glad soul, and there was hush upon that body as when a priest\nunveils the holy of holies. She moved to the old man as if to kneel.\n\"I think this is a new life for me, Father Reichel.\" \"I think it is,\nmy daughter.\" And for a moment his withered hands rested upon\nthat fair, proud head like a consecration and a benediction. That\nwas school-the sharp impregnating impact of a master soul upon\nanother.\n\nTechnique, style, school, have their legitimate functions. Accurate touch, pure tone are necessary, just as it is necessary for\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "799\n\nMIND AND MUSIC.\n\nDepartment. ]\n\nthe carpenter to hit the nail head, rather than his thumb, and drive\nit home without splintering the word-work; but they are after all\nthe husk. The genuine kernel, the soul of music, is something so\ndifferent that one may have them all and still be no musician.\nNor is it all vague feeling, like a mild-eyed imbecile rocking to\nand fro on a water pillow. It is the crime of the American musician,\nthat, with a physical organism singularly responsive to the demands\nof music, he persistently neglects the rigorous training of brain\nwhich would inform him with the achievements of the past and put\n\nhim on level foot with the stupendous problems of this, the latest\nand most momentous of the centuries.\n\nMusic is history.\n\nWhen\n\nour Germanic fathers accepted Christianity their cathedral pinnacles shot skyward like the northern pines. Their vast aisles were\nlike the vistas of a pine forest, and as they changed the Roman\nbasilica they revolutionized Roman music. The trim piping of\nemasculated eunuchs gave place to the full throaty exultant coun-\n\nterpoint of national harmony. That was your race and my race,\nthe Germanic race which shall possess the kingdom, a great helpless giant which church and state and scholasticism have bound\nhair by hair in fetters which in our day first are loosening. Note\nfor a moment the epic tone which marks the first, the earliest, effort\nto be free, a sound as ominous for the tyrant in church or state as\nthe death rattle in the throat. Read Luther's hymn, or sing it:\nEin feste Burg ist unser Gott,\nEin Machtig Wehr und Waffen.\n[A mighty fortress is our God,\nA bulwark never failing .]\n\nIt is the iambic march step of an embattled nation.\nDo you know how Cromwell's Ironsides marched ? Read Milton.\nThe murderous French and Italians were shedding innocent blood\n\nlike rain, and out of his heart burst a cry which rings in Roman ears\nto this day :\nAvenge, O Lord! thy slaughtered saints,\nWhose bones lie scattered on the Alp Mounts cold.\n\nCromwell thrust his mighty arm across a whole continent, across\nthe demoniac and fell purpose of Catholic Europe, to rescue a handful of mountain shepherds .\n\nAnd once again you hear it when an indignant North marches\nout to preserve the only great union of human history :\nWe wait beneath the furnace blast-\n\nThe pangs of transformation.\n\nNot painlessly does God recast\nAnd mold anew the Nation.\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "800\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Music\n\nW. H. Riehl in his wanderings through Germany came upon some\ntwelfth- century music, in its time highly prized. He tried it upon\nhis dog. The poor creature went into spasms of agony, and almost\ntore the violin out of his hands ; whereupon Riehl has this commentary : \" If twelfth-century music throws a nineteenth-century\ndog into spasms, what would a twelfth-century dog suffer on hearing\nWagner?\"\n\nEach age has its peculiar musical ear, and the gyrations of\nmusical taste are as fantastic as women's fashions.\n\nWhen Francis I.\n\nwas coquetting with the Reformation, Marot was paraphrasing the\nPsalms and setting them to music; and what music, think you ? Jigs\nand rigadoons ! And the languishing beauties of that virtuous court\nvaried their debaucheries by singing the songs of David as they\ndanced, and thought themselves fit for immediate translation.\n\nIt was not accident that the pregnant eighteenth century, beginning with Sebastian Bach and Handel, culminated in Mozart\nand Beethoven. It was an age of nation-building and broad philosophy. Winckelmann and Lessing set up canons of criticism in art\nand literature which time cannot materially change. It was an\nage of revolt in church, and state, and society-the hinge-point in\nthe struggle for equality before the law. There will be nothing\ngreater until the meaning of our age is comprehended. Music thus\nfar has proclaimed our escape from the political flesh and devil ;\nand now we front the world of nature. Rome, which, as some men\nfable, fell in 476, or 1453, or 1806, or surely with the Reformation, has\nin fact dominated the world of intellect and sentiment to our day.\n\nNow, at last, the tyranny of language, of logic, of metaphysics, of\nthe book, is gradually weakening, and we are going back to nature.\nThe critic in literature of this day must be capacious enough and\nmany-sided enough to receive unto himself the aggregated impressions of the sum total of the age's intellectual activity. He must\nknow not merely its literature, poetry, and philosophy; he must\nknow as well its engineering, mathematics, and science. Out of\nsuch fullness alone dare he measure the relative achievement of any\nman's work.\n\nUpon the musician of this age is laid a burden even more crushing. Not only must he know what men have thought and done;\nhe must also voice their sentiments and emotions.\n\nAnd what is\n\nthe moral of all this? Defile not the sanctuary !\nI knew the greatest basso since La Blache. He never sang or-\n\ndinary music. His unequaled voice was to him a gift of God. Singing with him was an act of worship. When so-called evangelists\nlend hand to such jigger music as defaces our modern collections,\nthey blaspheme. What place has their inane tinkle, pinkle, winkle,\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\n801\n\nMIND AND MUSIC.\n\nour hoop-te-doo-de-doo, in such company as \"Jesus, Lover of My\nSoul,\" \"A Mighty Fortress is Our God,\" \"How Firm a Foundation,\"\n\"Nearer, My God,\" etc. ? How came those back alley hoodlums\namong the elect? The movement which, under shelter and counte-\n\nnance of the church, began by displacing Lowell Mason and his\nschool is a disreputable kind of slumming.\nbauchery of our noblest emotions.\n\nIt is a systematic de-\n\nIf our clergy, like those of the continent, had been bred up on\nSebastian Bach, Handel, Hayden, or even on Palestrina or Pergolese,\nthey would have cast this indecent thing from the temple. True,\nthe Good Book says, \"Gather them in from the highways and byways,\" but it nowhere says, \"Ye shall make of mine altars a dumping ground for the filth of ignoble sentiment.\"\nAt the beginning of this century the post-boys of Central Europe,\nwith the inflexible old-time horn, heralded their coming with the\nstaid and sober melodies of the great masters.\n\nThe villages awoke\n\nto the sound of music's loftiest creations ; but with the French horn,\neasy stops, and general flexibility, came the gay, vapid tin jingle\nof so-called popular music. A generation ago a few weeks of rehearsal produced easily anywhere in these villages the great ora-\n\ntorios. That heavy-visaged, stolid folk had music in their souls ;\nmusic which in majestic might lifted even clods to heaven. Now\nthey are dumb as their oxen ; or, worse than the oxen, drip from\ntheir ham-like faces such ineffable exudations as \"Tara boom de ay.\"\nIt is the religious duty of every music lover to resist this debasing tendency in church or out of it.\n\nEnglish is the speech of 150,000,000. It displaces every language\nwith which it comes in contact.\n\nguage.\n\nIt must become the world lan-\n\nBut among these many millions not a single institution ex-\n\nists in which music stands on level foot with philology and the\nsciences. England has never been original or creative. The restoration of music to its true place, the development of works which\nshall voice the achievements of this mighty age, rests with the musicians of America.\n51\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n802\n\n[Music\n\nVOCAL HARMONY; OR, A PLEA FOR AN ORAL LANGUAGE\nWITH WHICH TO EXPRESS OUR THOUGHTS IN MUSIC.\n\nBY H. E. HOLT, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nThere are three elements or conditions which must be present, and\neach enter into and form a part of all true objective teaching.\nFirst-There must be an object of thought to be presented to the\nmind.\n\nSecond-There must be an oral name by which the object is\nknown.\n\nThird-There must be a written sign to represent the object.\nAny teaching which does not recognize and embrace these three\nimportant conditions or elements cannot be called intelligent teaching. Before educational principles can be applied in teaching the invisible realities in music, a basis must be established which shall correspond to the basis upon which these principles are applied in teaching other subjects.\nIn teaching the subject of tune in music, there must be a definite\n\nand distinct musical object of thought to be presented to the mind.\nThis object cannot be a single tone; because a single tone unassociated in the mind with other tones has no musical meaning. It is\n\nonly when tones are considered in their relation to one another in the\nmind that any musical effect is produced.\nThe natural order of presentation in the study of every object in\nnatural history is the following :\nFirst-The object as a whole is observed.\nSecond-The parts of the whole are considered.\nThird-The parts in their relation to the whole.\nFourth-The parts in their relation to each other.\nThe two tones forming the octave constitute the object or whole\nwhich contains within its limits the elements for all of the effects\n\nfound in music in the study of tune. Each part of every natural object has its function, which it performs as a part of the whole to\nwhich it belongs. This principle applies in the construction and\nteaching of every natural object in the entire universe. When we are\nso familiar with any object and its parts, in all of their relation to the\nwhole and to each other, that each part causes the whole or all other\nparts to be associated in the mind in their proper relation to that\npart, we may be said to be familiar with or to know that object.\nWithout this definite knowledge we cannot be said to know an object\nthoroughly. The laws of the mind are fixed and unvarying. In\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nVOCAL HARMONY.\n\n803\n\nteaching any subject we must present it in accordance with these\nlaws, or we deceive ourselves if we think we are really teaching.\nMy laboratory for scientific investigations in the art of teaching\nmusic is the human soul.\n\nThe instruments with which I make all of\n\nmy experiments are the laws of the human mind.\n\nWithin this laboratory and with these delicately adjusted instruments I solve all of my problems. I find that the tones of our tonal\nsystem will adjust themselves in a fixed and harmonious relation to\none another when mental activity is awakened upon them in the\nnatural order in which the mind gains a knowledge of all things.\nThis furnishes a basis upon which an application of educational\n\nprinciples can be made in teaching vocal music, and it is the only\nfoundation upon which to base a practical and scientific method of\nteaching the subject.\nMusic, from the pedagogical standpoint and for the purpose\n\nof teaching, must be considered as an object in natural history\nas much as any insect, animal, plant, or flower, if we are to find a\nbasis for the application of the same mental laws in teaching the subject. This simplifies the teaching of music wonderfully, and furnishes\na basis for the application of an oral language which makes the invisible realities in music as tangible and definite objects of thought\n\nas are colors or numbers, and as easily and successfully taught by\nthe regular class teachers.\n\nThe importance of an oral language in teaching vocal music will\nnever be appreciated until we realize how helpless we would be in\nteaching other subjects without such a language, and how little is\nknown about the teaching of music on account of the absence of such\na language. Take the teaching of numbers as an illustration. With\nno oral names or spoken words with which to express the ideas, what\nprogress would be made in teaching numbers and their combinations ?\nThis represents the present condition of teaching music as compared\nwith numbers, only in the one instance appeal is made to the eye and\nin the other to the ear.\n\nWe should find ourselves working at the\n\nsame disadvantage in attempting to teach colors without an oral\nlanguage. To carry the illustration further, what progress could be\nmade in teaching botany (or any other subject, for that matter) without an oral language? Does not each plant and flower have a name\nby which it is known? Are not the different parts studied and\nnamed ? Are not the parts studied in their relation to the whole\nand to each other, and the pupils made familiar with these names by\nusing them in talking about the subject? There is not in the whole\ncurriculum of studies a single subject which has not had an oral language except vocal music. An old German teacher has said, \"The\nnaming raises the subject to the higher plane of communicability.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "804\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Music\n\nThis oral naming applied to vocal music, not only raises the subject\nto the higher plane of communicability but it brings the teaching of\nit within the reach and comprehension of every intelligent teacher,\nand makes his or her teaching power as avaliable for music as any\nother subject. This takes music out of the list of special studies, and\nplaces it within the reach of every child who has a right to demand\nfrom the public schools education and development in music, which\nis his most sacred birthright.\n\nThe opposition which this system of teaching has called forth\nfrom those who do not understand it and are criticising it from their\nstandpoint shows the deplorable condition of things in the teaching\nof this noblest of all arts. The greatest hindrance to progress in\nteaching music in our public schools is the unscientific, unsystematic,\nand haphazard way in which we have learned what little we know of\n\nit ourselves. Never was the teaching of any other subject in such\nabsolute confusion. What seems impossible to one is perfectly simple to another, and here I wish to say that the mere musical mathematician is entirely out of place in the schoolroom. Terms and expressions, which as simple names of definite things are readily understood by the little child, have an entirely different meaning to him.\nHe cannot understand how it is possible to make use of names which\nare familiar to him as an expert in another branch of the subject, and\n\nwhich no one is expected to understand unless he has reached the upper strata of musical knowledge. Principles in teaching do not\nchange, and results obtained by one teacher may be obtained by\nanother. It is simply a matter of knowing how.\nI have been, as is well known, contending in season and ont of season, first, last, and always, for educational principles and their application in teaching music.\n\nWith a few fundamental truths established and acknowledged by\nall, the confusion and contentions regarding methods of teaching\nwould disappear. Any method of teaching that cannot be successfully defended by the laws of the human mind is of little or no account in these days of scientific teaching. If little children can be\nreadily taught to do what the average singer or musician cannot do,\ndoes it follow that it is wrong or difficult or undesirable simply because musical people as a rule cannot do it ?\n\nTake for an illustration\n\nthe application of this oral language in teaching tune which I have\nworked out. My former associate author, Mr. John W. Tufts, says\n\"I know the interval question to be an absolute impossibility.\" The\nitalics are his. Now, his ability as a musician is beyond question; but\nwhat are the facts with regard to the \"impossibility\" of teaching intervals ? Simply that little children the first year in school are being\ntaught all intervals, from the octave to the minor second, so that they\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nVOCAL HARMONY.\n\n805\n\nwill sing any one of them without hesitation when its oral name is\nspoken. These pupils sing themselves into any and all of the twelve\nkeys from the pitch of C third space by these intervals. To illustrate,\nthey are given the pitch of C upon the pitch-pipe and asked to go to\nthe key of F sharp with the diminished fifth, and they go there. If\nthey are asked to go to key of G flat with the augmented fourth, down\nthey go there without hesitation, and actually read hundreds of musical exercises in the twelve different keys the first year of school-life.\nFrom this there would seem to be no limit to the development of the\nmusical nature in children, for these results are not strained or un-\n\nnatural ; they are simply the legitimate results of skillful teaching,\nand any skillful primary teacher can be shown how to accomplish\nthis. In the light of these facts, a man might as well say that he\n\"knew\" it to be an \"absolute impossibility\" to run the street cars by\nelectricity, simply because he could not see the power which moves\nthem. But it is an accomplished fact. The large, palatial cars are\nactually running by electricity, carrying thousands where only hundreds rode before, and we are not going back to the poor horses. So\nin the teaching of music in our public schools. The regular class\nteachers and educators are beginning to see the application of an educational principle in teaching music with which they are familiar\nin teaching other things, and ten thousand children are singing intelligently where only hundreds sang before, and we are not going back\nto the old inefficient ways notwithstanding a few-I am happy to say\nonly a few-professional musicians are throwing up their hands in\nholy horror, crying, \"Technical terms for little children !\" and \"Absolutely impossible ! \"\nIn the \"London School Musical Review\" of February 1st is an article by Mr. S. W. Cole, and a reply by the editor of the paper. I\n\nquote the following from the editor's reply :\n\n\"It is easy to agree with\n\nMr. Cole, that, if sight-singing from the staff could be taught to the\nmasses without the use of sol-fa names, etc., it would be an agreeable\nrelief. But what a tremendous 'if!\" Experience is dead against the\npossibility. \" Again, the editor says : \"It is also again easy to agree\nthat the study of intervals after tonality is an indispensable crowning of the edifice. But this, as the writer fully admits, is generally\na matter for academies of music and a study apart from the schools.\nOrdinarily school pupils seldom get so far ; so, after all, we seem to\nbe on common ground. Teach tonality, and add intervals if you can.\"\nThis idea of \"teaching tonality and adding intervals if you can,\" applied to the teaching of arithmetic, would mean, Teach arithmetic,\nand add a knowledge of numbers if you can. Now I claim that the\nteaching of intervals is the only proper way of establishing what is\nhere meant as tonality ; that it should be put at the very beginning\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "806\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Music\n\nas a foundation, and that there is no other proper or successful way\nof laying that foundation. Any system of teaching worthy the name\nmust have the end in view from the beginning. I have taken this\n\"indispensable crown of the edifice\" and made it the bottom corner-\n\nstone in the foundation. Can you imagine anything turned more completely \"top side down\" than this ? This capstone or \"crown of the\nedifice\" is now in its right place, and will remain there. It rests\nupon the solid basis of God's eternal truth and furnishes a foundation\n\nupon which all can build, and upon it will be erected a mighty edifice\nfor the cause of music which never can be shaken.\n\nBriefly stated, my position is this :\nFirst-That music is of divine origin, and is the birthright of\nevery human being.\n\nSecond-My system of vocal harmony is based upon the great\ntruth, that the tones of our tonal system upon which the construction of all modern music is based have certain fixed, absolute, and\nharmonious relations to one another in the divine mind and are governed by divine law in their relation, as are the planets.\nThird-That these tones will adjust themselves in the human\nmind (which is a reflection of the divine mind) in these fixed and harmonious relations, when mental activity is awakened upon them in\nthe natural order in which the mind gains a knowledge of all things .\nConsequently, properly taught and under favorable conditions, people will no more sing out of tune than the planets will move out of\ntheir orbits .\n\nFourth-That each tone of the tonal system has its function,\nwhich inheres from its position in or as a certain part of the whole\ntonal system to which it belongs.\n\nUpon this foundation I have built my new normal system of teaching called \"Vocal Harmony,\" and I cordially invite the careful consideration of all musicians, educators, and teachers to a thorough examination of this foundation. If it is found to be immovable, the\nsystem of teaching based upon it cannot be shaken. If there is any\none thing that the cause of music needs more than another at the\npresent time, it is a scientific and progressive arrangement of the subject for the purpose of teaching. What I have said regarding an oral\nlanguage thus far applies to the subject of tune. An oral language\nfor teaching time was invented many years ago in France. To Luther\nWhiting Mason we are indebted for the arrangement and adaptation\nof this language to the staff notation. Such are the educational principles which underlie the correct teaching of all subjects that, in the\nnature of things, there can be no universally successful system of\nteaching the two ideas of tune and rhythm in music without an oral\nlanguage which shall be universally applied in teaching these two\nelements.\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nVOCAL HARMONY.\n\n807\n\nI have been told since I came to Denver that the world was not\n\nyet ready for my ideas of vocal harmony, and that I had better go\ncarefully and slow. I have heard this kind of caution for the past\nten years, and it has had very little effect upon me.\nThe fact is the little children are all ready for my ideas, and they\nare going forward, and the rest of the world can take its own time to\n\nswing into line. I mean by this that educational principles must\ngovern our work; we must grasp the broad, universal principles in\nteaching and see their application in more than one study, or we are\nworking in a very narrow and limited way. Every teacher should\npreserve his individuality; but we must unite upon a basis of presentation, oral naming, and written representation of the invisible realities in music before there will be anything like uniform success in\nteaching the subject. No one can consistently oppose an oral language in teaching music without opposing it in teaching numbers,\ncolors, botany, and every other subject in natural history. Are we\n\nprepared to do this ? I will simply say in conclusion : Find your\neducational basis, apply your principles, and the little children will\nlead you out of the muddle and confusion in which the teaching of\nthis subject is at present engulfed.\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF ART EDUCATION.\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES.\n\nFIRST SESSION.- WEDNESDAY, JULY 10, 1895.\nThe department was called to order at 3 o'clock p. m., in the North Side High\nSchool, Denver, by the President of the department, Mr. Charles M. Carter of Denver, Colo.\n\nAfter the opening address of the President, a paper was read by Mr. Halsey\nC. Ives, Director St. Louis Museum of Fine Arts, late Chief of the Art Department of the World's Columbian Exposition. Subject: \"How to Make Use of\nMuseum Collections .\"\n\nMr. Montague Marks, editor of the \"Art Amateur,\" New York, was absent.\nHis place was supplied by Mr. Dana of the Denver Public Library, who read a\npaper on \"Art of the Illustrated Press- Its Use Educationally,\" which he illustrated by a collection of pictures.\n\nThe papers of Mr. Ives and Mr. Dana were discussed by Mr. Henry G. Schneider of New York : Mr. Henry Talbot of Montgomery, Ala.; Mr. John S. Clark\nof Boston, Mass.; Mr. Walter Goodnough of Brooklyn, N. Y.\nThe following committees were appointed :\nOn Nominations -Mr . Jesse H. Brown, Indianapolis, Ind.; Miss Katherine Ball, San\nFrancisco, Cal.; Miss Cora Z. Parsons, Youngstown, Ohio.\nOn Resolutions-Mr. Walter S. Goodnough, Brooklyn, N. Y.; Miss Emily H. Miles,\nDenver, Colo .; Mr. D. R. Augsburg , Salt Lake City, Utah.\n\nMiss Wilhelmena Seegmiller, Supervisor of Drawing, Indianapolis, read a paper\non \"Pictorial Art and Light and Shade Drawing in Primary and Grammar\nGrades .\"\n\nThe meeting was then adjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION.-- FRIDAY, JULY 12, 1895.\nThe meeting opened at 3 o'clock p. m. , with Mr. Chas. M. Carter in the chair.\n\nMr. John S. Clark, Director of Prang's Normal Art Classes, Boston, read a\npaper on \" The Aims of Art Education in General Education.\"\n\nThe paper was discussed by Col. Francis W. Parker, Cook County Normal\nSchool, Chicago ; Miss Katherine Ball, Director of Drawing, San Francisco, Cal.:\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES .\n\n809\n\nProf. Walter S. Goodnough, Director of Drawing, Brooklyn, N. Y.; Mr. Ossian\nH. Lang, editor of the \"School Journal,\" New York .\nA round table discussion on \"Methods of Teaching\" was opened by Mrs.\nMatilda E. Riley, Supervisor of Drawing, St. Louis .\nMiss Katherine Ball of San Francisco, Prof. W. S. Goodnough of Brooklyn,\nand Mr. Curran of Santa Fe, N. M., also took part in the discussion.\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following report:\nFor President-Prof. Walter S. Goodnough, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nFor Vice President-Mrs . Matilda E. Riley , St. Louis .\n\nFor Secretary-Miss Myra Jones, Detroit, Mich .\n\nThe report was adopted, and the above named persons unanimously elected\nofficers for 1895-96.\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions reported the following :\nResolved, That the thanks of the Art Department of the National Educational Association are due to the Board of Education of School District No. 17 of Denver and to\n\nMr. J. H. Van Sickle, Superintendent of Schools, for the use of the North Side High\nSchool building as a place of meeting, and for other courtesies extended.\nResolved , That it is the sense of\n\nthis department that the Board of\n\nEducation of\n\nDistrict No. 17 and the citizens of this district are deserving of the highest praise for\nthe part they are taking in advancing art education in this city and state, by providing\nthe excellent art rooms and facilities which they have done in the North\n\nSide\n\nHigh\n\nSchool.\n\nResolved, That the Art Department does hereby commend the art exhibits made in\nthe various districts of this city, and recognizes that the public schools of Denver are\noccupying front rank among the various cities of the country in the matter of art\neducation in public schools .\nResolved, That the thanks of this department are due to President Charles M. Carter\nand the other officers for their untiring efforts, and to the various participants in the\nprogram for all they have done contributing to these most successful meetings.\nResolved, That the Art Department of the National Educational Association indorses\nmost fully the suggestion advanced by Prof. Halsey C. Ives, that art museums should\nbe more helpful in public art education by arranging for visitation of public school\nclasses and teachers and explanatory lectures, and by providing loan collections for\ncirculation in public schools.\nAlso, that the association indorses the recommendation of the President of the de-\n\npartment, that art collections be formed in high schools for the better education of\nthe pupils of all the schools, the teachers, and the public; and that, in cities where\nthere are no museums , such collections be enlarged and utilized as fully as possible for\nthe general education of the public.\n\nIt is also the sense of this department that the illustrated press should be utilized\nmore fully as a means of art education in public schools, and of the general public.\nthrough the public libraries .\n\nResolved, That, in view of the fact that the important reports of the Committee of\nTen on courses of study for the high school and that of the Committee of Fifteen on\ncourses of study for primary and grammar schools so largely ignore the subject of art\neducation in all the grades of primary, grammar, and high schools, a committee of three\nbe appointed by the President of the Art Department to consider the subject of art\neducation in its relation to public education, and to report in print at their earliest\nconvenience.\nWALTER S. GOODNOUGH,\nEMILY H. MILES ,\nD. R. AUGSBURG,\nCommittee on Resolutions .\n\nThe report was unanimously adopted.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nWILHELMENA SEEGMILLER,\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "810\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Art\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS.\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.\n\nEXTENSION OF ART EDUCATION.\n\nBY CHARLES M. CARTER, DENVER, COLO .\n\nLadies and Gentlemen of the Art Department of the National Educational\nAssociation:\n\nFrom the north, the south, the east, and the west you have traveled many miles,-some of you thousands,-rising higher and higher,\nuntil you have reached the crest of the continent. All eyes have\nbeen directed towards Denver, the meetings of the National Educational Association, and the many attractions of Colorado's inountains.\n\nWe bid you the heartiest welcome. We have anticipated your\ncoming, not only since Denver was selected but for years previous.\nWe have been conceited enough to think that it was only a matter\nof time when you would succumb to our many attractions. Now\nthat you are here, we beg to assure you that our people, both within\nand without educational circles, have rejoiced at your coming, and\nwill spare no effort to make your stay one of pleasure and profit.\nIt is believed that the program offers subjects of the greatest\nimportance at the present time. It may not be out of place to state\nthat the first step in preparing the program was to invite the suggestions of several prominent art educators .\nThey were asked to name the subjects they considered it well to\ndiscuss, and to mention their relative importance. When the returns were in they were carefully compiled, and those subjects\nadopted which seemed most in favor. It may be interesting to mention some of the subjects suggested. For instance, one art director\nis evidently in an unsettled frame of mind, for he asks, \"What Shall\n\nWe Teach ?\" another, \"Is Art Education Receiving the Support It\nDemands ?\" Several subjects are given in the form of questions,\nas, \"What Should Supervision Consist Of?\" \"What Is Technical\n\nDrawing ?\" \"What Is Drawing?\" \"Is Modeling a Part of Drawing\nor Manual Training?\" \"Art or Drawing for the Masses ?\"\n\n\"Nature\n\nStudy\" and \"Illustrated Drawing\" are mentioned by more than\none person, while several wish to have methods discussed. As an\nexample of the latter, one wishes to know the best method of teaching light and shade, and another wishes to know when it shall be\n\nintroduced. I can barely name other subjects mentioned, as \"Teach-\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nEXTENSION OF ART EDUCATION.\n\n811\n\ning Outline So as Not to Interfere with Seeing Masses of Light and\n\nShade,\" \"The Possibilities of Artistic Treatment in District Schools,\"\n\"Recent Psychology,\" and \"Correlation of Drawing with Other\n\nStudies. \"\n\nColor is mentioned once only, and then with reference to\n\nits \"Advanced Harmony.\" The programs are of an inclusive character, and will probably touch on many of the subjects mentioned.\nAll progress in art is of interest to the art educator, and it becomes us that we take a lively interest in the tendencies of the general public in art development. We should not regard ourselves as\nmere teachers of drawing, bound to follow a narrow path. With\nperfect propriety we may greatly enlarge our influence and field of\nusefulness. With such thought in mind, the program has been\nfilled with subjects on a high and broad plain; subjects which it is\nhoped will be suggestive of a widening of the field of the art director.\nIt is not sufficient that drawing be formally taught as a subject,\nor used as an adjunct in connection with other studies. Let us have\nin the schoolroom the influence of artistic surroundings, as plaster\ncasts and photographs of the finest products of the art world. Let\nus not ignore the fact that inexpensive pictures from the illustrated\npress are admirable in developing the art idea and adding to human\nhappiness. Photography and the reproductive processes now make\nit possible for the illustrated press to mirror with accuracy much of\nthe art of the past and present, and to directly or indirectly give\nus opportunity to convey ideas as to composition, light and shade,\netc. True, we cannot present all of the subtleties of form and color\nof originals, but to a certain extent there are valuable truths of art\nthat may be conveyed by the aid of the reproductive processes, with\nthe great advantage of inexpensiveness.\nSeemingly there has existed a lack of sympathy between artists\nand art teachers. To secure a greater advance of art education there\nshould be unanimity. Happily the tendency is towards a unification of interests. Possibly one of the reasons why artists have not\nbeen more in sympathy with our work is because many persons who\nassume the position of art teachers are lacking in extended study.\nIt is to be regretted that the limited training which will permit\n\none to undertake elementary work is too often mistaken for general\nability to be a director of art education.\n\nWithin a few years we have had the organization of the School\nArt League of America, which owes its existence to certain artists\nwho have made definite attempts to furnish schoolrooms with artistic surroundings in the shape of notable artistic plaster casts\nand photographs ; and have even gone so far as to advise regarding\nthe color scheme of schoolrooms .\n\nIn this connection it has been noticed that pupils take a lively\ninterest in details of classic architecture, and the historic interests\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "812\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[\nArt\n\nconnected with them. Indeed, it is true that interest in all art products is increased when some interpretation is given of their meaning and special attention is directed to the art principles illustrated.\nLet such principles be once presented, and their recognition in\nother art products will materially add to the pleasure of our observations.\n\nA phase of art education which I sincerely trust will associate\nitself with our deliberations is a consideration of means by which\nwe may extend our usefulness as directors of art education.\n\nIs it\n\nnot possible that we may exert a beneficial art influence in our communities outside of the schoolroom ?\n\nIn this connection we are led to inquire if our towns and cities\n\nare making use of all of the means recognized in Europe as important in exerting a public influence in art matters. We soon discover that the art museum is one of the public institutions found\nin every town or city of importance abroad; that it has been established as an industrial necessity; that its influence is responsible\nfor the artistic character of manufactured products, and for the\nhigh consideration given them in all parts of the world. Not only\nare they commercially influential, but serve to cultivate the taste,\n\nappreciation, and enjoyment of communities by calling their attention to the beauties of nature and art.\n\nWhat do we find in this country corresponding to the art museum ? Comparatively, almost nothing .\nTrue, a few of our largest cities have art museums and connected\nart schools, but considering the immense extent of our country, its\npopulation, and the importance of our manufactures, their influence\nis very limited. That our people are highly appreciative of art is\nabundantly proven by the great interest it aroused in connection\nwith the World's Columbian Exposition, and the heartfelt regret expressed by many a person that it could be regarded as little more\nthan a dream, which, alas ! passed away with even greater rapidity\n\nthan anticipated. This love of beauty is inherent, and cannot be\nsuppressed . We must have public art collections ; we must have\nart museums. In their formation the art educator may be a public\nbenefactor.\n\nBut how ?\n\nIs it not possible to combine in some manner the interests of the\nschools and the interests of citizens generally? Are there not many\ntowns and cities where the art department of the high school might\nbe so developed as to not only benefit the entire school system, but\nso as to be of interest and benefit to the public generally ?\nHere are a few suggestions : It is understood that a properly\n\nequipped high school should have an art department, with rooms of\ngenerous proportions and appropriately lighted ; that there should\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nEXTENSION OF ART EDUCATION.\n\n813\n\nbe a collection of plaster casts illustrating notable examples of\n\narchitecture, the different styles of historic ornaments, and also\nnotable details of sculpture ; that, in addition, there should be more\nelaborate examples of sculpture than pupils are expected to draw,\nand photographic reproductions of the world's most famous paintings. Surrounded with such examples the pupils may get some conception of the master minds of art. Other art objects are sure to\nconnect themselves with such a collection.\n\nThose mentioned are fundamental. Of course, the rooms should\nbe appropriately colored and the furnishings arranged as artistically\nas possible.\n\nArt study requires all of this. Let it be noted that rooms and\ntheir contents as far as mentioned are absolutely necessary for instruction. They are also necessary for commencing an art museum.\n\nThe rooms, their lighting, their contents, are all such as should be\namong those found in an art museum.\n\nThe question presents itself, \"Why not unite the interests of the\npublic and of the schools ?\" \"Why not plan the art department of\nthe high school so that it becomes the commencement of an art\n\nmuseum for the town or city?\" The school authorities are bound to\nprovide proper facilities for art study. Will not both they and the\npublic meet with hearty favor such a scheme for double usefulness\nof public funds ? By having such an end in view even a modest\ncommencement may be in the right direction and capable of increasing usefulness ; and if the time comes when the rooms of the\nart department are outgrown, we may expand by using the wall\nspace of the various classrooms .\n\nBut it is not enough to provide rooms with suitable furnishings.\nThe finest collections in the world are useful to the extent to which\n\nthey directly appeal to, interest, and instruct the public. The art\ndirector must cultivate opportunities for bringing the public to\nthe art department of his high school. In connection with various\npublic gatherings at the high school an invitation may be given to\nvisit the art rooms. Such invitations will receive appreciative response, while the occasional purchase of new works of art or loan\nexhibitions will furnish occasions for receptions.\n\nOccasional talks\n\non art matters will be well received .\n\nWe may also greatly stimulate work in the lower grades by inviting them in sections to visit the art department and listen to\ntalks illustrated by the art collections. This plan is feasible.\nIt might be suggested that the school board generally appreciate\ndefinite suggestions for which there are good reasons, and are willing to make expenditures in the direction indicated. While every\nart director should consider wisely the amounts asked of the school\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "814\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[\nArt\n\nauthorities, they should also bear in mind that a proposition to\nspend one hundred dollars is not likely to create more objection\nthan the expenditure of ten dollars.\n\nWe should not lose sight of the great educational value of our\nwork, but should have high ideals and the courage to try to make\nthem realities. The money which would appropriately commence\na combined museum and art department for a high school is meager\ncompared with the great school expenditures in other directions.\nYou have an opportunity to round out the education of the chil-\n\ndren cultivate taste in the home, and benefit the entire community.\nTruly an important work. The interest of parents in their children and the interest of children in their work will surely create\nenthusiastic interest in art, and may we not even venture to predict,\nthat, in many a place, the modest commencement at the high school\n\nwill result in increased appropriations and bequests, and a final\nhome in a special building worthy of the great cause of art education.\n\nART IN MAGAZINES.\n\nBY J. C. DANA, LIBRARIAN PUBLIC LIBRARY, DENVER, COLO.\n\nI take it that the purpose of a work of art is to give us pleasure.\nYou, as teachers of drawing, are, of course, largely concerned with\n\nother things, such as giving a child command over his hands, increasing his powers of observation, familiarizing him with the different\nkinds of technical drawing; but you are, as I understand it, not only\nteachers of drawing-you are the encouragers of art. As such, it ap-\n\npears to me, you are a little inclined to overlook the material for art\neducation which lies immediately at your hand. If the purpose of a\n\nwork of art be to add to the sum of human happiness (and it would\nbe difficult perhaps to show that its field extends much beyond this),\nthen you, as encouragers of art, should devote no small portion of\nyour time to opening the eyes of the young people with whom you\ncome in contact to the artistic things within your reach. Those emotions or feelings that we call artistic, or æsthetic, or what you will.\nare, it would seem, subject to cultivation just as the sensation of\ntaste-- not commonly considered an artistic sensation-is susceptible\nof cultivation. If a person at a certain period of his existence does\nnot care for olives, and by continued practice acquires the taste for\nolives, then he has developed himself so far, and has added one to\n\nthe sum of his possible pleasurable emotions. So a boy who does not\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "ART IN MAGAZINES .\n\nDepartment. ]\n\n815\n\ncare for the difference between a homely building and a pleasant\nlooking building, and who afterwards, by a few suggestive words from\nhis teacher, learns to get a touch of pleasure from the sight of a handsome structure, has added one to his sum of possible pleasurable emotions. And again, a boy or a girl who, at one time takes no interest,\naside from the stories thereby suggested, in the illustrations of the\ncurrent press, and afterwards learns to appreciate the difference between those illustrations, and acquires the ability to get a pleasurable emotion from the view of certain of them, has added one to his\nsum of possible pleasurable emotions. Each one of these persons\nhas educated himself, or been educated, \"artistically,\" to a certain\nextent.\n\nNow, I find\n\nto go outside for a moment of the field I am talking\n\nin-that the average young person, not to say the average adult,\ntakes no interest in the architecture of the buildings of the town in\n\nwhich he lives. It seems not to occur to him that architecture, considered as an art, of which he may read in text-books on the subject,\nor which he hears alluded to by persons learned in such matters, has\nan exceedingly wide illustration in the structures that surround him\nevery day. It seems not to occur to him, as he takes his daily walk\n\nthrough his native village or his native city, to compare this building with that; to consider why this one is pleasing and that one displeasing; to take note of the fact that the architectural critic approves of this building, not of that one, and to follow up his knowledge of this approval with any attempt to get at the root of it himself. The art of architecture seems to him to be confined to books,\nand, for actual illustration, to distant cities and ancient times. This\nsame failure to take note of the art which lies just at one's hand is\nstill more clearly to be seen in the attitude of the average young person, or even of the average adult, to the illustrated press. For instance, worthy women come into our library and announce to me\nthat they propose, the next winter, to take up the study of art. They\nask me what books we have on the history of art, what illustrations\nwe have of the art of a certain period or of a certain country, what\n\ncritical works we have on the subject, etc. That art must be studied\nthrough its history, by visiting art galleries, and by means of illustrations-reproductions of things at a distance in space and in time,\nseems to be the one idea of the average art student. I sometimes venture so far as to suggest to persons who come with this request something of this sort :\n\n\"The art of Greece and Rome, and the art of Italy, or of any other\nforeign country, and the art, commonly so-called, of America, can be\nproperly studied only by the direct observation of the works of art\nthemselves. On the other hand, if it is an art education you wish,\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n816\n\n[Art\n\nand not an art education of one specific kind, you can every day cultivate your artistic taste and add to the sum of your possible pleasurable emotions by opening your eyes to the supply of art that is fur-\n\nnished you by the illustrated press. Take, for instance, our publication called 'Life.'\n\nIt includes each week reproductions of some of\n\nthe best work in wash-drawing, in pen and ink, and other illustrative\nprocesses, that is being done in America (may one say, in the world ?)\n\nto-day. Even such journals as 'Puck' and 'Judge'-exceedingly crude\nin the main, and devoted, as to the pictures, almost exclusively to\nstory- telling-contain oftentimes artistic suggestions of value, and\n\noften include pictures by men who are masters of draughtsmanship\nin certain directions. If we pass on to such journals as 'Harper's\nWeekly' and 'Harper's Bazar,' you find in them wood engravings\nand the reproductions of pen and ink and other work which are most\nexcellent examples of some of the best work this country can produce in these lines.\n\n\"It is unnecessary, of course, to call your attention to the artistic\nwork of such periodicals as the 'Century' and 'Harper's Magazine.'\nThe art in these magazines is by no means confined to special articles on that subject, or to such things as the reproductions, by Mr. T.\nCole, in wood engravings, of the work of some of the great masters.\n\n\"The wood engravings, covering every character of subject, which\nhave appeared in these magazines in recent years, have been, confessedly, the best work of the kind in the world. While it may be\nvery well for you to know that Michael Angelo lived, and that Raphael painted some pictures, and that Donatello was something of a\nsculptor, it is much more to your present purpose to know that T.\nCole is an excellent engraver, G. Kruell is a masterhand in portrait\nwork, that A. B. Frost, E. W. Kemble, C. S. Rhinehart, and a score\nof others, are not simply story-tellers with their brush or pen, but\nartists .\n\n\"I would advise you, then,\" I might say to our supposed library\nvisitor and zealous student of art,,\"to lay aside for the present any\nplans for diving into the past or for traveling, by pictures, to the\nart of foreign countries, and to devote yourself to the art which lies\nat your own door.\n\nTake note each week and each month of the en-\n\ngravers and draughtsmen, and their work in this, that, and the\nother periodicals. Learn to know their names ; learn to know their\ncharacteristics ; become accustomed to judging them; read such\ncontemporary criticism of them as you can find, and thus open your\neyes to one of the phases of art here and now within your power to\nobserve.\"\n\nWhen the public library was first opened, we, of course, took, for\nthe reading-rooms, the \"Art Interchange\" and the \"Art Amateur.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nART IN MAGAZINES.\n\n817\n\nThese journals contain, each month, as you know, certain colored\nplates and sheets of design. We very soon found that these designs\nand these colored plates were wanted by patrons of the library to use\n\nin the several kinds of work to which they are adapted. We began\nto lend them to those who asked for them. When they were lent in\nthe form in which they come with the papers, they were frequently\ntorn or injured. It occurred to us then that it would be a good plan\nto mount each one of them on a sheet, either of cardboard or of heavy\nmanilla paper. We chose manilla, both as being the cheaper and the\nstronger. It serves the purpose just as well as cardboard, unless the\nthings mounted on it are used on the wall for decorative purposes.\nAccordingly we mounted the colored plates, and the large sheets of\ndesigns we cut into pieces as small as the character of the designs\nwould permit, and mounted them in the same way. As the pictures\nand designs varied largely in size, we supplied ourselves with several\ndifferent sizes of manilla, and found, after some trials, that the follow-\n\ning sizes seemed very well adapted to the purposes : 18x24, 12x18,\n9x12; each one just twice the size of the one next smaller.\nWe soon found that there was a demand, among people who were\nengaged in one and another kind of amateur art work, not only for\npictures and designs found with the journals I have mentioned, but\nthat they would often also be glad to get such pictures as appear in\nother illustrated papers. We accordingly extended the custom of\nmounting to selected pictures from journals such as \"Harper's\nWeekly,\" \" Life,\" \"Harper's Bazar,\" the English illustrated journals,\netc.\n\nSeveral years ago the supervisor of art in the schools in our district, wishing to bring the pupils in the schools into touch with modern decorative work, put on foot the plan of cutting designs of all\nkinds from current periodicals and mounting them on small sheets.\nWe had in stock in the library-the result of gifts, largely obtained\nthrough pupils of the schools-a great supply of illustrated journals\nand magazines. Numbers of these, such as the \"Century,\" \"Harper's,\" \"Scribner's,\" and the \"English Illustrated Magazine,\" were\nsent to the bindery and their backs cut off. This left them in loose\nsheets. Boys and girls from the high school then came into the\nlibrary, on invitation of the art director, selected from these loose\nsheets such initial letters, vignettes, title pages, etc., as suited their\nfancy, cut them out and pasted them in groups on small manilla\nsheets, 9x12.\n\nAs time went on we extended our library subscription list to take\n\nin, occasionally, such journals as \"Figaro Illustre,\" the \"Paris Illustre,\" some of the German periodicals devoted to decorative designs,\netc.\n\nAfter a very little experience we found that these journals, if\n52\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "818\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[\nArt\n\ncarefully saved, put where the public could not well get them except\non application, were very little used. If they were bound in quarterly or half-yearly volumes, they were almost as little used as if they\nhad been hidden away. Consequently we instituted the custom of\ncutting up these journals, taking from them the best of the illustrations, and mounting them on sheets of manilla of appropriate size,\nand putting them with our already large collection. In this form\nthey were lent to anyone who wished them. As this work grew we\nfound that we had on hand an ever-increasing pile of illustrated journals of all sorts, out of which a large number of things could be selected and mounted. We now adopted this plan: We save these\njournals, and on a given evening, having ready an abundance of\nmanilla paper, shears, and paste, we call in the young women who\nwork in the library and a number of their friends, and hold a \"pasting bee.\" This \"pasting bee\" generally lasts from two to three hours,\nand is very commonly wound up by some little refreshment at the\nlibrary's expense. In the ways mentioned our mounted pictures have\ncome to number several thousand.\n\nIf any of you take the trouble to examine our collection in the\nopen gallery of the public library, you will find that it has many\nfaults. In the first place, a great many of the pictures and designs\ndo not present a very good appearance when mounted on manilla paper. In the next place, as it was impossible for me, or any one else\nwho might know fairly well what it was best to select from illus-\n\ntrated journals, to supervise all this mounted work, there are included among the pictures a great many useless and perhaps undesirable things. In the next place, the collection has grown so rap-\n\nidly that it has been impossible for any person with an adequate\namount of knowledge of the subject to give the time to proper classi-\n\nfication, and consequently you will find the classification scheme\nwhich we have adopted to be in many places very faultily applied.\nThese mounted pictures are contained in about fifty drawers, each\ndrawer containing pictures having to do with one or more subjects\nor departments. These drawers are open to the public, both old and\nyoung, careless and careful. As the pictures contained in them have\nbeen lent, some of them not once but half-a-dozen times; have been\nfreely handled, perhaps carried roughly, pinned on the schoolroom\nwall, they are now, in some cases, in a dilapidated condition. You\nwill note, however, that while we are a little incumbered in our collection with material that is worthless, the material that is good is\n\nfairly accessible, and is not at all injured for practical purposes by\nits poor classification or by the careless handling to which it has been\nsubjected.\n\nEach one of these pictures is stamped with the stamp of the public\nlibrary.\n\nTo facilitate their classification and their rearrangement,\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nART IN MAGAZINES.\n\n819\n\nwhen out of order, they are also stamped with the name of the particular class to which they belong. Lately we have had made a number of stamps, one for each of the classes into which we now divide\nthese pictures, preceded by the words \"Denver Public Library.\" With\nthese stamps it is easy, as you see, to sort into piles any new batch of\npictures and stamp each pile with the particular stamp of the class\nto which it belongs.\n\nIn the work that I have thus briefly outlined, we have not only\nbeen assisted by the library employes and their friends in the manner I have suggested, and by the pupils of the high school, and always\nby the supervisor of drawing; but very substantial aid has also been\ngiven to us by the teachers. You, of course, will understand that it\nis not easy to interest the average teacher in the kind of work that\n\nIhave been speaking of. By no means every teacher takes an interest\nin art, and by no means every one takes an interest in drawing. We\nhave found, however, that a good number of teachers are interested\nin this work and are very glad to learn of the pictures and to make\nuse of them. Moreover, in many cases, the teachers have themselves\nbeen stimulated by the example of the public library to prepare collections for their own use. We have had in stock nearly all the time\nfor the past two or three years a good supply of the manilla paper\nalready mentioned and shown to you. When a teacher comes to us\nand says that she is endeavoring to increase the interest, in geography, for example, in her school; that she has heard of the plan of\nmaking a series of geographical pictures to illustrate the particular\nground she proposes to cover in a given term, and wishes to know if\nwe can assist her in doing this for herself, we show her our stock of\nold journals (and we always have a supply set aside for this particular\npurpose), tell her that she can help herself to these, supply her with\nas many of the sheets of manilla as she wishes (perhaps, with paste\nand shears), and she then either takes these to her home and makes\n\nher own series of illustrations or works at the library. The pictures\nwhich the teachers mount in this manner are commonly, though not\nnecessarily, considered the property of the school district or of the\npublic library. This kind of work has been done, not only for geography but for a good many other topics. As interest in the subject\nhas increased and spread throughout the district, the habit has\ngrown up, especially in the last year, of making special collections\nwith more care and with a greater eye to beauty than ours. In the\nhigh school particularly, a gray cardboard has been secured in\nquantities, and certain of the teachers have taken the best illustrations in given lines from such journals as the \"Century,\" \"Scribner's,\" and \"Harper's,\" mounted them in series, and put them loose\nin a portfolio. You will find examples of some of this work in\nroom 10 of the high school, if you are interested to see them. Teach\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "820\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Art\n\ners in grade schools, moreover, have made like portfolios in other\nlines.\n\nThe standard text-books on literature, as well as those which are\nnot standard; the writers of literary essays, the deliverers of literary lectures, and the good educational people who are always full to\n\noverflowing of wise advice on literary matters, are continually driving the beginner in reading back to the classics. It is not strange\nthat this should be so. It is not only in accordance with custom but\nit is by far the easiest thing to do.\n\nIn literary matters one can\n\neasily read a few volumes of the history of literature and literary\n\ncriticism, can dip lightly into a few books of quotations and of approved selections, and he finds himself already well equipped with appropriate phraseology, and is ready to deliver himself of the soundest\nkind of advice in regard to literary matters. Nothing could be easier\nthan to acquire the ability to tell a group of young people what are\nthe best English authors to read. Nothing can be easier than for\nthe alleged teacher of literature to pour forth an hour or two of\nplatitudinous talk about authors who have long been accepted as the\nproper ones to know about.\n\nThis kind of stuff is easily delivered and is not worth the saying.\nI have a keen suspicion that the teacher of English literature is led\nto confine herself in large part to the praise of the oldest kind of\nliterary chestnuts because she feels that she is utterly inadequate to\npass any worthy opinion on the modern writer. It is entirely sim-\n\nple, for instance, to drivel along about Walter Scott, and Thackeray,\nand Fielding, and the like. The whole world is with you if you\npraise them; you feel that you are in good company and on safe\nground. But what, for instance, about the modern man? How far\n\nshall you go in approbation of a man like Huxley ? Do you think\nthat E. S. Martin's little windfalls of observation are worthy of as\nhigh praise as the essays of Addison ? Are the editorials in \"Life\" as\nclear cut and keen as anything Leigh Hunt wrote ? Is Conan Doyle\nsuperior to Fenimore Cooper? And does Mary E. Wilkins really\nwrite a good story of New England life ? Is her work as good in\nits line as has ever been done in the English language before ? Questions like this the alleged literary man is rather slow to answer in\nthe schoolroom.\n\nYou undoubtedly noted, in the last number of the \"Forum,\" several articles having to do with the teaching of art to the masses. You\n\nwill note that the whole tenor of these articles is, if not against, at\nleast, not at all in sympathy with the ideas I have been endeavoring\nto express to you. The one idea of the writers and of the people\n\nwho are carrying on the work they are outlining is, that the only art\nworthy of being noted by the populace is art of the most expensive\nkind.\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n821\n\nThe Hull House people, for instance, give a little loan exhibition,\nin the slums of Chicago, of fine oil paintings. The Hamlin Garland\nplan is to give exhibitions in small towns of costly oil paintings and\nbronzes and statuary. Now, my contention is, that it would make\nfar more happiness, it would be much more likely to add to the sum\nof possible pleasurable emotions, if these art enthusiasts would inform in some simple way the people of Chicago slums that they can\ncultivate themselves in an artistic way by means of the current, illustrated press; if they would show them, for example, that a handsome wood engraving, cut out of \" Harper's Bazar,\" costing ten cents\n\nfor the picture and five cents for the cardboard on which to place it,\nis worthy of their attention, is able to give a person of high degree of\ncultivation a very pleasurable sensation, and can greatly add to the\njoyoflife.\nThe ordinary citizen, whether he live in the slums or in a palace,\nlooks upon almost all current illustrations as story-telling only, and\nhe cares for nothing else, and he thinks he cannot get out of the realm\nof story-telling unless he gets a picture of the very highest price and\nbeyond the reach, except for occasional moments, of any but the very\nwell-to-do. Even when he looks at high class paintings, the thing\nthat chiefly concerns him is the story; as was well illustrated by the\ngreat vogue, at the Chicago Exposition, of that very pleasing but not\nparticularly artistic little picture, \"Breaking Home Ties.\"\nNow, you should understand I have no objection to the story-telling habit in a picture, or of the love of story-telling in the observer.\n\nWhat I am contending for is, that it is possible, not simply for uneducated people but for the average person of culture to increase\nhis art knowledge and add somewhat to his agreeable sensations by\nmaking a study of even the wood-cuts, the process pictures, and the\nchromos in illustrated journals.\nDISCUSSION.\n[REPORTED BY CORA Z. PARSONS. ]\n\nMR. SCHNEIDER, teacher of drawing in New York, spoke of what was being\ndone in that city in utilizing the museums in the public school work.\nMR. TALBOT of Alabama, a teacher in a colored school, said that he was aiming at the training of the hand and the eye of the pupil instead of an art development, stating briefly his mode of procedure.\nMR. CLARK of Boston wished to express a deep feeling of gratitude to Mr. Ives\nfor his admirable address. He felt sure that all supervisors and others interested\nin art would join in his expression of appreciation.\nMR. GOODNOUGH said we must develop the artistic feeling in the children, not\nby talking art but by placing before them high ideals in the way of examples of\nart. He paid a high tribute to the work done along this line in Denver, both in\nthe high school and library. In closing he thanked Mr. Ives for his very able\naddress.\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n822\n\n[\nArt\n\nPICTORIAL DRAWING IN PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR GRADES :\nSHOULD LIGHT AND SHADE BE TAUGHT ?\n\nBY MISS WILHELMENA SEEGMILLER, ALLEGHENY, PA.\n\nMETHODS .\n\nPictorial art makes two demands, that noble and beautiful\n\nthings be said, and that they be said well. While these demands\nare attained only through the language, the message of art is its\nhigher and nobler part.\nPictorial representation is an expression of human thought and\nfeeling, and it is great or good according to the amount and quality\nof thought and feeling clearly expressed. Of this we have abundant\nproof in the masterpieces of art.\n\nIn the spirituality shining in the faces of Fra Angelico's saints\nand trumpet-blowing angels we see reflected the great life-thought\nof the devout and spiritual man who sacrificed all worldly honors,\nsaying that the practice of art required repose and holy thought,\nand that he who would paint the life of Christ must live the life of\nChrist.\n\nWhen Courbet paints his gathering tempests, so that we see\nthe atmosphere laden with the hush of the storm and almost hear\n\nthe mutterings of thunder in the lowering clouds, we understand\nhis love for Nature in her awe-inspiring moods.\nMillet shows us scenes from peasant life. Beyond our thought\nof his composition, his drawing, his color, or his atmospheric effects, we are impressed with his grand conception of the heroism\nin humble life and the dignity of labor. Ruskin says that the value\nof every work of art is exactly in the ratio of the quantity of humanity that has been put into it and legibly expressed upon it.\nIn the simplest work of children the humanity should be legibly\n\nexpressed.\n\nWe wish, not only the child's representation of the book\n\nbut of his interest in the book ; not alone the portrayal of the flower\nbut of delight in the flower.\nNature has established a sympathy between external forms and\nour thoughts and feelings which is the everlasting basis of all true\n\nart.\n\nIn our work with pupils we have three things to consider :\n\na study of the facts, of structure and appearance,-command of\nthe muscles of expression, and the sympathy. In our anxiety re-\n\ngarding the facts and the free expression, we must keep it very\nclearly in mind that the aim of pictorial art is through and by means\nof these to express the sympathy.\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPICTORIAL DRAWING.\n\n823\n\n\"Art is never imitative, but ideal and creative. The artist, be\nhe musician, poet, or painter, transcends the bounds of nature, and\npasses into the ideal. He becomes a new creator, and his work is\na new creature. A play of Shakespeare, a symphony of Beethoven,\na picture of Raphael, or a torso from the Parthenon is not an exact\n\nimitation of anything we see or hear around us in the lives of men,\nin the music of the woods, in the landscape, or the human form.\"\nYet each is in accord with nature, and appeals to all that is noblest\nand best in us.\n\nArt is the child of Nature ; yes,\nHer darling child; in whom we trace\nThe features of the mother's face,\nHer aspect, and her attitudeAll her majestic loveliness,\nChastened, and softened, and subdued\nInto a more attractive grace,\n\ni\n\nAnd with a human sense imbued .\n\nThe creative activity which, in its highest manifestations, ennobles the artist is in a lesser degree the possession of all .\n\nRaphael did not find a woman sufficiently beautiful to be the\nmodel for his Sistine Madonna, but from his experience he combined\nand portrayed the perfections of many women. The same longing\nfor the expression of the ideal was shown by a tiny child in a New\nEngland school. Each pupil had been given a daisy to draw. Hers\nhad a somewhat angular and inartistic stem. After her drawing was\ncompleted she looked somewhat unhappy, and as the teacher examined the work, she said, \"I didn't make the stem of my daisy\nnice, but I made it like this one.\" The teacher said \"Yes , I see,\ndear,\" and passed on. Still the child seemed dissatisfied, and presently said again, \"You know, Miss Brown, I didn't want to draw\nit this way, but I had to.\" \"Yes,\" said the teacher; \"that was right.\nNow, you may make the most beautiful one that you can;\" and the\nchild was radiant.\n\nAfter making the best possible choice of material and arrangement, we can ofttimes imagine something better than what we see\nproduced materially before us .\n\nWe wish that the tree leaned a little\n\nmore protectingly over the house, the ship were turned at a slightly\ndifferent angle, the sail had a more graceful sweep, the drapery fell\nin different folds, or the pitcher had a more glowing surface. In\nour drawing we can combine the imaginary ideal qualities and the\ndesirable visible qualities .\n\nIt seems to have been designed, that, with God-given aspiration,\nman should in all things seek the ideal, and constantly grow toward\nit, till he realize perfectly unity and completeness in the broad life\nof eternity. As we look back through the ages, we find that it is\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "824\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[\nArt\n\nonly those who sought the ideal, and in some form strove to express it, whose works have lived to affect our lives to-day.\n\nThe benefit of pictorial art in education is derived largely from\nthe constant striving to create ideal conditions and to express ideal\nthoughts.\n\nExpression in any art demands the mastery of language. The\nmusician must understand pitch, scale, and fingering ere he interpret for us the beauty of Mendelssohn or Mozart. The poet must\nunderstand grammar and rhythm ere he move us by flights of sublimity or depths of pathos. He who would produce effect with\nbrush or pencil must also understand the technicalities of his art .\nWithin the past few years we have heard a great deal about\nsetting the children free. So many strange things have been said\nand written, that it seems to be the idea of many people that the\nsole duty of the educator is to let children alone, and that the one\nall important law of the universe is, \"Do as you please.\"\nNo one could wish children greater freedom than I, but there is\na vast difference between the freedom of carelessness and the free-\n\ndom which comes from a consciousness of power.\n\nI find the most\n\nfree and artistic work in schools where I also find the best drill.\n\nI\n\nfeel that we need constant and thorough drill on principles and in\nmovement .\n\nLet us briefly discuss some of the essentials of good composition\nand rendering. Unity, variety, and repose are oft- quoted words, but\nwords of deepest meaning. Good composition demands adherence\nto the law of principality. In a good poem, play, or novel there is\none principal idea or character to which all else is subordinate. In\na good picture there should be one element of supreme interest, and\nso skillful an adjustment of relationships that all features blend\ninto one harmonious whole. There must be sufficient changefulness\nto sustain interest, and restful arrangement and good drawing to\nproduce repose. When work is to be done in light and shade, there\nshould be a concentration of light and shade effect in the arrangement. One object or one part of a study should receive higher light\nthan the rest.\n\nGenerally children do not get sufficient practice in grouping.\nThe teachers arrange the groups. When pupils make their own\n\ngroups, considering the essentials of composition, the planning for\neffect gives them clear concepts of the features necessary to produce\neffect in the sketch .\n\nEven in the lowest grades time devoted to grouping is well spent.\nIn the first and second years children can readily be led to see which\nmodels will look best together, and from a collection of miscellaneous objects select those which will make the most pleasing arrange\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPICTORIAL DRAWING .\n\n825\n\nment. They delight to bring several objects to school to arrange\npleasingly on their desks for the teacher, and when pupils are called\nto the front of the room to arrange their groups where all can see,\nmany a little hand flies up whose owner is anxious to make the\n\nobjects look more companionable, to add variety, or to substitute\none of his own possessions to remove an element of incongruity.\nWhen work in light and shade is begun students should have\n\nshadow boxes, which may be improvised from pasteboard or geographies. They should make their own arrangements, studying effects of light, shade, and shadow.\n\nIn pictorial art we represent, not reality but the appearance of\nreality. There are two kinds of truth, truth of structure and truth\nof aspect. One is as great and essential a truth as the other. In\nall pictorial work we study the structure and the aspect, but portray\nonly the aspect.\n\nScientific representation and art representation are two very\ndifferent things. Between science and art there has been a great\ngulf fixed, yet they are so closely related that they go hand in hand.\nWhen teachers understand this seeming contradiction, and remember\nit in connection with elementary science instruction as well as in the\ndrawing periods, pictorial work is greatly strengthened.\nThe light and shade question is quite a problem. Light and\nshade mean much more than black and white.\n\nOne of the first\n\nthings to be considered in light and shade sketching is gradation.\nMay I quote a description of Correggio's picture of Antiope in\nthe Louvre ? \"The woman enveloped in a panther skin is as bright\nas a flame. The soft red tone forms the first halo ; then the light\nblue draperies, with a slight greenish tint, form the second halo.\nThe satyr has a value a few degrees below that of the draperies,\nmaking it the third halo. When the bouquet is thus formed Correggio surrounds it with beautiful dark green leaves, shading toward the extremities of the canvas .\"\n\nThis is an exceptionally fine case, showing observation of gradations ; but in the simplest sketch there should be an effect of central light and gradation. In this gradation we must consider the\nvalues of direct light, shade, shadow, and reflection. Color enters\ninto the question, and color values must be sustained and represented in the black and white. Attention must be given to the relation of objects in space. The lines of the composition must bear a\npleasing relation to one another, and the spaces into which they\ndivide the picture must be a matter of thought.\n\nOur drawing must also represent texture and quality. We must\nshow with very little detail that the house is made of bricks, not\npainted boards, and that the potato has a roughness and earthiness\ndifferent from the characteristic smoothness of the apple.\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "826\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Art\n\nWhen these qualities are united in the mind, they must be expressed in artistic rendering.\nWe are limited by our materials. There are often high lights\nin our subject many degrees lighter than our paper, and depths of\nshadow darker than the darkest marks of our pencils. Like the\nsinger who cannot reach high or low notes, we are compelled to\ntranspose the key and retain the relationship. We cannot imitate ;\nwe must translate.\n\nTo obtain the desired effects of interest and\n\nlight, we must often exaggerate certain features and eliminate\nothers .\n\nThe light and shade problem, then, is to portray, in artistic rendering with limited material, an impression of what we wish to ex-\n\npress, duly considering concentration and gradation of interest and\nlight, values of light, shade, shadow, reflection, distance, and color,\nrelation of lines and spaces, and characteristics of texture and\nquality; combining all these in unity, \"not the unity of rigid law but\nthe unity of trees, and clouds, and human souls.\"\nIs this a problem for primary grades ? It is said that little ones\nsee effects of light and shade. They do when their attention is\ncalled to them; but they also see the luminous blue of the sky, the\nfleeciness of the cloud, and the flash of the diamond. Would you\nask them to paint these, just because they can see them ? There are\nmany things we can see and appreciate which we cannot express till\nwe gain the mastery of language, and little children must first learn\nthe elements of the language of art.\nDo children naturally represent light and shade ? When you\nas a child drew a house or an elephant did you express your thought\nin masses of light and shade ?\n\nWhat has been the history of the race? Did the artists in the\ndays of the Pharoahs understand light and shade? Do the Assyrian\nhunting scenes show light and shadow ?\nPersonally, I am little concerned in the question, Can children in\nprimary grades express their thought in light and shade? In the\nlimited time devoted to pictorial art in the primary grades it is all\nI can do to get children to see well, to gain mastery of the channels\n\nof expression, and to show form, light, shade, distance, and characteristics of texture and quality in clear expressive outline.\nIf there has been a good foundation laid in grades below, I\nthink we can beneficially work in light and shade in the seventh and\neighth years. We should begin under the most simple conditions,\nworking on clear sunshiny days, and making arrangements for the\nlight to come from only one direction. In first work it is well to\n\nuse models and objects with opaque surfaces, placed in positions to\nproduce strongly contrasted effects of light and shade.\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPICTORIAL DRAWING.\n\n827\n\nIn the majority of schools pencil and paper are the only mediums\nwhich can be satisfactorily used, and, indeed, the mediums most\ngenerally commended elsewhere ; so that interest centers to-day in\npencil sketching. The first rendering might be a representation of\nmasses in straight lines. Succeeding this we might ask for somewhat broken lines following the contour of objects. After a little\npractice we should allow our classes perfect freedom in the manner\n\nof rendering, and criticise individual work. If the drawings become\ntoo liney, we should ask for more delicate treatment ; if too undecided, ask for more clearness and a showing of the line; if too\n\nlabored, require time sketching.\nGreat stress should be laid upon directness of treatment. In\npencil sketching every stroke should count, and there should be no\npurposeless indecision of touch. It is better for pupils to spend\ntwo-thirds of the lesson period thinking and one-third drawing, than\nto spend two-thirds drawing and one-third thinking.\nThe selection of pencil and paper should be guided by the touch\nof the sketcher. A smooth paper requires a softer pencil than a\nrough. There should be enough resistance between pencil and\npaper to secure firmness of treatment. It is best to use several\ngrades of pencils, that the different values of the picture may be\nreadily obtained.\n\nNo rules can be given for treatment, but pencil is a very different\nmedium from crayon, charcoal, or color, and needs quite a different\nhandling.\n\nA certain prominent New York artist has his pupils draw with\na very fine point, exercising the greatest care to keep the strokes\nof the pencil from showing. They use burnt rubber rolled to fine\npoints, and laboriously put in and take out tones till they secure\nvalues.\n\nSuch work is in the province of charcoal and bread. I do not\nbelieve with this New York artist that work in pencil is valuable\n\nchiefly because it prepares for higher work in other mediums, and\nthat it makes little difference about arrangement if we get practice\nin drawing and study in values.\nPencil work, of course, helps color and charcoal study; but the\ncharcoal and color study help the pencil sketching, also. A pencil\nsketch should have a completeness in itself as great as that in a\n\ncolor or charcoal study. I feel, that, in a pencil sketch, there should\nbe a showing of the line, and that there are many things to be considered besides a study of values. Good specimens of rendering\nshould be placed before pupils, and attention called to strong points.\nCopying good examples of rendering is also valuable.\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "828\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[\nArt\n\nIn his \"Discourses on Art\" Sir Joshua Reynolds said: \"For my\nown part, I am not only very much disposed to maintain the absolute necessity of imitation in the first stages of the art, but am of\nopinion that the study of other masters, which I here call imitation,\nmay be extended throughout our whole lives, without any danger\nof the inconvenience with which it is charged of enfeebling the mind\n\nor preventing us from giving that original air which every work\nought undoubtedly always to have. I am, on the contrary, persuaded, that, by imitation only, variety and even originality of invention is produced. I will go further. Even genius-at least,\nwhat generally is so called-is the child of imitation.\"\n\nWm. Morris Hunt said to his pupils (who were special art stu-\n\ndents) : \"I like you to copy some. You must get yourselves ahead\nby studying fine things. If you don't, you never will do them. I\nhave told you over and over again whose works to copy-Michael\nAngelo, Raphael, Albert Durer, Hans Holbein, Mantigna. Get hold\nof something of theirs, hang it up in your room, trace it, copy it,\ndraw it from memory over and over till you own it as you own\n'Casabianca,' and ' Mary Had a Little Lamb.' \"\nWhile we try to give pupils standards outside and higher than\n\nthemselves by asking them to copy, we must remember that there\nare two kinds of copying-one purely mechanical and external, the\nother that which is done with a desire to enter into the thought ex-\n\npressed and the manner of expressing it. With practice, kindly\ncriticism and help pupils finally become unconscious of technique,\nand think only of the thought to be expressed.\nEarly work in sketching should not be on too large a scale. We\nadd to the difficulties when we ask to have large surfaces covered.\nFor general work I have been using paper cut one-eighth imperial\nsize, five and a half by seven and a half inches.\nI have been deeply interested in the subject of light and shade.\nI have discussed its various points with artists and supervisors, and\nmade experiments in primary and grammar grades. As a result\nof my experience, I am rather conservative. I should attempt no\nwork in light and shade in primary grades. If conditions were\nfavorable, I should begin the work in the highest grammar schools ;\nbut I should remember that time is limited, that art education is a\nterm of broad meaning, and that there are many important things\nto be taught besides light and shade.\nI have been asked to speak of the relation of pictorial art to general school work and the encouragement of free illustrative drawing. We should use drawing in connection with other work as much\nas possible, but when we wish to combine studies, we should ask,\nWill the study we illustrate be made clearer, and no harm be done\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "PICTORIAL DRAWING.\n\nDepartment. ]\n\nthe drawing?\n\n829\n\nWhen we draw to show that ten daisies and ten\n\ndaisies are twenty daisies, the twentieth daisy is not apt to get its\nfull share of attention. When we draw to show that the square described on the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle is equivalent\nto the sum of the squares described on the other two sides, we\nare aided by seeing visible proof of the statement, and the drawing\ndoes not deteriorate.\n\nI doubt if we have any more reverence for George Washington\nafter copying his portrait, but we enhance the study of history and\nthe study of art when we draw the styles of architecture and ornament in connection with the study of the civilization which produced\nthem.\n\nChildren should not only be indulged but encouraged in free\nillustrative drawing. One of the early uses to which I put my first\nslate was making a picture of the teacher. I made every frill on\nher dress, and every curl in her hair, and added more frills and more\ncurls. When the picture was completed, in the innocence of my soul\nI showed it to the teacher, and told her it was her picture. I never\ndrew her any more. I was sent to the principal's room on an errand. He was not in, and while I awaited his return, thinking there\nmight be no moral wrong in drawing if I refrained from drawing\nladies, I asked one of the larger girls if I might draw on the board.\nI was absorbed in an Indian tent, with smoke curling from a hole\nin the center, when the principal entered, and said, \"I would like\nto know what kind of a geometrical problem that is.\" \"Geometrical\nproblem\" seemed a dreadful thing to say. I wanted to ask my\nmother what it meant, but I was afraid she would say, \"Why, Wilhelmena! what have you been doing?\" so I didn't see the joke till\nyears after when I entered the high school and studied Euclid's\n\"Elements of Geometry.\"\n\nI quite clearly remember my own experiences, and when children draw me, if I don't look like the Venus de Milo, I know they\nwish to make me just as lovely.\nWhen a nine or ten-year-old boy draws his teacher with her arms\nlooking like jointed sticks, a circle for the head, a line for the mouth,\nand almost anything for the other features, I think she should not\nfeel pleased.\n\nAs their powers develop children become conscious that the arm\nis more than something which bends in the middle ; they see the\nsoftness of the hair, and the modeling, color, and expression of the\nface in a new light, and they know they have not the power adequate\nto express these things.\n\nI have often felt sorry for pupils who were asked to illustrate\npoems, drawing men and angels, when they knew their drawings\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "830\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[\nArt\n\nwere ridiculous. We should endeavor to have free drawing in all\nthe grades, but the drawing in the higher grades should be of a\ndifferent character from that of the lower, and we should require\nas high a standard in the free drawing as in the regular drawing.\nI would say a word regarding the influence of general school\nwork and environment on pictorial art. When we teach decorative\ncomposition, we strengthen our work in pictorial art. The qualities\nof unity and beauty in the Anthenian ornament are the qualities\ndesirable in a good pictorial composition.\nThe essentials of English composition and pictorial composition\nare the same, and work in one can often be assisted by reference to\nthe other. When pupils look up from their work, and their eyes\nrest on a beautiful vase, a cast of the \"Wingless Victory,\" or a\nbeautiful plant in the window, they are gaining strength which will\nbe apparent in their pictorial drawing.\n\nIt was said of Titian and Tintoretto that they painted \"with fire,\nsudden and splendid, as the lightning paints the cloudy vault of\nheaven. \" They would hardly have obtained such wonderful color\nhad they not been surrounded by the glory of Venetian coloring, and\nday by day delighted in the golden hues of the Venetian sunset, the\n\nsunlight through the showers on the lagoons, the pavements of red\nlavas from the Eugenean quarries, and the palaces of white marble\nreflected in the waters .\n\nIn pictorial art we cannot overestimate the importance of the\ngeneral influences and environment of the schoolroom. I hope it has\nbeen my good fortune to suggest a few thoughts worthy of discussion. There are many in the audience deeply interested in the sub-\n\nject of pictorial art, who are able to give the result of profound\nthought and experience. I hope the discussion will be very full and\nfree.\n\nTHE PLACE OF ART EDUCATION IN GENERAL EDUCATION.\nBY JOHN S. CLARK, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nOne of the greatest gains made during the half-century now closing is the clearer insight of men into the meaning and the implications of evolution. There was a time when the newly discovered\nfacts of the past history of the earth and its creatures, seen dimly and\nwithout much relation to other facts, staggered all but the most\n\ncourageous minds with the vastness and ominousness of the problems\nthey involved ; but, as years have gone by, men have come to see the\nsame gigantic and enigmatic facts in clearer mental perspective and\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nTHE PLACE OF ART IN EDUCATION.\n\n831\n\nunder brighter light. Now the philosophy of evolution, as Dr. John\nFiske and others clearly proclaimed it years ago, and as Henry\nDrummond has lately so admirably reaffirmed it in his work on the\n\"Ascent of Man,\" is the common possession of most thoughtful people.\nThis evolutionary history of the world of man is only the scientific, detailed tracing out of the means and ways by which there has\nbeen brought about the stupendous fact of man's place in the scale\nof creation, which keen philosophic speculation had long ago made\nhim conscious of, even while unable to understand or account for it.\nThe theologian of three centuries ago meditated in the older Hebrew\nphrase:\nWhen I consider the heavens, the work of Thy fingers; the moon and the stars,\nwhich Thou hast ordained:\n\nWhat is man that Thou art mindful of him ?\n\nBut to-day, in the light of evolutionary science, the thought takes\na different accent :\n\nWhen I consider the heavens, the work of Thy fingers; the moon and the stars,\nwhich Thou hast ordained :\n\nWhat is man that Thou art mindful of him ? Thou\n\nmadest him to have dominion over the works of Thy hand. Thou hast put all\nthings under his feet !\n\nWhichever road we travel, the old path of ontological speculation, or the new path of scientific investigation, we come out upon\n\nthe same intellectual hill-top, namely, the thought that man as a\nphysical being is the consummate product of material creation, while\nas a spiritual being he is the appointed master of material creation\nand the beginner of a new world of spiritual growth and spiritual\ncreation. The essential, distinguishing fact about him is his more\ndirect relationship through his personal feelings and desires to the\nDivine, that is, to the eternal, spiritual reality of the universe,than exists in the world of matter, which can only passively reflect\nthe Divine.\n\nI shall assume that we agree to start out from this standpoint in\nconsidering the question before us to-day; for, in order to think to\nany real purpose about the place of art education in general education, we should first obtain a clear idea of the relation of education\n\nitself to human development, and then the place which the arts of\nthe race (literature, music, painting, sculpture, and architecture) hold\nin the development and training of spiritual man.\nThe first proposition that I have to offer you is one upon whose\nacceptance or rejection the general character of the whole scheme\nof public education must logically depend. It is as follows :\nProposition I. That the human soul is a self-acting spiritual entity, which is\nmore completely a revelation of the divine spirit which is behind all that is shown\nin the material world ; and that this soul or spiritual entity, when properly developed, dominates man's physical powers, making them subservient to itself.\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "832\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Art\n\nWe hearmuch in these days about the soul or the mind as having\n\nonly passive existence ; as being a product of the material forces of\nthe universe, and possessing only such powers as are induced in it by\nthe changeful play of these forces upon it through the medium of the\nbodily senses. This conception of the soul makes it practically only\na higher differentiation of the common physical forces of the universe. This is the outcome of that physiological psychology that\nproposes to give us a psychology without a soul. In passing, I can\nonly remark that this physio-psychological discussion that is now\nupon us is but a survival and a development of the great philosophical\ndiscussions of the centuries. In the light of modern biological investigation and evolutionary thought, the present discussion is destined to enlarge our conception of man's place in nature and his destiny.\n\nNow, as practical educators, we must think of education as one of\ntwo things : A complicated process, by which physical energies are\nautomatically transformed into sense activities and then into\nthoughts ; or, on the other hand, as an appeal to a human soul, very\nlittle aware at first of its own powers, but yet potentially a self-determining ego, with powers more or less capable of being quickened\nto a great degree of creative self-activity.\nOf course, it cannot be claimed that the mind or the soul is independent of the physical organism. We cannot conceive of mind as\nbeing able to annul the laws of exterior matter.\n\nWhat I wish to\n\nclaim is, simply, that the mind, being an entity in itself, has a certain power of control over that very material mechanism, the brain,\nwhose conformation and functions condition it, and that it has also a\ncertain original power of combining with and taking advantage of\nthe forces of the material world so as to modify their actions and\ntransform their applications. Nor is it intended to deny that the\nsenses are the appointed gateway through which the things and the\nforces of the outside universe come near to us, influence us, and give\nour minds material to work with. What I do wish to remind you of\nis the fact that the spiritual entity behind and above all the man's\nsense-organs is the thing of first and greatest importance. You re-\n\nmember the famous aphorism of Leibnitz : \"There is nothing in the\nintellect which was not previously in the senses-except the intellect itself.\"\n\nAs a matter of fact, the stoutest champions of the theory of soul\nas a combination of differentiated physical energies cannot keep\n\ntheir footing on their slippery ground. They cannot explain, or, indeed, fully express, their own theory without falling back upon assumptions which are inconsistent with that theory. Just here comes\nin the weakness of much current educational argument brought for\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nTHE PLACE OF ART IN EDUCATION.\n\n833\n\nward by those whose influence is otherwise energetically inspiring.\nIf I may be allowed to point my criticism by direct citation, I will\ninstance certain statements recently made by one who stands conspicuously before the country as an exponent of the new education.\nI have read Colonel Parker's books with great interest and thoughtfulness, especially his latest volume on \"Pedagogics,\" and as nearly\nas I can make out, the colonel himself, being considerably bigger\nthan his psychological theories, stands generously on both sides of\nthe question at once. See if I am right. On page 202, he says :\nI cannot resist here the temptation to lay down a rule fundamental in all education: That which is best in education-that which is best for the body, and mind,\nand soul is unconsciously acquired.\n\nAnd then, on page 254, he says :\nThe foundation of education consists in training a child to work; to love to\n\nwork; to put the energy of his entire being into work; to do that work which best\ndevelops his body, mind, and soul; to do that work most needed for the elevation\nof mankind.\n\nCan this energetic work-this putting his entire being into the\ntask-be automatic and unconscious ?\n\nDo not these two propositions, which are put forward as fundamental, practically annul one another?\nIn his chapter on attention, he says :\nAttention is holding the being-body and mind-by an act of the will in the most\neconomical attitude for the action of the external attributes or objects upon consciousness .\n\nDoes he not here forget that the holding of powers and activities\nin check must, in the very nature of things, imply something that\nholds, i. e., an inherent, self-acting force or energy, so poised as to\ndominate the other particular forces and powers in question?\nAgain, a few pages distant, in the same chapter, he says :\nThe synthesis, association, unification, or recollection (terms expressing the\nsame mental act) of the ideas is perfectly unconscious and automatic so far as the\nego is concerned. The ego is conscious of the results only of the units of elementary ideas. You can analyze, compare, classify the results, but you cannot\ndirectly unite or arrange the ideas.\nWould the colonel have us understand that the ideas in this book\n\nare not his own, and that they automatically arranged themselves ?\nIs it not true that the colonel, as well as the world's greatest poets\nand artists, did directly create ideas and unite them to form new\nwholes?\n\nThe fact is, the whole scheme of experimental psychology, which\naims to reduce mental phenomena to unmediated physical energies\nplaying through matter, and so to dispense with self-activity in the\n53\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "834\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Art\n\nintellectual life of man, is (as Professor Ladd has pointed out with\nsuch clearness and vigor) based wholly on an assumption of the selfactive intellect itself; i. e., on the purely mental hypothesis of the\nexistence of atoms and molecules through which the primal energy\ncan transmit and manifest itself. And this hypothesis is a pure synthesis of the mind.\n\nSo we have the paradox of human beings deny-\n\ning that the human mind has any real essential existence as a selfacting entity, and yet asserting that the ultimate basis of all socalled mental phenomena is traceable to physical forces acting in certain minute units of matter, whose very existence is, after all, merely\na convenient conjecture of this dependent physical mind itself!\nTruly this sort of intellectual confusion is near kin to that of the\nold lady who said, that of course the moon was indispensable to us,\nbecause we must have some light in the evening ; but that we could\n\nget along without the sun, if necessary, since the sun shone only in\nthe day- time, when we could see first-rate, anyway.\nBut (to treat the subject with the seriousness which it demands)\nwe must remember that this question, as to whether the soul is a\nself-acting entity or merely a higher differentiation of molecular ener-gies, is more than just a curious problem for the biologist and the\nmetaphysician. The whole spirit and aim of education, no less than\nthe spirit and aim of all efforts for social well-being, practically depend upon the stand we take on this question. We cannot reasonably be on both sides at once. The vital question in education today, therefore, is, Where do we stand on this fundamental point ?\nMy second proposition is :\nProposition II. That man, by virtue of this self-acting soul, becomes in his\nhighest estate, not only a transformer of the material conditions which surround\nhim but also an actual creator of new spiritual values of an altruistic characterhence his arts.\n\nI can take time merely to suggest, in the briefest fashion, how\nman is a transformer of the material conditions round about him\n\nand how his activities are imbued with the altruistic character ; how\nhe, and he alone, in contrast to all other living creatures, sets to\nwork with conscious and deliberate foresight to change\n\nthese\n\nvery material facts, which, to a certain extent, experimentally condition his range and mode of inward life; and how his activities crystallized into arts have changed the face of the earth and the semblance of many of its creatures into something quite unlike their\noriginal estate, making both Nature and her creations immensely\nmore contributory to the physical well-being of man himself.\nMen's activities may be classified into two divisions, the useful arts\nand the fine arts.\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nTHE PLACE OF ART IN EDUCATION.\n\n835\n\nThe useful arts exercise his creative powers chiefly on but one\nplane of his existence, and that the lowest, namely, the physical.\nWhile they mark a nation's upward growth to a certain limited extent, they do not of themselves embody all of our race experience, nor\neven the best of our race experience,\n\nThe fine arts (poetry, music, painting, sculpture, and architecture)\nare the forms in which the higher life of man embodies itself.\n\nIt is\n\nto these fine arts that we always have to look in order to learn in\nwhat way and to what degree a people have climbed up above the\nlevel of mere animals-clever enough to secure good things to eat,\neffective shelters from the weather, and convenient coverings for\ntheir bodies .\n\nIn a certain sense it may be said that there is a large part of the\nbest of our race experience which never gets embodied in any tangible\nmaterial form at all, but acts for the creation of new conditions rather\nthan new things; refining and elevating the quality of personal character and daily life, but never shaping itself into any explicit forms\nof art creation. It is not quite true that these particular spiritual\nenergies are unmet with in the fine arts, for in indirect ways the\nmost commonplace toil helps make the work of art possible (we all\nremember our nursery stories of how the farmer and the miller help\nprepare the child's breakfast for him); and, in a still higher sense,\nevery noble inward life helps create a more healthy spiritual atmosphere for all other men to breathe.\n\nBut the fact remains, that, if we would direct our thought to the\ndefinite, tangible records of man's higher life, we must look for those\nrecords in the various forms of the fine arts.\n\nCreative activity which brings forth the useful arts is service rendered in laying the foundation of material civilization. Creative\nactivity which brings forth the fine arts is service rendered in building the superstructure of spiritual civilization. Man is so constituted and human society is so constituted that the higher powers and\nactivities of the race naturally and necessarily ultimate in the fine\narts as the very condition of ever-developing character.\nNow, if we accept the doctrine of evolution, man's soul or spiritual\nself is the latest and fullest revelation of the Divine Cause of all that\n\nis; and this spiritual self coexists with the animal frame and the\nanimal nature which constitutes physical man-the climax of physical creation. A constant struggle is going on between his animal\nnature, which is inherited from his animal ancestry and which works\nfor self, and his spiritual nature, which is altruistic and which is impelling him forward to work for others. Man's arts are at once the\nevidence and the result of this conflict.\n\nThis is the unanimous affirmation of science, history, and religion.\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "836\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Art\n\nMy next proposition is :\nProposition III. The history of civilization is the record of man's progress\nin the creating forth of spiritual values through the subjection of his own animal\nnature and surrounding material nature to the service of his spiritual needs and\nideals; hence, the world of art.\n\nFor the arts of man are not merely incidental to\n\ncivilization. They are the supreme products of his creative, spiritual activities,the condition and promise of higher civilization.\n\nIt cannot be too strongly emphasized that art is not a mere incidental phase of the life of man. Some people have an idea that it is\nso ; that it simply happened in successive ages that people spent their\n\nplay-time in building with blocks on a large scale, making \"stone\ndolls,\" and composing tunes, rhymes, and fantastic tales-occupations\nwhose remains are well enough to interest the idler of to-day, but\nwhich have no solid significance for practical people.\nThis notion of the arts is as far as possible from the truth of the\n\nmatter. The fact is, that, in every age, men's creative energies have\nembodied themselves in art forms in order to satisfy the irresistible,\ndivine instinct of creation within them, and make a way in which to\nshare with their fellows their inward personal experiences; and the\nfact that we ourselves stand to-day where we do stand in the progressive march of civilization is due in no small measure to the earlier\n\nfact, that generations of men before us, who lived, and loved, and suffered, and hoped, and who wrought their own wonderment and desires, their aspirations and their hopes into art forms, have bequeathed\nto us their art as their richest and most beneficent legacy.\n\nWe hold\n\nthis legacy now in the form of the world's great epic and lyric poems,\nand in its dramas, instinct with human passion and human aspiration,\npeopled with personalities of man's own imaginative creation far\nmore real in their influence to-day than the shadowy names of history. We hold it in the form of the great treatises on philosophy,\ngovernment, sociology, and the sciences, the very condensation and\n\ncrystallization, as it were, of the human intellect.\n\nWe hold it in the\n\nworld's Bibles, the legacy of the religious thought of the race.\n\nWe\n\nhold the legacy, again, in the form of the world's great music, the symphonies that still make our world palpitate with exquisite harmonies\nonce conceived by human genius,-the oratorios, and operas, and\n\nsongs, that, like unquenchable torches, kindle the souls of each successive generation of human kind with fires of joyousness, of patriotic\nardor, of religious ecstacy. We hold the legacy yet again in the\nform of monuments and temples, cathedrals and majestic colossi, eloquent of the questionings and longings of souls facing the great mysteries of life and death. We hold it in the form of treasured remains of\n\nsculptures, eloquent of old-time insight into the divineness of beauty\nand the old-time delight in such insight. We hold it in the form of\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nTHE PLACE OF ART IN EDUCATION.\n\n837\n\nthe world's great paintings, eloquent of all man's widest range of interests and sympathies, of his love for the good and the right, of the\ngradually clearing vision which has enabled him to see the divine in\nnature and the still higher manifestation of the divine in humanity\nand to make the vision manifest to all mankind.\n\nOn another occasion I shall discuss the bearing of art education\nupon the labor problems of the day, and through labor to all the in-\n\nterests of social well-being. On this occasion I can only remind you\nof the immense significance of art from the economic point of view.\nNow, standing as we do to-day in the possession of this art legacy\nfrom the men of the past, can we rationally minimize it, and, as many\nof the educational leaders demand, consider the child merely as a par-\n\nticularly high differentiation of physical energies, the passive subject\nof nature, molded and played upon at nature's mercy? I tell you, nay.\nWe must see, and own, and practically act upon a truer conception\nof the mind of man, and upon that larger vision of the place of man\n\nin creation's scale which was so strongly brought out by Dr. John\nFiske at Harvard two weeks ago, in his Phi Beta Kappa address. Dr.\nFiske then gave utterance to words that are to be memorable in the\n\ngreat discussion upon which thinking men are now entering with\nreference to man and his destiny in the light of evolution, and he has\nkindly sent to me his exact words for use on this occasion. In speaking of psychical man and contrasting him with all that had preceded\nhim, Dr. Fiske said :\nThe physical variations by which man is distinguished from apes are not great.\nHis physical relationship with the ape is closer than that between cat and dog,\nwhich belong to different families of the same order; it is like that between cat\n\nand leopard or between dog and fox, different genera in the same family. But the\nmoment we consider the minds of man and ape, the gap between the two is immeasurable. Mr. Mivart has truly said, that. with regard to their total value in\nnature, the difference between man and ape transcends the difference between ape\nand blade of grass. I should be disposed to go further, and say, that, while for\nzoological man you cannot erect a distinct family from that of the chimpanzee and\norang, on the other hand for psychological man you must erect a distinct kingdom;\nnay, you must even dichotomize the universe, putting man on one side and all\nthings else on the other.\n\nIt is this stupendous sense of the soul's reality-that is, its individuality and its self- activity, and how it has manifested itselfthat we need to emphasize in these days of talk about the soul as\nmerely a derivation from sense- activities.\nLet me ask all those who believe there is nothing in the mind but\nthe product of the senses, Whence came these arts of man ? Can you\nassume for their existence anything less than the existence in the\n\nmind of man of a creative power, superior to the physical forces that\nsurround him a power which appropriates through the action of the\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "838\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Art\n\nsenses these physical forces and transforms them to its own spiritual\nends?\n\nI desire to leave this point with emphasis on the fact that these\narts of man are not mere incidents in his development.\n\nThey are the\n\nsum of his existence -that \"toward which the whole creation moves .\"\n\nMy next proposition is :\nProposition IV. That every child is born heir to two world environments (the\nmaterial world of nature and the spiritual world of man) , and also the possessor\nof aptitudes for ever-expanding creative activities of his own.\n\nWe have seen that man is surrounded by two great world environments. These two world environments act upon the child, each in\nits own way. The material world of nature, the world of cloud and\nrock, of multitudinous plant life and swarming animal life, makes\nconstant appeal to the new human being through his physical sensibilities and physical interests, as one who is the crowning product of\nits own marvelous cycles of evolutionary energy. On the other hand,\nthe spiritual world of man-the world of his arts-makes constant\nappeal to the new human being through his spiritual susceptibilities\nand spiritual interests, as one who is capable of all that the race is\n\ncapable of; and, being a new being, has endless future possibilities\nof personal activity. The upward growth of this new human being\nwe find dependent upon the relation or balance between his responses\nto the influences of these two world environments ; and it is here that\nwe, as educators, should take careful note of how these two environ-\n\nments affect the child. His animal nature, obedient to the laws of\nnatural evolution in the physical world, is absorptive, selfish. It\ngrasps. It appropriates for the good of self. This is nature's provision\nfor the perpetuation of the race. His spiritual nature, on the other\nhand, obedient to the laws of spiritual life, is creative, altruistic. It\ngives. It makes for the good of others. This is the divine provision\nfor the development of humanity. In so far, and in so far alone, as\nthis spiritual response to, and utilization of, the influences of his\nspiritual environment predominate over his submission to the influences of his material environment, he grows towards that high human\ndestiny which we can but faintly begin to forecast.\nIf it were true that children were only little animals, subject to\nnature's laws, and possessing minds that work merely automatically\n\nunder the outside stimuli of natural phenomena, it would be well\nenough to do as many modern educators advocate: simply surround\nthe child with pleasing natural objects and trust their sensuous attractiveness to insure attention and observation, in the belief that\n\nthese will somehow of themselves evolve desire for what is truly best\nand secure energetic action along right lines toward high ends.\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nTHE PLACE OF ART IN EDUCATION.\n\n839\n\nThe unfortunate fact is, however, that, unless we make a strong\nappeal to children through the spiritual side of their nature, they are\nliable to respond only in terms of the animal. As most practical\nteachers know, we are likely to be brought up standing by the child's\nfrankly materialistic measures of the universe. Those of you who\nhave read the recent autobiography of Frances Power Cobbe will recall her experience when, returning to her country home for a visit\nafter several years of absence, she met a grown-up young man who\nhad been a pupil in the little village school organized and enthusiastically taught by herself. \"Well, Andrew,\" said Miss Cobbe, \"how\nmuch do you remember of the lessons you learned at school?\" \"Sure,\nMiss,\" said Andrew; \"I've forgot them entirely.\" \"Oh, but certainly\nyou must remember something of them. Don't you remember about\nthe earth, and the sun, and Mars, and the other planets ?\" Andrew\nscratched his head, and light dawned upon his countenance. \"Yes,\nMiss,\" he declared ; \"I do remember now.\n\nYou laid them all out on\n\nthe schoolroom table, and Mars was a red gooseberry, and I ate him.\"\nIt evidently will not do to trust too far or too implicitly to the\n\"automatic\" transformation of sense impressions into elevated\nthought. Jacobi has truly said: \"Nature conceals God ; man reveals God.\"\n\nNow, is there any provision in the universe for helping to insure\nsuch a predominance of man's spiritual development and such consequent progressive mastership of the material world ?\nThere is; and this leads to the next proposition, one of the most\nsignificant of all the great significant truths of evolution, namely :\nProposition V. The period of infancy and youth, when the mind is especially\nsusceptible to the influences of environments and when the active powers are most\neasily directed, is a special provision for the unceasing development of man's\nspiritual qualities and creative activities .\n\nDr. John Fiske was the first to point out clearly to contemporary\nthought the important fact that physical evolution had come to an\nend in the production of physical man ; and that the further play of\nthe evolutionary process must be sought in psychical man. He also\npointed out how this psychical development was conditioned upon the\npsychical or spiritual man making his physical being and his physical\nenvironment subject to himself. Dr. Fiske has also supplemented\nthese important contributions to evolutionary philosophy by another\nof no less importance one which cannot be ignored in any attempt\n\nto place education upon a truly philosophical basis. I refer to his\nstatement that the long period of dependent infancy and youth in the\nhuman child, as contrasted with the pre-natal provisions for self-ex-\n\nistence in the lower animals, is evidence of a distinct plan for the increasing development of the psychic life of the human race, through\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "840\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[\nArt\n\na special provision in the life of every individual of a plastic condi-\n\ntion of mind, whereby the accumulations of ever-expanding human\nexperience could be handed over from generation to generation\n\nthrough ever-expanding faculties for self-activity in receiving, and\nthen for ever-expanding power for self-activity in creating, for the\nbenefit of human life.\n\nI cannot stop to discuss the immense significance of this evolutionary point of view of the psychic development of the race in its\nbearing upon education. If nature's provisions in this respect mean\nanything, I do not think it will be questioned but that they are intended for the ever-increasing development of the psychical or the\nspiritual man rather than of the physical or animal man.\nAnd this leads to my final proposition:\nProposition VI. Education should be the fullest possible utilization of the\nplastic period of infancy and youth, not only for cultivating a knowledge of the\nchild's two world environments, but also emphatically for training to skill in the\ncreative activities along art lines, as the highest contribution of the individual to\nsocial well being.\n\nThe best education means simply the best utilization of this plastic period of the child's life for the development and training of that\nin him which most deserves to be developed and trained.\nI say, \"that which most deserves to be developed and trained,\" assuming that not everything in the child's inherited make-up is of the\nsame value. I take it to be a part of the responsibility laid upon\nmature men, to weigh the various elements of human nature as fairly\nas they can and learn to put educational emphasis on the more\nworthy of those elements. In our lesser task of guiding the progressive development of plant and animal life, we have for a long time\nmade some such selection. Man's effort has been, not simply to help\nthe earth bring forth more flowers and fruit of precisely the same\nsorts as would grow without help but to put his intellect and his will\nin co-operation with the powers outside him so as to transform existing conditions of growth, to the end that still more beautiful flowers\nand even more delicious fruits may be brought into existence. Look\nat our greenhouses, our orchards, and our market gardens for the re-\n\nsult. When the task set us is to help work out the divine purpose\nin the higher development, not of vegetables or brute beasts but of\nnew human beings, there is not less but more need that we should\nconsider deeply the animal nature of the child on the one hand and\nhis spiritual nature on the other, and how the former can best be\nutilized in the full development of the latter.\nThe supreme purpose of education, so far as that education lies\nwithin our control, should be the development of the child's capacity\nfor unselfish creative activity and for spiritual enjoyment. The de\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nTHE PLACE OF ART IN EDUCATION.\n\n841\n\nvelopment of his other capacities should be treated with regard to\nthe manner and degree of contributing toward this supreme end.\nI intentionally use the term creation rather than expression when\nreferring to the supreme form of human activity, because I believe we\nought to keep in mind the thought that the highest activity goes\n\nbeyond mere \"expression\" (i. e., the mere statement of what is), and\nbecomes \"creation;\" that is to say, productive action-action productive of new things or new conditions. This is a point that I wish\nparticularly to emphasize : the distinction between expression and\ncreation.*\n\nThis idea of education as training for creative activity includes\nall that was best in our earlier notions of the purpose of education.\n\nIt includes the acquirement of stores of knowledge ; for, of course,\nit is only upon the basis of a knowledge of what is that men can proceed to make things or conditions better. It includes, also, the\n\ndevelopment of individual power; because, of course, the man who\ncan command himself is the only one who can effectively command\nmatter or force. But the mere \" acquirement of knowledge\" may be\nas worthless as the accumulation of gold pieces in a miser's strong\nbox, and the \"mere development of power\" may be as worthless as the\ndevelopment of power in a finished engine that stands unconnected\nwith any sort of working machinery. The new ideal of education,\nas training for creative activity, includes both the effort after knowledge and the effort after power, and adds to these a purpose. That\npurpose is the active betterment of the world and the progressive elevation of human living. This view of education necessitates direct\ntraining, not only for creative thought but also for skill in creating\nforth the best embodiments of such thought. It implies, not simply\nkeeping the child's senses tickled with a succession of novel and\npleasant impressions, which he may express or record in any fashion\nthat comes easiest, but also in giving him such opportunities for and\n• This is not a mere verbal distinction. Man's most valuable and lasting work in any\ndirection is work, not merely expressing or stating facts that he has become aware of\nbut actually creating forth new facts . The dramas of Shakespeare are not simply transcripts of things that the author knew to have actually happened to particular people.\nThey are a new-created world wherein human character and human life show themselves\neven more clearly and more truly than most of mankind ever see with their own unaided\neyes in the thick of common happenings. The symphonies of Beethoven are not simply\nexpressions of what the composer had heard from winds, and birds, and running water.\nThey are the positive creations of a self-active soul grasping the laws of harmony that\nare so faintly hinted at in nature, and embodying forth ideals of tone and rhythm that\nnever had taken form without the composer's genius as a cause. The Parthenon with\nits sculptures was not simply a marble statement of the laws of gravity and of the re-\n\nligious and political opinions of the Athenian state; a material expression of existing\nfacts. It was the bringing forth into visible and glorious existence of an entirely new\ncreation, something that had not existed in the marble quarry, but only in the con-\n\nstructive artistic imagination of man, imagination so strong, so clear, so high in its reach\nthat it could and did command matter to its obedient service in the perfect shaping of\nIts own material embodiment.\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "842\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Art\n\nsuch guidance in creative activities that he may gradually attain to\nself-command in these activities, that he may learn to respect positive\nstandards of technical workmanship, and also learn to hold himself\nsturdily up towards them in his own endeavors.\nNow, I do not wish to be understood here as overlooking or as\ncrushing out the elements of the child's instinctive interests.\n\nI be-\n\nlieve we ought to study very thoughtfully and very sympathetically\nthe natural, instinctive interests and desires of the child in planning\nand conducting educational work. But I believe that we should study\nthese interests and desires, not just for the sake of following their\nindications of \"the line of least resistance,\" but also and much more\nfor the sake of utilizing them as means whereby to lead the child out\nof his present animal self up to a still higher and better human self.\nAs grown-up men and women ourselves, we simply must believe that\nour measures of life are, on the whole, juster and truer than the\nchild's own measure of life, else life itself is a hopeless anti-climax,\nthe dreariest of illusions. The child would naturally prefer to possess a juicy apple this afternoon rather than to possess\nThe Lord Christ's heart and Shakespeare's brain\n\nnext week ; but that is no proof that good things to eat are truly more\nworth while than wisdom and righteousness. No. What we have\nto do is neither to impose our own wills arbitrarily and absolutely\nupon the child's will, nor yet to fold our arms and indolently let him\nhave his head in any direction and to any extent he likes. Ours\nshould be the more difficult, but much more honorable, task to recognize his feelings and impulses with ready sympathy, to bring to bear\nupon those feelings and those impulses such spiritual influences as\nwill combine with the influences of his dual environment to develop\nright powers and habits and encourage right activities, and to give\nhim all the direct, positive practice and training that we can give in\nthe typical creative activities, to the end that he may have, not only\ndesires to create but also power to create in terms of art ; that be-\n\nsides having good intentions he may actually do good work.\nWe have hitherto spoken of art in its larger, inclusive meaning,\ncomprising all literature, music, painting, sculpture, and architecture.\nWhat is true of art as a whole, in its bearings upon the life of the race\nand the education of the individual, is true of the particular lines of\nart which are usually referred to when we speak of art in education.\n\nArt in this sense is understood as applying to modeling, drawing, and\ncoloring, with their special functions in decoration, illustration, and\nsculpture, painting, machinery, and building construction and architecture.\n\nNow, there are two great obstacles in the way of the establishing\nof true art education in our public schools :\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nTHE PLACE OF ART IN EDUCATION.\n\n843\n\n1. The mistaken and belittling notions about art and art educa-\n\ntion which prevail to so great an extent among professed leaders of\n\neducational work, as well as on the part of the public.\n2. The unfamiliarity of the rank and file of teachers with the subject-matter and methods of true art instruction.\n\nNow, as to the first obstacle, many educators, when they speak of\nart, mean merely graphic expression, mere diagramming or imitating\nas a means of giving information. When they speak of art instruc-\n\ntion, they mean merely encouraging children to make maps, diagrams, and sketches, or models, in connection with their lessons in\narithmetic, geography, physics, and natural history, etc. These apostles of \"free\" art practically take the ground that the average child\ncan drop into \"art\" as Mr. Wegg dropped into poetry, \"in a friendly\nsort of a way,\" and that if he is just given clay, a pencil or brush, and\na piece of paper, and urged to draw or model whatever he happens to\nsee just as he happens to see it, the result is art ! This is just like giving the untrained and illiterate child paper and pen, telling him to\nwrite whatever he thinks about, whatever he pleases, in whatever way\noccurs to him, and calling the result literature ! Now, everybody\nwould recognize the absurdity and futility of this latter procedure.\nWe all know that the child cannot by himself evolve good literary\ntaste and good literary style out of his own crude desultory thoughts\nplus a sheet of paper. There is no such short-cut to literature. He\nmust indeed write, and write, and keep on writing ; but above all he\nmust read and be taught what to read. His mind must be fed from\nthe fruitful store of good literature which already exists, the legacy\nof accumulated ages of human culture.\nPrecisely the same is true of art education in the common schools.\n\nNo sensible course of art instruction can afford to omit free, spontaneous object drawing and drawing from nature, from memory, and\nimagination. Such opportunity is absolutely essential to the acquirement of any practical mastery of drawing, and drawing is an\nexceedingly important part of art education. But to regard such experiment with pencil or brush in connection with observation lessons\nin natural history as educationally identical with or equivalent to\nart study is like taking the chatter of children at recess as educationally equivalent to the study of noble English.\n\nAnd again, it is not uncommon to see teachers and superintendents exhibiting in public with the strongest expressions of pleasure\nand satisfaction things they regard as fine products of the \"free creative activity\" of their pupils specimens of modeling, drawing, and\n\"making\" so hideously ugly in form and color, so offensive to really\ncultivated taste, that one can but wonder at their exhibition. True,\n\nsuch fearful and wonderful things do, in a sense, express the child's\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "844\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[\nArt\n\nprimitive instincts for creative action. But so do the harsh yell and\nuncouth jargon of street urchins express their primitive instinct for\nsocial communication. We ourselves have passed beyond the point\nof taking any positive pleasure in harsh tones and vulgar phrases, and\nour interest in it leads at once to the desire to elevate the level of\n\nchildren's use of language. The fact that any of us fail to see the corresponding barbarity and ugliness of much of the present public school\nproducts in the way of drawing, color, and made-work is because\nadult appreciation of art qualities is so often itself faulty and incomplete. A better appreciation among educators of the everlasting principles of truth and beauty in art will necessarily point to the importance of leading the children up higher.\nThere are educators who profess to answer criticisms of this\nnature by declaring, that, though the child's unguided scrawl or handi-\n\nwork does not show any close kinship to real art, it is educationally\nthe proper thing that he be left to flounder about among his own\ndevices until he someway evolves power to climb up to better work.\nThe human race, so they urge, went through long periods of rude,\nbarbaric gropings after the idea of the beautiful. The child's development should be \"natural,\" and allowed to consist of stages of rudeness\nand barbarism as dense and as slow of outgrowth as individual temperament may necessitate. This notion of \"natural\" development\nreminds me of a quaint little book I once read about the lives of the\n\npatriarchs. I have forgotten now who wrote it or what was its title;\nbut its grave explanation of the days accorded to Methuselah and his\nfellows clings to my memory. The author said that whereas at the\npresent time men have access to the records and remains of past history and can correct, re-enforce, and supplement their own life-experience by studying the experience of earlier generations and centuries,\nit was different with the patriarchs. In their day the world was all\nso crude and young, and there had been time for the accumulation of\nso little helpful history, that the Lord evened things up by letting\neach man live a good deal more history than is now permitted to any\none mortal !\n\nNow, it cannot possibly be our best plan to-day to ignore all the\nprogress of the past and make each child laboriously work out all\n\nover again the whole history of civilization, Dark Ages included,\nwhen he ought to be let into his birthright as \"Heir of all the Ages.\"\nA broader and clearer appreciation on the part of educational leaders\n\nas to what art itself means as a factor in developing the creative\npower of the child, and what it stands for in social life to-day, is the\nfirst requisite for the success of art education as a part of public edu-\n\ncation. As evidence of how this great subject is ignored, we have\nonly to refer to the reports of the committee of ten and the commit-\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nTHE PLACE OF ART IN EDUCATION.\n\n845\n\ntee of fifteen, and further I am not aware of any scheme of correlation\nof studies in which the subject is, in any way, adequately recognized.\nBut I believe a change is coming. Sooner or later it will be seen\nand practically recognized that what man has done in his arts is to a\nyoung mind in its formative stages what fertile soil is to a young\nplant; and when that time comes, men will no longer try to either\ncultivate rose-bushes on a strictly primeval diet of granite gravel and\nrain or to cultivate human souls on a strictly primeval diet of \"nature\nstudy\" and untrammeled frolic.*\n\nThey will accept for the children under their care the advantages\nthat lie in being heir of preceding ages, and use these advantages as a\nmeans whereby the new life may grow up to still higher forms of personal development and productive activity.\nThe second obstacle to be surmounted (the imperfect equipment\nof public school teachers for carrying on art instruction in the classrooms) will be done away as far as and as fast as the leaders come to\nappreciate the true nature and importance of art as a fundamental\n\nfeature of educational work, for the grade teachers of our American\npublic schools are essentially capable and loyal. They are able and\nready to learn whatever it is necessary for the good of the schools\nthat they should learn. But they need definite assistance and guidance. Suitably planned courses of study will do much to help ;\ncourses arranged, not hastily or perfunctorily by people with narrow\nviews of the subject and with slight acquaintance with the experience\nof others in similar work but thoughtfully and intelligently by persons\nwho can comprehend both the physical nature and the spiritual nature of the child. Only those who are engaged in this work know\nhow narrow are the limitations that surround the teachers.\n\nThe best\n\nthat exists to-day is but a stepping- stone to what should be done\nand what can be done as soon as a better understanding of what art\n\nmeans exists among educators. Rightly planned courses of study\nre-enforced by suitable working materials, and art examples, good\nand abundant, to which the children themselves may have ready\naccess, the whole interpreted by a wise and sympathetic supervisor,\nwho knows his subject and who understands child nature in hearty,\naffectionate fashion,-I tell you, friends, we have as yet only seen the\n* I heartily believe in the introduction of various lines of nature study into the public\nschools. In city schools particularly such studies are an indispensable help in bridging\nthe chasm between the child and his natural environment, and giving him at least a suggestive glimpse into the marvels and beauties of the natural world. What I do object to\nis the extreme ground taken by some educators (an extreme precisely opposite to that\nof the old-fashioned word-for-word text-book memorizing) , wherein it is fancied that the\nstudy of nature is educationally all-sufficient; that language and number study can be\n\nsufficiently and successfully developed as mere incidentals to nature study, and that\ndrawing used as the hand-maid of the natural sciences can constitute art instruction .\n\nAgainst this misconception of what art means, and what art study ought to be in a\ncourse of education, I believe a strong protest should be made .\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "846\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Art\n\nbeginning of what a power art education may and ought to be in the\ninward uplifting to useful and noble work of the successive generations of children who pass through the public schools of our land.\nTo summarize in a few words the points we have been considering,\nlet us remind ourselves : First, that evolutionary science, ontological\nphilosophy, and empirical psychology, in their truest interpretations,\npractically agree in declaring that man is the highest of all finite existences, from which proceed self-acting spiritual powers. Second,\nthat the arts of man are the embodiment of these spiritual\nself-activities of the race exercised along creative lines; and that being thus the highest activities of the highest of all finite existences,\n\nthey should be constantly utilized in education, if education itself\nhas for its distinct aim the development of what is best in the child\nboth for himself and for the social life of which he is to form a part .\n\nAnd now let me say in conclusion, that, if I rightly apprehend current educational discussion, many of the schemes of correlation or of\nconcentration that are being advocated are based mainly on the consideration of the physical environment of the child, the forces of\nwhich play upon the brain through the action of the senses, and\nhence are exterior to the child.\n\nThe result of such schemes is to\n\nmake the child largely the product of his physical environment. As\nopposed to those materialistic views of education, I suggest that we\ntake as our center of thought the child himself, with a full comprehension of his creative spiritual nature, and then measure the relative values of educational subjects according as they contribute to\n\nthe development of his highest possibilities as a creative spiritual\nbeing. By so doing, we shall see that the creative activities of the\nchild form the real educational objective, and that the arts of man,\nas ministering to these activities, should not be relegated to any incidental place in the arrangement of studies, but should be practically recognized as the most inclusive, the most vital means we have\nfor centering our educational effort aright ; centering it, with all its\nnourishment and all its inspiration, upon the soul of the child-upon\nthe child as the heir and the potential master of the world.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nCOL. FRANCIS W. PARKER, Cook County Normal School, Englewood, Ill.Mr. Clark's thesis-the elevation of spiritual life by means of art education- is\nof the very highest character; it is, indeed, the noblest conceivable ideal of education. We can congratulate ourselves that this publisher of art-books has come,\nin theory at least, to the very highest ground that it is possible for any man to\ntake. The premises from which he derives his entire essay, however, are open\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\nDepartment.]\n\n847\n\nto grave criticism. He repeats a statement which he made, lately, in Aurora, Ill.\nHe claims that certain educators (he named the Herbartians at Aurora) believe\nthat the human ego, or the soul, is the summation of conscious activities; or,\nin other words, that the soul is evolved out of the sensations and other activities\nof consciousness. In a word, he asserts that these educators deny the existence of\n\na transcendental ego. He is alarmed at the lack of spirituality on the part of the\nHerbartians, who make, as he thinks, the soul an evolution out of matter.\nMr. Clark had the kindness some time ago to send me his abstract. This\nfundamental statement so startled and shocked me that I took the trouble to go\n\nto the most eminent educators in the country, especially the Herbartians, and ask\nthem if this statement is true.\n\nThe answer I found with one and all was the same :\n\n\"It is not true.\" I would like to ask Mr. Clark if he has any authority whatever,\nany line ever written or said by an American educator, upon which he founded\nthis fundamental statement of his essay.\n\n[Mr. Clark replied that he did not know of any American educator who held\nthis doctrine, but that he believed it to be true of Ribot.]\nIt may be that the great French psychologist is a believer in this kind (as Mr.\nClark calls it) of materialism, but certainly no American educator among those\nadvocating a more scientific study of education-most certainly not the Herbartians :\nthe mild and philosophic De Garmo, nor my Presbyterian friends, Drs. Frank and\nCharles McMurry, nor Dr. Seeley-can be accused of supporting such a view of\nman's creation.\n\nIf I am to be counted in the list of those to whom this doctrine\n\nis ascribed, allow me to say that I have taught psychology many years, and never\ndreamed of teaching, or even thinking, such a doctrine. I have tried to teach the\nphenomena of the ego, the nature of the acts of consciousness under the control\nof the will, and have always held, perhaps without sufficient ground, that there\nis a transcendental ego, though I have never tried to explain it. I leave that to\nthe great philosophers and ontologists.\nMr. Clark may not be aware of it, but there is a new spirit coming into educational circles. However we may differ, we are trying to understand each other,\nand our mutual criticisms are based upon understanding and honesty of purposea purpose to find the truth. He comes here, to the best meeting ever held by the\nNational Educational Association, and without the slightest authority, without\nseeming to have made the slightest research, without questioning any one of the\neducators against whom he makes his charge or quoting one line from their writ\n\nings to substantiate it, assigns to them, as the basis of his discussion, a doctrine\nthey do not hold. He now says that he does not know of a single American teacher\nwho holds this doctrine, and still he persists in repeating assertions that he knows\nto be false. The doctrine which he states may or may not be true. The point I\n\nhave to make is, no living American educator holds, or ever held, this doctrine;\nand consequently, no one, to-day, makes this doctrine the basis of methods. Does\nMr. Clark intend to make a blank and bare misstatement the foundation of his\nplea for spiritual growth ? Is he so dead to history as not to see the legitimate\napplication of his statement and its effect upon education at large? I cannot forbear saying that this statement sounds like an echo of old Boston that reaches back\nto the days of Cotton Mather and the Salem witchcraft;\n\na statement made to\n\ndeftly arouse the suspicion of pietists and dogmatists ; an echo of the attacks\nupon all discoveries in the realm of truth since the days of Galileo. Again, is Mr.\nClark wholly innocent of the fact, that, with certain people, one has but to call\na teacher a materialist to injure and cripple his influence ?\nThe second statement made by Mr. Clark is like unto the first. He refers to\n\nthe creeping into the schools of the teaching of nature, which he designates as\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "848\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Art\n\n\"materialistic.\" He would have, as he states, some teaching of nature, but he\n\n\"damns the suggestion with faint praise. \" He says, quoting Jacobi, \"Nature conceals thought.\" Whose thought does nature conceal? Certainly nature has concealed thought, age upon age, until there came a Galileo, a Watt, a Helmholtz, a\n\nHuxley, a Spencer, a Darwin, a Franklin, a Morse, a Bell, an Edison, to reveal\nGod's thought and fill the world with light and power. Nature conceals thought\nas words do, as art does, as the Greek marbles did, buried in the cellars of Rome\nfor hundreds of years, until Winckelmann brought them out and taught their\nbeauty. The point Mr. Clark makes, I repeat, is, that the study of nature is rank\nmaterialism. He evidently does not sympathize with the inspired authors of such\nbits of literature as these: \"Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night\nshoweth knowledge ;” “Sweeter also than the honey and the honey-comb;\" \"Moreover by them in thy servant warned, and in keeping of them is great reward;\" \" The\nrolling year is full of Thee;\" \"Flower in the crannied wall :\"\n\"One impulse of the vernal wood\nCan teach us more of moral evil and of good\nThan all the sages can.\"\n\nAccording to Mr. Clark, these revelations of nature are not, to say the least,\nspiritual. There are those, and I wish to count myself among them, who believe\nthat the entire universe pulsates, thrills, vibrates, with the thought and love of one\ngreat eternal Being, whose will is law, whose power is love, whose work is the\nspiritual growth of man, who reveals himself, reveals his own infinite energy, in\nevery leaf, flower, rift of cloud, blade of grass, every pebble on the beach, wave\nof the ocean, and in the soul of man;\n\nin a word, that God is imminent in his\n\nuniverse, and that \"study of nature lifts one up to nature's God.\" If Mr. Clark is\nright, such literature must be brushed aside as meaningless sentimentality or crass\nmaterialism .\n\nI would hazard a definition of art: Art is the revelation of the laws of nature\nand of man, and consequently, the revelation of the laws of the Creator of man\n\nand nature. The raison d'etre of any work of art is, that some soul has found a\nlaw, a great truth; has had some deeper, or better-an original-insight into nature\nand into man than his fellows, and reveals to the masses his own discovery, his\nown inspiration. Art tells something to the people which neither nature directly,\nnor words, nor any other human being can tell. It follows that all art springs\nfrom the study of nature and man.\n\nIt certainly was a help to Michael Angelo and Leonardo da Vinci to study\nhuman anatomy for long years in order to express their ideals.\n\nIf then, this defi-\n\nnition of art is accepted, art reveals the mysterious workings of God's law in man\nand nature; therefore, art is the study of nature and of man.\n\nIs it materialistic to believe that a child, in order to appreciate art, in order to\ndevelop his higher spiritual nature, must go to nature directly, must be brought\nin contact with that which afterward will be heightened and broadened by literature\nand art? If the literature and art of nature are spiritual, is it not a curious\nparadox to deny that the influence of nature itself is spiritual? Can Mr. Clark\ndeny that all we study is the invisible truth ? We study man; we study a human\nbeing; we study invisible character, and that is portrayed by art in marble or\nupon canvas. We study the plant, the animal, or the earth, and we study invisible character manifesting itself through matter in form and color. When we\n\nstudy man, we study the character of man. When we study nature, we study\nthe invisible characters of the earth, of plants, and of animals; we study the\nthought of God, and therefore, approximately, the character of God. The study\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n849\n\nof nature has had a struggling existence. It does not need the brutal blows of\nour learned friend to kill this infant of education, nature study.\n\nThere are teachers in this republic who believe that the study of nature, for\nthe spiritual, mental, and physical welfare of the child, is far superior to the customary exercise of the mind upon dead forms, and whose experience goes to prove\nthat they have rational grounds for such belief.\n\nNot long ago, Mr. Clark's war cry was, \"Art for art's sake!\"\n\nHe shook this\n\nbanner to the breeze, and the first whiff it caught from genuine art students tore\nthe banner and broke the standard. The reply was, \" There is no such thing as\n\n'Art for art's sake;' \" no such thing as knowledge for knowledge's sake. All art\nis for spiritual development-a conclusion to which he himself has evidently arrived. With the zeal of a new convert he raises his banner anew, and charges once\nmore upon his former critics .\n\nThe third point that Mr. Clark makes is, that we should have more skill, more\nexercise of skill, in art. The demand is just. There should be far more exercise\nof skill. Most drawing is now taught by special teachers. The half-hour or the\nhour is passed under such direction, then the matter is dropped, not to be brought\nbefore the children again until the reappearance of the special teacher. Art is\n\nat present the educational Cinderella. Certainly art has no strong hold upon our\nschools. Find me a child taught by the flat-copy method who loves art!\nThere are two well-defined methods in developing skill in forms of expression.\nOne way is to direct attention wholly to the mere forms of expression; to practice\nupon these forms without the faintest idea of their meaning (if they have any) ;\nto exercise the motor centers of the brain without a definite relation to the thought\n\ncenters; to go through a process which Dr. John Dewey terms \"mind disintegration\"-a process for which the American taxpayers are now paying millions of\ndollars yearly, a process that has been discussed and disapproved ever since the\ndays of Socrates : \" The letter killeth but the spirit maketh alive.\"\nThe other method of skill-acquisition in art forms is to bring about unity in\naction of mind and body; to make the drill in skill the direct and immediate outcome of the image to be expressed or revealed; to have behind every exercise in\n\nskill the impelling energy of intrinsic and educative thought; to lead pupils to study\nnature, geography, and history under the demands for art expression; thus filling\nthe school with art, making art the servant, ready and obedient, in all mental and\nspiritual growth. Here lies the real point of difference between Mr. Clark and the\nHerbartians. A few of us who have tried to make art an intrinsic and immediate\n\nmeans of studying science, geography, and history have found, or think we have\nfound, that art expression has a marked reflex action upon thought power and right\nmotive. True, the genuine reflex of a child's crude image must be a crude work\nof art, a \"daub or a blotch,\" yet truthful, honest, and educative. In this concentration of art upon thought, teachers are applying the latest discoveries of psychology:\nthe laws of \"motor discharge\" and the \"organic circuit\" presented by Dr. Dewey,\nthe theory of man as a \"reflex animal\" by Dr. James, and the discussions of \"dynamo-genesis\" by Dr. Mark Baldwin. \"Motor discharge\" is organic, functional,\nand instinctive expression, the germination of all modes of expression, to be continued as begun by maintaining the unity of expression. This theory-that, in\nprimary education, all the forms of expression may be adequately acquired under\nthe steady and persistent impulses of educative thought-is a working hypothesis,\nwhich may or may not be true. True or not, the hypothesis is evidently not deemed\nworthy of attention on Mr. Clark's part. He does not even refer to it. And yet,\nif true and practicable, it means an immense economy of mental effort, and it also\nmeans that art may become an organic and indispensable factor in all study and\n54\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n850\n\nschoolwork.\n\n[Art\n\nWe find that the attention of children can be fixed and the interest\n\naroused in modeling, painting, and drawing in relation to all studies as in no other\nway. A few teachers have been struggling against the influence of isolated drawing. They desire to use art as a potent means to help the child; as a natural\nmeans of expanding and concentrating educative images, images that lie at the\nbasis of all growing mind movement. Against this wholesome tendency is Mr.\nClark's attack directed.\nThe best authorities in educational psychology tell us that flat-copy drawing\n\nis flat, stale, and unprofitable; that it stultifies the mind; that it is far better for\nthe child to have some motive for his art work; that he should feel what he does :\n\nthat when he handles the clay, or brush, or pencil, he should be struggling to realize,\n\nto externalize, an image seen within. Mr. Clark is opposed to this sort of thing,\nelse he would not have made this studied and elaborate attack.\n\nMr. Clark has quoted from \"Talks on Pedagogics.\" If he had read carefully\nthe hypotheses in this book, and criticised them fairly and honestly, his criticisms\nwould have been more than welcome. It is stated in \"Talks on Pedagogics\" that\n\"Adequate skill in each and all the modes of expression [including, of course, the\nart modes] can be acquired in the eight primary and grammar grades, under the\nimpulse of intrinsic thought.\" This is a plain and simple proposition. I ask, if Mr.\nClark had a spiritual motive, if he really wished to promote the interests of art,\nif he wished to induce higher spiritual action in the children, if he must give any\nattention to my discussions, why did he not take that plain hypothesis and expose\nits errors ? We certainly need more drill in art, but the question is, Shall it be\ndrill with, or drill without, thought ?\nMr. Clark has failed utterly, in his painstaking but specious argument in favor\nof development of spiritual life, to show the art methods by which he woulddevelop that spiritual life. Is spiritual life developed by long exercises in flat-copy\ndrawing ? Is there some occult, some mysterious, power in flat-copy and typicalform drawing that is beyond the common eye, which is above the ordinary research\nof teachers ? I confess that I have watched flat-copy drawing from the time the\nart child was nursed in Boston, after it was brought over from Kensington, England, where it had its birth in the spirit of money-getting, up to the present time,\nbut I have failed to see any prolonged enthusiasm on the part of the children.\nI have failed to see any real zeal and interest on the part of the teachers.\n\nCer-\n\ntainly Mr. Clark owes it to his audience to explain how his methods and system\nof drawing develop spiritual life. Is it when a child takes a flat-copy of a trapezoid,\nor some other geometrical form, and reproduces it? Is it when typical forms are\nput before him and he laboriously copies them ? It is to be hoped that Mr. Clark\nwill explain this mysterious process of the development of spiritual life not found\neither in the study of nature or of man. He should explain the spiritual effect of re-\n\nproducing flat copies or drawing typical forms. It is easy to explain the æsthetic\neffect of painting or drawing a landscape, a tree, a leaf, aflower, or a mineral. The\n\"growing image\" is the spiritual effect; but what, allow me to ask again, is the\nmental or spiritual elevation gained by the isolated drawing from copy-books ? Has\nthis system made artists ? Is there an art teacher of this kind who is an artist?\nWhat testimony do the regular teachers bear in regard to the spiritual effects of\ncopy-book art?\n\nOne thing I am ready to grant, as every common-sense person must, and that is,\nthat copy-books must be adapted to the average teacher; that flat-copy drawing\nand typical-form drawing are absolute necessities in the evolution of the so-called\n\nart studies. Any publishing house would be exceedingly foolish to put into book\nform an ideal like that for which a few teachers are now struggling. The attempt\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n851\n\nwould be a financial failure. Nay, it would be worse. It would effectually stop\nthe onward movement in drawing. We must needs go through all these conditions\nof evolution. But it is one thing to publish books that meet the demands of the\ntime, that meet the demand of the average teacher, and quite another to stand\nup before this great National Educational Association and defend these books as\nthe best possible method. It is quite another thing to make an attack, based upon\nastatement utterly false, upon those who are trying to do higher things in education\nthan the average teacher is able to do.\nIt has always given me great pleasure to indorse the Prang system of drawing\nas the best system extant. The man whose name this system bears is one of the\nnoblest on God's earth. I have indorsed this system for years, but I have not done\nthis because there is any finality whatever in its methods. It has been a strong\nmovement toward something better; but if its present manager and defender seeks\nto cut off any movement above that which his books are able to accomplish, his\nmotive cannot well be counted as purely spiritual. There has been steady progress\nin the Prang system. Has that progress ended ? Is the proposition and attempt\nto make art common and useful to be condemned? Is the proposition to put art\ninto all subjects and studies to be labeled anti-spiritualistic ?\nI have said that art studies have a very small place, now, in our public schools.\nArt is generally taught by special teachers. The ordinary teacher has little or\nno sympathy with art itself. The movement a few of us have tried to inaugurate is\nto bring teachers into a close sympathy with art; to make art as common as\n\nbreathing, as necessary as speech, as beautiful as music, as useful as writing ; to\nfill the schools with art; to fill the child's soul with art; to have the clay, the crayon,\nand the pencil, common things in common use; to bring art from its isolation into\nthe hearts of the children; to make art common for the people, that the humblest\nhomes will have some educative basis upon which to found their appreciation of\nart.\n\nThis is the movement that Mr. Clark is pleased to attack.\n\nMr. Clark speaks of the \"daubs and blotches.\" To my mind, some daubs and\nblotches are beautiful, because they represent the best the child can do. They are\ngenuine; they are honest; they are educative. On the contrary, take the catacombs of art,-I mean the art exhibition at the great World's Fair,-and viewed\nunder the standard of genuineness, they were hideous. That is beautiful which is\nthe child's best, always and always, and art must be the genuine reflex of the\nconscious image, else it is not art.\nI take no pleasure whatever in this discussion; I regret that I have said one\n\nword in criticism of the essay of this drawing-book publisher. Hereafter, if I\nmay be forgiven this time, I will only discuss questions which are fairly and honestly presented. It is time lost to discuss the ghosts and spectres of traditional\neducation that ever and ever have glared and glowered at progress from the intellectual heights of the Athens of America.\n\nJOHN S. CLARK, Boston, Mass. The main point of my paper I will reaffirm.\nThe question of the ultimate reality of mind as a self-existent entity is as old as\nphilosophy itself. The discussion of it on the negative side is being quickened to\n\nfresh energy by much of the current work in empirical psychology. The tendency\nof the day is, as we all know, to try to subject everything to laboratory tests and to\nignore whatever cannot be expressed in definite scientific equations. It is not\n\nstrange that educational psychology should have caught some of the prevailing\ncontagion, and that in consequence avowed materialists and those who disown materialism should alike drift, as they are so often found to do, into the habit of expressing themselves in terms of the baldest and barest materialism. This incon-\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": null, "text": "852\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Art\n\nsistency on the part of some of our educational leaders to-day is precisely what I\npointed out when I cited Colonel Parker as an instance of confusion of doctrines .\n\nIn quoting him, I expressly stated that he is not a materialist, but simply appears\nto be on both sides of the question at once.\n\nThe undeniable fact seems to be that much of our current educational psychology does place such over-emphasis on the casual aspect of sense-impression in\nits relation to the mental processes as to belittle the element of a self-determining\nego.\n\nWilliam James, professor of psychology at Harvard, says, in his \"Principles\nof Psychology, \" page 1 :\nThe \" associationist\" schools of Herbart in Germany, and of Hume, the Mills, and\nBain in Britain, have thus constructed a psychology without a soul by taking discrete\n\"ideas,\" faint or vivid, and showing how, by their cohesions, repulsions, and forms of\nsuccession, such things as reminiscences , perceptions , emotions, volitions, passions ,\ntheories, and all the other furnishings of an individual's mind may be engendered. The\nvery self or ego of the individual comes in this way to be viewed, no longer as the\npre-existing source of the representations but rather as their last and most complicated\nfruit.\n\nThe practical emphasis of the Herbartians of to-day, as a whole, is laid on the\ndefinite problem of the right concentration and unification of school work,-a problem we are all trying to solve. My only criticism of them is that many of them\nare coquetting unprofitably with a materialistic psychology, as Professor James\nhimself sees and states. The unprofitableness of such materialistic psychology in\nits bearing on educational affairs is this : that its logical outcome is the belief that\nunconscious cerebration is the educationally important part of the child's life, and\nthat such primitive sensations as he receives when confronted with natural objects\nand natural phenomena may be trusted (if various enough and numerous enough)\nto combine with each other and somehow produce of themselves, by a sort of automatic fusion, clear reasoning, right desire, and energetic will.\nColonel Parker challenges me to cite any American educator who dabbles with\nthese materialistic views. His psychology certainly shows a large, inconsistent\nadmixture of this sort of materialistic doctrine. He cannot complain, therefore,\nif I ask him to step to the witness stand again.\n\nTake, for instance, his statements\n\nabout the origin of elementary ideas, the nature of attention, observation, imagination, and the ego as given in his \" Talks on Pedagogics.\" His views on these\npoints determine the character of his psychology.\nOn page 142, in speaking of elementary ideas, he says :\nAn elementary idea is the product in the brain of an external attribute. The causes\nand conditions of its existence are : (a) Physical power of the brain to receive the\naction of the external attribute. (b) The repeated action of the attribute or external\nenergy over special nerve tracts.\n\nAgain, on page 108, he says :\nAn elementary idea, I repeat, is created by the repeated action of a definite external\nattribute. It is the simplest form of mental energy . The brain is an organism created\nand developed for the differentiation, reception, and action of external energies.\n\nOn page 116, in speaking of attention, he says :\nThe power of the will in attention consists in holding the body and the mind in the\nmost economical attitude for the most effective and complete action of external attributes through nerve tracts upon consciousness .\n\nAgain he says of attention, on page 111:\nThat which is of especial moment to us in discussing attention is the fact that all\nthe ego has to do in the processes of the creation of elementary ideas and their unifica-\n\ntion into Individual concepts is to present proper physical and mental conditions for\nexternal and internal action .\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n853\n\nColonel Parker often speaks of the psychology of Dr. John Dewey as being \" good\nenough for me.\" But what Dr. Dewey says of attention is just the opposite of the\nviews of Colonel Parker . *\n\nAnd again on page 112 he says of the ego :\nThe synthesis, association, unification, or recollection (terms expressing the same\nmental act) of the ideas is perfectly unconscious and automatic so far as the ego is con-\n\ncerned. The ego is conscious of the results only of the units of elementary ideas. You\ncan analyze, compare, classify the results, but you cannot directly unite or arrange the\nideas.\n\nAnd yet Colonel Parker in the very same chapter makes assertions of precisely\nthe opposite character in regard to the ego's power to synthesize ideas. He says,\non page 237 (the italics are mine) :\nSynthesis, association, recollection, remembrance, imagination, are all one and the\nsame act in kind; that is, the same action takes place and the same laws control the\naction. It is true that an act of synthesis, in which are included the other acts I\nnamed, may have different causes .\n\nThese acts may have direct external causes, or may be the\n\nproducts of the action of the ego without direct external stimu'i.\n\nSo, in the great primal question of the genesis of thought and of mental synthesis, the ego is at the same time both capable and incapable of taking an active,\ndecisive share in the process. Do not these extracts show a hopeless confusion in\nregard to the very fundamentals of psychological teaching ?\n\nAnd further, when we come to study his views about expression of thought\nas complementary to the genesis of thought, we find his ideas are here also confused and inconsistent. Thus, on page 237, he says :\nModeling, painting, and drawing are the art modes of expression. Making has for its\nmotive practical use. The design of art is entirely limited to the expression of thought;\nthe individual concept is a mental means or medium of thought expression ; the motive and the\nthought are embodied in an individual concept.\n\nI confess, that, with all my best effort to understand the passage which I\nitalicize, it remains unintelligible. I do not see how an \"individual concept\" can\nbe a \"means or medium of thought expression.\"\nHis whole theory of expression implies the supreme power of the ego to react\n\nupon its conditions. Motive he puts as the great impelling power of the ego, and\nmotive must be regarded as an inherent self-active force in the ego itself. But\nmotive cannot have its origin in external attributes, and we have seen that Colonel\n\nParker in his genesis of thought has so tied up the ego to passivity under the action\nof external stimuli that he has left no chance or room for the existence of a self-\n\nactive power of motive adequate to take, as he implies, supreme command of the\nego, and cause it to react on external attributes in observation on the one hand and\nto create forth its own individuality in expression on the other.\nI can only call attention to this inconsistency, and beg to hand over his theory of\nmotive and volition to his brother psychologists. Dr. Harris has charged the Her*\"In a broad sense, every act of knowledge may be regarded as due to attention, for\nevery consciousness involves the activity of the mind. Nothing can be in consciousness\nwhich consciousness does not put there. Consciousness is an active process.\n** Attention may be defined as follows: Attention is that activity of the self which connects\nall elements presented to it into one whole, with reference to their ideal significance ;\n*\n\nthat is, with reference to the relation which they bear to some intellectual end.\n\nThe\n\nessential characteristic of attention is, therefore, activity directed towards some end.\nUltimately this end is self.\n\nThe various activities of attention are based in the interests\n\nof the self, and directed towards ends which will satisfy the self by fulfilling these\ninterests.\n\nIts process is such a direction of its own contents that these ends will be\n\nreached. Startingpoint, goal, and way are all found in self, therefore. Attention is\nthus a process of self-development . In studying attention we are studying the activities\n\nby which the mind develops or realizes itself. \" (\"Psychology,\" John Dewey, pp. 132,\n133.)\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": null, "text": "854\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Art\n\nbartians as desiring to substitute desire for will. Colonel Parker is evidently engaged on this problem.\nOccasionally Colonel Parker seems to rise out of his physio-psychological am-\n\nbiguity, and to say something that is both intelligible and true. On page 242 in the\nchapter on \"Modes of Expression,\" in speaking of art, he says :\nThere would be no reason for art if art did not translate and transcend nature. Art\n\nshows things to man which he cannot otherwise see. The true function of art is revelation and inspiration. Works of art have marked the highest spirituality in each stage\nof human evolution; they rank as the highest interpretation of human life.\n\nThis is clearly intelligible, and practically in accord with what I tried to make\nfundamental in my own paper. The difficulty is that it seems to be unrelated here ;\nthat Colonel Parker's physiological psychology does not at all fit on to it. There is\na great chasm between this \"art\" as the embodiment of the highest creative activity\nof man, and the one sort of drawing, modeling, and painting which Colonel Parker\n\nseems to approve ; namely, that which produces a literal reflection of nature's\napprehended facts without any admixture of the ego at all.\nThese quotations (and they could be largely increased) show that I was entirely just in declaring that Colonel Parker is inconsistent; that his personality is\nmuch larger than his psychology, so that he is enabled to stand on both sides of\nthe question at once. Hence, we find him making the most baldly materialistic\ndeclarations about the automatic genesis of thought and the impotence of the ego\nto shape thought, and at the same time pleading for the child's freedom in self-\n\nactivity and his emancipation from all influence that might affect the complete\nworking out of his own individuality.\nIt would not be worth while to point out this inconsistency on Colonel Parker's\npart were it not that the present popular interest in psychology gives the undesirable, i. e . , the materialistic, side of his teachings special prominence, and tends to\nmake it influential in an unfortunate way. The physiological data which he serves\nup under the guise of psychology are very likely to lead those teachers who are\nnot trained to philosophic thought into a hopeless sort of confusion, wherein things\nare expected to educate the child; wherein the child is regarded as a mere product\nof his surroundings, instead of a responsible being who can and should learn to\ncontrol and direct his own powers both of inward thought and outward act.\nThis notion of the educationally all-efficient power of \" unconscious cerebration\"\nis untrue and particularly unfortunate. While I wish to be understood as feeling\nthe greatest interest in and respect for that empirical psychology which is endeavoring to trace out the facts of mutual relationship between mind and body, I\nfeel that what practical public education most needs to-day is emphasis on the\npositive, self-active, creative aspects of mental life in the child. For, with all that\nthe empirical psychology has done to indicate relationship of mind and body, it\ncannot point out, much less explain, one single instance of the direct transformation\nof material force into psychic force. While it is in one sense true that the school\n\ncurriculum is an ingeniously planned series of conditions which we purposely bring\nto bear on the individual child for the sake of helping along his mental development,\nthe ultimate purpose of education must, I take it, be to help bring about the recognition and exercise by the child of his own inborn power of selecting from and utiliz-\n\ning for conscious ends the very conditions that surround him. And I cannot help\nbelieving that the more our educational effort is permeated with our sense that the\nchild is, not the subject but the master of the material world, the more inspiring the\nappeal of that education will be towards the development of positive mental and\nspiritual energy in the child himself.\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION.\n\nDepartment.]\n\n855\n\nI can hardly let pass unnoticed the misrepresentation of that plan of art education with which I am identified, which would make it seem to be a matter of\nflat-copying with no recognition of drawing from nature. Anyone who has ever\nmade the least intelligent examination of the Prang Course of Art Instruction\nknows that it gives a generous place to the study of and drawing from nature, making the study of nature one of the fundamental features ; that it heartily encourages\n\nand helps the use of drawing in all the other studies ; and that, while it recognizes\nthe educational value of study from art examples and affords certain limited occasions for copying from the flat, it is historically true that this course has. on the\nwhole, done more in this country than all other influences combined to overthrow\nthe old-fashioned flat-copy systems which Colonel Parker so despises. If alluded\nto at all, let allusions to any particular course of instruction be just.\nColonel Parker's chronic condemnation of flat-copy drawing reminds me of a\nstory Henry Ward Beecher used to tell about his dog. The dog once saw a squirrel\n\nrun into a hole in a stone wall; and forever after when he passed by the wall, or\nwhen he had nothing else to do, he seemed to take a special pleasure in going and\nbarking at that hole.\n\nThe value of the study of type-forms can be truly and fully estimated when\ntheir study is used to develop the creative powers. Creative imagination as it\nenters into the industrial arts cannot use for its basis nature's various approxima-\n\ntions to type. It must be able to grasp the underlying idea of the absolute type\nitself. Those of us who see in the geometric type forms, as Froebel did, the sign of\nand the key to all the marvelous form-manifestations of the universe. and especially to all the art-work of man, and who know how in actual practice the child's\nunderstanding of nature and his creative imagination in art can be developed with\nthe help of the type forms, cannot help feeling that Colonel Parker's relegation of\nthe type solids to the wood-pile argues chiefly unacquaintance with their artistic\nmeaning and educational value.\n\nColonel Parker thinks that I misunderstand or undervalue his doctrine, that\nall forms of expression, including drawing, may be acquired through the immediate\ninspiration of intrinsic throught. So far as this means that practical facility, in\ndrawing, for example, can be better acquired by drawing to express a thought in\nthe child's own mind than by simply making lines in ignorant obedience to the\ncommand of a teacher or in uncomprehending imitation of a flat copy, I most\nheartily agree with him. I have been preaching that doctrine myself for twenty\nyears. But, as I see the matter, the point where his views and mine diverge\nseems to be this:\n\nHe seems to believe that the facility in drawing which can be\n\nsecured through the use of the pencil and brush in connection with the common\nbranches, geography, natural history, and the like, is the same thing as art education.\n\nThere I disagree with him.\n\nThe latter half of my paper was an en-\n\ndeavor to show why art education should mean more than using drawing as a help\nin the other school lessons, and how the field of \"intrinsic thought\" should be\nbroadened by bringing the pupil into inspiring relations with the great creative\nminds of the race through their art works, to the end that the pupil's own intrinsic\ncreative thought might be greatly improved. The study of good art examples is\n\nan indispensable part of any course of instruction whose purpose is the development\nof either appreciative or creative power along art lines. An art product cannot be\nthe result of mere automatic brain processes and reflex muscular action. Simple\n\ngraphic \"expression,\" even from nature, may be thus automatic, and \"drawing\"\nbecome thus as mechanical as penmanship ; and I do not see how the mere copying on paper of the literal image of a natural object is any more educational than\nthe copying on paper of a bit of historic ornament in the flat. It is only conscious,\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": null, "text": "856\n\n[Art\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nappreciative study underlying the \"expression\" in drawing from nature which can\ngive it educational value. So conscious, appreciative study of the \"copy\" of some\nancient artist's masterpiece can assuredly make the subsequent \"expression,\" in\nthat case, also, educationally valuable.\nWhen we come to actual creative work, we must remember that art is not an\nunconscious product. It is the product of mind consciously exercising its own\npositive creative power over nature.\nBut the main point under consideration is not Colonel Parker's views, whatever\nthese views may be. My allusion to his psychology was merely incidental to the\npresentation of a larger and more inclusive thought of the aims and purposes of\nart education. Dr. Harris sounded at Cleveland last spring a bugle call to a higher\ndiscussion of general educational values than has hitherto occupied the r\nas\nmind. Consequently we are confronted by the greatest educational issue\nand\never come to us: the necessity of recognizing in all education more c\nnental\npositively than ever before the active, self-determining aspects of the ch\ntive elelife and growth. Then, too, that larger understanding of man as\nmen like\nment in social evolution, which is coming in through the writi\nFiske, and Kidd, and Drummond, constitutes, if we see it ari '\nan imperative\nsocial demand that education shall assume the highest spiritua¹ and in regard to\nthe nature and the functions of the human ego. In the face of this discussion,\nwhile we recognize that the analytic labor of the psychologis\n\nis essential to the\n\nshaping of a right public education, we must not forget that\n\nucation as a whole\n\nis synthetic. It is a synthesis of forces selected from the material world of nature.\nfrom the higher spiritual world of art,-the ultimatum of civilization.-and from\n\nthose active, creative forces inborn in the human nature of the young child; a\nsynthesis directed by the conscious human intelligence o\n\none generation for the\n\nsake of the conscious human intelligence of generations that are to come.\nMISS KATHERINE BALL of San Francisco, Cal., said that art education should\n\nepibrace more than pictorial drawing from nature. The pictorial drawing from\nnature was important, but in order to obtain a well-rounded development, construction and decorative design should also be considered .\nMiss Ball laid great stress upon the necessity for developing the taste of the\n\npupils. They should constantly be led to an appreciation of the beautiful in nature\nand art. Fine things should be kept before them, to give them standards and\nideals toward which to work.\n\nMiss Ball said that she had visited all the cities and large towns west of\n\nChicago, and had not found the flat-copying which Colonel Parker claimed was\nprevalent. In schools where drawing was properly taught only a limited time was\ndevoted to copying. Beautiful examples of historic ornament and fine studies in\npictorial rendering were placed before pupils and copied. This study and reproduction offine things developed a taste for the beautiful and a power in execution,\nbut the old-time flat-copying which Colonel Parker described was altogether a\nthing of the past.\nWALTER S. GOODNOUGH. Director of Drawing, Brooklyn, N. Y.-The aims of\nart education in general education are many. The more this subject is studied,\nand from whatever point of view, philosophical, educational, historical, economical,\n-the broader and more far-reaching do those aims seem to be.\n\nBriefly speaking, I should hold thatFirst-Art education, as a factor in general education, should develop the emotional, the ideal, and the moral nature of the child.\n\nMost of our public school\n\neducation deals with the intellect and will. It is felt by many educators that the\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\n857\n\ntime has arrived when greater attention must be given to the education of the\nemotional, the sympathetic, the æsthetic, and ethical phases of child nature.\nSecond-Art education should develop a love and discriminative appreciation of\nthe beautiful in nature, art, industry, literature, dress, home surroundings , and\nin human thought and action. The æsthetic faculty, the creative impulse, the love\nof the beautiful, are among the oldest instincts of the race. It shows itself very\nearly in the majority of individuals, \" often in the first or second year of life,\"\nsays Sully. It is extremely important that this element, so universal, and so valua\nble in bringing simple joys and pleasures into our lives, should receive the attention it deserves.\n\nEsthetic culture owes its importance to the fact that it not only makes a\n\nhigher, more valuable productive power, thus becoming a large factor in the industrial success of the individual, but it results in a culture, a refinement, an en-\n\njoyment and happiness, a higher civilization.\nSays Professor Ladd, \"The beautiful is one form of the good; to be and to\nenjoy that which is beautiful is to share in reality of the good.\" Plato thought\nthat the soul ascends to the good through the beautiful .\nThird-Art education should bring the pupil into a closer knowledge and ap-\n\npreciation of his environment, and relate his school training directly to many productive occupations.\nFourth-It should lead him to a knowledge and appreciation of some of the\n\ngreat achievements in human thought, as exemplified in historical examples of\nornament, architecture, sculpture, and painting.\nFifth-It should give great and varied training to the perceptive power, perhaps to a wider and deeper extent than any other school study. Says Ruskin :\n\"The more I think of it, the more I find this conclusion impressed upon me, that\nthe greatest thing a human soul does in this world is to see something and tell\nwhat it sees in a plain way. Hundreds of people can talk for one who can think,\nbut thousands can think for one who can see.\"\n\nSixth-Art education should give systematic training of the imagination, that\nfaculty so dominant in the young child, but, to a considerable extent, neglected in\nour school work, and without which there can be no great human achievement.\nSeventh-It should be a constant stimulus to thought, and train, not only to\nconcentration and power of thought but to breadth of view. It is of the utmost\n\nvalue educationally in this respect, as the greatest stimulus to thought is present in\nthe active interest which the subject has for all children.\n\nEighth-It cultivates the highest, noblest, and most varied modes of expression, and is a most valuable aid and complement to oral or written expression.\n\nNinth-Art education should develop manual skill, executive ability, and critical\npower. It should train the judgment.\nTenth-Art education is an all-important element in developing and training\nthe creative faculty.\n\nThe wonderful bridge that connects New York and Brooklyn was first a dream\nin the mind of Roebling, the engineer. The magnificent new ocean steamship St.\nLouis, just put in service, the beautiful library building of Boston, the great cathedrals of Europe, to say nothing of sculpture, painting, or design, had first to be\nconceived in the brains of the designers and created on paper and in the imagination with nearly the vividness of actuality.\nSystematic training of the creative power has received little attention in education, little indeed in art education.\nTrue art education is more largely intellectual and emotional than many realize.\n\nIt is the mind, not the eye, that is to be trained to perceive and appreciate beauty.\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": null, "text": "858\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[\nArt\n\nIf beauty were perceived by the eye alone, the normal eyes of one would perceive\nit as well as those of others.\n\nThere can be no true art, no real art education, that does not take fully into\naccount more than the training to skill of hand, particularly imitative skill,strong, powerful, masterly, as this should be. To a far greater extent art is dependent upon training of mind and soul. We may possess a fluent tongue, an\neasy, graceful pen, or facile brush; but unless we have some thought to express,\nsome ideas to convey, what we produce will be only temporary.\nThought will live; expression never, except as the embodiment of thought.\n\"Art should be taught a child, \" says Marion, a French writer, \"because it has\nan incomparable educative power. The beautiful is essentially order and harmony.\nFrom the imagination and the mind order passes into the heart, and soon manifests\nitself outwardly in elegance and grace. A just proportion is observed, and finally\nit reappears in acts. Good taste easily takes the form of self-respect. It is not\na commonplace to say that art softens public and private manners. There are\nfaults and moral tendencies the idea of which a mind accustomed to live in com-\n\npanionship with the beautiful can neither conceive nor abide. Evil is an ugly\nthing, and the delicacy of a soul sensitive to beauty is offended at and spurns it.\"\nDrawing, modeling, painting, all the art modes of expression, are invaluable\nadjuncts in all general school work. The regular teacher cannot be all she should\nbe who has not these modes of expression at command to illustrate thought. Neither can her pupils, without these modes of expression, give out to her what they\nhave seen, know, think, or feel, allowing her to look into their minds. as written\nor spoken language will not. Words are but signs and often poor vehicles of\nthought.\nThe use of the art modes of expression by pupils in science, and in all other\nstudies capable of graphic expression, is of everlasting service to them, as it forces\ncloser, more critical observation and knowledge, and so enchains the interest\nand attention as to crystallize thought and make the knowledge the pupil's own.\nWhen he has reproduced anything by drawing, modeling, or painting, he has got\namental image of it that it is difficult to acquire so completely in any other manner or that he will retain so long by any other means.\n\nThis is not art, however. The pupil must put something of himself into his\nwork, some of his own thought and feeling, before it can be art.\nSays Ruskin: \"All real art is the disimprisoned soul of fact.\"\n\nColonel Parker, in his \" Talks on Pedagogics,\" would have drawing, modeling,\nand painting acquired simply as means of expression, through use in expressing\nthought about the other school studies. He would make it, if I understand his\n\nposition correctly, simply a handmaid in pursuing the other regular school work,\nas natural science, history, etc., claiming that sufficient skill will be acquired by\nthis frequent daily use as a means of expression.\nI would not underrate the value these art modes of expression have in that\ndirection, and I think they should be utilized by regular teachers more than they\nare. In addition to this, however, if we are to meet the exigencies of modern life,\nand educate the pupil broadly and roundly, developing all his faculties, a certain\nportion of school time must be set apart, in the weekly if not daily program, for\npure art study.\n\nOnly through the study of artistic, beautiful things, and by special study of\nworks of art and the products of art industry and well-directed lines of creative\nwork, can certain standards and ideals be obtained.\nSays Partridge: \"We must bring into children's lives every poetic influence,\nto quicken their minds and develop the æsthetic nature. We speak much of the\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": null, "text": "DISCUSSION. —METHODS OF TEACHING .\n\nDepartment.]\n\n859\n\nbeauty of holiness, but not enough of the holiness of beauty. Fill the children\nwith sweet music and the high thoughts of the poets and the best art, and they\nwill build up a fabric which, in after life, will withstand the attacks of care, sin,\npoverty, and grief, for they will have discovered something in life which the world\ncan neither give nor take away.\"\n\nROUND TABLE DISCUSSION-METHODS OF TEACHING.\nBY MRS . MATILDA E. RILEY, ST. LOUIS, MO .\n\nThose who teach in art schools or in private schools and have had no experience in art work in public schools can have no conception of the conditions and\n\ndifficulties that confront both teacher and pupils in the public schools. The methods\npresented here are derived from experience in public school work.\n\nNo teacher can successfully present or thoroughly teach any subject unless he\nknows the definite object he has in view and has a well-defined plan by which to\naccomplish it. Drawing, like older and better-known studies in school-life, calls\nfor a knowledge on the teacher's part of both the educational and practical value\nof the subject in hand.\n\nSince the method of giving every exercise must conform to and cannot go beyond the mental development of the child, it behooves every teacher to thoroughly\ninform himself as to the mental condition of the class before him, and to adapt\nhis method and his material to that particular capacity waiting to receive it. It\nis necessary to the successful method, then, to know to what faculties to appeal\nand how to appeal.\n\nProbably this is easier in construction than in the other departments of drawing, for the means of the expression of facts in construction have become formal\nand conventional, and the principles which control the results belong to the exact\nsciences. Decoration calls for a deep appreciation of beauty, a thing of gradual\ngrowth and slow cultivation.\n\nIt must grow as the child grows ; it cannot be forced.\n\nThere seems to be no question as to the proper methods of teaching construction\nand decoration, while the greatest diversity of opinion prevails as regards representation.\n\nAlthough it is said that no work of art is machine made, nor can the art faculties be cultivated by drawing machine-made objects of the geometrical order. in\nrepresentation the type solids can be used to advantage; for just as there are\nfundamental rules in arithmetic, so the type solids are the foundation of form.\nWhile art is the expression of individual feeling, and all pupils should be encouraged to give this expression, there are certain underlying principles that must\nbe understood and can best be learned through these types before the pupils can\ngive this individual artistic expression. Pupils should not be confined to the geometric forms any more than they should be confined to the abstract tables in\narithmetic, because they not only would tire of them and their work become mechanical, but the aim of true art influence would be defeated and the educational\nvalue lost.\n\nThese types are easily procured, are inexpensive, keep the work within bounds.\nand make a definite educational plan possible. They are permanent forms, which\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": null, "text": "860\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Art\n\npresent an infinite variety of problems to be solved, without altering with time or\nchanging with decay.\nThe type solids lead to natural and other forms involving similar principles,\nbut demanding a special rendering of texture which should have all the study that\ncan possibly be given to them.\nIn giving a lesson devoted to natural or other forms, the importance of good\nselections should be emphasized. Whatever is chosen, let it be the best of its kind.\nEven an apple may furnish food for thought upon the part of little children. They\nmust not select the over-grown product, nor the shriveled, bitter fruit, for neither\nis the type for which we are searching; but the luscious, fully rounded, perfect\napple, in which every child delights. What is true of the apple is true of every\nmodel used in school-life. All objects should be chosen with reference to their\nbeauty and to the artistic elements they contain. The teachers should be urged\nnot to leave the selection of the objects to chance, nor pick up at random, at the\nlast moment, whatever comes to hand; but they should try to make a wise and\njudicious selection for every lesson.\n\nIf objects are to be studied in a certain position, it will be necessary for each\npupil to have an object or group of objects; in which case the arrangement of\nboth pupils and models becomes quite a problem, if two pupils are sitting at one\ndesk.\n\nTo get individual work, where each pupil must have an object or a group, it\nis necessary to have several different objects or arrangements, so placed that no\ntwo pupils, sitting side by side, will have the same study. If there is no certain\nposition of any of the models to be studied, only as many objects or groups are\nnecessary as will give a pleasing arrangement for each pupil. The number of\nsingle objects or groups would depend greatly on the size.\nThe placing of models can be on vacant desks, on supports put across the aisles,\nor on the teacher's desk. Wherever they may be placed, it is necessary for them\nto rest on a horizontal plane. It not only creates an unpleasant feeling to have a\nvase, ink well, tumbler, or other object on an oblique plane, and makes violent\nperspective, but it cultivates an indifference to the seriousness of the purpose of\nthe study and a habit of carelessness on the part of the child.\n\nSome advise beginning pencil measurement with the third year, to get apparent\nheight and width.\n\nThe most benefit is derived in individual instruction in this\n\ngrade by teaching the pupils to test their sight-drawing. This prepares the pupils\nfor class instruction in pencil measurement and blocking in the next year or grade.\nIt is sometimes a question as to which is better, blocking by pencil measurement or sketching first, then test by pencil measurement. Classes do well in both\nplans. If sketching is done first, then verified by pencil measurement, it is hard to\ndetermine to what extent the use of the eraser should be permitted with pupils\nin the grades. Although they often get far from desirable results if allowed free\nuse of the erasers, this is better than to have positive limitations made as to their\nuse.\n\nMore accurate drawing may be obtained by the use of invisible edges, but it\nwill be mechanical and the pupils will learn to depend on them.\nUntil recently drawing from life, pupils posing for each other, has been confined to the work of the high school; but it has been found that an occasional\nlesson of this kind through all the grades is highly beneficial.\nValuable time is often lost at each lesson in preliminary questions and suggestions by the teacher. To avoid this enough time should be given one group for\nthe class to learn to determine the center of the group, the center of the paper,\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nDISCUSSION. —METHODS OF TEACHING.\n\n861\n\ngreatest height, greatest width, and relative proportion. After this, in every case,\nthe class should begin to draw as soon as the models are arranged.\nThe drawing of detached leaves in the lower grades often results in geometric\n\nviews, with the stems pointing to the observer and a tendency to uniform work.\nBy the introduction of potted plants into the schoolroom, pupils succeed in getting\npictures showing very little detail, and often approaching the proper perspective.\nWhere it is possible all foliage should be remodeled before drawing; also, all\nnatural forms, as it is easier to teach elimination in modeling than in drawing.\n\nIn the higher grades, large single leaves, such as the calla, canna, palm, etc. ,\nare often as interesting and instructive as sprays .\n\nThe pupils should be encouraged to seek beautiful examples of strong, characteristic growth, giving attention to texture, relative distance, and light and shade;\n\nbut this cannot be done by prefacing the drawing by a lesson in botany, for botany\ntreats of the construction of the plant and not the picture, and makes the midrib,\nseen or unseen, as inevitable as the conventional table line.\n\nIt has been found advantageous for the special teacher in drawing to give\npersonal instruction to pupils (accompanied by their teachers) in out-of-door study,\nsuch as towers, arches, roadways, and bits of scenery.\nThe work in the high school has not been mentioned, for if the work of the\ngrades is properly done, there will be very little question as to the proper methods\nin the high school .\n\nA course of study in drawing must be flexible in the very nature of the study,\nand great latitude should be given the teacher, if sufficiently competent; but when\nwe consider that a very large majority of our best teachers in other studies have\n\nlittle or no knowledge of drawing, we are compelled to make our work prescriptive.\nThe time is approaching when our normal graduates will be as well qualified\n\nfor teaching drawing as they are in any other subject. Then the main thought\nwill be, not what to draw but to teach the pupil how to draw the right way.\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION.\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES.\n\nFIRST SESSION.- WEDNESDAY, JULY 10TH.\nThe department was called to order at 2:30 o'clock Wednesday afternoon by\nthe President, J. M. Mehan.\n\nSecretary W. E. McCord being absent, the President appointed J. W. Warr\nof Moline, Ill., as Secretary pro tem .\nPresident Mehan then delivered the President's annual address .\n\nOn motion of Frank Goodman, the President's address was referred to a committee of three, to report on same at the Friday session.\nThe President appointed as that committee Mrs. Sara A. Spencer, Mr. Springer,\nand J. W. Warr.\n\nThe next paper, on \"The Exchangeable Value of the Alliance of the Business\nEducators' Association with the National Educational Association,\" was read by\nMrs. Sara A. Spencer of Washington, D. C.\nAt the conclusion of Mrs. Spencer's paper Mr. Z. Richards, the first President\nof the National Educational Association, made some interesting remarks, showing\nthe value of business training in preparing young men and women to become good\ncitizens.\n\nProf. Chandler H. Peirce of Evansville, Ind., discussed the service that business colleges had rendered the public schools, by showing them how to make their\nwork more practical.\n\nProf. J. H. Woodruff of Indianapolis, Ind., described the business department\nof the public schools.\n\nProfessor Springer of Ann Arbor, Mich., contended that public school work\ncould not be compared with the work of the business college, as the course in a\npublic school could not be so comprehensive as that of a well-appointed business\ncollege.\n\nMrs. Spencer remarked that business colleges had not been hostile to business\ncollege work in public schools, but cheerfully co-operated with them in making their\nwork as successful as possible.\n\nJ. W. Warr of Moline, Ill., was next on the program, with a paper on \"Guaranteeing Positions, or Fraudulent Advertising.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES.\n\n863\n\nThe paper was discussed by Professors Wallace of Denver, Marshall of California, President Mehan, and Frank Goodman.\nProf. W. A. Woodworth, Principal of the Denver Shorthand and Typewriting\nSchool, presented the subject of \" Shorthand and Typewriting.\"\nThe paper was discussed by Messrs. Peirce, Mehan, Springer, Richards, and\nMrs. Spencer.\n\nAfter some routine business the session adjourned until Friday afternoon.\n\nSECOND SESSION.-FRIDAY, JULY 12TH .\n\nThe Department of Business Education met in Young Men's Christian As\nsociation hall at 2:30 p. m., President Mehan presiding.\nMrs. Sara A. Spencer of Washington, D. C., presented the following report\nof the Committee on President's Address :\nYour committee respectfully report that we have held two meetings, one for organIzation and outline of work, at Young Men's Christian Association hall, July 10th, and\none for consideration of topics, at Hotel Richelieu, July 11th, 1 to 5 p. m .\nIn accordance with the suggestions contained in the President's address, we recommend the appointment by the chair of a committee of nine representative educators\nto consider, investigate, and report upon the following topics, viz.:\n\nFirst-\"Physical and Vocal Culture and School Hygiene.\"\nSecond-\"Normal Training for Business College Teachers .\"\n\nThird-\" Shorthand, Typewriting, English, and Rapid Writing. \"\nFourth-\" Practical Writing .\"\n\nFifth-\"Rapid Calculations, Business Arithmetic, and Higher Accounting. \"\nSixth-\" Book-keeping, Theory and Practice of Accounts, Inter-communication.\"\nSeventh-\" Finance, Commerce, Political Economy.\"\nEighth \" Laws of Business, Ethics of Business, Duties of Citizenship.\"\nNinth-\"A Model Curriculum for Business High Schools.\"\nWe recommend, that, while all these topics are referred to the entire committee\n\nfor general consideration, each topic be especially referred to one member of the committee for special investigation, and that he be authorized to select from representative educators two others for conference and aid.\n\nWe further recommend, in pursuance of suggestions in the President's address, that\nthe Committee of Nine hold one meeting in Denver to-day, and one meeting before the\n\nnext annual meeting of the National Educational Association, and report to this department at that meeting; that the Chairman of each conference sub-committee mail to the\n\nother eight members of the Committee of Nine typewritten copies of questions to\nbe submitted to the business educators of the country for suggestions and approval;\nthat to secure relatively uniform, fair, and reliable information from educational institutions, the Committee of Nine shall use the list of business colleges and commercial\nhigh schools and commercial departments contained in the latest report of the Bureau\nof Education, issued at Washington, D. C.\nWe suggest the following questions from Conference on Vocal and Physical Culture\nand School Hygiene as typical of the range of inquiries to be undertaken by the various\ncommittees :\nPHYSICAL CULTURE .\n\nFirst-Is physical culture given to or provided for the students in your institution ?\nSecond-Do you employ special teachers for this purpose ? How are they paid?\nThird-How much time is devoted to this training , and at what intervals ?\n\nFourth-Is it optional with your pupils or compulsory ?\nFifth-What tests of physical condition are applied upon entering and leaving ?\nSixth-What methods are used ? Have you a gymnasium? Describe it.\nSeventh-What are the results of your experience ?\nSimilar topics are advised for vocal culture.\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": null, "text": "864\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nSCHOOL\n\n[Business\n\nHYGIENE.\n\nFirst-Was the building occupied by your institution constructed for that purpose ?\nSecond-What are its provisions for drainage, ventilation, light, heat, and acoustics ?\nThird-Are grounds for recreation, free circulation of air, or ornament attached to\nor near your building ?\n\nFourth- What are the conditions as to healthfulness of the surrounding neighborhood?\n\nFifth-What are the dangers and defenses of your buildings as to fire ? What facilities for escape ?\nSARA A. SPENCER,\nWashington, D. C.\nDURAND W. SPRINGER,\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\nJOHN W. WARR,\nMoline, Ill.\n\nThe committee had also recommended the topic of \"Co-ordination of Business\nCollege Branches ;\" but, on motion of Frank Goodman, the topic of \"Practical\nWriting\" was substituted in lieu thereof, after which the report was unanimously\nadopted.\n\nProf. S. S. Packard of New York City was recommended by the committee as\nHistorian, with a request that he prepare a history of business education; whereupon President J. M. Mehan appointed Mr. Packard as Historian.\nThe subject of \"Vertical Writing\" was presented by Chandler H. Peirce of\nEvansville, Ind.\nThis paper was discussed in a lively manner by Mr. Heisey of Kansas City,\nMo. , Mr. McPherson of Denver, Colo., and Mr. Stebbins of Brooklyn, N. Y., in\nfavor of vertical writing, and by Mr. Springer of Michigan, Mrs. Spencer of\nWashington, J. E. Barnes of Denver, and others in favor of speed, grace, and\nlegibility as secured by the regular slant.\n\nD. W. Springer of the commercial department of the high schools of Ann Arbor,\nMich. , handled the subject of \"The Ethical Side of Business Training .\"\n\"Actual Business From the Start\" was presented by Mr. Carl C. Marshall of\nEureka, Cal.\n\nDepartment adjourned to 6 p. m.\n\nProf. Chandler H. Peirce of Evansville, Ind., presented the report on resolutions, which was unanimously adopted, as follows :\nYour committee beg to offer the following resolutions :\nResolved, That the thanks of the business educators are due, and are hereby tendered, to Miss Agnes Hunter and Miss Clara M. Norton for their kindly consideration\nin tastefully decorating and adorning with the choicest roses and flowers the room\nin which our deliberations were held.\nResolved, That this section of the National Educational Association will remember\nwith heartfelt gratitude the many courtesies and attentions extended by the Young\n\nMen's Christian Association, and that we, as members, can never forget our pleasant\nand profitable stay in the beautiful and magnificent \"City of the Plains.\"\nResolved. That our thanks are extended to the local committee of this department,\nalso to the press of the city, for attentions and courtesies, and to our President for his\nadmirable services .\nCHANDLER H. PEIRCE, Chairman .\nCARL MARSHALL,\n\nGERTRUDE HOLMES,\nCommittee.\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES.\n\nDepartment.]\n\n865\n\nMr. H. C. Spencer of Washington, D. C., presented the following report on\nbehalf of the Auditing Committee, which was adopted:\nWe, your committee, appointed to examine the account of W. E. McCord, Treasurer of the Department of Business Education, would report as follows:\nWe find, according to the Treasurer's books-\n\nJuly 13, 1894.\n\n$92.41\n\nBalance on hand last auditing ....\n\nReceipts--\n\nJuly 13, 1894. Received from Irwin Shepard, Secretary National Educational\n15.00\n\nAssociation, account expense Business Department ...\nOct. 3, 1894. Received on account of memberships .\nTotal\n\n45.00\n\n$152.41\n\nreceipts ....\nDisbursements $38.00\n\nPaid Irwin Shepard, on account of membership fees ..........\n\nPaid for Department and Executive Committee-Expenses to July\n81.80\n\n5, 1895...\n\n119.80\n\nTotal disbursed .\nBalance in\n\n$36.61\n\ntreasury\nH. C. SPENCER,\nJ. W. WARR,\n\nAuditing Committee.\nWe also find there is owing by this department the following :\nBrandon Printing Co. (3,000 circulars) .....\n\nTelegrams, postage, expressage, stationery, etc., of Executive Committee ......\nTelegrams and expressage by President ...\nTotal due and unpaid...\n\n$24.00\n\n15.91\n4.00\n\n$43.91\n\nWe recommend that the balance of $36.61, now in the hands of the Treasurer, be\nturned over to the Chairman of the Executive Committee to be applied to above Indebtedness, and that the first money received by this department be applied to liquidating\nany balance that is due and unpaid.\nH. C. SPENCER,\nJ. W. WARR,\nAuditing Committee\n\nThe election of officers resulted as follows :\nPresident- Frank Goodman, Nashville, Tenn.\nFirst Vice President- Durand W. Springer, Ann Arbor, Mich .\nSecond Vice President- W. A. Woodworth, Denver, Colo.\nThird Vice President- Chandler H. Peirce, Evansville, Ind.\nSecretary- Treasurer-J. W. Warr, Moline, Ill.\n\n1\n\nMrs. Sara A. Spencer of Washington, D. C., was unanimously elected Chair- .\nman of the Executive Committee, with power to appoint the other two members\nof this committee.\n\nJ. W. WARR,\nSecretary pro tem.\n55\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": null, "text": "866\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\n[Business\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.\n\nBY J. M. MEHAN, DES MOINES, IOWA .\n\nMembers of the Business Educators' Association of America :\nAnother year has passed and we are assembled for our seventeenth annual meeting, to greet each other, to exchange experiences,\nto compare notes, to advance the interests of the work in which we\nare, from choice, engaged; and last, but not least, to enjoy the\npleasure of meeting again friends who have grown dearer to us\nyear by year as we have come to know them better. And herein\nlies one of the great benefits of our organization. To know each\nother is to free ourselves from error, from jealousy, from littleness .\nTo know each other is to respect each other, to befriend each other.\n\nHow, then, shall we estimate the value of these annual meetings ?\nThis is our third meeting with the National Association as a\npart of that great organization, and we all, I feel sure, are now so\nfully at home in it that we will never again consent to be separated\nfrom it. Our work is honored by the recognition it is receiving from\nthat body, and let us hope the National Association is in some\nmeasure bettered by our being a part of it.\nThe year through which we have just passed has been one that\nhas tried private schools to the fullest extent, and many not only\nsuffered but have been obliged to close their doors. We should be\nthankful indeed that very few business colleges are numbered in\nthis list. It is a fact that some have been obliged to go out of business, but it is doubtful if the times are to blame for this.\n\nBusiness\n\ncolleges, like other institutions, are not all good, and some of them\nfail for want of public patronage in the very best of times. We\nmay congratulate ourselves that our schools stand high in the public\n\nconfidence, a fact proven by the liberal patronage accorded them\nduring the depression of business through which, let us hope, we\nhave now passed.\n\nBut business colleges have not been standing idle even in these\ntimes of depression. Many have moved into new and elegant quarters, many more have been re-seated and re-furnished, and others\nhave, in various ways, been beautified and made more comfortable,\n\nconvenient, and cheerful; thus adding to the efficiency of the instruction, as well as to the health, comfort, and convenience of their\nstudents. Many new and excellent text-books and devices for the\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.\n\nDepartment. ]\n\n867\n\nteaching of business branches have been brought out since we met\n\nlast year, much thought has been given to the subject of business\neducation by those directly engaged in our schools, the attention of\nable teachers outside of our own lines has been called to our work,\nand we have received such encouragement as never before to\nstrengthen and develop our efforts. Some of our ablest and brightest members have visited a large number of the business colleges\nthroughout the country, and are ready to enlighten us with comparisons and conclusions drawn from earnest searching after truth concerning everything pertaining to business education and training.\nWe have, I believe, in every true sense, been making commendable\nimprovement along all the lines of our work.\nSOME OF OUR SHORTCOMINGS.\n\nBut it is my duty to speak not only of our advancement, but to\nindicate, as best I may, the things that, in my opinion, retard our\nimprovement. This is not a mutual admiration society, and was\nnot intended for such .\n\nI trust I may not be thought hypercritical when I say it seems\nto me that we are in danger of magnifying too much what I will call\nthe mechanical side of our work, to the neglect of the intellectual\nside. We are laying too much stress on our appliances, our surroundings, our equipment.\n\nThe duty of the business college is to train young men and\nwomen for business pursuits; and however pleasant, agreeable, or,\nindeed, desirable it may be to feast our eyes and the eyes of our\npupils upon polished brass and cut glass, mahogany and marble,\nthese surroundings, let us remember, do not make the school. It\nwas Mr. Garfield, I believe, who said, \"All the college I want is\nMark Hopkins on one end of a log and myself upon the other.\"\nWe must not forget that it is the teacher, and not the surroundings,\nthat makes the school. We are in danger of relying too much on\ntext-books, courses of study, methods, etc., and too little on vital\ninstruction and persistent example. We are in danger of wrangling\ntoo much over the question of whether a student shall become an\n\nimaginary business man the first day he enters school, with \"actual\nbusiness from the start,\" or whether he shall endeavor to master,\npartially at least, the theory upon which accounts rest before he\nbegins to practice upon the numerous details surrounding even ordinary business transactions. We are in danger of keeping ourselves\non the rack as to what our competitor has or does, to the neglect of\n\nwhat our pupils should have and should do. We are too apt to\nforget that our competitor's corner on any \"system,\" either of wheels\nin his school or wheels in his head, counts but little against able, intelligent, conscientious teaching and training.\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": null, "text": "868\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Business\n\nLIGHT AND VENTILATION .\n\nWhile speaking of our schoolrooms I wish to say, that, while\nwe have done much-I often think too much for appearances,\nwe yet want proper light and good ventilation. I am sure that you\nwill agree with me in this respect. Careful and constant attention\nshould be given to the ventilation and lighting of our rooms . Good\nteaching cannot be done in poorly lighted and poorly ventilated\nschoolrooms. The pupil should have all the advantages it is possible to give him, and until this is done we have not fulfilled our part\nof the agreement. Many of the business blocks that we occupy have\nnot been built with the view of making schoolrooms of them, and\ngreat care and attention, as well as considerable expense, is often\nnecessary to put them in proper condition for school use. Where\nlarge numbers of pupils are gathered together for work, if ventilation is neglected, the atmosphere is breathed and rebreathed\n\nuntil it is often positively dangerous. Attention is an absolutely\nvital element in instruction, and it cannot be had where the brains\nof students are benumbed by breathing vitiated air. Something\nbetter than raising and lowering windows must be adopted before\nthe best results can be obtained in ventilation .\n\nTHE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN BUSINESS .\n\nDr. Harris, in an article in \"Harper's Magazine\" for May, speaking of the public schools, says : \"The most important item of improvement that belongs to the recent history of education is the\nintroduction of professionally-trained teachers.\"\n\nDr. Harris is eminently right, and the greatest improvement that\ncan possibly be made in business colleges to-day is through the\nemployment of professionally-trained teachers. Our teachers, however, in addition to being trained as teachers, must come in touch\nwith commerce ; must have a clear knowledge of the requirements\nof the office and counting-house; and must, in the true sense of the\nterm, be business men and women. To their professional training,\nbusiness experience in our work is almost indispensable.\nI have several times, as the principal of a commercial college,\nsought to find men engaged in office work whom I might put into\nmy school as teachers of business branches ; but when I found one\n\nsufficiently learned in his profession, I usually found him wanting\nin ability to instruct, and without either the spirit or the high aims\nof a teacher, and too often his habits were of such a character that\nI could not conscientiously place him as a model before my young\nmen.\nOf course, there are exceptions to this, but they are excep-\n\ntions. If we want good teachers in our business colleges they must\nbe made as other experts are made-trained for this special work.\nWe cannot hope to pick them up by chance.\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.\n\n869\n\nI believe it is Dickens who says, \"Every Englishman believes he\ncan do three things without previous training.\" It seems to me\nthat almost every callow American youth, whatever else he believes,\nknows that he can teach school without training, and that without\ntraining he is especially fitted to establish and conduct a business\ncollege. Now, as a matter of fact, barring the special branches and\noffice or business experience, the training that will make a good\nteacher for the grammar school or the high school will make a good\nteacher for the commercial school.\n\nThe foundation on which is\n\nreared the superstructure of all good teaching is psychological law,\nand this applies at one period of the pupil's career as well as at\nanother.\n\nOur commercial schools are no longer made up of men\n\nand women who come in for a few weeks to be shown the theory\nof double-entry book-keeping, but they are made up of boys and\ngirls, young men and women, who come to be taught and trained\nfor business ; and when we ignore the training of teachers, and depend upon picking up bright men and women, who, from empirical\nknowledge only, can best do this work, we are making a mistake\nwhich we cannot afford to perpetuate.\nIt has always been, and is now, the boast of other institutions\n\nof learning, that they have gathered, and are still gathering to\nthemselves, great teachers, and for this they are known of all men,\nand not for the number of square feet of floor space they occupy,\nnor the ornate and luxurious furnishings with which they are fitted.\nAs to how this training is to be given to our teachers each school\n\nmust decide for itself; but however it is done, I believe it can best\nbe done in a formal manner. Experience alone, in teaching, should\nnot be depended upon. You take a young man into your school to\ntrain for a teacher.\n\nYour intention is good.\n\nYou have resolved\n\nhe shall pursue a course of reading ; you will advise him as to what\nhe shall do, caution him as to what he shall avoid, and develop him\nalong pedagogical lines. But you soon find that your time is consumed in other matters pertaining to your affairs ; that you have\nno more time to teach him how to teach than has the merchant to\n\nteach the young man applying to him how to keep books or to write\nshorthand, and, unless you have regular classes that he may join,\nin which teachers are being instructed, and with which he can study\nin a formal manner, much of your good resolution goes to the winds.\nI would suggest that there are various ways in which our teachers may secure training :\nFirst-Through the regular state normal schools. I say \" state\nnormal schools,\" because of the large number of worse than useless\nschools calling themselves \"normal\" schools.\n\nSecond- Through \"summer schools for the training of teachers\nof business\" connected with our own business schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n870\n\n[Business\n\nThird-The establishment of normal training classes for this\npurpose in our own schools .\n\nFourth-The collection of books on teaching, and the carrying\nout of systematic courses of reading by our teachers .\nFifth- Lectures on teaching by men and women eminent as instructors .\n\nSixth-The careful study of our best public and other schools\nand colleges, and the adoption of their means and methods.\nSeventh-The reading of educational journals.\nLet it not be thought, on account of what I have just said,\nthat I think we have no well-trained teachers ; what I want to say\n\nis we have not enough of them. But whatever may be said regarding the training of teachers, a large part of the success of every\n\nteacher rests upon his personality. It takes good material to make\na good teacher. Teachers are both born and made. No amount of\ntraining will make a good teacher out of one who is not born to be\na teacher. Teaching is not a mechanical process, but an intellectual\nprocess, and no methods or mechanism will take the place of the\nteacher's personality.\nThe teacher in the future business college will be one of intel-\n\nlectual capacity, character, and general culture. He will have a\nbroad knowledge of the theory and practice of teaching as laid down\nin the literature of the teacher's profession. His scholarship will\nbe broader than his sphere, and his good judgment and common\nsense will not be the least of his attainments. Then will the young\nman who opens a business college on the strength of his ability to\nflourish impossible eagles and spirally constructed stags disappear\nfrom the work on which he now brings ridicule.\nENGLISH.\n\nNotwithstanding all that has been said on the subject at former\nmeetings, I cannot refrain from saying a word about the teaching\nof English in our business schools. I am sure there is not one of\nus that would not gladly give up this branch of work, and I am\nlikewise sure that there is not one of us who can give it up. There\nis a strong pressure brought to bear by the public upon schools of\nall kinds over all the country regarding the matter of training in\nEnglish, and the commercial public is loud in demanding that our\nstudents be better prepared in this branch. The law and medical\nschools in my own state now require that the students entering them\nshall pass examinations in English, and failing to do this they are\nprovided with the means and required to remedy this deficiency.\nA strong effort is being made all over the country to discover the\nreason why students do not master, to a reasonable degree, our English spelling and our English speech in the public schools. More\nattention is being given to the subject in our higher institutions of\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.\n\n871\n\nlearning, and Harvard now makes English the one only required\nwork of her whole curriculum.\nThe commercial schools must stand shoulder to shoulder with\n\nother institutions of learning in this matter. It is a duty we owe\nto the business public, that young men and women shall not be\nallowed to go out, claiming to have been pupils in our schools, without our having, at least, made it a requirement that those standing\nin need of a reasonable drill in English should have had their wants\nin this direction supplied, as far as lay in our power, while they\nwere with us.\nTHE HISTORY OF BUSINESS EDUCATION.\n\nWhile we are working for the up-building of business colleges in\nthe future, it would be most unwise to neglect the lessons of the\npast, and particularly to neglect the remembrance of those who\nlabored in this, at that time, certainly not particularly prepossessing\nfield. I therefore suggest that we unite in having prepared a history of business education; that a leader be appointed to take\ncharge of this work, and that he be empowered to command whatever assistance he may need from among the members of this body.\nThe history of business education deserves a place in our literature ;\nin fact, the literature of business education demands thus to be\n\nrounded out and crystallized in such a work. We have among us\nnow men who have grown up with business colleges, who are perfectly familiar with them from their very beginning, and who are\nthoroughly competent to write\n-in fact, have already written-much\nof just such matter as a work of this kind should contain. It seems\nto me, therefore, eminently fitting that we should, before it is too\nlate, secure the services of these fathers of business college work\nin America, to write this most valuable history of the rise and\nprogress of business colleges. I hope, that, before this meeting\nis adjourned, the proper steps will be taken to carry this matter\nto a successful conclusion.\n'Tis greatly wise to talk with our past hours,\nAnd ask them what report they bore to heaven.\nA COMMITTEE ON BUSINESS EDUCATION .\n\nI wish further to recommend that a committee, consisting of not\nless than ten members of this body, on a plan similar to the wellknown committee of ten, be selected by this association, to make\na report at our next meeting on subjects of vital interest in our\nwork. Among such subjects, and in order to convey my meaning,\nI will merely suggest the following topics : Studies to be pursued\nin business colleges; the extent to which the various subjects taught\nby us should be carried; business, practice, and intercommunication; the theory and practice of accounts, and the place in our\ncourses each should occupy; the training of teachers, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": null, "text": "872\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Business\n\nThis committee can be subdivided, and, if appointed early in this\nsession, can meet for the first time before leaving Denver, and afterward much of the work can be done by correspondence, thus economizing in time and expense, though a full meeting of the committee\nshould be held before the next meeting of this association. My\nfriends, we must make some sacrifices ; we must show ourselves to\nbe as deeply interested in our special work as are the teachers in\nany other line of educational work, if we would succeed in any way\nthat deserves the name of success.\nLABOR AND LAW .\n\nWhatever charges have been made against the schools and busi-\n\nness colleges of this country by those ignorant of their aims or the\nwork they are doing, they have never been charged with promoting\nidleness. They are pre-eminently working schools, and for this\nfact, if for no other, they deserve the good will of the American\npublic ; for the greatest danger that confronts this great nation\nto-day is the danger of young men and women growing up with the\nhope of getting through life without work, and the fatal error of\nlooking upon labor as a disgrace. The sons and daughters of\nwealthy parents are too rarely found within the walls of business\nschools, where idleness is unknown, where the hive is filled with\nbusy bees, and from which the drones are driven if they cannot be\nconverted into workers .\n\nIn addition to fostering the spirit of labor, business schools cultivate a most wholesome respect for law and authority. There are\nno schools where order and discipline are better observed than in\nthe better class of our business colleges.\n\n\"You are doing a great work,\" said a prominent public school\nsuperintendent, recently, to the principal of a business school, after\ncarefully looking over the different departments and observing the\nstudents at their work. This was said in no spirit of flattery; it\ncame from the lips of a man whose heart is devoted to the work of\n\neducation, and who would scorn to compliment a school that did not,\nin his estimation, deserve it.\nFellow teachers, we are doing a great work, and that we may\nrealize still greater results let each one of us set for ourselves higher\nideals. Let us magnify our calling. Let us strive day by day with\npatient energy to improve ourselves and our cause.\n'Tis weary watching wave on wave,\nAnd yet the tide heaves onward;\nWe build, like corals-grave on grave,\nBut pave the pathway sunward.\nWe're beaten back in many a fray,\nYet ever strength we borrow;\n\nAnd where the vanguard rests to- day,\nThe rear shall camp to-morrow.\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nVALUE OF THE ALLIANCE.\n\n873\n\nTHE EXCHANGEABLE VALUE OF THE ALLIANCE OF THE\nBUSINESS EDUCATORS' ASSOCIATION WITH THE\n\nNA-\n\nTIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nBY MRS . SARA A. SPENCER, WASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nA slight divergence long continued leads to vast distances between honest minds agreeing upon general principles at a common\ncenter, and if those traveling upon these lines ever need mutual\ncounsel and help, they must either retrace their steps or leave the\nbeaten path and move toward each other.\nNo problem in the educational field to-day more vitally concerns\nthe purpose and end of all education-a rounded, well-developed,\nharmonious, and useful life-than the relation of arts, sciences, and\nletters to human culture and human need.\n\nThe instructors of the\n\nworld have sought the solution on diverging lines.\nThe difference lies somewhat like this :\n\nOne class claims that\n\neducation from the beginning should specifically prepare the human\nbeing for what he is to do in life; that is, for self-defense, for honest\nmaterial success, for securing prosperity for himself, those dependent upon him, and the community in which he lives. Further\nculture for intellectual and spiritual development and happiness\nmust wait on these achievements or be incidental to them.\n\nAnother\n\nclass claims that all education is primarily for development of faculties; that the special things taught may rarely or never be used in\nlife, but the culture will have so developed the intelligence and\nreason as to secure correct conclusions and adaptability to circumstances in all of the common and extraordinary emergencies of life.\nHow vast and ever-widening the field that stretches away between\nthese two ideas, and what colossal difference may be forecast in their\nresults applied to the youth of a nation !\nThe truth lies in a combination of these two theories.\n\nEither\n\nalone is full of danger.\n\nLet us glance for a moment toward the beginning of human\nculture, and see whether any natural order has been developed, observed, and applied. History indicates that civilizations have developed out of barbarism, and war, and conquest, and plunder,\nthrough the necessity for labor. Captured slaves, who provided for\nthe wants of families while masters went to war, acquired skill,\nestablished industries, and trades, and the arts of peace; built cities,\ngrew strong and wealthy, founded for mutual protection civil government, compelled allegiance and respect, and possessed the land.\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": null, "text": "874\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Business\n\nThus was the world, ancient and modern, made ready for commerce,\nfor sciences, the fine arts, philosophy, literature, and scholarship ;\nand so labor and business have furnished the incentive, the means,\nand the reward for discoveries rich and rare, for productions of\nexquisite skill, for researches deep and broad and high, for attainments vast and comprehensive.\nWhy is it that Science strays so far from business to-day, and\nregards even the suspicion of relationship as a reproach, an imputation upon her honor and high calling? How has she grown so arro-\n\ngant and ungrateful, so forgetful of the ladder by which she climbed\n-the bridge over which she crossed ? And how has Art grown so\n\nproud and supercilious, despising the day of her birth and the purpose for which she was called into existence ?\nAs it has been and is with tribes and nations, so is it also with\nindividuals and families. The farmer, mechanic, and tradesman\nrise early and toil late, and \"mother's work is never done,\" and all\n\nof the household live plainly and poorly that some one son, or more\nrecently a daughter, may pass through the high school, the college,\n\nthe university, the professional school, to come out toward middle\nage, probably to be supported still by the toiling family. Meantime,\ntheir habits, ways, and appearance may shock his sensibilities, if\nthey do not touch his heart with the pathos of the price they have\npaid to make him the ornamental appendage to a profession and a\nfamily he has grown to be. Thus science and learning, which should\nlighten the burdens and add to the joys of the whole world, seem\nto be used as an illusive day-dream by the few, and to bind heavy\nyokes about the necks of the many.\nYet it sometimes occurs that the scientist, or scholar, or man of\nletters returns, impecunious and dependent, to find a thrifty brother,\nwith trained business intelligence and skill, amassing an honest\nfortune, and using it prudently, regarding his learned brother as a\nharmless visionary, to be borne with and provided for. In either\ncase there is an appalling waste of the essential wealth of life, the\ntime, energy, ambition, and intellectual faculties of the moderatelyendowed candidate for university and professional honors, who only\nlacks the business ability to achieve success in an already over-\n\ncrowded profession. In this great, rich world he cannot feed himself. Yet we have secured a finished product of a high range of\neducational systems and institutions, and they who do deliver him to\nus do not regard it as strictly necessary that he should be of any\nspecial use. Let him find his place. His \"faculties\" are developed.\nFalse ideas that mislead, pervert, and paralyze useful faculties\nare not really the product of Science, but of Ignorance, and this\nhaughty jade, who despises labor, trade, and business, is not Sci-\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nVALUE OF THE ALLIANCE.\n\n875\n\nence herself, but a treacherous pretender, whose chief delight is to\nbeguile youths and maidens with an idea of living without sordid\ncare or personal exertion. True Science is the best friend and ally\nof labor, leads the way to fresh fields and shows new processes of\nculture. Commerce exchanges the rich products for the wealth and\n\nbeauty of the world, and philosophy, art, and literature elevate,\nrefine, and embellish the hours of sweet repose that alternate with\ntoil.\n\nTo this department of the National Educational Association,\nwhen, a few years ago, we were a separate organization, there\nseemed a great gulf between our ideas of the educational needs of\nthe people and the prevailing ideas in the common schools, high\n\nschools, colleges, and universities of the country. Our line of divergence we labeled \"practical,\" and used the term until we wore it\nthreadbare, declining to see that practical things meant more than\nmeat, and raiment, and money in bank. Determined to believe that\ncommon schools taught only dead rules and exploded theories, we\n\ndid not study them to see the educational wonders of the nineteenth\ncentury developing and blossoming at our feet. We were very busy\nhurrying the world onward, and the world was hurrying us, and\nwe were calling for more steam, steam, steam; more speed, speed,\nspeed; more money, money, money ! How we a mere handful,\nafter all, of our own special class of institutions-ever came to listen\nto the still, small voice of the National Educational Association,\nsaying : \" Come with us, ye that labor and are heavy-laden, and find\nrest to your souls,\" seems a marvel. Perhaps it was the approaching assembly of the nations of the earth upon our soil, to see what\neducation had done for humanity and could do, and the impending\ndanger of utter obliteration unless we were speedily allied with the\neducational forces of the land.\n\nIt is certain that as a separate\n\neducational organization we had not been able to secure, by all the\ninfluences at our command, the co-operation, for mutual counsel\nand inspiration, of one-fifteenth of the schools and colleges of our\nown distinctive class in the United States .\n\nPerhaps it was because the scope of our work was not sufficiently\n\nbroad and varied to arouse enthusiasm; perhaps it was because our\ncolleges are all private institutions, and the spirit of rivalry was\nstronger than the spirit of good-will and good-fellowship ; perhaps\nthe majority did not desire to incur their share of the expenses,\nwhich were certainly a heavy drain upon our resources ; perhaps\nthe proprietors felt the imperative need of a real vacation, instead\nof an assembly for hard work. Perhaps it was all of these and\nmore .\nWe may not have known how to appeal to them. But nothing is more certain than that it is an indispensable requisite of a\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n876\n\n[Business\n\nconvention that people should convene, and that requisite was\nlargely wanting in our case.\nNow all of these hindrances to a broader field of usefulness in\n\nour assemblies are thoroughly removed, as a direct result of this\nalliance. The scientific discussion, in the light of modern thought,\nof every known educational problem by the advanced thinkers and\n\nmost royal educators on this continent may be heard and participated in at our pleasure. Personal rivalries need have no place\nwhere the interests represented belong chiefly to the whole people.\nThe expenses of these assemblies are reduced to the lowest terms,\nso that if a teacher can go anywhere he may come here. The association is so identified with the living interests of the whole country\nthat the fair broad land is before it where to choose a place of meet\n\ning, and an entire state, or group of states, will join in providing\nfor its entertainment. And thus, without the heavy personal care\nand responsibility of entire provision for a convention, we may find\ngenuine recreation, artistic delight, rest, and comfort in coming together.\n\nAs to all the real purposes of a convention-exchange of ideas,\nstudy of methods, a higher standard of attainments for ourselves as\nteachers, a clearer comprehension of the priceless human souls committed to our care and culture, a stronger sense of responsibility\nfor our daily walk and conversation-it is clear that all comparisons\nmust be in favor of this alliance. If we are not giving in exchange\na fair equivalent for what we are receiving, and appear to be somewhat isolated and out of the \" swim,\" let us concede that it is due\n\nto contributory negligence on our part. This department should be a\nliving factor in this great organization, sensibly felt as enriching\nits life-blood and vital force.\n\nHere, for illustration, are points discussed in the general assemblies and special departments of the National Educational Associa-\n\ntion in which we should be deeply, earnestly interested :\nFirst-The training of teachers for a recognized profession. The\ngreat reforms in methods of reaching the mind and securing its cooperation in the process of growth have not come through the accidental inspiration of untrained tyros, but are the direct, logical result of acquiring the science and art of teaching. To the normal\nschool should be admitted only those who desire to make teaching\na profession, and to the schoolrooms, as teachers, should be admitted\nonly those who have proven themselves \"called\" and are thus consecrated, prepared, and ordained. Only the ignorant will trust\nquacks with the treatment of their bodies, and suffer all the dangers\nand consequences. Surely it is manifest that more disastrous results\nmust ever flow from permitting raw recruits to tamper with the\nprecious, immortal mind.\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nVALUE OF THE ALLIANCE.\n\n877\n\nWhat a baptism unto regeneration-what a new life-would flow\ninto the business colleges of this country if this doctrine were accepted and followed! It is said that in Germany ninety-five per\ncent of the teachers are fairly entitled to be called professional; in\nthe United States not one-tenth as many, or less than nine and onehalf per cent.\n\nest.\n\nSecond-The effect of higher education upon the lower and lowIt was worth while going to Asbury Park to hear Commis-\n\nsioner Harris epitomize the whole philosophy of a liberal education\nin the words : \"A principle of action is a sum of a series. The mind\nmust be able to grasp all the preceding steps, to reason, compare ,\nand deduce before it really knows a truth. Higher education seeks\nthe unity of human learning. It studies each branch in the light\nof all others, and in the light of its own history. A good definition\nof science is, that it unites facts in such a way that each fact throws\na light on all other facts, and all facts throw a light on each fact.\"\nLet us, with the best educators and thinkers and humanitarians\n\nof the age, note the dangers of half-way culture in forming leaders\nand agitators to stir up the savage blood of the ignorant masses, and\nbestir ourselves to aid the National Educational Association in unit-\n\ning the interests of the partially and the liberally educated, and\nblending their forces for the salvation of the lowest.\nThird-How to develop the morals of students through the influence of daily instruction in common things. Surely this is mutual\nground upon which all educators should meet. We all agree that\nsharpening the wits without developing the moral forces is simply\ngiving the spirit of evil weapons more keen, and subtle, and sure,\nto endanger the individual, society, and the nation. We all admit\nthat the Prince of Darkness knows enough; that he is a highly cultivated and accomplished gentleman, with tact and skill and fascination to lead and charm the scholar, the poet, the artist, the divine ;\nthat the only thing he cannot abide is the infinite love of doing good\nand being true at the cost of any sacrifice of self. If, as De Garmo\nsuggests, we make everything we teach a lesson in purity, truth, justice, benevolence, and aspiration toward high ideals, we are gathering about the soul committed to our care an atmosphere in which\nevil (the Devil) cannot live, and are developing manhood for the\nillumination and salvation of the business world .\nFourth-Reconstruction of the common school curriculum on the\n\nbasis of the report of the committee of ten.\n\nThis comes home to us\n\nwith peculiar significance. If a broad range of new studies, from\nnature and life, shall be introduced into the lower grades of common\nschools ; if the text-book is receding, and the living teacher, and observation, and personal research are becoming the illuminating\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": null, "text": "878\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[\nBusiness\n\nforces of to-day, we must be ready to receive and work with, rather\nthan upon, a new product of the common school.\nPending these great changes really going on, the National Educational Association has needed, upon its committee of ten and in\ndiscussion upon that report, the counsel and co-operation of the\nleading minds of the nation. To make room-i. e. , time for the\nstudy of natural phenomena, for experiments, measurements, ob-\n\nservations, and general living conditions of this planet, it is not\nnecessary to throw aside technical grammar. As well leave out\nenumeration or the multiplication table from arithmetic. If the\ncommon schools, from lowest to highest, would adopt the rapid\nmethods of calculation so well understood and constantly applied\nin the work of the business college, and the rapid-development\nmethod of teaching language, which makes this branch a delight in\nthe best commercial schools, there would be a gain of three-fifths\nof the entire time devoted to the lower grades, or three entire years\nout of the first five of school-life, nearly five years out of eight, including the grammar grades ; and this without the sacrifice of a\nsingle principle of mathematics or of scientific, scholarly English.\nAdd our methods of rapid writing, that needful records may be clear,\nquickly made, and beautiful, and we shall have a new and interesting\nmental product, which it will be a delight to develop into still higher\nand nobler uses .\n\nFriends, the new education was not born with the business college, and will not die with it. The manual training school, the technological schools, the schools for physical and vocal culture, the\nschools for applied ethics, are all as directly practical as ours . All\nhave borne fruit and dropped seed along the educational highways\nand by-ways. It is good for us that we are coming nearer to the\ngreat heart of the instructors of the world, bringing with us our\nexperience, and gathering theirs for strength, illumination, and inspiration for the work of our lives.\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nGUARANTEEING POSITIONS.\n\n879\n\nGUARANTEEING POSITIONS, OR FRAUDULENT ADVERTISING.\n\nBY J. W. WARR, MOLINE, ILL.\n\nTo come before an intelligent and honest body of educators for\nthe purpose of trying to demonstrate that the practice of certain\neducational pirates in enticing young people into their clutches by\n\nguaranteeing them situations is fraudulent, would seem about on a\npar with going before a religious assembly to prove that the devil\nwas no gentleman, that stealing was sinful, that murder was a crime,\nand polygamy immoral. For certainly no proprietor of a business\ncollege, with any just claim to the name, will so insult the business\n\nintelligence of the community, and subject the whole business college fraternity to suspicion and disrepute, as to openly guarantee\nsituations to young men and women he has never seen, never heard\nof, and of whose mental and moral fitness he can have no knowledge.\nHence, to even impliedly assume that the heinousness of this offense needs proving is almost an insult to your intelligence and\nhonor. The fact is patent, and must be admitted, that such guarantees are not made in good faith, and if they were, it would be\nmanifestly impossible that they could be carried out. It is a scheme\nconceived in fraud, nursed by ignorance and duplicity, and perpetuated by rascality on the ever-existing credulity of mankind. Now,\nwhile the so-called schools making such guarantees are repudiated\nby legitimate institutions, and while many take occasion to denounce\n\nsuch practices, is everything done that should be by the honest educators of the country to stamp out this evil?\nAre we not compelled to admit that the guarantee of situations\ngrew out of the practice of some of our best, most worthy, most conscientious business educators in extolling, as the chief merit of a\nbusiness education, the passport it affords to a business position ?\nWhen it was claimed and proved by testimonials that the graduates\nof a business college readily found lucrative positions as a result of\nthe qualifications afforded them, it only remained for the educational\ncharlatan to go one step further by guaranteeing in advance what\nothers asserted would be a result. It is not my purpose to attempt\nto prove that those who make so prominent the success of their\ngraduates in getting business positions through the qualifications\nafforded by and the influence of the school, are making claims in\nany way savoring of fraud, but I do claim, that, in making an incidental feature of a business training appear the most prominent, they\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": null, "text": "880\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Business-\n\nare, to a certain extent, lending color to the fraudulent claims of\nthose who follow the same lines of argument, but do not stop where\nhonesty ends and fraud begins. Understand me. I regard it as eminently proper for a legitimate business college to make prominent\nand emphatic its claims in the direction of fitting young men and\nyoung women for lucrative positions in business. I can see no impropriety in publishing the testimonials, adorned with half-tone\nportraits, of those who have demonstrated the work and worth of\nthe school by securing through its training and influence positions\nwhich gave them a start on the road to success in life.\n\nI take no\n\nexception to this form of advertising, which simply proves the worth\nof the school by its results.\n\nBut how about those students who have\n\nnot been successful in securing good business positions, and, either\nfrom necessity or choice, have gone into other fields of labor? Is it\nto be inferred that their business education was a failure?\n\nThat be-\n\ncause they did not keep books, operate the typewriter, or manage\na business office their business training represented a waste of\nmoney, time, and energy ? By no means. And yet such conceptions\nof the value of a business training exist to too great an extent among\nthe masses, and they exist because business colleges have, as a rule,\nnot made sufficiently prominent and emphatic the claim that a business education is a necessity whatever pursuit in life the individual\nmay follow; that whether a young man or young woman decides\nto engage in commercial work, farming, preaching, law practice,\n\nteaching, writing, or common every-day labor, a knowledge of business principles and practice is one of the essential elements of success in that work.\n\nI have on more than one occasion heard remarks\n\nsomething in this tenor: \" Oh, yes, a business college is a good school\nto attend for those who wish to fit themselves for business, but a\ngreat many attend who never get any good out of their education.\nFor instance, young A spent a good deal of time and money taking\n\na business course, and then, when he left the school, took a piece of\nland and has been doing farm work ever since.\"\n\nAnd yet, if young Mr. A had been consulted he would undoubtedly have denied that his business education was of no value to him.\nIf he proved to be the right kind of a farmer he would have claimed\nthat successful farming means farming conducted on correct business principles, and that debit and credit applied to a farm are\n\nquite as necessary as fertilizers, for while fertilizers make crops,\nthe application of business principles and business methods coins\nthem into money. This narrow conception of the value of a business training has kept many young people away from business colleges. When they saw by the advertising literature of the schools\nthat the measure of success of a school seemed to be established\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nGUARANTEEING POSITIONS.\n\n881\n\nby the number of business situations it secured for its graduates,\nthe educational value of its curriculum seemed to be eliminated.\n\nIt was not so much education but apprenticeship for clerical duties that was assumed to be desired, and for which facilities were\nso amply provided. It was this imperfect idea of the scope and\ncharacter of business colleges that caused them to be stigmatized\nby many as mere \"clerk factories,\" and to be viewed with suspicion and distrust by many prominent educators who estimated\nschools from an educational standpoint, and could not understand\nhow an institution that claimed to be a substitute for a business\n\noffice, furnishing mere practice in mechanical duties, could properly assume the dignified name of college. The educational idea\nmust, to a certain extent, be eliminated when it is persistently\novershadowed by claims that treat theories and principles with\ncontempt, insisting that the old primitive way that existed be-\n\nfore schools, that of learning to do by doing, is the only royal\nroad leading to success. It is not the purpose of this paper to\ndepreciate or belittle the claims of business colleges regarding the\npractical character of their work. Were they not practical they\nwould lose their distinctive value.\n\nBut there is such a thing as\n\nclaiming too much in this direction, and when the claim is made, and\nloudly and sharply emphasized, that students engage in actual\nbusiness transactions, handling actual merchandise and receiving\nand depositing actual cash, making actual gains and sustaining\nactual losses, it is no wonder that the contempt of the real, actual\nbusiness world should be excited, and that confidence in the integrity of such schools should be lost. I am quite aware that business\ncolleges making the claim of actual business do not expect it to be\nso literally construed as to mean that the merchandise the students\nhandle is real merchandise, the cash the real currency of the country, and the school itself a vast merchandise emporium. \"Actual\noffice practice\" expresses fully and correctly that which the term\n\"actual business\" exaggerates or misrepresents, and if business colleges generally would look more to exact truth than to advertising\neffect in the preparation of their catalogues and circulars, the claim\nof \" actual business\" would give place to other terms that would\nquite as effectually describe their work, besides possessing the merit\nof absolute truthfulness .\n\nBusiness educator, first cast the \" actual\n\nbusiness\" out of thine own eye, and then shalt thou see clearly to\ncastThe\nthe word\n\"guaranteed\nposition\"\nthyundoubtedly\nbrother's eye.is, too strong\nfraudulent\nmay out\nbe, ofand\na term to apply to the advertising of \"actual business\" as the overtowering feature of a school, and yet we must remember that the\ncharlatan who guarantees situations tries to make his claim seem\n56\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": null, "text": "882\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[\nBusiness\n\nplausible by representing that his students are in demand because\n\"actual business \" and \"no text-book foolishness\" is taught. To\nadopt a part of his methods and try to escape the obloquy that will\nfollow, is very much like the complacency of a foreigner who was\nroundly abused by another, and then turned away laughing immoderately. \" What in the world are you laughing at?\" asked a bystander.\n\"Oh, I got such a good yoke on dot 'feller, \" was the reply. \"You\nsee he called me a wortless, good for notting Swede fraud.\" \"Well, \"\nwas the comment, \"I don't see any joke about that.\" \"Why, don't\nyou see,\" said the victim, with another outburst of laughter, \"he\ncalled me a Swede fraud, when I was a Norwegian all the time.\"\nNow, if this little incident has any moral it is that misrepresentation will be called fraud no matter what name it goes by. In business college advertising there is no need of making claims that may\nbe even perverted into misrepresentation. The exact truth regarding the value of a business education is so grand, broad, and strong\nthat nothing more is necessary to convince the people of its universal\nutility. Every day broadens the field of action and enlarges the\nscope of its usefulness. Modern science and invention are revolutionizing the world. All forms of human industry are taking the\nshape of vast business enterprises which enlist the services of educated brains which machines can never displace. While skilled\nlabor has been begging places at one dollar a day, ten-thousand-dollar places have been hunting for men-men with minds trained to\n\ndo the practical things that the age demands. And with these\nopportunities increasing day by day, the responsibility of the business college becomes correspondingly greater, and if it keeps pace\nwith the great march of improvement it must have the strength\n\nthat comes only from a full appreciation of duty, and the courage\nand moral purpose to faithfully discharge it.\n\nSHORTHAND AND TYPEWRITING.\n\nBY W. A.\n\nWOODWORTH,\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO .\n\nPrior to the Christian era shorthand originated, and from that\ntime it marched steadily forward until it was overcome and lost\nin that deluge of barbarism which swept over the human race after\n\nthe decline of the Roman empire.\n\nIn 1588 it was revived in England\n\nby Dr. Timothy Bright, from which time until now it has never\nceased to delight the scholarship and to quicken the inventive genius\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nSHORTHAND AND TYPEWRITING.\n\n883\n\nof successive generations. In 1837 Isaac Pitman, breaking the theoretical bonds which enthralled the art, advanced it to that practical\nutility which is to-day so fully realized by hundreds and thousands\nof people.\n\nIts history may be divided into three distinct epochs : Ancient\nclassical stenography, from 63 B. C. to A. D. 1588 ; modern stenography, from 1588 to 1837; and phonography, from 1837 to the present\nday.\nANCIENT CLASSICAL STENOGRAPHY.\n\nWe possess evidences in the writings of the most renowned Roman statesmen, historians, and poets, such as Cæsar, Cato, Horace,\nMartial, Pliny, and Tacitus, all of whom either wrote or made use\nof shorthand, proving that it was extensively employed by the Romans .\nRome extended her sway over the then known world. It\nseemed essential that the debates and weighty resolutions of the\nsenate should be brought quickly to the knowledge of the people.\nAn abbreviated writing adapted to verbatim reporting was preeminently the want of the age. It was this desire which gave impulse to the invention and propagation of shorthand writing.\n\nTiro, a descendant of one of the nations conquered by the Romans, but living on an equality with Cicero's family, being inspired,\nno doubt, by Cicero, invented a system of shorthand, by means of\nwhich, Cicero having convoked the senate in the Temple of Concord\non the fifth day of December, 63 B. C., the orations delivered on that\noccasion and now familiar to students of history were reported by\nstenographers placed in different parts of the senate. In 54 В. С.\nCicero ordered the proceedings both of the senate and the people\nto be taken in shorthand and published. After Cicero's death, in\n43 B. C., Tiro spent considerable time disseminating the art, and\ndied in 4 B. C.\n\nIt is altogether incontrovertible that this writing\n\nobtained great prominence and was patronized and practiced by the\nemperors themselves. Augustus was an expert writer, and during\nhis reign there were three classes of stenographers appointed by the\nimperial government, called notarii. Diocletian in an edict stipulated that teachers of shorthand should receive seventy-five denarii\n\n($1.50) per month for each pupil.\nOrigen, an eminent Christian writer of the third century, dictated his critical studies of the Bible to seven or more shorthand\nwriters.\n\nFulgentius, a grammarian of the fifth century, says : \"All instruction is of a lower and higher nature, as the instruction of the\nyouth in writing is divided into the usual one and the stenographic\none.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n884\n\n[Business\n\nConstantine, the first Christian emperor of Rome, reclassified\nthe official stenographers introduced by Augustus.\nSt. Augustine gives an account of a successful strike of shorthand writers, something unknown in this \"striking age.\"\nThe \"incompetent\" existed then as now.\n\nBasilius the Great\n\nchides a careless writer as follows : \"Words have wings ; therefore,\nwe use signs, so we can attain, in writing, the swiftness of the\nwinged speech. But you, Oh youth, must make the signs very carefully and pay attention to an accurate arrangement of them, as\nthrough a little mistake a long speech will be disfigured.\"\nPliny the Younger (80 A. D.), speaking of his uncle says : \"When\nactually in the bath he was employed either in hearing some book\nread or in dictating. A shorthand writer constantly attended him\nin his chariot, who in winter wore a particular sort of warm gloves,\nthat the sharpness of the weather might not interrupt his studies.\"\nNeither were the popes slow to recognize the benefits of shorthand. Jerome employed ten amanuenses and Augustine supported\nsixteen .\nDECLINE AND DISAPPEARANCE .\n\nAfter the disintegration of the Roman empire in the fifth century\n\nfor hundreds of years, when ignorance, strife, and bloodshed with\ntheir accompanying evils prevailed throughout Europe, there are\nto be found few references to shorthand.\n\nWe pass quickly over its almost complete destruction by fire\nin the thirteenth century, the discovery by Trithemius of a copy of\nthe Psalms written in the \" Tironian Notes\" in 1499, now preserved\nin the library of Wolfenbuttel, Germany; the successful attempt by\nElrich Frederick Kopp in 1820 to decipher these notes, containing\nalmost as exhaustive an account of Roman shorthand as if he had\ninvented it himself.\n\nOther systems appeared, but fear of the Inquisition interfered\nwith their use. Incredible as it may appear, Isaac Pitman's phonography was denounced in 1845 by Rev. Edward Bickersteth as follows . \"Mesmerism, phrenology, and phonography are the stalkinghorses from behind which the most satanic lies and the most absurd\n\nblasphemies are sent forth against the Word of God.\"\nMODERN SHORTHAND .\n\nWith Timothy Bright's \"Characterie,\" printed in 1588, the modern\nliterature of stenography begins. Since then 883 different systems\nhave been issued, 307 English, 218 German, 145 French, and many\nItalian, Spanish, Russian, and others. But we pass rapidly to what\ninterests us most.\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nSHORTHAND AND TYPEWRITING.\n\n885\n\nPHONOGRAPHY.\n\nFifty-nine years ago a youthful schoolmaster of Bath, England,\nwho had previously acquired some skill as a writer of Taylor's stenography, devoted a midsummer vacation to the construction of a\n\nsystem of shorthand, by means of which, as he hoped, the study of\nthe art could be made a branch of common school education.\n\nWhat\n\nhas he lived to see ?\n\nAn issue of more than 2,000,000 copies of his text-book ; a weekly\nissue of 23,000 copies of his \"Phonetic Journal;\" the Bible; the\nPrayer Book; tracts and periodicals without number; Bacon's \"Essays;\" Bunyan's \"Pilgrim's Progress ;\" Cowper's \"Poems;\" Miss\nMuloch's \"John Halifax ; \" Dickens “Pickwick” and “Oliver Twist ;\"\nGoldsmith's \"Vicar of Wakefield ;\" Macaulay's \"Essays\" and \"Biographies;\" Milton's \"Paradise Lost ;\" More's \"Utopia;\" Scott's \"Waverley\" and \"Ivanhoe,\" and some of Shakespeare's plays published\nin shorthand characters ; and ninety-six per cent of the reporting\nof the world done by means of systems based upon his own.\nINTRODUCTION INTO THE UNITED STATES .\n\nIn 1843 Stephen Pearl Andrews attended the World's Anti-\n\nSlavery Convention in London. When leaving the platform a package of books and pamphlets was handed him with the request that\nhe examine them and introduce the subject to the American public.\nThe result was the publication of \" The Phonographic Class-Book,\"\nin 1844, by Andrews, and a class of Boston teachers 500 strong.\nIn 1848 Oliver Dyer went to Philadelphia, and started a class in\nthe high school. In three years 6,000 persons had been taught the\nart in Philadelphia. Before 1845 the qualified verbatim reporters\nof the United States could be counted on the fingers of one hand.\nMr. Dyer's class commenced work in March. In the following June,\nwith the aid of twelve pupils, he reported the National Whig Convention which nominated General Taylor for the presidency, and this\nin connection with school duties. From this class D. F. Murphy,\na youth of fourteen, now for so many years the honored head of the\nofficial reporting corps of the United States senate, Mr. J. J. McElhone, and others were transferred to the courts of Philadelphia\nand the two houses of congress,-first officially reported in 1848.\nLADIES AS STENOGRAPHERS.\n\nColorado makes no apology to the ladies. Here they have equal\nrights with men. A lady is president of our Stenographers' Association. The best managed graded school in Denver has a lady\n\nprincipal. Go on the streets and you will see her independent in\nlocomotion and apparel, while the men are doing admirably as mil-\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n886\n\n[Business\n\nliners, dressmakers, and cooks. For some time men held a corner\non our profession; but the women now have the advantage-in\nnumbers, at least. She has proven herself worthy. She is proud\nof being one link in the great chain which keeps the business of the\ni\n\nworld moving; proud of being a helper instead of a dependent;\nproud of the special profession which enables her to achieve an honorable independence. General Spinner employed the first seven lady\nclerks in the Treasury Department at Washington in 1862.\n\nHe said:\n\n\"It is the one act of my life with which I am entirely satisfied. \"\nThere are now several thousand in the different departments .\nIn 1872 Mrs. Eliza Burnz introduced shorthand into Cooper In-\n\nstitute, teaching free of charge, at which time there were six lady\nstenographers in New York. Now there are more than 15,000. Two\nof the best teachers of shorthand and typewriting in the country\nare Mrs. Packard of New York and Mrs. Longley of California.\nThere are 110,000 lady stenographers in the world. In 1892 they\nearned $71,000,000.\nSHORTHAND AS A PROFESSION.\n\nThe reasons for regarding theology, law, and medicine as \" the\nlearned professions\" arose from the knowledge requisite for their\nproper exercise. Are more knowledge and skill required to deliver\na sermon, to plead a cause, to diagnose a disease, than to rapidly\ncomprehend, reproduce, and preserve for the student the effusions\n\nof the theologian, statesman, physician, scientist, and the philosopher?\n\nThe moment the reporter ceases to understand, that moment his\nfingers cease to work ; he is lost in a labyrinth from which he cannot\nextricate himself. Unlike the practitioner of other professions, the\ngeneral reporter cannot make a specialty of one branch of learning.\n\nMere manual ability to write rapidly is not sufficient. He may be\ncalled upon to report the testimony of medical experts on an intri-\n\ncate point on which the life of a fellow being may depend; a convention of druggists or a congress of theologians ; a rapid array of\nstatistics on the currency question ; a technical debate on the tariff,\ncovering every branch of industry, art, and production; or a grave\nand learned discussion on a complicated and momentous question of\ninternational law .\n\nThree difficulties exist which prevent the proper recognition of\nour profession :\n\n1. The fact that the reporter is out of sight, and consequently\nout of mind, and so busily engaged in recording the progress of\nother arts and sciences and in extending and perpetuating their\nliterature that he leaves the progress of shorthand to time and circumstances .\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nSHORTHAND AND TYPEWRITING.\n\n887\n\n2. The statutes in most states provide that the official stenographer may be removed at the pleasure of the presiding judge-an\nofficial to-day, a tramp to-morrow,\n3.\n\nIncompetent Instructors.\n\nThere exists a conviction that the\n\nart can be mastered in a few lessons.\n\nviction.\n\nThere is reason for this con-\n\nWith the placing on the market of a practical typewriter\n\nthere arose a demand for shorthand writers-a demand that far\n\nexceeded the supply. Shorthand colleges (so-called) sprang up all\nover the country. The avarice of the proprietors induces them to\nspread broadcast through newspapers, magazines, and circulars\n\"advantages\" of their so-called discoveries of easy systems, guaranteeing a full knowledge of the art in a \"dozen lessons\" and \"reporting skill in three months.\" When a speed of one hundred words a\n\nminute (usually on practiced matter) is reached they are graduated,\npresented with an elaborate diploma, and sent forth into the business world to try the patience of their unfortunate employers and\ndegrade the profession. The United States Bureau of Education informs us, that, in the year 1890, 57,375 persons received instructions\nin shorthand, and yet 229 more of these institutions sprang up in\nthe United States during the year 1891.\nWe must discourage all attempts to lower the standard by those\nwho deceive the confiding. The public must be undeceived, and\nshown the folly of the belief that one can be qualified in three\nmonths. No court or legislative reporter should be commissioned\nwho cannot with his pen demonstrate his ability upon an examination by practical men.\nTrue, the elementary principles of stenography, like those of law,\nmedicine, or theology, may be learned in a short time ; but everybody knows that a brief course at a medical college is not sufficient\nto make a skilled physician, nor a smattering of Blackstone, Chitty,\nand Kent a competent lawyer, and so it cannot make that combination of brain, nerve, and muscle-of knowledge, skill, and endurance,\n--which we call a reporter. One may mix colors, but he is not an\nartist; one may use a chisel on marble, but he is not a sculptor ;\n\none may master the alphabet of a language, but that does not make\na linguist. Even a blacksmith is understood to serve an apprenticeship of a year .\nThe universal introduction of shorthand will tend to reform our\n\nEnglish. As it is, no person can tell the common spelling of any\nword which he has heard pronounced but has never seen written or\nprinted. For instance, if a uniform pronunciation were given to the\n\ntermination ough, the first line of the couplet\nThough the tough cough and hiccough plough me through,\nO'er life's dark bough my course I will pursue.\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": null, "text": "888\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Business\n\nmight be read: \"Thuf the tuf cuf and hiccuf pluf me thruf;\" or,\n\"Thup the tup cup and hiccup plup me thrup.\"\n\nIt is not surprising\n\nthat the Frenchman should complain of a cow (cough) in his box\n(chest) ; or that Voltaire, upon learning that ague is pronounced as\ntwo syllables and plague as one, should wish one-half the English\nhad the ague and the other half the plague.\nA child should not be subjected to such useless waste of time.\n\nWhen all the sounds are indicated, shorthand is yet four times as\n\nrapid as longhand, and a child after a little study could pronounce\nany word in the English language if he never saw the word before.\nThe public schools of Bavaria, Saxony, and Austria have introduced shorthand. The Romans taught shorthand. Every child\nshould, must, and will be taught shorthand and typewriting. Our\npublic schools and universities are offered the opportunity to take\na long step forward by establishing professorships for stenography\nand typewriting. The universities should turn out able shorthand\n\nteachers and competent practical stenographers. A professor, to\nperform such a task, must be of no mean education. Private institutions ought to go out of existence unless they are an improved\nedition of the public school and the university.\n\nShorthand is one of the most important auxiliaries in the battle\nof life, not as a means of earning our bread alone but of cultivating\nthe mind-as an aid in general education. It is an extravagance to\ndo without a stenographer, and economy to employ one in our courts\nand offices .\n\nMr. Gawtres said of the benefits of shorthand :\nIf all the feelings of a patriot glow in our bosoms on the perusal of those eloquent speeches which are delivered in the senate, we owe it to shorthand. If new\nfervor is added to our devotion and an additional stimulus be imparted to our\nexertions as Christians by the eloquent appeals and encouraging statements made\nat the anniversaries of our various religious societies, we owe it to shorthand. If\nwe have an opportunity, in interesting judicial cases, of examining the evidence\nand learning the proceedings with as much certainty and nearly as much minuteness as if we had been present on the occasion, we owe it to shorthand. In short,\nall those brilliant and spirit-stirring effusions which the circumstances of the present times combine to draw forth, and which the press transmits to us with such\nastonishing celerity, warm from the lips and instinct with the soul of the speaker,\nwould have been lost entirely to posterity and comparatively little known had it\nnot been for the facilities afforded to their preservation by shorthand.\nWere the operations of those who are professionally engaged in exercising this\nart to be suspended but for a single week a blank would be left in the political\nand judicial history of our country, an impulse would be wanting to the public\nmind, and the nation would be taught to feel and acknowledge the important purposes it answers in the business of life.\nTYPEWRITING .\n\nQuite as much may be said of the advantages of the typewriter.\nShorthand and typewriting are twin sisters.\n\nSo long as shorthand\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nSHORTHAND AND TYPEWRITING .\n\n889\n\nis not universal, the typewriter is as necessary to the stenographer\nin the transcription of his notes as is an orator's tongue to the utter-\n\nance of his thoughts. What the sewing machine is to the needle,\nthe typewriter is to the pen. Children enjoy using the typewriter.\nTwenty-five years ago there was hardly a machine in use. Now\nthere are 300,000 .\n\nThe time is coming soon, advocate it or not as\n\nwe may, when the typewriter will be used in all public schools and\nin the home. We expect to live to see the typewriter as common\nin the home as the sewing machine is to-day. I am sorry to say that\nif this prediction is not verified the typewriter trust has itself to\nblame. Even now the business man no longer sits from morning\ntill night writing laboriously with a pen. In one hour at most he\ncan dictate a heavy correspondence, leaving the balance of the day\nfor other business and reasonable rest and recreation.\n\nA preacher once said : \"The world is wrong side up. It must be\nset right side up, and we are the people to do it.\" The world is in\nmany respects wrong side up. The world is moving up, up, slowly\nbut surely. The stenographer is the Archimedes, shorthand and the\ntypewriter the lever and fulcrum with which to put it right side up.\nWill the masses ever use typewriters ? That might have been asked\nof the sewing machine thirty years ago, and of the bicycle five years\nago, but not now. Civilization takes no steps backward. Why not\nlead the procession ? Agassiz, the eminent naturalist of Harvard\nCollege, said he could not have accomplished what he did had it\nnot been for shorthand. Parents come to us with their children,\nand desire a business education and a position guaranteed in three\nmonths. Give us the Boston teachers, the Philadelphia high school\nscholars, the flower of intellect, and we will give them a steppingstone on which to climb to the heights of ambition.\n\nTeach children\n\nshorthand and typewriting, and enable them to accomplish more in a\ndecade than they now accomplish in a lifetime.\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": null, "text": "890\n\nNATIONAL EducatIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Business\n\nETHICAL SIDE OF BUSINESS TRAINING.\n\nBY D. W. SPRINGER, ANN ARBOR, MICH .\n\nThe possibilities for the teaching of ethics are greater in no de-\n\npartment of education than in ours. While discussing the subject\nof accounts, it is easy for us to refer to the account with us which\n\nis kept above. In it we are debited for daily blessings, such as life\nand health, and credited for all our acts that make for the betterment of mankind.\n\nThe use of the statement can be made to show the\n\nevil effect of too much crdit. Many a man has been dragged to ruin\nby the fact that his credit was larger than his financial ability. There\nis a reckoning day for all of us. The trial balance illustrates the difference between being right and nearly right, and strengthens the\n\ninjunction, \"Be sure your sins will find you out.\" The principles of\ndouble entry are those of justice and equality. The student can be\nshown that it is impossible to get something for nothing and a shoulder-blow is struck against our high-toned forms of gambling.\nSystem is a necessity in our work in book-keeping. It is also\nnecessary if we would economize. If that can be impressed upon our\nyoung people, the next generation will be more thrifty and contain\nfewer bankrupts .\n\nDuring the time the student is engaged in business practice, he\nis learning that fair dealing is essential to success. He deals with\nmen and women, and is enabled to make a study of human nature.\nHe discovers his relation to himself and society. He must have\nconfidence in himself.\n\nNot the same kind as had the man who\n\nwas proud of but two things : First, that he was a self-made man;\nand, second, that he adored his creator. No man can inspire\nconfidence in others who has none in himself.\n\nThe student should\n\nbe taught that there are two ways of achieving success: One may\nrise by pulling others down. The better way, however, is to make\nthe world and others better, and by the strength obtained in such\nefforts to place ourselves in as commanding a position as possible.\n\nTeachers and proprietors of schools, precepts will count for but\nlittle unless our practice is in accord with our instructions. We must\ngain the confidence and respect of our pupils. At this age in educational advancement, no teacher should be employed who uses liquor\nor tobacco in any form or who enjoys the pleasure of the card table\nmore than that of the library.\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF CHILD STUDY.\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES.\n\nFIRST SESSION.- THURSDAY, JULY 11TH.\n\nThe first meeting of the Department of Child Study was called to order at 3\np. m. by President William L. Bryan .\n\nThe Secretary, Miss Sara E. Wiltse, being absent, Prof. M. V. O'Shea was appointed to the place.\n\nIn his opening address, the President described the character of the program\nfor the entire session, stating that it was the aim to have, first, reports of child\nstudy work in different parts of the United States and Canada by committees from\n\ndifferent sections ; second, a report of the National Committee on School Hygiene ;\nthird, brief addresses upon the value and method of child study for a science of\neducation and for teachers in service .\n\nAfter the President's address a report of child study work in Iowa was read by\nH. E. Kratz, Superintendent of City Schools, Sioux City, Iowa. This was followed by reports of child study work in Minnesota by Prof. M. V. O'Shea of Man-\n\nkato, Minn.; in New York, by Prof. E. R. Shaw of the School of Pedagogy, New\nYork City; in California, by Prof. Earl Barnes of Leland Stanford Junior University; in Illinois, by Col. Francis W. Parker of Cook County Normal School,\n\nEnglewood, Ill.; in Indiana, by Prof. William L. Bryan of Bloomington, Ind.\nPresident Bryan then spoke briefly of the outlook for child study in different\nparts of the country and the good that had already been accomplished. He said\nit was of especial importance that child study should be made practicable for the\nordinary teacher, and that it should enable her to understand child nature more\nthoroughly, so that she could adapt her instruction and government and discipline\nto each individual under her care.\n\nThen followed an address by Dr. Edward R. Shaw, on \"Methods of Child\nStudy and Their Comparative Values for the Teacher . \"\n\nThis was followed by an\n\naddress by Prof. G. T. W. Patrick of Iowa, on the subject, \"Is Child Study Practicable for the Teacher ?\"\n\nThe last address of the afternoon was delivered by Prof. Earl Barnes, his\nsubject being \"Punishment as Seen by Children.\"\nThe President appointed as a Committee on Nominations, Prof. G. T. W. Patrick of Iowa, Prof. M. V. O'Shea of Minnesota, and Mrs. Charles E. Dickenson\nof Colorado.\n\nThe meeting was then declared adjourned until Friday afternoon.\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": null, "text": "892\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\nSECOND SESSION.-FRIDAY, JULY 12TH .\nThe meeting was called to order at 3 o'clock p. m. by President Bryan.\nThe first address of the afternoon was delivered by Prof. M. V. O'Shea, upon\n\"The Method and Scope of Child Study for Teachers in Service.\"\nThis was followed by an address by Prof. W. O. Krohn of Illinois, on \"Some\nResults of Child Study Work in Illinois, and Their Value for Teachers in Service.\"\nDr. Charles De Garmo being called upon, delivered an address upon \"Child\nStudy from the Herbartian Point of View.\"\n\nDr. C. C. Van Liew of Illinois then followed with an address on \"Child Study\nwith the Co-operation of the Parents.\"\n\nAn abstract of a paper by Professor Baldwin of Princeton College upon \"Imitation in Childhood\" was presented by President Bryan ; and this was followed\nby a report of \"Studies upon Motor Ability\" by Supt. John A. Hancock of Colorado.\n\nThere followed upon this report some discussion upon the development of the\nmuscular system and of physical activities in children. It seemed to be the opinion that the development of free, large activities precedes that of delicately coordinated activities, rather than that the devolpment of large muscles precedes\nthat of smaller ones .\n\nThe report of the National Committee on School Hygiene was read by Dr. Edward R. Shaw.\n\nThe Committee upon Nominations reported as follows :\nFor President-Prof. Earl Barnes of California.\n\nFor Vice President-Supt. Orville T. Bright of Illinois .\nFor Secretary-Dr. Edward R. Shaw of New York.\n\nUpon motion, the report of the committee was accepted, and the above were\ndeclared the officers for the ensuing year.\nAfter a few brief remarks by the President, expressing satisfaction with the\nmarked success of the meetings of the department, the meeting was declared adjourned.\nM. V. O'SHEA,\nSecretary pro tem.\n\nt\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD STUDY IN IOWA .\n\nDepartment.]\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\n893\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\n\nREPORT ON CHILD STUDY IN IOWA.\n\nBY H. E. KRATZ,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS ,\n\nSIOUX CITY , IOWA.\n\nIowa has but recently taken up in a systematic form the lines of\nwork now designated under child study.\nThat which gave the greatest impetus to this line of work was the\nformation last winter, at the meeting of the State Educational Association, of the Iowa Society for Child Study.\nA simple organization was formed. Its officers consisted of president, secretary, and treasurer, who, aside from performing the usual\nduties of such officers, were constituted an executive committee to\nappoint leaders to carry on the lines of work agreed upon, and who\nwere given general management of the work of the society.\nThree lines of investigation were agreed upon, viz.:\n\n1. Ear-mindedness and eye-mindedness ; with the view of learning about the comparative value of recollection, through impressions\nmade on the ear and eye, and possibly gaining some suggestions as\nto the cause of poor spelling, and how to correct it.\n2. Tests of sight and hearing; in order to discover what per cent\n\nof pupils had defective senses; whether this per cent increased in the\nhigher grades or not, etc.\n3. Determination of age, weight, and height of respective grades ;\nfor the purpose of testing whether large physical development and\nprecocity usually attend each other, and, if so, whether the former\nstands in relation to the latter, as cause and effect.\nOther lines of work were not excluded, but it was deemed wise\nnot to attempt too many lines of investigation at first.\nThe officers chosen were:\nSupt. H. E. Kratz, Sioux City, President; Supt. C. P. Rogers, Marshalltown, treasurer, and Supt. O. С.\nScott, Oskaloosa, secretary.\n\nAn annual fee of fifty cents was fixed, and an enrollment of seventy-five members secured.\n\nIn April a sixteen-page pamphlet was issued by the society,\nthrough the co-operation of the Department of Public Instruction,\n\nwhich contained a history of the organization of the Iowa Society for\nChild Study, working directions for the lines of investigation agreed\nupon, study of temperament, study of individual characterization,\nand bibliography of child study.\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n894\n\n[Child Study\n\nResults are, as yet, necessarily meager. In ear-mindedness and\neye-mindedness the investigations, while not conclusive, seem to\nindicate that good spellers, generally, are eye-minded, and that it may\nbe well to attempt to develop eye-mindedness in the poor spellers.\nIn tests of sight and hearing, the investigations showed an alarming increase in defective vision as they ascended the grades. In one\ncity, where 4,551 pupils were examined, the per cent of defective sight\nwas six in the first grade, and sixteen and a half in the eighth grade.\nIn determining the relation of large physical development to precocity or scholarship, conclusions vary; but as far as the investigations have gone they seem to indicate that a big body is no assurance\nof a big per cent in scholarship.\nIn several cities of the state the study of the individual pupil was\nbegun by recording, on a blank prepared for that purpose, the chief\ncharacteristics of each pupil, and noting at bi-monthly intervals any\nchanges which were observed. A year's use of such blanks shows\nthe following advantages :\n\nFirst (and of foremost importance). There has been such an interest roused among the teachers in the study of pupils' chief characteristics as never before was manifest. Teachers say that their pupils\nare in their thought as never before, individual peculiarities are\nbetter understood, a deeper insight gained into child nature, etc.\nSecond-There is a more intelligent appreciation on part of teachers of the real needs and defects of their pupils and a greater definiteness of aim in their work.\n\nThird-A few children who were regarded as hopelessly dull\nhave been found to be simply dull in hearing; and some to be hindered by defective eyesight.\nFourth-Teachers have been able to seat pupils with reference to\ntheir ability to see and hear.\n\nFifth-The teachers with the records of their pupils' defects before them could more effectively work for symmetrical development\nof each pupil.\n\nSixth-The teachers were brought into closer and better relations\nto their pupils in general, and developed greater intelligence and sympathy in dealing with bad boys and girls.\nSeventh-The records disclosed to the superintendent how care-\n\nfully his teachers studied their pupils, the measurements they applied,\nwhat motives they appealed to, and what feelings they sought to\narouse.\n\nIn short, the inner school-life of each teacher was thus\n\nrevealed.\n\nWe are convinced, that, in this line of child study, we are\n\non the right road to still more effective work.\nThis report of work already done in Iowa cannot set forth that\n\nwhich is most promising in this department; and that is, the en\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCHILD STUDY IN MINNESOTA .\n\n895\n\ncouraging outlook for the coming year. From nearly every quarter\nof the state came the report : \"We have not yet made a beginning, but\nwe are getting ready to prosecute these investigations vigorously the\ncoming year.\" Our most promising work lies in the future.\n\nREPORT OF THE WORK IN CHILD STUDY IN MINNESOTA.\n\nBY M. V. O'SHEA, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MANKATO , MINN.\n\nMy report of child study in Minnesota will perhaps be more prophetic than historical-a promise of things to come, rather than a\nlengthy record of important things already accomplished. The past\nyear has not been entirely fruitless, however, for much interest has\nbeen manifested in all parts of the state in child study, and a beginning at least has been made in the work in a number of places-in\nthe state university, in the normal schools, and in many of the public schools. At the university, Mr. Harlow S. Gale, who has the chair\nof experimental psychology, has devoted considerable time during his\nregular class-work to the consideration of the methods and problems\nof child study; and during the past year a member of the senior class,\nîn conjunction with Mr. Gale, has been making a special study upon\nchildren's imaginations. I am not able at this time to give the results\nof that study, for the material gained has not been completely worked\nover; but it seems to be a very interesting one, and I believe something good will come from it. Mr. and Mrs. Gale, both of whom are\ntrained psychologists, are keeping a psychological diary, after the\nmanner of Preyer, of their child, two years of age, and there is reason\nto believe that some valuable suggestions will come from this later.\nIn the state normal schools considerable work along the line of\nchild study is being done in connection with the regular work in the\ntraining of teachers. At St. Cloud special studies were made the\npast year, under the direction of Miss Lawrence, superintendent of the\npractice department, upon the eye-mindedness and ear-mindedness of\n121 children, the tests suggested by Granville in his little book being\nfollowed. It was found that the number of pupils who were decidedly sight-workers increased from the lower grades to the higher.\nShe believes this is an indication that cultivation may develop either\neye-mindedness or ear-mindedness, and that modern school methods\n\ntrain the eye more than the ear. \"A class of pupils from the country who had been in the school regularly had thirty-three and one-\n\nthird per cent sound-workers. Throughout the grade pupils who\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": null, "text": "896\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\nwere marked sound-workers were the poorest readers of their classes.\n\nThese pupils were very good thinkers and workers in most of their\nwork, but manifested less interest at once if asked to look at a book.\nThey frequently endeavored to get the story of the reading lesson by\nlistening to others. After discovering this, the ear was appealed to\nmore frequently in connection with words. Ear-minded pupils were\n\nalways given an opportunity to sound words, were required to read\norally more than they had been, rhymed words were used, and so on.\nThe result was a marked improvement in their work in reading.\"\n\nAt the Winona Normal School, the study of children during the\npast year consisted of the following, under the direction of Mr. E. A.\n\nKirkpatrick, instructor in psychology, and Mr. L. H. Galbreath, instructor in methods and superintendent of the practice school : (1)\nDiscussion of students' own childish experiences, and their incidental\nobservations upon children in connection with the study of various\n\ntopics in psychology. (2) A course of lectures and assigned readings,\ngiving purposes, methods, and principal results of child study. (3)\nObservations of classes and individual pupils in the model school under ordinary school conditions, to determine their power and habit\nof attention, perception, apperception, imagination, memory, conception, reasoning, and volition. The students were furnished with\noutlines to guide them, and they reported both orally and in writing\ntheir observations and inferences. (4) Experiments conducted by the\n\nstudents, under the direction of the teacher of psychology, upon the\npupils in the model school, in testing sight, hearing, motor-ability, and\nso on. (5) Inquiries, conducted by the statistical method, leading\nstudents by generalization to see the kind and amount of reading\ndone by the pupils, their ideals of right and wrong, etc. (6) Measurements and observations of individual children by students at home\nand during vacation, more extensively varied than is possible in the\nschoolroom. For this, printed directions were given students, and\ntheir reports were tabulated by members of the psychology classes\nand all the generalizations possible made.\nIn addition to these six lines of work, Mr. Galbreath made a\nspecial study upon a class of normal school students-as to their\nreadiness in appropriating the contents of any assigned reading. He\nfound that it took some students twice as long as others to master\nthe same article, and his conclusions are valuable as indicating a\n\nmarked difference in the quickness of pupils in responding to the\nstimuli of the classroom.\n\nAt the Mankato Normal School the work in the study of children\nis somewhat similar to that at Winona. During the past year there\nhave been three principal lines of work :\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nCHILD STUDY IN MINNESOTA.\n\n897\n\n(1) Studies upon the physical, intellectual, and emotional characteristics of children in relation to the work of the schoolroom.\n\nCourses of lectures are given in the psychology and pedagogy classes\nupon the purposes and methods of child study, and the results that\nare being reached by different experimenters. The best methods and\nmeans of child study for the teacher are especially considered. After\ncompleting the studies in psychology and pedagogy, and before beginning teaching in the practice school, each pupil-teacher is required to\nobserve and study the children he is to teach, making careful reports\n\nupon physical, intellectual, and emotional characteristics, so far as\nthese are of direct concern to the teacher.\n\nIn making out these re-\n\nports, the children are never aware that they are being studied, unless in the case of testing senses, motor-ability, etc., but the teacher is\nrequired to gather all data from observations made during the regu-\n\nlar work of the classroom and upon the playground. Several reports\nof each pupil are made during the year by different persons, these\nbeing carefully preserved; and it is the purpose to thus keep a record\nof each pupil as he goes through the grades. It is believed that several years of such detailed and careful records will afford valuable\ndata for the educator in tracing the effect of varied educational\nagencies upon children in different stages of their education. In addition to the study of general characteristics, pupils are studied as\nto their capacities for responding to each of the different subjects\nof instruction in the school. If a pupil seems deficient in any branch,\na careful test is made to discover, if possible, the reason for this.\n2. The special studies upon children's drawings begun three\nyears ago, a preliminary report of which was made at the meeting\n\nof this association at Asbury Park last year, have been continued,\nand a large number of drawings have been collected from children\nin the Mankato Normal School and from the public schools of the\nstate. These continued studies tend to confirm the points made in\nthat report, that children use symbols with great readiness and confidence in expressing their concepts and ideas of the relations of\nthings in their environment; that every child has a characteristic\nway of making symbols to express his thought, and that these sym-\n\nbols seem to embody, in a measure at least, the concept characteristics of objects as the child thinks of them. During the past year\ndrawings were gained at frequent intervals from children who had\n\nalready made drawings for two years, the purpose in this being to\ntrace changes in the symbols used, and in the freedom, manner, and\naccuracy of using them to express relations indicated in a selec-\n\ntion of narration or description in story form. It is the aim to\ncontinue this work so that we may have several years' drawings of\n\na number of children, which we purpose to continue to study along\nindicated in last year's report.\nthe lines\n57\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": null, "text": "898\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\n3. During the past year numerous special studies have been\nmade at the Mankato Normal, but they have been sent to specialists\nin different parts of the country to be worked over in conjunction\nwith other material. Studies were thus made upon children's imagination, hopes, time-sense, sense of justice, and so on.\nIn the public schools, especially those of St. Cloud, St. Paul, and\nDuluth, studies have been made upon children to determine their\nrelation to and capacity for the work of the classroom. These included tests upon the senses and the motor-abilities of pupils, and\nobservations upon the keenness and accuracy of perception, memory,\nimagination, and reasoning.\n\nMr. C. L. Sawyer, principal of the South Side High School of\nMinneapolis, required monthly reports of all his teachers upon the\nphysical, intellectual, emotional, and volitional characteristics of\neach pupil under their care.\n\nThis is substantially what has been done in our state along the\nline of child study during the past year. We hope to have more to\nreport in coming years. A state association will probably be formed\nat the approaching meeting of the university summer school, and\nmuch interest and enthusiasm is manifested in such an organization.\n\nLetters have been received from many of the leading educators of\nthe state, all of whom are anxious to have a society that will keep\nabreast of the work done in child study, with the special aim to make\nthis new work practical for the average teacher in the graded\nschools. There seems to be a general feeling at present that the\nstudy of children, as ordinarily conducted, is not feasible or of special value in the average schoolroom, so that in many places nothing\nis being attempted by the very class that most need the benefits that\nmay come from child study. We are hoping, that, if an association\nbe formed, suggestions can be made that will be practical and profitable for at least the average public school teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD STUDY IN NEW YORK STATE.\n\nDepartment.]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\nON CHILD\n\nFOR NEW\n\n899\n\nYORK\n\nSTATE\n\nSTUDY.\n\nBY THE COMMITTEE .\n\nIn gathering the information for this report your committee addressed letters to all the normal schools of the state, to other in-\n\nstitutions of equal and higher rank for the training of teachers, and\nalso the State Department of Public Instruction. Replies have\nbeen received from all but six of the professional centers of education. At the Oswego Normal School during the past year all the\nstudents in psychology have made observations upon children outside the school .\n\nThis work has been under the direction of Miss\n\nMargaret K. Smith.\n\nThe study was made in accordance with\n\nprinted syllabi, and involved the physical condition of the child as\nto appearance, development, and health. Measurements of the body\nwere made in regard to height, weight, size of head, chest, shoulders,\nand arms. Tests were made upon clearness of vision; upon accuracy of hearing and distinguishing the direction of sounds ; sensitiveness as to touch; muscular resistance. A study was made of the\nchild in repose ; then tests to ascertain to some extent the contents\nof the child's mind, by seeing what he would recognize through each\nsense. A study of the child at play was made-as to the kind of\nplay preferred; tendency to imitate ; tendency towards persistence ;\nadaptation of means to ends ; tendency to construct, to reproduce ;\npower of attention ; sense of fair play ; evidence of will; evidence\nof self-control, etc. The last syllabus used by the student in this\nstudy of the child directed him to observe the senses most highly\ndeveloped; those most depended on ; the properties or qualities of\nan object which the child notices first ; the adequacy of language\nto needs ; character of questions asked ; motive ; lines of curiosity ;\nhow the child satisfies his curiosity ; lines of ignorance ; relation\nbetween parents' occupation and child's knowledge; manual caараbility; attitude towards animals, music, poetry, stories ; favorite\nplaces and persons; the tendencies of the child; characteristics of\nhis desires, beliefs ; his sense of right and wrong ; character of\nmemory ; influence of environment. All this has been required of\nthe students of the psychology class with regard to children not\nin the practice school. In the practice school special studies have\nbeen made upon reflex action, upon anger as evidenced by children,\nand also an effort has been made to recognize children who are be-\n\nlow the average intellectually as well as physically. The matter of\nchild study has assumed considerable proportions as a part of the\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": null, "text": "900\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Child Study\n\ntraining of teachers at Oswego. It must not be assumed, however,\nthat all these observations and measurements have been made with\n\nthe scientific exactness of the specialist. The effort has been made\nin the true direction to enlarge the teacher's knowledge of the individual child in order that she may the more fully aid that child's\nbest development. A further end is secured in that the teacher is\nled to become interested in the more scientific investigations of specialists and to appreciate the value of these investigations.\nDuring the latter part of this year, State Superintendent Skinner,\nthrough the Department of Public Instruction, has taken up the\nmatter of child study. It is the intention of the department to\ngive the subject a trial, and through teachers' institutes to interest the rank and file of teachers throughout the state. Accordingly the department has issued a pamphlet of thirteen pages,\n\nentitled \"Hints on Child Study,\" by Prof. Charles H. Thurber of\nColgate University, and also a syllabus by Professor Thurber, to\nsecure data for a study on \"Children's Hopes.\" Through this effort.\nof the state department much data will probably be collected. Already over 3,000 papers have been sent in.\nThe Geneseo Normal School has already begun the collection of\ndata according to the syllabus issued by the state department.\nAt the Cortlandt Normal School work in child study has been\nintroduced during the past term, and the results have been found\nto be so helpful that it is purposed to make it a part of the regular\nwork next year.\n\nAt the Potsdam Normal School students in the graduating class\nhave been required to study and report on groups of children and\non individual children.\n\nThese reports were made the bases of dis-\n\ncussions in the graduating class, and Principal Stowell deems such\nstudy intimately connected with the normal training of teachers.\nIn the Normal College of New York City, the senior class has\n\nmade a collection of 1,200 miscellaneous incidents regarding children, and these incidents have been discussed. Several classes of\n\nchildren have been tested individually upon spelling and drawing.\nAt this institution monthly meetings for child study have been held\nunder the direction of the Committee on Child Study of the Asso-\n\nciate Alumne. This committee has collected data on \"Anger\" and\n\"Dolls,\" according to Dr. Hall's syllabi. The committee has also\nkept continuous records of fifty children in the Alumne Kindergarten of the East Side.\n\nAt the School of Pedagogy, University of Buffalo, monthly meetings of mothers in the interest of child study have been held at the\nFranklin School.\n\nIn this school the teachers have been collecting\n\nfacts, so as to secure a biography of each child-this biography being kept in a separate book. Accurate physical measurements of\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\n901\n\nCHILD STUDY IN NEW YORK STATE.\n\nthe children of this school have been taken at two periods, with\n\nthe intention of giving physical exercise that will correct faults as\nwell as serve for comparison.\n\nAt the School of Pedagogy, New York University, observations,\ntests, and measurements upon handwriting have been continued\nduring the year, the number of pupils thus tested and studied reaching nearly 4,000.\nThe collation of the data is not yet completed.\n\nSome of the\n\nconclusions which it seems to warrant are: (1) That the muscular\nhabit of girls in writing becomes sooner fixed and is more difficult\nto change than that of boys. (2) That girls in writing are fatigued\n\nconsiderably quicker than boys. (3) That fatigue of either boys or\ngirls in writing varies widely, some becoming apparently as much\nfatigued in writing three lines as others in writing eight lines, with\nvariations between these two numbers. In the Hensinger Schoola day school recently established in which the University School of\nPedagogy has a small but enlarging interest-experiments have\nbeen made upon children when learning to write. The children of\nthe first and second years wrote only upon the blackboard, making\nvery large letters. By inciting these children to write with the left\nhand about one-third as much as with the right hand, it was found\nthat the improvement with the right hand was greater than if the\nright hand alone had been used. With the older pupils who wrote\nwith pen and ink, a desk with a slope of 15° and a sliding top, to\ngive a minus distance of three and one-half inches, was found to\ngive the pupil greater ease and freedom in writing and greatly to .\nimprove his posture while writing. The vertical hand was the style\nused.\n\nThe School of Pedagogy also made during the year an extended\nstudy upon the poor spellers in a school of 600 pupils. As similar\nstudies are to be made upon the poor spellers of other schools dur-\n\ning the coming year, only a few points growing out of the study are\nreported. The study showed that with these pupils the eye aids\nmost in learning the first part of the word and the ear most in learning the latter part of the word; that these poor spellers were helped\nby first studying the words aloud and after this writing them, and\nthat association of letters and memory was decidedly helped by\ndividing the word into syllables and pronouncing each syllable.\n\nIn closing this report, mention must be made of the many teachers and other observers throughout the state who are quietly and\nassiduously collecting data for specialists to collate and generalize\nupon, thus giving most important aid to the child-study movement.\nRespectfully submitted,\nEDWARD R. SHAW,\nJENNY B. MERRILL,\nCommittce.\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": null, "text": "902\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\nTHE STUDY OF CHILDREN ON THE PACIFIC COAST.\n\nBY EARL BARNES, LELAND STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.\n\nThe Pacific Coast has no state organization devoted to the study\nof children. The work with us has naturally gathered around our\ntwo great universities, the normal schools, and scattered workers.\nAlexander E. Frye, as superintendent of the San Bernardino schools,\nprepared an elaborate mind chart some four years ago and gathered\na large amount of data. So far as I know these have not yet been\nworked up. Charles McGrew of San Jose about the same time prepared and printed some very general outlines for gathering data, but\nowing to Mr. McGrew's death the work was never brought to completion.\n\nWhen Stanford University was opened in 1891 a course of work\nwas at once offered in the Department of Education on the Study of\nChildren. Only half a dozen students registered for the course, but\nit has grown steadily until this year we had fifty-two students registered in this course, and during the past two years we have had a\nseminary devoted to the same work. We have also had from the first,\nas a part of the department of education, an experimental kindergarten and primary school where we have been able to carry out\nsome specific studies.\n\nFrom the university we have carried on series\n\nof studies, lecturing, printing outlines, gathering and working up\ndata, in connection with the superintendents of education in the\ncities of Oakland, Santa Cruz, Alameda, Santa Rosa, and Stockton ;\n\nin connection with county institutes we have printed outlines and\ngathered materials for various phases of child study from all the\n\nschools in Monterey, Santa Ana, San Mateo, Fresno, Madera, San\nBernardino, Riverside, and El Dorado counties. As a result of these\n\ncollections we have gathered and worked up 15,000 children's drawings, 7,000 papers on the historical sense, 37,500 definitions (following Binet's tests), 3,000 papers on children's rights, 1,200 compositions\non heaven and hell, 4,000 papers describing punishments, 2,000 studies\non observation, 3,000 comparisons of the horse and cow, 5,000 papers\non inference, 3,000 papers on children's ambitions, 1,200 tests on poor\nspellers, 1,200 color tests, and 2,000 compositions on fear. We have\n\nalso a large amount of material collected on the property sense, the\nsense of time, sex instinct, the money sense, etc. The results of\n\nthese studies have been presented in a variety of papers before congresses and associations and in articles in the \"Pedagogical Seminary,\"\n\nthe \"Pacific Educational Journal,\" and in other journals. Miss Schal\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department ]\n\nCHILD STUDY ON THE PACIFIC COAST.\n\n903\n\nlenberger's principal contribution has been the study on \" Children's\nRights\" in the \"Pedagogical Seminary,\" and she is now working on\nchildren's property-sense.\nAbout the time that this work on children of school age was be-\n\ngun the Pacific Branch of the Association of Collegiate Alumnæ organized a committee for the study of infants. Miss Milicent Shinn\nof Niles organized this committee, and has been its active leader ever\nsince. She prepared and published for its use two very extended and\nvaluable syllabi for directing would-be students. During the past\nyear the committee has met as a graduate seminary of the University\nof California, and it has now an elaborate study on children's drawings nearly ready to publish. Miss Shinn has prepared and published, under the auspices of the University of California, two volumes\nof \"Notes on the Development of a Child,\" making the most complete\n\nrecord of infant life so far printed. She has also published several\narticles in the \"Overland Monthly,\" the \"Normal Exponent,\" the\n\"University of California Magazine,\" and elsewhere, on this subject,\nand her addresses before the Association of Collegiate Alumnæ and\n\nthe Woman's Congress in San Francisco have been widely read.\nWith the establishment of the Department of Pedagogy in the\nUniversity of California in 1892, Prof. Elmer E. Brown brought to\nCalifornia new interest in these lines of work.\n\nIn his own classes he\n\nhas done much to develop an interest in child study, and his investigations on \"Children's Interests\" in the city of Oakland have led to\nvaluable results. He has maintained a seminary on child study during the past two years, one member of which, Miss Mary Wilson, has\njust completed a translation of \"Compayre's L'Evolution Intellectuelle\net Morale de l'Enfant,\" which is soon to be published.\nAt the beginning of this year Prof. Thos. P. Bailey was called to\nan assistant professorship in Professor Brown's department, and he\nhas succeeded through his classes and through his field work in institutes and conventions in arousing an interest in these directions .\nHis \" Child Study for Naturalists,\" published first as a bulletin of the\nSouth Carolina Association for the Study of Children, and afterward\nin the \"Pacific Educational Journal,\" has helped many inquiring\nminds.\n\nWithin the past few months one of the public schools of Oakland\nhas been set aside as an observation school for the University of California. It is under the direction of the department of pedagogy, and\nseveral promising lines of experiment and observation have been\nstarted.\n\nIn the summer of 1894 Dr. F. B. Dresslar was called to the department of psychology and pedagogy in the State Normal School at Los\nAngeles. He has aroused an interest in his part of the state in child\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n904\n\nstudy, and has started promising lines of work.\n\n[Child Study\n\nHis articles in\n\n\"American Journal of Psychology,\" Vol. VI., No. 3, and in the \"Handbook of the Illinois Society for Child Study,\" are well known. He\nhas now in hand an extended study on \"Number Perception through\nTouch and Sight Compared.\"\n\nAt the San Jose Normal beginnings have been made in this line\nof study.\n\nI doubt if any other part of our country gives such freedom and\nsuch enthusiastic assistance to students in this field as our own\n\nPacific Slope. Our school organizations and regulations are flexible,\nour teachers and parents are optimistic and eager to help, and our\nschool superintendents are glad to lend a hand in all possible ways.\nMuch of what has been done is due to the intelligent co-operation of\nsuch men as McClymonds, Burke, Barr, Linscott, Greeley, and Wood.\n\nTHE STUDY OF CHILDREN AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.\n\nBY ELMER E. BROWN, BERKELEY, CAL.\n\nOne of the lines of child study undertaken in connection with our\nwork at the University of California is the investigation of children's\n\ninterest in the different branches pursued in the common schools.\nSo far as possible, we are seeking to determine what well-defined sequence of interest in different aspects of a given branch may be found\n\nin the great body of school children in the course of their development\nwithin the period of their school-life. We believe that any well-defined stages of interest that may be discovered will be of considerable\nsignificance in connection with the problem of the elementary school\ncurriculum.\n\nThe first study of this sort undertaken was in reference to the\ndevelopment of interest in various forms of narrative.\n\nThe results\n\nof a preliminary investigation along this line were published in the\nschool report of Oakland, Cal., for 1892-93. The only scientific value\nattaching to these results is the suggestion of the rough outlines of\na working hypothesis. Further investigations along the same line are\nnow in progress. A second study which we are undertaking, parallel\nwith this, relates to children's interest in different aspects of natural\nscience study. There is perhaps no line of study in the elementary\nschool course more painfully lacking in any well-defined sequence of\n\ntopics than is our nature study. This is perhaps one reason for the\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nCHILD STUDY IN INDIANA .\n\n905\n\nslow progress that our nature study has made. We have observed\nthat children are much interested at an early age in the mere naming and recognition of natural objects. It has been noticed also that\nmany show great fondness for machinery and for the observation of\nthe play of physical forces. Possibly the studies of living things (biological studies, if you please) have been given undue prominence as\ncompared with physical studies. Furthermore, some question has\nbeen raised as to whether the processes of development, as of a plant\nfrom the seed, a butterfly from the caterpillar, a chick from the egg,\nare as immediately interesting to the youngest children as are some\nof the other aspects of nature study. Close attention to the processes\nofdevelopment has appeared at a late day in the evolution of the sciences. Possibly individual evolution may be analogous to the evolution of the race in this as in many other particulars. At any rate, a\npainstaking study of the things that are intrinsically most interesting to children at different stages of their school-life is highly desirable.\n\nAs suggesting lines of fruitful investigation, we have found a gen-\n\neral inquiry into the things in which school children are interested\nof value. Circulars were sent to a number of teachers, asking them\nto ascertain as nearly as possible what things each child in their respective schools took the greatest interest in. This inquiry related,\nnot simply to the pursuits of the schoolroom but to whatever could\nbe observed of tendencies and tastes as displayed on the playground\nand outside of school. The reports sent in were highly suggestive\nand interesting.\n\nREPORT ON WORK IN CHILD STUDY IN INDIANA .\n\nBY WILLIAM L. BRYAN, UNIVERSITY OF INDIANA, BLOOMINGTON, IND .\n\nIn Indiana we have no state organization for child study, but\n\nthere are vigorous calls for organization from many parts of the\nstate. Courses in child study are given at the State Normal School\nby Professor Stalker, at the Danville Normal by Professor Kingman,\n\nand at the State University. Active child study work has been done\nby about one dozen former students of Indiana University, who are\nnow school superintendents or principals. In a half-dozen cases the\nwork done by these men has proved beyond doubt how great the im-\n\nmediate benefits to teacher and school may be from such work, under\nwise direction. At the State University we seek above all to train\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": null, "text": "906\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\nmen and women to do and to direct high class work in child study\nwhen they enter or re-enter school work. After an elementary year\n\nin psychology, we offer a year's laboratory course, followed by research work as long as the student pleases to stay.\n\nWe believe that scientific child study can only really get inside\nthe school through such men and women, and we are happily seeing\nthis thing now coming to pass. The research work conducted by Dr.\nBergstrom and myself is by no means confined to child study, but\nfully half of the work is so. Mr. Culver has in a forward state an\ninvestigation of the curve of mental fatigue. Mr. Bush has completed a research on the curve of memory for foreign words. Mr.\nHarter has completed a research which has important bearings on\nthe subject of apperception and on the curve of habit. Mr. Westphal has shown in a new and decisive way the importance of suggestion. Other researches bearing on the co-ordination of activities are\nless far advanced.\nI have heard over and over that this movement is a short-lived\n\nfad.\n\nI have not yet found an unbeliever who was not converted by\n\nthree months in the laboratory; and when I see in Indiana between\nfifty and one hundred strong men and women, most of them over\ntwenty-five, working for mastery in this great field, I am careless of\nwhich way the wind of popular opinion blows to-day.\n\nIS CHILD STUDY PRACTICABLE FOR THE TEACHER?\n\nBY G. T. W. PATRICK, STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA.\n\nLADIES AND GENTLEMEN :\n\nYou are all enthusiastic on the sub-\n\nject of child study. You think that it is not only practicable for the\nteacher, but that it is one of the most vital, most fruitful, most hopeful movements in modern pedagogy. In this opinion I fully concur.\nWhy, then, do I propose such a chilling question as the practicability\n\nof child study for the teacher ? That such an inquiry is pertinent\nand timely a few considerations will show.\nCertain forms of child study are not only practicable for the\nteacher, but always have been and always will be practiced by every\nteacher who takes an interest in her pupils. I do not refer to these,\nbut to child study in the newer sense ; to those special, painstaking\ninvestigations illustrated by the work of Preyer, Stanley Hall, Rus-\n\nsell, Barnes, Baldwin, Porter, and Gilbert, and reported from year to\nyear in this department. Is this kind of child study practicable for\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCHILD STUDY AND THE TEACHER.\n\n907\n\nthe teacher? and by the teacher I mean the teacher in our common\n\npublic schools. I leave out of account now the normal school, the\ncollege, and the university. In these, or whenever there is any attempt at systematic inductive study of psychology, child study will\nhave a large place. For the science of psychology it has already\ndone a great deal and promises to do far more. It is going to be\nfor some years one of the most engrossing fields of study in the\npsychological laboratory.\nBut now what shall we say of the common school? The child\nstudy movement has reached that stage when this question must be\nbrought forward for discussion. Child study is the latest pedagogical fad. Very lately everybody connected with a public school\nhas heard much about it. Almost every city superintendent has\ntalked of it to his teachers, and perhaps made some attempt to introduce it. Child study is, as it were, upon the conscience of the\npublic school teacher now. It is a new duty, which perhaps she\nunderstands but poorly, but which is impending. Some, indeed,\nhave welcomed it with enthusiasm ; have, perhaps, undertaken it in\nsome form or another ; but, in general, the teacher's attitude may be\nsaid to be this : She wishes to understand better what child study\nis; why she must add it to her already over-numerous duties ; and\nif she must, in what form and in what way.\nWe must remember that the select few scattered throughout the\n\ncountry who have followed the child study movement with interest\nand sympathy from its beginning, who have undertaken perhaps the\nstudy of children in their own schools, or homes, or laboratories\nwith brilliant results, and many of whom, no doubt, are gathered\nhere to-day, are not representative of the great army of working\nteachers. Let me speak of Iowa, with which I am most familiar,\nand which I may take as a typical community. In that state there\nare about 17,000 schools and about 28,000 teachers. In these 17,000\nschools practically nothing has been done in systematic child study\nto the present time ; but there are probably very few teachers, in\nthe graded schools, at least, who have not heard much about the\nsubject and who are not waiting to know what they must do. We\n\npropose, therefore, this question:\n\nShall the teachers in our primary\n\nand intermediate grades undertake this work, and if so, in what\nway?\n\nChild study has now advanced so far that we may look back over\nthe work done, and see what methods have proved useful, and of the\nuseful efforts may inquire what ones are open to the teacher.\n1. The study of infants and young children through successive\nweeks, months, and years, as practiced by Preyer, Baldwin, Miss\nShinn, and others, has proved eminently useful, and made valuable\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n908\n\n[Child Study\n\ncontributions to psychology and pedagogy; but this method is, of\ncourse, not open to the teacher who gets the child, at best, not until\nthe age offive or six.\n\n2. The method of Barnes in studying children's drawings, theological ideas, etc.; the method of Margaret Schallenberger in studying children's rights ; the method of Bryan and Hancock in studying\nmotor ability, can never be practiced to any extent by the teacher,\nbecause such studies to be of scientific value must be planned and\ndirected by a specialist who is acquainted with the literature of the\nsubject, who understands accurate laboratory methods, and who has\nsuch knowledge of statistics as shall enable him to handle the results when obtained. Only in very exceptional cases may we expect the teacher herself to be such a specialist. Furthermore, no\nteacher has a large enough number of children under her charge to\nuse this method. She may, to be sure, co-operate with others. She\nmay receive blanks, make tests, and return reports; but as a matter of fact it has been found, that, in all tests requiring accuracy, the\npresence of an expert to whom the teacher acts as an assistant is\nadvisable.\n\nAnother most fruitful method of child study is that used by Gilbert upon the New Haven school children. He tested 600 boys\nand 600 girls, fifty for each year from the ages of six to seventeen, in\nrespect to height, weight, lung capacity, muscle sense, color discrimination, force of suggestion, motor ability, reaction time, fatigue, and\nmemory, his elaborate and carefully prepared tables and curves\nshowing variations of each of these matters, with age and sex. But\nthis method is not practicable for the teacher, requiring a large number of children, much time, elaborate apparatus, and more knowledge of the higher mathematics and laboratory methods than the\nteacher usually possesses.\n\nThere is finally the so-called Russell method, which originated\nin the Worcester Normal School, and which consists in miscellaneous\nobservations of children's sayings and doings, accurately recorded\nupon provided blanks of different colors. This method is certainly\npracticable for any teacher, but it has not proved as useful as was\nhoped, for, since no definite problem is set, the working up of the\nmaterial thus collected is almost a hopeless task. In one way, however, this method has proved useful. It has awakened in the teacher\na new and healthy interest in the child and sharpened her powers of\n\nobservation. If the results of these observations could be used, and\nif the teacher could have an abiding faith that they would be used,\nwe should have here a practicable kind of child study; but as soon\nas the teacher discovers that this study is chiefly for its retroactive\neffect upon her, her interest in it is gone. The case is like the sub\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCHILD STUDY AND THE TEACHER.\n\n909\n\njective influence of prayer. It is good so long as one believes in the\nobjective answer. There is one other objection to the Russell\nmethod, which in the public schools is almost fatal. It is absolutely\nnecessary that the children shall not know that they are studied.\n\nIf they do, not only are the results worthless, but there follows a\ndisastrous form of pride and self-consciousness. It is doubtful\nwhether this kind of child study could be widely introduced into\nour schools without coming to the knowledge of the parents and\nchildren.\n\nThese are the principal methods of child study as it stands to the\n\npresent time, and we have seen that their practicability in the public\nschools is doubtful. The fact of the matter is, that the nature of\nthese studies is such as to preclude their practice to any great extent by the teacher. The very success which has attended this\nmovement is due to its bringing to bear upon the child those exact\nand comprehensive methods which have advanced the material sci-\n\nences, and which belong to the technical school and to the college\nlaboratory and seminary. It is no discredit to the teacher that she\ncannot carry out these methods. It is not her business. It is asking too much of her to require her, not only to adapt her teaching to\nthe laws of physical and mental growth but that she herself shall\nascertain these laws. This work is vital, but it must be done by\nothers.\n\nWe require that the teacher shall understand the laws of\n\nrespiration and the circulation of the blood, but we do not expect\nher to ascertain these laws by examining her own pupils. Others\ndo this, and she profits by their labors. Child study as we have\nthus far used the term is not the function of the teacher, nor has\n\nthe average teacher the time or training for it. I fear, furthermore,\nthat the rapid propagandism of child study through our public\nschools will be injurious to its highest interests, and by its failure\nwill arouse prejudice against one of the most hopeful contributions\nto pedagogy. There is need of propagandism on the subject, but\nit should be confined to the results of child study and to special\nmethods adapted to the teacher. The hand-books and manuals of\nchild study which are now being scattered among the schools present, with many good and wise suggestions, a great mass of questions and tests which never will and never should be used by teachers, and which if used would only lead to confusion. I conclude,\nthen, that child study in the technical sense in which we have used\nit, as illustrated by the methods which we have examined, is not\nthe function of the teacher, and is not practicable in the public\nschools .\n\nBut there is a kind of child study which is practicable for the\nteacher, and which indeed can be done by no one else ; and this\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": null, "text": "910\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nbrings one to the second and positive part of my paper.\n\n[Child Study\n\nWhen I\n\nsurvey the field of child study for the last ten years, and when I note\nsome of the pedagogical fruit derived therefrom, and then when I enter the average schoolroom of the intermediate or primary grades or\nthe kindergarten, I am convinced that the first thing for the teacher\nto do is to acquaint herself with the work that has already been done\nin child study and to apply its results. The best thing for any state\n\nsociety for child study to do is to print a succinct account of the\nresults of child study to date and put it into the hands of every\nteacher. Let me illustrate : One of the results of child study, thanks\nto the labors of Stanley Hall, Bryan, and Hancock, is, that, in young\nchildren, movement should be large and free, involving the larger\nmuscles of the trunk, arms, and legs, and that fine finger and eye\n\nwork, requiring delicate co-ordination, exactness, and fixity of the\nbody, is immaterial and dangerous at this period, fruitful in producing chorea and defective sight. That part of kindergarten work\nto which most time is given, namely, modeling, cutting, and pasting\n\ncolored papers, interlacing slats, stick-laying, etc., is shown, for\nyoung children, to be wholly wrong. Yet in many of our schools\nthese very things are now being introduced into the primary grades,\nand for many decades the tendency has been to increase the study\nof drawing, designing, writing, and, in general, the hand and eye\neducation. We are not surprised that Sturgis tests, reported by\nHancock, showed that, out of 150 children examined, only half\nwere free from choreic tendencies. Child study has also shown\nhow simple tests upon children will reveal these beginnings of nervous disease, yet the number of teachers who understand these tests\nor ever make them is almost infinitesimal .\n\nAgain, child study has shown that it is unnatural and injurious\nfor children to be still ; that movement-movement large, free, and\nfrequent-is necessary for health of mind as well as body. Yet inquiries in a school system in a prosperous Iowa town revealed the\nfact, that, from the third grade upward, the children are kept sitting in their seats from 9:00 to 11:30 in the morning and from 1:15\nto 3:30 in the afternoon; that even the recess-that blessed oldfashioned respite of fifteen minutes-has been abolished; that the\ncustom of having the children recite from their own desks instead\n\nof passing to recitation seats is rapidly growing in favor, and that\ntherefore they leave their seats during all this time only for five\nor ten minutes' marching, twice a day.\nAgain, child study has shown that play is one of the best means\nof education for young children; yet at the age of five the child is\ntaken into the schoolroom, put into a straight-backed, immovable\nwooden seat, so high sometimes that his little feet do not touch the\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department .]\n\nCHILD STUDY AND THE TEACHER.\n\n911\n\nfloor, and set to the study of letters, and (at least after a few months)\nleft to himself to prepare his lesson while the others are reciting.\n\nThe result of all child study upon young children from five to\neight shows that their incessant activity, their sense receptiveness,\ntheir tendency to imitate, their constant use of the voice point to an\n\neducation largely physical, moral, and æsthetic, in which play and\nrambles out of doors shall not be absent, and in which, so far as the\n\neducation is intellectual, sense-judgments, imitation, memory lessons, and real language shall have a prominent part. To see how\nfar actual practice agrees with the teachings of child study, I selected one of the best primary schools in a graded school system in\nIowa. The teacher was sympathetic and kind, and anxious to learn\nthe best methods. She had forty-five children, from five to seven\nyears of age, in a large, not unattractive room. The primary purpose for which they were there appeared to be, to learn to read and\nto write, and the one idea around which everything centered was\nPollard's synthetic system of teaching reading.\n\nThe teacher esti-\n\nmated, in answer to my questions, that three-fourths of the time of\neach child was given to reading, writing, and spelling. There were\nno gymnastics or physical training ; no testing of sight or hearing,\nnor any tests for nervous disorders ; no examination of the mental\n\npossessions of the child upon entering school; little attempt to impress the sense with things of beauty or works of nature ; no training\nof sense judgments ; little study of things in the place of symbols, and\nlittle training in oral language. The attempts to modernize this\nschool consisted in stick-laying and paper-cutting and in instruction\nin drawing and clay-modeling, in which the cube, the sphere, and\nthe cylinder had prominent places ; owing, I suppose, to the Fræbellian theory of the ethical value of these figures.\nIn some primary schools the attempt to introduce science studies\n\nhas hardly improved matters, since the work is mainly of the intensive kind, consisting of analysis, description, and drawing, involving, as ever, the eye and hand, and delicate co-ordination of\nthese.\n\nJudged by prevailing pedagogic standards this school was not\na bad one. There was frequent singing, and the children were not\nkept in their seats all the time.\n\nChild study has shown that our bookish eye-minded education is\nunnatural, and that the constant emphasis of one sense, namely,\nthe eye, and of one member, namely, the right hand, is destructive of natural healthy symmetry of body and mind. Yet what do\nwe find in our schools ? The child of five years enters school in\nApril, and in the following September he begins to read a book.\n\nIn the intermediate grades his education is almost wholly with\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": null, "text": "912\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\nbooks. It virtually consists in sitting at his desk during the five\nor six school hours and cramming from a book, for intervals of\nfifteen, twenty, or thirty minutes, so-called \"lessons\" in reading,\nwriting, arithmetic, geography, history, and physiology, to be recited\nor written during like periods immediately following. Even mental\n\narithmetic and music (the two hopeful exercises occasionally appearing in this dreary outline) are studied from a book.\nI am aware that there are better schools than those I have de-\n\nscribed, but there are also schools that are not nearly so good. They\n\nmay be taken as representative.\n\nWhen, now, we compare this sys-\n\ntem of instruction with that indicated by the results of child study,\nwe must frankly admit that the two have very little in common.\nThis view is taken also by Stanley Hall, who, if anyone, should know\nthe outcome of the child study movement thus far, and who says,\nin the \"Journal of Education\" (December, 1894) : \"The whole method\nand scope of schools have got to be reconstructed if our practice is\nto harmonize with our new knowledge.\"\nI can merely allude to other matters in which child study and\nmodern psychological investigations have shown the evil of existing\nschool practices, such as of the ruinous effect upon the attention of\nthe so-called seat work; the conflict between the myth-loving nature\nof the child and the practice of stuffing him with bits of science in the\nreading books ; the failure to use the golden opportunity of the age\nfrom eight to fourteen for the study of the necessary modern and\nancient languages ; the obliteration of sex in our schools, particu-\n\nlarly in the higher grades, in face of the important differences between boys and girls revealed by child study; the evil effects of\nforeknown written examination ; and finally, the fearful discrepancy\nbetween known hygienic conditions and the actual conditions of the\nschoolroom and school-life .\n\nDuring recent years studies in experimental psychology, physi-\n\nology, and child study have been bearing a rich harvest of practical\npedagogical truth. The fruit of this harvest is still to be reaped,\nfor the most part, by our public schools. Just now, therefore, it behooves the teachers to put in their sickles and reap some of this\nfruit, rather than to make new sowings.\n\nIt seems to me that the\n\nfirst thing for superintendents, principals, and teachers to do, in\ntaking up this matter of child study, is to make a thorough and\ncareful study of the child-study movement from the beginning, and\nbend their energies to the introduction of such changes as our new\nknowledge demands.\n\nBut in addition to this, there is a kind of child study which is\nnot only practicable but necessary for the teacher, and which no one\nelse can do ; and that is, the study of her pupils individually in the\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCHILD STUDY AND THE TEACHER.\n\n913\n\nlight of the general principles derived from this new science. Some\nof these practical studies are indicated in that excellent leaflet of\nProfessor Bryan's, entitled \"Suggestions on the Study of Children.\"\nAs illustrations of this kind of child study I may mention the physiological tests which are of prime importance. The sight, hearing,\nbreathing, and motor ability of each child should be tested, and he\nshould be examined for indications of nervous disorder.\n\nSo much is\n\nat once practicable, and the teacher should be supplied with precise\ninstructions for the tests. In the near future, though not everywhere practicable at present, determinations of height, weight, and\nreaction-time may be made and the result compared with the normal\nfor each age.\n\nAnother illustration of practicable child study is what we may\ncall the entrance examination.\n\nWhen the child enters school for\n\nthe first time, the teacher, by means of a series of sympathetic conversations, will find out something of the child's mental possessions,\nand as far as possible adapt her teaching thereto. I know not\nwhy this may not be extended to the other grades. At present a\npupil's competency to be promoted is determined by one or more\nexaminations in a few subjects, of which the chief are reading, writing, geography, and arithmetic. Why are these chosen and the\nothers left? Why should we not make an inventory of the child's\nmoral and æsthetic possessions at such a time ? Why not test his\nmemory span; his power of retention ; his sense-judgments ; his\nmotor ability ; his knowledge of music; his mental as well as his\nphysical symmetry ? To ask any teacher at once to undertake all\nthis would be absurd; but these are the directions in which practicable child study may be extended, and these tests would be found\nextremely interesting. At any rate, the examination of the contents\nof the child's mind upon entering school is a first perfectly practicable step.\n\nAs another illustration of practicable child study, let any teacher\nbreak the monotony of school-life by giving a class a wholly unexpected examination in some subject pursued the last term or the\nlast year. She will perhaps make discoveries which may suggest\nchanges in her method of instruction. These are illustrations merely.\nA teacher can hardly read the recent literature on child study and\nnot be filled with enthusiasm in studying her pupils in many other\nways .\n\nAnother practicable aspect of child study which I have not time\nto develop is the formation of state societies and round tables.\n\nThe\n\nwork of such a society will be to visit schools, and agitate such reforms as child study has clearly indicated to be wise; to instruct\n\nteachers in practical methods of child study, and furnish explicit\n58\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n914\n\n[Child Study\n\ndirections for the same; and finally, to carry on or encourage theo-\n\nretical research in the university, college, normal school, or family.\nTo confuse these different branches of the work seems to me a great\nmistake.\n\nTo the teacher, then, who asks, What child study is practicable\nfor me ? I should say: Read the literature on the subject ; master\nthe work that has been done; join your nearest round table or state\n\nsociety ; and then study your pupils in the light of the knowledge\nthus gained for practical benefit to yourself and to them.\n\nPUNISHMENT AS SEEN BY CHILDREN.\n\nBY EARL BARNES , LELAND STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA.\n\nPunishment with savages rests on revenge, it is getting even\nwith the offender ; later on, in civilization, it rests on the attempt\nto frighten the offender and all would-be offenders, thereby protecting the law-abiding; among still more highly civilized people it tends\nto become a remedy,-a means of instructing or curing imperfect or\ndiseased minds. In our treatment of children to-day, I take it, no one\nwould uphold a punishment inflicted simply to get even with the\nchild; revenge is unworthy the man who has the care of a child in\n\nhis hands. So, too, any punishment inflicted simply to frighten a\nchild would be considered unworthy of any intelligent parent or\nteacher, unless the fear aroused was looked upon as an element necessary to the child's well-being or to the protection of his fellows.\n\nAll\n\npunishment, we say, should be remedial in its nature; hence, any\npunishment which leaves the child in a worse state of mind than it\n\nfound him-which leaves him ugly and revengeful, or cowardly and\nhopeless-is wrong, and from the point of view of the intelligent\nteacher, has been a failure. What the child ought to feel has nothing\nto do with the case. Our problem is the same as that of the physician: How has the remedy which we have applied actually affected\nthe patient ? Has it left him better or worse than he was before ?\n\nIf we are right in feeling that punishment is justifiable only when\nit is remedial, then it becomes a question of the first importance to determine how boys and girls of different ages at present react against\ndifferent sorts of punishments, for different classes of offenses, in the\nhome or in the school. In the hope of reaching some tentative generalization, I have gathered some thousands of concrete instances\n\nfrom school children, mainly in California, though a few hundred\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPUNISHMENT AS SEEN BY CHILDREN.\n\n915\n\ncame from the Mississippi Valley. While discipline in California\nhomes and schools is probably less severe than in New England, I believe it rests on a very intelligent basis and is representative of the\nbest conditions in America. The data were gathered as composition\nexercises, the children being given the following directions :\n1. Describe a punishment which you have received which you\nthink was unjust, and tell why you think it unjust.\n2. Describe a punishment which you have received which you\nthink was just, and tell why you think it just.\nIn working up the papers I collated the boys and girls of each age,\nfrom seven to sixteen inclusive, separately. The following pages are\nbased upon a study of 2,000 papers describing unjust punishments,\nand 2,000 describing just punishments. The age, however, has little\nsignificance in this study, as the older children often describe punishments received when very young.\nOf course, there are objections to such a method of inquiry, which\noccur at once to any intelligent person. In the first place, it will be\ncharged that such a broad investigation must do violence to the de-\n\ntails involved and give only vague, crude results. This charge I am\nready to admit, but would urge that a rough preliminary survey is all\nthat our present state of ignorance allows. When a new country is\nto be entered, even the rudest sketch of its mountains and rivers is of\nuse.\n\nI believe this statistical method can do such a service for child\n\nstudy.\n\nOther criticisms apply to details in the method. It will be said\nthat untrained teachers will impose their own ideas on the children,\nor will otherwise interfere with their free expression; that children\nwill fix their compositions to suit the people who are to read them ;\nthat children cannot accurately describe their inner states, or that\nwhat the children write will depend on the mere accident or circumstance, as little amenable to law as the number of pebbles by the road\nside, and that our data reveal, in part, true childish reactions, but\nlargely what the child has been told and has seen. To answer these\ncriticisms briefly, I would say: Our teachers are interested in their\nchildren, and eager to help any one who is in earnest to study them.\nThe slightest hint or suggestion given by a teacher affects all the papers in her room and is quickly detected by an experienced observer.\nIf the teachers understand this, and if the work is given out at a particular hour, with a request from the superintendent that the first\n\nrude drafts, uncorrected, be sent directly to his office, and if the test\nis so simple that the teacher has only to submit the subject and gather\nthe papers, his personal equation need not greatly color the results.\nFor the pupils, it may be said that they, too, love to tell the truth, and\nif the papers are for some one outside the school, they will express\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": null, "text": "916\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\nthemselves with great freedom; the very fact that they cannot clearly\ntell you whether a punishment is just or unjust is itself a part of the\nphenomenon we are studying, and of value for us to know; besides,\nwho among us can express clearly a philosophical reason for considering a punishment just or unjust ? The charge that we are dealing\nwith accidents can be answered only by the papers themselves. During the last five years I have worked over expressions in writing and\ndrawing from more than thirty thousand children, and the more I\nwork the more there grows in me the realization that in the subjective life of children, as in all the rest of the world, we are dealing\nwith phenomena that follow well-defined laws, and that if we will\ntake any simple strand of activity and gather our materials from a\nlarge body of children, we can formulate a law which will hold true\nfor any similar large body of children under similar circumstances.\nAs to the difficulty of separating the child's psychology from the imposed beliefs and practices, this difficulty inheres in all study of the\nsubjective world, and in the great variety of environment represented\nin these papers some parts will cancel others by overlappings .\nOf the 4,000 children whose papers we examined, 265 girls and 246\nboys say they cannot remember ever having had an unjust punishment; 33 girls and 24 boys say the same about the just punishment,\nmaking 568 cases in all. Two and a half per cent of 2,000 children\ncannot recall a just punishment, and twenty-five per cent of the other\n2,000 cannot recall an unjust punishment. Probably this twenty-five\nper cent represents one of the most uncertain quantities involved in\nthis study, as all who did not care to describe an unjust punishment\nwould find inability to remember one an easy excuse.\nIn working up the 3.432 cases described, it was found convenient\nto divide each case into its three elements ; the offense charged, repre-\n\nsenting the point of view of the punisher; the punishment received,\npresumably identical from all points of view; and the reason why\njust or unjust, as seen by the recipient.\nFirst, we will examine the offenses. Five hundred and sixty-eight\nsay they never had an unjust punishment, and 274 did not name the\noffense in such a way as to be intelligible, so that we have left 3,139\noffenses with which to work. Of these cases reported, 542 (sixteen\nper cent) were general disorder, pushing in line, slamming doors, and\nthe like; if to this we add 250 cases of talking or whispering, and\n188 cases of being late, it gives 980 cases of disorder (twenty-nine per\ncent). Disobedience comes second on the list, with 379 cases (eleven\n\nper cent) ; then comes running away, with 353 cases (ten per cent) ;\nfighting or quarreling, 348 cases (ten per cent) ; destroying things,\n318 cases (nine per cent) ; poor work, 332 cases (nine per cent); rudeness or impudence, 96 cases (three per cent); taking things or steal\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPUNISHMENT AS SEEN BY CHILDREN.\n\n917\n\ning, 90 cases (three per cent) ; story-telling or lying, 45 cases (one per\ncent). This leaves 217 cases that have to go under the general heading miscellaneous. Of course, in dealing with the concrete cases it\nwas sometimes possible to place them under any one of two or three\nheadings, but in nine-tenths of the instances their classification was\neasy and clear.\n\nTo put the matter differently, we say that a quarter of the offenses\nspecified are negative in character, and the remainder aggressive. Incapacity and carelessness on the part of the children may be supposed to lie back of such misdemeanors as poor work, being late,\nand destroying things, the last-named division including many tales\nof accidents. Twenty-three per cent of all the offenses fall into this\ncategory of omissions.\n\nOf the sixty-two per cent of aggressive crimes, forty-seven per cent\nare evidence rather of misdirected energy than moral obliquity. Disorder, rudeness, talking and whispering, quarreling and fighting,\nrunning away-these are spurts of waste steam rather than the\nrattling of defective machinery.\nJudged by the Mosaic standard the children make a good showing,\nonly fifteen per cent of the offenses charged being condemned by the\nTables of Stone. Swearing, Sabbath-breaking and all breaches of religious observances, envy, and such cases of cruelty as our nineteenth\ncentury consciences brand as inimical to the spirit of the sixth commandment-these are all so rare as to be massed among many others\n\nin the miscellaneous group. Stealing and lying form but four per cent\nof all crimes recorded, and the only considerable infringement of the\nDecalogue lies in the line of disobedience. Rebellion against organized\nlaws and observances is as old-fashioned as Eve, and it is notable\nthat from Luther to the modern social reformer and our own school\n\nchildren, revolt seems still to fairly hold its own.\nJustice or injustice did not generally inhere in the offense charged\nnor in the form of punishment received, but rather in the adjustment\nof the two ; hence, the two lists of offenses and punishments are similar. Many more cases of punishment for disobedience, lying, and\nrunning away are cited as just than as unjust, however, and punishments for poor work, talking or whispering, being late, quarreling\nand fighting lean to the side of justice, while stealing and rudeness\nhover between the two camps. The only offenses in which injustice\nlargely predominates are disorder and destroying things. The acci-\n\ndent divides honors with surplus vitality as a source of unjust punishment .\n\nThere is little difference between the offenses committed by the\nboys and the girls. The girls are more often in trouble with disobedience and poor work and breaking or destroying things-the petty\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": null, "text": "918\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\noffenses of the home. The boys are punished a little more often than\nthe girls for running away; they talk as much as the girls do, they\nare about as often tardy, they tell about as many lies, and they have\nonly a few more cases of assault and battery to answer to than the\ngirls have. Evidently the new woman is starting with the generation.\n\nPassing now from the offenses charged to the punishments re-\n\nceived, we find that the 4,000 children give 2,801 specific punishments. As before, 568 remember no punishment, and 631 omit the\npunishment in reciting their cases. Thus the children are less specific\nin naming their punishments than in describing their accusations.\nOf the specific punishments named, 1,174 (thirty-four per cent) were\nwhippings. With many of the children whipping is synonymous with\n\npunishment, some even saying that they have had no punishmenthave only been scolded or shut up. If we add to these whippings 240\ncases of shaking, striking, or slapping, we have corporal punishment\nfurnishing forty-one per cent of the total cases cited. This does not\nmean that forty-one per cent of the punishments received by children\nare corporal, but it must at least mean that these punishments linger\nlong in the mind and are easily called up when wanted. While we\ncannot distribute the punishments by ages, owing to the fact that children are often describing punishments received years back, it is still\ninteresting to note that seven-year-old children give more than twice\nas many cases of corporal punishment as the sixteen-year-old children\ndo. The cases of whipping, shaking, and striking given by children\nfrom seven to sixteen, make a series running 193, 176, 159, 163, 127,\n135, 126, 136, 118, 91, forming a pretty uniform movement. This agrees\nwith the study made by Miss Margaret Schallenberger on \"Children's\nRights,\" in showing that corporal punishment plays a steadily decreasing role in children's minds as they grow older. Confining comes\nnext to whipping, with 622 cases (eighteen per cent). Under this\nheading we included all cases of being deprived of liberty to move\nabout, except being sent to bed. If we add 110 cases of this latter\n\nclass, it makes 732 cases (twenty-one per cent) of confinement in all.\nTwo hundred and seventy-nine children (nine per cent) were scolded;\n113 (three per cent) lost a treat of some sort; only 69 (two per cent)\nhad marks or checks ; 50 (two per cent) had extra work imposed; 36\n(one per cent) lost a meal; and only 15 (one-half per cent) had to cor-\n\nrect the harm. This leaves 93 (three per cent) forming a miscellaneous group .\n\nIf we compare the punishments received in those cases called just\nwith those received in cases called unjust, we find that the punishments are severer in the just group than in the unjust. Six hundred\neighty-one whippings are called just against only 493 that are\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nPUNISHMENT AS SEEN BY CHILDREN.\n\n919\n\ncalled unjust, and a careful reading of the papers shows that children\ndo not object to any of the ordinary forms of punishment because of\nthe penalty itself. It is because of other conditions. There are, how-\n\never, 423 cases of indefinite just punishments, against 208 indefinite\nunjust punishments, while the indefinite offenses are about even,\n\n140 to 144, showing that the feeling of injustice keeps details fresh\nin the memory.\n\nThe fact that deprivation prevails as a form of punishment among\ngirls is in harmony with the more negative character of their offenses.\nAs poor work, talking, rudeness, and disobedience are less aggressive\ncrimes than running away, fighting, and disorder, so confinement and\nloss of treat, low marks, scolding, and shaking are milder and less\nactive penalties than the whipping so generally inflicted on the boys.\nThe conclusions that come from this study on penalties are, that,\nwith the children studied, the common form or type of punishment,\njust or unjust, that lingers longest in their minds is still some form\nof bodily pain; that children do not object to severe penalties as\nsuch; that checks and extra work have ceased to be much used as\n\npunishment, or else make a slight impression on the mind; that we\ntreat boys more severely than we do girls; and that the most civilized form of penalty known, correcting the harm, is hardly connected\nin children's minds at all with misdemeanors. Evidently we keep\npenalties before the children's minds rather as fear-inspiring objects\nthan as remedial agencies, or else children are in that state of development where they naturally look upon punishment from this point\nof view.\n\nIn telling why a punishment received is just, the children show\ngreat uncertainty and vagueness. Most of them focus their attention\nupon the offense and their own relation to it. The punishment was\njust because it balanced the crime. It was atonement. A second\nclass think only of the punisher, and recognizing him as just, they\naccept what they get; while a small third class think of the effect\nof the punishment upon themselves.\nTaking from the 2,000 papers describing just punishments those\nof fifty-seven children who say they have never had a just punishment, and 851 who give no reason for considering their punishments\njust, we have left 1,092 papers (fifty-five per cent) which give some\nsort of reason for considering their punishment just. Of these papers 837 (seventy-seven per cent) look upon the punishment as simply\noffsetting the offense. The teacher or parent is one of the forces of\nnature. If they run into him they must expect a reaction; that is, a\npunishment. This is just. It is as though the child said: \"It rains ;\nif I go out I shall get wet. All right; I go.\" The wetting is the punishment. The answers which we placed in this group were generally\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": null, "text": "920\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\nvery brief: \"I deserved it,\" \"I ought to have it,\" \"I did wrong,\" \"I intended to do it,\" \"I disobeyed,\" \"I knew better,\" or \"I was careless.\"\nSometimes they go more into detail, but generally a couple of phrases\nsettle it.\n\n\"I paid up,\" would cover most of these cases. As a girl of\n\neleven says: \"One time when I was visiting my Auntie S., she wanted\nto wash my head and I began to cry. She washed my head anyhow.\nI cried so hard that she whipped me and locked me in a room. I\nthink I deserved it.\" Another girl of nine says : \"Once my grandmother slapped me because I woun't say my prayers, and I think I\nneeded it. I was very bad.\" We should expect that the immature\nchildren would more often give this reason and that it would decrease\n\nwith each year of age. The table, however, is rather indeterminate\nin its testimony.\n\nIn the second case the whole responsibility is shifted to the one\nwho inflicts the punishment. The punishment was just because it\ncame from the parent or the teacher. This is, of course, blind following of authority, and only seventy-six children (seven per cent) of\nthose who give reasons give this one. Probably many cases in the\nfirst group would pass over to this had they been answered more in\ndetail. As would be expected, the number of children giving this\nreason falls off as we go from seven to sixteen. The series for the\nsuccessive years runs : 17, 19, 13, 6, 8, 2, 3, 4, 3, 1.\nIn the third group the punishment is looked upon as in some way\naffecting the culprit for his good. One hundred and thirty-seven\nchildren (twelve per cent) of those who give reasons agree with this .\nThey say, generally, \"I needed it,\" or, \"It was for my good.\" Exactly\nhow the good comes to them is a little obscure oftentimes, as in the\ninstance of a girl of eleven who says : \"I got a whipping because I\ndidn't know my ABC's. I couldn't remember them, and I got a\nwhipping, and I think I deserved it because I wouldn't say them, and\nthey told me to set down and I did, but I wouldn't say them, and\nthey whipped me again, and then I remembered them.\" The number\ngiving this reason increases, as would be expected, from seven-yearold children to the oldest class. The series runs : 9, 8, 10, 13, 6, 11,\n19 , 18, 20, 23 .\n\nFrom a careful study of such a bunch of papers, one reaches some\nconclusions which are hard to express in quantitative terms. The\nmost important of these general conclusions is a realization of the\nfact that children accept a good deal of what they get without serious\nquestion. They have been told so often the same old story about\nneeding punishment that they accept and return the phrases even\nwhere they must know better. Take, for example, the following case\nfrom a girl of ten: \"One day my brother hurt himself, and he thought\nit was I. I did not do it. It was on the grass. My mother took\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPUNISHMENT AS SEEN BY CHILDREN.\n\n921\n\nme and put me in my bedroom and would not let me play any more.\nI think that I deserved it.\" Then again, the children have sometimes confused and unsettled ideas of what we mean by just or unjust, or of what we mean by punishment itself. Take, for instance,\n\nthe following, written by a girl of fourteen: \"A little girl went to\nvisit her grandmother and she had to do some knitting and other\nthings every day while she was there, and her mother would not\nmake her do only a few tasks and then let her amuse herself any way\nso that she would not do any harm. I think this was an unjust punishment.\" Or take the boy of eight who gives a dozen unjust punishments, of which this a type: \"My brouther fell down the steps\nand stuck his foot on a nale the other day, bad.\"\nIn conclusion we can say :\n\nNearly all children have punishments which they consider just.\nForty-two per cent of the children can give no reason for considering their punishments just, though they accept them as such.\nThe most common reason in children's minds for considering a\n\npunishment just rests on the feeling that an offense can be paid for in\npain.\n\nThis view decreases with age.\n\nTwelve per cent of the children feel that punishment some way\ndoes them good, though they hardly see how.\nSeven per cent of the children put the responsibility on the punisher's shoulders, accepting what comes in the name of authority.\nIn general, children's notions of what makes punishment just are\nvery vague, not becoming very clear even in the high school.\nIn examining the reasons given by 2,000 children for considering\ntheir punishments unjust, we must first take out the 511 children\n\nwho remember no unjust punishments, and 352 more who give no\nreason, or a very indefinite reason, for considering the punishment\nunjust. This leaves us 1,137 reasons to consider. First among these\ncomes a large group, 462 children (forty-one per cent) of those who\ngave reasons who declare that they were innocent; they did not\ncommit the offense for which they were punished. As a boy of nine\nsays : \"One time, about four years ago, we had several chickens ;\namong them were a rooster that fought a pet duck that I had, and\nkilled it, and my father whipped me for it. I think this was unjust.\"\nIn collating the stories, the cases of innocence fell into three groups.\nTwo hundred and seven children simply declare themselves innocent,\n200 say it was some one else, and 55 claim to have been lied about.\nThe plea of innocence is made about equally by the younger and the\nolder children.\n\nThe second group is composed of 312 children, twenty-seven per\ncent of those who give reasons, who admit the offense, but claim irresponsibility. They say they couldn't help it, the act was necessary,\n\n"}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": null, "text": "922\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\nthey didn't know any better, they forgot, they were obeying some one\nelse, or they were ignorant of the charge preferred against them. The\n\"couldn't help it\" class is largely recruited from accidents. There\nwere 168 cases of this sort. To say that the act was necessary was,\nof course, to say the same thing in a different phrase. There were\n\nbut seven children who said this, showing that their attention is\nfocused rather upon themselves than upon any abstract quality\nof the act. The plea of ignorance is entered by seventy-nine children.\nA boy of eight illustrates the group : \"Satday I pulled up one of\n\npapa's onion thet he planted, and he gave me a whipping. I dident\nknow he cared.\" Only twenty-seven put in the plea that they forgot,\nand but twenty-one claimed to have been obeying some one other than\nthe punisher ; nine claimed to have been ignorant of the offense for\n\nwhich they were punished, and many others gave evidence of being\nhazy about it, as when a girl of nine says :\n\n\"Was it not fair that I\n\nhad a shaking one day at school, and I do not know why did I get that\npunishment.\"\nThe third group of children admit that they committed the act\ncharged, but they claim that the act was right. A girl of thirteen\nputs it thus : \"One time, when I was eight years old, I went outdoors\nto play. I didn't put on any hat nor shawl. It was a foggy morning.\nI played in some water. I got whipped two or three times two or\nthree mornings for it. It didn't hurt much, so I don't care. I don't\nthink I deserved it because I do that every night and morning now.\".\nThe fourth group of 214 children, nineteen per cent of those who\ngive reasons, admit the offense, but object to the trial or the kind of\npunishment. Ninety-one children say the punishment was too severe, and the cases cited include many varieties of assault and battery; thirty-four object to being punished for class offenses, fifty- four\nclaim that partiality was shown, and thirty-five claim that in some\nway the punishment was not according to law. The apology is often\ncondemned as a form of punishment.\nThe changing view with changing years is not at all marked in\nthis study. With the advance in years there is a decreasing number\nof those who give no reason, and the older children are more apt than\nthe younger ones to think that the trial or penalty was wrong. Between the girls and boys there are some differences ; a few more of the\ngirls have had no unjust punishment, and more of them give no reason, or an unintelligible reason, and more of them fall back on the\nplea of irresponsibility. More of the boys, on the other hand, plead\ninnocence, more declare that their acts were right, or that the trial or\npenalty was wrong.\nAn interesting child's bill of rights could be made up from these\npapers, and it again would be mainly confined to the boys. Hunting,\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPUNISHMENT AS SEEN BY CHILDREN.\n\n923\n\nfishing, the circus, going swimming, a certain amount of free time,\nand freedom to get clothes dirty, many boys consider their inalienable\nrights. The following from a boy of twelve well illustrates the attitude of many of these papers : \"I was ponished for running away and\nIdidn't deserve it, because I wanted to look for a bager that I saw going across the field. I didn't get the bager. The bager run up a hill\nand when he got on the other side of the hill I lost sight of it and\nwenthome and told my mother and she ponished me and I was mad\nat her.\"\n\nTo sum up this part of the study, then, we should say:\n\nTwenty- six per cent of our 2,000 children have had no unjust punishment that they can recall .\n\nTwenty-four per cent of those who have had unjust punishments\nhave only a vague feeling about it; they give no reason.\nForty-one per cent of those who give a reason claim to be innocent of the crime charged.\n\nTwenty-seven per cent claim irresponsibility.\nNineteen per cent object to their trial or the kind of penalty received.\n\nEleven per cent dare to set their own judgment in opposition to\nthat of their judges and declare their acts to have been right.\nFrom a consideration of the offenses charged, the punishment received, and the reasons given for considering them just or unjust, I\nwould draw the following general conclusions :\n\nJustice is, with children, largely a matter of feeling; they feel\nwronged or justly dealt with without much notion as to why.\nThe majority of children look upon punishment as an atonement,\n-they pay for crimes in suffering.\nThey sometimes demand that they shall be excused when they\ncould not help it or when they didn't know any better.\nIn a just punishment, children demand: That they shall\nknow the offense with which they are charged; that they shall not be\npunished for other people's crimes ; that others implicated with them\nshall be treated exactly as they are treated; that no excessive or\nunusual punishment shall be administered.\n\nOn the other hand, they accept: Corporal punishment when\nlegally applied; the binding force of a law when duly promulgated ;\nthe duty of obedience to constituted authority.\nOf course, such general conclusions do violence to many of the\nconcrete particulars involved, but they hold for the general sweep of\n\nfacts, and this study makes no pretense of interpreting individual\ncases. It simply marks some general outlines.\nMany interesting specific questions spring from this study, and we\nhave already gathered the materials for two or three special studies.\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": null, "text": "924\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nAmong these questions are the following :\n\n[Child Study\n\nHow far do children con-\n\nsider that a class shall be held responsible for the faults of individuals ? How far do children consider it wrong to testify against a companion? If wrong, why is it wrong ? For what offenses is corporal\npunishment allowable? How far, and why do children object to partiality ? Would they consider it just to punish part of the culprits\nif all could not be detected? How far should genuine forgetting\nhold as a good excuse ?\n\nHow far should weak sense of time be ac-\n\ncepted as an excuse ? How do boys and girls differ in their attitude\ntoward punishments ? If some one else begins a quarrel or fight,\ndoes that justify one in carrying it on? In case of conflict of authority, whom should a child obey ? What is the highest authority\nin a child's life ? If a child lives up to the letter of the law, does this\nexcuse him from moral responsibility ?\n\nMETHOD AND SCOPE OF CHILD STUDY FOR TEACHERS-INSERVICE.\n\nBY PROF. M. V. O'SHEA, MANKATO , MINN.\n\nNo one who has followed the growing enthusiasm in child study\ncan have failed to notice at the same time that the average elementary teacher, who is the principal factor in our country in the\ninstruction of childhood, feels that she can receive little benefit from\n\nthis new work, because it does not seem adapted to her understanding and abilities and suited to the limiting conditions of the schoolroom .\nIt may be that teachers always complain of the impracticability of new methods, and there is no doubt a tendency in this direction; but yet it is probably true in the case of child study that\nmethods of investigation may be pursued which are not well adapted\nto the ordinary teacher and schoolroom, although they may be of\nthe greatest value for experimental psychology, and hence for an\nultimate science of education. Many express themselves as sur-\n\nprised that systematic work in the study of children has not been\nundertaken with greater interest and zeal by the great body of\nteachers ; but it should be remembered, I think, that thus far child\nstudy has been largely experimental and inductive in character, and\n\nthe average teacher has little time, opportunity, or capacity to undertake such work, even though she possessed the inductive attitude\nof mind toward educational problems . The conditions which exist\nat present in most schoolrooms do not seem to admit of such original\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nMETHOD OF CHILD STUDYΥ.\n\n925\n\nexperimentation, with or without special apparatus ; but rather\nwhatever studies are made by teachers must be of the scope and\nkind that can be carried forward in connection with their regular\nwork. Many teachers seem to feel that this cannot be done to any\ngreat extent, and so they declare child study to be without interest\nor value for them.\n\nThis impression has without doubt been conveyed to teachers\nthrough the declaration sometimes made that all work in child study\nis valueless which does not follow the methods of pure experimental\nscience. It is assumed that little is yet known of the nature of\nchildhood, and that the only way in which correct and serviceable\ndata can be secured is by observation of a large mass of facts without reference to their bearing upon any problems within the schoolroom. It is said that we are without a science of childhood, and\nhave no right to make any presuppositions about it; but that instead we must observe and record without thinking of the ultimate\nbearing or value of our observations. It is maintained, further,\nthat, while this may not be of marked, direct value to teachers, it\nwill ultimately lead to a correct understanding of child-nature upon\nwhich a science of education may be built. Finally, it is said, that,\nby observing children in this manner, the teacher will get into\nsympathy with child-life, and this is one of the most important\nrequisites for intelligent teaching.\nNow, it will readily be granted that most of this is eminently\ntrue; but it is to be feared that it does not cover the whole case.\n\nIn the first place, teachers have been told over and over again for\n\nages to observe and study their pupils, but such directions prove of\nlittle value because the majority of teachers have not been made eye,\near, and thought-minded to the phenomena of childhood. One might\n\nas well tell a mechanic to go out and observe flowers, in the hope\nthat he would discover all that is of importance concerning them.\nAnyone who is much in contact with untrained teachers can see\nthat they have never been made sensitive to the vital manifestations\n\nof child-nature that are constantly being displayed in their presence ;\nand they will never become so unless under the direction and guidance of one who is competent to guide.\nBut it may be said, and with justice, too, that to direct a teacher\nhow and what to observe is to prejudice her mind, since she will\nnaturally tend to make facts fit into certain principles whether they\n\nrightfully belong there or not. There is a possibility of this, no\ndoubt; but it should be remembered that teachers must deal in some\n\nmanner with children any way, and there is more probability of their\nacting wisely if they have some important principles suggested to\nthem, and then directed how to test them in individual cases, even\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n926\n\n[Child Study\n\nthough this prejudices their minds, than if they are entirely without\nprinciples and directions other than the one command to observe\ntheir children.\n\nTwo considerations tend to confirm this view.\n\nIn\n\nthe first place, it is not altogether true that nothing is known of\nchildhood in relation to school work. It is but just to say, that,\nthrough the spontaneous inductions of the race, we are already in\npossession of at least some valuable knowledge along this line that\nthe average teacher seems to know nothing about, except perhaps\nin theory, and she fails to see the application of well-known and\n\nhelpful principles in her daily work in the schoolroom. Now, if she\ncan be led to discern in concrete cases the application of known\nprinciples of childhood in relation to school work, she is going a\nlong way to make her teaching intelligible and adapted to her pupils ;\nand she will at the same time be growing in sympathy with childhood. It seems that this is a legitimate and most profitable field\nof child study for teachers, although the results may be of value\nto science only in illuminating and confirming principles which are\nbut now imperfectly understood, or showing the falsity of others\nthat are advanced from time to time.\n\nIn the second place, teachers have always been observing their\nchildren; but lacking intelligent directions and the pure inductive\nattitude of mind, their observations have come to but little. Were\nthey experimental psychologists, they would refrain from generalizing from single instances, and would know what to observe, although it is maintained, and with some show of reason, that everything ought to be observed, for one phenomenon of childhood is as\nvaluable as any other; but for the average teacher to attempt to\nobserve everything indiscriminately seems liable to result in nothing\nbeing specially observed and intelligently apprehended. The ordinary teacher has little aptitude for the methods of pure experimental\nor inductive science, especially so when she has a definite amount of\nwork to accomplish, and she must act according to some principles\nanyway. If they are not suggested to her by those who have made\ninvestigations, she will surely make them for herself, however erroneous they may be.\nIt seems to the writer that there is a place for both methods of\n\nchild study: the methods of pure experimental science, which gather\nfacts irrespective of their bearing upon any principle; or to test\n\nsome hypothesis, these facts to be organized in due time into principles. But those who collect such facts must have some special\ntraining and opportunity, and the average untrained teacher has\nneither of these. There is, again, the method of testing and applying in individual cases in the schoolroom facts and principles of\n\nchildhood already believed in, and that are being constantly cor\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nMETHOD OF CHILD STUDYΥ.\n\n927\n\nrected and added to by the investigations of experimental psychologists. This method recognizes that teachers will work under some\nprinciples anyway, and it is wisest to suggest to them those that\nare established, and show how to test and apply them, even though\nthey have not the training and habits of mind to discern the exact\nlimitations of these principles. The problem is a practical one. Those\nteachers who have the advantages of training in a normal school\nor university may be able to follow the methods of pure inductive\nscience with intelligence and profit; but these constitute a very\n\nsmall portion of the great body of elementary teachers, all of whom\nmust be provided for in the best possible way.\nIt is the opinion of the writer, then, that the method and scope of\nchild study in the schoolroom should be determined by practical\nrather than theoretical conditions, in the sense that the work must\nbe of such character that the teacher can understand it, and that it\nwill not require much special time or elaborate apparatus to perform it. It must have special reference to those principal characteristics of childhood that must be understood and appreciated in order\nthat teaching may be of the greatest benefit in stimulating the intellect and developing the character.\nAt the risk of seeming dogmatic, the following outline as to\nscope of child study is suggested, as indicating some of the things\nwhich should be done by teachers-in-service.\nIn her study of children the teacher will want to gain direct information upon at least two points : (1) She will want to ascertain\nthe pupil's capacity for responding to the stimuli of the schoolroom ;\nand when she finds any pupil wanting in ability she should understand what may be done, if anything, to overcome the defect. (2)\nShe will need to understand something of his disposition ; the influences that have given shape to his feelings and will; whether\nthese be manifested in a desirable or undesirable manner ; and what\n\nmay be done to develop a pure, wholesome, unselfish character.\n\nTo\n\nget reliable information upon these points, one must be able, in the\nfirst place, to trace to some extent the influence of physical types\nand conditions upon intellectual and emotional characteristics and\n\ntendencies.\n\nWhatever is definitely known as to the influence of the\n\nphysical over the spiritual in childhood, and that is important to\nbe understood in the schoolroom, should be put into such form that\n\nit may serve as a guide in the study of individual pupils. A teacher\nshould be able to make tests upon the senses and motor abilities of\n\nher pupils ; and also to detect the evil effects of unhygienic conditions, food, clothing, general habits of living, and so on.\nIn the second place, a teacher should be able to study in some\n\ndetail the keenness, accuracy, and readiness of perception and ap\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": null, "text": "928\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\nperception, memory, imagination, and reasoning in individual pupils,\nnot as though these processes were distinct from each other, but in\ntheir essential connections and unity. She should know when a pupil\nis failing in the work of the school what the reason is; and that she\nmay be able to do this she must know something of the amount and\nkind of knowledge the pupil possesses at any time; what phase of\nmental activity is specially called into play in the study of each subject of instruction ; and what, if a pupil is deficient in any phase of intellectual activity, should be done to overcome the defect. She must\nfurther and particularly be able to observe and appreciate the interests of different children, the intellectual activities which are\nmost prominent at different periods of their school work, the contents of the minds of pupils who have had different experiences, and\nthe difference in readiness of response to the stimuli of instruction.\nIn the third place, and perhaps most important of all, the teacher\nshould be able to analyze in some measure the child's emotional personality, in order to discover the predominance of physical emotions, as fear, anger, pride, joy, love, and the effect of her instruction\nand discipline upon the emotional and volitional nature. She ought\nto be familiar with so much as has long been established, and with\nthe results of studies that are being constantly made upon children's\nemotions ; as to their causes, the effects upon the individual of their\nfrequent manifestations, the method of dealing with them, etc.\nIt is believed, that, if the teacher may in this way observe and\nstudy in her pupils the prominent physical, intellectual, emotional,\nand volitional characteristics, she will be capable of better adapting\nher instruction to the needs of particular pupils of different ages and\ncapacities. This work should bring her into close sympathy with\nchild-life, leading her to constantly grow in understanding of the\ntrue nature of children and the best method of employing school\n\nagencies to train the intellect and develop moral character.\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nCO- OPERATION OF PARENTS.\n\n929\n\nCHILD STUDY WITH THE CO- OPERATION OF THE PARENTS.\n\nBY DR. C. C. VAN LIEW, ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY.\n\nI did not expect to address this meeting until last evening, when\nasked to do so by your president. I beg, therefore, that you will be\nindulgent if I confine my remarks to a comparatively simple field of\nchild study, one with which I am at this time perhaps most familiar,\nwhich is freshest in mind, having recently been interested in testing\nits practical value at the Illinois State Normal University. In the\nIllinois Society for Child Study, of which you have already heard\nmuch during this meeting, we now have about 530 members, and are\nrapidly increasing the membership. But with this rapidly increasing\ninterest in the field of child study, we are soon to be forced to meet\navery serious problem. We dare not be content with this abstract\nenthusiasm in a comparatively new field. If there is not something\nto introduce the teachers, soon and thoroughly, to a concrete utilization of their new enthusiasm, there is danger that the cause will suffer at their hands. In appealing to the great mass of teachers, we\nhave to remember that we are dealing with those who are immediately interested in the practical phases of school-work. While all\nfields of child study look ultimately to the establishment of more\nrational methods of education, the teacher may well question the wisdom of any proposed line of work that does not at once bring her into\na closer touch with child-life. In enlisting the interest of teachers\nat large in this work, therefore, two things seem to be needed: (1)\nAn appeal to the teacher's practical field of work, which will always\nconstitute her first measure of the value of any new line of thought,\nand (2) a fitting introduction to the problems of child study as a\nwhole. There can be little doubt that certain lines of child study are\nbetter fitted for this introductory work than others .\n\nI have been very much interested in the paper to which we have\njust listened, by Professor O'Shea, which, it seems to me, recognizes\nthe two requirements just stated, and which also seem to imply the\nline of work I now have in mind. To be able to diagnose the child,\nphysically, mentally, and morally, is one of the very first obligations\nof the teacher of to-day; and to be able to diagnose the child upon entering school implies, on the part of the teacher in the first primary\ngrade, a look into the past life of the child. Almost all advocates of\nchild study agree that the first practical benefit to the teacher, to be\nderived from the concrete study of child life, is a closer, more sympathetic touch with the child itself. It is this, certainly, which the\n59\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "930\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\nprimary teacher needs at once with the child that has just entered\nschool for the first time. How is it to be attained ? Certainly, in the\nend, by means of the close and detailed study of the personality before\nher. But the question may fairly be asked whether parent and teacher may not here, at the outset, work together ; and whether, in\nfact, the former cannot be of value to the latter in furnishing some\n\ninformation concerning the child's past life and development that\nwill constitute an appropriate introduction to the teacher's study of\nthe child. The first attempt to answer this question was made by\nConrad Schubert, at Jena, Germany, by means of his so-called \"Eltern\nFragen,\" which, as has been above stated, have been rearranged and\nadapted to American needs, and are now to be found in the \"Handbook of the Illinois Society for Child Study\" (Trans.), Vol. I., No. 2.\nIt is the idea of these \"Questions to Parents\" to put to the parents\nquestions that shall reveal something of the child's past development.\nThey have reference to the physical, mental, and moral development of the child. In the majority of cases, they may be so framed\n(should, in fact, be preferably so framed) as to aim directly at concrete events in the life of the child, from which the teacher is at liberty to draw her own conclusions, e. g.: What sicknesses has the\nchild passed through? Do you know if any traces of these illnesses\nare still apparent? Has the child made any long journeys? If so,\nwhere? Has it experienced any sudden and important or unusual\nevents, such as some accident, wedding, funeral, fire, etc. ? What\nare its favorite toys, plays, occupations, fancies, stories ? Who are\nits favorite companions ? The questions are made to cover also the\nemotional and volitional development of the child.\n\nIt will be seen\n\nat once that this work cannot lay claim either to completeness or to\nperfect reliability of results. Undoubtedly it needs to be supplemented, for the purpose of heightening its practical results,-by\nthe work of the medical examiner, for instance,-in the case of every\n\nchild that enters school. But if we may, at this stage of the development of child study, look to practical results for the measure of\nthe value of any line of work, the \" Questions to Parents\" certainly\nhave a very significant function to perform. Practical tests have\nalready shown that the teacher may, by this means, at once become\ncognizant of physical limitations in the child which would otherwise have remained unknown, though a constant annoyance to the\nchild, or would have been discovered only with embarrassment to\nthe child.\n\nThis is true of more children than we are prone to sus-\n\npect. Again, one of the most fruitful outcomes of child study is\nthe more complete study of the child's environment into which the\nteacher is necessarily forced. We study each individual as a product, largely, of an individual environment. The past is ever present\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nSCHOOL HYGIENE.\n\nas a factor in that environment.\n\n931\n\nIt is this which the \"Questions to\n\nParents\" seek to recognize. The child that enters school for the\nfirst time is the reflection of some specific home life and home sur-\n\nroundings. It is these to which the primary teacher is introduced\nthrough the \"Questions to Parents.\"\n\nOne would naturally expect parents to object to these interrogations. In the experiences upon which these remarks are based,\nsuch was not the case. Nearly all seemed to enter at once into the\nspirit of the work, and responded readily and honestly. In but one\ninstance was it found necessary to doubt the replies of the parent\n\ninterrogated. As a rule, parents are alive to whatever is for the\ninterests of their children.\n\nIn this work, which requires so little\n\nexpenditure of time or energy, I believe they will, as a rule, be\nfound reasonable, and one of the best results of the attempt is the\ncloser sympathy that is established between parent and teacher in\nthe work both are undertaking for a common end.\n\nREPORT ON SCHOOL HYGIENE.\n\nBY DR. EDWARD M. HARTWELL.\n\n[ABSTRACT.]\n\nHygiene is applied physiology. It is the science and art of promoting and preserving health, which we take to mean the greatest\nenergy of each part compatible with the greatest energy of the whole\norganism. School hygiene as an art is concerned with all measures\nthat science and experience have shown to be helpful and efficacious\nfor securing the normal growth and development of pupils and the\nnormal activity of teachers under the conditions incident to schoollife. Nearly one-quarter of the total population of the United\nStates is at present subject to the conditions of school-life; or, in\nother words, is engaged in the sedentary occupation of attending\nschool. Of our school population, over ninety-six per cent is found in\nelementary schools and over eighteen per cent is found in cities.\nUrban conditions, at their best, are less favorable than rural conditions for rearing full-grown, vigorous, healthy children. City-bred\nchildren of school age in America-at least, in the six great cities\non the Atlantic seaboard-are less favorably situated than their\n\ncontemporaries in certain European cities, it would appear.\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": null, "text": "932\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\nThus the death rate per 1,000 living at the age-period five to\nfifteen, which is the healthiest decade of life among civilized man, is\nless in London than in Brooklyn, Philadelphia, New York, Washington, and Baltimore, or in Boston, whose death rate is higher than\nin any of the cities named, while Berlin has a lower death rate than\nany of these cities except Washington and Baltimore. The mortality from diphtheria among children of school age and from consumption among female school teachers is markedly greater in\nBoston than in any other of the American cities named above.\n\nNo\n\nclass of wage-earners in Boston, so far as the mortality rates, analyzed by occupation, of the United States Census Bureau go, has\n\nso high a death-rate from consumption as women school teachers,\nexcepting marble and stone cutters.\n\nThe fact that Boston is the\n\nonly one of these six cities which habitually neglects to wash her\nschoolhouse floors and corridors from year to year and decade to\ndecade is not without significance.\nIt cannot be denied that municipal sanitation and school hygiene\nare more highly organized and successfully administered in the leading cities of Europe than in the leading cities of America. Indeed,\nschool hygiene has no place or standing among the arts and sciences\nin America. There appears to be no department of public health\n\nso miserably endured, so incompletely organized, so well-nigh universally neglected by publicists, scientists, and publishers as school\nhygiene. Without resorting to foreign books, periodicals, and official reports, it is quite impossible for the student to inform himself\nas to the nature and results of the investigations and experiments\nmade during recent years for the improvement of the health of the\nschool population of the continent of Europe.\nThe public schools are organized, maintained, and regulated by\nthe state, which clearly owes it to itself to take adequate measures\nto prevent the school population from contributing to the spread of\nepidemic diseases and thereby endangering the public health. It is\nalso the duty of the state, particularly where attendance in school\nis compelled by law, to provide schoolhouses so placed, arranged,\nand furnished that their occupants, both pupils and teachers, shall\nnot be subjected to unsanitary influences or allowed to engage in unhygienic procedures in prosecuting their work.\n\nSchool boards as at\n\npresent constituted and teachers as at present trained for their profession are unequal to organizing or administering a genuine and\n\neffectual system of school hygiene such as the times demand in city\nschools. Experts in medicine, sanitation, and hygiene are necessary\n-nay, indispensable for such a purpose.\nIf the public health is to be effectually guarded, the schools and\nthose that frequent them should be subject to inspection by properly\ntrained representatives of the board of public health, which board\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nSCHOOL HYGIENE.\n\n933\n\nshould have a voice in the selection of school sites and in matters\n\nrelating to the drainage, plumbing, heating, lighting, and ventilation\nof schoolhouses. Ordinary physicians and teachers are not competent as a rule to pass intelligently upon questions of sanitary engineering which naturally arise in connection with the planning, erecting, and furnishing of schoolhouses. Sanitarians, architects, and\nhygienists should settle these and kindred questions. Even then\nthere is room left for a special inspector or director of school hygiene, whose business it should be to see that teachers and janitors\ncarry out such reasonable rules as may be laid down (in respect to\nthe hygiene of the school, the classroom, and the hygiene of the\nschool-child) by public health officers, sanitary experts, and school\nofficials acting together. The teachers should be made thoroughly\nconversant during their professional training with the hygiene of\ninstruction, and be required to conform to its principles in all practices and procedures which affect the eyes, ears, brains, muscles, or\nbones of their pupils. These three classes of experts acting together\ncould regulate the gymnastics, the plays, hours of study, methods\nof instruction-in short, the school-life of the children in the interest of public health, personal hygiene, and school efficiency.\nThe fact that no American university, medical school, technical\nschool, or normal school offers such theoretical and practical courses\nas are requisite for training up experts in school hygiene may be\ngranted. But we submit that this state of things simply serves to\nemphasize the need of education in the interests of hygiene in general and of school hygiene in particular. Let us strive to enlist\nthe aid of physicians, sanitarians, educational authorities, and philanthropists in planning and waging such a campaign. The ultimate\naim of such a campaign would be the organization and maintenance\nof a comprehensive and effectual system of medical inspection and\nhygienic supervision of city schools. To bring this about the electorate must first be enlightened and aroused.\nWhat can we do to further these ends ?\n\n1. We can utilize the literature of school hygiene in making\nknown to the general and educational public the nature and results\nof European study and experiment.\n\n2. We can urge the necessity of determining, by thoroughgoing\ninvestigation, the actual condition of the school population of our\ngreat cities, so that intelligent action may be taken to amend the\nmost obnoxious of these conditions.\n\n3. We can endeavor to induce some progressive and influential\nuniversity or technical school to grasp the idea that it would be per-\n\nforming a public service, and possibly entering upon a profitable\nspeculation, if it were to establish courses of instruction, similar to\n\nthe best in Europe, for the training of experts in school sanitation\nand hygiene.\n\n"}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": null, "text": "934\n\nREPORT\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nVENTILATION\n\nAND\n\n[Child Study\n\nHEATING\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nBY D. F. LINCOLN, M. D.\n\nA great reform in school architecture is being worked out in our\ndays, both in foreign lands and in America, and it is our privilege,\nif we will, to aid it, not merely by hastening its progress but still\nmore by giving it direction. The subject of ventilation is one of\nthe chief departments of this reform. It is essentially a modern\nsubject. Not that ventilation has not been considered in past centuries by isolated thinkers, and by here and there a practical man.\nIn its existing phase, ventilation is a very modern science. The\nhold it has gained on the popular mind is proved by the existence of\na number-not large, but satisfactory as individuals of important\nschool buildings of recent erection which fully meet the requirements of engineers.\n\nWe must look for such buildings to towns of\n\nmoderate size, where civic consciousness is keen, rather than to\nmetropolitan cities. They are all the more creditable, since they\nhave been executed in the face of demands on the part of science\nwhich when laid before the men of twenty years ago seemed preposterous. The standard of to-day is very far beyond that of yesterday; but it is not a fluctuating standard, nor in any true sense is\nit an arbitrary one.\n\nThat it has been so widely accepted in English-speaking countries\nis due, without doubt, to the very high character of the men who\nhave spoken for science in this department, both from the ranks of\nhygienists and from among engineers and architects.\n\nThose chiefly responsible for the great residuum of popular ignorance in this matter are the architects and the school authorities .\n\nAs regards the latter, they have this excuse, that building is not\ntheir profession. Among architects, there are some noble examples\nof firms who systematically refer all questions of ventilation, warm-\n\ning, and drainage to trained engineering talent. The way is open\nfor school boards to encourage-nay, to insist-upon this habit\namong architects, all of whom have their bread to earn, and who\nnaturally feel that it is not for them to force sanitary reform at the\nrisk of being considered visionaries.\nBefore proceeding further, it is in place to point out that the\nsuccess of all our schemes will largely depend on the quality of the\nmen (engineers or janitors) who are intrusted with their execution.\nOn them it depends to smooth over the difficulties which attend\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nVENTILATION AND HEATING .\n\n935\n\nnovelty; to adjust points which were not foreseen; to watch at all\npoints and attend to the comfort of all inmates ; to economize fuel\nby skillful firing, instead of cheating in the allowance of fresh air;\nand in every way to work for the success of the system.\nThe standard of purity for school air here recommended for adoption by the association is that expressed by the phrase \"sensible\npurity.\" This implies that a visitor, of good powers of perception\n\nand accustomed to observe, will not perceive closeness in the air\nof the school on coming from the outer air directly to the point to\nbe observed. This standard was proposed by De Chaumont &\nFarkes, the leading authority on bygienic questions in England, and\n\nhas not been seriously controverted, to the writer's knowledge, in\nEngland or America. It is formally acknowledged by our own\nbest authorities as correct. The statement, however, is incomplete\nwithout the numerical value assigned to the idea, to wit, that the\namount of carbonic acid contained in the air to be breathed shall\n\nnot exceed six parts in 10,000, in order that sensible purity shall\nbe maintained; four parts derived from the original pure air, and\ntwo parts derived from the admixture of human breath. *\nIt must not be supposed that the mere presence of two parts of\nCO2 is of itself of any consequence. It is significant only as indicating the amount of air that must have been expired by the inmates\nof a room in order to produce this increase. The deleterious components of the breath and perspiration are so small in amount as\nto be hardly measurable. Their presence is detected by the decolorizing of a solution of potassium permanganate, but no apparatus is\nhere recommended as being suitable for a practical test of these\norganic volatile substances in the hands of those who are not ex-\n\npert chemists.\nThe acceptance of a lower standard is much to be deprecated.\nGerman authority can be quoted in favor of 10/10,000, but it is not\nto Germany that we ought to look for guidance in this matter. For\nsome reason, the Germans appear to be much less sensitive to the\nclose air of crowded rooms than Americans, and they must be allowed to be their own judges of what is best for themselves, as we\nfor ourselves. †\n\nIf it were possible to conduct the expired breath directly from\nthe house, a great saving in the expense of ventilation would be\nmade. But as the breath practically mixes with the air of the room\n*For purposes of calculating the supply of air, it is assumed that the outer air\ncontains 4/10,000 of CO2. Respiration, within the limit of \" sensible purity,\" adds\n2/10,000 more. A more accurate statement gives 34 CO2 for the outer air and De\nChaumont & Parkes' criterion of 6/10,000 would therefore require to be reduced to\n5½ for modern accurate analyses. It is not, however, thought best to disturb the aсcepted ratio, 6/10,000.\nVon Pettenkofer gives .0007 of CO2 as a standard for rooms designed for continuous occupation; but considers .0010 admissible for schools .\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": null, "text": "936\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\n(being first thrown downwards from the nostrils and then slowly\nrising), no alternative remains but that of getting the air of the\nroom freely diluted with fresh air, introduced continuously rather\nthan intermittently.\nThe amount of dilution required to dilute the air of a room to\n\"sensible purity\" is easily calculated if we know how much the\nperson or persons exhale in a given time. A man at rest may be\n\nassumed to expire sixth-tenths of a cubic foot of CO2 per hour. This\namount of CO2 added to 3,000 cubic feet of fresh air will produce\nthe following total :\nCO\n\n)2 already present in 3,000 cubic feet of pure air, at rate of 4/10,000.1.2 cubic feet.\n\nCO, added by breath ...\n\n.0.6 cubic feet.\n\n2\n\nTotal contained in 3,000 cubic feet .\n\n1.8 cubic feet.\n\nWhich equals 6 parts in 10,000.\n\nShowing that a man's breath will in one hour vitiate 3,000 cubic\n\nfeet of air up to the limit of purity. A woman's requirement would\nbe five-sixths of that; a child's, three-sixths to four-sixths .\nFor churches and schools the amount assigned per hour by Bill-\n\nings is 2,400 cubic feet per head. This, of course, allows for the\npresence of women and children.\n\nA factor hitherto unattended to is the frequency of movement\namong children, and the constant use of the voice for speaking and\n\nsinging, both individually and in concert. These actions involve\nconsiderable increase in the discharge of CO2, the data given above\nreferring only to persons at rest and silent.\n\nProminent hygienists have frequently claimed that young children ought to have as large an allowance of air as large ones. Itis\ndoubtless safer to assume this to be the case, for several reasons.\n1. Because young children are the more sensitive to unwholesome surroundings.\n\n2. Because they are much more sensitive to contagious diseases\nat the primary age, and because an abundance of fresh air is a powerful auxiliary disinfectant and preventive of contagion.\n3. Because, as above stated, they may (with many teachers) use\ntheir voices and their limbs much more than older pupils.\n\n4. Because systems planned to supply a stated amount of fresh\nair very frequently fail to accomplish what is expected-not always\nowing to the fault of the architect. In such cases it is humane to\nallow the stress to fall with less weight upon the youngest.\n5. Because, even now, some prominent architects are employing\na standard much below that here recommended, which ought by no\nmeans to be cut down for the younger scholars.\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nVENTILATION AND HEATING.\n\n937\n\nBillings' allowance of 2,400 per head an hour is assuredly not\ntoo great for the upper classes in high schools, where growth is\nrapid, while consumption of food and excretion of carbonic acid\nclosely approach the adult standard.\n\nFor younger children, it may for the present remain an open\nquestion whether an allowance less than this should be permitted.\nThe reporter does not at present see sufficient reason for reducing it,\nand therefore recommends that it be not reduced below 2,000 cubic\nfeet per hour.\n\nThere are very few schools or buildings of any description (large\nhospitals excepted) which come up to this standard. It is, however,\nproper to state that large schools now exist which are kept running\n\non a basis of a much larger supply than that here indicated.\nNo system can be accepted as performing its promises until proof\n\nhas been given by analysis of the air. This is rarely made.\nThe anemometer is valuable as indicating the speed of the current\nentering and leaving a room, and, by inference, the amount of air\npassing. It is incapable of giving testimony to currents in the body\nof the room , and leaves us without information as to the distribution\n\nof the currents and the thoroughness with which the entering air\nmixes with and dilutes the bulk of the contained air. Furthermore,\nthe instrument is capable, when unskillfully handled, or in too skillful hands, of giving entirely unfair and misleading reports.\nWhen the children are ill-clad and dirty, the air must smell more\nor less unclean. Here is room for personal work among the homes\nof the children. Washing of faces, hands, and heads, and attention\nto scalp and ear diseases, contribute to the purity of the air.\nOuter clothing must be hung up in closets detached from the\nrooms (or possibly in halls), each child having a separate hook so\nset that garments do not overlap one another, but hang so as to dry\neasily. The closets must be ventilated liberally.\nThe condition of the floor may be such as to cause impurity of the\nair; as when the wood is light and splintery, retaining dust, or\nwhere washing of the floor is neglected.\nSIZE OF ROOMS .\n\nThe ordinary classroom may be supposed to accommodate from\n\nthirty to fifty- six scholars. It may be too large or too small.\nNOTE -Table, showing the degree of purity of air resulting from perfect admixture\nof different amounts of fresh air with the CO2 exhaled by one man in an hour-assumed equal to six cubic feet:\n\n3,000 cubic feet of pure air to 6 parts CO2 in 10,000 in mixture.\n2,000 cubic feet of pure air to 7 parts CO2 in 10,000 in mixture.\n1,500 cubic feet of pure air to 8 parts CO2 in 10,000 in mixture.\n\n1,200 cubic feet of pure air to 9 parts CO2 in 10,000 in mixture.\n1,000 cubic feet of pure air to 10 parts CO2 in 10,000 in mixture.\n600 cubic feet of pure air to 14 parts CO2 in 10,000 in mixture.\n\n400 cubic feet of pure air to 19 parts CO2 in 10,000 in mixture.\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": null, "text": "938\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\n1. In modern ventilation the incoming current of air is necessarily very rapid. It is usually thrown in at a height of six feet\nor more.\n\nIn a small room this current will be felt in an uncomforta-\n\nble way; but practice shows that a room allowing a cubic space of\n250 cubic feet per head is large enough to allow the air to diffuse\nbefore it comes in contact with pupils. * Exit registers cause little\ndraught in the room.\n\n2. Since a child requires 2,000 cubic feet of fresh air per hour,\nit is evident that the cubic space allotted him contains only a few\nminutes' supply, and may be neglected in our calculations .\n3. But in cases where ventilation is very poor, a decided aggravation of the evil is perceptible in crowded rooms. The air of rooms,\neven with closed doors and windows, undergoes a slow process of\nreplacement, owing to the permeability of walls and windows, and\non the average may be thus self-renewed once in an hour. If two\nclasses of equal size are placed, one in a large, the other in a small\nroom, both being unventilated, the amount of air thus coming to\nthe larger room will certainly be the larger, and the difference will\nbe obvious .\n\n4. Excessive crowding not only hampers ventilation, but imposes\na physical contact between pupils which has elements of danger,\nand is certainly ignoble. The pedagogic reasons for ample space\nneed not be given ; but\n5. Excessive size may also be objectionable. For example, 350\ncubic feet apiece to fifty pupils gives 17,000 cubic feet, or equal to\nthirteen feet in height and a floor, say, forty-three by thirty. In such\na room the distances are inconveniently great in many ways.\n6. Lighting is more easily secured in small rooms.\nIt is not advantageous to make the height of the ceiling exceed\ntwelve or thirteen feet in ordinary rooms. With this proviso, the\nfloor space for each scholar will be nearly twenty square feet.\nIf small children receive the same allowance of fresh air as larger\nones, the cubic space in the room must also be the same.\nAttention should be called to the following source of ambiguity.\nCertain schools may require and receive a large amount of special\nventilation, e. g., for laboratories, halls, cloakrooms, water closets ;\nwhich, added in to the amount supplied for rooms, may considerably\nraise the apparent supply per pupil. It is not sufficient to know\n*The authority of Rietschel is to the contrary of this. He says: \"It is not easy to\nchange the air-contents of a room oftener than five times in an hour without producing draughts\" (Leitfaden I. , p. 12). This, with 200 cubic feet space per scholar, allows\nbut 1,000 cubic feet of fresh air supply.\nWoodbridge, in the case of the new high school at Lynn, Mass. , causes the delivery\nof from 140,000 to 160,000 cubic feet of air to each schoolroom, which changes the alr\nabout fifteen times in an hour. One-half the air is sent in by a single inlet three by one\n\nfoot in size: the rest enters by a transom. He employs diffusing plates at the inlet.\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nVENTILATION AND HEATING.\n\n939\n\nhow large a quantity of air is furnished in the gross ; we must know\nwhat is furnished to each schoolroom, and the number of persons\nwho are actually using the room. The requirements herein reported\nrefer to the latter datum, viz., the quotient of each room supply\ndivided by actual number of pupils in room.\nMETHODS OF INTRODUCING AIR.\n\nVentilation can be improved by systematically opening windows\nat stated intervals. Relief can also be given by keeping a crack constantly open. The best way to do this is to open at the bottom,\nplacing a narrow board in front at the distance of an inch to deflect\nthe current upwards. The amount of air which can be admitted by\nthis method or by opening at the top without injury to the pupils is\nbut a small fraction of what is desirable.\n\nThe cool currents are\n\noften annoying, and when so are dangerous.\nWindows may be opened at recess (in ordinary, i. e. , ill-ventilated\nbuildings), and the children compelled to leave their seats .\nIn the climate of the Northern United States, the introduction of\nwarmed fresh air is absolutely necessary for good ventilation in cold\n\nweather.\n\n\"Natural\" ventilation cannot be depended on, and it is\n\ncertainly dangerous to health.\nHence, the problems of ventilation and those of heating must\nbe treated together. They belong in the hands of the same person,\nwho ought to be an educated and experienced engineer.\nPerforations in the walls or windows are open to the same objections as the opening of windows. They must not be considered\nseriously in the problem of good ventilation.\nAssuming that the air required for ventilation is brought in by\nflues, warmed, the following principles apply to the case of a schoolroom of ordinary form and size :\n\n1. The opening or openings for admitting fresh air should be well\nabove the height of the heads of the occupants. The volume and\nvelocity of air entering is too great to permit it to be introduced at\na low level in a horizontal direction ; and if deflected by a screen it at\nonce rises to the upper part of the room.\n2. Orifices for extraction of vitiated air in winter are placed at\nor near the floor-level. Those near the ceiling are for use only in\nexceptional cases of excess of heat.\n\n3. The question of locating these openings in the outer or the\ninner wall must be left to the decison of the architect or engineer,\nin accordance with varying circumstances.\n4. The choice of a high or a low point for the extraction of air\n\nfrom a room is not dependent on considerations as to the slight excess\nof CO2 in higher or lower strata of air. In well-ventilated rooms\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": null, "text": "940\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\nthe difference between different levels will not be great, either in\ntemperature or in amount of CO2 ; a great excess in either respect\nin the upper strata points to very bad ventilation.\nFLUES .\n\nAny but the most elementary method of ventilation will require\nthe aid offlues to convey air to and from the room. The entire system of flues for every building should be planned before the foundation of the house is laid; or, as has been pithily said, the ventilation\nshould be set up and the house built around it.\nSo much depends upon circumstances in this respect that it\nseems the safest plan to say but little, and that of a general sort,\ntrusting details to the architect's honor and science. Simplicity is,\nof course, a desirable feature ; but the architect is the presumably\ncompetent judge of the need of complexity. In general, bends and\nangles are undesirable, as retarding the currents. Friction against\nrough-finished sides does the same.\n\nWood is inadmissible as a ma-\n\nterial ; it shrinks, and is a dangerous conductor offlame. A straight\ndischarge-flue, extending in undiminished size above the roof, and\n(if desired) capped to exclude weather, is desirable.\nIt is only in recent years that the size of flues, and the probable\nvelocity of the current of air in them, has been supposed to have\nanything to do with the success or failure of ventilation. It is not\nuncommon to find in old buildings flues whose ventilating power may\nbe estimated at one or two per cent of what is required. In illustra-\n\ntion of what may be required by modern methods, I will instance\nrooms furnished with two inlets for fresh air, each three feet by one\nfoot in size ; with corresponding outlets .\nMechanical Aids. In order to move air through flues, the mechanical force obtained from steam or electricity-in some cases,\nfrom water is highly to be recommend for larger buildings. The\nexpense is small, and is likely to work a saving in the end. The advantage of mechanical ventilation over that obtained by the draught\nof a heated shaft lies in its constancy. The hot chimney draws finely\nin cold weather, poorly in mild weather.\nAn approximate remedy for the weakness of draught in mild\nweather is found in placing a small stove inside of the chimney at\nthe bottom, with the smoke flue in the center, to be lighted only\nwhen the temperature is above freezing point. The mechanical result, in moving air, obtained by the direct application of heat is far\ninferior to that obtained by burning an equal quantity of fuel for\nrunning a steam-fan. The most wasteful application of heat is that\nof inserting steam pipes into the upper ten feet of the ventilating\nshaft exclusively.\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nVENTILATION AND HEATING .\n\n941\n\nA fan may be used for propelling air into the rooms (plenum\nsystem) or for exhausting it (vacuum system).\nThe respective advantages need not be discussed here. The plenum,\nhowever, has this point in its favor: We can always know where the\nair is drawn from, and can guarantee its purity, whereas the suction\nof an exhaust fan may draw air into a room from all sorts of accidental localities.\n\nA combination of both is often advantageous.\n\nAn exhaust-flue, whose draught is maintained by heating it with\nsteam coils, is a very wasteful appliance. If heat is to be used for this\npurpose, the smoke flue may be inclosed in the center of the main\nshaft.\n\nThe \"intake\" of fresh air is to be placed wherever, in the judgment of the architect, the air is purest-avoiding contamination by\ndust, street odors, refuse, and equally avoiding the chimney-tops. It\nis impossible in this, as in other parts of the subject, to foresee all\ncircumstances. In some cases, the pavement is clean and the air\nabove it pure; in others, the use of top-dressing on a neighbor's lawn\nmay render the air pestiferous.\nAir must not be taken for school use from the interior of the\n\nbuilding. Out of session, the air from a perfectly clean cellar can\nsafely be used, with much economy, the discharge of warm air by the\nventilators being stopped by closing the valves of outlet, and a rotation of air being established between the upper and lower parts of\nthe building.\n\nA useful device for saving heat consists in successively passing\nair from one room to another. This may be applied to the case where\na classroom adjoins a cloakroom ; when the air which has fulfilled\nits functions in the former is drawn through the latter on its way to\nthe outlet from the building.\n\nTo regulate the temperature of a room, the flues for hot air are\nsometimes fitted with valves so contrived that it is in the teacher's\n\npower from time to time to admit more or less of cold (pure) air,\nwhich mixes with the warm before entering the room.\n\nAnother plan, which has for its sole drawback the high cost of the\nappliance, consists in fixing an automatic regulator at any desired\npoint, in the room or in the in-flow of hot air, setting it at seventy degrees, or as may be judged best. The regulation can be applied to\neffect the opening and shutting of furnace draughts, or to the shutting\noff and letting on of steam coils, singly or in mass.\nThe temperature of the schoolroom may range between sixty-five\nand seventy degrees in American schools.* The moist climate of\nEngland goes with a different standard of temperature for comfort.\n*On some days it will be comfortable at sixty-five degrees Fahrenheit; on others not.\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": null, "text": "942\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Child Study\n\nDryness in the air of the school is a feature which we need not\nseek to abolish. Dryness is not, per se, injurious.† Overheating of\nthe air and bad ventilation cause sensations which are often incor-\n\nrectly referred to dryness. The best practice in our country does not\nheat the air before entering the room above one hundred degrees\nFahrenheit ; it often is not raised above eighty degrees or seventy degrees.\n\nFor warming schools of a single room, or of two stories with one\nroom in each, the jacketed stove is admirably adapted, and is capable of giving first-rate results. The jacket reaches to the floor, and\nunder it opens a flue for introducing fresh air; the inflow is regulated by a valve. A common chimney at the farther end of the room\nserves as ventilator, and draught is aided by running the stove-flue\ninto it and out at the top. The opening for the escape of foul air is\nin the chimney at the foot. The sectional area of the chimney-flue is\nmade as large as convenient .\n\nInclosed or jacketed steam coils are sometimes placed against the\nouter walls, communicating below with the outer air by an opening\nthrough the house wall, guarded by a valve. This arrangement requires to be supplemented by aspiration (heated chimney) fan. If not\nso supplemented, the amount of air entering will depend greatly on\nthe direction of the wind, the outer temperature, etc.\nThe openings in the walls may be so small as to be totally inadequate to the purpose desired.\nSteam-coils placed in the schoolroom may serve a useful purpose\nin severe weather, being disused when the weather becomes moderate. They may thus properly supplement a system of forced ventilation, which supplies an equal quantity of fresh air daily at temperatures ranging from seventy to ninety degrees.\nSteam coils, or hot plates in the floor, should be placed at points\nwhere the scholars can make easy use of them for drying or warming themselves; e. g., in the halls.\nA connection between the schoolrooms and the water closets is\n\nof questionable propriety.\n\nThe closets and urinals should be ventilated by a strong draught\nexercising a suction from within and causing currents to flow inward\nat all openings. The draught chimney should be independent of that\nused for the schoolrooms .\n\nIn case artificial light is used, one gas jet may be reckoned equal\nto five persons. The outlet may for such cases be at the top of the\nroom.\n\nGas stoves and oil stoves, discharging their products of combustion into the room, deserve no countenance. They must not be allowed in the schoolroom on any pretense.\n¡Except in cases of Idiosyncrasy .\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": null, "text": "VENTILATION AND HEATING.\n\nDepartment. ]\n\n943\n\nCOST OF VENTILATION.\n\nIt is stated by Professor Woodbridge that the fuel cost of ventilation has been found to be 1.44 pounds of coal per day for each of 750\nscholars in the Lynn High School, making the per capita cost about\n2.5 mills per day. The supply per scholar is nearly 3,900 cubic feet\nper hour. The proportion of CO2 found in the air varies from 5.2 to\n5.7 parts in 10,000.\n\nThe above represents the difference in expense between perfect\nventilation and no ventilation; but as the latter is an inconceivable\ncase, and as a large amount of heat would be wasted by open windows, even if no systematic appliances were used, it is fair to set the\ncost decidedly lower. To offset this, however, there is some expense\nfor increased plant (boilers and engine).\nThe Massachusetts Institute of Technology has two large buildings of nearly equal size, used for similar purposes; the one ventilated in an old-fashioned way, the other provided with an average\nsupply of 8,000 cubic feet per hour for each occupant-or four times\nthe amount desired for schools. The coal-expense per occupant is\nestimated by Woodbridge at something in excess of one dollar a year\nper occupant (or one-fifth of a ton of coal).\nThe two computations coincide very closely, giving a probable annual cost of twenty-five cents per pupil if 2,000 cubic feet of air were\nthe allowance.\n\nThe steam fan is used in both cases.\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION.\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES.\n\nMotto.\n\n\" The life of man in every part has need of harmony and rhythm. \"\n\nFIRST SESSION.\n\nDENVER, COLO., July 9, 1895.\n\nTHE CREATION AND ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL\nEDUCATION.\n\nA meeting was called in the interest of Physical Education, at the close of the\n\nmorning session of the National Educational Association, July 9th. Mr. Edward\nF. Hermanns of Denver was chosen temporary Chairman, and Miss R. Anna Morris of Cleveland, Ohio, Secretary.\n\nThe object of the meeting, as stated by Miss Morris, was to arrange for a\npetition, to be presented to the Board of Directors, asking for the creation of a\nDepartment of Physical Education.\nUpon motion, the following named persons were appointed a Committee on\nPermanent Organization, viz., Mr. Barringer, New Jersey: Miss Morris, Cleveland, Ohio ; Mr. Wilkinson, Emporia, Kan., and were also requested to present to\nthe Board of Directors of the National Educational Association the petition circulated by Miss Morris and signed by twenty-five leading educators of the country.\nThe following is the petition :\nWe respectfully petition the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association to create as a branch of that body's work a Department of Physical Education.\nL. H. JONES, Superintendent, Cleveland, Ohio.\nL. W. HUGHES , Principal Normal School, Cleveland, Ohio.\nE. L. HARRIS, Principal High School, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\nJOSEPH KRUG, Superintendent of German, Cleveland, Ohio.\nBUEL T. DAVIS, Superintendent of Schools , Winona, Minn.\nFRANK B. COOPER, Superintendent of Schools , Des Moines , lowa.\nW. M. BEARDSHEAR, President Iowa State College, Ames , Iowa.\nJ. W. SEAVER, Professor Yale College, New Haven, Conn.\n\nW. G. ANDERSON, Professor Yale College, New Haven, Conn.\nFRANCIS W. PARKER, President Cook County Normal, Chicago, Ill.\nFRANK STUART PARKER, Teacher Cook County Normal, Chicago, Ill.\nL. J. KOCH. Director Physical Education , Normal School, Chicago, Ill.\nW. P. BOWEN, Director Physical Education, Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich.\n\nFRANCES C. BURTON, Assistant Physical Education , Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich\nR. G. BOONE, Principal State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nEVA D. KELLOGG, Editor \" Primary Education ,\" Boston, Mass .\n\nA. B. POLAND, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Trenton, N. J.\nJ. M. GREEN, President State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.\nW. C. WARFIELD, Superintendent of Schools , Corington, Ky.\nH. R. BLAISDELL, Principal High School, Covington, Ky.\n\nW. A. BELL, State Director National Educational Association , Indianapolis, Ind.\nNATHAN C. SCHAEFFER, Superintendent Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\n\nHENRY HOUCK, Department Superintendent Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\nJOHN I. STEWART, Department Superintendent Public Instruction , Harrisburg, Pa.\nGEO. W. PECKHAM, Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee, Wis .\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES.\n\n945\n\nSECOND SESSION.-WEDNESDAY, JULY 10TH.\nAmeeting for the purpose of permanently organizing the Department of Physical Education was held in the basement lecture room, in the Central Presbyterian\n\nChurch, immediately after the close of the general session, Wednesday, July 10th.\nMr. Edward F. Hermanns, Principal of Denver High School, acted as Chairman, and Miss R. Anna Morris of Cleveland, Ohio, as Secretary.\n\nThe report of the previous informal meeting was read and approved. The\nSecretary, Miss Morris, was called upon to state the object and aim of the new\ndepartment just created.\n\nThe President stated that the object of the meeting was the election of permanent officers .\n\nUpon motion, a nominating committee was appointed, consisting of Col. F. W.\nParker, Chicago ; Mr. W. M. Barringer, Newark, N. J.; Miss McMurray of Iowa ;\nMiss Kimberlin of Detroit; Mr. A. W. Clancy of Chicago .\n\nThe committee reported the following named for officers for 1895-96 :\nFor President-Miss R. Anna Morris, Supervisor Physical Training, Public Schools ,\nCleveland, Ohio.\n\nFor Vice President-Mr. Ed. F. Hermanns, Principal Denver High Schools, District\nNo. 2.\n\nFor Secretary-Miss N. D. Kimberlin, Supervisor Physical Training, Public Schools,\nDetroit, Mich .\n\nUpon motion, the above-named officers were elected by acclamation.\nThe department adjourned to meet at 8:30 o'clock Thursday morning, July\n11th, in the parlors of the Brown Palace Hotel, at which time the officers elected\nand others, including Colonel Parker of Chicago and J. N. Wilkinson of Emporia,\nKan., were invited to speak on the subject of \"Physical Education.\"\nMeeting adjourned.\n\nTHIRD SESSION .\n\nTHURSDAY, JULY 11TH .\n\nThe Department of Physical Education held its first regular meeting in the\nparlors of the Brown Palace Hotel at 8:30 o'clock. The President, Miss Morris,\ncalled the meeting to order.\n\nThe minutes of the previous meeting were read by Secretary Miss Kimberlin\nand approved.\nThe following program was presented :\n1. \"Object of Physical Training Department.\" Miss R. Anna Morris, Cleveland,\nOhio.\n\n2. \"Practical Physical Training in Public Schools.\" Miss N. D. Kimberlin, Detroit, Mich.\n\n3. \"The New Department.\" Colonel Parker, Chicago , III.\n4. \"Voice and Body .\" Mrs. Boyd, Newton, Kan.\n\n5. \" Physical Training in Brooklyn Public Schools.\" Superintendent Maxwell,\nBrooklyn, N. Y.\n\nDiscussions followed by Professor Lynch of Missouri ; Professor Freidburg of\n\nNew York City; Major Clancy of Chicago ; Miss Pike of Denver; Mr. Barringer\nof New Jersey.\n\nUpon motion, the President and Secretary were requested to arrange a program\nfor the meeting of the department to be held in connection with the next meeting\nof the National Educational Association .\nMeeting adjourned.\nN. D. KIMBERLIN,\nSecretary.\n60\n\nR. ANNA MORRIS,\nPresident.\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": null, "text": "946\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Physical\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS.\n\nTHE OBJECT OF THE NEW DEPARTMENT.\n\nBY MISS R. ANNA MORRIS, SUPERVISOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION, PUBLIC\nSCHOOLS , CLEVELAND , OHIO .\n\nThe National Educational Association, the greatest educational body in the\nworld, by the establishment of a Department of Physical Education has paid the\nsubject the highest compliment ever given to it in this country. It has raised the\n\"new idea\" from the orphanage of \"fadism\" to the dignity of a child of education.\nThe aim of the department is not only to establish a closer relation between\n\nthose who are actively engaged in physical training, but to give dignity and scope\nto the work by enlisting the interest of prominent educators and by bringing it\nmore effectively to the attention of the regular teachers with whom the hope of\nthe future training lies.\n\nIt is believed that our department meetings will prove stimulating, and that\nthey will afford an opportunity for an interchange of experiences and ideas by\nthe practical presentation of physical training in schools of all classes.\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS.\n\nBY MISS N. D. KIMBERLIN,\n\nSUPERVISOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION, PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS, DETROIT , MICH.\n\nWhile I intend briefly to give my idea of the place and aim of physical training\nin public schools, the subject is ideal in that it represents what seems to me the\nbest standard, but practical in that the benefits claimed are such as I have already\nobserved in my own experience .\n\nThe subject divides itself naturally into two sections. First, that which deals\nwith the pupil; and, second, that dealing with the public school teacher as the instrument in executing the physical director's instructions.\nIn the case of the pupil, let us examine the conditions we have to meet.\n\nThe\n\naverage child of healthy parents probably leads a more nearly natural existence\nbetween birth and five or six years of age than at any other period of his life. He\neats heartily and regularly, sleeps soundly and plays vigorously. Growth and\n\nchange of tissue are active, and the mental faculties, while developing, have not\nyet reached the point when they can entirely overrule the physical, as they so\noften do in later years. As a result, most children come to us healthy and vigorous, with fairly well-shaped bodies .\n\nWith school life, new conditions arise. Mental training is begun, and the work\nand confinement together make up a life further from that of nature than the\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department. ]\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS.\n\n947\n\none hitherto led. Unfavorable modifications, more or less marked, must occur, and\nI think our main effort should be to counteract these ; that is to say, our work is\n\npreservative rather than formative, as our object is not to develop athletes or\nstrong men, but simply to continue healthy conditions for the child, so that his body\nshall grow strong and fit for the work of life and so trained as to be the ready\nservant of his will under all circumstances and emergencies. The particular exer-\n\ncises that will best do this can scarcely be specified here; they must, however, be\nsuch as can be performed under present conditions of school-life, and should aim\nprimarily to develop sound heart and lungs, the essentials of physical vigor, and\nsecondarily, secure bodily self-control.\nQuite as important as the exercises, is instruction in physiology and the hygienic\ncare of the body. In my own work a course of physiology is studied by all grades\n\nduring the school year. The subject is presented in as practical a form as can be\ndone in the schoolroom. Charts are used, and in many cases the actual tissue. The\npupils not only have an intelligent appreciation of the subject, but in many cases\nthe teaching has produced practical results outside of the school by changes in\ndress, food, and mode of life. This part of the work, aiming, as it does, to develop the body into a sound and perfect instrument, is the first and most important\nduty in physical training.\n\nWe by no means fulfill our whole duty when we have given the child sound\nheart and lungs and vigorous limbs.\n\nThese things are good and worth striving for,\n\nbut they form only a part, and we can never hope for all the good of physical\ntraining until we at all times apply to this branch of instruction the same methods\nof research and the same patient, thorough study as has been given of late years\nto language studies and the mental development of child-life.\nThe most marked mental result is probably the increased power of doing good\nwork which we get by putting the body into a vigorous and healthy state; a good\ninstrument will naturally do more and better work than a poor one.\nThere are also certain specific benefits traceable to special sections and meth-\n\nods of the work. Among these I would place, first, the alertness, precision, and\nprompt execution of voluntary movements we obtain through military execution of\n\nthe drills. The exactness and rapidity of this form of movement have a special\nvalue in developing concentrated attention, which, becoming a habit, must prove\nof use in the parallel development of the mental life.\n\nIn Detroit we have insisted upon a brief period of light exercises every twenty\nminutes for all primary grades, and it has resulted in a brightness and power of\nattention that fully prove its value.\nCertain moral effects, too, follow systematic physical training. The first seen is\nthe better discipline, prompter obedience, and, consequently, the greater ease with\nwhich the teacher obtains perfect mass-control of large bodies of children.\n\nGoing\n\nfrom the class to the individual, we soon find a self-reliance and self-control which\ncomes from a knowledge of his bodily powers and the assurance that he can use\nthem at will .\n\nI think, too, that, in connection with the physical training, the teacher may\nrightly give instruction in some of the elementary forms of courtesy, by showing\nthe signification and use of the military salutes, and insisting upon their perforınance both collectively and individually.\n\nThere is a concreteness in these forms\n\nwhich seems to make them especially serviceable to this end, and I have seen the\nplan work well .\nA correct position for a few minutes during drill will do little to correct a\n\nslouchy posture, tolerated till it becomes habitual.\n\nCorrect sitting and standing\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": null, "text": "948\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Physical\n\npositions are to be insisted upon during recitation periods, and the orderliness, precision, and respectful salutes of military drills preserved in all mass movements.\nAs they grow familiar with the work, the teachers should be conscious of the\nneed of watching the weaker children, excusing them at times and modifying the\nwork to suit their powers. Statistics show that one in fifteen school children has\nphysical defects marked enough to call for attention.\nIt is difficult sometimes for the teacher to see the need of all this at first, and\n\nit can be done only by a presentation of the work that appeals to his reason; that\nis, by showing physical training to be the basis of all lasting endeavor in other\ndirections, and applying to it the pedagogical methods of mental training.\nIn conclusion, I would like to speak of some points that need our immediate\nattention.\n\nFirst comes the question of the proper treatment of the deformed, and all who,\nnot wholly incapacitated from effort and the chance of benefit from the physical\ntraining, are yet unable to take the ordinary class work. More than any others,\nthey need our careful and considerate attention, yet they cannot receive this under\npresent school conditions without unfairly holding the others back. School boards\nhave already established special schools for the deaf and dumb, and I think a like\nmovement would probably meet the other case.\nNext comes the question of school play-grounds. Our school children show\nlittle of the spontaneous activity natural to childhood, and too often the impulse\nto play has to give way for want of proper play-grounds. In England every school\nhas a play-ground surrounding it-often quite an extensive one. In many cities\nthese are opened evenings and Saturdays, and in some of the crowded manufacturing and slum districts other grounds have been reserved-not ornamental parks or\nso-called breathing spaces but veritable play-grounds, where children can romp\nor play ball to their hearts' content. England has long been known as the country of popular athletics, and no doubt much of her great commercial and political\npower may justly be traced to the vigorous constitutions developed in the school\nplay-grounds.\n\nThe lesson is worth learning. Systematic physical training can do much, but\nit cannot do all, and it should never be allowed to replace the natural activity of\nvigorous out-door games.\n\nOne danger to be carefully guarded against is a tendency to limit our work to\none system. We should keep ourselves elastic enough to seize the good that may\nbe in any new idea. At the same time, I hold it very necessary to use these new\nideas only after rigid test in the light of our own surroundings, especially in regard\nto suggestions coming from different climates and conditions of life, as our American environment has produced a distinctive American type.\nToo often the teachers perform exercises merely because the order has gone\nforth that they shall exercise ; tolerate it as a fad, and go through it as a task.\n\nTo be worth anything, the training must be thorough, systematic, and intelligent ;\nand it can be fully so only in the hands of experts.\nTherefore, we should press the need of physical training everywhere in village, city, county, and state; and we can gain this point only by patient, earnest\nwork within our present limits till people have learned physical training is not a\nmere passing fad, but a necessity of modern conditions and an essential part of\neducation to be secured, if need be, even at the cost of many things now more\nhighly esteemed.\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department.]\n\nVOICE AND BODY.\n\n949\n\nTHE NEW DEPARTMENT.\n\nBY COL. FRANCIS W. PARKER, COOK COUNTY NORMAL, CHICAGO , ILL.\n\nI rejoice that the Physical Training Department of the National Educational\nAssociation is at last organized.\nThe Physical Training Association is doing an excellent work, but we need to\n\nreach all the teachers of this country through a propaganda of the kind which you\nhere propose. As we study the great science of pedagogics, we come nearer and\nnearer to the central questions.\n\nCo-ordination and concentration are in the air.\n\nAll physical training should be concentrated on a healthy, strong, active brain,\nwhich means a sound body. The results of physical training should be looked for,\nalso, in skill of thought-expression.\nChild study is now coming in with its great help in this direction .\n\nIt is very\n\ndifficult to think well, and it is extremely difficult to develop ethical character without the proper physical training.\nI would suggest that this department devote itself to the great purposes of physical training, to bring about a strong and earnest propaganda of training into a\ngood, healthy, sound body and a vigorous brain; that all discussions concenter\naround the relation of mind and body-mind to body and body to mind.\n\nVOICE AND BODY.\n\nBY MRS . GASTON BOYD, DIRECTOR OF MUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS,\nNEWTON, ΚΑΝ.\n\nHerbert Spencer says : \" It is one's duty to make of a child, first, a good animal; after that is accomplished, his mental and moral training may be considered.\"\n\nThat physical vigor is requisite to a resonant, rich quality of the speaking\nvoice or singing voice is at once apparent. In no particular does weakness or illness effect a greater change than appears in the voice. To obtain the best results\n\nin voice culture, physical culture must accompany it. The two are inseparable if\nthe best possible work in either is to be accomplished. To be well equipped with\nthe habit of body and mode of speech such culture insures is to bear a letter of\nrecommendation more emphatic than any written page. Quality of tone and mode\nof articulation impress, though unconsciously, every ear.\nThe station agent, busied with pen and paper, hears a voice questioning with\nregard to route or train. If the voice be uncultivated, the articulation careless and\nslovenly, the pen is not lifted, the eye is not turned from his work, and the answer he gives is as careless as are the tones which reach his ear. On the other\nhand, no sooner does he hear a voice rich and resonant, with a pure and distinct\narticulation, than he springs to give attention and careful response.\nThe necessary work of physical training and voice cultivation can never be\nsuccessfully done in our public schools until the regular teacher is impressed with\nthe importance of this work and strives to become herself the embodiment of the\nprinciples taught.\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": null, "text": "950\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nSo long as we have teachers who do not stand erect, who carry the body in\n\nan ungainly fashion, whose chest is narrowed by contracted shoulders, whose\nmode of dress makes the freedom and elasticity of the body an impossibility, so\n\nlong may we look in vain for large results from the children. And this is equally\ntrue of the voice. A teacher may possess a quality of voice which in itself arouses\nand fosters the worst elements in the character of a child, and when we consider\nthe strength of the imitative faculty we may appreciate the harm arising from\nthe daily and hourly repetition of harsh or nasal tones of voice.\nIt is hoped that this department of the National Educational Association may\naid in the formation of a public opinion which will demand of our public school\nteachers that knowledge of voice and physical culture which will manifest itself in\na distinct articulation, a pleasant quality of voice, and correct carriage of the\nbody.\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCE.\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES.\n\nDENVER, COLO., July 9, 1895.\nAt the meeting of the Colorado State Teachers' Association in December, 1894,\nthere was organized a State Department of Natural Science Teachers. This association developed a great interest in the improvement of natural science teaching in high and preparatory schools. The association held several independent\nmeetings, and in anticipation of the National Educational Association meeting in\n\nDenver for July, 1895, a committee was appointed to confer with the officers of\nthe National Educational Association, regarding the possibility of organizing a\nsimilar department in the National Educational Association.\nThe officers of the National Educational Association showed the most cordial\n\ninterest in the proposal to organize the new department.\nCorrespondence with President Butler and Secretary Shepard developed the\nplans in line with the following circular, which was distributed widely throughout\nthe country in the hope of attracting the natural science teachers to the Denver\nmeeting:\nCOLORADO STATE TEACHERS ' ASSOCIATION. DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE\nTEACHERS .\nIMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT.\n\nA movement has been inaugurated in Colorado looking to the improvement of the\nteaching of natural science in the secondary schools. It is purposed to extend this\nmovement in connection with the Denver meeting of the National Educational Association.\n\nAt the last (December) meeting of the Colorado State Teachers' Association a new\ndepartment was organized. called the Department of Science Teachers, and including the\nteachers of science of both collegiate and secondary schools .\n\nThe aim is to limit the number of science subjects taught; to insist that each subject shall cover at least\n\none year;\n\nto improve the methods and matter of laboratory\n\nwork and all that is implied therein; and to determine, if possible, the proper order\nof the natural sciences suitable for, and fundamental to, the courses of the secondary\nschool.\n\nIn connection with the National Educational Association at Denver, it is designed to\nhold a Round Table Conference of the teachers of natural science of both collegiate\n\nand secondary schools. Eminent teachers of national reputation will be present at the\nRound Table Conference. There will also be exhibitions of scientific apparatus, methods,\netc.\n\nIt is hoped that the interest shown and the discussion elicited, as well as a good attendance on the conference, will justify the application for the organization of a Department of Science Teachers in the National Educational Association.\n\n"}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": null, "text": "952\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Science\n\nIn this prospective department lies a great opportunity for the co-operation of the\nteachers of collegiate and secondary schools. Such a department will effect the articulation of lines of work which are one in nature and aim, and which should be brought\ninto close touch .\n\nThe hearty co-operation of all teachers in any way interested in this line of work\nis requested. It is suggested to bring for exhibition any novel material in the way of\nnew apparatus, charts, methods, etc., which will be of popular interest and practical\nvalue to fellow teachers .\n\nAnnouncement of intention to attend should be made by writing to any one of the\nfollowing Colorado Local Committee :\nCHAS. STEELE PALMER, PH, D.,\n\nUniversity of Colorado, Boulder.\nCHAS. J. LING, B. S.\n\nManual Training High School, East Denver.\nWM. TRIPLETT,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools , Golden .\nΗ. V. ΚΕΡNER. A. B. ,\nHigh School, South Pueblo .\nA. J. FLOYD,\nHigh School, Greeley.\n\nMany replies were received in response to this circular, and by the advice of\nthe officers of the National Educational Association at Denver, announcement was\n\nformally made of two public round table meetings of natural science teachers,\nat the Lutheran church, corner California and Twenty-second street, for 2:30 p. m. ,\non Wednesday, July 10th, and Friday, July 12th.\n\nRECORD OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROUND TABLE ,\nJULY 10, 1895 .\n\nThe first meeting was called to order by Dr. Chas. S. Palmer of the University of Colorado.\n\nIn response to his question as to the pleasure of the meeting\n\nregarding a Chairman, it was moved and seconded that Dr. Palmer be declared\nChairman for the meeting.\n\nCarried.\n\nDr. Palmer, after expressing his thanks for the honor, explained in brief the\nmanner in which the Colorado state science teachers had taken it upon themselves to issue a circular to the science teachers of the United States, urging them\nto be present and participate in a round table discussion, and aid in the organization of a Department of Natural Science Teaching in the National Educational\nAssociation. He then called for the election of a Secretary pro tem. and, on motion, Mr. Chas. J. Ling of the Denver Manual Training High School was chosen.\nDr. Palmer then introduced Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, President of the\nNational Educational Association, who had kindly consented to be present and address the meeting at its opening session.\n\nDr. Butler spoke in brief of the sympathy with which the movement was\nviewed by the officers of the general association, and said that they were heartily\nunited in wishing for the new department unbounded success. He dwelt upon\nthe success of the general association during the past thirty-four years, and stated\nthat they had, they believed, crystallized, in a great measure, the best educational\nthought of the country.\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES.\n\nDepartment. ]\n\n953\n\n\"The subject of natural science,\" he said, \"used in its broad sense, is, pedagogically, new. It has taken four hundred years to organize science into its now accepted subjects. Indeed, only since Darwin and Helmholtz have the ideas of science\nbeen clarified and classified.\n\nHence, the school and the teacher must realize this\n\ndisadvantage against subjects which have been so long settled pedagogically.\"\nPresident Butler called attention to the fact that the stumbling-block to the\n\nCommittee of Ten was the lack of an accurate pedagogical form for the scientific subjects. \"The word 'natural' science may convey a variety of meanings,\nand before it is pedagogically treated it must find its exact meaning.\n\"The history of science as a requirement for college admission,\" he continued,\n\"shows that the worst enemies of science teaching are science teachers in the\n\nhighest positions. It is the highest function of science teachers to deal with the\nvarious aspects of the pedagogical forms of scientific subjects. We ought to know\nfrom scientific men what subject-matter ought to be taught, and in what order\nand under what varying conditions .\"\n\nHe then spoke of the questions that must be answered by scientific men, such\nas the co-ordination of subjects related to their work; sciences in the elementary\n\nschools and the relation they shall bear pedagogically to other subjects, etc.\n\"The educational value and pedagogical forms of science, \" he concluded, \"can\n\nbe put in a valuable form, and will be second to none if this problem can be put\nfairly and accurately on a pedagogical basis before the teachers.\"\nThe Chairman next explained the work undertaken by the Colorado science\nteachers, and said that, while the questions concerning physics and chemistry had\ngiven relatively little trouble, the matter of biology had given much. And furthermore, that all had agreed that thorough work in the high school implied descriptive\nwork in the grades ; yet the grade work was the least known, or, at least, it was a\n\nnew and difficult subject. Hence, the subjects of biology and science in the grades\nhad been given prominence in the program, in hope that some new light might be\nthrown on these more perplexing subjects.\nProfessor Bessey of the University of Nebraska was then introduced by the\nChairman to open the discussion.\n\nProfessor Bessey stated that he had prepared no formal paper, but had mingled\nwith the teachers and found somewhat of the conditions existing at present.\n\nHe\n\nstated that he did not believe in \"biological science,\" but in botany, zoology,\nphysiology, etc.: that biological science came after the knowledge of botany, etc.\nHe further stated that he would talk especially upon the subject of botany,\nbut much that he would say might equally well be applied to zoology. \" In discussing the subject of what the 'high school botany' should be, it must not be forgotten\nthat several factors prevented its realization at present.\n\n\"Firstly, such a course can be realized only when nature study in the grades is\nfully realized.\n\n\"Secondly, many teachers are not prepared to teach ' modern botany.' Hence,\nthe question of what the botany in high schools should be is a serious question.\"\nHe called attention to the great changes in the science of botany during the past\ntwenty years, and affirmed that a teacher who has not prepared himself for teaching botany as it is understood to-day, and who attempted to teach it as it was understood twenty years ago, must, of necessity, teach an antiquated subject.\n\"Keeping in mind the difficulties in the way of the realization of the high school\ncourse in botany, the question may nevertheless be presented. What should the\nhigh school do ? In other words, What should the student know about botany\nwhen he leaves the high school ? Botany should introduce the student to the\nstudy of the forms of plant life. It should be an introduction to the philosophical\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": null, "text": "954\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Science\n\nstudy of plants; i. e., it should outline work for the philosophical study of plants.\nThe first view of any science should not be distorted; it must be a view of the\n\nwhole subject. The ideal should be that the pupil carries away with him the great\nclasses of plants, with reasonable clearness ; in short, a general knowledge of the\nvegetable kingdom.\"\n\nProfessor Bessey spoke of the work which must be done in instructing a\npupil of eighteen years, which might better have been done in the elementary\nschool, and said that facts as such should be taught in grades below the high\nschool, leaving for the high school the work which more properly belongs to it, viz.,\ntechnical, systematic instruction. \"As for the unprepared teachers,\" he continued,\n\"they must step out, if they will not step up to the front. To teach botany successfully, there must be a suitable room, suitable tables and chairs, good compound\nmicroscopes and enough of them; in short, there must be the proper appliances, and\nthe teacher must demand and demand till he gets what he needs.\"\n\nThe Chairman next introduced Prof. Geo. S. Atkinson of the Department of\nCryptogamic Botany at Cornell University, who read a paper on \"Botany and\nZoology in the Secondary Schools.\"\n\nProfessor Atkinson spoke of his unfitness to discuss this topic, inasmuch as he\nhad never taught either botany or zoology in secondary schools. He referred also\n\nto the unfortunate disagreement among teachers of natural history subjects, regarding the advisability of introducing these studies into preparatory work. He\nemphasized the high value of language work in Latin and English, but emphasized\nalso the great lack of training in the power of observation and comparison. Moreover the preliminary work of teaching these can and must be done in the secondary\nschools.\n\nProfessor Atkinson doubted the advisability of recommending compound micro-\n\nscope work for all students, and enumerated the difficulties in the mastery of the\ntechnique, and the expenses, etc. [He afterwards explained, in a private conference\nwith the Secretary, that he would advise such work for all who might elect it, and\nwhen the enthusiasm and interest of the student would enable him to master\n\nthe delicate work of mounting specimens, adjusting the instrument, etc.]\nRegarding the subject-matter of the work, he advised, for secondary schools, in\nbotany, \"the general facts concerning germination, growth, the parts of the plants,\ntheir relation one to another, their function in plant life. The gross anatomy and\ngeneral relationships should be taught first.\"\nHe regarded the following as a good tentative scheme of treatment :\n\n1. Introductory talk by the teacher, giving a general outline of the plant.\n2. Practical study by the pupil, following some \"laboratory guide.\"\n3.\n\nQuiz and review.\n\n4. Further talk by the teacher, explaining parts not well understood.\n5.\n\nLecture by the teacher on the minute and more difficult structure.\n\n6. Demonstration of minute anatomy with the (compound) microscope.\n7. Essays on the various topics covered, by the students.\nProfessor Atkinson spoke favorably of the report on this line of work by the\nCommittee of Ten.\n\nHe also referred to the recommendations of the regents of the State of New\nYork, in the revised syllabus for 1895. (Botany, pp. 373-378; zoology, pp. 378-380;\nphysiology, pp. 381-383.)\nProfessor Atkinson also spoke of the encouragement given by the State of\nNew York to botanical work.\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES.\n\nDepartment. ]\n\n955\n\nThe Chairman then requested Prof. W. S. Jackman of the Cook County (Ill .)\nNormal School to speak upon the \" Teaching of Natural Science in the Grades\nBelow the High School.\" Professor Jackman said :\n\n\"It seems, after all, that we are all aiming at the same thing, namely, the development of the pupil. The fact that pupils are in the high school without a\nknowledge of facts which seem 'foolish' for a child of eighteen years is an evidence that the teaching of such fundamental facts of science should be present\nin the grades below the high school. Upon the work of the first eight years all\n\nthe success of this work depends. Scientific insight will suit the ideas of the\nhigher teacher. To catch the pupil, the attractiveness of the subject must be\npresented first. Little laboratory experiment is needed in the grades; but actual,\nsystematic, accurate field-work is imperative.\"\nHe spoke of the prejudice regarding the idea of \"school;\" that it means to\nmany the four walls, the desks, and blackboards, and that all the work should be\n\nconfined within such a \" school;\" whereas, what is most needed is the freedom of\nthe \" field excursion,\" where the restraint of the schoolroom may, in a measure, be\nthrown aside without any sacrifice of good and profitable results. In fact, the results would be better, because the attractive side would be easily presented and\n\nthe enthusiasm and attention of the pupil would be freely aroused.\nProfessor Jackman further said :\n\n\"People must be impressed with the ad-\n\nvantage of this method, and must spend money to get the children into the field\nfor study.\"\nReferring to the instruction of teachers, he said: \" Teachers must grow with\nthe work. At present the teachers in the primary grades do not know how to\ninstruct the little children. The high school methods will not do, but they must\n\nlearn to teach from the standpoint of the child. Words must mean something,\nand there will be no difficulty in speaking the words.\n\n\"The high school teacher,\" he concluded, \"must be interested in the grade\nscience teaching from self-defense, because he cannot do the work he wished to\nuntil the teaching below is right.\"\n\nMr. Otis Ashmore of Savannah, Ga., spoke of his experience in taking his\nhigh school class to the sea coast on a scientific excursion, and of the enthusiasm\naroused . He fully agreed that the freedom of such excursions meant a great\ndeal for the advancement of science teaching.\n\nThe election of officers for the department resulted as follows :\nFor President- Chas . E. Bessey, Lincoin, Neb .\nFor Vice President-Wilbur S. Jackman, Chicago, Ill .\nFor Secretary- Chas . S. Palmer, Boulder, Colo .\n\nSECOND SESSION .\n\nJULY 12, 1895.\n\nThe Chairman, Dr. Palmer, called the meeting to order at 2:30 p. m. , about\n\nseventy-five being present, and suggested, that, in view of the favorable outlook,\nit would be proper for the permanent officers to assume control of the Round Table.\n\nProfessor Bessey of Nebraska, the President, was therefore called to the chair and\npresided at this session, Dr. Palmer acting as Secretary.\nA motion was made, that, in view of the necessity of meeting the Executive\nCommittee of the National Educational Association at 4:30 p. m., adjournment\nbe taken at 4:15 p. m.\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": null, "text": "956\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Science\n\nThe President then introduced Dr. Joseph Le Conté of the University of\nCalifornia .\n\nHe said :\n\n\"I do not wish my talk, disintegrated and disjointed as it is, to be dignified\nby the title of address. And, by way of introduction, I realize my loss in that I\nhave never had any experience in the lower schools. But let us consider :\n\"Firstly, the obstacles in the way of introducing science into the schools. The\nfield of science is enormous; and yet there is no suitable recognition of this by\nthe schools. This is one reason why the method of teaching natural science in the\n\nschools is imperfect. This is illustrated by the curriculum of the schools. It seems\nto date from the period of the birth of the new learning in ancient languages.\nThe old scheme is thoroughly practical; it has been greatly modified, but the system is thorough .\n\"But now we witness another revival of learning. It is not the 'Book of the\nAncients, but the 'Book of Nature,' which is spread before us. But unfortunately\n\nas yet, there is nothing corresponding to this in the schools.\n\"And moreover, when the attempt was first made, it was found that science\n(as given then), did not furnish as good an educational method as the classics.\nScience of the older day involved a book method; not the natural method of going to the original books and laying open the 'Book of Nature.'\n\"But now we find a newer method; and hence, the laboratory and the fieldthe keys which will unlock nature.\n\n\"Another characteristic of the introduction of good science into the schools\nlay in the fact that the old curriculum was originally designed as a preparation for\na leisure and literary class. Now the schools are regarded as a preparation for\nthe whole people.\n\n\"Thus, formerly, scholars reverenced the old adage, 'In nature nothing is\nworthy of study but man; and in man nothing is worthy of study but mind.' But\nnow science shows that the best cultivation of mind comes from the study of\nnature.\n\n\"Thus the natural study of science cultivates the whole man,-the eye, the\nhand, and the brain. Observe how the cultivation of man is illustrated by the\nchild, the hand, the eye, and the brain, the most fundamental, the most natural,\nand the most successful method.\n\n\"Again, it has been said that natural science is at a disadvantage as compared with the classics and the humanities, in that the one merely teaches power\nover nature, while the others teach power over man; and therefore the latter are\nthe more practical in life where man meets man. But notice biological science,\nwhich is most practical in teaching the dealing of man with man. I mean the\nvalue of the method of comparison and the rapid drawing of results.\n\"Further, natural science must be taught in a thoroughly formal, i. e., a scientific way. The order of the natural sciences is absolutely fixed and rigid. Thus\nit is impossible to understand mechanics without a previous knowledge of mathematics; and thus the logical order is mathematics, mechanics (and perhaps astronomy), physics, chemistry, biology, geology, and finally, shall we say, because now\nit has became thoroughly scientific, sociology. This order is rigid.\n\"But here come the difficulties. Firstly, we cannot teach all as yet; and secondly, they are not all necessary. What shall we choose ?\n\"Let us illustrate the solution by appealing to the two methods of nature study.\n\nThese are, firstly, the natural history method; and secondly, the scientific method.\nIn the one is illustrated rapid observation and the drawing of conclusions ; in a\nword, intuitive perception. In the other one uses the formal reason in a fixed\ncode. The one (the natural history method) is adapted to the lower grades ; the\nother (the scientific method) is adapted to the higher schools and to investigation.\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES.\n\n957\n\n\"Here we meet the horns of the dilemma.\n\nIn the high school we cannot teach\n\nDepartment. ]\n\nall of the sciences previously enumerated. Shall we, therefore, teach a little of\neach; or shall we give a good full year at least to a few ? Now, observe, that,\nin the higher schools, in teaching natural science, the object is, not merely to give\nuseful information but rather to give the key with which the student may open\nand understand the book of nature. And, hence, two or three branches are enough\nfor the present.\n\n\"Now, of the two sides, viz., the experimental and the observational, both\nmust be represented. On the experimental side we find physics and chemistry .\nOf these the teacher should teach that which he can teach best; but physics is\nthe more fundamental. On the other side (the observational) we find biology,\nbotany, physiology, physical geography, etc. Of these, that should be taught which\nis best understood by the teacher. These subjects may well be taught together,\nthough botany is the more fundamental, and is more easily introduced into the\nschools .\n\n\"Lastly, just a word regarding the prospective organization of the Department\nof Natural Science Teaching in the National Educational Association. Surely\nthis is as important as any department in the association. When we consider\n\nthe newness and the uniqueness of the scientific method, if any department is to\nbe recognized, surely the Department of Natural Science should be.\"\nDr. Le Conté's remarks were followed by a discussion on the teaching of\nphysics and chemistry.\nMr. Lewiston thanked the round table for recognizing Nebraska in the election\n\nof President Bessey. He spoke of the use and uselessness of definitions, and\nrecommended the ignoring of atoms and molecules as far as possible, and the study\nof heat, light, and electricity as such. Regarding the economy of time and the use\nof note-books, he would make the note-book a polyglot. Thus with one piece of\ncopper wire, there may be measured, first, the length; second, the specific gravity;\nand later, the specific heat, the heat and electrical conductivity, etc. Regarding\nthe so-called \"sandwich plan\" of interspersing chemistry with physics, he had\nused it, and found it to work well. It caught students who would come back another year; and also, physics and chemistry help each other greatly. Regarding\nscience in the grades, he recommended correlation. Thus measurement suits well\nwith geometry.\nThe Chairman next called on the Secretary .\nProfessor Palmer spoke of the general problem of the newer science courses\n\nin high schools. We must offer something which is modern, and yet which can\ncompete with the good old special classical course in the way of discipline. Mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology seem a good provisional course and order.\nAnd further, the task is now upon the high school teacher. College teachers can no\nlonger ask the pupils to wait for college before beginning science; hence, the high\nschools must take up the problem now. Regarding the criticism sometimes offered\nof \"materialism\" resulting from the study of science, he maintained that the\nsciences build up the best and strongest character if they are well taught.\nThe Chairman next called on Mr. Garvin of the East Denver High School.\n\nMr. Garvin expressed the heartiest interest in the work of the round table.\nHe then expressed his views by quoting at length from the most admirable report\nof the Chemical Committee of the Colorado State Science Teachers. (This report\nis published in full in the \"Colorado School Journal,\" May, 1895, pp. 210, 211.]\nMr. Garvin favored the order : Physics first and chemistry afterwards ; one year\nto each ; seven hours per week; two periods of two hours each, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": null, "text": "958\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Science\n\nThe Chairman next called on Mr. Ling of the East Denver Manual Training\nHigh School.\nMr. Ling favored the order, physics first and chemistry afterwards. He recommended the separation of classroom work and laboratory work. The former\n\nshould anticipate and clear the way for the latter. But especially he dwelt on the\nfact that the object in high school science should be, not merely information but\nthat which gives mental power.\n\nMr. Twiss of Cleveland was next called upon. He preferred the order of\nchemistry first and physics afterwards. First, he would teach physical geography\nwith elementary chemistry and physics; then, in the next two years, he would work\nin more advanced physics and chemistry.\n\nProfessor Strong of the University of Denver was next called upon. He spoke,\nfirst, of the order of physics and chemistry. He thought the two studies were not\ndifferent, and hence could be taught together; but because of the fact that many\nstudents leave the high school early in the course, he would teach physics first. On\nthe other hand, physics depends on mathematics, and therefore should come late in\nthe course. Regarding the attractive \"sandwich plan\" of Mr. Lewiston, that\nwould suggest the wisdom of an elementary and a more advanced course. Secondly,\nregarding the scope; he would limit the number of subjects but go deeply into\nthem.\n\nPrincipal Skidmore of Philadelphia was next called upon. He said that he\nregularly \" sandwiched\" physics and chemistry with the same class (second year)\non alternate days. Thus he began physics with the study of magnets, and chemistry with the study of electrotysis. He rejoiced at the opportunity to discuss\nscience, and congratulated the Colorado Science Teachers' Association on their\nwork. He spoke on the necessity of this department for the National Educational\nAssociation, and instanced the state of the book and apparatus market as an illustration of the undeveloped state of science teaching.\n\nPrincipal Wise of South Denver spoke next. He had tried both orders, and\nfound best results by teaching both together. He used no special text-book. In\na scope of three or four years' high school course, he would give physics and chemistry each one year of five hours per week.\nMr. Coudry of Lincoln, Neb., followed. In dealing with teachers he found\ntoo much ground was covered. He preferred a few subjects, with greater depth\nin each. He preferred the order, physics first and chemistry afterwards. Botany\nand zoology could be taught incidentally.\nMr. Turner of Omaha spoke next. He preferred physics first. If physics and\nchemistry are to be \"sandwiched,\" let them work together.\nAt this time, in anticipation of the organization of the round table into a department of the National Educational Association, the Secretary, Professor Palmer,\nspoke a few earnest words, encouraging his fellow teachers to do all in their power\nto awake the interest of college and high school teachers alike to the importance of\nthe problems and of the work to be done. He advised the formation of local and\n\nstate associations of science teaching all over the country, and urged all to attend\nthe next meeting of the National Educational Association to push on the work.\nThe committee appointed to present the matter to the Board of Directors of the\nNational Educational Association proceeded at once, with Professor Le Conté as\ntheir spokesman, to urge the petition. The petition was unanimously granted, and\nthus the round table with its officers became the Department of Natural Science\nInstruction of the National Educational Association.\nCHAS S. PALMER,\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": null, "text": "ROUND TABLE OF NATIONAL HERBART CLUB.\n\nThe National Herbart Society held two sessions, July 10th and 11th, in the\nafternoon, at the time of the National Educational Association meeting in Denver.\n\nThis society for the scientific study of education in its present form was organized at Denver. Its purpose is to study, and investigate, and discuss important problems in education.\n\nIts members do not subscribe strictly to the doctrines\n\nof any one leader, but seek for fair and thorough discussion. Some members of\nthis society are strongly tinctured with the educational doctrines of Herbart, others\nare not; and it is right to expect an honest search for truth .\n\nIn the meetings for organization an executive council of nine members was\nchosen, which has the control of the society's work. They are as follows :\nCharles De Garmo, Swarthmore College, President; Nicholas Murray Butler,\nColumbia College; John Dewey, University of Chicago; Wilbur S. Jackman, Cook\nCounty Normal School; Elmer E. Brown, University of California; Frank McMurry, University of Buffalo ; Levi Seeley, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.;\nC. C. Van Liew, Illinois State Normal University; Charles A. McMurry, Normal,\nIll . , Secretary.\nThe society was organized for the aggressive discussion and spread of educa-\n\ntional doctrines, and it desires to draw into its membership all teachers, students\nof education, and parents who wish to keep abreast of the best thought and discussion. It publishes a year book six weeks before the National Educational Association meeting, which contains three or more complete monographs on important\ntopics carefully worked out by specialists in educational fields. The \"Year Book\"\nis sent free to all regular members. In addition to the \"Year Book,\" the society,\nthrough its Secretary, will send free to each member two or more additional\npamphlets during the year. Regular yearly membership in the society may be\nsecured by the payment of a one-dollar fee, which should be sent to the Secretary,\nCharles A. McMurry, at Normal, Ill.\nThe first \"Year Book\" was published before the Denver meeting and sent to\nmembers, as a preparation for the discussion of its contents at that time. The\nfirst \"Year Book\" contained four articles, as follows :\n\"Most Pressing Problems Concerning the Elementary Course of Study,\" by\nPresident Charles De Garmo .\n\n\"Concentration,\" by Dr. Frank McMurry.\n\n\"The Educational Theory of the Culture Epochs,\" by Dr. C. C. Van Liew .\n\"A Plan of Concentration for First Two School Years,\" by Mrs. Lida B. МсMurry.\n\nThese papers were quite fully discussed at the sessions of the Herbart Society\nat Denver.\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": null, "text": "960\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nAmong those who took an important part in the Denver discussions of the Herbart Club were :\n\nGeo. P. Brown of Bloomington, Ill.; Robert H. Beggs of Denver, Colo.; Charles\nDe Garmo of Swarthmore, Pa.; Wilbur S. Jackman, Chicago, Ill.; Col. Francis W.\nParker, Chicago, Ill.; O. T. Bright, Chicago, Ill.; C. B. Gilbert, St, Paul, Minn.;\nLouis Galbreath, Winona, Minn.; Miss Sarah Brooks, St. Paul, Minn.: W. P.\nBurris, Bluffton, Ind.; Emma F. Bates, Bismarck, N. D.; John W. Cook, Normal,\nIll.; L. H. Jones, Cleveland, Ohio.; S. G. Williams, Cornell University, N. Y.;\nF. M. McMurry, Buffalo, N. Y.; C. C. Van Liew, Normal, Ill.; C. A. McMurry,\nNormal, Ill.; W. S. Sutton, Houston, Tex.\nA supplement of the \"Year Book\" was issued in November, containing a report\nof the discussions at Denver. The supplement contains also a discussion of the\n\n\"Culture Epochs,\" by the Schoolmasters' Club, in a session held at Bloomington,\nIll. , October 4th and 5th. A second supplement will be sent out to members in\nMarch, 1896.\nCHARLES A. MCMURRY,\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE EDUCATIONAL CONGRESS\nOF THE\n\nCOTTON STATES AND INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION\nOPENED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\nATLANTA, GEORGIA, OCT, 25 AND 26, 1895.\n\nIn accordance with the request of the Department of Education of the Cotton States\n\nand International Exposition , and the resolution passed by the Directors of the\nNational Educational Association at the session at Denver in July , the Educational\nCongresses of the Exposition at Atlanta, Ga. , were opened by the National Educational Association , October 25th and 26th.\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nAppointed at Denver to co-operate with United States Commissioner, Wm. T. Harris, at the\nEducational Congress of the Atlanta Exposition:\nNEWTON C. DOUGHERTY of Illinois , President of National Educational Association\nIRWIN SHEPARD of Minnesota , Secretary of National Educational Association .\n\nI. C. MCNEILL of Missouri, Treasurer of National Educational Association .\nCHAS . R. SKINNER of New York.\nL. H. JONES of Ohio.\n\nAARON GOVE of Colorado .\n\nESTELLE REEL of Wyoming.\nGEORGE J. RAMSEY of Louisiana.\nS. T. BLACK of California.\nJ. H. PHILLIPS of Alabama.\nJAMES MCGINNISS of Kentucky.\nRAY GREENE HULING of Massachusetts .\n\nELLEN C. SABIN of Wisconsin.\n\nE. ORAM LYTE of Pennsylvania.\n\nW. F. SLATON of Georgia.\nC. B. DENSON of North Carolina.\nJ. M. CARLISLE of Texas .\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES .\n\nFIRST DAY, MORNING SESSION.-Ост. 25, 1895.\nEXPOSITION AUDITORIUM , ATLANTA, GA .\n\nThe Educational Congress was called to order by Ex-Gov. W. J. Northen, Chief\nof the Department of Education .\n\nPrayer was offered by Rev. A. E. Winship of Boston, Mass.\nSupt. J. S. Stewart, Marietta, Ga., President of the State Teachers' Association of Georgia, was then introduced, and delivered an address of welcome.\nDr. Wm. E. Boggs, Chancellor of the State University of Georgia, followed\nwith an address of welcome.\n61\n\n"}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": null, "text": "962\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nAt the close of Chancellor Boggs' address Governor Northen added a few\n\nwords of welcome, and introduced President Newton C. Dougherty of the National\nEducational Association as the Chairman of the Congress for the ensuing two\ndays.\n\nIn accepting the gavel President Dougherty delivered a brief response to the\naddresses of welcome.\n\nHe then introduced as the first speaker on the program,\n\nCol. Francis W. Parker of Chicago, who addressed the Congress on \"The Training\nofTeachers .\"\n\nDr. E. Oram Lyte, Principal of the State Normal School at Millersville, Pa.,\nnext delivered an address on \"The Relation of Normal Schools to Public Schools.\"\nAFTERNOON SESSION .\n\nThe Congress was opened at 2 o'clock p. m. with an address by Prof. Edwin\n\nA. Alderman, University of North Carolina, on \"Higher Education at the South.\"\nPresident Wm. R. Harper, University of Chicago, spoke on \"Ideals in Educational Work.\"\n\nA. E. Winship, editor of \"New England Journal of Education,\" read a paper\non \"Educational Pride and Prejudice.\"\n\nSECOND DAY, MORNING SESSION .-Ост. 26, 1895.\nThe Educational Congress assembled at 10 o'clock a. m., President Dougherty\nin the chair.\n\nMrs. Eva D. Kellogg of Boston, Mass., read a paper on \"Progress in Primary\nEducation.\"\n\nThis was followed by an address by Hon. Chas. R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y., on\n\"Rural Schools .\"\n\nThe Congress then adjourned to meet at 2:30 p. m.\nAFTERNOON SESSION .\n\nCongress was called to order by President Dougherty at 2:30 p. m.\nSupt. Oscar H. Cooper of Galveston, Tex., delivered an address on \"Aim of\nthe Elementary Schools .\"\n\nPresident Francis A. Patton of the College of New Jersey, Princeton, delivered\nan address on \"University Education.\"\nThe closing address was delivered by Dr. Wm. T. Harris, United States Com-\n\nmissioner of Education, on \"What the South is Doing for Education, and What\nEducation Is Doing for the South.\"\n\nThe Congress was formally adjourned by President Dougherty.\nN. C. DOUGHERTY,\nPresident.\n\nIRWIN SHEPARD,\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress. ]\n\nADDRESSES OF WELCOME.\n\n963\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS.\n\nADDRESSES OF WELCOME.\n\nBY SUPT. J. S. STEWART, MARIETTA, GA. ,\n\nPRESIDENT OF THE GEORGIA\n\nSTATE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION .\n\nLadies and Gentlemen of the National Educational Association :\n\nIn the name of 8,000 Georgia teachers ; in the name of 600,000\n\nGeorgia children ; yea, in the name of Georgia's 2,000,000 citizens,\nI welcome you to this state. Where is there a teacher who is not\never ready to grasp the hand of fellow teacher in cordial greeting ;\nor where is there a child that does not recognize the teacher as his\nfriend; or the parent who does not welcome the teacher to his\nhome?\n\nThere have been many conventions here during the past six\nweeks-conventions representing important interests and demanding our support. The laundrymen have been here, and the undertakers, the press associations of many of the states, the farmers,\nthe firemen, and the bankers have all been here. Need I say in this\npresence that more important than any of these to the nation's\nwelfare is this body of educators, representing the schools of the\ncountry ? For what is the press with all its enlightening influence\nwithout an educated people to read and appreciate it? The fact\nis, that the increase in the power of the press is dependent upon\nthe enlightenment of the people, and there is no body of men that\nshould be warmer supporters of the schools than the noble men of\nthe press. The work of these other organizations is confined to the\n\nbody and stops with the undertaker ; but the teacher's work touches\ntwo worlds and deals with the immortal part of man. Others deal\nwith the temporal part, providing for man's wants, supplying him\nwith food and clothing, the necessities and luxuries of life; but\nthe teacher deals with the man-awakening, inspiring, ennobling.\nJust as the teacher elevates a people and creates new wants in\n\nman do these other organizations prosper. His work underlies all\nothers . The savage needs not the thousand wares displayed at this\n\ngreat exposition. The art gallery, this inspiring music, the wonders\nof electricity are all wasted upon him. He needs them not. These\nare for the educated man. Hence I say that every organization and\nall citizens welcome this great gathering of teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": null, "text": "964\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nThe teacher is not a mere consumer feeding upon the body politic,\nas some seem to think, but he is a creator of values. Pasteur, professor in the French institute, has added more to the wealth of\nFrance than all her Napoleons and Worths. He saved the wine\nindustry, protected the cattle from fever, and with his germ theory\nrevolutionized modern medicine, making all men his debtors. To\nProfessors Volta, Oersted, Amperé, and Bell the wonders of modern\nelectricity are due. Such men as Helmholtz, Faraday, and Cooke,\nin their talks of nature with their pupils, have founded modern\nchemistry, with its thousand applications in the arts and industries .\nThe professors that could take the crude petroleum that was allowed to waste itself on lake Erie and extract hundreds of useful\n\nthings surely were adding to the wealth of the country.\n\nThe men\n\nwho have extracted the oil from the cottonseed have increased\n\nthe wealth of the South, while her phosphate beds, her mines of\nmanganese, pyrites, and other ores are but witnesses of sources of\nwealth created by the schoolmen.\nIt is not alone in the arts and sciences that the teacher creates\n\nvalue.\n\nEvery teacher, however humble he may be, is a creator of\n\nvalue because he makes the man himself valuable on account of his\n\ntraining. As the mechanic can take iron ore worth three cents a\npound and by refining make it worth a thousand dollars a pound,\nso the teacher takes a boy, that, as a mere man of muscle, might be\nworth but seventy-five cents a day, and less, as a citizen, and by his\n\ntraining and under, his inspiring influence develops a Harris or a\nHarper, a Grady or a Carlyle; men whose worth cannot be estimated in dollars and cents .\n\nThe teacher is truly a creator of value, though he cannot be said\nto be an accumulator of wealth in his own name; at least, in these\nparts .\n\nSchoolhouses are the milestones of a nation's progress. Alfred\nlaid the foundation of England's greatness when he founded her\nuniversities. Germany blotted out the disgrace of Jena and Austerlitz in 1870 with her \"thinking bayonets.\" Old John Harvard\nstaked the first milestone of New England's advancement. Virginia\nowes most of her great men to Jefferson. Who can tell how much\nGeorgia is indebted to her male colleges and Wesleyan, the first of\nthe colleges for young ladies ? The exhibits in the negro building,\n\nBooker Washington himself, this great exposition is largely the\nresult of the spread of public education in the South. As the\nschoolhouses dot the hill and plain does a state rise in rank among\nthe civilized nations. Much of the unparalleled progress of the\nWest is due to the people building their towns about their schoolhouses and not about their jails and courthouses .\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nADDRESSES OF WELCOME.\n\n965\n\nEducation makes a man what he really ought to be, and develops\nundeveloped possibilities. A man with all the faculties that God\nhas given him, discriminating him from the lower animals, is not\na man until these latent powers are expanded and developed and\nhe rises from the brute creation to something better. Education\nis meant to lift men and women to a higher plane in this worldto make complete men, whether they be white or black, yellow or\nbrown. The world needs every man and woman developed to the\nvery highest capacity. We have no faith in that education which\neducates for a niche in a wall. That is pagan. Much so-called\nbusiness education is destructive and not constructive, narrowing\nthe mind and promoting the increase of the materialistic tendencies\nof the age. The true education of which you are the representatives\nrises above this, putting character and intelligence, manhood and\nwomanhood above the things of this world.\nIt is with special pleasure that I, as the representative of the\nGeorgia Teachers' Association, welcome these men of brains to this\ncongress at this time. Twenty-eight years ago our association was\norganized for the purpose of establishing a public school system\nfor the state.\n\nIn less than eighteen months the legislature passed a\n\nbill, drafted by a committee from the association, creating a system of public schools. Under circumstances without a parallel in\nmodern history, I challenge our critics to match it; with no land\nfund; with our wealth gone; with the flower of our young manhood\nsleeping on an hundred battlefields; with one-half of the population to be taxed to educate their own children and those of their\n\nformer slaves (oftentimes the white boy having to work to pay the\ntax while the negro boy went to school); in a sparsely-settled country; with a magnanimity unexcelled,\n-the schools have been maintained and improved. In the cities and towns illiteracy is practically overcome, in many cases amounting to less than one per cent ;\nin the rural districts progress has been made; the schools are Christian; the Bible is not excluded ; our teachers are men and women of\n\ncharacter. We are in the midst of a great educational campaign.\nWe have asked the present legislature to pass a bill doubling the\nschool fund of the state, though our school tax is now higher than in\nmany states. Georgia is now paying but $1.70 a year for the education of each of her 650,000 children ; or five dollars for each of the\n350,000 that were enrolled last year. Her 8,000 teachers received\nfrom the state, on an average, $130 for their work. She has few\nschoolhouses of her own, depending upon the neighborhood church\nor any structure that the generosity of the trustees may provide.\nThe schools run but five months in the year.\n\n"}
{"page": 981, "printed_page": null, "text": "966\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nThe teachers recognize these unfavorable conditions, and are\ndemanding more money for the schools, better teaching, closer supervision, and good schoolhouses that can be used during any season of the year. So great has been the increase in interest in public\nschools that there is little doubt but that our demands will be\n\ngranted. We trust that your deliberations will result in such convincing proofs of the necessity of liberal support for the schools that\nour lawmakers will readily grant our requests. Then will this\nyear be the beginning, not only of a great educational awakening\nbut the beginning of a great industrial era.\nYou have come from every section of our country, from the\ngreat universities and colleges, from the normal schools and city\nsystems, drawn together by a common interest, dominated by a\ncommon purpose. As the different instruments of this famous or-\n\nchestra, the cornets, clarinets, violoncello, violin, drum, and cymbals, each vibrating with its own peculiar tone, yet uniting under\nthe master guidance of an Innes, produce one great harmony, stirring men's souls, so may this congress, composed of representatives\nof so many departments of educational work, yet uniting under the\nmaster touch of Dr. Harris, produce results that will magnify the\nwork of the teacher and give to America a system of schools that\nwill counteract the destructive forces in our republic and will train\n\na generation of liberty-loving, God-fearing menMen whom the lust of office does not kill;\nMen whom the spoils of office cannot buy ;\n\nMen who possess opinions and a will ;\nMen who have honor-men who will not lie;\n\nTall men, sun-crowned, who live above the fog\nIn public duty and in private thinking.\n\nTHE ADVANCEMENT OF THE SOUTH.\n\nBY CHANCELLOR WM. E. BOGGS, UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA.\n\nI have been asked to occupy about five minutes in bidding you\nwelcome and in assuring you of the deep interest felt by our people\nin the subject about which we are to confer.\nThe sincerity of this welcome should be guaranteed by evidence\nas to what we are doing in behalf of education. I therefore beg to\npresent some facts gathered by President Dreher of Roanoke College from the United States Census and the report of the commissioner of education, Dr. W. T. Harris, who honors us with his pres\n\n"}
{"page": 982, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nTHE ADVANCEMENT OF THE SOUTH.\n\n967\n\nence. These facts necessarily take the form of comparison between\nthe South and other portions of our country. The want of money being the most serious difficulty with us of the South, let us see how we\nuse what money we have as compared with other people.\nAccording to the census of 1890 the six New England States,\nwith an area of 66,465 square miles and a population of 4,700,745,\npossessed taxable property valued at $3,567,947,695. And the six\nMiddle States, including Maryland, with an area of 116,530 square\nmiles and a population of 14,142,075, held taxable property valued\nat $7,813,052,992. While the thirteen Southern States excluding\nMissouri, with an area of 818,065 square miles and a population of\n17,914,290, are rated as having taxable property valued at $3,731,097,266.\n\nNow, according to the school commissioner's report for 1892-93,\nthe New England and Middle States combined (with taxable property rated at $11,381,000,687) gave $59,461,708 for education, while\nthe thirteen Southern States gave $18,873,565. The comparison\njustifies fully, I think, the claim made that our people, like our more\nfortunate kinsmen at the North from whom a number of you come,\ndo feel a deep and abiding interest in the cause of education.\nYou will understand that we do not envy the greater wealth of\nour countrymen in New England and the Middle States.\n\nWe ought\n\nto rejoice in the rich blessings enjoyed by them. I hope we do rejoice. We only take them as illustrious examples of people who\nearnestly desire popular education, and point to the facts that show\nthat we of the South are equally in earnest. According to our\nlimited resources we are doing fully as much as they.\nMoreover, gentlemen of the Educational Congress, in estimating\nthe results attained at the South we are sure that you will generously make due allowance for obstacles interposed by the scattered\ncondition of our population. New England, for example, with nearly\nthe same taxable property as the South, has its population (less than\none-third of the South) packed in a territory less than one-tenth of\nours .\nOf course, everybody knows that it takes more teachers, more\n\nschoolhouses, and consequently more money to do a given work\nwhen the pupils are scattered over a wide area.\nAnd besides, you will make just allowance for the fact that our\n\npopulation consists of two races, for whom it is necessary to provide separate schools.\n\nI know, gentlemen, that occasionally stran-\n\ngers come among us who understand our problem far better than\nwe do, and are ready to show us that we are wrong. I do not choose\n\nto enter in this connection upon any vindication of my people's\nfeelings or their social customs. Enough that it is a fact that the\npeace and prosperity of both races are best promoted by having sepa\n\n"}
{"page": 983, "printed_page": null, "text": "968\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nrate schools. And this fact necessarily lays very heavy burdens\nupon our slender purses. You will, therefore, make allowance for\nour embarrassments when you test our zeal for education by the\nresults hitherto attained .\n\nAnd with these facts before us, I do most heartily welcome you\nto Georgia and to the South. I am not ashamed to look you in the\nface when I consider the sacrifices of our people in behalf of education. Our kinsmen at the North are setting us a noble example,\nand we are trying to follow it to the best of our ability. Our progress seems slow when we look at our crying needs. Our steps may\nseem to lag, but it is only because of our heavy burdens. Give us\nyour words of counsel and good cheer as to those in full sympathy\nwith you on this great question.\n\nRESPONSE.\n\nBY N. C. DOUGHERTY,\n\nPRESIDENT OF\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION .\n\nOn behalf of the National Educational Association I wish to\n\nexpress our thankful appreciation of your kind and cordial invitation, given by Governor Northen at Denver, to open these educa-\n\ntional congresses, and of the warm welcome extended us by the\npresident of your state teachers' association, and the chancellor of\nthe University of Georgia. It was here, that, fourteen years ago,\nwhen the South had just emerged from the cloud of war, we received a like hearty welcome from the citizens of Atlanta, under\n\nthe leadership of that distinguished educator, Superintendent Orr.\nThen, as now, able men assembled here whose hearts were warm in\n\nthe great cause of the public schools. The National Educational\nAssociation at that time was but a small struggling body whose\nmembership was numbered by the scores. The men who met then\nwere the educational leaders of the nation.\n\nHere then was Wicker-\n\nsham, now dead, in the vigor of manhood, faithful to duty, strong in\nadministrative power, a leader of marked ability among men. Here\nwas Pickard, who has left his impress upon the great Northwest.\nHere also, as now, was Dr. Harris, whose whole educational work\nhas had the impress of masterly ability, and who, for breadth of\nthought and clear grasp of the whole scope of public instruction,\nfrom the lowest school to the highest university, has had in our\ncountry, in our century, no equal.\n\nBut, it may be asked, why should we teachers gather here in\nthis exhibit of the material advancement of the nation ?\n\nWhat can\n\n"}
{"page": 984, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nTHE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.\n\n969\n\nwe bring that shall benefit this material development of the na*tion, with its hum of industry and vast throbbing factories ? We\n\ndeal with children, with the young men and young women of the\nnation-with interests that are not material but spiritual. From\nmillions of firesides we gather them in; from the palace and the\n\nhovel, from the wealthy and the poor, from the farm and the shop\nthey come and receive from us the first rudiments of mental culture,\nthe first habits of study, the first impulse toward the formation of\ncharacter. What, then, is our connection with the advancing industries, the restless stride of traffic, or the marvelous progress of\npower and wealth of the nation ?\nThe answer is at once evident to him who reflects.\n\nAn unedu-\n\ncated man is from that very fact uncivilized. Only as the wants of\nour higher social being are aroused ; only as culture make its myriad\ndemands known, seeking material and immaterial resources to\nsatisfy the vastness of its desires, can civilization move on. Hence\n\nthe education and culture of a people lie at the very base of our\nindustries. The uneducated mind has no power to bridge rivers, to\nsend cars winding through our hills and mountains. It knows no\ncompass nor theodolite, no trigonometry nor calculus. It has no\nvision of earth's subtle forces which mind subdues for the use of\n\nman.\n\nThe telegraph, the electric railway, the telephone, all show\n\nthat the schoolmaster has been abroad.\n\nThese are the results of\n\nmind culture, the mastery of thought in the field of matter. It is\nright, then, it is fitting, that the teachers of the nation, the guides\nand guardians of our youth, the workers on the deep and solid\nfoundations of the nation's culture should meet here in this inter-\n\nnational exposition, which itself is but the product of the American\nschool.\n\nTHE TRAINING OF TEACHERS .\n\nBY FRANCIS\n\nW.\n\nPARKER,\n\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nFifty- six years ago, near the old town house of Lexington, and\nnot far from the spot where the \"embattled farmers stood and fired\nthe shot heard around the world,\" was established an institution\nto redeem the blood of the martyrs shed in the Revolution, the\nfirst school for the training of teachers ever founded in America.\nThe bloody sword that destroys and devastates, or the sword of the\nspirit,\n\nbetween the two we must choose.\n\n"}
{"page": 985, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n970\n\n[Educational\n\nThe establishment of the first normal school of America was\n\nthe beginning of the inner movement that was to develop a nation\nof free men.\n\nThe common school is the most divine institution on\n\nearth. In its crucible is to be melted, fused, and blended all the\ndiscordant elements of race, nation, and creed,-melted and fused\ninto the genius of American liberty.\n\nWe make a great mistake when we suppose that our forefathers\ndeliberately planned the common school. Of all our statesmen, I\nknow only Thomas Jefferson who had a deep and broad plan to\neducate the masses of the people in one school.\n\nAlthough the com-\n\nmon school was \"born of the people, by the people, and for the people,\" its birth and growth, to a great extent, have been fortuitous\nand accidental. Before the time of Horace Mann (1837) there was\nno well-laid plan of common schools. The common school that then\nexisted was a simple, co-operative scheme in country districts to\neducate the children together at the lowest possible expense.\nIt is true that reformers in all ages have had a profound belief in education as the basis of civilization moving to higher levels ;\nbut, although the common school came from the people, we cannot find in history any definite ideas of how the common school\nshould be supported and what lines it should follow, or what goal it\nshould reach. There was only an indefinite idea that education is\nindispensable to a free people. Horace Mann, who believed, with\nThomas Jefferson, that, by intelligence and morality on the part of\n\nthe people, a republic could be supported and maintained, left all\nand followed humbly, earnestly, heroically, one thing, the education of the people in the common schools.\n\nHe found the schools of\n\nMassachusetts in a deplorable condition ; indeed, the common schools\nwere taught by uneducated, untrained girls and by hedge-row schoolmasters. The people who had sufficient of this world's goods sent\ntheir children to the academies. In fact, the common school sank\nto the lowest level of a charity school. Horace Mann threw himself, body and soul, into the great work of developing the common\nschool system. You know his wonderful history, that is to grow\nas civilization grows. The day will come when Horace Mann will\nstand in the highest ranks of statesmen and philanthropists.\nOne thing inspired him with zeal, and that was the idea that\nthere can be no efficient common school without the educated,\ntrained teacher. Upon this idea, so bravely defended by this hero of\neducation, all the development of the common school in the United\nStates has depended; and it will ever depend upon the teacher who\nknows something of the child, and something of the means to educate the child .\n\n"}
{"page": 986, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nTHE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.\n\n971\n\nThe history of the common school system of the United States\nhas never been written. When it is truly written,-when it is\nshown that the silent, quiet influences of the common school are\nthe heart and soul of the republic,-this history will stand above\nall other histories.\n\nThe history of Greece and Rome will sink into\n\nutter insignificance before the story of this uplifting of the people\nby common education.\nThe main point I have to bring before you to-day, my fellow\nteachers, is this : The common-school system is very young ; it is\nscarcely out of its swaddling clothes. It really began in any organized way with the founding of the first normal school; and it\nhas grown with the establishment of normal schools, one after\nanother, all over the country. The school depends utterly upon the\nknowledge and skill of the teacher. For the growth of the common school we have not been dependent at all upon the central\ngovernment. Beginning in the little school district of New England,\nit has received all its impulse, and, indeed, all its obstruction, from\nthe people. Each state has had the same general history : First,\nthe opposition to the common school ; the old cry \"Am I my brother's\nkeeper ?\" Then came deeper thought, closer examination into the\nmerits of common education, and this great system moved on. Some\nof the states of the Union are to-day in nearly the same attitude towards education as Massachusetts was fifty-six years ago. It can\nhardly be the same attitude, for the good people of Massachusetts\nopposed every step of progress. Horace Mann, with his matchless\neloquence, went from schoolhouse to schoolhouse, all over the state,\n\nabsorbed in the great work to be done, but was met by small, coldhearted, inattentive, sullen audiences.\nAgainst the bitterest opposition the work of educating the masses\nin our schools at public expense has spread from state to state\nuntil it has reached the hearts of the great majority of people in\nmost of the states, but it has only touched the hearts of many, it\nis not rooted there. State after state, as yet, must go through the\nsame general processes of common school development as Massachusetts has gone through. Indeed, Massachusetts has much to\nlearn yet. I give you, then, my fellow\n-teachers, this one fact, that\nthe development and perpetuity of this great republic depends wholly\nand entirely in foundation upon the common school system, and the\ncommon school upon the normal school. The common school is\ncapable of infinite improvement, infinite advance, and all this advance must be made by the education and training of devoted teachers. Many states have learned this lesson,-others have it yet to\nlearn,-that money put into the common school is the literal rendering of \"laying up your treasures in heaven.\" Of all the schools into\n\nwhich money should go in abundance, in which the best teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 987, "printed_page": null, "text": "972\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Educational\n\non earth should be engaged and supported, the normal school stands\nfirst. One well trained teacher with broad views and great enthu-\n\nsiasm is worth, in influence, hundreds-yea, thousands of indifferent teachers .\n\nThe great southern countries, the lands of fruits and flowers,\nhave come together in this magnificent exposition. Everywhere we\nsee signs of movement; but the best thing of all upon these beautiful grounds, with their great storehouses of the products of the\nwhole country, is the little common schoolhouse. In that is the\nseed of all the future.\n\nThat which stands in the way of progress in education is the\nindifference of the people. We have great hope that this indifference will be removed, because it has been removed; because man\nafter man and woman after woman, has arisen in different states\n\nand advocated the elevation of the common school system. So it\nis, and has been, in the North, and will be, must be, in the South.\nYou may dig your treasures from the earth; you may fill your storehouses full to overflowing with ripe fruits,-everything in the way\nof material welfare may bless you ; but without the development\nof the human soul, without the evolution of human character, without training into devotion to the good of all in the common school,\nthere is nothing, neither can there be.\nThe day will come when ministers will preach the gospel of common education from the pulpit; yea, when it will be the grandest\npart of the great gospel of Jesus Christ. The day will come when\nstatesmen from the hustings will stand up manfully for education\nof the masses. I say it must come; it needs no prophet to foretell\nwhat the future must be. The common school system is the one\ncentral means by which the great problem of human liberty is to\nbe worked out, and it is fitting that the educators of the United\nStates should meet in this great exposition, and with one united\nvoice advocate the support, the promotion, and the elevation of\nschools that are to make war unnecessary, that are to drive away\npoverty, misery, and selfishness, and in its place put the ideal republic, the ideal free people.\nThese words, I am sure, are trite, we are apt to repeat them ;\nbut the immense work to be done, my fellow teachers, is ever before us. Heretofore, we have used, to a great extent, the methods\nof oppression, the methods that deaden the mind by dead words.\nThere is a new and living way, the way in which reason is to sit\non its mighty throne, morality is to guide action, character is to be\nall in all, and we are to have what the world has never had,-a com-\n\nmon school system equal to the demands of a democracy, a democracy which means the brotherhood of man and the fatherhood of\nGod.\n\n"}
{"page": 988, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nNORMAL AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS.\n\n973\n\nRELATION OF NORMAL SCHOOLS TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS.\n\nBY E. ORAM LYTE, PRINCIPAL OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILLERSVILLE, PA.\n\nAt the request-I might almost say command-of the distinguished president of the National Educational Association, I am\nhere to-day to say a word concerning normal schools in their relation to public schools. The subject selected for me is an old one,\nand I should be almost sorry to be accused of attempting to say\nanything new upon it. What is true is generally not new ; and\nwhat is new is sometimes not true. But the presentation of old\n\ntruths is necessary so long as they lack application in practice, or\nso long as they seem liable to be neglected or overlooked.\nThe reasons for the special preparation of persons for the vocation of teaching may be found in the following propositions :\n1. Every mind can be educated.\n\n2. Every mind is endowed by the Creator with the power of selfeducation.\n\n3. Every mind can be assisted in its efforts to obtain an education.\n\nThe truth of these propositions will be accepted without question\n\nby all who are familiar with man's development, though their application in the work of education has not always been so satisfactory\nas could be wished. It is true that, as a matter of theory, the need of\nteachers has been recognized ; but, as a matter of practice, the\ngrowing mind has too often been placed in charge of one who was\nexpected to be its master rather than its teacher.\n\nSome of the older\n\nmembers of this audience will recall with me the familiar term \"mas-\n\nter\" applied to the wielder of the birch and the sharpener of the\nquill in the old red schoolhouse, and it was no empty title. Words\nare fossil history, it has been well said; and this word will reveal\nto.the future philologist a pedagogical truth full of painful meaning\nto the generations that were familiar with it. But to-day the teacher\nis in demand.\n\nThe man who knows the soul of the little child and\n\nfeels an intense longing to aid that soul in its efforts to see the truth,\nthat man-more often a woman-is needed everywhere. School\nboards are beginning to look for him, parents want him, and the\nchildren, without knowing it, are calling for him and to him in their\nhelplessness. To-day it is a fairly well recognized fact that teaching\nis a business that can be learned and should be learned.\n\nThere have been two erroneous views held by schools and colleges with respect to the vocation of teaching. One view, held by\n\nmany advanced institutions of learning, is this : All the preparation\n\n"}
{"page": 989, "printed_page": null, "text": "974\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Educational\n\nneeded to teach a subject is a knowledge of the subject itself. That\nthis view obtains to-day is too true, though it is somewhat curious\nthat some institutions whose instructors prepared for their work\nas instructors by simply studying the subjects of which they were\nexpected to be instructors have a sort of pedagogical attachment,\nan annex for the preparation of teachers, thus either condemning\ntheir own method of work or making a concession to a demand\nwhich they do not believe to be a proper one.\n\nNo time needs to be\n\nwasted here to refute the statement that a knowledge of a subject\nto be taught is all that is needed for one to teach it.\nThe second view is even more erroneous.\n\nIt seems to be the\n\nopinion of some that the teacher's preparation does not consist in\nmaking a thorough study of the branches of knowledge to be taught.\nWhile the faculty of no school will acknowledge that they believe\none may be a good teacher with only a speaking acquaintance with\n\nthe various branches which they are called upon to teach, the\npractice of some schools seems to indicate that scholarship is of\nlittle, if any, account. One may possibly teach in a haphazard way\nwithout previous preparation if he knows the subject he attempts\nto teach, but one cannot teach a subject if he does not know it, be\nhe never so good a methodite.\nIt is no less trite than true, and no less true than trite, that the\nqualifications of a teacher, as determined by a correct idea of education, are twofold :\n\n1. A comprehension of the being to be educated and of the\nbranches of knowledge to be taught.\n2. A comprehension of the principles and methods by which the\nmental and physical powers are developed and knowledge and skill\nare acquired.\n\nTo obtain these qualifications best and most quickly teachers\nmust attend schools whose chief end is to teach the activities of the\n\nmind and body and the various branches of knowledge. Normal\nschools are thus necessary to a system of education, and their work\n\nis indicated by the qualifications needed by teachers. As a rule,\nacademies and colleges are not equipped to prepare teachers, even\nwhen they have so-called pedagogical departments in the shape of\n\noccasional lectures by persons more or less acquainted with educational science. Their objects are general culture and the acquisition of knowledge, while the object of the normal school is to impart culture, skill and learning to its students for a specific and\ntechnical purpose, viz., that of fitting them to teach others. This\nwork belongs to normal schools and to universities; and when this\nfact is more fully recognized, the teachers of our country will be\nbetter prepared for the duties which they must perform. It is to\n\n"}
{"page": 990, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nNORMAL AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS.\n\n975\n\nbe regretted that numbers of schools of different classes boldly attempt the preparation of teachers for the public schools of the state,\nwith meager equipment in many cases, and in many cases with but\nlittle comprehension of the nature of the problem they advertise\nthemselves as able to solve.\n\nThe child first learns individual facts without any distinct consciousness of their relations ; subsequently he learns facts as related\nto one another; and still later in life he learns or should learnthe relations of facts, and finally realizes that among the most real\nthings are relations of things. Dr. Harris says in \"Hegel's Logic :\"\n\"The category of phenomenon implies the arrival of the mind at\nthe insight into universal relativity. For when one sees that not\nonly are some things dependent on others, but that all things are\nin their very nature dependent on their environments and that their\nenvironments are likewise made up of relative and dependent things\nso that the termini of relation are in themselves relative and not\n\nfinal realities-when one sees this he sees that all seeming realities\n\nare phenomena, or appearances, or manifestations of hidden processes of force or energy.\" The essence of \"concentration,\" the\nlatest arrival among the newer educational notions, is the element\nof relation.\n\nTo co-ordinate and correlate the various branches of\n\nknowledge usually called higher branches is the function of higher\ninstitutions, such as colleges and universities. To co-ordinate and\ncorrelate the common school branches and the branches so related\n\nto them as to be necessary to a full comprehension of the common\nschool branches is one of the functions of the normal school.\n\nTo\n\nparticularize with respect to a single branch : The relation of\nalgebra and geometry to arithmetic must be comprehended by the\nteacher; and more minutely still, the relational idea in number, so\nadmirably set forth in a late work by McLellan and Dewey, the relation of addition and subtraction, of multiplication and division,\nof addition and multiplication, of fractions and integers, of common\n\nand decimal fractions, of multiplication and involution, of involution and evolution, and so on,-all these relations must be comprehended by the teacher. The value and the beauty of English grammar lie in the relational idea.\n\nVocal music is a matter of tone\n\nrelations ; and so on throughout the branches of the common\nschools. Ziehen does not go far enough when he says, \"The entire\nprocess of education endeavors to awaken related ideas in the mind\n\nsimultaneously, i. e., to combine them by means of external associations.\" When this work of relativity is done intelligently by the\nnormal school and with reference to fitting its students to teach\n\nthese branches, it becomes professional work of a high order, and\nas such is a part of the legitimate work of the normal school, and\n\n"}
{"page": 991, "printed_page": null, "text": "976\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\na part that cannot be neglected by a fully equipped normal school\nwithout loss. The hackneyed question concerning academic work\nin a normal school course is answered by this conception of the\nproper function of these institutions. So long as the teachers who\nare prepared at normal schools are required to teach geography,\nhistory, grammar, and arithmetic, so long must these branches and\nthe branches closely related to them be a part of the courses of\nstudy of normal schools. Let the public schools do what they can\nfor their pupils, let their education be carried forward as far as\npracticable, and then if they look toward teaching in the public\nschools as a calling, the doors of the normal school should be open\nto receive them and the courses of study should be so arranged as\nto prepare them for the duties they desire to assume. High school\ngraduates should thus find in the normal school classes in which\nthey can continue their scholastic or academic work; and pupils\nwho have passed through ungraded country schools-the schools\nfrom which many of our best teachers, and indeed many of our\nleading men, have come-should be able in the normal school to fit\nthemselves for the business of teaching.\n\nAll will agree that normal schools are not established for the\npurpose of imparting a general education to their students, but for\na special end, as are medical colleges, military academies, polytechnic schools, etc. The object of the medical college is to prepare\npersons for physicians; of the military academy, army officers ; of\nthe law school, lawyers ; of the normal school, teachers. But the\ncourse in a medical college is not limited to the mere discussion of\nhow to practice medicine, followed by practice in a hospital. It\nembraces those studies which lead up to the practice of medicine, or\nwhich bear upon the practice, including the whole science of materia\nmedica. Nor is the training at a military school wholly upon the\napplication of the principles of war, with an occasional dress parade\nor sham battle.\n\nA rigid course of mathematical and scientific in-\n\nstruction is insisted upon, in order that the young lieutenant may\nbe able, not only to point his gun according to the laws governing\nthe velocity and drift of projectiles but also to understand these\nlaws and if necessary to derive them. Is the normal school to differ from all other technical schools ?\n\nIs it not to be allowed to deal\n\nwith the subjects that bear upon the teacher's work, and not alone\nwith the way in which these subjects are to be used? The physician\nuses drugs, and the medical college is expected to teach the embryo\n\nphysician the nature of drugs as well as their use. He tries to\ncure fevers, and the medical school is expected not only to teach\nhim how to treat these diseases but also their nature, cause, etc.\n\nThe teacher teaches children arithmetic, geography, history, sci\n\n"}
{"page": 992, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nNORMAL AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS.\n\n977\n\nence; and the function of the normal school is to lead the embryo\nteacher to understand the child and the branches to be used in\n\neducating the child, as well as the manner in which they are to be\nused.\n\nThis view, both rational and necessary, marks out the work of the\nnormal school in harmony with that of other technical schools. In\nother words, a normal school is a school established for the scholastic and professional preparation of teachers. Any other view tends\nto lower the worth and dignity of the profession of teaching by\nlowering the standard of scholarship, as an examination of the results of the work done by schools whose sole object is instruction\nin the principles and practice of teaching seems to prove. Some\nhigher schools might qualify persons scholastically for the work of\nteaching in the public schools, though experience proves that many\nof their students seem to be educated away from the child and the\nbranches with which the teacher of the child must deal.\n\nIn most\n\ncases, however, the scholastic preparation would be superficially\nmade, if for no other reason than because there is a marked difference between learning a branch for the use to be made of it in business or in every-day affairs and learning it for the purpose of using\nit in instructing others. If it is not true that the school established\nto teach persons to teach others is the only school in which the\nbranches of study can be properly prepared for teaching purposes,\nit is true that such a school is the best school in which to do this ,\n\nand that work of this kind is legitimate normal school work. Given,\ntherefore, to young men and young women who desire to become\nteachers such an education as may be obtained in a good public\nschool, it is the duty of the normal school to fit them scholastically\nand professionally for their chosen work.\nBut the normal school has more to do than to give its students\na broad and thorough knowledge of the branches they are expected\nto teach; and it is not inappropriate for me to refer briefly to this\nwork, which is purely professional in its character. The mind and\nthe \" clay cottage,\" as Locke calls the body, must be studied. Montaigne says, \"We have not to train up a soul, nor yet a body, but\na man, and we cannot divide him.\" The knowledge of how to train\naman must be a chief part of the work of these institutions. How\nthe child perceives and apperceives ; how it assimilates knowledge ;\nin what it is interested day after day, and why; in what order subjects of knowledge must be arranged for the child; what knowledge\nis of most worth to the child at the different stages of its development ; how it can be trained to the habit of deliberate induction\nand of accurate deduction (and this training cannot begin too early) ;\n\nwhat should be remembered and how it should be remembered ;\n62\n\n"}
{"page": 993, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n978\n\n[Educational\n\nhow the function of imagination should operate and how it should\nbe checked; how the ideas and thoughts already acquired can be\nkept from \"mixing up\" (there's many a child that gets an undeserved\nreputation for falsifying whose ideas simply break loose from their\nmoorings and float about with ideas belonging to other groups) ;\nwhat are the child's ideals and what or whom does it imitate-all\n\nthese questions and hundreds of others embraced in the general subjects of psychology and methodology must form part of the normal\nschool curriculum. If I might modify Lotze's remark that \"it is\nquestionable whether the mental picture of space which one born\nblind attains solely by the sense of touch will be altogether like that\nof one who sees,\" I would say that it is questionable whether the\nconception of teaching which one attains solely by coming in contact with children, and without availing himself of the experience\nof generations, will be altogether like that of one who brings to\nthe practice of teaching the knowledge of pedagogics that is stored\nin the rich contributions of the devoted men and wise philosophers\nwho have given their lives to this lofty calling.\n\n\"A family,\" Paley says, \"contains the rudiments of an empire,\"\nand a school, even more than a family, must be an embryo state.\nAristotle's \" political animal\" must begin his training in the primary\nschool or the kindergarten. Plans of government, organization, and\nmanagement must be studied by the normal school student.\n\nFur-\n\nther still, the application of the principles and methods of instruction and management employed in a public school must be made in\na practice-school under wise and constant guidance .\n\nIn conclusion, let me say that the relation of the normal school\nto the public school is here outlined in part and the functions of the\nnormal school are briefly presented. There are three broad lines of\nnormal school work :\n\n1. Scholastic or academic study of the branches to be taught\nand of the branches needed for a full understanding of these\nbranches.\n\n2. The study of the branches usually regarded as professional\n\nbranches, e. g. , psychology, methodology, school management, history of education, and the like.\n3. Observation of teaching in a model school and practice-teaching in a school of practice.\nAnd these lines should be so developed, that, under the guidance\nof the normal school graduate, knowledge may be converted into\ncharacter without too much loss in transmission from teacher to\n\npupil. An invention of Nikola Tesla, consisting of placing a piece\nof iron pivoted at its center within the magnetic field of a ring,\nenabled him to convert electrical into mechanical energy more sim\n\n"}
{"page": 994, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nHIGHER EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH.\n\n979\n\nply, economically, and effectively than it had been possible to do before.\n\nWhat the great electrician has done in his chosen department\n\nthe normal school should aim to do for the profession of teaching.\nWith the child at the center of the magnetic circle of knowledge, the\nteacher must be trained to direct the God-given power, more mys-\n\nterious than the electric current, which is generated when the child's\nspirit comes in contact with nature, so that it may be used simply,\neconomically, and effectively to accomplish the purposes for which\nthe child was created.\n\nI would only add that this conception of education suggests the\nmost important mission which the normal school has to fill. It is\nits highest duty to instill into the mind of the coming teacher a\nproper ideal of the lofty work he will be called upon to do. The\nmolding of an immortal soul is a task not to be lightly assumed.\nThe normal school should labor to inspire its students with an en-\n\nthusiastic love for children, and lead them to appreciate the responsibilities resting upon the teacher and to consecrate themselves\nas missionaries in the great work of popular education.\n\nHIGHER EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH.\n\nBY EDWIN A. ALDERMAN, UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA.\n\nOut of the overthrow of an unique and forceful civilization in\n\nthe Southern States there is slowly emerging a new society. Under\nthe stern pressure of necessity, this silent revolution has proceeded\nso quietly, and has been masked so skillfully by the marvelous material resurrection of a ruined and conquered people, that men have\nnot marked the clashing of old ideals and aspirations and modes of\nthought with the new strenuous influences of modernism and in-\n\nnovation. All the well-known phenomena of transition are in full\nplay in Southern life. The people as a whole, incited by lack of\ntraining and consequent poverty, are pressing steadily toward a\nwider life, but are unable to distinguish in the general clamor the\nguidance of true wisdom from the voice of the slave to his prejudice\nor his sect casting in stumbling-blocks, or the raw enthusiast shouting panaceas and prophesying millenniums.\nThe direction and elevation of this social new birth is the sur-\n\npassing duty and function of all educational forces, and more especially of the higher education in Southern life. Whether there shall\n\nissue from the conflict an enlightened civilization, blending the lova\n\n"}
{"page": 995, "printed_page": null, "text": "980\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nbleness and charm of the old with the vigor and freedom of the new,\nor some unhappy system made up of crudities and ancient prejudices, is the task set for this generation of Southern educated manhood.\n\nIsolated, individual, conservative, the South of the past held\nitself proudly aloof from the ferments of modern society, went its\nown way and created its own dominant, dramatic order. This order\n\nwas a system of contrasts, and lights, and shadows. It produced\nneither wealth nor letters. It dishonored labor, arrested immigra-\n\ntion, minimized invention, unified industry, and exalted caste. The\nacademies and private schools of the time, conducted by scholarly\nand devoted men, were numerous and effective indeed, almost perfect-instruments for the purposes of the time; but the common\nschools, branded with the burning badge of pauperism, could not\nthrive. Yet there issued from this order the smallest, the alertest,\nthe most powerful political force in Christendom. The American\nUnion had sprung from their brains, had been maintained by the\nvalor of their arms, and had extended its territory under their guiding hands. By a strange historic paradox the causes of their weakness became as well the causes of their strength. The dangers and\nantagonisms of a militant labor system made them masterful in action and persuasive in speech. Baronial life, with its leisure and\ninherited overlordship, made them as simple as shepherds and as\nproud as kings. In the placid air of their enlightened medievalism\n\nlingered the brave old ideals of courage, and beauty, and gracious\ndignity.\n\nThere was but one overshadowing Southern question then,\n\nand this for its treatment did not so much need universal intelli-\n\ngence and thrift and the spirit of gain and growth as it did char-\n\nacter, principles, oneness of purpose, and chivalric codes of conduct.\nHence all the forces of the time concentrated on these lines, and\nthere arose an assertive, sensitive, sincere, dauntless race of men,\nesteeming life less than honor and loyalty more than gold, who\nwrought with a sad titanic sincerity for their doomed cause, with-\n\nholding nothing, compromising nothing until the mighty struggle\nwore to its sublime and pathetic close at Appomattox.\n\nThe great war, in the mystery of historic forces, freed the white\nman, rolled away his burden, and enrolled the South in competition\nwith the great industrial democracies of the world. Its problems,\nno longer direct and primitive, are their problems, intensified by the\npainful processes of social transformation. The old individualism\nhas given place to combination and capitalism, servile labor to the\nlabor of the free black, and with this the best products are to be\n\nraised, the best goods manufactured, and the best routes to market\ndevised.\n\nOur first work is to possess the land and subdue it, for\n\n"}
{"page": 996, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nHIGHER EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH.\n\n981\n\nthe care of the body, if not so valuable as other higher things, must\ntake precedence in the evolution of a higher civilization. The law\nof the passage of society from the patriarchal to the economic stage\nnecessitates the higher organism, the subtler brain, the more cunning hand. Hence, like a belated army, the South is seeking to\nconquer a place in material civilization ; its dreamers become captains of industry and its doctrinaires lords of trade.\nWe shall lose an element of charm and picturesqueness, but we\nshall gain in wealth and productive energy, and the change is inevitable.\n\nOur largest work is the wise and just guidance of the irrepressible instinct of democracy, restrained for generations, now asserting\nitself in the upheaval of the plain people, the Third Estate, who\nare everywhere coming to the front, demanding their share in gov-\n\nernment and challenging the authority of the ruling class. Our untrained men are learning to govern by governing-pedagogically\nand historically a wise process, for that surely is better than to be\ngoverned and remain ignorant. The situation is not without great\nhopefulness. The rank and file of this popular uprising are the best\nmaterial in the world for the making of educated citizenship. The\ncivil war revealed their value to the world and constituted their\n\nuniversity. Its marches and dangers opened their eyes and gave\nthem their outlook on life. They and their sons, the younger element in the movement, are men of unmixed English and ScotchIrish blood ; inheritors of the Anglo-Saxon consciousness ; descendants of men who sacrificed peace and life for principle in three\n\nwars ; keen-witted, if untrained ; their very excesses the result of\nboundless faith in the majesty of their government. The tasks\nawaiting adjustment by these men, sure to attain and hold power in\nthe end, are enough to appall the wisest statesmen and the pro-\n\nfoundest social scientists-the remodeling of constitutions, the settlement of grave questions of suffrage and property, the reconciliation of classes, and, greatest of all, the problem of the two races.\nThe sentimentalists and partisans of the reconstruction period\nfancied that they had settled the question which had disturbed the\ndreams of Jefferson, which had perplexed and affrighted the national\nconscience through all its history, and which had just evoked the\nmightiest moral energies of the century. But their solution was\nno solution. It was solemn opera bouffe. The problem had just\nbegun and remains the transcendent sociological problem of the\n\nage. Rant will not dispose of it, nor ignorant gush, nor race prejudice, nor the philosophy of the sentimental and the remote ; but\nit must work itself out on Southern soil by the wisdom of Southern\nmen of both races. It must pass into the region of scientific study\n\n"}
{"page": 997, "printed_page": null, "text": "982\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nand investigation. The Southern scholar must make it his province\nin the still air of the university; the statesman and publicist must\nponder it, and the capitalist may well reckon with it amid his gold.\nWhat manner of man, then, does the South need in its coming\nlife?\n\nPerhaps in the past we set too much store by wise leaders, and\nneglected to provide for wise followers. If so, the irony of fate is\nsporting with us ; for now in the threatening danger of these great\nquestions we are practically leaderless. The old type of leader,\nsoftened by fortitude and idealized by woe, has passed away, canonized by love and letters. The voluntary and occult forces of the\ntime are seeking diligently to fashion the new. Now and then we\nseem to get a glimpse of our leader-as when Henry Grady, with\nhis golden tongue and free, spacious spirit, uprose upon the South,\n\na radiant prophecy of its future manhood ; but it is only a glimpse.\nThe mere industrial man will not answer our need ; though there\n\nare lands to be tilled and factories to be built, and the madness of\n\nexalting empty political pre-eminence above the sciences that will\ndignify labor and procure food can never again curse our life. The\nmere orator, or politician, or scholar will not do. There must be a\ncomplex of all these-the man of free spirit and constructive habitthe man of insight and effectiveness, of utility and beauty, of action and contemplation. He shall, above all, have faith and sympathy with the blundering masses, and shall be endowed with that\npatient wisdom which can await the unfailing rectitude of public\nimpulse and can keep its faith through unpromising days. Like\nFichte around the king's council board or Luther to the burgomasters of Germany, he shall plead unceasingly for education in the\ncolleges and schools, in the press and in the public library.\nIf our laws and institutions are not to become the crude experiments of the ignorant or the bold devices of the corrupt; if the\nSouth is to outgrow years of economic misconception; if the teachers\nin our schools are to be true teachers, educated men rather than\nparty chieftains or untrained place-seekers must lead our civilization. The potential of trained mind must constitute the test of true\nleadership in the South hereafter. The popular contempt for higher\neducation and the popular pride in the self-made man is always\nwidespread and strong in democratic societies. The feeling is a\nsort of retribution upon scholarship and educated power for its\ncowardice and selfishness ; but it is none the less defiance of com-\n\nmon sense. The educated man may not always be in place, but he\nis sooner or later in power. The higher education is the dynamic\nelement in the life of the community, invigorating the schools of\nthe people, bravely struggling to elevate the common standard of\n\n"}
{"page": 998, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress. ]\n\nHIGHER EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH.\n\n983\n\nliving, supplying the state with its teachers in the schoolroom, the\npress, the pulpit, the family.\nOut of the universities of the world have come its creative move-\n\nments and men-religious freedom in the old world and civil liberty\nin the new. Modern Germany is the child of her universities, and\nrelies more firmly for her permanent power upon them and their\n28,000 students than upon her invincible soldiery. Blot out the\ninfluences of Harvard and Yale and the colleges of the Atlantic seaboard, and what art can estimate the loss in moral elevation, prac-\n\ntical power, or national character? The great Columbian Fair,\nwith its splendor and beauty, will fade away as a dream, but its\nneighbor, the university, will shape Western life for unnumbered\ngenerations. Wherever tyranny has sought to oppress the weak\nor ignorance to rule the wise ; wherever the borders of light have\nneeded to be enlarged or ancient and prosperous shapes of wrong\nto be cleansed from the land, the gray walls of the university have\n\nyielded up its spiritual battalions,-strong in steadfast purpose and\ncultivated brain, discoverers of thought, conservators of truth, stimulators of mind, sowers of seed that will bear fruit in a fairer time.\n\nThe feeling is instinctive that men of this stamp and quality must\nserve a state in epochs of downfall and trial. The South has not failed\nin this feeling, as its brave efforts to establish and maintain schools\nand colleges for both races quite eloquently show ; but the needs of\nSouthern society are so great, her young men seeking training are so\ncountless, the work of all colleges is such a fraction, of what is left\nto be done, the disheartening rivalries and bickerings among the\ncolleges themselves are such distressing proofs of the need of higher\neducation, that it has seemed best for me to leave the questions\nof technique and administration to wiser men, and, even in this\npresence, to plead for the thing itself.\nWe are not all of one mind as to how the great need shall be\nsupplied.\n\nThere are those who insist that this vital thing is not a\n\nconcern of the state, whose highest functions, they declare, are\nsymbolized by the policeman's club or the law's penalty. And, then,\nthere are the prosperous communities, with amassed wealth and set-\n\ntled material skill, who say to us that we must wait upon the impulses of philanthropy or the activities of the church for our educational foundations.\n\nBut the nature of the state is at variance with\n\nthe limitation of its powers to police regulation, and the instinct of\n\ncivic self-preservation decides against trusting wholly to individual\ngenerosity or ecclesiastical agencies for an universal social necessity. The state is not the government alone ; it is the will of the\npeople expressing itself in beneficent institutions as well as in penal\nor protective codes. The protective function of a state, indeed, may\n\n"}
{"page": 999, "printed_page": null, "text": "984\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\ndisappear as reason advances, but the loftier educational function\nwill increase as social relations grow in complexity.\nFrom the standpoint of right, there is no power to which the state\ncan delegate its duty and power to educate, for there is no higher\npower than the state. If there is a higher power in the state than the\nstate, then that power is the state. From the standpoint of political\ncommon sense, the agent of social salvation should be at least as\npotent as the extent of social peril. Our social peril is superlative,\ninvolving education, or migration, or revolution. The most potent\nconceivable agent is the state, which is concerned about and surely\nis responsible for its own life. Therefore, it is the all-powerful state\nthat must maintain itself against vital danger. If it be conceded\nthat the youth of a commonwealth have the same right to be educated that they have to be free, then it must also be conceded that\nthe state is responsible for and alone has the power to guarantee\nthe granting of this sacred right. To those who concede the state's\n\nright and duty to educate in the primary education and deny it in\nthe higher, it may be answered that an argument for any education\nis an argument for all education. If the state has a right to educate\nat all, it likewise has the right to determine the extent and character\nof that education. All knowledge is comparative, the higher education of one age becoming the lower of the next, and there can be\nno deadline in learning at which knowledge ceases to be good and\nbecomes useless. The three R's are indispensable. But mere reading is not reading with profit, and the one is as indispensable as\nthe other. Higher education simply means more education, better\neducation, completer education for a completer life. It is not a cult\n\nfor the few, nor a caste for the wealthy, nor a college for the exclusive. It is the training ground for the people, and is the essence\nof democracy in its purposes and results .\nIn my own state of North Carolina up to the Civil War there was\na widespread feeling that the ruling class was confined to a few\nfamilies of ability and wealth. In the early days of the century\nit was true, and necessarily true, for the influential and wealthy\nclasses alone could command the advantages of education, and\neducation finally rules. The enlightened policy of the modern state,\nknowing no class and knowing that those who most need help are\n\nleast able to help themselves, cheapens the cost of this priceless\nthing and offers it to the aspiring of all ranks who feel within them\nthe promptings of power and yearn for the higher life of useful\n\naction. As a result of this leveling process, introducing the higher\ntest of fitness and ability, side by side in the various fields of endeavor and in the high places sit men of all ranks and all degrees\nof wealth advancing the life of the state.\n\n"}
{"page": 1000, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nHIGHER EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH.\n\n985\n\nLet me not be understood in pleading for the higher education\nas underrating the lower, for there is no essential distinction between the two.\n\nThe state cannot be interested in one and not in\n\nthe other, for they are one and indivisible. A system of education\nall universities and no primary schools would be a crime, as a system all primary schools and no universities would be a farce. It\nis simply a question of sequence. The educative impulse is from\nabove downward and not from below upward, and the two impulses re-enforce and enrich each other.\n\nIn the old Southern life, in every\nery hamlet and community were to\nbe found men and women of the rarest culture ; but all around, giving\ncolor and tone to the whole, moved the untaught throng. The supremest need of the new life is the lessening of this inequality by\nthe presence, in large numbers , in all elements of the population, of\nmen and women of thoughtful, independent mind, of trained consciences and habits and hands, who can bring things to pass. This\ncan only issue out of the higher education reacting upon the lower,\nlifting the whole to a higher common level.\nThe permanent forces in this process are, first and foremost, the\nstate universities and colleges, supported by taxation and expressing\nthe Christian tendency of the brotherhood of men, and secondly,\nthe endowed institutions supported by enlightened philanthropy.\nThere is no call among us for a multitude of new foundations,\nunless it be for institutions for the training of teachers.\n\nWe need\n\nrather to expand, and enrich, and liberalize the old foundations.\nThere are two obstacles in the way of this result. The popular abstract hatred of taxation which enables the enemies of the state\n\nschools to confuse the thought of the people and to make them regard all taxation as a curse rather than as organized corporate wisdom, hallowed by Christianity, struggling to secure for the children\na needful thing beyond individual power.\nSecondly, the failure, thus far in our development, to find the\ngolden mean between the individualism which preserves liberty and\n\nthe individualism which paralyzes concerted action.\n\nStill partially\n\nrooted in our life is the fatal thought that every man should edu-\n\ncate his own child, or leave him uneducated if it be his will or misfortune.\n\nEmphasized by poverty, this conviction still stays the hand of\ngiving and belittles the glory and gladness of helping others to\nhelp themselves. We will do well to labor and pray for the death\nof this sentiment.\n\nWe would be mad to cease state effort and de-\n\nmand endowment at the point of a subscription list.\nBishop Potter in a recent utterance has declared that the darkest\n\nday for any people would be the day when they did not possess\n\n"}
{"page": 1001, "printed_page": null, "text": "986\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nan ideal university. And by an ideal university he meant any group\nof free, simple, unhampered men seeking truth for truth's sake ;\n\"waiting patiently on their bended knees before the shut doors of\nthe Kingdom of Knowledge;\" getting their only reward in the thrill\nof the human soul in its contact with verity; ignorant and careless\nof the moment when their theoretic truth merges into fact and in\nthe form of mighty engines, or stately ships, or roaring looms blesses\nthe world. There can be no fairer picture on earth than this, and\nsuch men are indeed the aristoi of the world.\n\nBut there is one thing\n\ngreater than truth, and that is humanity. The Southern university\nmay well cherish this serene ideal, and incorporate in its organization the creative impulse and the spirit of inquiry and investigation. But its first thought must be about its environment, out of\nwhich it must grow and by which it must do its duty before it can\nerect a beautiful aristocracy of scholarship. Once we were aristocratic in government and education, but now we are democratic in\nboth. At this stage of our culture, when millions are to be impressed with the importance of knowledge, the Southern scholar\nmust forego his office of prophet and seer and become ruler and reformer. Southern universities and colleges must do the work of\n\nsocial regenerative forces, reaching out directly into the life of the\npeople, making known how much better light is than darkness, and\nhow sweet it is for the eyes to behold the sun-ennobling the poor\nman's poverty and spiritualizing the rich man's gold.\nI sometimes think that our brethren of the North and West do\n\nnot fully comprehend how ripe the time is, and how hard the struggle for the fruitful doing of such work. Individuals and communities cannot be forced into power, or culture, or effectiveness, or skill.\nThe desire for these good things must go before their realization.\nFor a glimpse of the self-reliance, the eagerness, the bravery of the\nSouth, one has only to visit a Southern college and see the earnest,\n\nthrilling desire for the opportunities which the people believe to be\nconcealed in education.\n\nThe influences that hinder and obstruct\n\ncannot wholly restrain or dull it, and it grows by what it feeds on.\nIt is something of the spirit, I fancy, that lives for us in the glad,\n\ngrateful words of young Ulrich Von Hutten, spoken to the bright\nface of Freedom in the morning of the modern world, \" Studies are\nblooming; minds are awakening. It is a joy to be alive.\" It is\nthe spirit that will force history to place our epic period, not in the\n\nheroic days of '61 and '65, when our soldiers performed prodigious\nfeats of arms, but in the grinding days from '75 to '95 when they\nand their sons met and rose above the stupendous difficulties that\nfollowed in the wake of war.\n\nThe going of the average Southern boy to college is no conven-\n\ntional, quite ordinary stage in the life of a youth. It is always an\n\n"}
{"page": 1002, "printed_page": null, "text": "IDEALS OF EDUCATIONAL WORK.\n\nCongress.]\n\n987\n\nevent, and sometimes a tragedy. It most frequently means, that,\nfar away in the home, the father and mother work harder and rest\nless, and scrimp here and save there, eating skim milk and oatmeal\nand taking counsel in the still hours of the night how they may\ngive their child the privileges they did not know and the entrance\ninto the clearer, fresher, sweeter life denied to them. I have seen\na feeble woman's face set with stern resolve and glow with ineffable\n\nlove at the very thought of her boy putting on his armor at the\nprice of her own life. The dignity, and power, and political value of\nchildhood and youth as the fittest and ultimate concern of the legislator, the preacher, the political economist, the true statesman has\nentered our life as one hundred years ago it entered the life of the\nFrench, aroused by the mad earnestness of Rousseau and aghast at\nthe havoc of revolution, or as it entered into the thought of the\nEnglish a generation later to the music of Wordsworth's immortal\node.\n\nHigher education in the South does not exist for its own glory,\nfor the fame of its teachers, for the pride of sect, or for any subjective or selfish reason. Its aims must be pure public aims and its\nservice public service.\n\nIn a portentous era and with inadequate means, it stands for the\nbeneficent force that must transmute the tumultuous, untrained life\nabout it into self-government perfected by education ; its material,\nthe youth of a new life and a new century, and its strong fortress,\nthe self-conscious state, no longer a synonym of rude force, but an\nexpression of Christian sympathy, and unity, and conscience seeking\nto realize and show forth the dignity of democracy, the beauty of\npopular concord and justice, and the majesty of republican citizenship.\n\nIDEALS OF EDUCATIONAL WORK.\n\nBY PRESIDENT WM. R. HARPER, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.\n\nI doubt if even the professional educator has a full conception\nof the intense educational activity which in a multitude of forms\n\nexists among us.\n\nWith kindergartens, private schools, primary and\n\ngrammar schools, high schools, normal schools and academics, boys'\nschools and young ladies' seminaries, schools of music, schools of\nart, schools of engineering, schools of architecture, schools of law,\nschools of medicine, colleges and universities ; with the many special\n\nefforts which are being made to bring the results of educational\n\n"}
{"page": 1003, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n988\n\n[Educational\n\nwork into the possession of the people, efforts which have assumed\nthe most definite and rounded forms in that work, the very name of\nwhich to-day is a household word-university extension ; with that\neducational work of an indirect though real character carried on\nthrough the powerful agency of the press, as seen in journals and\nmagazines, and which constitutes one of the most effective agencies\nof our manifold educational activities ; with all these, I say, there is\nat the same time a diversity and complexity which bewilder and\nconfound us, and it is only in a few cases that the educational expert has shown any adequate realization of the amount and variety\nof American educational work.\n\nIt does not require the knowledge of an expert to see, that, in\n\nthis great multiplicity of plan and method, purpose and scope, there\nis no such thing as system. This work consists of a hundred thousand disconnected parts, without adjustment to each other and entirely devoid of relationship to any general scheme. These parts\ncannot be said to be even loosely connected. The same thing is re-\n\npeated in a thousand ways ; each way, however, being sufficiently\ndistinct and different to make void every effort looking towards adjustment or connection. Germany may be said to have a system of\neducation, France likewise; but in America, as a whole, there is\nno trace of anything that might be rightly called a system. It is\ntrue that there is a so-called public school system; but this is at\nbest partial, covering only a small portion of the field, and in effective operation only in certain portions of the country. There is\nin certain states-for example, Michigan and Minnesota-something\nwhich looks like a system in the relationship that exists between\ngrammar schools and high schools and between high schools and\nthe state university. But this also is only partial, and of questionable efficiency even in the states in which it has been most fully developed.\n\nIt is possible to go even farther, and to say that there is no such\nthing as order. Whatever phase of this activity we study there\nis discovered chaos and confusion; no order or plan. It will be\ngranted that a work may be carried on systematically even if it does\nnot constitute a system; but we look in vain to the country at large,\n\nto a single state, to the best of all states, or to a single county, or\neven to a city, for an organization which may reasonably be called\nsystematic.\n\nIt cannot be found.\n\nIt is possible that the results of our work as at present conducted\n\nmay justify the lack of a system; and, indeed, the lack of system.\nThere are those who praise unduly these results. They are in most\ncases, however, persons unfamiliar with the results obtained from\n\nother countries ; for it is beyond dispute that the average boy of\n\n"}
{"page": 1004, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nIDEALS OF EDUCATIONAL WORK.\n\n989\n\neighteen or nineteen who has finished the grammar and high school\ncourses has had no such advancement as the boy of corresponding\nage in Germany. It is beyond dispute that whatever advantages the\naverage American college possesses, whatever it may do for its students in discipline and in real effectiveness, it by no means ranks\nwith a gymnasium or the lycee. The results do not justify either\nthe amount of money expended or the amount of work given to\nthe cause of education in America.\n\nThe introduction of order and\n\nsystem would double the efficiency of the work done, save two to\nfour years in the life of every student, and secure a thoroughness\nwhich would revolutionize American methods in politics, business,\nand letters. No one who has intelligently considered the question\nwill fail to realize the disastrous consequences which have attended\nthe utter lack of system in all our educational work. But it is the\nquestion, however, not of system in educational work, for concerning this there is no question, but of a system in educational work\nthat I would speak. The question is, Have we waited long enough,\nand has the time come when effort of a most vigorous character\nshould be put forth to do that which hitherto we have expected to be\n\ndone of itself ? The difficulties attending the adoption of any general plan which could be denominated a system have not been overlooked. (a) We are still a young and undeveloped nation. Has the\nproper time arrived for a national system, which shall not only include all that has thus far grown up but at the same time organize\nthe whole into an organic and systematic unity ? (b) We are not\nas yet a people. The term peoples is more appropriate. Many and\ndiscordant are the elements of which we are composed. Is it possible to develop a system which shall be pleasing to all ? (c) Will\nnot better results be achieved if we move along independent lines,\neach investigator watching the results of all and adopting from time\nto time that which commends itself to him ? These and many other\nobjections present themselves in oppostion to the advocacy of a\nsystem. But I would answer (1) we have at our command the wisdom and experience of all the ages, and if we are not in a position\nto-day to take the necessary steps to formulate a system, we shall\nnever be. (2) The very fact, that, as a people, we have among us\nrepresentatives of so many nationalities ; the very fact that our great\npurpose in reference to all foreign nationalities is the purpose to\nAmericanize them, in other words, the very circumstances of our\nsituation, should incite us to provide a system of education which,\nlike our American system of government, should be unique and\nworthy the name American. (3) The adoption of a system does not\nshut out experiment and investigation, but rather encourages them .\nA system is not necessarily rigid and mechanical, but may be most\n\n"}
{"page": 1005, "printed_page": null, "text": "990\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nflexible. Nor is it supposed that any system will continue to be\nused without modification. The very fact that it is a system carries\nwith it the idea of growth, and growth means change.\nIt would be an audacious thing for me to propose to you a system of education for America. I have no such thing in mind. Such\na proposition, when it comes, must come from one wiser and more\nexperienced than I shall ever be. The truth is, the system when\nit is once evolved will prove to be the outcome of the wisdom and\n\nexperience of hundreds of men. In order that such a system may\ncome, however, every man who has at heart the highest interest\nof education should seek to make his contribution, however small\nand insignificant, for consideration in the counsels of those to whom\nthis great trust will sometime be committed. Besides, each one of\nus engaged to-day in educational work owes to himself and to his\nwork to present as frequently and as forcibly as circumstances and\nability will permit, his conceptions of the educational principles\nwhich should operate, whether with or without a system. Situated\nas we are, each in his way is working out a system more or less comprehensive, more or less local ; each is engaged in an experiment, the\nresult of which will be of interest to all. I venture, therefore, to\npresent a few of the ideas which in my opinion will characterize the\neducational work of the future, whether we are to have in mind the\nneeds of a single institution or those of a district, or whether it be our\n\nplan to cover as years go by broader territory and include many\ninstitutions of many grades.\nFirst of all, and if I mistake not, most fundamental of all, is the\nprinciple of individualism-a principle capable of application alike\nto students, instructors, and institutions. Every man born into the\nworld comes into it with the limitations of his work clearly defined\nby nature. The man who succeeds in life is simply the man who is\nfortunate enough to discover the thing nature intended him to do.\nIn some cases nature has seen fit to indicate early and definitely\nthe line of work in which success may be attained. In others the\ndiscovery is made, if at all, late in life. In the growth and development of the body and mind, each man or woman is to be treated as\nif he or she were the one person in existence. The individual, not\nthe mass, is to be cared for. From the beginning the student should\nreceive such treatment as will enable those who are watching his\n\ndevelopment to learn what he can do only with difficulty. But this\nis not to be limited to the beginning; it shouldbe continued to the\n\nvery end of what would be called the preliminary period, a period\nwhich in the case of every individual continues until the clearest\nevidence has been secured of the discovery of the principal work\nwhich the individual can do to advantage.\n\nWhen once the discov\n\n"}
{"page": 1006, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nIDEALS OF EDUCATIONAL WORK.\n\n991\n\nery has been made the pupil should be allowed to devote himself,\nwith certain qualifications, uninterruptedly to that for which, as experiment has shown, nature fitted him. The next aim will be to\ndevelop those functions which are capable of development. It will\nnot be forgotten that the culture shall be as broad as possible, but\nit is true that the possible fields of mental culture are multitudinous,\nand that, after all, no man, however broadly cultivated, comes into\ncontact with many of the fields. It must be admitted that a large\npart of our educational work fails utterly of accomplishing the thing\nin view. Men pass through all the grades of primary and secondary\nwork, enter college and do also university work, and yet are reckoned\nby the world at large, and even by those most intimately associated\nwith them, as failures.\n\nAnd so far as adding anything to the life of\n\nthemselves or others they are failures. Why is this so? Because\nthe idea has prevailed so extensively that men might be educated en\nmasse; that one after another they might be ground through the curriculum of study without reference to special taste and predilection.\nA class of fifty men enter college, no two of them alike in equipment,\n\nnatural taste, mental aptitude, or intellectual ability, and yet they\nhave been required to take the same studies, within the same number\nof hours, in the same way and with a sameness throughout thatmakes\ncollege life for most of them a distasteful thing and an injury. I\nstand ready to assume the responsibility for the statement, that\nmany men are injured by college training, and that the cause of the\ninjury in nine cases out of ten has been the inflexible cast-iron\nroutine of the college curriculum, which, let us congratulate ourselves, is fast becoming a thing of the past. Less harm has been\ndone than would otherwise have been the case, because, as a matter\nof fact, only men of a certain disposition in days past have received an education. A great change has taken place among us\nto-day. Men of different types of mind, men who have no idea of\nbecoming scholars, men who would be artists, mechanics, business\nmen, as well as who have in mind the ministry or the law, may receive an education adapted to their needs and capabilities. That\nthe doctrine of individualism is beginning to be respected is evident\nfrom the establishment of scientific schools, technological schools,\nand from the high position which these schools occupy now side by\nside with the college, a position to which they could not lay claim\neven so short a time as ten years ago . But the same sin (for it is\na sin against God and against man) is still committed in most\nof our institutions, even in those to which reference has been made.\n\nThe individual is forgotten in the mass. In how many colleges is\nit the custom to take, as it were, a diagnosis of the mental constitution of each student similar to that which the physician makes of\n\n"}
{"page": 1007, "printed_page": null, "text": "992\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Educational\n\nthe body? It is not unusual in these days in connection with the\nwork of the Department of Physical Culture to have each man examined, the weak points of his body pointed out and the principal\nexercises indicated which will help him. Is such a thing done for\nthe mental constitution ? The present college methods too often\ncompel failures, and it is more or less accidental that a man receives real and genuine help in his development. Why is it that\n\nso many men achieve marked success in life, in their profession and\nin every line of business, who have never seen the inside of college\nhalls ?\n\nBecause contact with men does for them what technical\n\neducation is supposed to do for those who avail themselves of its\nadvantages. The feeling against higher education which has existed is not without some justification. A radical change is demanded-a change which shall shake to the foundations the educational structures that have been erected.\n\nOutside of a very few of our highest institutions of learning, the\ncause of education in this country has been cursed by the failure\nof those in authority to recognize the principle of individualism in\n\nthe work of instructors. I select two familiar examples. In the\nhigh schools, which are gaining rapidly in numbers and in efficiency,\nno attempt has been made to assign to teachers the work in which\nthey are particularly interested. The man whose mind by nature is\nmathematical in its tendency is ordinarily asked to teach language\nor history. The woman whose whole soul is afire with interest in\nliterature is compelled to do work in science or mathematics. Or\nworse yet, as happens in nine cases out of ten of our colleges, the\nsame person is required to teach in three or more departments, to\na greater or less degree distinct from each other, the chances being\nthat in no one of the three has the instructor been afforded opportunity to do special work. Until within a short time this sin has\nbeen committed even in larger institutions. It is at this point that\nindividualism passes into specialism and the connection between the\ntwo is close. The multiplication of the fields of knowledge makes\n\nnecessary the cultivation of individuality; and it must be conceded\nthat the very marked changes which have taken place in the college\nfield are due to the rapidly increasing recognition of this great principle.\n\nProgress in this particular has been slowest in the case of institutions themselves. It has been a common idea that every newly\nfounded institution should duplicate the work of those which have\n\npreceded it, and as a consequence, with one or two notable exceptions, the higher institutions of our country are institutions of a\nsingle type. This means of necessity narrowness. It means more.\nInasmuch as each institution tries to cover the same ground and all\n\n"}
{"page": 1008, "printed_page": null, "text": "IDEALS OF EDUCATIONAL WORK.\n\nCongress.]\n\n993\n\nthe ground, the result is that no effort has anywhere been undertaken to establish a school which will allow thoroughness or depth.\n\nThe college with no endowment, or endowment of $100,000, seeks\nto do the same thing which the institution with an endowment of\nmillions finds difficult to do.\n\nThe technical school with no endow-\n\nment, or $100,000 of endowment, seeks to cover every field of technological work.\n\nHow much better it would be if institutions would\n\ncultivate individualism, the academy doing the work of an academy,\nand not that of a college ; this institution devoting its strength and\nenergy, so far as university work goes, to the development of departments of history and politics, this to the development of physics\nand chemistry, this to the development of the biological sciences,\nthis one to throwing all its efforts into the great field of electricity.\nBut no ; the lowest tenth-rate college announces courses in every\ndepartment of human knowledge, and students are compelled in\nself-defense to dabble in everything rather than to do work in a\nfew things. Leaving individuality of curriculum, it is also true\nthat almost nowhere is there cultivated individuality of spirit.\nThere are perhaps four or five institutions in America in which\nthere may be said to exist after years of culture an individual spirit.\nThere is a Harvard spirit, a Yale spirit, a Princeton spirit, a Johns\nHopkins spirit, a University of Virginia spirit. Where is there an\nother institution individual in its character ? Of young institutious\nmuch may not be expected; but that institution which has done\nwork fifty years without exhibiting to the world in the character of\nits men a distinctive individuality has, in one important respect at\nleast, failed to accomplish that for which it was founded.\nCO- ORDINATION-THE ADJUSTMENT OF PARTS .\n\nIn every scheme there are parts, and that these parts shall make\na scheme or system, they must be adjusted to each other; they must\nbe co- ordinated.\n\nI use the word now in its broader sense.\n\ncational work has divided itself into sections.\n\nOur edu-\n\nEach section must\n\nbe so arranged as to fit into that which is above and below it, as well\nas into that which is on each side of it. The arrangement, therefore,\nis a complicated one, and perhaps we are not to be surprised that no\nsatisfactory adjustment has yet been made. Both of the adjustments referred to are needed in the educational development of every\nindividual as well as in the organization of every institution.\nIn the case of an individual we seem to-day to be in utter confu-\n\nsion so far as concerns the arrangement of the definite steps in his\neducation.\n\nOmitting for the sake of brevity any consideration of\n\nthe earliest periods, it is evident that the grammar school, the grade\npreceding the high school or academy grade, is organized in most of\n63\n\n"}
{"page": 1009, "printed_page": null, "text": "994\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\n[Educational\n\nour state systems with special reference to making provision for\nteachers and finding a market for text-books rather than for de-\n\nveloping children. Bewildered by the multiplicity of subjects\ntaught, subjects making a curriculum without unity of any kind, the\npupil reaches the end of this period discouraged and distressed.\nWhy do not more children proceed to the higher grades of study?\nPartly, it is true, because of poverty, but in large measure, I maintain, because of the inefficiency of the organization of the grammar\ngrade. A few, comparatively, proceed higher, in spite of difficulties\nalmost insurmountable, compelled by parental authority or impelled\nby a desire for study which even the most disadvantageous circumstances will not destroy. Here, again, the same confusion reigns,\nnot only in the high school but in academies and preparatory schools.\nThe connection between the work of this grade and that which pre-\n\ncedes is not a logical one, and the various elements which ought\ntogether to form a plan at once unified and complete are thrown together in a most promiscuous manner.\n\nThe higher we go the worse\n\nbecomes the condition of things. Academies and high schools stand\n\nin no direct or indirect relation, except in individual instances, to\nthe college work which follows. In the majority of schools the\nstudent finds upon graduation that he has not met the requirements\nfor admission to college, and unable to go back and take up the\nwork again in another form, he loses courage and gives up the effort. Still further, no connection of any kind exists between the\ncollege work and the professional. As a matter of fact, our professional schools are made up for the most part of men who could\nnot gain admission to the freshman class of the colleges. The man\nwho has by dint of hard work carried himself through college finds\nhimself in the professional school side by side with men who have\nnever been inside of college, or in many cases of high school or\nacademy. Yet these men work together, and some educators tell\nus that it is profitable for both. What utter nonsense ! The weakness of the situation is acknowledged openly by certain leading institutions, which have within recent years made strong effort in\nsome way to adjust professional work to college work. But the\nadjustments cannot yet be said to have proved satisfactory. So far\nas it concerns the individual there is needed such an adjustment of\nparts as will allow him from the earliest age to the completion of\nhis professional course, to move forward without interruption and\nwithout the loss which invariably follows transfer from one scheme\nto another, neither of which stands related to the other. The beginning of real university work is in the kindergarten. The day\nwill come when this fact will be recognized. With a proper adjustment in the unity of arrangement, the time of at least three years\n\n"}
{"page": 1010, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nIDEALS OF EDUCATIONAL WORK.\n\n995\n\ncould be saved to every individual who contemplates a college or\nprofessional course of study. When we consider the terrible cost\nof the present lack of adjustment, we are the more ready to consider propositions looking to the readjustment of the various disconnected parts. It is here that Germany forges ahead of us because of the close connection of the pupil's work, from the very\nbeginning until he is ready to enter the university. Results are obtained which, from our point of view, seem almost incredible.\nIt is here, also, that adjustment of the parts is just as essential\nfor the sake of the institution .\n\nIt is difficult to show what is meant\n\nwithout a chart. The difference between the present situation and\nthe ideal may be described roughly under the figure of a tree. We\nsee before us the stump. Branches of different length and thickness\nare strewn about the stump.\n\nThis material is, to be sure, most\n\nvaluable and is available for use. But imagine, if you please, each\nbranch assuming its former place in connection with the trunk of the\ntree; the sap once more flowing from the roots to the topmost limb ;\nthe foliage restored, and the fruitage. This is a fair representation of\na system of education with its parts adjusted to each other. Or, better yet, since every institution should be in a proper sense such a tree,\nthe assemblage of institutions forming the great system would be a\nmagnificently planted grove, made up of a variety of trees, each the\nbest of its kind, each contributing to the happiness and maintenance\nof mankind. The educational grove of America to-day consists for\nthe most part of dismembered trunks, and these largely of the same\nspecies ; most of them stunted in growth, a few here and there giving evidence of what might be under a different condition of things.\nA vital mistake in the history of education in New England has\nbeen the isolation of the academy from the college.\n\nA vital mistake\n\nin the history of education in the West and South has been the too\nclose identification of the preparatory school and the college. The\nNew England schools have been right in not permitting the academy to be joined closely with the college. They have erred in not\nsecuring direct control of the academies, in order that the step from\nthe academy to the college might be taken without embarrassment\nand loss.\n\nWestern and Southern institutions have done the right\n\nthing in recognizing the necessity of a close connection between the\npreparatory schools and the college, but have made the mistake of\nbringing the life of the preparatory school into too close connection\nwith that of the college. There cannot be a university without colleges. No more can there be colleges without academies. The ideal\ninstitution will, therefore, cultivate the academic work as assiduously as any other, and will see to it that the connection between it\nand the college work is close and that the step from one to the other\n\n"}
{"page": 1011, "printed_page": null, "text": "996\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nmay be taken easily. The same principle would apply to the higher\nwork. The future will see an adjustment made by which, after the\nfirst two years of a college course, the remaining work of the college\nshall be so closely connected with that of the professional school\nthat the line between them will be drawn only with difficulty. Such\nan adjustment will be attended with two advantages. It will make\nall the more difficult any attempt to do professional work without\nan adequate training, and it will do much toward lessening the friction and loss of time which now invariably attend the passing from\nthe college to the university. The more my mind dwells upon it,\nthe more adequately do I find the figure of the tree to express my\nconception of our educational work. The roots running out in the\nvarious directions constitute the earlier and preparatory stage of\n\nwork. Students of every condition of life and mental attainments\nare brought together in this period. The stock of the tree is the\ncentral or college period. The work of all students in this stage\nruns along much the same lines. It is here that the final testing\n\ntakes place. Typical subjects are brought forward and the student\nled to grapple with them. The variety here is not great, nor should\nit be; but where this process has been complete, selection begins and\ndivision takes place. These divisions, as they move forward in a\n\nmultitude of departments, make the branches of the great tree.\nHere is infinite variety, infinite possibility of development, yet everywhere the same characteristics. Because of the infinite variety,\nand because of the sameness of characteristics, adjustment of the\nparts is all the more necessary.\nASSOCIATION .\n\nFinally, with your permission, I desire to present as an important\ncharacteristic of any adequate system, as a leading feature of the\nfuture work, the principle of association. This is a necessary concomitant of individualism and co - ordination.\n\nAssociation or com-\n\nbination is possible (1) in case the student or instructor is treated\n\nas an individual, and in case an institution, of whatever grade, has\naimed to develop individuality. It is a remark of frequent occurrence that one of the common features of our present civilization is\nthe emphasis laid upon specialism in every line of work. It is also\n\nto be noted, that, side by side with specialism, and because of specialism, another prominent feature of our modern civilization exists, namely, that of combinations and trusts, for it is only the specialists who combine. It was not until the day of specialism that\ncombinations could occur. It is true that until individualism prevails, association to any considerable extent must be postponed. (2)\nAssociation implies co-ordination in both senses of that word. In\n\n"}
{"page": 1012, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nIDEALS OF EDUCATIONAL WORK.\n\n997\n\norder that men, either as students of professors, may come together ;\nin order that institutions may co-operate, there must be a rigid\n\nclassification according to the purpose, scope, and rank. It is here\nprobably that the first radical steps in any educational reform must\nbe taken. So long as institutions doing really the work of high\nschools call themselves colleges and universities, there can be no\nassociation other than a merely nominal one. The high schools of\nsome of our Northern and Western States do a work vastly superior\nin quality and greater in quantity than many of the so-called colleges and universities.\nGranting that these two principles have begun to operate, at\nleast, slightly (and I think that every forward step taken during\nthe past twenty-five years has been taken in accordance with these\nprinciples), there is opportunity-I may say, there is necessity-for\nthe working out of the principles of association, or union of effort,\nor combination by whatever name we may decide to designate.\nNaturally it must first come in the form of institutional association.\nThe applications of this principle are so numerous that time will\npermit the mention of but a very few examples taken from a narrow\nfield. As before, I pass over the lower grades .\nThe association of academies in relation to a college. Each college should have in the district tributary to it as many academies as\nthe constituency will support. These academies should be under a\nlocal management distinct from that of the college, and yet there\nshould be such a connection as would permit the college in large\nmeasure to direct the work of the academy. This is what has actually taken place between the high schools and the state university\nin certain states. But it must be recognized sooner or later that\nthe high schools do not make preparation for college their chief\nwork. It must be remembered that only ten per cent of those who\nfinish the high school course ever enter college. The high school,\ntherefore, has other work to do.\n\nThe time will come when two-\n\nthirds of the present colleges and universities should, for lack of\nfunds to do properly the work they are now trying to do, be made\ncolleges of this same rank.\n\nWhen additional funds are secured\n\nhigher work may be undertaken ; but not till then. The larger\nthe number of colleges we can have the better, so long as they are\nequipped to do the work of a college; but to make students believe\nthat they are receiving a college education, to give them the degree\nwhich is supposed to stand for such an education, is a species of dishonesty and imposture for which there is no excuse and which our\nlegislatures should take in hand. There will be, then, the academies\nand high schools, brought into vital relationship with the colleges\nwhich are nearest to them ; the colleges of lower rank and of higher\n\n"}
{"page": 1013, "printed_page": null, "text": "998\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nrank, the two classes sharply distinguished. These, in turn, will be\nassociated in relation to the university. The university of the future\nwill make a clear distinction between its college work and its uni-\n\nversity work. Unless this is done, the Harvard and Yale types\n(both of which are to be regarded as overgrown colleges rather than\nas universities) will continue, and America will have no university.\nThere is room to-day for ten or fifteen universities. The colleges,\nremaining colleges and doing college work, will sustain to the university the relation sustained by the academies to the colleges. The\nassociation of colleges may be either that of a state, as is already\ntrue of the State of New York, or that of a denomination (the bond\nin this case being very close), or that of a district, such as New England, or the Valley of the Mississippi. No one can fail to see the\nimmense advantages of such an association. I may be permitted\n\nto go one step further. The universities, supposing the number to\nbe ten, fifteen, or twenty, should, let me say, unite in a federation.\nThis federation will be like that of the states of the Union. Through\nthis federation of universities will come the crowning feature of\nour American system-a national university. We do not need a\nnational university as an institution, distinct from other institutions\nand their rival. The existing universities will never consent to a\nnational university organized upon such a basis. The history of\nthe movement since the days of Washington demonstrates this .\nLet the institutions doing real university work unite, and let\ngreat scholars and investigators be delegated by each university to\ngo to Washington, and, with governmental assistance, make proper\nuse of the great scientific treasures of all kinds which have been\nthere collected; these professors all the while being members of the\nuniversity which has thus delegated them, and yet, as a body, constituting the faculty of the national university. Let the students of\nall universities study at Washington, whenever it is to their advan-\n\ntage to do so, remaining, however, students of their own university.\nThis plan is simple ; it removes the whole matter from the field of\n\npolitics ; it can be introduced at a minimum of expense ; it will\nlead to unity of effort; it will secure a system in our work, the lack\nof which all concede ; it will not excite the rivalry of universities\n\nalready established; it will permit the students to move about ; it\nwill set a standard by which institutions may judge themselves ; it\nwill secure an association of interests, and a recognition of scientific\nwork which will lift the work of education in this country to the\nplace it occupies in Germany.\nIndividualism, co-ordination, and association are the keynotes to\n\nfuture progress along educational lines.\n\n"}
{"page": 1014, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nEDUCATIONAL PRIDE AND PREJUDICE.\n\n999\n\nEDUCATIONAL PRIDE AND PREJUDICE.\n\nBY A. E. WINSHIP,\n\nEDITOR\n\n\"NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\"\n\nOf all the sentiments to which man is heir none are more vicious\n\nthan pride and prejudice, twin seducers of individuals, sections,\nand interests. Pride gains in intensity in proportion to its shallow-\n\nness and prejudice in proportion to the virtue of that against which\nit is exercised. Education in kindergarten and university, North\nand South, has suffered as much from these companions in mischief\nas from any other causes. Champions of the schools take pride in\nthe simplest attainments, while they are prejudiced against indispensable reforms .\n\nIt is humiliating to behold the pride of states and sections in\nthe relative absence of illiteracy. A people who can read and write\nis as far beyond a people who cannot as a semi- civilized nation is\nbeyond the cannibal tribes ; but for a civilized community to boast\nof not being illiterate is like a man's claiming charity in this life\nand heaven in the next because he is not a convicted criminal .\nThere are no illiterates in the United States who have been born\n\nhere in recent years. New England has a few because business\nenterprise has tempted adults from lands in which education is not\nuniversal .\n\nThere are illiterates in the South from causes that are\n\nwell understood, but, in these times, there are none North or South\ndue to absence of school privileges or to neglect of such privileges.\nA people that can only read and write is as far behind the people\nwho have universal elementary education as the self-imprisoned\nJapan of 1865 was behind the triumphant Japan of 1895.\nAmerica can accept nothing less than universal elementary\neducation as complete as human devotion and ingenuity can make\nit. Every American-born child is entitled to this much education,\nand the nation is entitled to as much protection from ignorance,\npauperism, and crime as this affords .\nGood schools, with ample accommodations and adequate equipment, must be provided, and if any parent does not avail himself\nof these opportunities for his child, there must be no escape from\nthe righteous indignation of the public.\nA people whose leaders in finance, statesmanship, and the professions had merely an elementary education would be as far behind\na people of whom a fair per cent are especially educated as the\nmost sluggish nation is behind America.\n\n"}
{"page": 1015, "printed_page": null, "text": "1000\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nThough many less educated statesmen and professional and literary men have distanced their college-bred neighbors, the pace has\nbeen set by the liberally educated. The only educational standard\nis the quality and universality of the elementary schools, and the\ncharacter and popularity of the secondary schools and universities .\nWhat signifies this wonderful exhibition of the industrial, com-\n\nmercial, and economic attainments of the United States ? Every\nflash of inventive genius that has transformed the raising of wheat\nand ginning of cotton, that has electrified the passage of the message\nand of the messenger, that has brought to the humblest homes the\ncomforts and the luxuries once reserved for the houses of wealth ;\nevery evidence of the pluck that pioneered the rails over the Rockies\nand the Sierras, and of the luck that tapped the foundations of the\ngreat deep for oil and gas ; every glimpse of the heroism of inventors\nwho have turned water into lightning and night into day; every\nrevelation of the consecration of the public and private wealth in\nhospital and mission ; every thrill of scientific power and touch of\nartistic skill are but slight tributes to the power and nobility of that\neducation whose magic wand America has placed in the hand of\nartist and artisan alike. And yet America, which owes vastly more\nto her schools than is dreamed of in Atlanta or Chicago, is still in her\nyouth, and her ultimate grandeur, the perpetuity of the patriotic\nspirit, the prosperity of all classes in all sections, must depend upon\nthe individual and collective characteristics of the people. Men are\nrarely the same in action or opinion collectively that they are individually. Pride and prejudice control people in the mass where\ninterest and conscience would influence them individually. The\ninstinct, condition, and training that make up the sum of motive\n\nand influence in men, individually and collectively, are impulse,\nenvironment, and discipline. The responsibility for impulse is\nlargely with the church, for environment with the home, for discipline with the school.\n\nThe church dissipates much of its energy in congratulating itself\nupon the security for time and eternity of its members, and misses\nmany of its opportunities for usefulness through prejudice against\nanything that it has not labeled as virtues-everything that does not\nwork through co-ordinating channels .\nThe home should be independent of both pride and prejudice;\nbut the social and neighborhood tyranny of pride is as complacent\nas its prejudice is intense.\nAll discipline and training, intellectual, moral, and physical, are\nlargely to be determined by the school. It is true that the church\nhas done much by way of education, but usually under the spur of a\npublic educational sentiment. One of the glories of the American\n\n"}
{"page": 1016, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress. ]\n\nEDUCATIONAL PRIDE AND PREJUDICE.\n\n1001\n\npublic school idea is its record in stimulating the church and the\nhome to do much for education, and to do it so well as to react\nthrough healthy rivalry upon the school.\nWith all the virtues of the church, its primal purpose is to magnify sentiment, devotion, and zeal rather than training in intellectual\nor moral activities. Exalt as we may every mission of philanthropy, statesmanship, and religion, the fact remains that Americans have no responsibility greater than the broadest, highest, best\neducation of all the people.\n\nReward for industry, return for investment, economy in philanthropy, virtue in religion depend upon the intelligence of labor,\nthe wisdom of leadership, the training of experts, the common sense\nof conscience. This places grave responsibility upon the schools,\nwhose mission it is to disillusionize those who maintain the groundless pride of the churches, families, and states ; to so disinfect all\nclasses and conditions as to purify from prejudice. If pride and\nprejudice are to be eradicated and eliminated it must be through\neducation ; and if education is to accomplish this great work for\nhumanity it must itself be free from all suspicion of either pride or\nprejudice. \"Be noble, and the nobleness that lies in other men,\nsleeping but never dead, shall rise in majesty to meet thine own,\"\nwas never more apt than when applied to the school in its effort\nto reform the other ministering forces of the world. Education is\ninfinitely more than reading, writing, and arithmetic; than manual\ntraining and industrial art ; than literature, science, and history ;\nthan mathematics and Greek. It is the disciplinary force-the training appliance of the nation. It is the main reliance in the struggle\nwith the inertia of human nature.\n\nIt is education that must reform great wrong, and that must\ncheck reform before it becomes sentimental.\n\nSo long as prejudice is plotting, education must mass all its\nenergies against rebellious scheming ; and when it is suppressed, and\npride crowns itself with Napoleonic conceit, education must rise\nagainst this tyranny until pride is exiled; and in exile it must stay\nuntil transferred to that Apollyonic realm where pride is supposed\nto dominate all hearts with its insatiable thirst begotten by fiery\nconceit. Both pride and prejudice are opposed to education. A\nschoolman whose inspiration is the boastful conceit of pride in\ntheory, method, or device, in a glorious inheritance, or in the phenomenal popularity of some new idea is not an educator. The pretender is proud that he knows so much ; the educator is humble that\nhe knows so little.\n\nWe have become reconciled to prejudice in theology and politics,\nbut we must not tolerate it in education.\n\nEducation must wage\n\n"}
{"page": 1017, "printed_page": null, "text": "1002\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nrelentless warfare against pride, whether its weird glamour halos\nbrick and stone, frieze and fresco, the antiquity of Greek or the\niniquity of Grube. Education must arouse all its energies against\nprejudice wherever it reveals its Satanic spirit, whether it be against\nprinciples old or new, methods tried or untried, devices correlated or\nrelegated.\nLook at the words themselves.\n\nPride is inordinate self-esteem,\n\nan unreasonable estimate of one's own superiority. It may manifest itself in a haughty mien, in a frigid reserve, or open contempt.\nThe primal idea of pride is ornament. It is always centered in self.\nIt focuses all energy of mind in the individual. It says by every\nact and emotion, “Behold my ornamentation !\" It is the same in\nessence whether the origin of pride is obedience to law or defiance\nthereof. The pride of the Philistine may be as conceited as that of\nthe Hebrew. Indeed, the most conceited man that history has discovered or imagination devised is the critic in literature and educa-\n\ntion whose every comment on men, their works, or opinions simply\ncalls attention to himself, speaking and writing others up or adorning and adoring himself. Conviction is the companion virtue to the\nvice of pride, and the two should not be confused, as is done by many\na man who thinks to make his \" ornamentation\" more seductive by\n\nthrowing a mist of assumed conviction over his pride, as if to veil\nit as something that ought not to be brazenly exposed.\nConviction never concentrates its energy upon non-essentials,\nbut meets emergencies and makes great sacrifices regardless of self.\n\nPride deals in non-essentials, meets no emergencies, makes no sacrifices except for self-glorification. Whoever poses as a reformer is\na man of pride, not of convictions. Americus Vespucius was a man\nof pride, and this continent bears his name in consequence. Columbus was a man of convictions. The name of the man of pride,\nwho has been in oblivion for 400 years, is used as the pedestal merely\nfor the grandest monument of industrial, commercial, and political\nglory ever reared in the honor of any man. Pride robbed the land\nof the name of its discoverer, but the convictions of 70,000,000 people halo his memory with revential admiration.\n\nPrejudice renders a decision before the proper tribunal has\nspoken its verdict. The decision may be right or wrong; that is\nnot the question. It is venomous conceit first, last, and always .\nThe judge is taking evidence under the rules of the court; is hearing everything that can be said on both sides ; is seeking the truth\nunder the responsibility that only he can feel who realizes the possibility of impeachment. No other man has any right to act upon a\njudgment formed before he has spoken, but prejudice forms its opinion because the judge has not; prejudice announces its irresponsible\n\n"}
{"page": 1018, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nEDUCATIONAL PRIDE AND PREJUDICE.\n\n1003\n\nverdict in order that the public may know that it defies the wisdom\nof the court. Prejudice says \"I, in my majestic conceit, will not\nwait for the judge; will not listen to the evidence.\" The man of\nprejudice is nowhere so vicious as in matters of education, for\nhere judgment claims to be enthroned. The religionist and the\npolitician are expected to be biased, as is the attorney in court ; but\nthe educator professes to be as unprejudiced as the judge upon the\nthe bench. The solicitor is excused for being one-sided, but the\nprejudiced judge is impeachable.\nNo prejudiced schoolman can be an educator.\n\nHe who is prej-\n\nudiced in matters educational will be impeached by that sentiment\nwhose verdict is eternal.\n\nHeroism is to prejudice what conviction is to pride. It prejudges\nnothing but dares everything for the benefit of mankind when conviction is based on evidence. Prejudice magnifies selfishness ; heroism magnifies sacrifice. Fame is the handmaid of heroism, but\ninfamy of prejudice.\nConviction begets a great purpose and heroism enthrones it.\nEducation presents the arena in which conviction and heroism must\nwin their victories over pride and prejudice. Because of this, educators need deeper convictions and more intense heroism.\nIt should be ever borne in mind that pride may be as vicious\nin regard to the new as to the old, and prejudice may be as malicious\nwith the old as the new .\n\nAway forever with our pride in past glory and present achievement ; away forever with the prejudices that will not patiently heed\nall testimony regarding the virtues of the old and the hopes of the\nnew in psychology or philosophy, in methods or devices.\nMay we not hope to witness a scene of educational transfiguration\nin which pride and prejudice shall come forth in all the glory of\neducational conviction and heroism .\n\nWe have the good fortune to have at the head of the educational\n\ndepartment of the national government a man who stands forth\namong the nations with breadth of scholarship, with height of culture, the leader of leaders in education, because he is the man of all\nmen in educational conviction and educational heroism.\n\n"}
{"page": 1019, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n1004\n\n[Educational\n\nPROGRESS IN PRIMARY EDUCATION.\n\nBY MRS. EVA D. KELLOGG, EDITOR OF \" PRIMARY EDUCATION, \" BOSTON, MASS.\n\nIf zigzag be the law of progress, the cause of primary education\nin America is certainly moving forward. The term \"primary edu-\n\ncation\" as used here means the education of the youngest children\nin our public schools.\n\nIn the rhythmic swing of events that have marked the distinctive efforts for the training of little children for the last fifty years,\nthe tick-tack of the vibrating pendulum has touched the supremest\nlimits of complete neglect on the one side and over-attention on\nthe other.\n\nHalf a century ago the children in our primary rooms were only\nso many little people on their own unattended way from childhood\nto manhood. To-day they are the center of the universe. Then\nthey were to \"be seen and not heard.\" To-day every word from\ntheir childish lips is listened for lest some significant utterance be\nlost to the world. Then, if they were fed at all, it was on the driest.\nsolidest meat. Now they are over-nursed on the bottled-up wisdom\nof the ages-with the usual result in such cases.\nThen the child was not fashionable.\n\nThe man or woman who\n\ndoes not talk the child to-day is a fossil.\nIs this marvelous change in half a century all pure progress ?\nThere is not time in this brief paper to look over the whole field\nfor an answer.\n\nLet us confine ourselves to the consideration of two\n\nor three prominent subjects that are to-day receiving attention\nfrom every section of the country. Thoughtful teachers of the Maine\ncoast, by the Pacific shores, in the breezy Northwest, and in the\nprogressive schools of the Southern States that have \"caught step\"\nin the forward march of progress in the last twenty years with so\nmuch of skill and energy as to arouse the pride and admiration of\nthe whole educational line-all are pursuing these subjects with such\nunity of purpose that it seems not unfitting to question a little\nconcerning them at an educational congress at Atlanta.\nThese questions are not meant for assertions, but simply as one\nwould examine milestones to see if they really mark off progress\nalong the highway.\n\nFirst, that of child study. He who \"put a little child in the\nmidst\" nineteen hundred years ago, saying, \"Except ye become as\nlittle children,\" pointed the whole world to child study-the study\nof the spirit and soul of the child. Have we entered upon this study\n\n"}
{"page": 1020, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nPROGRESS IN PRIMARY EDUCATION.\n\n1005\n\nwith that same reverent spirit? When the doctors in psychology\ndiscuss the best ways of entering into the sacred temple of child\nnature, do they approach it as the three wise men of the East \"followed the star to where the young child was ?\"\nAll honor, and sympathy, and co-operation with the avowed\npurposes of the societies formed for the pursuance of child study.\nThe note of future reform is distinctly heard in their outlined plan\nfor child investigation, and hope and faith revive and flutter again\nin the human heart when the experts in advanced psychology\nare willing to enter the child world as humble learners, convinced\nthat all true education must be founded upon the discoveries made\ntherein. How the hearts that have been heavy over existing wrongs\nin the schoolroom grow lighter, and the anxious eyes that are\nweary with watching for relief grow brighter, when the wisest,\nstrongest, most influential men in the educational world, whose very\nnames forecast victory, have joined together under the simple name\n\nof \" Society for Child Study,\" and are willing to watch, and to work,\nand to wait for the light that dawns only upon conscientious, unselfish, intelligent, and persistent investigation !\nHere, indeed, is progress, and herein lies the hope of the future\nfor the education of little children .\n\nBut are there no dangers to be avoided; no pitfalls to escape\n\neven in such a glorious work as this ? Every worthy cause, and\nespecially every new cause, is threatened with the disintegrating\nelements of unwise discipleship, till the cry, \"Save it from its\nfriends!\" is forced from loyal lips.\n\nDoes not such a danger lie con-\n\ncealed in one phrase in the \"purpose of child study,\" viz., \"the collection and collation of the scientific data resulting from experiments\nand investigation ?\" Is there not danger that impetuous laborers in\nthis unfamiliar field shall snatch this phrase as their especial ways\nand means for mental investigation, and with temperamental zeal\npush it forward out of all relation to the main purpose of the work ?\nIs it not already being done ? And is not this \"collection and collation\" being held aloft as education itself, instead of one single line\nof experiment toward the great end to be sought, viz. , a bed-rock,\nbasal foundation for an ideal course of study in our public schools ?\nTo push forward the experimental tests upon the immature mental capacity of the child; to propound questions for the reasoning\n\npowers when such powers do not exist ; to appeal to the judgment\nas yet undeveloped; to probe for individual decision in cases where\nsuch decision is the merest farce ; to record such decisions in ponderous volumes, and to such a numerical extent that mathematics is\nbrought in to assist, and upon her beloved handmaid, Percentage\nis laid the burden of a dry statistical classification that does not\n\n"}
{"page": 1021, "printed_page": null, "text": "1006\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nclassify but only confuse is all this that has been done, and is\nbeing done, a contribution of real value to the true purpose of child\ninvestigation ? For example, is it a step forward when a thousand\nimmature children have been asked to decide whether they have\never been unjustly punished? One natural outcome of this has already appeared in an educational journal, when the editor sug-\n\ngests that this question be given to children, miscellaneously, as\n\"composition work. \" It is not difficult to fancy the atmosphere of\nthe schoolroom when the martyred boy has his teacher's license for\nthe first time to describe his method of unjust punishment and his\nopinion of it, to his admiring boy companions and sympathizers.\nOh, the farce of it !\n\nIs it not even at its best a pitiful attempt to arraign children in\nthe name of child study, and propound to them the problem of ages,\n\"Know thyself?\" Burns voiced the need of humanity when he\nprayed for the \"power to see ourselves as ithers see us.\"\nThe weak, irrelevant answers of these children to all such questions should be confirmation sufficient that this flippant, superficial\nmethod of child study is casting reproach upon a most worthy cause.\nMen in high places, engaged in this special form of investigation,\nworking through immature student-teachers-the blind leading the\nblind-assert that they are prepared to accept the united decision\n\nof any thousand ordinary children as a guide to their own course\nof procedure in child education. If a thousand children call for\nharmful tragic stories; if they demand the murder of three bears\nto-day, and three bears plus a man or a woman to-morrow, shall not\nthis thousandfold verdict be enough ?\n\nA thousand children under a\n\nthousand varying influences of heredity and fashioned by the thousand influences of differing environment placed upon the throne of\njudgment to decide upon this or that method for their own personal\ntraining ! Have we lost our anchorage that we can drift like this, at\nthe mercy of the wind-tossed waves ? Has the current phrase, \"The\nchildren like it,\" become a siren to lure us on to rocks of destruc-\n\ntion? And has it occurred to us that there is great danger that this\ngeneration of children may grow up conceited and priggish under\na method of child study that invites them to sit as judge and jury\nover their own acts ?\n\nLet the children be studied, but let it be done mainly while in\nthe enjoyment of their own unconscious and illimitable freedom,\nand let the recording angel keep out of sight and not load down\nthese young people with the unsightly burden of self-consciousness.\nAmerican children have too much of it already ; have they not ?\nWe pause at another milestone-nature study. Is not the first\n\nrecord of nature teaching when the Great Teacher taught the people\n\n"}
{"page": 1022, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nPROGRESS IN PRIMARY EDUCATION.\n\n1007\n\nto \" consider the lilies of the field,\" and presented truth by means of\n\"a grain of mustard seed?\" Again we see we have waited all these\n\nhundreds of years before catching the full significance of this model\nteaching. But we have reached it at last so far as the subject-matter is concerned, but let us question here and see if we are not wandering away from the simplicity of Nature herself, and building up\nmachinery for investigation instead of seeking to become the little\nchildren we must be if we enter into the kingdom of nature revelation.\n\nIt is wonderful how soon we lose simplicity in the consideration\nof any subject which we bring into the schoolroom. We stoop to\ngather a flower, and a simple, genuine worship goes out to the holy,\nunsolved mystery of the \"flower in the crannied wall.\" Still holding theflower we pass into the schoolroom, and how long before the\nmethod passion dominates every other thought? As soon as that\nflower becomes the subject of a lesson, the rattle of the machinery\nbegins to be heard, and with the inevitable, \"Now, children,\" the\nGod in theflower is forgotten and the science of the flower has taken\nits place. Stamens, petals, pistils must be counted, the velvety leaf\ntorn from its center, and the heavenly fragrance spilled on the altar\nof technicalities. Do we not often analyze where we should wor-\n\nship, and rob the lesson of all soul cultivation because, by-and-by,\nthis may perchance be gathered again into a language lesson? What\na reason ! Cannot some things in nature study be allowed to sink\ninto the soul uncounted and unmeasured ? Cannot beauty be enjoyed and assimilated into soul tissue without the constant feeling\nthat some day it must be reproduced again and crystallized into\nmere words ?\n\nWe who have lived long enough have found that it is great compensation that there are some things in this world that cannot be\nput into words .\n\nMathematics, too, has been known to stalk into this realm of\nnature study, and propound chilling questions in percentage-as to\nthe roses one sees in a day, what proportion were pink or crimson,\netc. If the dust on the butterfly's wing, glistening in heaven's own\nrainbow glory, is not safe from the Percentage demon, and it has\nbeen proven that it is not, under the specious plea that our children\nmust learn to see accurately, then the intellectual Mephistopheles\nof modern education has full power to work his evil way, crushing\n\nout all highest aspirations for the soul of things. It is asked, perhaps, Does not nature study belong in primary schools ? Certainly.\nDoes not science belong in the primary schools ? Certainly, again.\nBut can we afford either in this nineteenth century, which, already,\n\"with its knife and glass, makes thought physical,\" if at the cost\n\n"}
{"page": 1023, "printed_page": null, "text": "1008\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nof beauty or spiritual culture? As someone has pithily said, \"Our\nscientist to- day intrudes into nature's sanctuary, lunches on its mercy\nseat, leans against its altar, studies the designs wrought into its\n\nholy hangings, and calculates the weight of metal in its consecrated\nutensils .\"\n\nOnce we listened to the sea murmuring in the tinted ocean shell.\nNow, our school children, pushing away the shell without even seeing the most exquisite tints the human eye ever gazed upon, talk\nwisely of \"sound waves,\" and give us the same effect on a tumbler\nat the dinner table.\n\nTennyson, walking with his ten-year-old boy one day, looked\ndown by the roadside, and said, \"Ah, the fairies were here last night.\nThey danced in a circle. See their tiny umbrellas.\" \"Fairies !\"\nscornfully replied the boy. \"Toadstools ! That's all !\" and actually\nbegan to explain to his father the process of their fungus formation. Tennyson groaned, and no wonder. The poetic fancy was too\nrudely shocked, and the boy was never allowed to finish his scientific\nexplanation to his poet-father. Even our kindergartens-the very\nhomes of the imagination-are not free from the literalism of extreme accuracy. A mother, running to pick up her little four-yearold who had tumbled down, exclaimed, \"How did you fall, darling ?\"\n\"Vertical, mamma,\" answered the child, between her sobs-true to\nher training. Now, is it not true, that, of all the children on the\nearth, our American children, with their inheritance of materialism,\ncan least afford to lose the beauty side of life ?\nThere are other milestones along the way which we have confidently placed as waymarks of our increasing progress, but we have\nnot time to linger beside any of them longer now.\nThere is one, marked \"Myth-Wave,\" that looks very tempting,\nbut to those who know how to read the invisible this waymark is\n\nhalf covered with interrogation points.\nWe ask in closing one last question. How shall true progress\nbe made in the education of little children? The agitation upon\nthis subject has aroused public opinion, and what shall satisfy the\njust demand of thinking men and women-that every year shall\nshow steps of genuine progress ?\nThe educational leaders are thinking as never before.\n\nSuch\n\nthinking can find its way to the truth only by the aid of experimental\ntests with the children themselves. Who can do this but the men\nand women already in the schoolrooms who come into direct contact\n\nwith the children? Is not, then, the greatest need of to-day an\nintelligent and conscientious supervision by men and women who\nhave brain and interest enough to follow the thought of the best\neducational leadership, and who possess heart enough and tact\n\n"}
{"page": 1024, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nPROGRESS IN PRIMARY EDUCATION.\n\n1009\n\nenough to inspire the great army of teachers to enter into the plans\nand imbibe the spirit of the few great leaders who are wrestling with\nthese vast problems ? With such supervision there is a power in\nthe rank and file of teachers hardly to be estimated.\nI have great faith in the heart and intention of the common school\n\nteacher, all untrained and faulty as she may be, if she can be aroused\nand inspired to see what are the great needs and the burning questions of the day and that her help is needed in their solution.\nAt present she moves about calmly-too often listlessly-in\nthe narrow round of her school duties.\n\nShe to look out over the\n\neducational field and think for herself! She to have opinions on\nsuch questions as the best methods in child study and nature study!\nIt has never occurred to her. The \"Course of Study\" bounds her\nworld. Any \"Course of Study,\" however \"all-around\" it may be\nas a constructed work, is a piece of dead formalism unless it is made\nalive by the supervisory power of him who administers and broadens\nit out to cover the well-nigh boundless needs of the schoolroom.\nCan all the teachers be made to think and discriminate wisely\nand fearlessly? No; but the comparatively small proportion of\nthose who are unable and unwilling to do this would fall off, be\ncut off, and disappear, if the supervisors of every town and city\nwere fearlessly alive and delegated with enough of executive power\nto carry out their purpose.\n\nA harmonious force of able, conscientious, genuine men and\nwomen in the schoolrooms, taking up every new question without\nprejudice and without fear, applying to it the tests of principle,\npracticability, and common sense; not caught or swayed by temptation to follow every ephemeral innovation introduced under the name\nof progress, but determining always to \"prove all things and hold\nfast that which is good\"-is not this the ideal organization that\nshall, in all times and all places, be the permanent, well-grounded\nhope for true progress in education ?\n64\n\n"}
{"page": 1025, "printed_page": null, "text": "1010\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nRURAL SCHOOLS .\n\nBY HON. CHARLES R. SKINNER, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, NEW YORK.\n\nJust at this time there seems to be an increasing interest in our\nrural schools. We frequently hear the inquiries : \"Are our rural\nschools doing the best they can?\" \"Are they doing what we have a\nright to expect?\" These are healthful inquiries made at an opportune time. I am free to say that I have an abiding faith in the rural\nschools. I believe that they are doing to-day all that they have encouragement to do. I have faith in their possibilities. While many\nof them may be weak, and poor, and miserable, they are not wholly\nresponsible for these conditions. Usually the rural school may be\nconsidered the thermometer which marks the rise and fall of public\n\ninterest and public sympathy. It will rise to the height or drop\nto the level of the conditions by which it is surrounded. My faith\nin the rural schools and their possibilities has its foundation in the\n\nbelief that in them we are to find the most sacrificing and sympathetic teachers ; in them we are almost sure to see the best results\n\nof personal influence of teachers upon our pupils, and the personal\ninfluence of teachers counts more than fine schoolhouses, modern\nfurniture, or elegant text-books.\nOur city schools work under many advantages, but in the crowd\nand hurry much of the personal influence of the teacher is lost.\nThere must naturally be loss of personal interest where teachers\nfail to get close to their pupils. The country schools suffer by the\nconstant tendency of the population toward our villages and cities.\nWe do not make very attractive in our teaching the conditions of\ncountry life. We do not give much instruction in agriculture. Our\nboys and girls are not made to hold in high esteem the duties which\nattach to country life-to home life on the farm. The city and the\nvillage are too often made the goals of country children's ambition.\nIt seems to me that there is an important question to be considered\nhere. Are our larger schools, crowded too often, becoming too\nmuch like machines ? Our cities are all struggling with the problem\nof how to accommodate the children who ask places in our schools.\nWe are enforcing a compulsory education law in New York which\n\nsays children must attend school, and we fail to provide seats for\nthem after we send them into our schools.\n\nThere must be some\n\nconfusion, some failure to realize the best effects of personal at-\n\ntention to our children. There is danger that education may be\n\n"}
{"page": 1026, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nRURAL SCHOOLS.\n\n1011\n\ncome too much a matter of form-just so many days in school, just\nso many subjects in our course of study, just so many examinations,\njust so many credits, and work finished at just such a time, with\n\nlittle allowance for varying conditions of mental and physical\nstrength. Just so far as our schools are matters of form, just so\nfar as they do not advance, just so far they are no better than they\nwere fifty years ago .\nThere is less likelihood of form in our rural schools.\n\nTeachers\n\nare more apt to know their pupils personally, to know the homes\nfrom which they come, to know more of their likes and dislikes,\ntheir characteristics, and the conditions of the lives they live. For\nthis reason there is a deeper personal interest for the pupils in the\nteachers in our rural schools.\n\nOur city and village schools are doing a great work. Why\nshould they not ? They have almost every material advantage that\nwealth or prosperity can give. But I still maintain that our country-our rural-schools are doing relatively as well; for every dollar invested in them they are giving back as full value, if not more.\nIf we want to get more out of them, we must put more into them.\nWhen our good friend, the president of the National Association,\nextended his kind invitation to attend this gathering, it occurred to\nme that it would be interesting to secure fresh information concerning the rural schools of the country. With this purpose in view,\nI addressed the following inquiries to the state superintendents of\npublic instruction in each state :\nINQUIRIES CONCERNING RURAL SCHOOLS BASED ON OBSERVATIONS FOR\nTHE PAST FIVE YEARS .\n\nFirst-Is the average attendance of pupils in rural ungraded schools increasing\nor decreasing ?\n\nSecond-If decreasing, is the decrease the result of a tendency on the part of\npatrons to send children to graded schools ?\nThird-Give the ratio of increase or decrease during the past five years.\nFourth-Is the condition of rural schoolhouses, as to heating, lighting, ventilation, and general surroundings, improved ?\nFifth-Are higher standards required for the qualification of teachers in rural\nschools ?\n\nSixth-Is there a noticeable increase or decrease in the professional spirit of\nteachers ?\n\nSeventh-Are the salaries of teachers in rural schools increasing or decreasing ?\n\nIf so, in what proportion ?\nEighth Is the public interest in education in the rural school districts increas-\n\ning or decreasing ? In what proportion is it increasing or decreasing, and for what\nreasons ?\n\nNinth-What do you consider among the greatest needs of our rural ungraded\nschools?\n\n"}
{"page": 1027, "printed_page": null, "text": "1012\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nAlthough there was little time, replies to these inquiries were\nreceived from thirty-seven states and two territories, a much larger\nnumber than I anticipated. The prompt responses indicated a deep\n\ninterest in the subject. I do not propose to weary you by giving in\ndetail the full answers to these inquiries, but will state in a general\nway a synopsis, covering the principal topics, adding by way of\npreface the satisfaction I feel at the encouraging and hopeful nature of these responses. It justifies me in the confidence I hold that\nthe rural school, as it has done a mighty work in the past, is still\ncapable of greater possibilities in the future.\nFor the purpose of preserving the records received, and of extending the information given, I herewith append the answers to the\nabove questions in detail :\nAlabama.-1. Increasing. 2.\n\n3. Twenty per cent to twenty-five per\n\ncent. 4. Much improved. 5. Yes. 6. Increase. 7. Increase. Twenty per cent\nto fifty per cent. 8.\n\n9. Better teachers ; more money; longer terms.\n3.\n2.\n4. Improving. 5. Yes. 6.\nIncreasing. 7. Decreasing. 8. Increasing. 9. More money and better teachers.\nArizona.-1. Increasing. 2.\n3. five per cent to ten per cent. 4. Improved. 5. Yes. 6. Notable increase. 7. Decreasing. 8. Increasing. 9. Well\nArkansas.- 1.\n\n一\n.\n\nIncreasing.\n\nqualified, experienced teachers.\n\nConnecticut.-1. Decreasing. 2. Yes . 3.\n4. Improving. 5. Yes. 6.\nIncreasing. 7. Decreasing. 8. Decreasing. 9. Union of schools in order that\nhigher salaries may be paid.\nCalifornia.-1. Increasing. 2.. 3. Increasing. 4. Improving. 5. Same.\nstandard as for city schools. 6. Marked increase. 7. Not increasing. 8. Increasing. 9.\n\nBetter professional training for teachers .\n\nColorado.-1. Increasing. 2. Yes. 3. Five per cent annually. 4. Four per\ncent annually. 4. Improving. 5. Yes. 6. Yes 7. Increasing. 8. Increasing.\n9.\n\nLibraries and reference books.\n\nDelaware.-1.\n\nIncreasing. 2. 一\n. 3.\n4. Improving. 5. Yes. 6.\nIncreasing. 7. No change. 8. Increasing. 9. Better schoolhouses; better equipment; better teachers.\nFlorida .1. Increasing .\n\n2.\n3. Fifteen per cent. 4. Improving, but\nstill very bad. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. Increase, thirty-three and one-third\nper cent. 8. Increase, threefold in ten years. 9. Professional teachers and longer\nterms.\n\nGeorgia.-1. Increasing. 2. Yes. 3. Five per cent annually 4. Improving.\n5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. Increasing. 8. Increasing. 9. Up-to-date, well\nequipped, modern schoolhouses .\nIllinois.-1. Increasing. 2.\n3. In 1890, 81.06 per cent; 1892, 83.09\nper cent; 1894, 86.01 per cent. 4. Improving. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. Salaries-men-1890, $54.63 ; 1892, $56.92 ; 1894, $58.96; women-1890, $44.41; 1892,\n$46.06; 1894, $49.35. 8. Increasing. 9. Better teachers; better schoolhouses ;\nbetter apparatus; working district libraries; wisely directed love for the child.\nIndiana.-1. Increasing. 2.\n3. Ten per cent for past five years. 4.\nImproving. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. No change. 8. Increasing. 9. Establishment of township high schools.\nIowa.-1. Increasing. 2.\n3. Same ratio as the population. 4. Improving. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. Increasing. 8. Increasing slowly 9.\n一\n.\n\n-\n\n"}
{"page": 1028, "printed_page": null, "text": "RURAL SCHOOLS.\n\nCongress.]\nKansas.-1 .\n\nIncreasing.\n\n2.\n\n3.\n\n-\n\n1013\n\n4.\n\nYes .\n\n5.\n\nYes .\n\n6.\n\nDecided\n\nincrease. 7. Temporary decrease. 8. Increasing. 9. Opportunities for advanced\nwork.\n\nKentucky.-1. Increasing. 2.\n3. Twenty-five per cent since 1891. 4.\nImproving. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. Increasing. 8. Increasing. 9. Change\nin trustee system ; a longer term, and weeding out of unprofessional teachers.\n6.\n\nLouisiana.-1. Increasing.\nIncreasing. 7.\n8.\n\n3.\n2.\nIncreasing. 9.\n\n4\n.\n\n-\n\nImproving .\n\nMaryland.-1. Increasing except in colored schools. 2.\nper cent in five years. 4. Improving. 5. Yes. 6.\nIncreasing.\n\n9.\n\n5.\n\n3.\n\n7.\n\n一.\n\nFourteen\n\nNo change.\n\n8.\n\nFree text-books .\n\nMassachusetts.-1. Average number of children decreases year by year ; per3.\n4\n.\ncentage of attendance based on membership, increasing. 2.\nMuch improved. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. No change. 8. Increasing. 9. Free\ntext-books .\n\nMichigan.-1. Decreasing slightly. 2. Yes. 3. Seven-tenths of one per cent\nin city schools ; seven-tenths of one per cent decrease in rural schools. 4. Improving. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. Decreasing. 8. Increasing. 9. Better school\nofficers, better teachers, and higher ideals of education.\n3. Increasing. 4. Decidedly improved.\nMinnesota.-1. Increasing. 2.\n5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7, Increasing. 8. Increasing. 9. Better teachers.\n3.\n4. Improving slowly. 5.\nMississippi.-1. Increasing. 2.\nYes. 6. Increasing. 7. Slight decrease, two or three per cent. 8. Greatly increased. 9. Thoroughly trained teachers and more money to pay them.\n3.\n4. ImMissouri. No material change in last five years. 2.\nproving. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. No change. 8. Increasing. 9. Better schoolhouses; better equipment; better teachers.\n一,\n\n一\n。\n\nMontana.-1.\n\nIncreasing.\n\n3.\n\n2.\n\nIncreasing daily attendance 1890,\n\n10,614; 1892, 14,937; 1894, 16,423. 4. Improving. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7.\nNo change in five years past. 8. Increasing. 9. Professional teachers .\nNebraska.-1. Increasing. 2. 3. 31.45 per cent to 31.03 per cent in\npast five years. 4. Very materially improved. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. Decrease owing to hard times. 8. Increasing. 9. Better trained teachers ; more\nintelligent supervision; better financial support.\n3.\nNevada.-1. Decreasing .\n2.\n\n4.\n\nYes.\n\n5.\n\nYes .\n\n6.\n\nIn-\n\ncreasing. 7. Decreasing. 8. Increasing. 9. Good supervision and more intelligent school boards.\nNew Mexico.-1.\n6.\n\nIncreasing. 2.\n\n一\n\n3.\n\nIncreasing. 7. Increasing. 8. Increasing.\nNew Jersey.-1. Decreasing. 2. Yes. 3.\n\n4. Improving. 5.\n9.\n\n4. Improving. 5. Yes. 6.\nIncreasing. 7. Increasing. 8. Increasing. 9.\nNew York . 1. Increasing. 2.\n3. Five per cent. 4. Yes. 5. Yes. 6.\nYes. 7. Increasing steadily. 8. Increasing. 9. Thoroughly qualified teachers ;\ndeeper public interest.\nNorth Carolina.-1. Increasing. 2.\n3. Twenty per cent. 4. Improving. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. Increasing. 8. Increasing. 9. More money for\nlonger school terms, better salaries, and better teachers.\n\nNorth Dakota.-1. Increasing. 2. Increasing. 3. Increase, three per cent.\n4. Somewhat improved. 5. Yes. 6. Satisfactory increase. 7. Unchanged. 8.\nIncreasing.\n\n9. More efficient instructors.\n\n3.\nOhio.-1. Decreasing slightly. 2.\n4. Slight improvement.\n5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. Increasing. 8. Increasing. 9. Better organization,\nbetter teachers, better supervision.\n\n"}
{"page": 1029, "printed_page": null, "text": "1014\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nOklahoma.-1.\nful.\n\nIncreasing.\n\n3.\n\n2.\n\n4.\n\n[Educational\n\nImproving. 5.\n\nDoubt-\n\n9.\n\n6. Increasing slowly. 7. Doubtful. 8.\n3.\nPennsylvania.-1. Increasing. 2.\n\n6. Increasing. 7. Increasing. 8. Increasing. 9.\n\n4. Improving. 5. Yes.\nBetter houses; higher salaries;\n\nlonger terms .\nRhode Island.-1.\n\nFifteen per cent in last seven\n\n3.\n\nDecreasing. 2.\n\nyears. 4. Not improved except in few cases. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. About\nfive per cent in five years. 8. Not much increase. 9. Skilled supervision, state\ncertification of teachers, etc.\n4. Gradually imSouth Carolina.-1. Increasing. 2. Probably. 3.\n\nproving. 5. Yes. 6. Increase. 7. No change. 8. Increasing. 9. More money\nand better teaching force.\n3.\n4. Improving. 5. Yes.\nSouth Dakota.-1. Increasing. 2.\n9. Better teachers .\n6. Increasing. 7. Not much change. 8.\nTexas.-1. Increasing. 2. Yes. 3 Fifty per cent in five years. 4. Improving. 5. Yes. 6. Noticeable increase. 7. Increase about eight per cent in five\nyears. 8. Increasing. 9. More funds, better supervision, permanent courses of\nstudy, better schoolhouses, etc.\nVermont.1. Decreasing. 2. Exodus from rural districts to villages. 3. De-\n\ncrease ten per cent. 3. Yes. 4. Yes, because of examination system established\nin 1889.\n\n5.\n\nIncreasing.\n\n6.\n\n7.\n\n8.\n\n9.\n\n3. Increase about one- half per\nWest Virginia.-1. Increasing.\n2.\ncent greater than increase in population. 4. Yes. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7.\nIncreasing. 8. Increasing. 9. Professional teachers ; co-operation between teachers and parents .\n\nWashington.-1. Increasing. 2.\n3. Increase 1891, 64.47 per cent;\n1892, 64.34 per cent; 1894, 66.95 per cent. 4. Improving. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. Decreasing. 8. Increasing. 9. More money; trained teachers.\n3 Six per cent per annum 4. ImprovWyoming.1. Increasing. 2.\ning. 5. Yes. 6. Increasing. 7. Increasing. 8. Increasing. 9. Better methods ;\nlonger school terms ; uniformity of text-books.\nEXTRACTS FROM LETTERS.\nIOWA .\n\nThe greatest question with us to-day in connection with the ungraded school\nis how to supply competent teachers. I look upon all other questions as vastly\ninferior to this. The teachers in our rural schools, too many of them, are not only\nuntrained for their work but in the amount of knowledge which they possess, and\nin almost every qualification, are greatly wanting We must contrive some way\nto bring a small degree of professional training to the very doors of the common\nschool teachers and then compel every one who desires to enter as teacher to obtain\nthat amount of training.\nHENRY SABIN.\n\nState Superintendent Public Instruction.\nNORTH CAROLINA.\n\nIn North Carolina the greatest needs of our rural ungraded schools are more\nmoney for longer school terms and better salaries, and well equipped, enthusiastic\nteachers.\n\nJOHN O. SCARBOROUGH,\nState Superintendent Public Instruction.\n\n"}
{"page": 1030, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nRURAL SCHOOLS.\n\n1015\n\nRHODE ISLAND .\n\nThe greatest needs of our rural ungraded schools, in my opinion, are the overthrow of the district system, state certification of teachers, and skilled supervision.\nTHOMAS B. STOCKWELL,\nCommissioner.\nNEBRASKA.\n\nThe paramount need of our rural schools to-day is the employment of more competent and better trained teachers .\nHENRY R. CORBETT,\nState Superintendent Public Instruction .\nWYOMING .\n\nThe greatest needs of our rural schools are increased interest by teachers and\nschool trustees, longer terms of school, the latest apparatus for schooolroom work,\nand uniformity of text-books.\nESTELLE REEL,\nState Superintendent Public Instruction.\nCALIFORNIA .\n\nWe need better academic and professional training and a more secure tenure of\noffice. The rural schools of California are all graded, and follow courses of study\nsimilar in every respect to those of the cities. Their graduates are recognized by\nall secondary schools as the equal of city grammar school graduates.\nSAMUEL T. BLACK,\n\nState Superintendent Public Instruction .\nKANSAS .\n\nWe are trying to bring the high school in reach of the country school, and thus\nbring the instruction in sight of the pupil in the ungraded school. Efforts are being\n\nmade to grade the district schools and unify their work.\nEDMUND STANLEY,\n\nState Superintendent Public Instruction.\nCONNECTICUT.\n\nIn this state the problem is how to unite districts so as to have schools of reasonable size. This union of schools would permit the payment of larger salaries,\nand would concentrate the interest of more families upon the school. Without\ndoubt this union of schools and the transportation of children are coming. In most\ndistricts the difficulty is to obtain money enough to pay a good teacher. Well qualified teachers cannot and will not go into schools where four to six dollars a week\n\nis the salary. The two aspects, the economical and the educational, are, therefore,\nunited in such a way that they cannot be separated.\nCHARLES D. HINE,\n\nSecretary State Board of Education.\nMISSOURI .\n\nThe greatest needs of our rural ungraded schools are : First, better school\nhouses-as to architecture, plan of heating, lighting, ventilating, and indoor equipment; second, teachers having more general and accurate scholarship and higher\npedagogical qualifications .\nJOHN R. KIRK,\n\nState Superintendent Public Schools .\nNEW MEXICO .\n\nPublic interest in educational matters is increasing. Our native population are\n\ncommencing to realize, that, unless their children are educated, they cannot compete in business affairs with the immigrants that are coming to this territory.\nAMADO CHAVES,\n\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction .\n\n"}
{"page": 1031, "printed_page": null, "text": "1016\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nILLINOIS .\n\nWe need (a) better teachers, (b) better schoolhouses, (c) better apparatus, (d)\nworking district libraries, (e) wisely directed love for the child.\nS. M. INGLIS,\n\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction.\nΜΟΝΤΑΝΑ.\n\nI believe the greatest need of our rural ungraded schools at the present time is\nmore proficient teachers .\nE. A. STEERE,\n\nState Superintendent Public Instruction.\nWEST VIRGINIA.\n\nOur greatest need is heartier co-operation between parents and teachers, and\nteachers and pupils, and more of professional spirit upon the part of teachers.\nVIRGIL A. LEWIS,\nState Superintendent of Free Schools .\n\nI offer the following statistics from New York for the past ten\nyears :\nCHART.--WHOLE NUMBER OF PUPILS ATTENDING PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN CITIES\nAND TOWNS, NEW YORK STATE, 1885-94.\nYEARS.\n\nCITIES.\n\nTOWNS.\n\nSTATE .\n\n1885.\n\n449,879\n\n574,966.\n\n1,024,845\n\n1886.\n\n457,816\n\n569,951 ..\n\n1,027,757\n\n1887...\n\n479,923\n\n557,889..\n\n1,037,812\n\n1888.\n\n481,909\n\n551,360.\n\n1,033,269\n\n1889...\n\n488,203\n\n545,610......\n\n1,033,813\n\n1890\n\n501,449\n\n540,711......\n\n1,042,160\n\n1891\n\n513,066\n\n540,978 .....\n\n1,054,044\n\n1892.\n\n538,660\n\n534,433 .\n\n1,073,993\n\n1893\n\n550,634\n\n532,594......\n\n1,083,228\n\n1894...\n\n589,363\n\n535,635 ......\n\n1,124,998\n\n"}
{"page": 1032, "printed_page": null, "text": "RURAL SCHOOLS.\n\nCongress.]\n\nAGGREGATE\n\nATTENDANCE- STATE\n\n1017\n\nOF\n\nNEW\n\nYORK.\n\nYears.\n\nCities.\n\nTowns.\n\n1885.\n1886\n\n58,758,222\n59,670,512\n60,465,251\n62,068,578\n62,250,098\n65,702,509\n\n53,916,987\n54,258,138\n53,539,351\n53,248,502\n53,063,998\n54,953,191\n54,965,670\n54,280,277\n53,551,451\n55,860,721\n\n1887\n\n1888.\n1889 .\n\n1890 .\n1891.\n\n67,918,815\n\n1892 .\n\n69,839,975\n69,080,096\n79,669,048\n\n1893.\n1894.\n\nAVERAGE\n\nTotal.\n112,675,409\n113,928,650\n114,004,602\n115,317,080\n115,314,096\n120,655,700\n122,884,485\n124,120,252\n123,531,547\n135,529,769\n\nATTENDANCE - STATE OF NEW YORK.\n\nYears.\n\nTowns.\n\n1890\n\nCities.\n296,152\n304,667\n312,446\n318,763\n324,337\n336,018\n\n1891\n\n344,609\n\n305,408\n\n1892\n\n361,767\n371,551\n407,955\n\n303,807\n\n1885\n\n1886\n1887\n1888\n1889\n\n1893\n\n1894\n\nState.\n611,019\n\n314,867\n\n625,813\n625,610\n630,595\n637,487\n\n321,146\n313,164\n311,832\n\n313,150\n306,466\n\n642,984\n\n650,017\n665,574\n688,097\n721,063\n\n316,546\n\n313,108\n\nAMOUNT EXPENDED FOR TEACHERS' SALARIES .\nCities.\n\nTowns.\n\nTotal.\n\n$4,923,821\n5,236,730\n5,415,202\n5,683,855\n5,727,541\n6,129,229\n6,564,365\n7,048,412\n7,146,693\n7,264,613\n\n$3,839,128\n3,865,537\n3,801,222\n3,992,236\n4,077,062\n4,292,942\n4,448,620\n4,572,653\n4,736,401\n4,788,404\n\n$8,772,550\n9,102,268\n9,306,425\n9,676,091\n9,804,604\n10,422,171\n11,012,986\n11,621,066\n11,883,094\n12,053,017\n\nYears.\n1885\n1886\n1887\n\n1888\n1889\n1800\n1891\n\n1892\n1893\n1894\n\nAVERAGE ANNUAL SALARY OF TEACHERS .\nYears.\n\nCities.\n\nTowns.\n\n1885\n\n$682\n\n1886\n\n701\n\n$262\n261\n\nState.\n\nYears .\n\nCities.\n\nTowns.\n\n$694\n\n$\n436\n\n465\n\n1887\n\n687\n\n262\n\n$\n401 1800\n409 1891\n409 1892\n\n1888\n\n702\n\n266\n\n419 1893\n\n728\n\n$285\n292\n297\n303\n\n1889\n\n688\n\n270\n\n418 1894\n\n707\n\n306\n\n719\n740\n\nState.\n452\n467\n\n467\n\nAVERAGE WEEKLY SALARIES OF TEACHERS .\nYears.\n\nCities.\n\nTowns.\n\nState.\n\n1885\n\n$16.96\n17.66\n17.39\n17.70\n17.47\n\n$7.84\n\n$11.21 1890\n11.46 1891\n\n1886\n1887\n1888\n1889\n\n7.78\n7.76\n7.89\n8.08\n\n11.44\n11.68\n11.79\n\nYears .\n\n1802\n1893\n1894\n\nCities.\n\nTowns.\n\nState.\n\n$\n17.40\n17.89\n18.75\n18.67\n18.06\n\n$8.00\n8.27\n8.38\n8.60\n8.75\n\n$11.70\n12.18\n12.62\n12.74\n12.72\n\nIt will be interesting to know, that, wherever a decrease in attendance has been reported, it was due to loss of population, the\ndesire to send children to graded schools, and a desire to give children the benefit of better teachers. I may perhaps be pardoned if\nI speak as a New Yorker, but my excuse shall be that it is my\n\n"}
{"page": 1033, "printed_page": null, "text": "1018\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nprivilege to know something of her schools. But I find that a man\ncannot become deeply interested in the school work of his own state\nwithout gradually yielding to the temptation to know more of this\nwork in other states. Speaking, then, for New York, let me say,\nthat, for the past ten years, the attendance upon our city schools\n\nhas shown a yearly increase. For nine years, from 1885, there was\na steady decrease (with one exception) in the attendance upon our\nrural schools. The tenth year showed an increase-very slight but\nvery, encouraging. I hope the statistics for 1895 will show a still\ngreater increase. I believe they will. I regard the increase shown\nin 1894 over 1893 to be the direct result of the better quality of work\n\ndone in our rural schools ; a more thorough preparation on the part\nof our teachers ; a deeper professional spirit; the discouragement of\nunqualified, unprofessional teachers, due to the satisfactory working of our system of uniform examinations.\n\nUnder this system the state superintendent prepares all questions\nused in these examinations, and examines and marks all answer\npapers. This system has surely encouraged all who desire in any\nway to follow the profession of teaching. It has discouraged the\nidle and indifferent. Ever since this system became firmly established and well understood there has been a slight but steady increase in the salaries of the teachers in our rural schools.\n\nAs an ad-\n\nditional encouragement, we are doing much to make our rural\nschools better by the establishment of a course of study which has\nbeen prepared and extended by the school commissioners of our state.\nIt has been growing steadily for many years, and is now in operation\nin nearly all our rural counties. It may not be found practicable to\nenforce a course of study strictly in every rural school; the conditions are not always the same by any means . There is a difference\nin school commissioners, in teachers, in pupils. But we have\nworked great good by what we have been able to do. The course\nof study has now been formally approved by the state superintendent, and is a part of our school system. There is little question\nthat this course of study is doing something to hold our pupils in\nthe rural schools. The figures above given show this. Of course,\nwe have some small, poor, weak schools ; schools with few scholars .\nWe probably always shall have. The consolidation of small schools\nwith larger ones will do much to improve them all. There is an\nenthusiasm and spirit which numbers give which can be secured in\nno other way. Our policy is to close up our smaller schools as\nrapidly as possible. It is urged that the township system will aid\nin this direction, and give an opportunity of testing more generally\nthe plan of carrying our pupils to their schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 1034, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\n1019\n\nRURAL SCHOOLS.\n\nAnd now, what are we going to do to make our rural schools better? In my opinion, we must have, first, an aroused public sentiment toward our schools .\n\nWe need an educational revival.\n\nWe\n\ntouch the people fairly well in their pockets ; we must touch them\nin their hearts. We must draw our patrons as well as our pupils\ninto the schools. Our parents must \"go to school\" to see how their\nchildren are being taught. There is still a mountain of indifference\nto overcome.\n\nWe never can have the best rural schools until we\n\nhave thus aroused public interest in them. And, second, we must\nfurnish better schoolhouses. Why can we not insist that our schoolhouses shall be as pleasant as our homes ?\n\nIf we expect to have our\n\nchildren lovers of the beautiful in after life, we must surround them\nwith beautiful influences in their schools as well as their homes.\n\nWe should pay closer attention to the lighting and heating and ventilating of all our rural school buildings. One school commissioner\nwrites : \"Why do you want us to pay so much attention to ventilation?\" Because I want to prolong the lives of our school children.\nBecause I want to make healthy bodies. And then we must arouse\n\nand educate all our people to take deeper interest in our teachers.\nGood schools cost money; good teachers cost money; but it pays\nto have them. I wish the press and the pulpit would take hold of\nthis matter and give us this educational revival. A low order of\npublic sentiment in a community will be satisfied with a poor teacher\nand a poor school. A community with a higher grade of sentiment\nwill insist on the good teacher as an essential requisite of a good\nschool. If we permit the employment of poor teachers at poor salaries we will have poor schools, as the inevitable result. We must\nhave more money : more money to build better schoolhouses ; more\nmoney to employ good teachers. We cannot succeed in any other\nway. If we cannot get the money we must stop.\n\nOn the whole, the foundation requirement is the good teacher.\nNo investment will pay the public a larger dividend than the money\nspent for good teachers. The uplifting power in a community of the\ninfluence of such a teacher cannot be over-estimated.\n\nOur teachers\n\nmust be satisfied with their salaries or nobody will be satisfied\nwith their work. We should, at least, pay our teachers as much\nas our hodcarriers, and a late estimate of the average salaries of\nteachers in the United States indicates that we are not doing this.\nAs all depends upon the loyalty and happiness of the teacher, so\n\neverything depends upon our willingness to furnish the essential requisite the proper salary. We gain much if we can aid all workers\nin education to look upon the bright side of education-to be happy\nand contented in their work. The greatest service, therefore, we can\nrender our rural schools is to provide them with good teachers. This\n\n"}
{"page": 1035, "printed_page": null, "text": "1020\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nis the testimony which comes up to us from nearly every state in the\nUnion. It is testimony which must have weight in the giving of the\nverdict.\n\nThe greatest service we can render our teachers is to give\n\nthem encouragement. If we require them to pass stipulated examinations and then to demonstrate over and above all that they have the\ntrue spirit of the teacher, we must pay them adequate salaries as we\ndo all other public servants, make their tenure of office secure, and\nrecognize that teaching is a profession, based upon broad scholarship, thorough professional training, the true spirit of a teacher, love\nfor the work, and love of children. We must recognize teachers'\nrights, their social standing in the community, if we expect to get\nthe best results. Teachers, too, must regard their own obligations,\npowers, duties, and responsibilities. They must be loyal, patient,\nloving; realizing that character comes of slow growth, and that\ntheir characters, such as they are, will be photographed upon the\nsouls of their pupils, and that their example will be woven with\n\ntheir lives. They must be more than teachers; they must be counselors, guides, and friends.\nA teacher who does not love teaching-who does not love children-can never be entirely successful. This is a broad and not a\nnarrow conception. The lives and examples of teachers are to be\nthe memories in the hearts of pupils. There is not one of us here\nbut who carries in our heart the delightful memory of some loving,\nsympathetic teacher, who first inspired in our hearts a love for learning, an ambition to reach the crest of the beautiful mountain.\n\nIf\n\nwe could we would gladly send our words of thanks to-day to these\nfaithful friends who have thus influenced our lives for good.\nThis love of children is coming to be a mighty element in our\neducational work. We are giving more and more attention to the\nkindergarten, and it will come into our schools as naturally as\nthough it had always had its place there. We are making a closer\nstudy of the child along all lines. We are coming to study our\nchildren as open books, in which glad secrets are made known to\nus.\n\nThe children are the hope of the world.\n\nWe must learn from\n\nthem great lessons in the possibilities of education.\nOur good friend, Mrs. Kellogg, has told us that we must keep\nfirm hold of childhood and its innocence. We must keep our children young and happy as long as we can. The fullest enjoyment\ndoes not come from much knowledge-much strength in the use of\ntechnical terms. Don't let us educate the beauty or happiness out\nof childhood. Imagine our children walking in the fields and woods ,\n\nand as they spy in a modest corner a cluster of beautiful wild flowers, saying \" Oh, how we could enjoy those flowers, if we only had\nour botany with us.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1036, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nEDUCATION IN THE SOUTH.\n\n1021\n\nThere is one other great need of our rural schools, and that is\ncloser and more intelligent supervision. We should have officers\nwho can make inspection tell for good; who know what good schools\nare; who know what good teaching is, and then see that our schools\nhave it.\n\nIt seems to me sometimes as if our rural schools were but just\nbeginning a long career of usefulness and power. They must be\n\nlargely the foundation upon which many of our higher institutions\nmust rest. In the near future they are to receive careful study by a\nspecial committee appointed at Denver, and I shall be sadly disappointed if the result of this study does not prove to the rural schools\nof our country one of the greatest blessings that has fallen to them\nin half a century.\n\nWHAT THE SOUTH IS DOING FOR EDUCATION AND WHAT\nEDUCATION IS DOING FOR THE SOUTH.\n\nBY W. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION.\n\nIn the past twenty years the South has increased fifty-four per\n\ncent in population, but its school attendance has increased 130 per\ncent; that is to say, more than twice as fast as the population. This\nmeans that there is a larger proportion of the population kept in\nschool during the year. While in 1874 an average of fourteen and\none-half out of every hundred were enrolled in school, ten years\nlater (1884) the average had risen to eighteen and three-quarters\nper hundred, and in 1894, or twenty years later, the number enrolled is twenty-two in the hundred. Of all the people of the South,\nwhite and black, one in five is in attendance on school for some\nportion of the year. This is a large proportion of the people to be\nin school. Even in Saxony, which excels all countries of Europe in\nits school enrollment, the per centum in school is only twenty.\nEven after making allowance for the fact that the South has a\n\nlarger proportion of children in its population than any other section of the nation, this remains a wonderful showing for the wisdom\nand self-sacrifice of the Southern people. They are indeed building\na \"New South\" and its corner stone is the school.\n\nThis appears in a stronger light if we take into consideration\nother statistics. In the twenty years from 1874 to 1894 the value\nof school property increased from $16,000,000 to $51,000,000-an addition of $40,000,000, or $2,000,000 a year. It built better school\n\n"}
{"page": 1037, "printed_page": null, "text": "1022\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nbuildings and adopted modern improvements to such an extent,\nthat, while in 1874 the average value of a schoolhouse in the South\nwas only $373, in 1894 the value had risen to $643.\nIn the twenty years the average wages of the teacher have increased nearly sixteen per cent.\nHigher education has also a good record. It did not have so\nfar to climb as the elementary schools for all classes of people. But\nwhile in 1874 the college students for the South numbered 10,103,\nin 1894 the number is 25,304-or two and one-half times as many.\nTurning to the important subject of race education, we find that\nthe statistics are still more to the credit of Southern statesmanship.\nIn 1876 the South had an enrollment in its schools of 571,506\n\ncolored children and 1,827,139 white children.\n\nThis was a good\n\nstart for that time-more than half a million colored children were\n\nin actual attendance on school for some portion of a year. But in\n1894-eighteen years later-the white pupils had increased to 3,835,593, while the colored pupils had increased to 1,424,995. The increase of white pupils for the eighteen years was 109 per cent, while\nthat of the colored was 150 per cent. Twenty-three out of every\none hundred white inhabitants are enrolled in school and nineteen\n\nout of every one hundred of the colored inhabitants .\nIt is true that with this fine showing as to numbers the length\nof the school term is not yet up to the average. The average number of days in which schools are taught is, for the whole nation,\n139 days, while the average number of days for the South Atlantic\ndivision of states is only 106, and for the South Central division\nonly ninety-three days. But the South had increased its school\nterm twelve days. With the growth of cities and large villages the\nlength of the annual school session will increase until it is quite\nas long as that of the North Atlantic States or that of France and\n\nGermany. The city, schools keep their doors open about 200 days.\nIn the agricultural districts there is a winter session of seventy to\nninety days, and in many cases a shorter summer session.\nIn the rural districts of New England the school term was only\nseventy-five days, as a usual thing, until the growth of large vil-\n\nlages and cities, with their ten-month schools, finally created a public sentiment which now insists on long terms for all districts.\nThe best device yet discovered to help the schools in sparsely\nsettled districts is the payment of cost of transportation by the\nschool committee and the consolidation of districts.\n\nThe children\n\nfrom outlying districts are brought to the town center, where a large\nwell-graded school is kept up for 200 days of the year. The cost\nof transportation for the pupils living more than a mile away is\n\n"}
{"page": 1038, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nEDUCATION IN THE SOUTH.\n\n1023\n\nnot so great an item as the cost of furnishing teachers and school\nbuildings with half a dozen pupils each .\n\nIn the small rural school no classification can be attempted,\nand for the most part the pupils never get beyond the rudiments\nof reading, writing, and arithmetic. With good classification the\n\ncity teacher can teach from forty to sixty pupils well. In the ungraded school not even sixteen to thirty pupils can be well taught.\nThis item explains how it is, that, in the South, with a great increase of expenditures and with a much longer school session, the\n\naverage cost per pupil is not materially increased. Twenty years\nago it was $8.40 ; last year it was only $8.62. But the pupil receives now better accommodations, better instruction, and a longer\nschool session than then, and the newly established training schools\nare sending in to the work thousands of professionally trained teachers .\n\nThe South has done all these things for education. But what\nhas education done for the South ? It has increased the productive\npower of the individual by nearly fifty per cent. It has produced\na laboring class that can use machinery to assist the strength of\nbone and muscle. It has made possible the great change of vocations from the production of mere raw materials to the production\nof the finished product. This is a change going on in all civilized\ncountries.\n\nThe machine is coming in at one end and the mere\n\ndrudge is going out at the other. The uneducated, unskilled man\nis not needed, for his hands and muscles cannot compete with the\nmachine.\n\nBut he is needed in the work of directing the machine.\n\nHe is therefore called upon to step up from the occupation of the\nmere drudge to the occupation of the overseer of the machine. The\nchange from hand work to brain work is a necessity, but it cannot\ngo on without schools that fit the pupils out with alert and versatile\nintelligence.\n\nEven in the fertile fields of the South unskilled labor does not\nbring good wages. The skilled laborer in the city using tools and\ndirecting machinery earns and receives an average of double the\nwages that the farm hand gets .\n\nBut machinery is going out from the city to the farm, and the\nfarm, too, needs fewer laborers and can furnish more productions.\nThe surplus farmers must go into mechanical industries, into transportation and commerce. Fewer and fewer people are needed for\nthe production of the raw materials of food, clothing, and shelter\nall the world over, thanks to mechanical inventions which are push-\n\ning the mere illiterate drudge out of his vocation. He must climb\nup or else starve in his attempt to compete with the machine.\n\n"}
{"page": 1039, "printed_page": null, "text": "1024\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nHere is the wisdom that founds a school system. It makes possible a change of vocations among its people. It puts alertness\n\nand versatility in place of mere brute strength and persistency.\nMore than this the school puts aspiration and ambition into its\n\npupils. It lifts the veil of distance in time and place, and shows\nthem the achievements of the race. \"You, too, can achieve the\nlike.\" The school next proceeds to teach the sciences by which\nthe wonders of the world have been accomplished; mathematics,\nthe tool of thought, by which matter is moved and forces are tamed\ninto the service of man ; history, and geography, and grammar, and\nliterature, by which man comes to know men, and gains the ability\nto combine with them in civilized effort .\n\nHence arise cities over the South ever growing in size and number ; for the city is the necessary resort of the surplus laborers no\nlonger needed on the farm. We do not need so many people to\nget for us the raw materials of food, clothing, and shelter, but we\nneed more and more people to turn these raw materials into articles\nof comfort and luxury; we need more and more people to work at\ntransportation and intercommunication; we need more persons in\nthe work of giving culture to the rest. The savage tribe unaided\nby machinery can afford only one man for the production of ornament; nearly all are needed for the supply of food and clothing of\n\nthe plainest sort. But the partly civilized tribe can afford ten persons for the production of ornament and luxury. The proportion\nincreases rapidly as we ascend in the use of machinery, and the time\nis arrived now when more than a hundred in a thousand are needed\n\nfor the production of ornament and luxury.\nIn transportation and intercommunication with railroads, telegraphs, postal systems, newspapers, books, libraries, schools, and\nchurches-here the line rises from mere transportation through intercommunication up to culture. In these employments more and\nmore will be needed.\n\nInstead of ninety-nine drudges producing raw material and one\nperson working to furnish and diffuse directive intelligence, it will\ncome to pass in the distant future that one man will, by the aid of\nmachinery, furnish the raw material ; another man's labor will make\nthe useful articles for food, clothing, and shelter; ten more will\nelaborate articles of comfort and luxury; the rest (more than\n\neighty per cent of the community) will take up vocations having\nto do with protection and culture.\nThe work of education is the direct work of helping individuals\nto help themselves. It does not go on as fast as it should, nor as\nfar as it should. Our comfort is, that it is making visible progress .\nThe average schooling for the entire nation is at present only 860\n\n"}
{"page": 1040, "printed_page": null, "text": "Congress.]\n\nEDUCATION IN THE SOUTH.\n\ndays for each person.\n\n1025\n\nThis would give four years and three-tenths\n\neach year of 200 days-enough to take a pupil through the primary\nschools of a city. Even Massachusetts with all its schools, public\nand private, does not give enough schooling to amount to seven\nyears apiece for its inhabitants. Some states of the Union give\n\nonly a little more than two years for an average. But it is worthy\nof note that Massachusetts, with nearly twice the average schooling per individual, produces nearly or quite twice the amount of\nwealth per individual compared with the nation's average.\n\nIn 1880\n\nthe census seemed to show that the average production of the whole\nnation was forty cents per day for each inhabitant. That of Massachusetts came nearly up to eighty cents.\nIt is in view of the fact that the laborers who produce raw material are paid only one-half of the wages paid to those engaged in\nskilled industries such as are carried on in cities that we find the\n\nsignificance of this great exposition in the city of Atlanta.\n\nThe symbols of the highest civilization are the railroad, the\ndaily newspaper, and the school. Here we find the type of the\nbearer of civilization. It brings together the producer and the consumer. In the city the raw material brings the highest price and\nthe manufactured product is found at its cheapest price.\nThe city makes combinations ; it seeks out the producer and\nbuys his product, selling him its equivalent of the merchandise of\nthe world. The city thus connects the people of its environment\nwith the world. The family that produces for itself its own food,\nclothing, and shelter is living on a low plane of civilization. It\nshould produce some specialty for the market of the world and\nexchange it for a share in all the productions of mankind. Such\nprocess of exchange is like a sacramental consecration. Each person consumes or partakes of the product of the world of universal\nhuman society ; each, himself, contributes to the supply of all others.\nIt is this process of intercommunication of each with all that is the\nessence of civilization .\n\nThe family that produces all that it consumes does not enjoy\n\nluxury, or culture, as the result of its labor. But when it has access\nto the market of the world through the mediation of the city, then\n\nit may have endless variety in what it consumes. By the division\nof labor, skill and productive power are increased so that the share\nof each person is multiplied. Hence each gets more than he gives\nto the world market. It is a sort of living mirror of grace,-by\n\ngiving one's product to the world one gets in return manifold.\nHence I have called this mediation of one's labor by aid of the world\nmarket a sacrament.\n65\n\n"}
{"page": 1041, "printed_page": null, "text": "1026\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n[Educational\n\nHere we may see the vast significance of the school education\nin enabling the citizen who shares in the productions of his fellowmen to know his fellows and understand their views of the world.\n\nIt enables him to know their opinions and to share in their spiritual\nproductions as well as in their material productions. It enables\nhim to participate in the formation of national and international\npublic opinion.\n\nSmall as is the schooling given by our nation to its people,—\nsome four and one-half years apiece,-it suffices to make reading\nand writing universal, and with them gives also a limited acquaintance with the rudiments of arithmetic and geography. This fits\nthe citizen to become a reader of the daily newspaper, and thus to\nbring him under an educating influence that will continue throughout his life. A newspaper civilization is one that governs by means\nof public opinion. The newspaper creates public opinion. No\ngreat, free nation is possible except in a newspaper civilization. By\naid of the printed page the school-educated person makes present\nto himself daily the events of the world and lives an epic life; for\nthe epic life is the life of nations. A certain portion of the day of\neach citizen is given to contemplating world events and to discussing\nthem. He sees the doings of his state and nation, and forms his\nown opinion. His opinion in the aggregate with those of his fellow citizens is collected and offered to the world by the newspaper.\nThat our schools suffice to produce a government by public opinion\n-this is a result of a higher order than the other good results which\nwe have canvassed as among the benefits to the South of the education which it is giving to its children. To give people the power\nto readjust their vocations and to climb up to better paid and more\n\nuseful industries out of lives of drudgery is a great thing-a sufficient reason in itself for establishing a public school system. But\nto give the people the power of participating in each others' thoughts\n-to give each one the power to contribute his influence to the forma-\n\ntion of a national public opinion is a far greater good, for it looks\nforward to the millennium, when no wars will be needed for the\nmediation of hostile ideas. And this is the lesson of this great exposition here in Atlanta. This is the lesson of the educational history of the South for the past twenty years.\n\n"}
{"page": 1042, "printed_page": null, "text": "1027\n\nAPPENDIX TO ADDRESS.\n\nCongress.]\n\nAPPENDIX TO ADDRESS OF DR. HARRIS .\n\nTHE STATISTICS OF SOUTHERN SCHOOLS .\n\nThe following three tables show the statistics of Southern schools for the past\n\ntwenty years more or less. They indicate very clearly the rate of growth for the\nperiod named. Table I. is copied from the chart in the exhibit of the bureau of\neducation in the United States building at the Atlanta Exposition. It shows the\nprogress in decades 1874-84 and 1884-94.\n\nNoteworthy is the increase from the\n\nannual enrollment of pupils from 14.53 per cent to 21.80 per cent in the twenty\nyears. Noteworthy also is the increase of female teachers and in the value of\nschool property and the increase of the average value of school buildings. The\ngreat increase of students in universities and colleges-namely, from 10,103 in 1874\nto 25,304 in 1894\n-deserves consideration; also, the increase of pupils in secondary\nschools.\n\nTable II. gives a comparative view of the enrollment of the two races in the\n\nSouth for the past eighteen years, together with the total of expenditure. The\nstatistics of expenditures do not show the separate amounts for the two races, but\nit may be safely estimated that the expenditure from public taxes and school funds\n\nfor the colored race amount to about one-fourth of the whole, or upwards of $80, 000,000 for the entire period of eighteen years.\nTable III . shows the enrollment and average daily attendance of the two\n\nraces and the per cent of the entire population enrolled in school for the year\n1893-94.\n\nTable IV. shows the valuation of real and personal property in the Southern\nStates for 1880 and 1890. The first columns show the estimated true valuation,\nwhile the second set of columns shows the assessed and taxed valuation.\n\nThe last\n\ncolumn gives the ratio of the assessed value to the true value. The per capita of\nwealth is also shown. Although the population has increased rapidly in the past\nten years it seems that the wealth has increased much faster.\n\nTABLE I.\nPROGRESS IN TWENTY YEARS OF EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH .\n\nComprising the States of Delaware, Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia,\nWest Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Kentucky,\nTennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Missouri.\nTotal population......\nSchool population (5-18) .\n\n1874.\n\n1884.\n\n15,687,900\n5,204,100\n\n20,087,300\n6,675,940\n\n24,135,900\n8,221,330\n\n2,279,614\n\n3,773,477\n\n5,260,588\n\n14.53\n\n18.78\n\n21.80\n\n1,407,830\n\n2,445,959\n\n3,384,050\n\n1894.\n\nThe Public Schools-\n\nPupils registered in the schools .....\nPer cent of the population .\nAverage daily attendance .\n\n61.75\n\n64.57\n\n64.33\n\n35,395\n\n51,571\n\nFemale teachers\n\n18,322\n\nWhole number of teachers .\n\n53,717\n\n36,029\n87,600\n73,561\n$26,009,205\n$353\n\n55,600\n59,056\n114,656\n86,880\n\nPer cent of the registration .\nMale teachers\n\nSchoolhouses\n\nValue of school property .\nAverage value of schoolhouses .\n\n44.695\n\n$16,685,990\n$373\n\n$55,804,549\n$643\n\n"}
{"page": 1043, "printed_page": null, "text": "1028\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n94\n\n94\n\n106\n\n$9,200,909\n$11,823,775\n$0.75\n$8.40\n\n$14,188,657\n$17,884,558\n\n$22,714,010\n$29,170,351\n$1.21\n$8.62\n\nAverage number of school days in the year .\nExpenditures for teachers'\nTotal expenditures ....\n\nsalaries .\n\n.....\n\nExpended per capita of population .........\nExpended per pupil in attendance .\n\n[Educational\n\nUniversities and CollegesNumber of institutions .\nProfessors and instructors .\nStudents ...\n\nSecondary schools\n\n$0.89\n\n$7.34\n\n174\n\n210\n\n299\n\n1,399\n10,103\n\n1,880\n16,304\n\n3,062\n25,304\n\n(1876.)\n34,927\n\n(1884-85 .)\n76,069\n\n(1893-94.)\n98,195\n\nThe population was about one-half greater in 1894 than in 1874.\nIn the public schools the number of children and of teachers was about two\nand one-third times as great. There were nearly twice as many schoolhouses, and\nschool property was over three and one-fourth times as valuable. The average\nschool term was twelve days longer, and the expenditures were over two and onehalf times more.\n\nOne hundred and twenty-five new colleges were established between 1874 and\n1894; there were 1,663 more professors and two and one-half times as many students at the later date than at the former.\n\nTABLE II.\nGROWTH OF THE COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTHERN STATES.\n\nYEAR.\n\nWhite Pupils .\n\nColored Pupils.\n\nExpenditure for\nBoth Races.\n\n1876-77.\n\n$1,827, 139\n\n$571,506\n\n$11,231, 073\n\n1877-78 ..\n\n2,034, 946\n\n675,150\n\n12,093,091\n\n1878-79 .\n\n2,013, 684\n\n685,942\n\n12,174, 141\n\n1879-80.\n\n2,215, 674\n\n784,709\n\n12,678, 685\n\n1880-81 .\n\n2,234, 877\n\n802,374\n\n13,656, 814\n\n1881-82.\n\n2, 249, 263\n\n802,982\n\n15,241,740\n\n1882-83 .\n\n2, 370, 110\n\n817, 240\n\n16, 363,471\n\n1883-84.\n\n2,546,448\n\n1,002, 313\n\n17,884,558\n\n1884-85.\n\n2, 676, 911\n\n1,030,463\n\n19,253,874\n\n1885-86 .\n\n2,773, 145\n\n1,048, 659\n\n20,208,113\n\n1886-87.\n\n2,975, 773\n\n1,118,556\n\n20,821, 969\n\n1887-88 .\n\n3, 110, 606\n\n1,140,405\n\n21, 810, 158\n\n1888-89.\n\n3, 197, 830\n\n1,213,092\n\n23,171,878\n\n1889-90.\n\n3,402,420\n\n1,296, 959\n\n24,880, 107\n\n1890-91.\n\n3, 570, 624\n\n1,329,549\n\n26, 690, 310\n\n1891-92..\n\n3,607, 549\n\n1,354, 316\n\n27, 691,488\n\n1892-93..\n\n3,697,899\n\n1,367,515\n\n28,535,738\n\n1893-94.\n\n*3, 835, 593\n\n*1,424, 995\n\n*\n29,170, 351\n\nTotal amount expended in eighteen years, $353,557,559 .\n*Approximately.\n\n"}
{"page": 1044, "printed_page": null, "text": "37\n,22.8\n2\n\n228\n, 00\n811,800\n\n860,800\n\n584\n,200\n\n...\nMaryland\n\n.....\n1889-90\nfor\nTotals\n\nTotals\n.\n\n. n\nstates\nfifteen\nI\n*\n\nWest\n.\nVirginia\n\nVirginia\n\nTexas\n\n96\n9\n,2\n159\n\n20\n,4\n302\n\n6,954,840\n\n15\n323\n4\n,\n93\n\n9\n24\n,4\n195\n\n3,835\n,593\n\n,400\n83\n7\n\n121\n,277\n7,185\n\n231\n,433\n\n134\n,720\n\n94\n980\n\n120\n,590\n\n128\n,318\n\n22.0\n\n23.0\n\n21.6\n\n27.0\n\n21.9\n\n21.8\n\n33,916 22.9\n\n104\n,414\n\n,626\n157\n\n107\n,494\n\n98,753\n\n83\n,185\n\n334,884\n\n2,100\n6,113\n\n24,072\n\n57.1\n\n78,903\n2.4\n*3.8\n6\n\n131,279\n\n18.6\n\n20.2\n27.3\n\n206\n\n54.8\n\n1,863\n2,502\n9,960\n\n26,570\n\n62.0\n\n4,102\n\n1,958\n2,636\n6,949\n\n755\n\n3,075\n\n13,766\n5,285\n\n88,086\n*0.1\n65.2\n\n59.4\n\n66\n,423\n\n61.7\n\n67.5\n\n72.2\n\n59.2\n\n691\n\n191\n,\n3\n\n4,386\n\n911\n\n3,627\n\n1,314\n\n2,333\n\n772\n\n3,206\n\n5,827\n8,494\n\n316\n\n2,151\n\n106\n626\n\n734\n\n2,196\n1,408\n\n4,412\n4,878\n\n. ol'd\nhite\nW\nol'd\nolored\nC hite\n\nNumber\nof\nTeachers\n.\n\n19.0\n\n137\n,451\n\n64\n127\n,\n\n72.2\n\n73.4\n72.4\n\n87\n,128\n\n77,987\n266,851\n\n63.6\n\n75\n940\n,\n\n3\n, 61\n154\n\n62.2\n57.5\n\n47.6\n\n18,369\n\n98\n,173\n\n59.1\n\n67.0\n\n25\n,031\n\n42,018 70.4\n\n,433\n243\n\n34.1\n\n60.0\n\n65\n,3 2\n\n61.8\n\n60.0\n\n65.1\n\n25,386\n\n38,752\n\n68.1\n\n60.7\n69.8\n77.0\n77.1\n\n2,947\n11\n, 24\n\n62.5\n72,300\n59.3\n\n, 24\n20\n\n19,746\n\n,800\n112\n\nEnrollment\n.\n\nPer\nCent\nof\nthe\n\n5,909\n\n17.9\n\n23.6\n23.1\n\n21.4\n\n16.4\n\n21.2\n\n20.3\n\n186,899\n23.0\n27.2\n\n19.3\n16.9\n\n38,598\n\n211,630\n\n16,652\n,500\n\n676,000\n35,600\n\n1,070,000\n\n774\n,300\n\n571,000\n\n2,011,000\n\n463,888\n\n106\n, 76\n368\n,481\n\n444,000\n\n,900\n485\n\n....\nCarolina\nSouth\n\nTennessee\n). 892-93\n1\n(\n\n,572\n242\n\n,589\n623\n\n734\n100\n,\n\n604,000\n\n1,115,000\n\n158\n,685\n\n166,248\n\n25.8\n10.6\n15.9\n\n23.9\n\n18.9\n\n19.2\n\n62\n, 54\n\n73\n381\n\n92,816\n\n394,070\n\n1,362,000\n\n167,000\n\n2,728,000\n\nMissouri\n\nNorth\n.....\nCarolina\n\nMississippi\n\n,600\n593\n\nLouisiana\n)...892-93\n(1\n\n284,000\n\n,646,000\n1\n\n,400\n584\n\nKentucky\n..\n\n174\n, 52\n\n919,000\n\n1,035,000\n\nGeorgia\n....\n\n262\n,530\n\n59,503\n\n193,800\n\n260\n,600\n\n.....\nFlorida\n25.4\n\n19.7\n16.3\n\n26,242\n\n29,800\n87,900\n\n143\n400\n\n178,500\n16.4\n14.7\n\n4,858\n\n28,316\n\n)..891-92\n1\n(\nDelaware\n14,436\n\n23.8\n22.7\n\n76,050\n\n..\nColumbia\nof\nDistrict\n\n20.4\n15.1\n\n,709\n115\n\n190\n,305\n209\n,1\n\nAlabama\n...\n,600\n335\n\nColored\n.\n\n768,000\n\nWhite\n.\n\n878\n,400\n\nColored\n.\n\nDaily\nAttendance\n.\n\nAverage\n\n.-OUTHERN\nTATES\nS\nTATISTICS\nCHOOL\nCOMMON\n\nthe\nPopulation\n\nPer\nof\nCent\nEnrolled\n.\n\n935,000\n\n.\nWhite\n\nPUPILS\nIN\nENROLLED\nTHE\n.\nSCHOOLS\nCOMMON\n\nArkansas\n\nSTATES\n.\n\nPOPULATION\n.\nESTIMATED\n\nTABLE\n.\nIII\n1)\n(893-94\n\nCongress.]\nAPPENDIX TO ADDRESS.\n\n1029\n\n"}
{"page": 1045, "printed_page": null, "text": "495\n501\n,3\n97\n\nLouisiana\n\n.\nStates\nSouthern\n\nWest\n....\nVirginia\n\nVirginia\n\nTexas\n...\n\nTennessee\n...\n\nCarolina\nSouth\n\nOklahoma\nTerritory\n....\n\n.\nCarolina\nNorth\n\nMissouri\n....\n\nMississippi\n.......\n\n406\n\n1,96,203,000,000\n32\n30\n64\n$\n\n566\n\n467\n\n707,000,000\n521\n350,000,000\n575\n\n518\n\n825,000,000\n942\n\n438\n854\n,9\n81\n\n451\n\n322\n,000\n502\n705,000,000\n\n323\n\n329\n\n720\n\n313\n\n400\n311\n,9\n03\n348\n\n781\n\n461,000,000\n361\n\n1,562,000,000\n895\n\n352\n354,000,000\n\n837,000,000\n1,041\n895\n\n382,000,000\n443\n\n547\n\n393\n\n445\n\n220\n1,491\n000,000\n1,239\n\n136,000,000\n1,043\n928\n\n887\n156\n,9\n43\n7\n5\n,1\n66\n76\n205\n862\n,3018\n70\n\n48\n,21 5\n24\n\n584\n948\n,1\n99\n\n2,397\n,902\n45\n\n42\n688\n,2\n454\n\n1,085\n,4073\n48\n\n,000\n902\n661\n\n606,000,000\n464\n\n852\n,409\n49\n\n,2313\n32\n72\n1\n\n.\nKentucky\n\nGeorgia\n\n.\nMaryland\n\n4$\n$\n3\n428,000,000\n39\n12\n\n1890.\n.\n1880\n\n.\nCapita\nPer\n\n286,000,000\n403\n356\n\n120,000\n000\n995\n\n1880\n.\n\n389\n,488\n\n.\nTotal\n\nTHE\nAND\nREAL\nOF\nVALUATION\nPERSONAL\n.\nPROPERTY\n\nFlorida\n\n343\n733\n,5\n96\n\n175\n795\n6\n,\n78\n\n...\nDelaware\n\n......\nColumbia\nof\nDistrict\n\n455\n,147\n22\n\n573\n,7\n6\n22\n04\n#\n\n.\n1890\n\nArkansas\n\nAlabama\n\n.\nSTATES\n\nTrue\nTotal\n\n186\n770\n,9\n64\n\n415\n149\n,2\n07\n\n780\n698\n,8\n05\n\n382\n191\n,7\n60\n\n168\n662\n,2\n69\n\n674\n,3\n235\n00\n\n,975\n887\n28\n\n272\n,7\n166\n79\n\n529\n777\n,4\n94\n\n65\n462\n,7\n05\n\n0,834\n28\n27\n16\n13\n06\n,6432917\n5\n,862\n86\n95\n14\n96\n22\n$\n\n42.59\n\n48.15\n\n121\n365\n,2\n02\n\n236\n959\n,6\n54\n\n37.09\n\n449\n762\n,5\n37\n142\n831\n,9\n37\n\n43.11\n\n841\n,3\n54\n30\n1\n\n257\n,0505\n07\n523\n093\n,8\n98\n272\n,311\n76\n\n41.99\n\n168\n, 79\n19\n\n459\n,1986\n11\n89,887\n,380\n\n292\n,872\n11\n\n78\n919\n,2\n46\n\n40.28\n\n866\n,3\n56\n63\n1\n\n260\n,1491\n65\n\n288\n516\n,1\n97\n93\n7421\n,2\n\n599\n359\n,8\n31\n\n142\n,0968\n32\n90\n723\n,0\n42\n\n37.03\n\n195\n374\n,8\n64\n\n36.71\n\n48.78\n\n47.31\n\n49,767\n,877\n\n117\n,594\n31\n117\n404\n,0\n02\n\n411\n200\n,9\n46\n\n589\n,015\n67\n\n46.71\n\n234\n720\n,3\n80\n\n74\n,900\n05\n\n652\n,1068\n08\n239\n,1542\n88\n\n159\n819\n,6\n75\n\n48.78\n\n382\n745\n,9\n99\n170\n907\n,8\n96\n\n190,774\n,030\n\n376\n,792\n88\n\n225\n954\n,0\n15\n\n415\n928\n,8\n45\n\n44.62\n\n182\n238\n,5\n53\n\n31\n,165\n37\n\n23.56\n\n141\n891\n,6\n09\n\n11\n,697\n50\n\n37.69\n\n38.39\n\n41.58\n\n.) er\nCent\nP\n(\n\n141\n891\n,6\n09\n\n,788\n547\n96\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION .\nValuation\n.\n\n60\n,596\n74\n\n101\n082\n,2\n29\n\n2,864\n,006\n\nto\n\nRatio\nTotal\nof\nAssessed\n\n153\n,3507\n41\n\n63\n546\n,3\n13\n\n,833\n2\n99\n52\n$\n214\n959\n,5\n64\n\n65\n520\n,3\n97\n\n073\n,2\n1\n91\n04\n$\n\nTaxed\n.\n\nReal\nEstate\n\nof\ntion\n\nValuaTrue\n\n91\n,761\n11\n\n66,210\n,519\n\n406\n,7\n1\n54\n84\n$\n\n109\n,417\n58\n\n579\n,9\n2\n75\n58\n$\n\nProperty\n.\n\nPersonal\n\nASSESSED\nESTATE\nREAL\nOF\nVALUATION\n\n.ESTATE\nSTATES\nOUTHERN\nPERSONAL\nPROPERTY\nREAL\nAND\n\n.\nEstate\nReal\n\n.\nTAXED\n\n174\n3755\n,7\n\nTotal\n.\n\nTABLE\n.\nIV\n.) 890-1880\n1\n(\n\n1030\n\n"}
{"page": 1046, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL PRESS ASSOCIATION\nOF AMERICA .\nDuring the session of the National Educational Association, at Denver, the representatives of twenty-two educational journals held several very pleasant meetings which resulted in the preliminary organization of the Educational Press Association of America.\n\nThe purpose of this organization is to develop fraternal feeling, mutual benefit,\nand united strength in advancing educational sentiment along lines upon which\nthere is common agreement.\nThe advantages of the organization were apparent at each successive meeting,\nand at the final meeting every educational paper represented was committeed to this\norganization and was conditionally accepted as a charter member of the association.\nThe officers of the temporary organization are : A. E. Winship, Boston, President; William G. Smith, Minneapolis, Secretary ; Geo. P. Brown, Bloomington,\nTreasurer.\nCHARTER MEMBERS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PRESS ASSOCIATION OF\nAMERICA .\n\nPaper.\nAmerican Teacher\n\nAmerican School Board Journal .\nColorado School Journal .\nEducational Review .\nEducation\n\nIowa Normal Monthly .\nMichigan Moderator .\nNew England Journal of Education .\nNorthwestern Journal of Education .\nOhio Educational Monthly .\nPrimary Education...\nPopular Educator .\nPublic School Journal .\nPennsylvania School Journal .\nPrimary School .\nSchool Review .\nSchool Bulletin.\nSchool Education .\nThe School Journal .\n\nTeachers' Institute ...\nTexas School Journal .\nWestern School Journal .\n\nPostoffice.\nBoston, Mass.\nMilwaukee, Wis .\n.. Denver, Colo .\nNew York, N. Y.\nBoston, Mass .\nDubuque, Iowa.\nLansing, Mich .\nBoston, Mass.\nLincoln, Neb .\n\nColumbus, Ohio.\nBoston, Mass .\nBoston, Mass .\n\nBloomington, Ill .\nLancaster, Pa.\nNew York, N. Y.\nHamilton, N. Y.\nSyracuse, N. Y.\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nNew York, N. Y.\nNew York, N. Y.\n.Austin, Texas .\n\nTopeka, Kan.\n\nThe above list of papers names only those which were represented at the\nDenver meeting. Others equally prominent will doubtless be included at an early\ndate. Applications for membership received by the Secretary subsequent to the\nDenver meeting will be acted upon at the meeting of the Press Association to be\nheld in connection with the meeting of the Department of Superintendence at Jack-\n\nsonville, Fla., in February, 1896.\nThe officers of the National Educational Association commend this movement\n\nin the highest terms, and heartily favor giving the Educational Press Association\ndue recognition and assistance.\n\nTo this end the Executive Committee for 1895-96\n\nhave voted not to publish an official bulletin, but to rely upon the educational press\nfor the publication of all advance information regarding programs and plans for the\nannual meeting .\nW. G. SMITH,\n\nSecretary, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\n"}
{"page": 1047, "printed_page": null, "text": "VOLUMES OF PROCEEDINGS\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\nPrior to 1870 there were three National Associations in the United States\n\nconsidering educational work, each independent of the others-\" The National\nTeachers' Association,\" organized in 1857; \" The American Normal Association, \"\nand \" The National Superintendents' Association.\" At the joint annual meetings\nin August, 1870, these associations united, forming \" The National Educational\nAssociation \" of the United States, with departments for the consideration of distinct phases of educational work.\n\nThe joint publication of the proceedings of these associations began with the\nvolume for 1870. It is now hardly possible to find copies of the proceedings of\neither of these associations prior to that date. They were generally issued in\npamphlet form, and seldom contained all the papers read at the meetings. Beginning with 1870, each volume is bound in cloth. A copy of the \"History of the\nNational Educational Association,\" 140 pp. 8vo, containing a classified list by\nsubjects, of papers read, with name of writer, in each case, from 1870 to 1891,,\ninclusive, will be sent by mail on receipt of twenty-five cents.\nThe volumes for 1870 and 1872 are now out of print. A limited number of\n\ncopies remain for the years 1871, 1882, 1883, 1885. These are sold only with sets.\nAll the other volumes can be supplied singly or in sets. The volume for 1893 contains the proceedings of the International Congress of Education.\nN. B.-Orders for volumes should be accompanied with check or money order,\nwith directions for sending them.\n\nNumber Pages in\nVolume.\n\nPrice per Volume\n\nPrice per Single\n\nin Sets .\n\nVolume.\n\n1895\n\n1116\n\n$1.75\n\n1894\n\n1071\n\n1893\n1892\n\n1006\n848\n892\n929\n\n1.75\n2.00\n1.75\n1.75\n1.75\n\n1889\n\n723\n\n1.75\n\n$2.00\n2.00\n2.50\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n\n1888\n\n1885\n1884\n\n194\n829\n605\n551\n531\n\n1883\n\n253\n\n1882\n\n315\n359\n379\n457\n\n1.75\n1.75\n1.50\n2.00\n1.50\n2.00\n2.00\n1.25\n1.25\n\nVolumes for Years .\n\n1891\n\n1890\n\n1887\n1886\n\n1881\n1880\n1879\n\n1.25\n\n2.00\n2.00\n\n1.75\n....\n\n1.75\n....\n\n1.50\n1.50\n1.50\n\nNo meeting.\n1.25\n1.25\n1.25\n\n1877\n1876\n1875\n1874\n1873\n1872\n\n286\n307\n\n287\n\n....\n\n1871\n\n237\n\n2.00\n\n1870\n\n260\n\n195\n471\n\n1.25\n\n272\n\n1.25\n\n1.50\n1.50\n1.50\n1.50\n1.50\n\n...\n\nOrders for the volumes of the proceedings of the National Educational Association may be sent to the Custodian, Z. Richards, No. 1301 Corcoran Street, Washington, D. C., to the Treasurer, or to the Secretary of the National Educational\nAssociation, at their respective addresses.\n\n"}
{"page": 1048, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS\nARRANGED BY STATES, CLASSES, AND YEARS OF CONTINUOUS\nANNUAL\n\nMEMBERSHIP.\n\nIn preparing this list the Secretary has found the records of annual membership\nvery imperfect, especially in the earlier years. Every effort has been made, with\nthe assistance of the members, to correct all errors .\n\nIt is too much to hope that\n\nthis has been fully accomplished. Further corrections will be made as errors are\ndiscovered. It is proposed to issue a revised and enlarged list about April 1, 1896.\nAll whose names appear in the following list are invited to send to the Secretary,\nat once, corrections of errors and omissions.\n\nMany early members of the association who have contributed largely to its\ngrowth and success are enrolled under recent dates because their membership has\nnot been continuous and no plan for indicating irregular memberships has been\nadopted. Many others have paid the dues for omitted years, received the volumes\nof proceedings, and obtained credit for all the years of their attendance. This privilege is still extended to all who wish to avail themselves of it.\n\nAll active members are urged to co-operate with the executive committee in\nextending this list until it includes the leading educators of every state, to the\nend that the association may receive their active support, and may in turn render\n\nmost efficient service through its meetings, its organized plans for educational\ninvestigation, and its published reports.\nThe annual active membership fee will be due at the time of the annual meeting, and may be paid by a railroad membership coupon delivered to the Treasurer,\nby payment to the Treasurer during the annual meeting, or by remittance to the\nSecretary before September 1st of each year.\nThe marginal years indicate the date of the commencement of continuous annual\n\nmembership for those whose names immediately follow. The indented years indicate date of appointment to present educational position.\n\nALABAMA.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1888. J. H. PHILLIPS, A. M., Marietta Coll., Ohio; Ph. D., Southern Univ., Ala.\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham.\n1892.\n\nF. M. RooF.\n1887. Principal of Public Schools, 513 19th St., Birmingham .\nHENRY TALBOT.\n\n1892. Superintendent of Manu-Mental Training, State Normal School, Montgomery.\n1894.\n\nT. J. HASSETT.\n\nAgent American Book Company, Box 636, Birmingham.\nLUCIEN V. LA TASTE.\n\nAgent University Publishing Company, Box 558, Montgomery.\n\nJOHN MASSEY, A. M., '74, LL.D. , '79, Univ. of Ala.\n1876. President Alabama Conference Female College, Tuskegee.\n\n1895.\n\nJOHN T. GREGORY, C. E. , '89, Alabama Polytechnic Inst.\n1894.\n\nPrincipal Grammar School, 996 Government St. , Mobile.\n\n"}
{"page": 1049, "printed_page": null, "text": "1034\n\n1895.\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nALABAMA- Continued.\nΚΑTE E. MOON.\nGrammar Department, Public Schools, 110 N. Conception St. , Mobile.\n\nSOLOMON PALMER, Ph . D. , '92, State Nor. Coll. of Ala.\nPresident of Atheneum College for Girls, East Lake.\n\nJAMES K. POWERS, A. M., '73, Univ. of Ala.\n1888. President State Normal College, Florence.\nJULIA S. TUTWILER.\nPrincipal Alabama Normal College for Girls, Livingston.\n\nCHARLES BEN VAN WIE, Ph. M., Ph . D., '94, III. Wesleyan Univ.\n1888. Department of Pedagogics , State Normal College, Florence.\n\nJOHN D. YERBY, A. B., '79, Southern Univ.\n1894.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools , 996 Government St., Mobile.\nARIZONA.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1895.\n\nTHEO. B. COMSTOCK, B. Sc., '70, D. Sc., '86, Cornell Univ.\nEx-President University of Arizona, Prescott.\n\nARKANSAS .\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1887. THOMAS A. FUTRALL, A. M., Univ. of Tenn.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Marianna .\n\n1890.\n\nJOSIAH H. SHINN, A. B. , A. M. , '70, Northwestern Univ.\nEditor \"Southern School Journal ,\" 2121 Cumberland St. , Little Rock.\n\n1895.\n\nJ. L. HOLLOWAY, A. M., Missouri State Normal.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, 1109 12th St., Fort Smith.\nCALIFORNIA .\nLIFE DIRECTORS .\n\n1881.\n\nANDREW J. RICKOFF, A. M. , LL.D., Univ. of Ohio.\n\n1888.\n\nLE ROY D. BROWN, A. B., '79, A. M., '82, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.; Ph. D. ,\n\n2429 Bancrofts Way, Berkeley.\n\n'83 , Baker Univ .\n1895. Principal High School , San Luis Obispo .\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1877.\n\nANNA KALFUS DE JARNETTE.\n\n1879.\n\nJAMES H. HOOSE, A. M., '64, Ph. D., '73, Syracuse Univ.\n\nPublisher, San Jose.\n\n255 S. Euclid Ave., Pasadena.\n1880.\n\nMRS. REBECCA D. RICKOFF .\n2429 Bancroft Way, Berkeley.\n\n1884.\n\nNATHAN C. TWINING, A. M. , '61, Milton Coll. , Wis .\n\n1886.\n\nC. Y. ROOP .\n1893. Superintendent of Schools and Principal of High School , Santa Barbara.\n\n1888.\n\nREBECCA F. ENGLISH.\n1891. Critic Teacher, State Normal School , 141 S. 10th St., San Jose.\n\n1889.\n\nAUGUSTA W. HOBE .\n\n1895.\n\n1888.\n\nPrincipal of Victoria School, 1224 Walnut St. , Riverside.\n\nTeacher in Grammar Grade, 1633 Hyde St. , San Francisco.\n\n"}
{"page": 1050, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1035\n\nCALIFORNIA- Continued .\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1887.\n\nEDWARD T. PIERCE, LL.B., '77, Union Univ.; Ph. D. , '92, N. Y. Nor. Coll.\n\n1891.\n\nEARL BARNES, M. Sc. , '90, Cornell Univ.\n\n1892. President State Normal School, Los Angeles.\n\nDepartment of Education, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University.\n\nELMER E. BROWN, Ph. D. , '90, Halle .\n1893.\n\nProf. of Science and Art of Teaching, Univ. of Cal., 2341 Channing Way, Berkeley.\n\n1892.\n\nFREDERIC L. BURK, B. L., '83, Univ. of Cal.; A. M., '92, Stanford Univ.\n\n1893.\n\nJAMES A. FOSHAY.\n\n1895.\n\nLEWIS B. AVERY, B. Sc. , '83, Tabor Coll ., Iowa.\n\n1893.\n\n1895.\n\nPrincipal of Schools, Santa Rosa.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 2341 Scarff St. , Los Angeles.\n\n1895. Principal Union High School , Redlands.\n\nMELVILLE DOZIER, Pd. B., '67, Furman Univ., S. C.\n1895. Vice Principal State Normal School, 829 W. 11th St. , Los Angeles .\n\nALLIE M. FELKER, Grad., '84, State Nor. Sch., San Jose.\n1892. Critic Teacher, State Normal School, 468 S. 6th St. , San Jose.\n\nCHARLES EDWARD HUTTON, A. B., '53, A. M., '61, St. John's Coll., Md.\n1890. Instructor in State Normal School, 1007 W. 21st St. , Los Angeles.\n\nCHARLES H. KEYES, A. B. , '78, St. John's Coll.\n1891. President of Throop Polytechnic Institute, 71 Mary St. , Pasadena .\n\nJOSEPH LE CONTE, A. B., '41, А. М., '45, LL.D., '79, Univ. of Ga.; M. D.,\n'45, Coll. of Phys. & Surg., N. Y.; B. Sc., '51, Harvard Univ.\n1868. Prof. Geology and Nat. Hist., Univ. of Cal., 2739 Bancroft Way, Berkeley.\nCOLORADO .\nLIFE DIRECTOR.\n\n1888.\n\nAARON GOVE.\n\n1874. Superintendent of Schools, High School, Denver.\nLIFE MEMBER.\n\n1886.\n\nFRANK HOWARD CLARK.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 618 W. Bleeker St. , Aspen,\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1884. JAMES H. BAKER, A. B., '73, A. M., '75, LL.D., '92, Bates Coll.\n1892. President University of Colorado, Boulder.\n\nROBERT H. BEGGS, B. Sc., '68, Illinois Coll.\n1880. Principal Grammar School, 2427 Ogden St. , Denver.\n\n1887.\n\nCHARLES V. PARKER,\n1891.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Fort Collins.\n\nZ. X. SNYDER, A. B., '76, Ph. D. , '84, Waynesburg Coll., Pa.\nPresident State Normal School, Greeley.\n1890.\n\nWARREN E. KNAPP .\n1854. Principal of Franklin School, 507 South Tremont St., Denver .\n\n1891.\n\nMARY D. REID.\n1890. Instructor in Mathematics, State Normal School, 717 10th St., Greeley.\nA. D. SHEPARD.\n1887. County Superintendent of Schools, 1345 S. 10th St. , Denver .\n\n1892.\n\nCHARLES M. CARTER, Grad. '79, Mass. State Nor. Art School.\n1889. Director of Drawing, Dist. No. 17, 71 Kittredge Bldg . , Denver.\n\n"}
{"page": 1051, "printed_page": null, "text": "1036\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nCOLORADO- Continued.\n\n1892. L. C. GREENLEE, Grad. State Nor. Sch., Edinboro, Pa.; A. M. , '95, Waynesburg Coll . , Pa.\n1890.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Dist. No. 2, 549 S. Tremont St. , Denver.\n\nWM. H. SMILEY, A. B., '77, Harvard Univ.\n1892. Principal High School, District No. 1, 2112 Lincoln Ave. , Denver.\nJAMES H. VAN SICKLE.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, District No. 17, 338 Gallup Ave. , Denver.\nMARIE L. WARNECKE.\nTeacher of German, Gilpin School, 1741 High St. , Denver.\n1893.\n\nHENRIETTA B. AYRES.\n1882. Teacher in Public Schools, 2314 Clarkson St., East Denver.\n\nCHARLES A. BRADLEY, Grad. , '77, U. S. Military Acad.\n1894. Principal Manual Training High School, 1341 Corona St. , Denver.\n\n1894. EDGAR ROLLIN DOWNS, A. B. , '76, A. M., '81, Williams Coll.\n1894. Principal North Side High School, 12 17th Ave., Denver.\nADELA MCCLURE.\n1889. Teacher in Public Schools, District No. 2, 4S W. 2d Ave., Denver.\n\n1895.\n\nFRANCES O. ANDERSON .\nTeacher in Ebert School, District No. 1, 1852 Lincoln Ave. , Denver.\nHELEN M. BROWN.\n1894. Principal Sheridan School , 1541 Race St. , Denver.\n\nGEORGE L. CANNON, JR.\n1887. Instructor in Geology and Biology, High School, District No. 1, Denver.\n\nWILLIAM V. CASEY.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 820 Pine St. , Boulder .\n\nL. S. CORNELL, A. M., Western Coll., Iowa ; B. Sc., Westfield Coll., Ill .\n36 West 3d Ave., Denver.\n\nFRED DICK. А. М. , Hamilton Coll.. N. Y.\nPrincipal Normal and Preparatory School, Kittredge Block, Denver.\nHERBERT GRIGGS.\n\nDirector of Music, Public Schools, Box 765, Denver.\nLOUISE GUIBOR.\n\n1888. Teacher in Public Schools, 738 Goss St. , Denver.\n\nROLAND W. Guss, Grad. '83, State Normal School, Pa.; A. B., 188, A. M.\n'91, Wesleyan Univ., Conn.\n1891. Instructor in Physical Sciences, State Normal School, 1203 11th St., Greeley.\n\nJOHN A. HANCOCK, M. L., '90, Univ. of Wis.; A. M. , '93, Stanford Univ.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 929 8th St. , Durango.\nED . F. HERMANNS.\n1891. Principal of High School, District No. 2, 400 Broadway, Denver.\n\nJOSEPH P. JACKSON, LL.B., '79, Iowa Univ.; A. M. , '80, Oskaloosa Coll .\n1894.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 212 W. 5th St. , Leadville.\n\nEVELYN M. JACOBS.\nTeacher of Third Grade, 1646 Clarkson St. , Denver.\nNORA JONES.\n1895. Teacher in Public School, Ramah, El Paso County.\n\nELIZABETH LIDDELL, M. D., '89 , Denver Univ .\n1891. Assistant Principal Broadway School, 1549 Logan Ave .. Denver.\nMAY L. MARTIN.\nTeacher in Edison School, 1644 Lincoln Ave., Denver.\n\n"}
{"page": 1052, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1037\n\nCOLORADO- Continued.\n\n1895.\n\nMAGGIE J. MCCOY.\n1890. Principal Ninth Street School, 224 E. 8th St. , Leadville.\nA. N. MILLER.\n1887. Principal Garfield School, 1037 S. 9th St. , Denver .\nALICE S. MITCHELL.\n1887. Teacher in Public Schools, 2108 Grant Ave. , Denver .\n\nDORA M. MOORE.\n1893. Principal Corona School, 1031 Emerson St. , Denver.\nC. M. OSENBAUGH.\n\n1891. Principal Swansea School, 224 W. 4th Ave., Denver.\n\nCHARLES SKEELE PALMER, A. B. , '79, A. M., '82, Amherst; Ph. D. '86,\nJohns Hopkins.\n1887.\n\nProfessor of Chemistry, University of Colorado, Box 643, Boulder.\n\nMRS. ANGENETTE PEAVEY.\n1895. Superintendent of Public Instruction, Sherman Ave., Denver.\n\nH. E. ROBBINS, M. Sc., '91, Univ. of Ill.; A. M., '93, III. Wesleyan Univ.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 615 Broadway, Pueblo.\n\nJAMES E. RUSSELL, A. B., '87, Cornell; Ph. D., '94, Leipzig.\nProfessor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, University of Colorado, Boulder.\n\nMARY S. SABIN, A. B., '91, Smith Coll.\n1891. Teacher in High School, District No. 1, 415 21st St., Denver.\nSIDNEY FULLER SMITH.\nInstructor in Physics, High School, District No. 1, 1470 Steele St. , Denver .\nE. H. STEVENS.\n1895. Principal Public Schools, Platteville.\n\nW. J. WISE, B. Sc., '84, A. M., '88.\n1893.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1864 South Washington St., South Denver.\n\nLINA WISEBART.\n1890. Principal Ironton School, 1646 Clarkson St. , Denver.\n\nJ. S. YOUNG, A. B. , '90, A. M., '94, Kan. Nor. Coll.\nProfessor of U. S. History and Grammar, State Normal School, Greeley.\n\nCONNECTICUT .\nLIFE\n\n1884.\n\nMEMBERS .\n\nHENRY BARNARD, LL.D., '52, Yale, Harvard, and Union; L. H. D. , '87,\nColumbia.\nEx-U. S. Commissioner of Education 1866-1870, 28 Main St., Hartford.\n\nBIRDSEY GRANT NORTHROP, LL. D., '72, Williams Coll.\nLecturer, Clinton.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1888.\n\nGEORGE B. HURD .\n\n1885. Principal Winchester School District, 59 Lake Place, New Haven.\n\n1892. DAVID N. CAMP, A. M., '53, Yale.\n1854. Manager of New Britain Library, 9 Camp St. , New Britain.\n\n1893. CHAS . W. DEANE, A. M., '86, Ph. D., '92, Allegheny Coll.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Bridgeport.\n1894.\n\nFREDERICK A. CURTISS .\n1892. Principal High School, Old Saybrook.\n\n1895.\n\nNATHAN L. BISHOP.\n1877.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Central District, 7 Huntington Place, Norwich.\n\n"}
{"page": 1053, "printed_page": null, "text": "1038\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nDELAWARE .\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1891.\n\nEDWINA B. KRUSE.\n1876. Principal High and Grammar School, No. 16, 206 E. 10th St., Wilmington.\n\n1892. ALBERT N. RAUB, А. М., '67, Princeton; Ph. D. , '79, Lafayette; LL. D.,\n'95 . Ursinus Coll .\n1888. President Delaware College, Newark.\n\n1894.\n\nISAAC T. JOHNSON, A. B. , '81 , A. M., '86, Haverford Coll., Pa.\n1881.\n\nPrincipal Friends' School, 4th and West Sts ., Wilmington.\n\nDISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1864.\n\nZALMON RICHARDS, A. B., '36, A. M. , '39.\n\n1876.\n\nWILLIAM TORREY HARRIS, A. M., '69, Yale; LL.D., '70, Univ. of Mo. , '94,\nUniv. of Pa., '95, Yale, Ph. D., '93, Brown Univ.\n\n1880.\n\nЈоHN HITZ .\n1887. Superintendent of Volta Bureau, Washington.\n\nCustodian National Educational Association, 1301 Corcoran St. , Washington.\n\n1889. United States Commissioner of Education, Washington .\n\nJ. ORMOND WILSON, A. M., '74, Dartmouth Coll.\n1892.\n\nSecretary American Colonization Society, 1439 Mass. Ave. N. W., Washington.\n\n1884.\n\nALEX, GRAHAM BELL.\n1331 Connecticut Ave., Washington.\n\n1889.\n\nRT. REV. JOHN J. KEANE, D. D. , Laval ; LL.D. , Harvard .\n1886.\n\nRector Catholic\n\nUniversity of America, Washington.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1879.\n\nW. N. HAILMANN, A. M., '64, Univ. of Louisville; Ph. D., '85, Ohio State\nUniv.\n1894. National Superintendent of Indian Schools, 930 F St. , N. W., Washington.\n\n1883.\n\nMRS. EUDORA L. HAILMANN.\nPrincipal Kindergarten Training School, \"The Cairo, \" Washington.\n\n1892.\n\nWM. BRAMWELL POWELL, A. M.. '67. Lombard Univ .\n1885.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Franklin School, Washington .\n\nMRS. SARA A. SPENCER.\n1891. President of Spencerian Business College, corner 7th and D Sts. , Washington.\n\n1893.\n\nJOHN EATON , Ph. D., Rutgers Coll.; LL.D. , Dartmouth Coll.\nEx-U . S. Commissioner of Education, \" The Concord, \" Washington.\n\nC. M. LACEY SITES, A. M. , '90, Ohio Wesleyan Univ .; LL.B., '90, Nat. Law\nSchool , Washington.\n1890. Principal Eastern High School , 1315 Clifton St. , Washington.\nHENRY C. SPENCER.\nTeacher in Spencerian College, corner 7th and D Sts. , Washington.\n\n1894.\n\nSUSAN PLESSNER POLLOCK, Grad. of Kg. Nor. Inst., Berlin, '69.\n\n1895.\n\nANNA TOLMAN SMITH.\n\nPrincipal Froebel Normal Institute and Kindergarten, 1426 Q St. N. W. , Wash.\nSpecialist, Bureau of Education, Washington.\n\nB. L. WHITMAN, A. B., 187, A. M., '90, Brown Univ.; D. D., '94, Bowdoin\nColl.\n1895. President of Columbian University, Washington.\n\n"}
{"page": 1054, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1039\n\nFLORIDA.\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1893.\n\nWм. N. SHEATS. A. M. , '76, Emory Coll. , Ga.\n\n1895.\n\nO. CLUTE, LL.D., Agri. Coll., Mich .\n\n1892.\n\n1893.\n\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Tallahassee.\n\nPresident of State Agricultural College, Lake City.\n\nGEORGIA.\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1870.\n\nR. M. MANLEY.\n\n1890.\n\nW. H. BAKER.\n1868. Superintendent of Schools, Chatham Academy, Savannah.\n\nDalton.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1894.\n\nOTIS ASHMORE, A. M. , Univ. of Ga.\n1887. Instructor in Natural Science, High School, 15 Tattnall St. , Savannah.\nWILLIAM M. SLATON, A. M., '91, Univ. of Ga.\n1892. Principal Boys' High School, 142 Jackson St. , Atlanta.\n\n1895.\n\nATLANTA UNIVERSITY.\nAtlanta, Ga.\n\nJOSEPH S. STEWART, A. B., '83, Emory Coll.\n1890.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Marietta.\n\nIDAHO .\nACTIVE MEMBER .\n\n1886.\n\nF. B. GAULT, M. Sc., '80, Cornell Coll ., Iowa.\n1892. President University of Idaho, Moscow.\n\nILLINOIS .\nLIFE DIRECTORS .\n\n1887. NEWTON CHARLES DOUGHERTY, A. M.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Peoria.\nCHAS. I. PARKER.\nPrincipal South Chicago High School, 893 71st Place, Chicago.\n\n1890.\n\nSTATE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION OF ILLINOIS.\n\n1891.\n\nJOSHUA PIKE, A. M. , '65, Univ. of Chicago.\n1874.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Jerseyville.\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1870. IRA WILDER ALLEN, A. B., '50, Hamilton Coll., N. Y.; A. M. , '52, Antioch\nColl. , Ohio.; LL. B., '63, Albany Law School; LL. D., '74, Union Christian Coll., Ind.\n612 W. 60th Place, Station O, Chicago.\n\n1876.\n\nALEX. FORBES, A. M.\n\n1880.\n\nGEO . P. BROWN.\n\n262 Wabash Ave. , Chicago.\n\nEditor \"Public School Journal, \" Bloomington.\n\n"}
{"page": 1055, "printed_page": null, "text": "1040\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nILLINOIS- Continued.\n\n1882.\n\nHARRIET N. MORRIS, A. M., '86, Nat. Normal Univ.\n\n1884.\n\nAUGUSTUS J. CHENEY, B. Sc., '57, Dartmouth Coll.\n\nUpper Alton.\n\nWestern Agent G. & C. Merriam Co. , 316 N. Grove Ave. , Oak Park.\n\nEMILY A. HAYWARD, A. B., '74, A. M., '78, Antioch Coll ., Ohio.\n1892.\n\nTeacher in Public Schools, 1233 Irving Park Boulevard, Chicago.\n\nEDWIN C. HEWETT.\nAssociate Editor \"Public School Journal, \" Normal .\n\nHENRY RAAB, LL. D.\nBelleville.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1880.\n\nFRANCIS W. PARKER, A. M., Dartmouth Coll.\n\n1884.\n\nL. M. DILLMAN.\n\n1883.\n\n)\n\nPrincipal Cook County Normal School, 6640 Honore St. , Station O, Chicago.\n\nAssistant Manager American Book Co. , 521 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nMRS. EVA D. KELLOGG.\nEditor of \" Primary Education,\" 6521 Yale Ave. , Station O, Chicago.\nALBERT G. LANE .\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 430 W. Adams St. , Chicago.\nALBERT R. SABIN.\n\n1887. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 513 W. Congress St. , Chicago.\n1886.\n\nDAVID S. GEER.\n1886. Official Stenographer Nat. Educa. Assn., 520 Chicago Opera House, Chicago.\n\nWILLIAM JENKINS, A. M., '86, Hamilton Coll.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Dixon.\n\nA. F. NIGHTINGALE, A. B. , '66, A. M., '69, Wesleyan Univ., Conn.; Ph. D.,\n'91, Upper Iowa Univ.\n1892.\n1887.\n\nSuperintendent of High Schools, 2175 Sheridan Road, Station X, Chicago.\n\nЈоHN C. ELLIS.\nEducational Publisher, 211 Wabash Ave., Chicago .\n\n1888. ANDREW S. DRAPER, LL.B. , '71, Union Univ.; LL.D., '89, Colgate Univ.\n1894.\n1889.\n\nPresident University of Illinois, Urbana.\n\nREED SAVAGE.\n1895. Principal Graded School, Paris.\n\n1890. JOHN E. BRADLEY, Ph. D., '79, Univ. of N. Y.; LL.D., '93, Williams Coll.\n1802. President Illinois College., 1202 W. College Ave. , Jacksonville.\n\nJOHN W. Cоок, А. М. , Knox Coll.; LL.D., Blackburn Univ.\n1890. President Illinois State Normal School , Normal .\n\nCHARLES A. MCMURRY, Ph. D., Halle.\nPrincipal Training Department, Illinois State Norinal School, Normal.\n\nWILLIAM LUCAS STEELE, A. M., '80, Monmouth Coll., Ill.\n1885.\n\n1891.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 356 N. Cherry St. , Galesburg.\n\nHERBERT F. FISK, А. В. , '60, A. M., '63, D. D. , '88, Wesleyan Univ., Conn.\n1888. Prin. Academy and Prof. of Ped., Northwestern Univ., 1625 Judson Ave., Evanston.\n\nDANA W. HALL, A. M., '93, Colby Univ. , Me.\n1894. High School and College Department, Ginn & Co., 355 Wabash Ave. , Chicago.\n1892.\n\nC. M. BARDWELL.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Room 2, First National Bank, Canton.\n\nALBERT W. CLANCY, Grad., National Normal School .\nEducational Publisher, 3935 Ellis Ave. , Chicago.\n\n"}
{"page": 1056, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1041\n\nILLINOIS- Continued.\n\n1892.\n\nMRS . MARY E. GETTEMY .\n\n1893.\n\nΟ . T. BRIGHT .\n\n1895. Assistant High School, 224 N.\n\nAcademy St. , Galesburg.\n\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, 320 Courthouse, Chicago.\n\nARCHIBALD O. CODDINGTON, M. L. , '83, Univ. of Ill.\nPrincipal Knickerbocker School, Belden and Clifton Aves. , Chicago.\nMRS. J. N. CROUSE.\n1800. Dircetor Kindergarten College, 10 Van Buren St., Chicago.\nLINCOLN P. GOODHUE.\n\nPrincipal Wentworth School, 7029 Yale Ave. , Chicago .\nFRED R. NICHOLS.\n\n1891. Instr. in Physics, Eng. High and Man. Train. Sch. , 165 W. Monroe St., Chicago.\nMRS. ALICE H. PUTNAM.\n1881. Superintendent Froebel Association, 4815 Kenwood Ave. , Chicago.\n\nREBECCA S. RICE, A. B. , '60, A. M., '62, Antioch Coll.. Ohio.\n1876.\n\nPrincipal Girls' Collegiate School, 481 Dearborn Ave. , Chicago.\n\nLUCY S. SILKE.\n\n1890. Assistant Special Teacher in Drawing, Public Schools, 3307 Rhodes Ave. , Chicago.\nALICE E. SOLLETT.\n1890. Principal Kenwood School, 4020 Prairie Ave. , Chicago .\n\nCHARLES H. THURBER, Ph. B. , '86, Cornell; A. M., '90, Haverford Coll.\n1895. Dean Morgan Park Academy, Morgan Park.\n\nVOLNEY UNDERHILL, Ph . B. , '71 , LL.B. , '75, Univ. of Wis.\n1875. Principal Carpenter School, 296 S. Paulina St. , Chicago.\n1894.\n\nH. M. SLAUSON, Ph. B., '77, Univ. of Mich .\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 525 21st St. , Moline.\n\nCHARLES C. VAN LIEW Ph. D., '93, Jena.\nDept. of Reading and Asst. in Pedagogy, Illinois State Normal School, Normal .\n\n1895.\n\nA. W. BEASLEY, A. B., '74, Dartmouth Coll .\n1888. Principal High School, 519 Hamilton St. , Peoria.\n\nJULIA E. BULKLEY, Ph. D., Zurich.\n1892. Associate Professor of Pedagogy, University of Chicago, Chicago.\nJAMES C. BURNS .\n1888. Superintendent of Schools, 1064 Boston Ave. , Monmouth .\n\nF. L. CALKINS, Grad. Northern Ind. Nor. Sch .\n1894.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Delavan.\n\nROSE CASSIDY.\n1890. Principal Marsh School, 510 S. 1st St. , Rockford.\nJ. H. COLLINS .\nSuperintendent of Schools, 715 S. 7th St. , Springfield.\n\nHENRY C. Cox, A. M., '73, Abingdon Coll.\nPrincipal Froebel Grammar School, 451 Irving Ave. , Chicago.\nEDWARD C. DELANO.\n\n1877. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 59 Aberdeen St. , Chicago.\nELLA FITZGERALD .\nTeacher in Sixth Grade, Hall School, 421 N. 2d St., Rockford.\nE. A. GASTMAN .\n\n1862. Superintendent of Schools, 464 W. North St. , Decatur.\n66\n\n"}
{"page": 1057, "printed_page": null, "text": "1042\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\nILLINOIS- Continued.\n\n1895. Wм. M. GIFFIN, A. M., '82, Lawrence Univ., Wis.; Pd. D., '94, State Nor.\nColl. , N. Y.\n1889. Vice Principal Cook County Normal School, 7710 Emerald Ave. , Chicago.\nJOHN H. GROSSMAN .\n1886. County Superintendent of Schools, Lanark.\n\nR. A. HAIGHT, A. B., '75, A. M., '78, Shurtleff Coll. , Ill.\n1881. Superintendent of Schools , 1129 Warren St. , Alton.\nELEANOR HAMPTON.\n1894. Teacher in Mathematics, Eighth Grade, 300 N. Central Ave. , Austin.\n\nWILLIAM R. HARPER, A. B.. '70, Muskingum Coll.; Ph. D., '75, Yale.\n1890. President of University of Chicago, 59th St. and Ellis Ave. , Chicago.\nELIZABETH HARRISON.\nPrincipal of Kindergarten College, 10 Van Buren St. , Chicago.\n\nSAMUEL A. HARRISON, A. B. , ' S2 , A. M. , ' SS , Univ. of Ill.\n1892. Principal Burroughs School , 3101 South Park Ave. , Chicago.\nMARY S. L. HARTIGAN.\nPrincipal of Hoerner School, 459 N. W. 51st St. , Linden Park, Chicago.\n\nMARY HARTMANN, A. M. , '88, Lombard Univ.\n1882. Instructor in Mathematics, Illinois State Normal School, 109 Normal Ave., Normal.\nW. H. HATCH.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, Oak Park.\nP. C. HAYDEN.\nTeacher of Music, Public Schools, 400 S. 18th St. , Quincy .\nAMALIE HOFER.\nEditor \"Kindergarten Magazine.\" Chicago.\n\nJ. A. HORNBERGER, A. B. , '84, A. M., '87, Bucknell Univ., Pa.; Ph. D., '89,\nBellevue Coll .\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 425 S. 7th St. , Pekin.\n\nWILBUR S. JACKMAN, A. B., '84, Harvard.\nDept. of Nat. Sci., Cook Co, Nor. School , 6916 Perry Ave. , Station O, Chicago.\nEFFIE J. KILBOURNE .\n\n1994. Head Assistant, Kenwood School, 4123 Lake Ave. , Chicago.\nALICE M. KRACKOWIZER.\n\n1889. Primary Teacher, Public Schools, 6246 Madison Ave. , Chicago.\n\nLESLIE LEWIS, A. B., '66, A. M., '69, Yale.\n1889. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 5605 Madison Ave. , Chicago.\nWM. S. MACK.\n\nWestern Manager Prang Educational Co., 151 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nA. L. MCLAUCHLIN.\n\nAgent for Sheldon & Co., 262 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nMRS . MARY BOOMER PAGE.\nDirector Kindergarten Institute of Chicago, 530 E. 47th St. , Chicago .\nC. M. PARKER .\nEditor of the \"School News,\" Taylorville.\nMRS. FRANK STUART PARKER.\n6640 Honore St., Station O, Chicago.\n\nJONATHAN PIPER, A. B., Iowa State Univ.; A. M., Bowdoin Coll.\nInstitute Instructor, 521 Wabash Ave. , Chicago.\n\nALBERT R. ROBINSON, A. M. , Northwestern Univ.\n1891. Principal Chicago English High and Manual Training School, Hinsdale.\n\n"}
{"page": 1058, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1043\n\nILLINOIS- Continued.\n\n1895.\n\nJAMES P. SLADE, A. M., '72, Shurtleff Coll .\n1890.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 424 Ninth St. , East St. Louis.\n\nW. S. SMYTH, A. M., '66, Wesleyan Univ. , Conn.; Ph. D., '76, Syracuse Univ.\nEducational Publisher (D. C. Heath & Co.), 355 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nLYDIA E. SNYDER.\n1893. Teacher in Public Schools, 2622 Hartzell St. , N. Evanston.\nLILLIE S. STEPHENSON.\n1893. Teacher in Western Springs School, 1028 Dempster St., Evanston.\nJOHN H. TEAR.\n1889. Principal Washington School, 846 Walnut St. , Chicago.\nE. O. VAILE.\nEditor of the \" Intelligence,\" Oak Park.\nNATHAN T. VEATCH.\n1887. Superintendent of Schools, Rushville.\nADELAIDE C. WALDO .\n1894. Principal Blake School, 1204 Third Ave. , Rockford.\nJENNIE E. WALDO .\n1883. Teacher in High School, 1204 Third Ave. , Rockford.\nJ. W. WARR.\nEditor of \"Business Education,\" 1723 6th Ave. , Moline.\nANNA B. WEBBER.\n1895. Teacher in Public School, 305 W. Elm St. , Urbana.\nR. MABEL WHITE.\n1891. Head Assistant, Bismarck School, 1051 N. Central Park Ave. , Chicago.\nHARRY G. WILSON.\n1879. American Book Co., 521 Wabash Ave. , Chicago.\nHARRIET N. WINCHELL .\nPrincipal of Tilden School, E. Circle and Ceylon Ave., Norwood Park, Chicago.\n\nS. R. WINCHELL, A. B. , '70, A. M., '73, Univ. of Mich.\n1894. Principal of Winchell Academy, 1202 Chicago Ave., Evanston.\n\nINDIANA.\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1876.\n\nWм . A. BELL, A. M. , '63 , Antioch Coll .\n1871. Editor of \" Indiana School Journal, \" Indianapolis.\n\nMOSES C. STEVENS, A. M., '83 , Earlham Coll.\n1883. Professor of Mathematics, Purdue University, 11 Waldron St. , W. Lafayette.\n\n1877.\n\nJAMES HENRY SMART, A. M., '72, Dartmouth;\n\nLL.D. , '83, Ind. Univ.\n\n1883. President of Purdue University, 191 Columbia St. , Lafayette.\n\n1880.\n\nJOHN S. IRWIN, A. B., '42, Western Univ. of Pa.; M. D., '47, Univ of Pa.;\nLL. D. , '75, Univ. of Ind.\n1875.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 241 W. Main St., Fort Wayne.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1885.\n\nMARY E. NICHOLSON.\n\n1890.\n\nANNA SUTER .\n\n1891.\n\nW. S. ALMOND.\n\nPrincipal of Normal School, 248 Broadway, Indianapolis .\n\n1889. Principal of High School, 115 4th St., Aurora.\n1893.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Corner Monroe and Willson Sts., Delphi.\n\n"}
{"page": 1059, "printed_page": null, "text": "1044\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nINDIANA- Continued.\n1891.\n\nJESSE H. BROWN.\nSupervisor of Art Instruction, 421 Broadway, Indianapolis.\nMISS N. CROPSEY.\n1894. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 235 College Ave., Indianapolis.\n\n1892. EDWARD AYRES, A. B., '78, A. M. , '85, Amherst Coll.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 115 Ferry St. , Lafayette.\n\n1893.\n\nWM. L. BRYAN, Ph. D., '92, Clark Univ.\n1887. Professor of Philosophy; 1893. Vice President, Indiana University, Bloomington.\nALBERT E. HUMKE.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Vincennes.\n\nJOSEPH SWAIN, B. L., M. Sc., Ind. Univ.; LL.D., Wabash Coll.\n1893. President of Indiana University, Bloomington.\n\nH. G. WOODY, B. Sc., National Normal Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools , 213 W. Mulberry St. , Kokomo.\n\n1894.\n\nGEO. W. BENTON, Α. Β., '84, A. M., '87, Wabash Coll .\n1888.\n\nInstructor in Chemistry, High School, 27 E. St. Joseph St., Indianapolis.\n\nGEO. W. HUFFORD, A. M., '67, Antioch Coll.\n1892. Principal of High School, 223 Park Ave., Indianapolis .\n\nMRS. SUSAN G. PATTERSON, A. M., '79, Univ. of Wooster, Ohio.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Union City.\n\n1895. GEORGE STOCKTON BURROUGHS, A. B., '73, A. M., '76, Ph. D., '84, D. D.,\n'87, Princeton; LL.D., '95, Marietta Coll .\n1892. President of Wabash College, 506 S. Washington St., Crawfordsville.\nORA E. Cox.\n\nTeacher of Grammar in Eighth Grade, 806 North St., Legansport.\nW. B. FLICK.\n\n1885. County Superintendent of Schools , Room 79, Courthouse, Indianapolis.\n\nDAVID K. Goss, A. B., '87, Indiana Univ.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 153 N. East St., Indianapolis.\n\nCYRUS W. HODGIN, A. M., '88, Earlham Coll.\n1887. Prof. of History and Political Science, Earlham Coll., 30 Central Ave., Richmond .\nNETTIE HOSMER.\nPrincipal Central Building, 210 Harrison St. , La Porte.\n\nW. R. SNYDER, A. B. , Pennsylvania Coll .\n1887. Superintendent of Schools, 319 W. Adams St. , Muncie.\nWABASH COLLEGE.\nCrawfordsville.\n\nJ. B. WISELY, A. B. , '90 , A. M. , '91, Indiana Univ.\n1894. Prof. of Grammar and Composition, Indiana State Normal School, Terre Haute.\n\nIOWA .\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1880. J. C. GILCHRIST, А. М., '67, Allegheny Coll., Pa.\nLaurens.\n\n1884.\n\nHENRY J. TAYLOR, A. B., '78, LL.B., '80, A. M., '84, Univ. of Wis.\n165 Douglas St. , Sioux City.\n\nW. A. WILLIS, A. M., '65.\nPrincipal of Academy, 308 Church St. , Iowa City.\n\n"}
{"page": 1060, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1045\n\nIOWA- Continued.\n\n1886. JOSIAH LITTLE PICKARD, A. B., '44, A. M., '47, Bowdoin Coll.; LL.D.,\n'70, Chicago Univ.\n419 N. Clinton St., Iowa City.\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1884.\n\nН. Н. FREER, B. Sc.,'69, M. Sc. , '78, A. B., '80, A. M .,' 83, Cornell Coll., Iowa.\n1872. Prof. of Science and Art of Teaching and Polit. Econ., Cornell Coll ., Mt. Vernon.\n\nWM. F. KING, A. B. , '60, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.; D. D., '70, Ill. Wesleyan\nUniv.; LL. D., '87, State Univ. of Iowa, Ohio Wesleyan Univ .\n1863. President of Cornell College, Mt. Vernon.\n\nC. P. ROGERS, A. M., '73, State Univ. of Iowa.\n1874.\n\n1889.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 109 N. 2d St. , Marshalltown.\n\nHENRY SABIN, LL.D., '93, Drake Univ.; '94, Cornell Coll.; '95, State Univ.\nof Iowa.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol, Des Moines.\n\nHOMER H. SEERLEY, Ph. B., '73, B. D. , '75, A. M., '76, State Univ. of Iowa.\n1886.\n\n1890.\n\nPresident State Normal School, 2403 Normal St., Cedar Falls.\n\nН. Е. KRATZ, A. M., '77, Ph. D., '90, Univ. of Wooster, Ohio.\n1891.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 805 Douglas St., Sioux City .\n\n1891.\n\nΟ . P. BOSTWICK, А. В., '78, Lombard Univ., Ill.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, 313 8th Ave., Clinton.\n\n1892.\n\nJ. M. MEHAN.\n1884. President Capital City Commercial College, Y. M. C. A. Building, Des Moines.\n\n1893.\n\nMARY A. GRANDY.\n1889. Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, 1000 Pierce St. , Sioux City .\n\nIDA K. GREENLEE, A. Β. , '84.\n1000 Pierce St. , Sioux City.\n\n1894.\n\nW. M. BEARDSHEAR, A. B. , A. M. , LL. D.\n1871. President of lowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, Ames .\n\nALBERT F. BURTON, B. Sc., '95, M. Di., '92, Iowa State Nor. Sch.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, Villisca.\n\nALONZO COLLIN, A. M., '62, Wesleyan Univ.; D. Sc., '88, Upper Iowa Univ.\n1860. Professor in Cornell College , Mt. Vernon .\nFRANK B. COOPER .\n\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 753 17th St., Des Moines.\n\nJ. J. DOFFLEMYER, M. Sc., Iowa Wesleyan Univ.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Marion.\nH. B. PIERCE.\nMember of Library Board, Rock Rapids.\n\nMRS. IDA L. PIERCE.\nRock Rapids.\n\nIDA LEONORA SCHELL, Ph. B., Cornell Coll, Iowa.\n1895. Supt. of Train. School, Gram. Dept., State Nor. Sch., 2504 Normal St., Cedar Fal's .\nA. V. STORM.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Storm Lake.\n\nFLORENCE L. STRASSER, B. D., '91, Iowa State Normal School.\n1893. Teacher in Primary Grade, 3d St. , Bellevue.\n\n1895.\n\nM. E. CROSIER.\n1892.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Walnut.\n\nJOHN H. GARBER.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Pella.\n\n"}
{"page": 1061, "printed_page": null, "text": "1046\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nIOWA- Continued.\n1895.\n\nO. J. LAYLANDER.\n1888. Superintendent of Schools, 910 Main St. , Cedar Falls.\nELIZABETH K. MATTHEWS .\n1893. Prin. Private Train. School for Teachers, 2801 Cottage Grove Ave., Des Moines.\n\nJ. J. MCCONNELL, A. M. , '80, State Univ. of Iowa.\n1891. Professor of Pedagogy, State University of Iowa, 331 Summit St. , Iowa City.\nJ. J. NAGEL.\n1870. Principal Grammar School No. 4, 906 W. Locust St. , Davenport .\n\nGEORGE T. W. PATRICK, Ph. D., '88, Johns Hopkins Univ.\n1888.\n\nProfessor of Philosophy, State University of Iowa, Iowa City.\n\nJOHN F. RIGGS, M. Sc., '88, Iowa Wesleyan Univ.\n1891.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools , Mount Pleasant.\n\nMARY ROURKE, B. D.\n1886.\n\nPrincipal of Schools, Farley.\n\nEDA N. SEIFERT .\n1893. Principal of Douglas School, 216 W. 4th St. , Ottumwa .\nLAURA SIMCOKE .\nTeacher in Primary Grade, Public School, Redfield.\nFANNIE SUPLEE.\n1894. Principal of Grant School, 1045 9th St. , Des Moines.\nELIZABETH A. TOWER.\n1885. Teacher in Primary Grade, Public Schools, Iowa Falls.\n\nA. B. WARNER, A. M., '79, State Nor. Sch., Kirksville, Mo.\n1885.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1201 6th St. , Harlan.\n\nKANSAS .\nLIFE DIRECTORS .\n\n1886.\n\nGEO. T. FAIRCHILD, LL. D. , '93, Oberlin .\n1879. President State Agricultural College, Manhattan.\n\nA. V. JEWETT, A. B., '57, Middlebury Coll., Vt.\nAbilene.\n\nA. R. TAYLOR, Ph. D., '84, Lincoln Univ. , Ill .\n1882. President State Normal School , Emporia.\n\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1886.\n\nBOARD OF EDUCATION .\nAbilene.\nBOARD OF EDUCATION.\nDodge City.\nBOARD OF EDUCATION .\nOttawa.\n\nBOARD OF EDUCATION .\nSedgwick.\nA. G. CAMPBELL ,\nCouncil Grove.\n\nE. T. FAIRCHILD .\n\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Ellsworth.\n\nWALTER M. JAY, A. M. , '90, Knox Coll. , Ill.\n1890. Head Master St. John's School, Salina.\n\n"}
{"page": 1062, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1886.\n\n1047\n\nKANSAS-Continued.\nJ. E. KLOCK.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Leavenworth .\n\nHENRY G. LARIMER, LL. B., Univ. of Mich.\n535 Kansas Ave. , Topeka.\nA. H. LIMERICK.\nTeacher in Public Schools, 902 E. 9th St. , Winfield.\nJOHN MACDONALD.\nEditor \"Western School Journal , \" Topeka.\n\nPETER MCVICAR, A. B., '56, A. M. , D.D. , '71, Beloit Coll., Wis .\nPresident of Washburn College, Topeka.\nGEO . E. ROSE.\n1893. Principal of High School, Kansas City.\n\nTHOS. A. SAWHILL, A. B., '74, Amherst Coll .\nEditor of \"Concordia Empire,\" Concordia.\n\nAARON SCHUYLER, A. M., Ohio Wesleyan Univ.; LL.D. , Otterbein.\nProf. of Phil. & Higher Math. , Kan. Wesleyan Univ. , 1316 S. Santa Fe St. , Salina .\n\nEDMUND STANLEY, A. M. , '91, Penn Coll., Iowa.\n1894. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Topeka .\n\nTEACHERS' ASSOCIATION OF COWLEY CO .\nWinfield.\n\nTEACHERS' ASSOCIATION OF RILEY CO .\nManhattan.\n\nD. C. TILLOTSON .\n621 Fillmore St. , Topeka.\n\nWILLIAMS, A. M., '57, Madison Univ.; D.D., ' 76, Univ . of Kan.\nPHILO JESSIE\nBaldwin.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1886.\n\nJ. N. WILKINSON.\n1884. Director of Training, State Normal School, 832 Merchants St. , Emporia.\n\n1889.\n\nEMORY M. WOOD, A. M., '82, Ph. D., '93, Allegheny Coll.\n\n1890.\n\nWм. M. DAVIDSON.\n\n1887.\n\n1892.\n\nProfessor of Mathematics, Baker University, Baldwin.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Topeka.\n\nARVIN S. OLIN, A. B. , '92, Ottawa Univ.: A. M.. '94. Univ. of Kan .\n1894. Associate Professor of Pedagogy, Univ. of Kansas, 1133 Tenn. St. , Lawrence.\nWILLIAM C. STEVENSON .\n1889. Dept. of Book-keeping and Penman.. State Nor. Sch ., 1017 Mechanics St. , Emporia.\n\n1891. FRANK R. DYER, A. M., '92, Ohio Wesleyan Univ .\n1895.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 514 Topeka Ave. , Wichita.\n\n1892.\n\nFLORENCE MCNEAL.\n\n1894.\n\nDELLA CLARKE.\nMusic Teacher, Emporia.\n\n1894. Principal of Public Schools, Kensington.\n\nO. P. M. MCCLINTOCK.\n\n1892. Principal Jackson School, 1112 Van Buren St. , Topeka.\nW. D. Ross, A. B. , A. M. , '93 , Univ. of Kan.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Hartford.\n\n1895.\n\nS. W. BLACK, B. Sc. , '81 , McKendree Coll. , III.\n1886. Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburg.\n\n"}
{"page": 1063, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n1048\n\nKANSAS- Continued.\n\n1895.\n\nSOPHIA H. Bово.\nTeacher Intermediate Grade in Public Schools, Garnett.\nJESSIE L. CLARK.\n1892. Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, 1203 N. Market St. , Wichita.\nETTA CROSS .\n1892. County Superintendent of Schools , Osborne City .\n\nJOHN GROENDYKE, B. Sc., '93, National Univ., Lebanon, Ohio.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, Russe 11.\nW. C. LANSDON.\n\nTeacher of Intermediate Grade. Public Schools, Garnett.\nLEIDA H. MILLS .\n1895. Assistant in High School, 1203 N. Market St. , Wichita.\n\nMISS C. S. NEWELL.\n1890. Teacher in Thir! Grade, Public Schools, $17 W. 14th St. , Topeka,\nJ. D. ORR.\n1890. Principal of Main Street School, Fort Scott.\n\nJULIA R. PEARCE, B. Sc. , '90, Kan. Agri. Coll.\n1894. Librarian State Agricultural College, Manhattan.\nD. E. SANDERS.\nPresident State Normal College, Fort Scott.\nMARY E. TABER.\n\n1895. Teacher in Public Schools, Medicine Lodge.\nMRS . A. R. TAYLOR.\n\n1127 Congress St. , Empori .\nJ. W. THOMPSON.\nWaterville.\n\nN. B. THOMPSON.\nWaterville.\n\nKENTUCKY.\nLIFE DIRECTOR.\n\n1877. T. MARCELLUS MARSHALL.\nHyden, Leslie County.\nLIFE MEMBERS ,\n\n1877.\n\nW. H. BARTHOLOMEW.\n1881. Principal of Girls' High School, 426 Gray St. , Louisville.\nMRS. LAURA L. MONSARRAT .\nPrincipal of Seventh Ward School, 519 20 St., Louisville.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1891.\n\nCHARLES H. DIETRICH, B. Sc., '78, Ohio State Univ.\nAgent American Book Co., Hopkinsville.\n\nMCHENRY RHOADS, A. M. , West Ky. Coll.; Ph. M., Hartford Coll.\n1891.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 317 Third St. , Frankfort .\n\n1892. J. D. COLEMAN, Ph. B., '91, Hartford Coll. , Ky.\n1892.\n\nPrincipal of High School, 132 Steele St. , Frankfort.\n\nMARY F. DODSON, Grad., '75, Paducah High School.\n1880. Assistant Principal High School, 327 N. 4th St. , Paducah.\nJAS. E. DORLAND .\n1873. Agent American Book Co., 1807 1st St. , Louisville.\n\n"}
{"page": 1064, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1049\n\nKENTUCKY- Continued.\n\n1892.\n\nGEO . O. MCBROOM, A. B., '85, Drake Univ ., Iowa .\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 1035 Trimble St., Paducah.\n\n1893. H. R. BLAISDELL, Ph. D., '76.\nPrincipal of High School, 910 Scott St. , Covington.\nE. H. MARK.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Center and Walnut Sts., Louisville.\nJAMES MCGINNISS.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 522 Frederica St. , Owensboro.\n\n1894. ARTHUR C. FLESHMAN, B. Sc., '84, M. Sc., '92, Nat. Nor. Univ. , Ohio .\n1889.\n\n1895.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Winchester.\n\nLIVINGSTONE MCCARTNEY.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Hopkinsville.\n\nLOUISIANA.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1889.\n\nMISS MARION BROWN.\n1895. Principal of New Orleans Normal School, 1538 4th St. , New Orleans .\n\nGEO. J. RAMSEY, A. M. , Hampden Sidney Coll ., Va.\n1885. President Silliman Collegiate Institute, Clinton.\n1890.\n\nANDREW A. GUNBY.\n\n1892.\n\nGEO . SOULÉ.\n\n1894.\n\nMISS H. A. SUTER.\n\n1895.\n\nWARREN EASTON.\nSuperintendent of Schools, New Orleans.\n\nMonroe.\n\nPresident of Soulé Commercial College, 603 St. Charles St., New Orleans .\n\n1878. Vice Principal of McDonough High Sch. , No. 2, 1426 St. Andrew St., New Orleans.\n\nMISS F. C. HEDGES .\n\n1890. Teacher in Grammar Grade, 1725 4th St. , New Orleans.\n\nMAINE .\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1890. M. C. FERNALD, A. B. , '61, А. М., '64, Ph. D., '81, Bowdoin Coll.\nEx-President of Maine State College, Dover.\n\n1892.\n\nW. J. CORTHELL, A. B., '57, A. M. , '61, LL. D., '91, Colby Univ.\n1878. Principal of Western Normal School, Gorham.\n\n1893.\n\nL. A. GRAY, A. M., '61, Oberlin Coll.\n1864. Principal of Business College, 22 Carleton St. , Portland.\n\n1895.\n\nJOHN S. LOCKE.\n1892.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools; President York Institute, Saco.\n\nMARYLAND .\nLIFE\n\n1876.\n\nMEMBER.\n\nSARAH E. RICHMOND .\n1875. Vice Principal State Normal School, 1402 Pennsylvania Ave., Baltimore.\n\n"}
{"page": 1065, "printed_page": null, "text": "1050\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nMARYLAND- Continued.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1885.\n\nHENRY A. WISE, Grad. of Va. Military Institute.\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, 421 Courtland St. , Baltimore.\n\n1891.\n\nJOHN E. MCCAHAN, A. M., '69, Dickinson Coll., Pa.\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 1719 Hollens St. , Baltimore.\n\n1892. Е. В. PRETTYMAN, A. B., '48 ; A. M., '52, Dickinson Coll., Pa.\nPrin. State Nor Sch.and ex-officio State Supt.Pub.Instr. , 1200 Lafayette Ave. , Baltimore .\n\n1893.\n\nJOHN D. WORTHINGTON.\nBelair.\n\n1895.\n\nW. H. SHELLEY, A. M. , Iowa Wesleyan Univ.\n1890. Principal of Girls' Latin School, St. Paul and 24th St. , Baltimore.\n\nMASSACHUSETTS .\nLIFE DIRECTOR.\n\n1887.\n\nMRS. MARY II. HUNT .\nNational Superintendent of Scientific Temperance Instruction, 23 Trull St. , Boston .\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1864. DANIEL BARNARD HAGAR, A. M., '46, Ph. D., '71, Union Coll., N. Y.\n1865. Principal of State Normal School, 12 Summer St. , Salem.\n\n1865.\n\nWILLIAM EVARTS SHELDON, A. M. , '69, Middlebury Coll., Vt.\n1877. Editor of American Teacher, and Bus. Dept. , Journal of Edu., 3 Somerset St. , Boston.\n\n1870.\n\nDANIEL W. JONES .\n1859. Master Lowell Grammar School, Boston, 4 Hawthorn St. , Roxbury.\n\n1880.\n\nA. P. MARBLE, A. M., '63, Ph. D., '83, Colby Univ., Me.\n55 Pearl St., Worcester.\n\n1884. JOHN BASCOM, LL.D., '73, Amherst Coll.; D. D. , '75, Iowa Coll.\n1891. Professor of Political Science, Williams College, Williamstown.\n\n1886.\n\nWILLIAM A. MOWRY, A. M. , Brown Univ.; Ph. D., Bates Coll.\nLecturer and Writer, 17 Riverside Square, Hyde Park.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1884.\n\nFRANK A. FITZPATRICK.\n55 Franklin St., Boston.\n\n1890.\n\nALBERT G. BOYDEN, A. M., '61, Amherst Coll.\n1860. Principal State Normal School, Bridgewater.\nMRS. MARY DANA HICKS .\n1887. Director Prang Normal Art Classes, 646 Washington St., Boston.\nH. E. HOLT.\n1869. Supervisor of Music, Boston Public Schools, Box 109, Lexington.\nARTHUR P. SMITH.\nPrincipal South Grammar School, 11 High St. , Waltham.\n\n1891.\n\nHENRY W. BLAKE, A. B. , '71 , A. M., '74, Williams Coll .\nEditor of Kindergarten News, care of Milton Bradley Co., Springfield.\nG. STANLEY HALL.\nPresident of Clark University, 94 Woodland St. , Worcester.\n\nD. C. HEATH, A. B., '68, A. M., '71, Amherst Coll.\n1876.\n\nEducational Publisher, 110 Boylston St. , Boston.\n\nAMY MORRIS HOMANS .\n\nDirector Normal School of Gymnastics, 9 Appleton St. , Boston.\n\n"}
{"page": 1066, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS\n\n1051\n\nMASSACHUSETTS-Continued.\n\n1891. RAY GREENE HULING, A. B., '69, A. M., '72, D. Sc., '94, Brown Univ .\nHead Master of English High School, 101 Trowbridge St. , Cambridge.\n\nA. EUGENE NOLEN, A. B., '67, A. M., '70, Yale.\n1881. Teacher of Greek and Latin, High School, 3 Wood Place, Fitchburg.\n\nALVIN F. PEASE, A. B., '75, A. M. , '78, Brown Univ.\n1888. Superintendent of Schools, 77 Round Hill, Northampton.\nELIZABETH H. PERRY.\n1891. Teacher of Drawing,\n\nNormal School, Bridgewater.\n\nJOHN T. PRINCE, A. M., Ph. D., '89, Leipzig.\nAgent Massachusetts Board of Education, West Newton.\nLUCY WHEELOCK.\nKindergarten Training, \"The Oxford,\" Boston.\n1892.\n\nO. W. BAKER.\nPublisher, 499 Main St. , Springfield.\nMILTON BRADLEY.\nKindergarten Publisher, Springfield.\nJOHN S. CLARK.\nManager of Prang Educational Co., 646 Washington St. , Boston.\n\nVIRGIL G. CURTIS, A. M., Tufts Coll.\n231 Elm St. , Northampton.\n\nCHARLES W. ELIOT, A. B. , '53, Harvard ; LL.D., '69, Princeton, '70, Yale.\n1869. President of Harvard University , Cambridge.\n\nHERMAN T. LUKENS, A. M., '88, Univ. of Pa.; Ph. D., '91, Jena.\n1895. Docent in Psychology, Clark University, Worcester.\nROBERT C. METCALF .\n1882. Supervisor of Schools, Boston, 32 Alaska St. , Roxbury.\nWILLIAM W. TAPLEY.\nAssistant Manager, Educational Department, Milton Bradley Co., Springfield.\n\nHENRY N. WHEELER, A. B., '71, A. M., '75, Harvard\n1882.\n\nSupt. of Educational Department, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. , 4 Park St. , Boston.\n\nARTHUR K. WHITCOмв, А. В. , '73, Dartmouth.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Lowell .\nALBERT E. WINSHIP.\nEditor of \"Journal of Education,\" 3 Somerset St., Boston.\n\n1893.\n\nFRANCIS COGSWELL, A. M., '81, Harvard.\n1874. Superintendent of Schools, 257 Prospect St. , Cambridge.\nFRANK IRVING COOPER.\n53 Devonshire St., Boston.\nGEO . B. KILBON.\nPrincipal Springfield Normal Training School, 41 Orleans St. , Springfield.\n\nGEORGE H. MARTIN, A. M., '81 , Amherst Coll.\n1892.\n\nSupervisor of Schools, Boston, 388 Summer St. , Lynn.\n\nCHARLES C. RAMSEY, A. B., '92, A. M. , '92, Harvard.\nPrincipal of B. M. C. Durfee High School, 424 Prospect St. , Fall River.\n\nEDWIN P. SEAVER, A. M. , LL.B. , Harvard .\n1880. Superintendent of Schools, School Committee Rooms , Boston.\n1894.\n\nFREDERICK ELMER CHAPΜΑΝ.\n1891. Director of Music, Cambridge Public Schools, 126 Oxford St. , North Cambridge.\nEDGAR O. SILVER.\nEducational Publisher, 110-112 Boylston St. , Boston.\n\n"}
{"page": 1067, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n1052\n\nMASSACHUSETTS- Continued.\n1895.\n\nSARAH L. ARNOLD .\n\n1895. Supervisor of Schools, Rooms of School Committee, Mason St., Boston.\nTHOMAS M. BALLIET.\n1887. Superintendent of Schools, 47 Vernon St. , Springfield.\n\nLARKIN DUNTON, LL.D., '80, Colby Univ.\n1872. Head Master of Boston Normal School,16 Ashford St. , Allston, Boston.\n\nS. T. DUTTON, A. B. , Yale.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, Colbourne Crescent, Brookline.\n\nGEORGE R. FOWLER, A. B., Dartmouth Coll.; LL.B., Albany Law School.\n1894. Member of School Board, 220 Devonshire St., Boston.\n\nISAAC FREEMAN HALL.\n1895.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools , Box 793, North Adams.\n\nPAUL H. HANUS, B. Sc.\nAsst. Prof. of His. and Art of Teaching, Harvard Univ., 5 Walker St. , Cambridge.\n\nALBERT BUSHNELL HART, A. B., '80, Harvard; Ph. D., Freiburg, Baden.\n1887. Assistant Professor of History, Harvard University, 15 Appian Way, Cambridge.\nHARVARD UNIVERSITY.\nCambridge.\n\nFRANK A. HILL, A. B., '62, A. M., '65, Lit. D., '94, Bowdoin.\n1894. Secretary State Board of Education, 366 Harvard St., Cambridge.\nALONZO MESERVE.\n1886. Master of Bowdoin School, 87 Linden St. , Allston, Boston.\n\nCHARLES H. MORSS, A. B., '80, A. M., '82, Harvard.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Medford.\n\nJAMES PHINNEY MUNROE, B. Sc., '82, Mass. Inst. of Technology.\nAuthor, 179 Devonshire St. , Boston.\nCHAS. W. PARMENTER, A. B., '77, A. M. , '86, Ph. D., '95, Tufts Coll .\n1894. Head Master of Mechanic Arts High School, Boston, 19 Fayette St. , Cambridgeport.\nBARONESS ROSE POSSE.\n1892. Editor \"Posse Gymnasium Journal,\" 23 Irvington St. , Boston.\n\nJOHN G. THOMPSON, A. B., 186, A. M., '94, Dartmouth Coll.\n1895. Principal of State Normal School, 96 Rollstone St., Fitchburg.\n\nHENRY WHITTEMORE, A. B., '66, Dartmouth Coll.\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, 34 Appleton St. , Waltham.\n\nMICHIGAN .\nLIFE DIRECTORS .\n\n1895. HUGH A. GRAHAM, А. В., '87, A. M., '92, Albion Coll.; A. B., '89, Univ.\nof Mich.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Ontonagon.\n\nCHARLES G. WHITE, A. B., '73, A. M., 80, Ph., D., '90.\n1884.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Lake Linden.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1884. RICHARD G. BOONE, A. M. , De Pauw Univ.; Ph. D., Ohio Univ.\n1893. Principal of State Normal School , 730 Forest Ave. , Ypsilanti.\n\nB. A. HINSDALE, A. M., '71, Williams Coll.; Ph. D., '87, Ohio State Univ.;\nLL.D., '92, Ohio Univ.\n1887. Prol. of Science and Art of Teaching, Univ. of Mich., 74 Washtenaw Ave., Ann Arbor\n\n"}
{"page": 1068, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1053\n\nMICHIGAN- Continued.\n\n1887. Wм. AUSTIN ELLIS, LL.B., '95, Detroit Coll. of Law.\n1885. Principal of Duffield Grammar School, 258 Park St., Detroit.\n\n1890.\n\nFERRIS S. FITCH, A. B., Univ. of Mich.\nEx-State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 49 Williams St., Pontiac.\nLEWIS G. GORTON, M. Sc ., '93.\nPresident of State Agricultural Coll. and School of Mechanic Arts, Agricultural Coll\n\nJOHN A. STEWART, A. B., '75, Univ. of Mich.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 517 Washington Ave. , Bay City .\n\n1891. Μ. Α. WHITNEY, A. B., '90, A. M., '93, Colby Univ.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 502 Cross St. , Ypsilanti.\n1892.\n\nADELLA HUTCHINS.\n\n1888. Teacher in Primary Department, 973 13th St. , Detroit.\nMYRA JONES.\n\n1883. Supervisor of Drawing, 53 Piquette Ave. , Detroit.\n\nJOHN B. NYKIRK, A. B., A. M. , Hope Coll., Mich.\n1895. Professor of English Language and Literature, Hope College, Holland .\n\nHENRY R. PATTENGILL, B. Sc., '74, Univ of Mich.\n1893. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 420 Townsend St. , Lansing.\n\nW. S. PERRY, A. B., '61, A. M., '71, Univ. of Mich.; M. Ped., '90, Mich.\nState Nor. Sch.\n\n1870. Superintendent of Schools, 61 Washington St., Ann Arbor.\n\nEDWIN A. STRONG, A. B., '57, A. M., '61, Union Coll.\nProfessor of Physical Sciences, State Normal School , 127 Normal St. , Ypsilanti.\n\nA. W. TRESSLER, A. B., '91, Univ. of Mich.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Monroe.\n1893.\n\nNETTIE D. KIMBERLIN.\n1890. Supervisor of Physical Training, Public Schools, 78 W. Elizabeth St., Detroit.\n\nMRS. C. G. WHITE, Ph . B.\n1886. Principal of High School, Lake Linden.\n\n1894. GEORGIA BARKER, Grad., '87, State Normal School, Mich.\nPrincipal of Jefferson St. School, 68 Lagrave St., Grand Rapids .\nFLORA A. KEELER.\n\n1888. Principal of Grant St. School, 59 Grant St. , Mt. Clemens .\n\nDURAND W. SPRINGER, B. Sc., '86, Albion Coll .\n1503.\n\nDirector Business Department, High School, 48 E. University Ave., Ann Arbor.\n\n1895. FREDERICK W. ARBURY, A. B. , '83, Univ. of Mich.\n68 Marshall St. , Battle Creek.\n\nFREDERICK L. BLISS, A. B. , '77, Univ. of Mich.\n1887. Principal High School, 46 Alexandrine Ave. E. , Detroit.\n\nEGBERT L. BRIGGS, Ph. B., '95, McKendree Coll. , Ill .\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Coldwater.\n\nWILLIAM WALLACE CHALMERS, A. B., '87, Univ. of Mich.; A. M., '89,\nEureka Coll.; B. Ped., '91, Mich. State Normal .\n1890. Superintendent of School, 422 Lyon St. , Grand Rapids.\nIRA L. FORBES .\n\n1887. Superintendent of Schools, 18 S. Main St. , Vassar.\n\nH. H. FROST, A. B. , '85, Univ. of Mich.\n1894.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 407 Litchfield St. , West Bay City.\n\nAUSTIN GEORGE, A. B. , '66, A. M., '69, Kalamazoo Coll.; M. Ped., '93, Mich.\nState Normal School .\n\n1879. Director Training Department, State Normal School, 111 Normal St., Ypsilanti .\n\n"}
{"page": 1069, "printed_page": null, "text": "1054\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nMICHIGAN - Continued.\n1895.\n\nADA VAN STONE HARRIS.\n1895. Assistant Director Training Department, State Normal School , 502 Cross St. , Ypsilanti .\nLUCY SALOME NORTON .\n1891. Teacher of Psychology, Normal School, 41 N. Union St., Grand Rapids.\nS. EMORY WHITNEY.\n1885. Principal of Cass School , 23 E. Adams Ave., Detroit.\n\nMINNESOTA.\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1864. CALVIN SMITH PENNELL, A. M. , '50, Colby Univ.\n2245 Knapp St., St. Anthony Park .\n\n1870.\n\nWILLIAM F. PHELPS, A. M., '52, Union Coll., N. Y.\n105 Germania Life Bldg., St. Paul.\n\n1890.\n\nBOARD OF EDUCATION, Independent School District No. 3.\nNorthfield.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1880. D. L. KIEHLE, A. B., '61, A. M., '64, LL.D., '87, Hamilton Coll., N. Y.\n1893. Professor of Pedagogy, Univ. of Minn. , 2800 Portland Ave. , Minneapolis.\n\n1883.\n\nIRWIN SHEPARD, A. B., '71, A. M., '74, Ph. D., '93, Olivet Coll., Mich.\n\n1886.\n\nFREDERICK E. STRATTON, A. B., '71, A. M., '74, Williams Coll.; Ph. D. ,\n\n1879. President of State Normal School, 118 W. Wabasha St. , Winona .\n\n'91, Ill . Wesleyan Univ.\n1892. Principal of Academy, Carleton College, Northfield.\n\n1887.\n\nLOUIS H. GALBREATH, B. L. , '90, Cornell Univ.\n\n1890.\n\nROBERT EDUARD DENFELD, A. B. , '76, A. M., '77, Amherst Coll.\n\n1893.\n\nС. B. GILBERT.\n\n1892.\n\nInstructor in Methods and Supt. of Practice, State Nor. Sch., 203 W. 5th St. , Winona .\n\n1885. Superintendent of Schools, Central High School, Duluth.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 586 Lincoln Ave., St. Paul.\nLYDIA HOOPER.\n1895. Teacher in Public Schools, 320 27th Ave. W. , Duluth.\n\nCHAS. M. JORDAN, Ph. D., '92, Tufts Coll .\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 615 E. 18th St., Minneapolis.\n\nA. W. RANKIN, A. B., '80, Univ. of Minn.\n1895. State Inspector of Graded Schools, 1529 University Ave. , Minneapolis.\n\n1894.\n\nGEORGE B. AITON, A. B. , '81, A. M. , '87, Univ. of Minn.\n1893.\n\nState Inspector of High Schools, 1601 University Ave. S. E. , Minneapolis.\n\nSARAH C. BROOKS.\nSupervisor of Kindergartens and Primary Work, 631 Westminster St. , St. Paul.\nC. H. CONGDON .\n\n1886. Supervisor of Music, 643 St. Anthony Ave. , St. Paul .\nBUEL T. DAVIS.\n\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 77 E. Wabasha St. , Winona.\nS. A. FARNSWORTH.\nPrincipal of Cleveland High School, 529 Case St. , St. Paul.\n\nLIVINGSTON C. LORD.\n1888. President of State Normal School, Moorhead.\nLUCIA M. MILLER.\nPrincipal of Webster School, 631 Westminster St. , St. Paul.\n\n"}
{"page": 1070, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1055\n\nMINNESOTA- Continued .\n1894.\n\nW. W. PENDERGAST, A. M. , '93, Bowdoin Coll., Me.\n1893. Superintendent of Public Instruction, 6 Market St. , Hutchinson.\n\n1895. F. J. BOMBERGER, B. Sc.\n1894.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Chatfield.\n\nA. E. ENGSTROM, A. B. , '78, A. M., '81, Carleton Coll.\n1881.\n\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Cannon Falls .\n\nC. W. G. HYDE.\nAssistant State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol , St. Paul .\nGEO . R. KLEEBERGER.\n1895. President of State Normal School, St. Cloud.\n\nN. L. T. NELSON, B. Sc., '91, Carleton Coll.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Benson.\nS. S. PARR.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, 520 2d Ave. , S. , St. Cloud.\nEDWARD SEARING.\n1880. President State Normal School , Mankato.\n\nHIRAM W. SLACK, Ph. B.\n1884. Principal Edmund Rice School, 735 Olive St., St. Paul.\n\nWALTER WYMAN SMITH, A. B., '93, Dartmouth Coll.\n1894.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Slayton.\n\nJAS. W. STRONG, A. B. , '58, A. M. , '61, D. D., '72, Beloit Coll.\n1870. President of Carleton College, 108 College Ave., Northfield.\n\nMISSISSIPPI .\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1890.\n\nJ. R. PRESTON.\n1885. State Superintendent of Education, Jackson.\n\n1892. DABNEY LIPSCOмв, А. М., '81, Univ. of Miss.\n1895. Professor of English and of Belles-lettres, University of Mississippi, University.\n\n1893.\n\nJAMES UNDERWOOD BARNARD, A. M., State Normal School, Kirkville, Mo.\n1893. Professor of Pedagogy, University of Mississippi , University .\n\n1894. ROBERT B. FULTON, A. B., '69, A. M., '74, Univ. of Miss .; LL.D., '95,\nUniv. of Nashville.\n1875. Professor of Phys. and Astronomy; 1892.\n\n1895.\n\nChanc ., Univ. of Misissippi, University.\n\nE. E. BASS, B. L. , '83, Mo. State Univ.\n1884.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 16 Shelby St., Greenville.\n\nW. H. MAGRUDER, A. M. , Centenary Coll. of La.\n1883.\n\nProfessor of English, State Agricultural College, Agricultural College.\n\nMISSOURI.\n\nLIFE DIRECTOR .\n\n1886.\n\nJ. M. GREENWOOD, A. M., '73, Univ. of Missouri.\n1874. Superintendent of Schools, Sth and Oak Sts., Kansas City .\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1877.\n\nF. LOUIS SOLDAN, LL.D., '83 , South Carolina University .\n1895. Acting Superintendent of Schools, 3634 Flad Ave. , St. Louis .\n\n"}
{"page": 1071, "printed_page": null, "text": "1056\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n\nMISSOURI- Continued .\n\n1886. CHARLES H. EVANS, A. M., '78, William Jewell Coll.\nEditor of American College and Public School Directory, Evans Bldg. , St. Louis .\nG. I. HARVEY.\n1895. Principal Switzer School , 1840 Jefferson St. , Kansas City.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1887. CALVIN MILTON WOODWARD, A. B., '60, Harvard Univ.; Ph. D., '84,\nWashington Univ.\nProfessor of Math.; Dean School of Engineering; Director Manual Training School,\nWashington University, 3013 Hawthorne Ave., St. Louis.\n\n1889. Т. Е. MCNEELY, B. A. D., '78, M. S. D., '82, State Nor. Sch., Cape Girardeau; A. B., '88 , A. M, '91, Univ. of Missouri.\n1895.\n\nProfessor of Greek and Latin, Jackson Training School, Jackson.\n\nGEO. L. OSBORNE, A. M., Waynesburg Coll., Pa.;\n\nLL.D., Georgetown\n\nColl. , Ky .\n1875. President of State Normal School , 136 E. Market St. , Warrensburg.\n\n1890.\n\nЈоHN T. BUCHANAN.\n1887. Principal of Central High School, 1520 Charlotte St., Kansas City .\nMRS . MATILDA EVANS RILEY.\n1887. Director of Drawing, Public Schools, 9th and Locust Sts. , St. Louis.\nL. E. WOLFE .\n1894. High School, 2212 Charlotte St. , Kansas City.\n\n1891.\n\nJOHN R. KIRK.\n1895. State Superintendent of Public Schools, Jefferson City.\nGEORGE T. MURPHY.\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 4946 Berlin Ave., St. Louis .\nF. D. THARPE.\n1884. Principal of Webster School, 3216 Anderson Ave. , Kansas City .\n\n1892.\n\nMARY C. MCCULLOCH.\n1885. Supervisor of Kindergartens, 3851 Washington Ave., St. Louis .\nI. C. MCNEILL.\n1890. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 1315 E. 22d St. , Kansas City.\nMRS. I. C. MCNEILL.\n1315 E. 22d St. , Kansas City .\nC. W. ROBBINS.\nPresident of Central Business College, Massachusetts and 6th Sts., Sedalia.\n\n1893.\n\nJAMES C. BLACK, Pd. M., '94, Pd. D., '95, School of Pedagogy, Univ. of\nCity of New York.\nStudent, 2816 Stoddard St. , St. Louis.\nO. M. WOOD .\nPrincipal of L'Ouverture School, 2612 Papin St. , St. Louis .\n\n1894.\n\nGEORGE V. BUCHANAN, A. М., 194, McKendree Coll . , Ill .\n1893.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1002 Ohio St. , Sedalia.\n\nJOSEPH HISEY.\n1890. Principal of Scarritt School, 498 Woodland Ave., Kansas City.\n\nEDWIN D. LUCKEY, B. S. D .. '87, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.\n1893. Principal Elleardville School, 5121 Bell Ave. , St. Louis.\nCHARLES W. THOMPSON.\n\n1885. Principal of Garfield School, Wabash and Amie Sts., Kansas City.\n\n1895. WILLIAM H. BLACK, A. M., '76, Waynesburg Coll.; D. D., '88, Cumberland Univ.\n1889. President of Missouri Valley College, Marshall .\n\n"}
{"page": 1072, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1057\n\nMISSOURI- Continued.\n1895.\n\nADELAIDE BROWN.\n1885. First Assistant Grammar Grade, Box 173, Hannibal.\n\nIRA I. CAMMACK, B. Sc., '84, Earlham Coll ., Ind.\n1886. Principal of Lathrop School, 1424 Jefferson St., Kansas City.\nSARAH E. CROUCH.\n1890. Longfellow School , 2910 Campbell St. , Kansas City.\n\nARTHUR A. DODD, M. S. D., '86, State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo.;\nB. Sc. , '95, Harvard.\n1895.\n\nTeacher of Sch. Management and Psych ., State Nor. Sch. , 323 South St., Warrensburg .\n\nELIZA C. GILL.\nTeacher in Public Schools, 2310 Lydia Ave., Kansas City.\n\nRICHARD HENRY JESSE, LL.D., '91, Tulane Univ., La.\n1891. President of University of State of Missouri , Columbia.\n\nWILLIAM HENRY LYNCH, A. M. , '68, Univ . of Missouri.\n1895. President of West Plains College, West Plains .\nR. C. NORTON .\n1893. Teacher in State Normal School , Kirksville.\nCHARLES B. REYNOLDS.\n1881. Superintendent of Schools, 308 E. Franklin St. , Clinton.\n\nW. R. ROTHWELL , A. M. , D. D. , Missouri Univ .\nProfessor of Moral Phil., William Jewell College, Liberty.\n\nLOUIS THEILMANN, B. Sc., '85, M. Sc., ' SS, Missouri Univ.\n1888. Associate Principal of Academy, Appleton City .\nMARIE L. TURNER.\n1891. Principal of Public School, Clayton.\nFRIDA VON UNWERTH.\n\n1892. Teacher of German, Central High School, 2905 Locust St., Kansas City.\n\nΜΟΝΤΑΝΑ.\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1889.\n\nEVERETT E. PAXSON.\n1893. Clerk of Board of Education, P. O. Box 1053, Butte.\n\nROBERT G. YOUNG, B. Sc., '74, Ph. В., '88.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, Helena.\n\n1894. J. C. TEMPLETON, B. Sc., '85, National Normal Univ., Ohio.\n1890. Teacher of Higher Math. and Vice Pres . of Mont. Wesleyan Univ. , Univ. Pl ., Helena.\n\n1895. JAMES M. HAMILTON, M. Sc., '90, Union Christian Coll.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, Missoula .\n\nNEBRASKA .\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1876.\n\nS. DE WITT BEALS .\nSecretary and Librarian of High School, 2118 Davenporte St., Omaha.\n\n1880.\n\nMRS . GRACE B. SUDBOROUGH.\n1890. Principal of Teachers' Training School, 549 S. 26th Ave. , Omaha.\n\n1884. ROBERT CURRY, A. B., 148, A. M. , '51, Jefferson Coll.; Ph. D. , '73, Washington and Jefferson Coll .\nPalmyra.\n\n1886.\n\nJ. H. MILLER.\n1890. Editor \"Northwestern Journal of Education,\" 11th and P Sts. , Lincoln.\n67\n\n"}
{"page": 1073, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n1058\n\nNEBRASKA- Continued.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1890.\n\nLIZZIE L. BANKER.\n1890. Principal of Ward School, 1707 Center St. , Omaha.\n\nHENRY R. CORBETT, B. Sc., 189. Hastings\n1894. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lincoln.\n\n1891.\n\nALEXANDER A. MUNRO, A. B., '84, Univ. of Neb .\n1887.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1322 N. 26th St. , So. Omaha.\n\nC. G. PEARSE.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 508 City Hall, Omaha.\n1892.\n\nW. K. FOWLER.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Blair.\n\nJ. K. STABLETON, B. Sc. , '82 , A. M., '87. Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Box 41, Lexington.\n\n1893.\n\nA. W. NORTON, A. B. , '73. A. M.. '76, Rochester Univ.\n\n1894.\n\nROSA BOUTON, B. Sc. , '91 , A. M., '93. Univ. of Neb .\n\n1892.\n\nPresident State Normal and Training School, Peru.\n\n1893. Instructor in Chemistry , University of Nebraska, P. O. Box 675, Lincoln.\nEDNA T. MESERVE.\n1895. Teacher in Public Schools, 806 Marshal St., McCook .\nANNA TIBBETS .\n\n1892. Principal of Grammar School, 658 S. 17th St. , Lincoln.\n\n1895.\n\nCHARLES E. BESSEY, B. Sc., '69, Mich. Agr.: Ph. D , '79, Univ . of Iowa.\n1884. Professor of Botany, University of Nebraska, 1228 R St. , Lincoln.\n\nEDWIN J. BODWELL, B. Sc. , '88, Dartmouth Coll .\nSuperintendent of County Schools, Omaha.\n\nW. A. CLARK, A. B. , '72, A. M. , '85 , Pd. D. , '94 , National Normal Univ .\n1895. Instructor in Mathematics, State Normal School , Peru.\nMARY A. FITCH.\n\n1887. Principal of Leavenworth School, Omaha.\nA. K. GOUDY, A. M. , '84, Monmouth Coll.\n303 Brace Building, Lincoln.\n\nE. T. HARTLEY, A. B. , '70, A. M. , '73, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1895. Member Board of Education, 441 N. 10th St. , Lincoln.\n\nTHOMAS MOREY HODGMAN, A. B. , '84, A. M., Rochester Univ.\n1884. Associate Professor of Mathematics, University of Nebraska, 700 N. 16th St., Lincoln.\nJESSIE IRELAND.\n1895. Teacher, Papillion.\nNELLIE IRELAND .\n1887. Teacher in Grades, 3153 Farnum St., Omaha .\n\nIRWEN LEVISTON, A. B. '82, A. M., '88, Dartmouth Coll.\n1800. Assistant Principal of High School, 312 N. 21st St. , Omaha.\nGRACE LILLIE.\n1895. Substitute Teacher, 1808 Webster St. , Omaha.\n\nJ. T. MCKINNON, Grad., '83, State Normal School, Neb.\n1892.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Exeter.\n\nJENNIE L. REDFIELD .\n1887. Principal of Lincoln School, 2115 S. 11th St. , Omaha.\nA. A. REED.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Crete.\n\n"}
{"page": 1074, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1059\n\nNEBRASKA- Continued.\n1895.\n\nW. H. SKINNER.\n\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 319 N. 11th St. , Nebraska City.\n\nWM. J. WILLIAMS, B. R. , '71 , A. B., '71, A. M. , '74, Denison Univ.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 510 14th St. , Columbus.\n\nNEVADA.\nACTIVE\n\n1895.\n\nMEMBERS.\n\nWALTER C. GAYHART, C. Е.\n1894.\n\nPrincipal of High School and Public Schools , Austin.\n\nJ. E. STUBBS, A. B. , '73, A. M. , '76, D. D .. '90.\n1894. President of State University of Nevada, Reno.\n\nNEW HAMPSHIRE .\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1876.\n\nCHARLES C. ROUNDS, B. Sc., '57, M. Sc. , '60, Dartmouth Coll.; A. M. ,\nBowdoin Coll. and Waterville Coll.; Ph. D., Bates Coll.\n1883. Principal of State Normal School, Plymouth.\n\n1889.\n\nEDMUND W. WRIGHT.\nDeerfield Center.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1894.\n\nKATHARINE E. ROUNDS, B. Sc. , '91, Smith Coll.\n1895. Teacher of Drawing, State Normal School, Plymouth.\nJ. A. RUSSELL.\n1892. Teacher of History, Geography, and French, State Normal School, Plymouth .\n\nJ. M. RUSSELL, A. M. , '88, Wesleyan Univ.\n1894. Principal of High School, Somersworth.\n\nNEW JERSEY.\nLIFE MEMBER.\n\n1876. LANGDON SHOOK THOMPSON, A. M., '84, Marietta Coll. , Ohio ; Pd. D., '91,\nUniv. of the City of New York .\n1889. Supervisor of Drawing, Public Schools; 1893, Principal Metropolitan Normal Art\nSchool, 30 Park St., Jersey City .\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1889.\n\nW. F. POWELL.\n1880. District Principal, 572 Clinton St. , Camden.\n\n1890.\n\nLEVI SEELEY, A. M. , '83, Williams Coll.: Ph. D., '86, Leipzig.\n\n1891.\n\nAUGUSTUS SCARLETT.\n1863. Principal of South Eighth Street School, 56 S. 11th St. , Newark.\n\n1892.\n\nSARAH Y. ELY.\n1887. Supervisor of Grammar Grades, State Model School, 46 Carroll St. , Trenton.\n\n1895. Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, 482 W. State St. , Trenton.\n\nJAMES M. GREEN, A. M. , '84, Dickinson Coll.; Ph. D .,' 90, Ill. Wesleyan Univ .\n1889. Principal of State Normal and Model Schools, Trenton.\nJANE M. LEWIS .\n1866. Principal of Primary School , 99 Mercer St. , Jersey City.\n\nBYRON (' . MATHEWS , A. B. , '77, А. М. , '92, Fh . D. , '93 . Syracuse Univ.\n1885.\n\nInstructor in Greek and Economies High School, 36 Kearney St. , Newark.\n\n"}
{"page": 1075, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n1060\n\nNEW JERSEY- Continued.\n\n1892. HENRY M. MAXSON, A. M., '80, Amherst Coll.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 429 W. 6th St. , Plainfield.\nADDISON B. POLAND.\n\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Trenton.\n\nJAMES M. RALSTON, A. M., '82, Dickinson Coll.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 707 Grand Ave. , Asbury Park.\n\nRANDALL SPAULDING, A. B. , '70, Yale.\n1874. Superintendent of Schools, 14 Clinton Ave. , Montclair.\nWM. R. WRIGHT.\n\n1893. Principal of Franklin Public Schools, Nutley.\n1893.\n\nMARTIN LUTHER COX.\n1893. County Superintendent of Schools, 4 Blackwell St., Dover .\nCHARLES M. DAVIS, A. B., '45, A. M., '47, Princeton.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 766 Avenue A, Bayonne.\nHENRY E. HARRIS.\n1879. Principal School No. 1, 74 Trask Ave. , Bayonne.\n\nLAWRENCE C. HULL., A. B., '77, Univ. of Mich .\n1887. Latin Master, Lawrenceville School , Lawrenceville.\n\n1894.\n\nWм. N. BARRINGER, A. M., Princeton ; Pd. D., Univ. of City of N. Y.\n1877. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Newark.\nRICHARD CASE, A. M. , '81, Brown Univ.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 71 Wallace St. , Red Bank.\nMARY J. DONOHOE.\n\n1895. Principal School No. 4, 33 Dodge St. , Bayonne.\n\nRUSSELL M. EVERETT, B. Sc., '91, State Coll., Ν. Η.\n1895.\n\nSupervising Principal of Schools, Chatham .\n\nBENJAMIN C. GREGORY, A. B., Coll. of City of New York.\n1888.\n\nSupervising Principal of Schools, Box 522, Trenton.\n\nANNA J. GUDEN.\n1892. Assistant, School No. 4, 202 Avenue D, Bayonne.\nM. ALICE GULICK.\n1893. Teacher in Primary Grade, Chatham.\nJOSEPH A. HALLOCK.\n1854. Elliot Street School, 329 Summer Ave. , Newark.\nJ. F. D. HEINEKEN .\n1894. Principal School No. 1, Sayreville.\nAMELIA COOPER HEWITT.\n1894. Teacher of Chemistry, State Normal School, 33 Prospect St. , Trenton.\nGAIUS HOFFMAN.\n1885. Principal of Schools, Bound Brook.\nJAMES WILMER KENNEDY.\n1889. Principal of Miller Street Gramar School, 3 Emmett St., Newark .\n\nM. H. KINSLEY, B. Sc., '88, St. Lawrence Univ.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools of Kearney, Arlington.\nN. W. PEASE.\n1867. Principal of School No. 2, 31 Morrell St. , Elizabeth.\n\nGEO. G. RYAN, A. B., '74, A. M., '77, Middlebury Coll . , Vt.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 71 Patterson St. , New Brunswick.\nFRANK H. SCOBEY .\n1884. Teacher of Arithmetic, Algebra, and Methods, State Normal School , Trenton.\n\nHENRY SNYDER, A. B., '78, A. M. , '88, Lafayette Coll.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, High School, Bay St., Jersey City.\n\n"}
{"page": 1076, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1061\n\nNEW MEXICO .\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1866.\n\nULYSSES T. CURRAN, A. B. , A. M. , Miami Univ ., Ohio .\nSuperintendent of Schools, Santa Fe.\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1891. HIRAM HADLEY, A. M.\n1894. Vice President, in charge of Univ. of New Mexico, 321 S. Walter St. , Albuquerque.\n\n1892. ALLEN ALLENSWORTH, A. М.\n1886. Superintendent of Post Schools, Fort Bayard.\n\n1895.\n\nCHARLES E. HODGIN, Grad., '81, Ind. State Normal; B. Ped., '93, Univ. of\nN. Mex.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 402 S. Edith St. , Albuquerque.\nMRS. ELIZABETH R. JACKSON.\n1893. Member of Examining Board, Grant County, Silver City.\n\nNEW YORK.\n\nLIFE DIRECTOR .\n\n1885.\n\nCALEB G. HALL.\nNew Berlin.\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1864.\n\nJAMES CRUIKSHANK, LL.D.\n1875. Principal of Grammar School No. 12, 206 S. Oxford St. , Brooklyn.\n\n1870. OLIVER CROMWELL AREY, A. M., '65, Union Coll.\n229 Averill Ave., Rochester.\n\n1871. JOHN JACOB ANDERSON, A. M., '67, Rutgers Coll.; Ph. D., '76, Univ of\nCity of N. Y.\nAuthor of School Histories, 343 Adelphi St. , Brooklyn.\n\n1879.\n\n*Ν . A. CALKINS, LL.D., Marietta Coll., Ohio.\n\n1880.\n\nEMILY M. COE.\nPrincipal of American Kindergarten Normal School, 70 5th Ave. , New York City.\n\n1882.\n\nJOSEPHINE E. HODGDON, Pd. M. , '91, Univ. of City of New York.\n\n1863. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 124 E. 80th St. , New York City.\n\n1886.\n\nPublic School No. 6, 80 Willoughby St. , Brooklyn.\n\nMENCO STERN .\n1879. Professor of German Language and Lit., Stern School of Language, New York City.\n1884.\n\nMRS. GEORGIANA VAN AKEN.\n1858. Principal of Day School, Ladies' Home Mission, 63 Park St., New York City.\n\n1885.\n\nТноMAS HUNTER, A. M. , '66, Columbia Coll.; Ph. D., '77, Williams Coll.\n\n1891.\n\nMRS. M. J. B. WYLIE.\n\nPresident of Normal College, Park Ave. and 68th St., New York City .\n\n334 15th St. , Buffalo.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1882.\n\nWALTER S. GOODNOUGH.\nDirector of Drawing, Public Schools, 267 Lewis Ave. , Brooklyn.\n\n1884.\n\nЕ. Н. Соок, А. M. , '69, Ph. D.. '89.\nAlta Ave. , Park Hill, Yonkers .\n\n•Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 1077, "printed_page": null, "text": "1062\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nNEW YORK- Continued .\n\n1884.\n\nEDWARD N. JONES, A. B. , A. M. , Ph. D. , Hamilton Coll.\n1892. Principal of State Normal School, 100 Brinkerhoff St. , Plattsburgh.\n\nSELIM H. PEABODY, A. В. , '52, A. M., '55, Ph. D., '77, Univ. of Vt.; LL.D. ,\n'83, Univ. of Iowa .\n113 American Tract Society Building, New York City.\n\n1885.\n\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, A. B. , '82, Ph. D. , '84, Columbia Coll.\n\n1887.\n\nGUSSIE POWER.\n1880. Teacher, 535 Warren St., Hudson.\n\n1889.\n\nGRATIA L. RICE.\n1892. State Director of Drawing , Box 321, Buffalo.\n\n1890.\n\nC. W. BARDEEN, A. B. , '69, Yale.\n\n1889.\n\nProfessor of Philosophy and Education, Columbia College, 119 E. 30th St., New York.\n\n1874. Editor of \"School Bulletin,\" 411 S. Franklin St. , Syracuse.\nA. B. BLODGETT.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, 127 Burnet Ave., Syracuse.\n\nJOHN W. CHANDLER, Ph . D., '77, Univ. of State of New York.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Ellenville.\nEDWARD D. FARRELL.\n1889. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 163 124th St. , New York City.\nMARY A. FLEMING .\n1878. Teacher in Grammar School No. 13, 13 W. Chippewa St. , Buffalo.\n\nAMOS M. KELLOGG, A. M., '57, Hamilton Coll.\nEditor of \"School Journal,\" 61 E. 9th St. , New York City.\n\nJAMES M. MILNE, Ph. D.\nPrincipal State Normal School, Oneonta.\nMRS LEONTINE T. NEWCOMB .\n1894. Superintendent of Kindergarten and Primary Methods, State Normal Sch., Fredonia.\n\nFRANCIS B. PALMER, А. В ., ' 58. A. M. ,' 63, Ph . D. , '79, Univ. of Rochester.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, Fredonia.\nCHARLES R. SKINNER .\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Albany.\n\nISAAC H. STOUT, A. M., '88, Hobart Coll.\n1887. State Conductor of Teachers' Institutes, 58 Genessee St. , Geneva.\n\n1891. FRANCIS J. CHENEY, A. B., '72, A. M. , '75, Ph. D., '88, Syracuse Univ.\nPrincipal of State Normal and Training School, 45 Church St. , Cortland.\n\nA. S. DOWNING, A. M., Pennsylvania Coll.\n1895.\n\nSupervisor of Teachers' Inst. and Train. Classes, State Dep't of Pub. Instr., Albany.\n\nMATTHEW J. ELGAS, A. B. , '62, A. M. , '63, Montreal Coll.; Ph. D., '69\nSt. Johns Coll.\nPrincipal of Grammar School No. 69, 121 W. 87th St., New York City.\nHARLAN P. FRENCH, A. B. , '68, A. M. , '71, Amherst Coll.\nManager Albany Teachers ' Agency, 24 State St. , Albany.\n\nDAVID M. KELSEY, Grad., '88, N. E. Conservatory of Music.\nDirector of Music, Public Schools, 228 Spring St. , Saratoga Springs .\nOSSIAN H. LANG .\n1895. Man. Editor \" School Journal and Educational Foundations, \" 61 E. 9th St. , New York.\n\nHENRY M. LEIPZIGER, A. M. , Coll. of City of N. Y. , Ph. D., Columbia Coll.\n1891. Assistant Superintendent of Sch\n\n1, 324 E. 5th St. , New York City.\n\nALBERT LEONARD , A. B., 188, А. М. , '91, Ohio Univ .; Ph. D., '94, Hamilton\nColl.\n\n1893. Prin. of High Sch. and Editor of \"Journal of Pedagogy,\" 112 Murray St., Binghamton.\n\n"}
{"page": 1078, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1063\n\nNEW YORK- Continued.\n\n1891. JOHN M. MILNE, A. M., '82, Rochester Univ.; Ph. D., '90, Univ. of State\nof N. Y.\n1889. Principal of State Normal School, Geneseo.\n\nE. A. SHELDON, A. M., '70, Hamilton Coll.; Ph. D., '75, Univ of New York.\n1862. Principal of State Normal and Training School, 7th Ave. , Oswego.\nTHOMAS B. STOWELL, A. M. , '65, Genesee Coll.; Ph. D. , '81 . Syracuse Univ.\n1889.\n\nPrincipal State Normal and Training School, 6 Le Roy St. , Potsdam.\n\nSAMUEL G. WILLIAMS, A. B., '52, А. М. , '55, Ph . D., '71, Hamilton Coll.\n1879. Professor in Cornell University, 155 E. Seneca St. , Ithaca.\n\n1892.\n\nТноMAS O. BAKER, A. M. , '92, Ph. D., Univ. of City of New York.\n1895. Principal of High School, Yonkers .\nELIAS J. BEARDSLEY, C. E., A. B., '55, А. М.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 110 Baldwin St. , Elmira .\n\nEMMET BELKNAP, A. B. , '80, A. M. , 'S3, Marietta Coll.\n1889.\n\nSuperintendent of School, 206 East Ave. , Lockport.\n\nW. H. BENEDICT, A. В., '75, A. M., '78, Hamilton Coll.\n1889. Principal of School No. 8. 508 W. 3d St. , Elmira.\nA. HALL BURDICK.\n1890. Superintendent of Union Free School, 35 Jackson St. , Stapleton.\n\nCHAS . W. COLE, A. B. , A. M. , Ph. D. , Hamilton Coll .\n1878.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 354 Hudson Ave. , Albany.\n\nWILLIAM B. FRIEDBERG, B. Sc. , '73, Coll. of New York; LL. B. , '77, Columbia Law School.\n\n1890. Principal of Grammar School No. 95, 13-17 E. 125th St., New York City.\nEMILY J. HAWKINS .\n1873. Principal of Grammar School No. 17, 368 West Ave. , Buffalo .\nH. E. HAYES .\n72 5th Ave., New York.\nMARY F. HYDE.\n208 Main St., Binghamton.\n\nWILLIAM H. MAXWELL, A. B., '72, A. M., '74, Queens Univ. , Ireland.\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, 131 Livingston St. , Brooklyn.\n\nR. V. K. MONTFORT, M. D., '56, Albany Medical Coll.\n1887.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 22 Montgomery St., Newburgh.\n\nM. V. O'SHEA, B. L., '92, Cornell .\n1895. Professor of Educational Psychology and Child Study, School of Pedagogy, University\nof,Buffalo, 77 Hodge Ave. , Buffalo .\nS. S. PACKARD .\nPresident of Packard's Business College, 17 W. 82 St. , New York.\n\nCHARLES L. PATTON.\n43 E. 10th St., New York .\n\nOSCAR D. ROBINSON, A. B., '69, A. M., '72, Ph. D., '87, Dartmouth Coll.\n1886.\n\nPrincipal of High School , 501 State St. , Albany.\n\nEDWARD SMITH .\nPrincipal of Prescott School , 922 Madison St. , Syracuse .\n\nJAMES WINNE, A. M. , '80, Hamilton Coll.\n1886. Principal of High School, 12 Noxon St. , Poughkeepsie.\n\n1893.\n\nHENRY P. EMERSON, A. B. , A. M. , Univ . of Rochester.\nSuperintendent of Education, 122 College St. , Buffalo.\nJOHN ARTHUR GREENE.\n\nSupt. ofAgency Department, American Book Co., 31 Washington Place, New York .\n\n"}
{"page": 1079, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n1064\n\nNEW YORK- Continued.\n\n1893. GEORGE GRIFFITH, A. B., '77, Hamilton Coll.; Ph. D., '93, Ill. Wesleyan.\n1892.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 32 Jewett Place, Utica.\n\nJENNY B. MERRILL, Pd. D., '92, Univ. of City of New York.\n1878. Tutor in Pedagogy , Normal College, 112 E. 81st St. , New York City.\n\nJOSEPHINE E. ROGERS .\nPrincipal of Grammar School No. 75, P. D., 314 E. 20th St. , New York City.\n\nEDWARD RICHARD SHAW, B. L., '78, Delaware Coll.; Ph. B., '81, Lafayette Coll .; Ph. D. , '90, Univ. of City of New York .\n1894. Dean of School of Pedagogy, New York Univ. , Washington Square, New York City.\n\n1894.\n\nJ. W. BABCOCK, А. В., '78, Cornell Univ.\n1881.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 627 Washington Ave. , Dunkirk.\n\nEUGENE D. BAGEN, C. E., Univ. of City of New York .\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 532 E. 87th St., New York City.\n\nFRANK D. BEATTYS, A. M. , '88, Wesleyan Univ.\nPublisher, 31 E 17th St. , New York City.\nMRS. B. ELLEN BURKE.\n1895. Institute Instructor, Malone.\nCYNTHIA LAGOMARSINO.\n1884. Teacher in Ladies' Home Mission School , 63 Park St. , New York City.\n\nALMON G. MERWIN.\n1867. Principal of Public School No. 74 and Branches, 668 Hancock St. , Brooklyn.\nHESTER A. ROBERTS .\n1886. Principal of Primary Department No. 10, 149 W. 128th St. , New York City.\n\nCHARLES B. SCOTT, A. M., '87, Rutgers Coll .\nInstructor in Nature Study Methods, Geology, and Geography, State Nor. Sch., Oswego.\n\nJOSEPH S. TAYLOR, Pd. D. , '92 , New York Univ.\n1885. Teacher in Public Schools, Sedgwick Park, Fordham Heights, New York City.\nMARTHA VAN RENSSELAER .\n1894. School Commissioner Second District, Cattaraugus County, Randolph .\n1895.\n\nELLA CALKINS .\n124 E. 80th St., New York City .\nCOLUMBIA COLLEGE.\nNew York City .\nFANNIE S. COMINGS.\n1893. Principal of Public School No. 77, 651 Carroll St. , Brooklyn .\nJOHN W. DAVIS.\n1886. First Ass't Grammar Sch . No. 66, and Sec. New York Soc. of Pedagogy, Kingsbridge.\nΑΝΝΑ Κ . EGGLESTON.\n1894. Instructor in Primary Work, Teachers' Institutes, 45 Wadsworth St., Buffalo.\n\nGEORGE W. FRENCH, LL. B. , '78, Columbia Coll.\n1881.\n\nPrincipal of Public School , Jamaica Ave. , opp. Enfield St., Brooklyn.\n\nWELLAND HENDRICK, A. B. , '80, A. M., '83, Colgate Univ.\n1893.\n\nConductor of Institutes, Dep't of Public Instruction, 32 Lincoln Ave., Cortland.\n\nSETH LOW, LL.D., '89, Harvard, Amherst, Univ. of Pa.; '90, Trinity.\n1889. President of Columbia College, 63 E. 49th St., New York City.\n\nF. M. MCMURRY, Ph D. , Jena.\n1895. Dean of School of Pedagogy, University of Buffalo, 322 W. Utica St. , Buffalo.\n\nANDREW V. V. RAYMOND, A. B., '75, D. D., '86, Union Coll.; LL.D., '94,\nWilliams Coll .\n1894. President of Union College, College Hill, Schenectady.\n\n"}
{"page": 1080, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACTIVE AND LIFE MEMBERS.\n\n1065\n\nNEW YORK- Continued.\n1895.\n\nRoVILLUS R. ROGERS.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 627 E. 6th St., Jamestown.\nJANE A. SCHERMERHORN.\n1889. Kindergarten in Union Free Sch. , White Plains, 1899 Bathgate Ave. , New York City .\nS. R. SHEAR .\nPrincipal of Pulaski Academy, Pulaski.\nCHARLES F. WHEELOCK.\nHead Inspector, Regents Office, Albany.\n\nNORTH CAROLINA .\nLIFE MEMBER.\n\n1884.\n\nROBERT BINGHAM, A. M., '60, LL. B., '90, Univ. of N. C\n1873.\n\nSuperintendent of Bingham School, Asheville .\n\nNORTH\n\nDAKOTA .\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1893.\n\nЕмMA F. BATES .\n1895. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bismarck.\n\n1894.\n\nWALTER L. STOCKWELL, B. Sc. , '89 , Univ. of Minn.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Grafton.\n\n1895. GEO. A. MCFARLAND, M. Sc.\nPrincipal State Normal School, Valley City.\nLURA L. PERRINE, A. B., '80, Albion Coll., Mich.\n1892. Teacher of Natural Sciences, State Normal School , Valley City.\nUNIVERSITY OF NORTH DAKOTA.\nUniversity, Grand Forks.\n\nOKLAHOMA.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1892. DAVID R. BOYD, A. B., '78, A. M., '81, Univ. of Wooster.\n1892. President of University of Oklahoma, Norman.\n1894.\n\nMATTIE JONES.\n1892. Teacher in Washita School, Anadarko.\n\nOHIO .\nLIFE DIRECTOR.\n\n1888.\n\nL. W. DAY, A. M., '74, Hillsdale Coll.; Ph. D., '85, Baldwin Univ.\n1895.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 178 W. Tuscarawas St. , Canton.\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1870. WILLIAM H. COLE, A. M. , Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1878. Superintendent of Schools, Marysville.\n\nEMERSON ELBRIDGE WHITE, A. M., Western Reserve Coll.; LL. D. , '76,\nIndiana Univ. and Marietta Coll.\nAuthor and Lecturer, Columbus .\n\n"}
{"page": 1081, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n1066\n\nOHIO- Continued.\n\n1870. MRS. DELIA LATHROP WILLIAMS, Ped. D., '94, State Nor. Coll., Albany,\nN. Y.\n\n1879. Instructor in Normal Department, Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware.\n\n1879. REUBEN MCMILLAN, A. M. , '67, Western Reserve Coll.\nEx-Superintendent of Schools of Youngstown, Canfield.\n1880.\n\nHAMPTON BENNETT.\nFranklin.\n\nJ. J. BURNS, A. M., Washington and Jefferson Coll.; Ph. D., '79, Ohio\nState Univ .\n167 N. Walnut St. , Canton.\n\nCHARLES C. DAVIDSON, A. M., '86.\n59 W. Ely St. , Alliance.\nBETTIE A. DUTTON.\n1870. Principal of Kentucky Street School, 94 State St., Cleveland.\nMRS. REUBEN MCMILLAN.\nCanfield.\n\nLEWIS MILLER.\nPres. of Bd of Trustees, Mt. Union Coll., and Pres. of Chautauqua Assembly, Akron.\n\nJOHN B. PEASLEE, A. B. , '63, A. M., '66, Dartmouth ; LL. B., '67, Cincinnati Coll.; Ph . D. , '69 , Ohio State Univ .\n182 Race St. , Cincinnati.\nESTHER A. WIDNER.\n1224 N. Main St., Dayton.\n\n1882.\n\nJAMES A. ROBERT, A. M., '67, Yale; Ph. D. , '84, Dennison.\n\n1883.\n\nE. W. COY, A. M. , '58, Brown Univ.; Ph. D., '86, Princeton.\n\n1884.\n\nC. W. BENNETT, A. B. , '66, A. M. , '69, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.; Ph. D., '89,\nMoores Hill Coll. , Ind.\n\n1894.\n\nJ. A. SHAWAN, A. B. , '80, A. M., '83, Oberlin Coll.; Ph. D., '93, Muskingum\n\n230 Sunset Ave., Dayton.\n\n1873.\n\n1874.\n\nPrincipal of Hughes High School, Cincinnati.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 218 W. Ash St. , Piqua.\n\nColl .\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, Columbus .\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1884.\n\nJAMES H. CANFIELD, A. B., '68, A. M. , '77, LL. D., '93, Williams Coll.\n1895. President of Ohio State University, 1873 N. High St., Columbus.\n\n1886.\n\nCHRISTINE SULLIVAN, A. M., Ph . D.\n1885. Superintendent of Art Instruction, Public Schools, 1208 Elmwood Ave., Cincinnati.\n\n1887.\n\nО. Т. CORSON, A. M. , '87.\n1891. State Commissioner of Common Schools, Columbus.\n\n1889. EDWIN B. Cox, А. В., '74, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1881.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 205 W. Church St. , Xenia.\n\nNATHAN L. GLOVER.\n1872. Teacher of Music, Public Schools, 627 E. Mill St. , Akron.\nL. H. JONES .\n\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 190 Euclid Ave. , Cleveland.\n1890.\n\nMRS. ADA E. LAIRD .\n1892. Principal of Waverly School, 266½ Franklin Ave., Cleveland.\nANNA M. OSGOOD.\n1893. Principal of Avondale School, 1348 Oak St. , Columbus.\n\n"}
{"page": 1082, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1067\n\nOHIO- Continued.\n1890.\n\nJ. P. SHARKEY.\n1885. Superintendent of Schools, and 1893 Member of State Board of Examiners, Eaton.\nSOPHIE VANCE.\n1876. Grammar Department, Van Wert .\n\n1891.\n\nARTHUR O. JONES.\n1890. Teacher of Drawing, Public Schools, 83 Highland Ave. , Walnut Hills, Cincinnati .\n\nR. ANNA MORRIS, Grad., '88, Anderson Nor. Sch. of Physical Training .\n1894.\n\nSpecial Teacher of Physical Culture Public Schools, 564 Prospect St. , Cleveland.\n\nELLEN G. REVELEY, Pd. D., '94, State Nor. Coll., Albany, N. Y.\n1891.\n\nSupervisor of Schools, 190 Euclid Ave., Cleveland.\n\nCHARLES W. SUPER, A. B., '66, Dickinson Coll.; A. M. , '82, Syracuse\nUniv.; Ph. D., 174, 111. Wesleyan Univ.; LL. D., '94, Dickinson Coll.\n1883.\n\nPresident of Ohio University, Athens .\n\nF. TREUDLEY, A. B., '78, Univ. of Ind.\n1885.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools , 623 Elm St., Youngstown.\n\nW. J. WHITE .\n1888. Superintendent of Schools, 1410 E. 3d St. , Dayton.\n\n1892.\n\nΗ . T. LOOMIS.\nPrincipal of Spencerian Business College, 422 Superior St .. Cleveland.\nT. J. MITCHELL, A. B., A. M., Ph. D.\n\"The Lennox,\" Cleveland.\n\nN. COE STEWART, F. С. М.\nDirector of Music Public Schools, 71 Jennings Ave. , Cleveland.\nWм. Н. VOGEL.\n\n1886. Assistant Superintendent of Drawing, 1028 Linn St. , Cincinnatı.\nMATILDA L. WALKE.\nTwenty-sixth District School, Riddle Road, Clifton, Cincinnati.\n1893.\n\nE. R. BOOTH, A. M. , '95, Univ. of Wooster.\n1889. Principal Technical School, 14th and Elm Sts., Cincinnati .\n\nCHARLES HAUPERT, A. В., '80, А. М., '83, Heidelburg Univ.\n1893. Supt . of Sch ., and 1894 Member State B'd of Examiners, 20 E. Bowman St. ,Wooster.\nM. A. KIMMEL .\n1880. Superintendent of Schools, Poland.\n\nMRS . CAROLINE NEWHALL LATHROP.\nPrincipal of Normal School, 9th St. , W. of John, Cincinnati.\nH. H. RASCHIG .\n\n1874. Principal of District School, Mound St., Avondale.\nS. D. SANOR, M. Sc., '92, Mt. Union Coll.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 250 4th St. , East Liverpool .\n\nJAMES W. SCOTT, A. B., Duquesne Coll.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, Loudonville.\n\nWILLIAM H. Scott, A. M., '65, Ohio Univ.; LL.D., '84, Ohio Univ. and Ohio\nWesleyan Univ.\n1883. Professor of Philosophy, Ohio State Univ., 131 15th Ave., Columbus.\n\nLUCIA STICKNEY, A. M., '95, Oberlin Coll.\n1877. Hughes High School, Cincinnati .\nA. D. WILT.\nPresident of Miami Commercial College, Dayton.\n\n1894. JAMES W. BASHFORD, A. B., '73, А. М. , '76, Univ . of Wis .; S. T. В., '76,\nPh. D. , '81, Boston Univ.; D. D., '90, Southwestern Univ.\n1889.\n\nPresident of Ohio Wesleyan University, 23 Oak Hill Ave., Delaware.\n\n"}
{"page": 1083, "printed_page": null, "text": "1068\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nOHIO- Continued.\n\n1894. J. REMSEN BISHOP, A. B., '82, Harvard.\nPrincipal of High School, Alpine Place, Walnut Hills, Cincinnati.\n\nW. W. BOYD, A. B., '84, A. M., '86, Marietta Coll .\n1891.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 501 5th St., Marietta.\n\nEDWARD L. HARRIS, A. B., A. M. , Ph . В.\n1889. Principal of Central High School, Cleveland .\nJULIA A. HARRIS.\n1874. Prim. Dept. , 13th Dist. School, Cleneay and Spencer Aves. , Norwood, Cincinnati.\n\nHARRIET L. KEELER, A. B., '70, Oberlin Coll.\n1878. Assistant Central High School , 93 Olive St., Cleveland.\nMARY MCGOWAN.\n\n1888. Teacher in Mornington School , Cincinnati , Madisonville.\nGEO. ROBBINS .\nIndustrial Department, Cincinnati Union Bethel, 750 W. 7th St. , Cincinnati .\nELLA M. SNYDER.\n1889. Teacher in Grammar Grade, 70 Rose St. , Salem.\n\nWILLIAM O. THOMPSON, D. D. , '91, Muskingum Coll.\n1891. President of Miami University, Oxford .\n\n1895.\n\nEMMA BROOKE, B. L., Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1890. Principal of Grammar School , 60 Griswold St. , Delaware.\nANNIE LAWS .\nPresident Cincinnati Woman's Club, etc. , 818 Dayton St. , Cincinnati .\n\nWILLIAM Z. LAZENBY, B. Agri., Cornell; M. Agri., Iowa Agri. Coll.\n1881. Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, Ohio State University, Columbus .\n\nCHAS. L. Loos, JR., A. В. , '69, A. M., '71, Bethany Coll., W. Va.\n1888. Head of English Department, Steele High School, 132 Salem St., Dayton.\nJ. S. LOWE, A. M., '67.\n1891.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Ashtabula.\n\nHENRY N. MERTZ, A. M., '80, Bethany Coll.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, La Belle Ave., Steubenville.\nMIAMI UNIVERSITY .\nOxford.\n\nHENRY M. PARKER, A. B., A. M., Marietta Coll.\n1873. Superintendent of Schools, Elyria .\n\nJ. W. PFEIFFER, B. Sc. , Hopedale Nor. Coll.\n1888.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 141 Wooster Ave. , Canal Dover.\n\nE. H. PRICHARD .\nTeacher in Intermediate Grade, Cincinnati.\nMARGARET W. SUTHERLAND .\n1889. Principal of Normai School, 1076 Neil Ave. , Columbus.\n\nCHARLES F. THWING, D. D, LL.D.\nPres. of Western Reserve Univ. and Adelbert Coll ., 55 Bellflower Ave. , Cleveland.\n\nOREGON.\n\nLIFE DIRECTOR .\n\n1888.\n\nC. C. STRATTON , D. D.\nPortland University, University Park.\n\n"}
{"page": 1084, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1069\n\nOREGON- Continued.\n\nACTIVE\n\n1895.\n\nMEMBERS.\n\nJ. H. ACKERMAN.\nPrincipal Harrison St. Grammar School, Portland.\n\nE. B. MCELROY, A. M., '83, Christian Coll.; Ph. D., '84, Williamette Univ.\n1895. Professor of Ethics , University of Oregon, Eugene.\n\nPENNSYLVANIA .\nLIFE DIRECTOR .\n\n1879.\n\nTEACHERS' INSTITUTE.\nPhiladelphia.\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1876. EDWARD BROOKS, A. M., '59, Union Coll.; Ph. D., '76, Lafayette Coll . ,\nWashington and Jefferson Coll., Hyatts Military Academy.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Philadelphia.\n1879.\n\nRACHEL FOSTER AVERY.\n1920 Race St.. Philadelphia.\n\nSIMON GRATZ, A. M. , Univ. of Pa.\nMember of Board of Education, 1919 Spruce St., Philadelphia.\nEDWARD SHIPPEN .\n532 Walnut St., Philadelphia.\n1880.\n\nEDGAR ARTHUR SINGER.\n1887. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 4662 Penn St. , Philadelphia.\n\n1884.\n\nSARAH A. STEWART.\n\n1891.\n\nE. ORAM LYTE, M. Sc. , A. M., Ph. D.\n\n1890. Principal of Training School for Teachers, 1520 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.\n1887. Principal State Normal School, Millersville.\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1881.\n\nANDREW J. MORRISON.\n1883. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 1430 N. 7th St. , Philadelphia.\n\n1884.\n\nGEO . H. STOUT.\n1888. Supervising Principal of Boys' Grammar School, 3746 Powelton Ave., Philadelphia.\n\n1887. NATHAN C. SCHAEFFER, LL.D. , '95, Western Univ. of Pa.\n1893.\n\n1889.\n\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg.\n\nCHARLES DE GARMO, Ph. D. , '86, Halle .\n1891.\n\nPresident of Swarthmore College, Swarthmore.\n\nJ. L. SNYDER, A. B. , '86, Ph. D., '91, Westminster Coll.\n1889. Principal Fifth Ward Schools, 57 Sheffield St., Allegheny.\n\nT. F. KANE , A. B. , '92, Cornell Univ.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 124 N. Mercer St., New Castle.\n\n1891.\n\nE. MACKEY, A. B., '78, Mercersburg Coll.\n\n1892.\n\nELIZA A. BISHOP.\n\n1887.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 610 Walker St. , Butler.\n\nPrincipal of Primary School, 211 Pine St. , Harrisburg.\n\nR. K. BUEHRLE, A. M., '78, Ph. D., '87, Franklin and Marshall Coll., Pa.\n1880.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 408 Manor St., Lancaster.\n\nW. WILBERFORCE DEATRICK, A. B., '76, A. M., '79, Mercersburg Coll.\n1891.\n\nProfessor of Psychology and Pedagogy, Keystone State Normal School , Kutztown.\n\n"}
{"page": 1085, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n1070\n\nPENNSYLVANIA- Continued.\n1892.\n\nH. W. FISHER, Grad., State Nor. Sch ., Millersville, Pa.\n1875.\n\nSupervisor 17th Ward Schools, 350 Lehigh Ave. , Pittsburgh.\n\nCHARLES F. FOSTER, A. M. , Colby Univ., Me.\n1878.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Broad and Crosby Sts . , Chester.\n\nJos . K. GOTWALS.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 19 E. Chestnut St. , Norristown.\nMARY J. LAMBERTON.\n\n1891. Supervising Principal of George W. Childs School, 4403 Osage Ave., Philadelphia.\nCONSTANCE MACKENZIE.\n1887. Director of Public Kindergartens, 3334 Walnut St. , Philadelphia.\n\nJOHN A. M. PASSMORE, M. Sc., '62, State Nor. Sch., Millersville, Pa.\n1890. Agent American Rook Company, 318 S. 42d St., Philadelphia.\n\nS. C. SCHMUCKER, A. M., M. Sc., Muhlenberg Coll., Ph. D., Univ. of Pa.\nDept. of Physics and Biology, State Normal School, 610 S. High St., West Chester .\nJ. LIBERTY TADD .\n1884. Director of Industrial Art School, 319 N. 32d St., Philadelphia.\n\n1893. С. А. ВАВСОСK, A. M., '71, LL.B., '83, Hamilton Coll.\n1883.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Oil City.\n\nM. G. BRUMBAUGH, A. M. , '93 , Ph. D., '94, Univ. of Pa.\n1893. President of Juniata Coll, and 1894 Prof. of Pedagogy, Univ. of Pa., Huntingdon\nJAMES A. DEWEY, M. E. , '84, State Nor. Sch. , Mansfield.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, Newport Township, Wanamie.\n\nWILLIAM HENRY SAMUEL, Ph . D. , '92 , Univ. of Pa.\n1878. Supervising Principal Public Schools, 2505 N. 12th St. , Philadelphia.\n\nA. THOMAS SMITH, Pd. D., '93, School of Ped ., Univ . of N. Y.\n1885. Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, West Chester.\nPAULINE W. SPENCER .\n\n1893. Teacher of Literature, Girls' Normnal School, 3421 Race St., Philadelphia.\n\nRICHARD JONES, A. M., '81, Iowa Coll.; Ph. D., '93, Heidelberg, Germany\n1893. Professor of English Language and Literature, Swarthmore, College, Swarthmore..\n\nEMMA J. LONGSTRETH, M. E., '76, State Nor. Sch. , West Chester, Pa.\n1894. Teacher of History, Girls' High School, 2103 Park Ave. , Philadelphia\nMISS M. J. MCCRACKEN .\n\n1887. Assistant Principal, Franklin School, 4632 Center Ave. , Pittsburgh.\n\nGEO. MORRIS PHILIPS, A. M., '74, Ph. D., '84, Bucknell Univ.\n1881. Principal of State Normal School, West Chester.\n\n1894.\n\nFRANKLIN B. SAWVEL, A. M. , Ph. D., '86, Wittenberg Coll.\n\n1895.\n\nS. H. ALBRO, Ph. D., Colgate Univ.\n\n1890. Professor of English Literature and Philosophy, Thiel College, Greenville.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, Mansfield.\n\nALICE M. BENTLEY, Grad. , '83, State Normal School, Edinboro.\n1886. Teacher in Public Schools , 436 North St., Meadville.\n\nMARY HEINS, B. E. , '87. Keystone Nor. Sch., Kutztown.\n1887.\n\nTeacher in Public Schools , Eshbach.\n\nE. C. LAVERS, A. M. , Ph . D.\nPrincipal of High School, 324 Cattell St. , Easton.\n\nJAMES MACALISTER, A. M., LL.D. , Brown Univ.; LL.B., Univ. of New\nYork; Officier d'Academie, Paris .\n1890. President of Drexel Institute, Philadelphia .\n\nSYDNEY T. SKIDMORE, A. M. , '95, Amherst Coll.\n\n1893. Direc. of Phys, and Chem. Laboratories, Nor. Sch., 1706 N. 18th St., Philadelphia.\n\n"}
{"page": 1086, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\nRHODE ISLAND .\nLIFE MEMBER.\n\n1882.\n\nТноOMAS W. BICKNELL.\nProvidence.\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1890.\n\nWILLIAM E. WILSON, A. M., '75, Monmouth Coll. , I11.\n\n1891.\n\nТноMAS B. STOCKWELL.\n\n1892.\n\nPrincipal State Normal School, 387 Olney St., Providence .\n\n1875. Commissioner of Public Schools, Box 1432, Providence.\n\nHORACE S. TARBELL, A. M. , '62, Wesleyan Univ.\n1884.\n\n1892.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools , 169 Power St. , Providence .\n\nBENJAMIN BAKER , A. M. , '78 , Brown Univ.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 10 Mt. Vernon Court, Newport.\nGEORGE E. CHURCH. А. М. , '78, Amherst Coll.\n1889. Principal Peace Street Grammar School, 37 Adelaide Ave., Providence .\n\nGILMAN C. FISHER, A. B., '69, A. M., '86, Colby Univ.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 110 Central Ave. , Pawtucket.\nEMMA G. HARRIS.\n\n1893. Trustee Harris Institute Library, 25 Harris Ave., Woonsocket.\n1893.\n\nERNEST HENRY JOHNSON, A. B. , '91 , А. М. , 192, Brown Univ.\n\n1894.\n\nABBY L. MARLATT , B. Se.. '88. M. Sc., '90, State Agri. Coll.. Kan.\n1894. Teacher in Manual Training High School, 11 Greene St. , Providence.\n\n1891. Master of A. P. Hoyt Grammar School , 47 Warren Ave. , East Providence.\n\n1895. WALTER BALLOU JACOBS, A. M., '85, Brown Univ.\nAssociate Professor of Pedagogy, Brown Univ. , 362 Point St., Providence.\nMRS. SUSAN S. HARRIMAN.\n1893. Principal Froebel School and Training Class, 44 Angell St., Providence.\n\nSOUTH CAROLINA .\nLIFE MEMBER.\n\n1891.\n\nMARTHA SCHOFIELD .\n1865. Founder and General Manager of Schofield Nor. and Industrial Sch.. Aiken .\nACTIVE MEMBER .\n\n1895.\n\nD. B. JOHNSON, A. M., '80, Univ . of Tenn.\nPresident Winthrop Normal and Industrial School , Rock Hill .\n\nSOUTH DAKOTA.\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1890.\n\nWм. H. H. BEADLE, A. B., '61, A. M., '64, LL.B., '67, Univ . of Mich.\n1889. President of State Normal School, Madison.\n\n1892.\n\nJOSEPH W. MAUCK, A. B., '75, A. M., '77, LL.D. , '95, Hillsdale Coll.\n1891. President of University of South Dakota, Vermillion.\n\n1894.\n\nALEX. M. ROWE, A. M., '72, Oberlin Coll.\n\n1895.\n\nΚΑTE G. RYAN.\n\n1891.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Sioux Falls.\n\nMt.\n\nVernon .\n\n1071\n\n"}
{"page": 1087, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n1072\n\nSOUTH DAKOTA- Continued.\n1895.\n\nMAMIE E. RYAN.\nMt.\n\nVernon.\n\nGEORGE M. SMITH, A. B., '73, A. M. , 77, Colby Univ.\nProfessor of Greek and Pedagogy, University of South Dakota, Vermillion.\nEDMUND J. VERT.\n\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 504 Lynn St., Yankton.\n\nTENNESSEE .\nLIFE DIRECTOR .\n\n1889.\n\nBOARD OF EDUCATION .\nNashville.\nLIFE MEMBER .\n\n1887.\n\nCLARA CONWAY.\nMemphis.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1886. WILLIAM ROBERTSON GARRETT, A. M., '57, Wm. and Mary Coll.; Ph . D.,\n'91, Univ. of Nashville.\nProf. of American History, Peabody Normal Coll . , S. Summer St., Nashville.\n\n1887. WHARTON STEWART JONES, A. B., '73, Kentucky Univ.\n1881. Principal of Memphis Institute, 501 Vance St. , Memphis.\n\n1889.\n\nW. T. WHITE, A. B., '77, A. M., '93, Univ. of Tenn.\n\n1892.\n\nWILLIAM H. PAYNE, LL.D., Univ. of Mich.; Ph. D. , Univ. of Nashville.\n\n1885.\n\nPrincipal of Girls' High School, 508 Broad St., Knoxville.\n\nChancellor of Univ. of Nashville and Pres. of Peabody Normal Coll., 12 Lindsley\nAve., Nashville.\n\n1895. JOHN BRADEN, A. В., А. М., Ohio Wesleyan Univ.; D. D. , Iowa Wes. Univ .\n1867.\n\nPresident of Central Tennessee College, 82 Maple St. , Nashville.\n\nELIZA CROSTHWAIT.\nPresident of National Bureau of Education, 306 Willcox Building, Nashville.\n\nTEXAS .\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1874. ALEX. HOGG, A. M., '57, Randolph-Macon Coll.; '74, Wm. and Mary Coll.;\n'89, Univ. of Ala.\n1892.\n\n1883.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 303 Lamar St., Fort Worth.\n\nJOSEPH BALDWIN, A. B., '52, A. M., '56, LL.D., '90, Bethany Coll.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, University of Texas, 1801 Cong. Ave. , Austin.\n\n1892. Н. С. PRITCHETT, А. М., '78, Pritchett Institute, Glasgow, Mo.\n1891. Principal of Sam Houston Normal Institute, Huntsville.\n\n1894. OSCAR HENRY COOPER, A. B.,' 72, Yale ; A.M. , LL.D., ' 91, Univ. of Nashville.\n1890.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Galveston.\n\nA. H. WILKINS.\n418 Main St., Dallas .\n\n1895.\n\nJAMES M. CARLISLE, A. M. , Emory Coll. , Ga\n1891. State Superintendent of Public Instruction , Austin.\n\nJ. M. FENDLEY, A. B., '82, Univ . of Nashville.\n1885. Principal of Avenue L School, 3202 Avenue N, Galveston.\n\n"}
{"page": 1088, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1073\n\nTEXAS- Continued.\n\n1895.\n\nT. G. HARRIS, A. B., '76, A. M. , '80, Carson Coll ., Tenn.\n1895.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Austin.\n\nH. S. PARSONS, A. B., Valparaiso, Ind.\n1887. Principal Southwestern Normal College, Italy.\n\nW. S. SUTTON, A. M. , '84, Arkansas Univ.\n1887. Superintendent of Schools, High School Building, Houston.\n\nUTAH.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1891.\n\nELLA M. DUKES.\n1891. Teacher of English, High School, 349 E. 1st South St., Salt Lake City.\n\nW. R. MALONE, A. B. , '85, Ohio State Univ.\n1891.\n1892.\n\nPrincipal of High School, Salt Lake City .\n\nGEORGE CAROTHERS YOUNG.\n1892. Director of Music, Public Schools, 150 E. Brigham St. , Salt Lake City.\n\n1894. ALICE EMILY ROWE, A. M., '94, Upper Iowa Univ.\n1893. Teacher of Latin and Greek, High School, 463 E. 1st South St. , Salt Lake City.\n\n1895. D. R. AUGSBURG, B. P., '84, Syracuse Univ.\n1891.\n\nSupervisor of Drawing, Public Schools, Salt Lake City.\n\nWILLIAM JASPER KERR, B. Sc. , D. B.\n1894. President of Brigham Young College, Logan.\n\nJ. F. MILLSPAUGH, A. B., '89, Univ. of Mich .; M. D., '83, Univ. of Pa.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 209 13th East St., Salt Lake City.\nJ. B. MORETON .\n1890. Clerk of Board of Education, 618 E. 3d South St. , Salt Lake City.\n\nJAMES E. TALMAGE, D. Sc. D., Ph. D., F. R. M. S., F. R. S., Edinburgh,\nF. G. S.\n1893. President and Deseret Professor of Geology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City.\nUNIVERSITY OF UTАН.\nSalt Lake City .\n\nVERMONT.\nACTIVE\n\n1895.\n\nMEMBER.\n\nALFRED TURNER, B. Sc., '93, Amherst Coll .\n1894. Superintendent of Schools , 51 Roberts Ave. , Rutland.\n\nVIRGINIA.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1891. JOHN E. MASSEY, LL.D., '93, Howard Coll ., Ala.\n1890. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Richmond.\n\n1894.\n\nJOHN H. BADER.\n1893.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Staunton.\n\nWM. F. Fox, A. M., '58, Richmond Coll.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Richmond.\n68\n\n"}
{"page": 1089, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n1074\n\nWASHINGTON.\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1884.\n\nHENRY M. JAMES, A. B., '61, A. M., '64, Williams Coll.\n\n1891.\n\nЈоHN HULL.\n\n1893.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Tacoma.\n\nNew Whatcom.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1891.\n\nFRANK J. BARNARD.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 7th and Marion Sts., Seattle.\n\n1895. D. BEMISS, A. M. , '66, Univ. of Toronto.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, 1307 3d Ave., Spokane.\n\nMARK W. HARRINGTON, A. M., '69, LL.D. , '94, Univ. of Mich.\n1895. President of University of Washington, Seattle.\n\nWEST VIRGINIA.\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1890.\n\nW. H. ANDERSON, A. M., '89, Bethany Coll.\n\n1891.\n\nBYRD PRILLERMAN, B. Sc., '89, Knoxville Coll.; A. M.,'94, Westminster Coll.\n\n1893.\n\nJ. WALTER BARNES, A. M., West Virginia Univ.\n\n1894.\n\nROBERT A. ARMSTRONG, A. M., '90, West Virginia Univ.\n\n1885. Superintendent of Schools, 45 14th St., Wheeling.\n1805. Professor of English Language, W. Va. Colored Institute, Charleston.\n\n1892. Principal of State Normal School , Fairmont.\n\n1893.\n\nProfessor of English Literature, West Virginia University, Morgantown .\n\nMOLLIE VA. SMITH.\nFirst Assistant, Glenville State Normal School, Clarksburg.\n\n1895.\n\nJ. L. GOODKNIGHT, A. B., '71, Cumberland Univ., Tenn.; B. D., '79, Union\nTheological Sem., N. Y.; D.D. , '90, Waynesburg Coll.\n1895. President of West Virginia University, Morgantown.\nD. W. SHIELDS.\nPrincipal of High School, New Martinsville.\nW. M. STRAUS.\n1888. Superintendent of Schools, Parkersburg .\n\nWISCONSIN.\nLIFE MEMBERS .\n\n1884.\n\nGEORGE SUMNER ALBEE, A. B., '64, Univ. of Mich.\n1871. I'resident of State Normal School, Oshkosh .\nALUMNI ASSOCIATION.\nCity Normal School , Milwaukee.\n\nJOHN A. AYLWARD.\n17 W. Doty St., Madison.\n\nGEORGE BECK, M. Sc., '63, Univ. of Mich.\n125 Elm St. , Platteville.\n\nBOARD OF EDUCATION.\nBeloft.\n\n"}
{"page": 1090, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\nWISCONSIN- Continued .\n1884.\n\nBOARD OF EDUCATION .\nJanesville .\n\nBOARD OF EDUCATION.\nLa Crosse.\n\nBOARD OF EDUCATION .\nMilwaukee .\n\nBOARD OF EDUCATION.\nOshkosh,\n\nBOARD OF EDUCATION.\nWatertown.\n\nBOARD OF REGENTS, State Normal Schools.\nMadison.\n\nJ. H. CARPENTER, A. M., '74, Yale; LL.D., '76, Univ. of Wis .\nMadison.\n\nWILLARD H. CHANDLER.\nState Inspector of High Schools, Madison.\n\nEDWIN A. CHARLTON, A. B., '54, A. M., '57, Dartmouth.\nEditor and Publisher, Brodhead.\nL. H. CLARK.\n1892. Teacher of Mathematics , State Normal School, River Falls.\n\nCOUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS' ASSOCIATION OF WISCONSIN.\nCOUNTY TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION .\nMilwaukee.\n\nPHILIP EDEN , Ph. B., '72, Univ. of Wisconsin .\nPlatteville.\n\nJOHN Q. EMERY, A. M. , Ph. B.\n1895.\n\nState Superintendent of Public Schools, Madison.\n\nJOHN F. FLAVIN.\n1874. County Superintendent of Schools of Dodge County, Watertown.\n\nL. D. HARVEY, Ph. D., '91, Milton Coll.\n1892. President of State Normal School, 225 23d St., Milwaukee.\nA. J. HUTTON.\n1894. Institute Conductor, State Normal School, 1105 Main St., Whitewater\nCHAS. H. NYE.\n1892. County Superintendent of Schools of Grant County, Lancaster.\n\nW. D. PARKER, A. M., Univ. of Wis.\n1874. President of State Normal School, River Falls .\nJOHN B. PARKINSON.\n803 State St. , Madison.\nPRINCIPALS' ASSOCIATION OF WISCONSIN.\nPRINCIPALS' ASSOCIATION .\nMilwaukee.\n\nPUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS.\nJanesville.\n\nSAMUEL SHAW.\nCrandon.\n\nROBERT C. SPENCER.\n178 Prospect Ave. , Milwaukee.\nJOSHUA STARK.\nMilwaukee .\n\n1075\n\n"}
{"page": 1091, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\n1076\n\nWISCONSIN- Continued.\n1884.\n\nSTATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY.\nMadison.\n\nSTATE NORMAL SCHOOL .\nPlatteville .\n\nSTATE NORMAL SCHOOL, ATHENAEUM LITERARY SOCIETY.\nPlatteville.\n\nSTATE NORMAL SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIAN SOCIETY\nPlatteville.\n\nJ. W. STEARNS, A. M., Harvard; LL.D., Chicago .\nProfessor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, Univ. of Wis. , 512 Wisconsin Ave. , Madison.\n\nI. N. STEWART, B. Sc., '62, Univ . of Wis .\nEditor Staff of Milwaukee Journal, Appleton.\nTEACHERS' ASSOCIATION OF WISCONSIN .\n\nTEACHERS' CORPS, INTERMEDIATE AND UPPER SECTION.\nMilwaukee .\n\nTEACHERS' CORPS, PRIMARY SECTION.\nMilwaukee .\n\nJ. B. THAYER.\nMadison.\n\nWILLIAM C. WHITFORD, A. M. , '58, Union Coll. , N. Y.; D. D., '85, Blackburn Univ. , Ill.\n1858. President of Milton College, Milfon .\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1887. ALBERT SALISBURY Ph. D., Milton Coll. , Wis .\n1885. President of State Normal School, Whitewater.\n\n1889.\n\nSANFORD A. HOOPER, A. B., '72, A. M., '82, Beloit Coll .\n1893. Principal South Side High School, Milwaukee.\n\n1890. JUDSON E. HOYT, A. B., '80, Univ. of Wis.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 512 Wilson Ave., Menomonie.\n1891.\n\nMARIE DOYLE.\n1894. Supervisor of Practice, State Normal School, Platteville.\n\n1893.\n\nWM. GEO. BRUCE.\nEditor of American School Board Journal, 435 Hanover St. , Milwaukee.\n\n1894.\n\nR. B. DUDGEON, A. B., '76, Univ. of Wis .\n1891.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 520 Jefferson St. , Madison.\n\nDANIEL FULCOMER, A. B., '84, A. M., '88, Wesleyan Coll. , Iowa.\n1895.\n\nProfessor of Psychology and Pedagogy, State Normal School, Milwaukee.\n\nD. D. MAYNE.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools , Janesville .\n\nT. B. PRAY, A. M., '72, Univ. of Chicago.\nPresident of State Normal School, Stevens Point.\n\n1895.\n\nWARREN J. BRIER.\n1889. Professor of Literature and Institute Conductor, State Normal School, River Falls.\nC. E. BROWN.\n1034 Spaight St., Madison.\n\nSILAS Y. GILLAN, A. M., '87, Ill. Wesleyan Univ.\n1892.\n\nEditor Western Teacher, 141 Wisconsin St. , Milwaukee.\n\nLOU ALICE HICKS .\n\"Euclid\" Hotel, Superior .\n\n"}
{"page": 1092, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1077\n\nWISCONSIN- Continued.\n1895.\n\nJULIA B. MAIN .\nTeacher in Public Schools of Minneapolis, Platteville.\n\nELLEN C. SABIN, A. M., '95, Univ. of Wis.\n1895.\n\nPresident of Milwaukee and Downer Colleges, 614 Milwaukee St. , Milwaukee.\n\nCARRIE J. SMITH.\n1894. Teacher of American History, State Normal School, River Falls.\n\nROSE C. SWART, A. M., '95, Univ. of Wis.\n1884. Inspector of Practice Teaching, State Normal School, 37 Elm St. , Oshkosh.\nCARRIE SYLVESTER .\nBoscobel.\nC. H. SYLVESTER.\n1894. Institute Conductor, State Normal School , Stevens Point.\nSAMUEL B. TODD, Ph . B.\nMadison.\n\nE. V. WERNICK.\n1895. President of Board of Education, Hillsboro.\nCHARLES F. A. ZIMMERMAN.\n1888. Principal of 17th District School, 622 Otjen St., Milwaukee.\n\nWYOMING .\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1894.\n\nESTELLE REEL.\n\n1894. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol, Cheyenne.\n\n1895. A. A. JOHNSON, A. B. , '75, A. M. , '79, D. D., '88, De Pauw Univ.\n1891. President of University of Wyoming, 7th and Sheridan Sts ., Laramie.\nWM. MARQUARDT .\n1800. Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, Laramie.\n\nHENRY MERZ, B. Sc. , A. M., Blackburn Univ.\n1888. Prof. of Pol . Science and Prin. of Nor. Dept., Univ. of Wyo . , 407 9th St. , Laramie.\n\nCANADA .\nACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\n1890.\n\nJAMES L. HUGHES .\nInspector of Schools, Corner of York and Richmond Sts . , Toronto .\n\n1891.\n\nS. B. SINCLAIR, A. M. , '93, Univ. of Toronto .\n\n1895.\n\nMRS. MAREAN HUGHES.\nSuperintendent of Kindergartens, Public Schools, 58 Henry St. , Toronto .\n\n1893. Vice Principal of Normal School, Ottawa.\n\n"}
{"page": 1093, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nTO\n\nLIFE DIRECTORS, LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS .\n\nCapital letters following years indicate : D, Life Director; L, Life\nMember; A, Active Member.\nAckerman, J. H. , Ore . , 1895, A.\nAiton, George B. , Minn. , 1894, A.\nAlbee, George Sumner, Wis . , 1884, L.\nAlbro, S. H. , Pa. , 1895, A.\nAllen, Ira W. , III. , 1870, L.\nAllensworth, Allen, N. Mex. , 1892, A.\nAlmond, W. S., Ind. , 1891, A.\nAlumni Association, Milwaukee, Wis . , 1884, L\nAnderson, Frances O. , Colo. , 1895, Α.\nAnderson, John, J. , N. Y. , 1871, L.\nAnderson, W. H., W. Va. , 1890, A.\nArbury, Frederick W., Mich., 1895, A.\nArey, Oliver C., N. Y. , 1870, L.\nArmstrong, Robert A. , W. Va., 1894, Α.\nArnold, Sarah L. , Mass. , 1895, A.\nAshmore, Otis, Ga., 1894, A.\nAtlanta Univ. , Ga. , 1895, A.\nAugsburg, D. R. , Utah, 1895, A.\nAvery, Lewis B. , Cal. , 1895, A.\nAvery, Rachel F., Pa. , 1879, L.\nAylward, John A. , Wis . , 1884, L.\nAyres. Edward, Ind ., 1892, A.\nAyres, Henrietta B. , Colo., 1893 , A.\nBabcock, C. A. , Pa. , 1893, A.\nBabcock, J. W. , N. Y. , 1894, A.\nBader, John H. , Va. , 1894, A.\nBagen, Eugene D. , N. Y. , 1894, A.\nBaker, Benjamin, R. 1. , 1892, A.\nBaker, James H. , Colo. , 1884, A.\nBaker, O. W. , Mass ., 1892, A.\nBaker, Thomas O. , N. Y. , 1892, Δ.\nBaker, W. H., Ga. , 1890, L.\nBaldwin, Joseph, Tex. , 1883, A.\nBalliet, Thomas M. , Mass. , 1895, A.\nBanker, Lizzie, Neb . , 1890, A.\nBardeen, C. W. , N. Y. , 1890, A.\nBardwell, C. M. , III . , 1892, A.\nBarker, Georgia, Mich . , 1894, A.\nBarnard, Frank J. , Wash. , 1891 A.\nBarnard, Henry, Conn. , 1884, L.\nBarnard, James U. , Miss. , 1893, A.\nBarnes, Earl, Cal. , 1891, A.\nBarnes , J. Walter, W. Va. , 1893, A.\nBarringer , Wm. N. , N. J. , 1894, A.\nBartholomew, W. H. , Ky. , 1877, L.\nBascom, John, Mass ., 1884, L.\nBashford, James W. , Ohio, 1894, A.\nBass, E. E., Miss., 1895, A.\nBates, Emma F. , N. D. , 1893, A.\nBeadle, Wm. H. H. , S. D. , 1890, A.\nBeals, S. DeWitt, Neb . , 1876, L.\nBeardshear, W. M., Iowa, 1894, A\n\nBeardsley, Elias J. , N. Y. , 1892, A.\nBeasley, A. W. , III. , 1895, A.\nBeattys, Frank D. , N. Y., 1894, A.\nBeck, George, Wis . , 1884, L.\nBeggs , Robert H. , Colo. , 1884, A.\nBelknap, Emmet, N. Y. , 1892, A.\nBell, Alex. Graham, D. C. , 1884, L.\nBell, Wm. A. , Ind. , 1876, L.\nBemiss , D. , Wash . , 1895 , A.\n\nBenedict, W. H. , N. Y. , 1892, A.\nBennett, C. W. , Ohio, 1884, L.\n\nBennett, Hampton, Ohio, 1880, L.\nBentley, Alice M. , Pa. , 1895, A.\nBenton, Geo. W. , Ind . , 1894, A.\nBessey, Chas. E. , Neb . , 1895, A.\nBicknell , Thomas W. , R. I. , 1882, L.\nBingham, Robert, N. C. , 1884, L.\nBishop, Eliza A. , Pa. , 1892, A.\nBishop, J. Remsen, Ohio, 1894, A.\nBishop, Nathan L. , Conn. , 1895, A.\nBlack, James C. , Mo. , 1893, A.\nBlack, Wm . H., Mo. , 1895, A.\nBlack, S. W. , Kan. , 1895, A.\nBlaisdell , H. R. , Ky . , 1893 , A.\nBlake, Henry W., Mass. , 1891, A.\nBliss, Frederick L., Mich . , 1895, A.\nBlodgett, A. B. , N. Y. , 1890, A.\n\nBoard of Ed., Abilene, Kan. , 1886, L.\nBoard of Ed. , Beloit, Wis. , 1884, L.\nBoard of Ed. , Dodge City, Kan. , 1886, L.\n\nBoard of Ed. , Janesville, Wis. , 1884, L.\nBoard of Ed. , La Crosse, Wis. , 1884, L.\nBoard of Ed. , Milwaukee, Wis. , 1884, L.\nBoard of Ed. , Nashville, Tenn. , 1889, D.\nBoard of Ed., Northfield, Minn. , 1890, L.\nBoard of Ed. , Oshkosh, Wis. , 1884, L.\nBoard of Ed. , Ottawa, Kan. , 1886, L.\nBoard of Ed. , Sedgwick, Kan. , 1886, L.\nBoard of Ed. , Watertown, Wis . , 1884, L.\nBoard of Regents , State Nor. Sch . , Wis. , 1884, L.\nBobo, Sophia H. , Kan. , 1895, A.\nBodwell, Edwin J. , Neb . , 1895, A.\nBomberger, F. J. , Minn. , 1895, A.\nBoone, Richard G., Mich., 1884, A.\nBooth, E. R., Ohio, 1893, A.\nBostwick, O. P. , Iowa, 1891, A.\nBouton, Rosa, Neb ., 1894, A.\nBoyd, David R., Okla., 1892, A.\nBoyd, W. W., Ohio, 1894, Α.\nBoyden, Albert G., Mass. , 1890, A.\nBraden, John, Tenn. , 1895, A.\nBradley, Charles A. , Colo. , 1893, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1094, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX TO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\nBradley, Milton, Mass . , 1892, A.\nBradley, John E. , Ill., 1889, A.\nBrier, Warren J. , Wis . , 1895 , A.\nBriggs, Egbert L., Mich . , 1895, A.\nBright, O. T., III . , 1893, A.\nBrooke, Emma , Ohio, 1895, A.\nBrooks, Edward, Pa., 1876 , L.\nBrooks, Sarah, C., Minn . , 1894, A.\nBrown, Adelaide, Mo. , 1895, A.\nBrown, C. E., Wis . , 1895, A.\nBrown, Elmer E., Cal. , 1891, A.\nBrown, Geo. P., Ill. , 1880, L.\nBrown, Helen M., Colo . , 1895, A.\nBrown, Jesse H., Ind. , 1891, A.\nBrown, Le Roy D., Cal . , 1888 , D.\nBrown, Miss Marion, La. , 1889, A.\nBruce, Wm. G. , Wis. , 1893, A.\nBrumbaugh . M. G., Pa. , 1893, A.\nBryan, Wm. L. , Ind., 1893, A.\nBuchanan, Geo. V., Mo. , 1894, A.\nBuchanan, John T., Mo., 1890, A.\nBuehrle, R. K., Pa. , 1892, A.\nBulkley, Julia, III. , 1895, A.\nBurdick, A. Hall, N. Y. , 1892, А.\nBurk, Frederic L., Cal . , 1892, A.\nBurke, Mrs. B. Ellen, N. Y., 1894, A.\nBurns, James C. , Ill. , 1895, A.\nBurns, J. J. , Ohio, 1880, L.\nBurroughs, Geo. S. , Ind. , 1895, A.\nBurton, Albert F., Iowa, 1894, A.\nButler, Nicholas M., N. Y. , 1885, A.\nCalkins, Ella, N. Y. , 1895, A.\nCalkins, N. A. , N. Y. , 1879, L.\nCalkins, F. L. , III . , 1895, A.\nCamp, David N., Conn. , 1892, A.\nCampbell , A. G. , Kan. , 1886, L.\nCammack, Ira I. , Mo. , 1895, A.\n\nCanfield, James H. , Ohio, 1884, A.\nCannon, Geo. L., Colo ., 1505, A.\nCarpenter, J. H. , Wis . , 1884, L.\nCarter, Chas. M. , Colo. , 1892, A.\nCase, Richard, N. J. , 1894, A.\nCasey, Wm. V., Colo.. 1895 , A.\nCassidy, Rose, III., 1890, A.\nCarlisle. James M. , Tex., 1895, A.\n\nChalmers, W. W., Mich., 1895, А.\nChandler, John W. , N. Y. , 1890, A.\nChandler, Willard H. , Wis ., 1884. L.\nChapman, Frederick E., Mass . , 1894, A.\nCharlton, Edwin A. , Wis . , 1884, L.\nCheney, Augustus J., 111. , 1884, L.\nCheney, Francis J., N. Y. , 1891, Α.\nChurch, George E., R. I. , 1892, А.\nClancy, Albert W., 111. , 1892, Α.\nClarke, Della, Kan. , 1894, A.\nClark, Frank H. , Colo . , 1886, L.\nClark, Jessie L. , Kan. , 1895, A.\nClark, John S., Mass. , 1892, A.\nClark, L. H. , Wis. , 1884, L.\nClark, W. A. , Neb., 1895, A.\nClute, Oscar, Fla ., 1895, A.\nCoddington, A. O. , III . , 1893, A.\nCoe, Emily M. , N. Y. , 1880, L.\nCogswell, Francis , Mass. , 1893, A.\nCole, Chas . W. , N. Y. , 1892, A.\nCole, Wm . H., Ohio, 1870, L.\nColeman, J. D. , Ky. , 1892, A.\nCollin, Alonzo, Iowa, 1894, A.\nCollins , J. H. , III., 1895, A.\nColumbia College, N. Y. , 1895, A.\nComings, Fannie S. , N. Y. , 1895, A.\nComstock, Theo. B. , Ariz. , 1895, А.\nCongdon, C. H. , Minn . , 1894, A.\nConway, Clara, Tenn. , 1887, L.\n\n1079\n\nCook, E. H., N. Y., 1884, A.\n\nCook, John W., III., 1890, A.\nCooper, Frank B. , Iowa, 1894, A.\nCooper, Frank Irving, Mass., 1893, A.\nCooper, Oscar H., Tex. , 1894, A.\nCorbett, Henry R. , Neb . , 1890, A.\nCornell, L. S. , Colo., 1895, A.\nCorthell, W. J. , Me. , 1892, A.\nCorson, O. T. , Ohio, 1887, A.\nCounty Superintendents' Association, Wis., 1881, L.\n\nCo. Teachers' Associa. , Milwaukee, Wis., 1884, L.\nCox, Edwin B. , Ohio, 1889, A.\nCox, Henry C. , III. , 1895, A.\nCox, Martin Luther, N. J. , 1893, А.\nCox, Ora E. , Ind. , 1895, A.\nCoy, E. W. , Ohio, 1883, L.\nCrosier, M. E., Iowa, 1895, A.\nCross, Etta, Kan. , 1895, A.\nCrosthwait, Eliza, Tenn. , 1895, A.\nCropsey, Miss N., Ind., 1891, A.\nCrouch, Sarah E. , Mo. , 1895, A.\nCrouse, Mrs. J. N. , Ill . , 1893, A.\nCruikshank, James, N. Y. , 1864, L.\nCurran, Ulysses T. , N. M. , 1866, L.\nCurry, Robert, Neb . , 1884, L.\nCurtiss, Frederick A. , Conn. , 1894, Α.\nCurtis, Virgil G. , Mass. , 1892, A.\nDavidson, Charles C., Ohio, 1880, L.\nDavidson, Wm. M. , Kan. , 1890, A.\nDavis , Buel T. , Minn. , 1894, A.\nDavis, Chas. M. , N. J. , 1893, A.\nDavis, John W. , N. Y. , 1895, A.\nDay, L. W. , Ohio, 1888 , D.\n\nDeane, Chas . W., Conn. , 1893, A.\nDeatrick, W. W., Pa . , 1892, A.\nDe Garmo, Chas . , Pa. , 1889, A.\nDelano, Edward C., III. , 1895, A.\nDenfeld, Robert E., Minn. , 1890, A.\nDewey, James A. , Pa. , 1893, A.\nDick, Fred, Colo., 1895, A.\nDietrich, Charles H. , Ky. , 1891, A.\nDillman, L. M., III ., 1884, A.\nDodd, Arthur A. , Mo. , 1895, A.\nDodson, Mary F. , Ky. , 1892, A.\nDofilemyer , J. J. , Iowa, 1894, A.\nDonohoe, Mary J. , N. J. , 1894, A.\nDorland, James E. , Ky. , 1892, A.\nDougherty, N. C., III. , 1887, D.\nDowning, A. S. , N. Y. , 1891, A.\nDowns, Edgar R. , Colo. , 1894, A.\nDoyle, Marie, Wis . , 1891, A.\nDozier, Melville, Cal., 1895, A.\nDraper, Andrew S. , III . , 1888, A.\nDudgeon, R. B. , Wis. , 1894, A.\nDukes, Ella M. , Utah, 1891, A.\nDunton, Larkin, Mass . , 1895, A.\nDutton, Bettie A. , Ohio, 1880, L.\nDutton, S. T. , Mass ., 1895, A.\nDyer, Frank R. , Kan. , 1891, A.\nEaston, Warren, La. , 1895, A.\nEaton, John, D. C., 1893, A.\nEden, Philip, Wis. , 1884, L.\nEggleston, Anna K. , N. Y. , 1895, A.\nElgas, Mathew J., N. Y., 1891, A.\nEliot, Charles W. , Mass . , 1892, A.\nEllis, John C. III . , 1887, A.\nEllis, Wm . Austin, Mich . , 1887, A.\nEly, Sarah Y. , N, J. , 1892, A.\nEmerson, Henry P., N. Y. ,\n93, A.\nEmery, John Q. , Wis. , 1884, L.\nEnglish, Rebecca F. , Cal., 1888 , L.\nEngstrom, A. E. , Minn. , 1895, A.\nEvans, Charles H., Mo. , 1886, L.\nEverett, Russell M. , N. J., 1894, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1095, "printed_page": null, "text": "1080\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nFairchild, E. T. , Kan. , 1886, L.\nFairchild, George T. , Kan. , 1886, D.\nFarnsworth , S. A. , Minn. , 1894 , A.\n\nFarrell, Edward D., N. Y. , 1890, A.\nFelker, Allie M. , Cal. , 1895, A.\nFendley , J. M. , Tex., 1895, А.\nFernald, M. C. , Me. , 1890, A.\nFisher, Gilman C. , R. I. , 1892, A.\nFisher, H. W. , Pa., 1892, A.\nFiske, Herbert F., III . , 1891, A.\nFitch, Ferris S., Mich ., 1890, A.\nFitch, Mary A. , Neb. , 1895, A.\nFitzgerald, Ella, Ill., 1895, A.\nFitzpatrick, Frank A. , Mass. , 1884, A.\nFlavin, John F., Wis . , 1884, L.\nFleming, Mary A. , N. Y. , 1890, A.\nFleshman, Arthur C. , Ky. , 1894, A.\nFlick, W. B. , Ind., 1895, A.\nForbes, Alexander, III . , 1876, L.\nForbes, Ira L. , Mich. , 1895, A.\nFoshay, James A. , Cal., 1893, A.\nFoster, Chas. F., Pa . , 1892, A.\nFowler, George R.. Mass. , 1895, A.\nFowler, W. K. , Neb . , 1892, A.\nFox, Wm. F. , Va. , 1894, A.\nFreer , H. H. , Ia. , 1884, A.\nFrench , Harlan P., N. Y., 1891, A.\nFrench, Geo. W. , N. Y. , 1895 , A.\nFriedberg , William B. , N. Y. , 1892, A.\nFrost, H. H., Mich ., 1895, A.\n\nFulcomer, Daniel, Wis., 1894, A.\nFulton, Robert B. , Miss. , 1894, A.\nFutrall , Thomas A. , Ark. , 1887. A.\nGalbreath, Louis H. , Minn. , 1887, A.\nGarber, John H., Iowa, 1895, A.\nGarrett, William R. , Tenn. , 1886, A.\n\nGastman, E. A., 111., 1895, A.\n\nGuibar, Louise, Colo., 1895, A.\nGulick, M. Alice, N. J. , 1894, A.\nGunby, Andrew A. , La., 1890, A.\nGuss, Roland W. , Colo ., 1895, A.\nHadley, Hiram, N. Mex. , 1891, Α.\nHagar, Daniel Barnard, Mass ., 1864, L.\nHaight, R. A. , III., 1895, A.\nHailmann, Mrs. Eudora L. , D. C. , 1883, A.\nHailmann, W. N. , D. C. , 1879, A.\nHall, Caleb G., N. Y. , 1885, D.\nHall, Dara W. , Ill ., 1891 , A.\n\nHall, G. Stanley, Mass. , 1801, A.\nHall, Isaac Freeman, Mass. , 1895, A.\nHallock, Joseph A. , N. J. , 1894, A.\nHamilton, James M. , 1895, A.\nHampton, Eleanor, Ill., 1895, A.\nHancock, John A. , Colo. , 1895, A.\nHanus , Paul H., Mass. , 1895, A.\nHarper, William R. , III . , 1895, A.\nHarriman, Mrs. Susan S. , R. I. , 1895, A.\nHarrington, Mark W. , Wash. , 1895, A.\nHarris, Ada Van Stone, Mich. , 1895, A.\nHarris, Edward L. , Ohio, 1894, A.\nHarris, Emma G. , R. I.. 1892, A.\nHarris, Henry E. , N. J. , 1893, A.\nHarris , Julia A. , Ohio, 1894, A.\nHarris, T. G. , Tex. , 1895 , A.\nHarris, Wm. T. , D. C. , 1876, L.\nHarrison, Elizabeth , III. , 1895, A.\nHarrison, Samuel A. , IΠΙ. , 1895, Α.\nHart, Albert Bushnell, Mass., 1895, A.\nHartigan, Mary S. L. , III. , 1895, A.\nHartley , E. T. , Neb . , 1895, A.\nHartman, Mary, Ill. , 1895, A.\nHarvard University, Mass. , 1895, A.\nHarvey, G. L. , Mo. , 1886, L.\n\nHarvey, L. D. , Wis., 1884, L.\n\nGault, F. B. , Idaho, 1886, A.\nGayhart, Walter C., Nev. , 1895, A.\nGeer, David S., III . , 1886, A.\nGeorge, Austin, Mich ., 1895, A.\nGettemy, Mrs. Mary E. , 111. , 1892, A.\nGiffin, W. M. , 111., 1895, A.\nGilbert, C. B. , Minn. , 1893 , A.\nGilchrist, J. C., Iowa, 1880, L.\nGill, Eliza C. , Mo. , 1895, A.\nGillan, Silas Y. , Wis. , 1895, A.\nGlover, Nathan L. , Ohio, 1889, А.\nGoodhue, Lincoln P. , III . , 1893, A.\nGoodknight, J. L. , W. Va. , 1895, A.\nGoodnough, Walter S., N. Y. , 1882, A.\nGorton, Lewis G., Mich . , 1890, A.\nGoss, David K., Ind. , 1895, A.\nGotwals, Jos. K. , Pa. , 1892, A.\nGoudy, A. K. , Neb . , 1895, Α .\nGove, Aaron, Colo ., 1888, D.\nGraham, Hugh A. , Mich. , 1895, D.\n\nHassett, T. J. , Ala. , 1894, A.\nHatch, W. H. , 111. , 1895, A.\nHaupert, Chas. , Ohio, 1892, A.\nHawkins, Emily J., N. Y. , 1892, A.\nHayden, P. C. , Ill. , 1895, A.\nHayes, H. E. , N. Y. , 1892, Α.\nHayward, Emily A. , III. , 1884, L.\nHeath, D. C. , Mass. , 1891, A.\nHedges, Miss F. C. , La. , 1895 , A.\nHeineken, J. F. D. , N. J. , 1894, А.\nHeins, Mary, Pa. , 1895, A.\nHendrick, Welland, N. Y. , 1895, A.\nHermanns, Ed F. , Colo. , 1895, A.\nHewett, Edwin C. , 111. , 1884, L.\nHewitt, Amelia C. , N. J. , 1894, A.\nHicks , Lou Alice, Wis . , 1895 , A.\nHicks, Mrs. Mary Dana, Mass . , 1890, A.\nHill, Frank A. , Mass. , 1895, A.\nHinsdale, B. A. , Mich . , 1884, A.\n\nGrandy, Mary A., lowa, 1893, A.\n\nHisey, Joseph C. , Mo. , 1894, A.\n\nGratz, Simon, Pa., 1879, L.\nGray, L. A. , Me. , 1893, A.\nGregory, Benj . C. , N. J. , 1894, A.\nGregory, John T., Ala . , 1895, A.\nGreen, James M. , N. J. , 1892, A.\nGreen, John A. , N. Y., 1893, A.\n\nHitz, John, D. C.. 1880, L.\nHobe, Augusta W., Cal. , 1889, L.\nHodgdon, Josephine E. , N. Y. , 1882, L.\nHodgin, Charles E. , N. Mex. , 1895, A.\nHodgin, Cyrus W. , Ind. , 1895, A.\nHodgman, Thomas M. , Neb. , 1895, A.\nHofer, Amalie, Ill. , 1895, A.\nHoffman, Gains, N. J. , 1894, A.\nHogg, Alex. , Tex. , 1874, Α.\nHolloway, J. L., Ark. , 1895, A.\nHolt, H. E. , Mass., 1890, A.\nHomans, Amy Morris, Mass. , 1891 , A.\nHooper, Lydia , Minn. , 1893, A.\nHooper, Sanford A. , Wis. , 1889, A.\n\nGreenlee, Ida K. , Iowa, 1893, A.\nGreenlee, L. C., Colo . , 1892, A.\nGreenwood, J. M. , Mo. , 1886, D.\nGriffith, George, N. Y. , 1893, A.\n\nGriggs, Herbert, Colo., 1895, A.\nGroendyke, John, Kan. , 1895, A.\nGrossman, John H. , III., 1895, A.\nGuden, Anna J. , N. J. , 1894, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1096, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX TO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\nHoose, James H., Cal. , 1879, L.\nHornberger, J. A. , III. , 1895, A.\nHosmer, Nettie, Ind. , 1895, A.\nHoyt, Judson E. , Wis. , 1890, A.\nHufford, Geo. W., Ind. , 1894, A.\nHughes, James, Can. , 1890, A.\nHughes, Mrs. Marian, Can. , 1895, A.\nHuling, Ray Greene, Mass., 1891, Α.\nHull, John, Wash. , 1891, L.\nHull, Lawrence C., N. J. , 1893, A.\nHumke, Albert E., Ind. , 1893, A.\nHunt, Mary H. , Mass . , 1887, D.\nHunter, Thomas, N. Y. , 1885, L.\nHurd, George B. , Conn. , 1888, A.\nHutchins, Adella, Mich. , 1892, A.\nHutton, A. J. , Wis ., 1884, L.\nHutton, Chas. E. , Cal. , 1895, A.\nHyde, C. W. G. , Minn. , 1895, A.\nHyde, Mary F. , N. Y. , 1892, Α.\nIreland, Jessie, Neb., 1895, A.\nIreland, Nellie, Neb ., 1895, A.\nIrwin, John S., Ind., 1880, L.\nJackman , Wilbur S. , ПІ. , 1895, A.\nJackson, Mrs. Elizabeth R., N. Mex. , 1895, A.\nJackson, Joseph P., Colo. , 1895 , A.\nJacobs , Evelyn M. , Colo. , 1895 , A.\nJacobs, Walter Ballon, R. I. 1895, A.\nJames, Henry M. , Wash . , 1884, L.\nJarnette de, Anna K. , Cal., 1877, L.\nJay, Walter M. , Kan. , 1886, L.\nJenkins , Wm. , III. , 1886, A.\nJesse , Richard H. , Mo. , 1895 , A.\n\nJewett, A. V., Kan. , 1886, D.\nJohnson, A. A. , Wyo. , 1895, A.\nJohnson, D. B. , S. C. , 1895, A.\nJohnson, Ernest Henry, R. I. , 1893, A.\nJohnson. Isaac T., Del. , 1894, A.\nJones, Arthur O., Ohio, 1891, A.\nJones, Daniel W., Mass. , 1870, L.\nJones, Edward N., N. Y. , 1884, A.\nJones, L. H. , Ohio, 1889, A.\nJones, Mattle, Okla , 1894, A.\nJones, Myra, Mich., 1892, A.\nJones, Nora, Colo., 1895, A.\nJones, Richard, Pa., 1894, A.\nJones , Wharton S. , Tenn. , 1887. Α.\nJordon, Chas . M. , Minn. , 1893, A.\nKane, T. F., Pa. , 1889, A.\nKeane, John J. , D. C. , 1889, L.\nKeeler, Flora A. , Mich. , 1894, A.\nKeeler, Harriet L. , Ohio, 1894, A.\nKellogg. Amos M. , N. Y. , 1890, A.\nKellogg, Mrs. Eva D. , III . , 1884, A.\nKelsey, David M. , N. Y. , 1891 , A.\nKennedy. James W.. N. J. , 1894, A.\nKerr, William J. , Utah , 1895, A.\nKeyes, Charles H.. Cal. , 1895, A.\nKiehle, D. L. , Minn. , 1880, A.\nKilbon, Geo. B., Mass. , 1893. A.\nKilbourne, Effie J. , III . , 1895, A.\nKimberlin, Nettie D. , Mich. , 1893, A.\nKimmel , M. A. , Ohio, 1893, A.\nKing. Wm. F. , Iowa, 1884, А.\nKinsley, M. H. , N. J. , 1894, A.\nKirk, John R. , Mo. , 1891, A.\nKleeberger, George R. , Minn. , 1895, A.\nKlock, J. E. , Kan. , 1886, L.\nKnapp . Warren E. , Colo.. 1890, A.\nKrackowizer, Alice M.. 111. , 1895, A.\nKratz, H. E. , Iowa, 1890, A.\n\nKruse, Edwina B. , Del. , 1891, A.\nLagomarsino, Cynthia. N. Y.. 1894, Α.\nLaird, Mrs. Ada E., Ohio, 1890, A.\n\nLamberton, Mary J. , Pa. , 1892, A.\nLane, Albert G. , Ill. , 1884, A.\nLang, Ossian H., N. Y. , 1891, A.\nLansdon, W. C. , Kan. , 1895, A.\nLarimer, Henry G. , Kan. , 1886. L.\nLa Taste, Lucien V., Ala., 1894, A.\nLathrop, Mrs. C. N., Ohio, 1893, A.\nLavers, E. C. , Pa. , 1895, A.\nLaws, Annie, Ohio, 1895, A.\nLaylander, O. J. , Iowa, 1895, A.\nLazenby, Wm. Z., Ohio, 1895, A.\n\nLe Conte, Joseph, Cal. , 1895, A.\nLeipziger, Henry M. , N. Y. , 1891, A.\nLeonard, Albert, N. Y. , 1891, A.\n\nLeviston, Irwen, Neb., 1895, A.\nLewis, Jane M., N. J. , 1892, A.\nLewis, Lesley, III. , 1895, A.\nLiddell, Elizabeth, Colo. , 1895, A.\nLillie, Grace, Neb. , 1895, A.\nLimerick, A. H. , Kan . , 1886, L.\nLipscomb, Dabney, Miss. , 1892, A.\nLocke, John S., 1895, A.\nLongstreth, Emma J. , Pa. , 1894, A.\nLoomis , H. T., Ohio, 1892, A.\nLoos, Chas. L. , Ohio, 1895, A.\nLord, L. C. , Minn. , 1894, A.\nLow, Seth , N. Y. , 1895, A.\nLowe, J. S. , Ohlo, 1895, A.\nLuckey, Edwin D. , Mo. , 1894. A.\nLukens, Herman T., Mass., 1892, A.\nLynch, Wm. H., Mo. , 1895, A.\nLyte, E. Oram, Pa.. 1891, L.\nMacAlister, James, Pa. , 1895. А.\nMacDonald, John, Kan . , 1886, L.\nMack, Wm. S. , III . , 1895, A.\nMackenzie, Constance, Pa. , 1892, A.\nMackey, E. , Pa. , 1891, A.\nMagruder, W. H. , Miss.. 1895. A.\nMain, Julia B., Wis., 1895, A.\nMalone, W. R. , Utah, 1891, A.\nManley, R. M. , Ga. , 1870, L.\nMarble, A. P. , Mass. , 1880, L\nMark, E. H. , Ky., 1893 , A.\nMarlatt, Abby L. , R. I, 1894, A.\nMarquardt, Wm. , Wyo. , 1895, A.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Ky., 1877, D.\nMartin, May L. , Colo. , 1895, A.\nMartin, George H., Mass. , 1893, A.\nMassey, John E., Va. , 1891 , A.\nMassey, John, Ala. , 1894, Α.\nMathews, Byron C. , N. J. , 1892, A.\nMathews , Elizabeth K. , Iowa, 1895 , A.\nManck, Joseph W., S. D.. 1892, A.\nMaxson, Henry M. , N. J. , 1892, А.\nMaxwell, William H. , N. Y. , 1892, А.\nMayne, D. D. , Wis. , 1894. A.\nMcBroom, Geo. O. , Ky. , 1892, A.\nMcCahan, John E. , Md. , 1891, A.\nMcCartney, Livingstone, Ky. , 1895, A.\nMcClintock, O. P. M. , Kan. , 1894, A.\nMcClure, Adela, Colo., 1894, A.\nMcConnell, J. J., Iowa, 1895, A.\nMcCoy, Maggie J. , Colo. , 1895, A.\nMcCracken, Miss N. J. , Pa. , 1894, A.\nMcCulloch, Mary C., Mo.. 1892, A.\nMcElroy, E. B., Ore . , 1895, A.\nMcFarland, Geo. A. , N. D.. 1895, А.\nMcGinniss, James, Ky. , 1893, A.\nMcGowan, Mary, Ohio, 1894, A.\nMcKinnon, J. T. , Neb. , 1895, A.\nMcLauchlin, A. L. , Il11. , 1895, A.\nMcMillan, Reuben, Ohio, 1879, L.\n\nMcMillan, Mrs. Reuben , Ohio , 1880, L.\n\n1081\n\n"}
{"page": 1097, "printed_page": null, "text": "1032\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nMcMurry, F. M. , N. Y. , 1895, A.\nMcMurry, Chas. A. , IIL. , 1890, A.\nMcNeal, Florence, Kan. , 1892, A.\nMcNealy, T. E. , Mo. , 1889, A.\nMcNeill, I. C. , Mo. , 1892, Α.\nMcNeill, Mrs. I. C. , Mo. , 1892, A.\nMcVicar, Peter, Kan. , 1886, L.\nMehan, J. M. , Iowa, 1892, A.\nMerrill, Jenny B. , N. Y. , 1893 , A.\nMertz, Henry N. Ohio, 1895, A.\nMerwin, Almon G., N. Y. , 1894, Α.\n\nMerz, Henry, Wyo., 1895, A.\nMeserve, Alonzo, Mass., 1895, A.\nMeserve, Edna T., Neb . , 1894, A.\nMetcalf, Robert C.. Mass. , 1892, А.\nMiami University, Ohio, 1895, A.\nMiller, A. N. , Colo. , 1895, A.\nMiller, J. H. , Neb . , 1886, L.\nMiller, Lewis, Ohio, 1880, L.\nMiller, Lucia M. , Minn. , 1894, A.\nMills, Leida H., Kan. , 1895, A.\nMilne, James M. , N. Y. , 1890, A.\nMilne, John M. , N. Y. , 1893, A.\nMillspaugh, J. F. , Utah, 1895, A.\nMitchell, Alice S., Colo. , 1895, A.\nMitchell, T. J. , Ohio, 1892, A.\nMonsarrat, Mrs. Laura L. , Ky. , 1877, L.\nMontfort, R. V. K. , N. Y. , 1892, А.\nMoon, Kate E., Ala. , 1895, A.\nMoore, Dora M. , Colo. , 1895, A.\nMoreton, J. B. , Utah, 1895, A.\nMorris, R. Anna, Ohio, 1881, Δ.\nMorris, Harriet N. , 111. , 1882, L.\nMorrison, Andrew J. , Pa., 1881 , A.\nMorss, Charles H., Mass., 1995, A.\n\nMowry, William A. , Mass . , 1886, L.\nMunroe, Alexander A. , Neb. , 1891. A.\nMunroe, James Phinney, Mass. , 1595, А.\nMurphy, Geo. T., Mo. , 1891, A.\nNagel, J. J. , Iowa, 1895, A.\nNelson, N. L. T., Minn. , 1995, A.\nNewcomb, Leontine T. , N. Y. , 15890, A.\nNewell, Miss C. S., Kan., 1891 , A.\nNichols, Fred R. , III., 1803, A.\n\nNicholson, Mary E., Ind., 1885, A.\nNightingale, A. F. , fil. , 1886, A.\nNolen, A. Eugene, Mass., 1891, A.\nNorthrop, B. G. , Conn. , 1884, L.\nNorton, Lucy S. , Mich. , 1895, A.\nNorton, A. W. , Neh. , 1893. A.\nNorton, R. C. , Mo. , 1895. A.\nNye, Charles H. , Wis. , 1884, L.\nNykirk, John B., Mich. , 1892, A.\nOlin, Arvin S. , Kan. , 1890, A.\nOrr, J. D. , Kan. , 1895, A.\nOsborne, Geo. L. , Mo. , 1889, A.\nOsenbaugh, C. M. , Colo. , 1895, A.\nOsgood. Anna M., Ohio, 1890, Δ .\nO'Shea, M. V. , N. Y. , 1892, Α.\nPackard, S. S. , N. Y. , 1892, A.\nPage, Mrs. Mary B. , III., 1895, A.\nPalmer, Charles S., Colo. , 1895, A.\nPalmer, Francis B., N. Y., 1890, Δ.\nPalmer, Solomon, Ala. , 1895, A.\nParker, Chas. I. , Ill. , 1887, D.\nParker, Charles V., Colo. , 1887, A.\nParker, C. M. , III. , 1895, A.\nParker, Francis W. , III . , 1880, A.\nParker, Mrs. Frank S. , 111. , 1895 , А.\nParker, Henry M. , Ohio, 1895, A.\nParker, W. D. , Wis., 1884, L.\n\nParkinson, John B. , Wis . , 1884, L.\nParmenter, Chas. W. , Mass., 1895, А.\nParr, S. S., Minn., 1895, A.\nParsons, H. S. , Tex. , 1895, A.\nPassmore, John A. M. , Pa. , 1892, A.\nPattengill, Henry R. , Mich. , 1892, A.\nPatterson, Susan G., Ind., 1894, A.\nPatrick, Geo. T. W., Iowa, 1895, A.\nPatton, Chas. L. , N. Y. , 1892, A.\nPaxon, Everett E. , Mont. , 1889 , А.\nPayne, William H. , Tenn. , 1892 , А.\nPeabody, Selim H. , N. Y. , 1884, Α.\nPearce, Julia R. , Kan. , 1895, A.\nPearse, C. G., Neb. , 1891, A.\n\nPease, Alvin F., Mass. , 1891, A.\nPease, N. W. , N. J. , 1894, A.\nPeaslee, John B. , Ohio, 1880, A.\n\nPeavey, Mrs. A. J. , Colo . , 1895, A.\nPendergast, W. W. , Minn. , 1894, A.\nPennell , Calvin S., Minn. , 1864, L.\nPerrine, Lura L. , N. D., 1895, A.\nPerry, Elizabeth H. , Mass. , 1891, A.\nPerry, W. S., Mich. , 1892, A.\n\nPfeiffer, J. W. , Ohio, 1895, A.\nPhelps, William F. , Minn. , 1870, L.\nPhilips, Geo. M. , Pa. , 1894, Α.\nPhillips, J. H., Ala. , 1888, Α.\nPickard, Josiah L. , Iowa, 1886, L.\nPierce, H. B. , Iowa, 1894, A.\nPierce, Mrs. Ida L. , Iowa, 1894, A.\nPierce, Edward T., Cal. , 1887, A.\nPike, Joshua, III. , 1891, D.\n\nPiper, Jonathan, Ill. , 1895, A.\nPoland, A. B. , N. J. , 1892, A.\nPollock, Susan P. , D. C. , 1894, A.\nPosse. Baroness Rose, Mass . , 1895, A.\nPowell, W. B. , D. C. , 1892, A.\nPowell, W. F. , N. J. , 1889, A.\nPower, Gussie, N. Y. , 1887, A.\nPowers, James K., Ala. , 1895, A.\nPray, T. B. , Wis. , 1591, A.\nPreston, J. R. , Miss., 1890, A.\n\nPrettyman, E. B. , Md. , 1892, A.\nPrichard, E. H. , Ohio, 1895. A.\nPrince, John T. , Mass. , 1891, A.\n\nPrincipals' Association, Wis., 1884, L.\nPrincipals' Association, Milwaukee, Wis. , 1884, L.\nPrillerman, Byrd, W. Va. , 1891, A.\nPritchett, H. C. , Tex. , 1892, A.\nPublic School Teachers, Janesville, Wis. , 1884, L.\nPutnam, Mrs. Alice H., III. , 1893, A.\nRaab, Henry, III., 1884, L.\nRalston, James M. , N. J. , 1892, A.\nRamsey, Charles C. , Mass. , 1893, A.\nRamsey, Geo. J. , La. , 1889, A.\nRankin, A. W. , Minn. , 1893, A.\nRaschig, H. H. , Ohio, 1893, A.\nRaub, A. N. , Del., 1892, A.\n\nRaymond, Andrew V. V. , N. Y. , 1895, A.\nRedfield, Jennie L., Neb., 1895, A.\nReed, A. A. , Neb., 1895, A.\nReel, Estelle, Wyo. , 1894, A.\nReid, Mary D. , Colo., 1891, Α.\nReveley, Ellen G., Ohio, 1891, A.\nReynolds, Chas. B. , Mo. , 1895 , A.\nRhoads, McHenry, Ky. , 1891, A.\nRice, Gratia L. , N. Y. , 1889, A.\nRice, Rebecca S., III . , 1893, A.\nRichards, Zalmon, D. C., 1864, L.\nRichmond, Sarah E. , Md., 1876, L.\nRickoff, Andrew J. , Cal . , 1881, D.\n\n"}
{"page": 1098, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX TO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\nRickoff, Rebecca D. , Cal ., 1880, L.\nRiggs, John F. , Iowa. , 1595, A.\nRiley, Mrs. Matilda E. , Mo. , 1890, A.\nRobbins, H. E. , Colo. , 1895, A.\nRobbins, Geo. , Ohio, 1894, A.\nRobbins , C. W. , Mo. , 1892, A.\n\nRobert, James A. , Ohio, 1882, L.\nRoberts, Hester A. , N. Y. , 1894, A.\nRobinson, Albert R. , III . , 1895, A.\nRobinson, Oscar D. , N. Y. , 1892, A.\nRogers, C. P. , Iowa, 1884, A.\nRogers, Josephine E. , N. Y. , 1893, A.\nRogers, Rovillus R. , N. Y. , 1895, A.\nRoof, F. M. , Ala. , 1892, A.\nRoop, C. Y. , Cal . , 1886, L.\nRose, Geo. E. , Kan. , 1886, L.\nRoss, W. D., Kan. , 1894, A.\nRothwell, W. R. , Mo. , 1895, A.\nRounds, Chas. C. , N. H. , 1876, L.\nRounds, Katharine E. , N. H. , 1594, A.\nRourke, Mary, Iowa, 1895, A.\nRowe, Alex M. , S. D. , 1894, A.\nRowe, Alice E. , Utah, 1894, A.\nRussell, James E., Colo . , 1895, A.\nRussell, J. A. , N. H. , 1894, A.\nRussell, J. M. , N. H. , 1894, A.\nRyan, Geo. G., N. J. , 1894, A.\nRyan, Mamie E. , S. D. , 1595, A.\nRyan, Kate G. , S. D., 1895, A.\nSabin, Albert R., III., 1884, A.\nSabin, Ellen C., Wis. , 1895, A.\nSabin, Henry, Iowa, 1889, A.\nSabin, Mary S., Colo., 1895, A.\nSalisbury, Albert, Wis . , 1887, A.\nSamuel, Wm. H. , Pa. , 1893, A.\nSanders, D. E. , Kan. , 1895, A.\nSanor, S. D. , Ohio, 1893, A.\nSavage, Reed, III, 1889, A.\nSawhill, Thoms A. , Kan. , 1886, L.\nSawvel, Franklin B. , Pa. , 1995, A.\nScarlett, Augustus, N. J., 1891, A.\nSchaeffer, Nathan C. , Pa. , 1887, A.\nSchell, Ida L. , Iowa, 1894, A.\nSchermerhorn, Jane A. , N. Y. , 1895, A.\nSchmucker, S. C. , Pa. , 1892, A.\nSchofield, Martha, S. C., 1891, L.\nSchuyler, Aaron, Kan., 1886, L.\nScobey, Frank H. , N. J. , 1894, A.\nScott, Charles B., N. Y. , 1894, A.\nScott, James W., Ohio, 1893, A.\nScott, Wm. H. , Ohio, 1893, A.\nSearing, Edward, Minn. , 1895, A.\nSeaver, Edwin P., Mass. , 1893, A.\nSeeley, Levi, N. J. , 1891, A.\nSeerley, H. H. , Iowa, 1884, A.\nSeifert, Eda N. , Iowa, 1895, А.\nSharkey, J. P. , Ohio, 1890, A.\nShaw, Edward R. , N. Y. , 1893, A.\nShaw, Samuel, Wis., 1884, L.\nShawan, J. A. , Ohio, 1894, L.\nShear, S. R. , N. Y. , 1895 , A.\nSheats, W. N. , Fla. , 1893, A.\nSheldon, E. A. , N. Y. , 1891, A.\nSheldon, William Evarts , Mass. , 1865, L.\nShelley, W. H. , Md. , 1895 , A.\nShepard, A. D. , Colo., 1891 , A.\nShepard, Irwin, Minn., 1883, A.\nShields, D. W. , W. Va. , 1895, A.\nShinn, Josiah H. , Ark. , 1890, A.\nShippen, Edward, Pa. , 1879, L.\nSilke, Lucy, 111. , 1893 , A.\nSilver, Edgar O. , Mass. , 1894, A.\n\n1083\n\nSimcoke, Laura, Iowa, 1895, A.\nSinclair, S. B. , Canada, 1891, A.\nSinger, Edgar A. , Pa. , 1880, L.\nSites, C. M. L. , D. C. , 1893, A.\nSkidmore, Sydney T. , Pa. , 1895, A.\n\nSkinner, Chas. R. , N. Y. , 1890, A.\nSkinner, W. H., Neb. , 1895, A.\nSlack, Hiram W. , Minn. , 1895, A.\nSlade, James P. , III. , 1895, A.\nSlaton, W. M. , Ga. , 1894, A.\nSlauson, H. M. , III. , 1894, A.\nSmart, James H., Ind. , 1877, L.\nSmiley, Wm. H. , Colo. , 1892. A.\nSmith, Arthur P., Mass. , 1890, A.\nSmith, A. Thomas, Pa ., 1893 , A.\nSmith, Anna T., D. C. , 1895 , A.\nSmith Carrie J. , Wis. , 1895. A.\nSmith, Edward, N. Y. , 1992, Д.\nSmith, Geo. M. , S. D. , 1895, A.\nSmith, Mollie Va. , W. Va. , 1894, A.\nSmith , Sydney F. , Colo. , 1895, A.\nSmith, Walter W., Minn., 1895, А.\nSmyth, W. S. , III. , 1895, A.\nSnyder, Ella M. , Ohio, 1894, A.\nSnyder, Henry, N. J. , 1894, A.\nSnyder, J. L. , Pa. , 1889, A.\nSnyder, Lydia E. III. , 1895, A.\nSnyder, W. R., Ind. , 1895. A.\nSnyder, Z. X. , Colo. , 1887, A.\nSoldan, F. Louis , Mo. , 1877, L.\nSollett, Alice E., III ., 1893, A.\nSoule, Geo. , La., 1892, A.\nSpaulding, Randall, N. J. , 1892. A.\nSpencer, Henry C. , D. C. , 1993 , A.\nSpencer, Pauline W. , Pa. , 1893, A.\nSpencer, Robert C., Wis . , 1984. L.\nSpencer, Mrs. Sara A. , D. C., 1992, A.\nSpringer, Durand W. , Mich., 1894, A.\nStableton, J. K., Neb. , 1892. A.\nStanley, Edmund, Kan. , 1886, L.\nStark, Joshua, Wis., 1884. L.\nState Historical Society, Wis. , 1884, L.\nState Normal School, Athenaeum Literary Society, Wis . , 1884, L.\nState Normal School, Phila. Soc., Wis. , 1884, L.\n\nState Normal School, Platteville, Wis ., 1884, L.\nState Teachers' Association of 111., 1890, D.\nStearns J. W., Wis. , 1884, L.\nSteele, Wm. L. , III., 1890, A.\nStephenson, Lillie S. , I11. , 1895, A.\nStern, Menco, N. Y. , 1882, L.\nStevens, E. H., Colo., 1895, A.\nStevens, Moses C. , Ind. , 1876, L.\nStevenson, Wm. C., Kan. , 1890, A.\nStewart, I N. , Wis., 1884, L.\nStewart, John A. , Mich. , 1890, А.\nStewart, Joseph S. , Ga. , 1895, A.\nStewart, N. Coe, Ohio, 1892, A.\nStewart, Sarah A. , Pa. , 1884, L.\nStickney, Lucia , Ohio, 1893, A.\nStockwell, Thomas B. , R. I., 1891, A.\nStockwell, Walter L., N. D. , 1894, A.\nStorm, A. V. , Iowa, 1894, A.\nStout, Geo. H. , Pa. , 1884, Α.\nStout, Isaac H. , N. Y. , 1890, A.\nStowell, Thomas B. , N. Y. , 1891, A.\nStrasser, Florence L. , Iowa, 1894, A.\nStratton, C. C. , Ore. , 1888, D.\nStratton, Frederick E., Minn., 1886, A.\nStraus, W. M. , W. Va . , 1895, A.\nStrong, Edwin A. , Mich. , 1892, A.\nStrong, James W. , Minn. , 1895, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1099, "printed_page": null, "text": "1084\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nStubbs, J. E., Nev., 1895, A.\n\nSudborough , Mrs. Grace B., Neb. , 1880, L.\nSullivan, Christine, Ohio, 1886, A.\nSuper, Chas . W. , Ohio, 1891, A.\nSuplee, Fannie, Iowa, 1895, A.\nSuter, Anna, Ind. , 1890, A.\nSuter, Miss H. A. , La. , 1891, А.\nSutherland, Margaret W. , Ohio, 1895, A.\nSutton, W. S. , Tex. , 1895, A.\nSwain, Joseph , Ind., 1893 , A.\nSwart, Rose C., Wis. , 1895, A.\nSylvester, Carrie, Wis . , 1895 , A.\nSylvester, C. H. , Wis. , 1895, A.\nTaber. Mary E.. Kan. , 1895, A.\nTadd, J. Liberty, Pa. , 1892, A.\nTalbot, Henry, Ala. , 1892, A.\nTalmage, James E. , Utah, 1895, A.\nTapley, William W. , Mass . , 1892, А.\nTarbell, Horace S. , R. I. , 1891, A.\nTaylor, A. R. , Kan. , 1886, D.\nTaylor, Mrs. A. R. , Kan. , 1895, А.\nTaylor, Henry J. , Iowa , 1884, L.\nTaylor, Joseph S. , N. Y. , 1894, A.\nTeachers' Associa. of Cowley Co. , Kan. , 1886 , L.\nTeachers' Assocla. of Riley Co., Kan. , 1886, L.\nTeachers' Association, Wis . , 1884, L.\nTeachers' Corps, Intermediate and Upper Sec..\nWis. , 1884, L.\nTeachers' Corps , Primary Section, Wis. , 1884, L.\nTeachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. , 1879, D.\nTear, John H. , III ., 1895, A.\nTempleton, J. C. , Mont. , 1894, A.\nTharpe, F. D. , Mo., 1891, A.\nThayer, J. B. Wis. , 1884, L.\nTheilman, Louis, Mo. , 1895, A.\nThompson, Charles W., Mo. , 1894, A.\nThompson, John G. , Mass . , 1895 , A.\nThompson, J. W., Kan. , 1895, A.\nThompson, Langdon S. , N. J. , 1876, L.\nThompson, N. B. , Kan. , 1895, A.\nThompson, Wm. O. , Ohio, 1894, A.\nThurber , Chas . H. , 111. , 1893 , A.\nThwing, Charles F. , Ohio, 1895, A.\nTibbets, Anna, Neb ., 1894, A.\nTillotson, D. C. , Kan. , 1886, L.\nTodd, Samuel B. , Wis. , 1895 , А.\nTower, Elizabeth A. , Iowa, 1895, А.\nTressler, A. W. , Mich. , 1892, A.\nTreudley, F. , Ohio, 1891, A.\nTurner, Alfred, Vt. , 1895, A.\nTurner, Marie L. , Mo. , 1895, A.\nTutwiler. Julia S., Ala. , 1895, A.\nTwining, Nathan, Cal. , 1884, L.\nUnderhill, Volney, Ill . , 1893, A.\n\nUniversity of North Dakota, N. D. , 1895, A.\nUniversity of Utah, 1895, A.\nUnwerth von, Frida, Mo. , 1895 , А.\nVaile, E. O. , 111. , 1895, A.\nVan Aken, Mrs. Geo . , N. Y. , 1884, L.\nVance, Sophie, Ohio, 1890, A.\nVan Liew, Chas. C. , III. , 1894, A.\n\nVan Rensselaer, Martha, N. Y. , 1894, Α.\nVan Sickle, James H., Colo., 1892, A.\n\nVan Wie, Charles B., Ala. , 1895, А.\nVeatch, Nathan T. , Ill. , 1895, A.\nVert, Edmund J. , S. D. , 1895, A.\nVogel, Wm. H. , Ohio, 1892, A.\nWabash College, Ind. , 1895, A.\nWaldo, Adelaide C. , I11. , 1895, A.\nWaldo, Jennie E. , III . , 1895, A.\nWalke, Matilda L. , Ohio, 1892, A.\n\nWarnecke, Marie L. , Colo ., 1892, А.\nWarner, A. B. , Iowa, 1895, A.\nWarr, J. W. , III . , 1895, A.\nWebber, Anna B. , III. , 1895, A.\nWernick, E. V. , Wis . , 1895, A.\nWheeler, Henry N. , Mass. , 1892, A.\nWheelock, Chas . F., N. Y. , 1895, A.\nWheelock, Lucy, Mass. , 1891, A.\nWhitcomb, Arthur K. , Mass., 1892, A.\nWhite, Charles G., Mich . , 1895, D.\nWhite, Mrs. C. G., Mich. , 1893, A.\nWhite, Emerson E. , Ohio, 1870, L.\nWhite, R. Mabel, III. , 1895, A.\nWhite, W. J. , Ohio, 1891, A.\nWhite, W. T., Tenn. , 1889 , A.\nWhitford, William C. , Wis. , 1884, L.\nWhitman, B. L. , D. C., 1895, A.\nWhitney, M. A. , Mich . , 1891, A.\nWhitney , S. Emory, Mich. , 1895, A.\nWhittemore, Henry, Mass . , 1895, A.\nWidner, Esther A., Ohio, 1882, L.\nWilkins, A. H. , Utah, 1894, A.\nWilkinson, J. N. , Kan . , 1886, A.\nWilliams, Mrs. Delia, Ohio, 1870, L.\nWilliams, Philo J. , Kan. , 1886, L.\nWilliams, Wm. J. , Neb . , 1895, A.\nWillis , W. A. , Iowa, 1884, I..\nWilliams, Samuel G., N. Y. , 1891 , A.\nWillson, William E., R. J., 1890, A.\nWilson, Harry G. , III. , 1895, A.\nWilson, J. Ormond, D. C. , 1880, L.\nWilt, A. D. , Ohio, 1893, A.\nWinchell , Harriet N. , 111., 1895, A.\nWinchell , S. R. , Ill. , 1895. A.\nWinne, James, N. Y. , 1892, A.\nWinship, Albert E. , Mass ., 1892, А.\nWise, Henry A. , Md. , 1885, A.\nWise, W. J. , Colo., 1895, A.\nWisebart, Lina, Colo. , 1895, A.\nWisely, J. B. , Ind. , 1505, A.\nWolfe, L. E. , Mo. , 1890, A.\nWood, Emory M. , Kan. , 1889, A.\nWood, O. M. , Mo. , 1893, A.\nWoodward, C. M. , Mo. , 1887, A.\nWoody, H. G. , Ind. , 1893 , A.\nWorthington, John D. , Md. , 1893, A.\n\nWright, Edmund W. , N. H. , 1889, L.\nWright, Wm. R., N. J., 1892, A.\nWylie, Mrs. M. J. B. , N. Y. , 1891, L.\nYerby, John D., Ala. , 1895, A.\nYoung, Geo. C. , Utah, 1892, A.\nYoung, J. S. , Colo. , 1895, A.\nYoung. Robert G., Mont. , 1889, A.\nZimmerman, Chas. F. A. , Wis. , 1895, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1100, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF ADVANCE ANNUAL MEMBERS\nFROM THE\n\nSTATE OF COLORADO.\n\nThis list of annual members is published in accordance with assurances given the\nteachers of Colorado, previous to the amendment to the constitution, dating July 12,\n1895, providing that the names of active and corresponding members only will be published hereafter.\n\nAbbott, Viola, Yuma.\nAbrahams, Annie E. , Denver.\nAdams , Jessie F., Georgetown.\nAdams, Helen, Aspen.\nAdams, Matt, Denver.\n\nBarrows , B. W. , Denver.\nBarthell, M. L .. Glenwood.\nBashor, Fetta E. , Longmont.\nBassett, Mrs. O. P. , Leadville.\nBateman, O. , Grand Junction.\n\nAdams, Alice, Leadville.\nAkin, Laura E. , Fort Collins.\nAlderman, Sara A. , Denver.\n\nBatterson, Chas ., Erie.\nBeadle, Mary E. , Denver.\n\nAldinger, Alice, Golden.\n\nAllan, Mrs. Cora , Denver .\nAllen, Lou M., Colorado Springs.\n\nAllen, Mary L. , Denver.\nAllen, Sarah D., Denver.\nAllen, Mame C., Greeley .\nAllen, Mrs. Jennie A. , Arvada.\nAllen, S. B. , Julesburg .\nAmmons , T. G. , Denver.\n\nAmmons, Theodosia G., Denver.\nAnderson, Frances O. , Denver.\nAnderson, Katherine, Aspen.\n\nArasmith, J. W. , Holden.\nArkush , S. , Denver.\nArmstrong, Catherine, Boulder.\nArnold, E. G. , Denver.\n\nArundel, Walter C. , Berkeley .\nAuld, Clara, Globeville .\n\nAuld, Emma, Globeville .\nAyres, Henrietta B. , Denver.\nBach, P. M. , Colorado Springs.\n\nBackus, May. Black Hawk .\nBaglel, Lou, Akron .\nBailey, Anna B. , Boulder.\n\nBates , Dr. Mary Barker, Denver.\nBearce, E. B. , Lamar.\nBeardsley, A. F. (2) , Greeley.\nBeardsley, Rose M. , Platteville .\nBeattie, D. S. , Denver.\nBecker, Emma H. , Denver.\n\nBeegs, Dorothea C. , Denver.\nBeggs, Gertrude H. , Denver.\nBelcher, Winnie E. , Colorado Springs.\nBell, C. F. , Del Norte.\n\nBenedict, Flora, Pueblo.\nBennett, Leona, Longmont.\nBennett, Helen, Denver.\n\nBerry, Julia, Colorado Springs.\nBerrey , B. F. , South Denver.\nBerryman, Eliza E , Denver.\nBethel, E. , Denver.\n\nBeuck, Ella, Agate.\nBigelow, C. W., Denver.\nBiggs , Alice, Denver.\nBird, T. B., Highlands.\nBlair, F. H. , Sterling.\nBlakeby, Myra, Cripple Creek.\n\nBaker, J. H. , Boulder.\n\nBlakeley, Geo. J. , Denver.\nBlanchard, Dora M. , Boulder.\nBlattenburg, Edna, Trinidad.\n\nBaker, S. C. , Denver.\nBaldwin, May, Denver.\nBall, Frank D. , Castle Rock.\n\nBliss , Sadie, Highlands.\nBliss, Clara S., Greeley.\n\nBanter, Edith M. , Denver.\nBarbee, J. S., Loveland .\n\nBliss, Lillian N. , Greeley.\nBloom, Leonora E. , Denver.\n\nBarker, Mrs. H. C. , Boulder.\n\nBonnett, Ella H. , Fort Collins.\nBooton, Mary A. , Golden.\nBortree, Mrs. Otto C. , Colorado Springs.\n\nBarnes, Lulu, Denver.\n\nBostwick , Mrs. E. L. , Denver.\n\nBarrett, Jessie, Kokomo .\n\nBostwick, D. L., Denver.\nBourgin Florence E., Silver Plume.\nBowman, Charles W., Pueblo.\n\nBarber, Blanche M., Colorado Springs .\n\nBarrett, Harry M. , Denver.\nBarrow, Alida J., Denver.\n\n"}
{"page": 1101, "printed_page": null, "text": "1086\n\nNATIONAL EducationaL ASSOCIATION.\n\nBoyd, David (2), Greeley.\nBoyd, Psyche E., Greeley.\nBoyer, Miss Monta, Denver .\nBoylan , M. Nora , Greeley.\nBrackett, J. R. , Boulder.\nBradburn , Edith , Barnum.\nBradley, Chas. A. , Denver .\nBremer, Josephine, Denver .\nBronton , Mrs. , Aspen .\n\nBrooks , Mrs. L. , Denver .\n\nBrooks , Nona L. , Denver .\nBrother, Edgar L. , Denver.\n\nBrotherton, S. H. , Silver Plume.\nBrown, Mrs. A. D. , Delta .\nBrown, J. Sherman, Denver.\nBrown, Bessie , Lafayette .\nBrown , G. E., Las Animas .\nBrown, Grace. Denver.\n\nBrown, Mrs. C. M. , Trinidad\nBrown, E. G., Highlands .\nBrown, Mary C., Trinidad.\nBrown, Helen M. , Denver.\n\nBrown, H. J. , Littleton .\nBrown , S. Ella, Denver.\nBrown , Miriam , St. Elmo .\nBrownell, Carrie E., Denver .\nBruce, Edith, Denver.\nBuck, Sally F. , Denver.\nBuell, M. D. L. , Salida.\nBuell, Mrs. M. D. L. , Salida .\nBuger, Alex. , Denver.\nBullock, R. W. , Sliver Plume.\n\nBurger Charle R. Denver\n\n, lingto.\n, Wm s Bur\nBurnett,\nn.\n. H. ,\nBurnett. Ruth, Burlington.\nBush , Mrs. S. E. , Boulder.\nButler, Grace E. , Denver.\nButler, O. P. M. , Denver .\nBybee, W. F. , Lafayette.\nByers , Georgia Phoebe , Denver.\nCain, Martha E., Denver.\nCaldwell, Wilhelmina, Denver.\nCalkins, Maud L., Denver.\nCameron, Grace A. , Denver.\nCampbell, C. M. , Denver.\nCampbell , Robert A. , Central City.\nCampbell, Christabel, Denver.\nCampbell, Emma, Denver.\n\nCannin Annetta B., Aspen.\nCannon,g,George L. , Highlands .\nCantril, Mary , Hill Top.\nCapellier, Prof. L. , Denver.\nCapellier, Leon, Denver .\nCare, Lutie. Buena Vista .\nCarkener, Nettie, Corno.\n\nCarlin, Mary , Denver .\nCarlin , J. S. , Denver .\n\nCarr, Mrs. Mary L. , Longmont .\nCarrigin, Vora, Yuma .\nCarter , O. M. , Denver.\nCarter , Cora L. , Denver .\nCarter , C. M., Denver .\nCarter , A. L. , Denver .\nCarter, Lillian, Denver .\nCasey , Wm . V., Boulder.\nCatlin, F. D. , Montrose.\nCatlin , Alice, Montrose .\nCessna , J. P., Leadville .\nChadsey, C. E. , Durango .\nChadsey, Miss E. M. , Durango .\nChapman, Clara M. , Grand Junction.\nChase, Edith R. , Denver .\nCheney , L. , Boulder.\nCherrington, Mary , Pueblo .\nChristenson, Dora C.\n, Morrison .\n\nChurchill , Mrs. Belle S. , Greeley.\nClark, A. K. , Greeley.\nClark, W. T. , Denver .\nClark, Frederick T. , Denver .\nClark, Mrs. Hulda M. , Denver .\nClark, Anna M. , Denver .\nClark, K. , Denver.\nClark, W. H. , Las Animas .\n\nClay , M. A. , Aspen.\nClemens, Clara, Boulder.\nClifford, Norman, Denver .\nCline, Edith A. , Hazeltone.\nCoberly, Mrs. Emma H. (2), Univ . Park .\nDunn, Angie, Colorado Springs .\nDunn, Lou, Colorado Springs .\nCoffin, Geneva , Longmont.\nCogswell, Maud\n, Leadville.\nCole , Helen, Denver.\nCole, Ada E. , Denver.\nCole, Edward E. , Pueblo .\nColeman, C. M. , Monument.\nColeman,\nMrs. C. M. , Monument.\nCollar, Emily, Denver .\nCollier, Elsie J., Denver.\nClooins , O. E. , Denver.\nCombs , G. W. , Chivington.\nCondit, Adella . Denver.\nConey, Clara J. , Denver.\nConnelly , Kate M. , Denver .\nCooper, Ella M. , Denver.\nCooper , W. B. , Denver .\nCooper, Lottie. Denver.\nCopeland, W. S. , Aspen.\nCopeland , A. B. (2), Greeley.\nCordes , Carrie , Greeley .\nCordin\ngly, Lizzie, Denver .\nCornell, Laura E. , Denver.\nCornell , L. S. , Denver .\nCornish, Lydia R. , Denver .\n\nCorpe, May, Julesburg.\n\nCorson, Cora M. , Denver .\nCorwin , Martha J. , Denver .\nCostin, Viola, Greeley .\nCotten , Ella , Denver .\nCourtney , A. C. , Denver .\nCourtney\n, Alice, Denver .\nCowles , Ollie J. , Pueblo .\nCowperthwaite, Ellarora Denver\n,\n.\nCoy, Nathan B. , Denver .\n\nCoy Mrs. N. B. , Denver.\nCran,dall, L. A.\n, Denver .\nCrater, Mary , Denver .\nCregan , Katie, Denver.\n\nCretney, Edith , Leadville.\nCrews , Geo . B. , Denver.\nCrombil, Edith, Trinidad.\nCronkhite, Dora , Greeley.\nCullacott, Bertha, Salina.\nCummings\n, J. W.De\n, Colo . Springs .\nCurnow, Em\nnver .\nma.\nCurnow , Hannah , Denver .\n\nDace, Mary, Denver.\nDalrymple, Miss , Montrose .\nDana, J. C. , Denver.\nDaniel, Emma J. , Denver.\nDaniels , Mary, Trinidad.\n\nDaniels , Joseph F. Greele\n\nDanielson, Cora , Co, topaxi . y.\nDarling, M. L. , Leadville.\nDavidson, Elanor , Golden.\nDavidson , Josephine, Golden.\nDavis, Ida F. , Pueblo.\nDavis, Cora B. , Leadville.\nDay, Nellie R. , Central City.\nDay, Anna P. , Trinidad.\nDeamer, Eugenia H. , Denver.\nDe Lan, Louise, Glenwood Springs.\nDe Lan, Anna, Glenwood Springs .\nDelbridge, Eloise N. , Greeley.\nDelongs, Ira M. , Boulder.\nDenbo , Hannah H. , Denver.\nDennison , Ida M. , Denver.\nDelavon, Elizabeth, Denver.\nDe Volt, Etta, Colorado Springs .\nDewey , Lova C. , Denver.\nDick, Fred , Denver.\nDicker, Lora. Longmont.\nDickerson, Mamie, Sterling.\nDickie , Alice , Aspen.\nDobbins, Nettle, Longmont.\n\n"}
{"page": 1102, "printed_page": null, "text": "COLORADO MEMBERS.\n\nDraper, Carrie E., Hudson.\n\nGard, Clara F. , Denver.\nGard, E. C. , Denver.\nGardiner, Miss K. , University Park .\nGardner, Julia, Denver.\nGarrigues , Harriet, Greeley.\n\nDreisbach , Cora, Carthage.\n\nGarvin, John B. , Denver.\n\nDresser, Helen C., Greeley.\nDunlap, Annie, Denver.\n\nGarwood, Norma, Denver.\nGass, B. R. , Denver.\nGass , Delia M. , Denver.\nGass, Maud B. , Denver.\nGibbie, Jeania , Colorado Springs.\n\nDodds , J. H. , S. Denver.\nDoll , Mrs. H. C. , Denver.\n\nDowns, Edgar R. , Denver.\nDrake, R. C. , Brush .\n\nDunn, A. H., Fort Collins .\n\nDwyer, Helen, Denver.\nEagleton, M. E., Littleton.\nEagleton, W. H. , Denver.\n\nEagleton, J. S. , Morrison.\nEastman, Sue, Trinidad.\nEaton, Evangeline, Berkley.\nEaton, Mrs. Flora Hunt, Eaton.\nEaton, Della, Bryant.\nEckman, Rena S. , Denver.\nEdgerton, Mrs. Hattie B. , Denver.\n\nGeorge, May, Pueblo.\nGettings , Cecilia, Ft. Collins.\nGibhart, George , Hannan.\n\nGibony, Mrs. Alice C., Altona.\nGibson, Mrs. L. , Denver.\nGibson, Mrs. N. M., Greeley.\nGiddings, Marguerite, Denver.\nGiffin, Miss M. E. , Montrose.\n\nEdwards , Belle, Colorado Springs.\n\nGilbert, Annie, Aspen.\n\nEdwards. Mrs. Emma C., Denver.\nEge. Hettie B. , Denver.\nEichel , Dena, Burlington.\n\nGilbert, Ella, Aspen .\n\nElder, Dorothy E., Denver.\n\nGoddard, Susan, Castle Rock .\nGoodell, Grace, Ward .\n\nElder, E. W. , Denver.\nElder, Andrew W. , Denver.\n\nEldridge, Madge, Denver.\nEllis , Alston , Ft. Collins .\nEllis, Elizabeth , Denver.\n\nEllsberry , M. E. , Victor.\nElmore, Mary E., Colorado Springs .\nEmerson, Laura, Gunnison.\nEmmon, Helen C. , Denver.\n\nErwin, Joseph M. , Denver.\nEvans, Elizabeth, Highlands.\n\nEvans, Sadie A. , Edgewater.\nEverett, H. , Denver.\nEwan, Bessie, Morrison.\nEwing. Carrie, Louisville.\nFairfield. Olive J. , Denver.\nFaris , Fannie E., Denver.\nFarnsworth, Olive, Highlands .\nFarrington, Tidie, Saguache.\nFashbaugh, Carrie E. , Evans.\nFaulkner, Nellie, Yuma.\nFiest, Caroline, Denver.\n\nGill, Mary , Ft. Collins .\nGirardot, Gussie, Denver.\nGoodfellow, Margaret, Denver.\nGoodwin, M. E. , Denver.\nGove, Frank W. , Denver.\nGrace, Alice, Denver.\nGrant, James B. , Denver.\n\nGray, Mrs. Cornie Jackson, Delta.\nGray, Mrs. Sarah N .. Denver.\nGrayson, Effie, Berkley.\nGreen, Mrs. Isabella, Denver.\nGreen, W. E. , Greeley .\nGreene, Sarah M. , Pueblo.\nGreenlee, L. C. , Denver.\nGreenlee, Viola, Bald Mountain.\nGreer, Emma, Aspen .\nGregg, Mabel, Boulder.\nGriffin , J. L. , Boulder.\nGriffith , P. A. , Denver.\nGriggs, Herbert, Denver.\nGrossmayer, Clara, Denver.\n\nGuest, Amelia, Denver.\n\nFerguson, Belle C., Denver.\n\nGuibor, Mrs. Louise, Denver.\nGumlick, A. J. , Denver.\n\nField, Clara E., Denver.\nField, Mrs. Lillian, Denver.\n\nGwynn, Maud, Denver.\n\nGuss , Roland. Greeley.\n\nFinch, Clarence O. , Colorado Springs .\n\nHadley, A. Laurie, Eagle.\n\nFinding. Ethel L. , Denver.\nFirth, W. H. , Denver.\nFisher, Edward, Grand Junction.\nFitzgerald, Mary E., Manitou.\nFlanagan, Mary, Ft. Collins .\nFletcher, G., Denver.\n\nHadley, Lella, Eagle.\n\nHaggott, W. A. , Idaho Springs .\n\nFlower, Elizabeth, Denver.\n\nHaines, Alice, Ft. Collins .\nHale, Horace M. , Denver.\nHall, Fannie L. , Denver.\nHall, J. N. , Denver.\nHall, J. P. , Denver.\n\nFloyd, A. J. , Greeley.\nFlynn, A. J. Alamosa.\nFlynn , P. J. , Denver.\nFoljambe, Eugene S. , Denver.\n\nHamer, Ethel , Denver.\nHamilton, Helen E. , Trinidad.\n\nFolsom, John H. , Cripple Creek.\nFoote, Addie, Loveland .\nForce, Laura, Highlands .\nForeman , Ida M. , Boulder.\n\nFoster, June, Longmont.\nFoster, Nellie, Como .\n\nFowler, Mrs. M. C. Dwyer, Boulder.\nFraizer, Mrs. Belle V. , Denver.\n\nHall, Luella, Canon City.\nHadlam, Miss Ez , Denver.\nHamilton, Ida M. , Greeley.\nHamilton, Ida M. , Greeley.\nHamilton, S. T. , Ft. Collins.\nHancock, J. A. , Durango.\nHanna, Mrs. Ione T. , Denver.\nHannah, Luan, Denver.\nHansen, Miss Dagmar, Denver.\n\nFrancis, F. J. , Lafayette.\nFrazer, Sadie, Howard .\n\nHarding , Geo. L., Boulder.\nHardy, Emma, Las Animas.\nHarper, L. C., Lamar.\n\nFrazier, Addie E., Idaho Springs .\nFreeman, Bertha, Canon City .\n\nHarris , Alice C., Buena Vista,\n\nFreeman, C. Y. , Denver.\n\nFreeman, Maud, Greeley.\nFrench , Mrs. H. A. , Greeley.\nFrey, Minnie, Central City.\n\nHarper, May, Denver.\nHarris , E. J. , Denver.\nHarris, Jennie M. , Denver.\nHarris , Miss Joe, Denver.\n\nHarris, Susie J., Colorado Springs .\n\nFrickes, Lulu, Trinidad .\nFrink , Effie, Morrison.\nFrye, Elnora, Villa Park.\nFrye, Mrs. May D. , Denver.\n\nHarris, W. G. , Delta .\nHart, Mary L. , Denver.\n\nFulham, Fannie B. , Denver.\nGallagher, Katie, Longmont.\nGarard, G. A., Golden.\n\nHastings, Jessie, Denver.\nHatch , D. R. , Georgetown .\n\nHaskell , Anna M. , Denver.\nHaskell , Mary E. , Denver.\nHaughey , Iona, Denver.\n\n1087\n\n"}
{"page": 1103, "printed_page": null, "text": "1088\n\nNATIONAL, EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nHaughtelin, Retta, Denver.\nHaven, E. M. , Highlands .\nHavens , Adeline, Denver .\nHavens , Miss Emeroy , Denver.\nHawks, M. C. , Greeley .\nHawthorne, Jean, Greeley.\nHayden, Mary D. , Denver.\nHayden, N. H. , Grand Junction.\nHaynes , Lutie, Denver .\nHays, Ada, Ray .\nHays, C. I. , Denver.\nHays, J. H. , Greeley.\nHealy, Nellie A. , Leadville.\nHedger, Cecilia M., Denver .\nHelander, Amelia, Denver .\nHemberger, E. , Golden.\nHenderson, John R. , Denver .\nHenderson, Luella, Denver .\nHendry , H. A. , Manitou.\nHennessey, Elizabeth, Denver.\nHenthorn, Myncie, Pueblo .\nHenry , L. , Teluride.\nHerey, Emma M., Denver.\nHerman, Bertha C. , Denver .\nHermanns, Ed F. , Denver .\nHewett, Edgar L., Greeley.\nHice, Edna, Ft. Collins .\nHicks, Annie, Highlands .\nHicks, E. C. , Highlands .\nHighshew, Mattie, Akron.\nHill, Anna L. , La Junta.\nHill, Clara E., La Junta.\nHill, Mrs. C. W. , Delta.\nHall, C. W. , Delta.\nHill, Lottie A. , Denver .\nHinchliff, Mary E. , Colorado Springs .\nHitchcock, Luella R. , Mosca.\nHoagland, Cora R. , Denver.\nHoehn, Mathilde , Denver.\nHolland, Anna B. , Denver.\nHolman, Mrs. Cordelia E. , Highlands.\nHolt, Mrs. Lelia, Leadville.\nHoltschneider, Mrs. Laura, Buena Vista.\nHomsher, Minnie F., Denver.\n\nHonan, Miss, Denver.\nHood, Mrs. Lena, Pueblo.\n\nHooper, Lydia, Idaho Springs.\nHooper, S. K. , Denver.\nHopkins , Carrie D., Denver.\nHorton, Jennie D. , Denver .\nHouchens, Mollie, Trinidad .\nHoughan, Mrs. F. R. , Denver .\nHouran , Bird, Highlands .\nHoward, Hattie , McFerran.\n\nHoward, Mary, Denver.\nHoward, Nellie V., South Denver.\nHoward, Oliver , Greeley .\nHowe, H. A. , Denver.\n\nHowerton, Mary E., Denver .\n\nJohnson, Anna, Denver.\nJohnson, Emma R. , Denver .\nJohnson, Mrs. J. E., Denver.\n\nJohnson, Mary B., Denver.\nJohnson, Mrs. R. C., Central City.\nJohnston , Clara T. , Denver.\nJolley, Marie, Aspen .\nJones, Edith, Denver .\nJones, Laura T. , Pueblo .\n\nJones, Nora, Mattison.\nJones, Winifred, Denver .\nJorgenson, Maud, Denver.\nJoseph , Ella J. , Denver .\nKaltenbach, Frances, Denver .\nKaltenbach, Millicent, Denver.\nKantner, Carrie L. , Denver .\nKarnes , Mattie , Fowler .\nKastle, J. , Denver .\n\nKastle , Lizzie , Denver.\nKeating, J. F. , Aspen.\nKeepers , Mrs. Julia, Highlands .\nKenagy , J. B. , Buena Vista.\nKendell, Elizabeth H. , Greeley.\nKendrick, Addie, Boulder.\nKenton, Ida H. , Woodland Park.\nKenton, Mina, Woodland Park.\nKepner , Harry V., Denver .\nKerr, Anna M. L. , Denver .\nKesner, Edgar , Boulder.\nKillgore , Emma , Pueblo .\nKillgore , Mary , Greeley.\nKilroy , Cecelia E. , Denver.\nKing, Mrs. L. C. , Greeley.\nKing, Mary E., Idaho Springs.\nKingsbury , Lilian V., Denver.\nKingsley , C. M., Boulder.\nKinney , Miss A. B. , Denver .\nKlein , Louise , Denver .\nKline , E. S. , Yuma .\n\nKline, Mrs. E. S., Yuma .\nKnapp , Warren E., Denver.\nKnight, Marion , Castle Rock.\nKollack, Maud, La Junta.\nKollack, W. M. , La Junta.\nKortz , W. H. , Julesburg.\nKram, Mrs. C. V., Denver.\nKrusen , Alma , Denver.\nLa Due , Mrs. I. C., Denver.\nLaird, Grace , Denver.\nLake, Fannie K. , Denver.\nLamb, M. Adda, Denver.\nLamberson, Dora B. , Denver.\n\nLangley, May O. , Denver .\nLangley, Pearl, Red Cliff.\nLansing, Alida P., Denver.\nLaurie, Rose M. , Denver.\nLawrence, Daniel L. , Denver.\n\nLawrence, Effie L. , Denver.\nLawrenee, Miss M. A., La Veta.\n\nHoy, Fannie, Pueblo.\nHubbard, Nettie S., Greeley .\nHuffman, Della, Boulder.\n\nLay, H. C. , Telluride.\n\nHull , D. , Pueblo .\n\nLazear, James B. , Denver.\n\nHull, Mrs. D. , Pueblo.\nHummer , May, Buena Vista.\nHunt, W. A. , Canon City .\nHurford, Alice M. , Pueblo.\nHurst, Madge T., South Denver.\nHutchings, May C. , Denver .\nHutchings, Hattie B., Denver.\nHyde, A. B. , Denver.\nIngersoll, Katharine J., Denver.\nIngraham , Harriet , Denver.\n\nLeach, Minna, Grand Junction.\nLeake, Mrs. E. G. , Florence.\nLee, Josephine, Boulder.\nLee, Rose E. , Boulder.\nLees, Mary P. , Denver.\nLees , S. Alice, Denver.\n\nIreland, A. H. , Canon City.\nIreland, Ed, Canon City .\n\nIrwin, Elizabeth F. , Denver.\nJackson , J. P. , Colorado City.\nJackson , O. E. , Berthoud .\nJacobs , Evelyn , Denver.\nJameson, R. E. , Salida.\nJenkins , Filmon , Mosca.\nJohns , T. Ada, Denver.\n\nLawson, Candace B. , Denver.\n\nLegett, Mary E. , Erie.\nLemon, T. G., Grand Junction.\nLesler , Josephine K. , Denver.\nLessley , Alice B., Denver.\nLibby , Geo . H. , Denver.\nLiddell, Elizabeth , Denver.\nLilley, Josepha, Littleton.\n\nLindsley, C. F. , Elizabeth .\nLing , Chas. J., Denver.\nLittle , Clara L. , Denver .\nLogan, Miss, Canon City.\nLong , Celia R. , Denver.\nLong, Geo. B. , Denver .\nLoomis , Adelaide G. , Denver.\n\n"}
{"page": 1104, "printed_page": null, "text": "COLORADO MEMBERS.\n\nLoomis, Caroline H. , Denver.\nLowe, Dorothea, Denver.\nLowe, Elizabeth, Denver.\nLowell , Clora E. , Denver.\n\nMillee, Mary E., Gold Hill.\n\nMiner, Agnes I., Highlands.\nMitchell, Alice S. , Denver.\nMitchell, Julia M. , Denver.\n\nLundy, W. B. (2) , Lake City .\n\nMitchell, Martha C., Ft. Logan.\n\nLyon, Mary E. , La Junta.\n\nMohr, Miss M. A. , Durango .\nMoles , O. S. , Denver .\nMolnar, Laura, Greeley.\nMontgomery, Ida M. , Denver.\n\nMacDonald, Flora, Leadville .\nMacDonald, Myra M. , Denver.\nMacDonald, Rebecca, Leadville.\nMace, Clara, Lamar.\n\nMace, Elizabeth D. , Colorado Springs.\nMack, Mary S. , Denver.\nMack, Mate F., Denver.\nMaclear, Jessie M. , Denver.\nMacNitt, Alice, Longmont.\nMaddox, A. G. B. , Moscow.\n\nMoore, Clara, Pueblo.\nMoore, Dora M. , Denver.\n\nMoore, James D., Brighton.\nMoore, Josephine G. , Denver.\nMoore, May E., Golden.\nMoorehouse, Geneva, Lamar.\nMorehouse, Mrs. Z. B. , Denver.\nMorey , C. S. , Denver .\n\nMagraw, Jean, Denver.\nMallinckrodt, Miss D. S. , Denver.\nMalone, Rose , Denver.\n\nMorgenstern, Caroline O., Denver.\n\nManifold, W. H. , Elbert.\nManly, Fanny, Denver.\n\nMorrison, Alice, Denver.\n\nManners, Eflie M. , Monument.\nMarsh, C. T., Greeley.\nMarsh, Mary, Gunnison.\n\nMartin, Earnest A. , Parachute.\nMartin, May L. , Denver .\nMatthews, J. H. , Black Hawk.\nMaxwell , Miss E. E. , Denver.\nMaxwell , Flora, Lamar.\n\nMcAlpine, Mrs. Jack, Denver.\nMcCafferty, Mrs. Lydia, Montrose.\nMeCarn, Roccena, Salida.\n\nMcChesney , K. D. , Harmon.\nMcChesney, Tude E. , Harmon.\nMcClave, A. G. (2), Platteville.\nMcClelland, Lizzie, Salida .\n\nMcClelland, Nellie B. , Haworth.\nMcClung, J. S., Pueblo .\nMcClure, Miss F. C. , Denver.\nMcClure, Kate, Denver.\nMcClure, Miss, Canon City.\nMcClure, Z. B. , Denver.\nMcComb, James, Colorado Springs.\n\nMcCoy, Mrs. John, Leadville.\nMcCoy, Maggie, Leadville.\nMcCoy, Maud, Longmont.\nMcCrimmon, Flora, Denver.\nMcCune, Adella, Denver.\nMcDonald, Alice, Pueblo.\nMcDonough, T. G. , Leadville.\nMcDowell, Wm . F. , Denver.\nMcElrcy, Ada, Denver.\n\nMcFadden, Katherine, Boulder.\nMcGourty, Mrs. , New Castle.\nMcInhill, Bee, Denver.\nMcIntyre, Gussie, Leadville.\nMcKay, Alice C., Denver.\nMcKay, Margaret L., Denver.\nMcKinley, Hattie, Idaho Springs.\n\nMorris, B. , Colorado Springs.\nMorrison, Cora B. , Denver.\nMorrison, Mrs. Georgia A. , Salida.\nMorrison, L. J. , Howard.\nMorse, Ida B. , Denver.\nMoseley, Frank Y., Boulder.\nMoses, Matye, Pueblo.\nMoss, Chas . , Denver.\nMoss , Emma, Housted.\nMoving, Lizzie F. , Denver.\nMower, E. T. , Denver.\n\nMoynahan, M. M. , Alma.\nMumper, Anna, Greeley.\nMurphy, A. M. , Fruita.\nMurphy, Ellen H. , Deuver.\n\nMurphy, Kate, Denver .\nMurphy, Mary, Trinidad.\nMurry, C. Maude, Denver.\nMurray, Edith, Longmont.\nMuse, N. W. , Pueblo .\n\nMyer, Emma G. , Delta.\nMyers , Nellie, Denver.\nNairne, Bessie D. , Denver.\nNauman, Minnie A. , Greeley.\n\nNay, Ida V. , Morrison.\nNehber, Amelia, Denver.\nNeumann, Emma, Denver.\nNewcomb, Clarrissa, Denver.\nNewcomb, Nettie, Highlands .\nNewson, Kate, Longmont.\nNichols, Rachel A. , Denver.\nNoble, Fannie, Rifle.\nNomell, Mildred, Ft. Collins .\n\nNontin, Lettie G. , Lake City.\nNorris, M. A. , La Veda .\n\nNorvell , L. P. , Denver.\nOlmsted, Nellie , Ordway.\n\nOrahood, Harper, Denver.\nOrton, Elizabeth, Poncha Springs.\n\nMcKinney, Bertha, Longmont.\nMcLain, Minnie E. , Ft. Collins .\n\nOsborne, G. E. , Highlands.\n\nMcNair, Agnes, Denver.\nMcNany, Nellie, Denver.\nMcNaughton, Sarah, Canon City.\n\nOsgood, Celia F. , Denver.\n\nMcPherson, Honora R. , Denver.\nMcPherson, W. A. , Denver.\n\nMcRay, Beulah, Canon City.\nMcRay, Marian, Canon City.\nMellon, Laura S. , Highlands.\nMencimer, Julia, Golden.\n\nOsenbaugh, C. M. , Denver.\nOsmond, Mary G., Denver.\nOverton, Hattie C., Denver.\nOverton, Marie, Denver.\nPalmer, Chas . S. , Boulder.\nI'almer, Nettie, Denver.\nParce, Jos. Y. , Denver.\n\nPark, Martha, Denver.\n\nMendenhall, Mrs. Margaret, Denver.\n\nParker, A. W. , Fort Lupton.\nParker, B. D. , Jr. , Holyoke.\n\nMero, M. Carrie, Falcon.\nMerrell , Charlotte C. , Denver.\n\nParker, C. V. , Ft . Collins.\n\nParker, C. F. , Julesburg .\n\nMessinger, Edna F. , Denver.\nMeyers, Mrs. A. W. , Walsenbury .\n\nParker, H. C. , Colorado Springs .\n\nMiles , Mrs. Cornelia, Denver.\n\nParker, Mary C., Greeley.\nParker, Mary E., Greeley.\n\nMiles , Emily, Denver.\n\nParker, Josephine, Pueblo.\n\nMiller, A. N. , Denver.\nMiller, Caroline, Leadville.\n\nParsons, John, Denver.\nPatterson,\nP. , Denver .\n, Dillon.\nParsons, R.J.\n\nMiller, C. M. , Grand Junction.\n\nPattison, P. K. , Colorado Springs .\n\nMiller, Jessie, Denver.\nMiller, Jessie M. , Denver.\nMiller, Miss K. A. , Littleton.\n\nPaul, S. Isabel, Denver.\nPaulding, Maggie, Denver.\nPearce, Stella, Aspen.\nPease, Martha A. , Denver.\n\nMiller, L. L. , Denver .\n\n1089\n\n"}
{"page": 1105, "printed_page": null, "text": "1090\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nPeavey, Mrs. A. J. , Denver .\nPeck, Mrs. Emma , Craig .\nPederson , Hilda , Central City.\nPeebles , Ruth, Denver .\nPeebles, Mrs. S. A. , Denver .\n\nPelta, A. J. , Buena Vista.\nPemberton, Jennie , Fowler.\nPendleton , Beulah, Gunnison.\nPenhallow , A. L. , Denver .\nPerkins , Miriam , Denver.\nPeters , Anna, Trinidad.\n\nPetrie , Amy. Yuma.\nPhilips, H. S. , Denver .\nPhillips , F. E. , Denver.\nPike, Lilian, Denver.\nPitt, Marion S. , Denver .\nPlatt, Geo . A. , Denver .\n\nPlimpton, Grace G., Colorado Springs.\nPlumb, May, Longmont.\nPolhannes , A. F. , Symes .\nPost, Alfred C. , Denver.\nPost, Maud, Denver.\nPotter, Alice, Denver .\nPotter, Charles A. , Denver .\nPratt, Helen M. , Denver .\n\nPratt, Louis I. , Denver.\nPrice, Miss E. A. , Denver .\nPrice, Mrs. E. O. , Durango.\nPrice, Minnie , Denver.\nPulford, Mrs. , Durango .\nPutnam, Kate, Denver.\nPutnam , V. R. , Denver.\nPutnam , W. W. , Boulder.\n\nPyrtle, Emma R. , Julesburg .\nQuiner, Emilie C., Denver.\nRainbow, Emily R. , Gunnison.\nRaine , Ruth W. , Denver .\nRainey , Anna R. , Pueblo .\nRainstern , Alice, Denver .\nRalston, Mrs. Allie S. , Rouse Junction.\nRaney, Jennie , Denver .\nRank, Margaret L. , Central City.\nRankin , Pearl B. (2) , Greeley.\nReed, Daisy , Colorado Springs .\nReed, Mary D. , Greeley.\nReed, Ruth, Denver.\nReid, Miss M. D. , Greeley.\nReinhardt, Mrs. , Denver.\nRemington , Lillian, Fairplay .\nRepton , Mary, Boulder.\nReynolds, Miss A. R. , Alpine .\n\nReynolds, E. K. , Pueblo .\n\nReynolds, Mrs. E. K. , Pueblo .\nRhoads, A. G. , Denver .\nRhodes , Lizzie, Denver .\n\nRice, Caroline, Denver .\n\nRice , Elizabeth , Denver .\nRice, Harriet W.. Highlands .\nRichards , C. C. , Denver .\nRichards , Carrie E. , Denver.\nRichards , Elizabeth, Boulder.\n\nRichardson, Edith M. , Denver .\nRiggs , Emma, Denver .\nRiggs, Eva V., Colorado Springs .\nRiley, Mary F. , Denver.\nRinker , John E. , Cripple Creek.\nRisley , Adna W. , Denver.\nRobbins , H. E. , Pueblo.\nRoberts, Dimon, Pueblo .\nRobin , Susanna deQ . , Denver.\nRobinson, Fannie, Denver.\nRoeschlaub, C. , Denver .\nRooney , Alice, Denver .\n\nRoss , Kittie M. , Montrose.\nRoss, Dr. Lydia, Denver .\nRoss, Miss M. A. , Durango .\nRoss, Maud, Montrose.\nRothrock, J. E. , Lake City.\nRoyal, Sarah C., Denver .\nRoyce, Eudora D. , Highlands .\nRussell, J. E. , Boulder.\nRussell, Nettie, Denver .\nRyan. Anna, Denver .\n\nRyan, Jennie J. , Denver .\nRyder, Miss, Denver .\nSabin, Mary S., Denver.\nSackett, A. C. , Gilman .\nSander , M. Allien , Denver .\nSanders , C. C. , Aspen .\nSanley , Hattie O., Denver.\nSavory, Ada , Boulder.\nSatu, Lena I. , Pueblo .\nSawyer, Laura E. , Akron.\nSayre, Louis K. , Denver .\nScanlan, E. M. , Aspen.\nSeanlon, Marie, Lyons .\nSchadbolt, Jessie , Colorado Springs.\nSchayer, Fannie.\nSchefler, Anna M. , Central.\nSchleicher, Alice. Denver.\nSchmit , Elizabeth, Pueblo .\nSchmitt, Jacob, Denver.\nSchordemauth, H. W. , Denver.\nScison , Bertha , Yuma.\nScott, Izore, Pueblo .\nScott, Jessie M. , Denver .\nScoville , Anna, Denver .\nScudder, Adah, Denver.\nSearle , Amy, Akron .\nSeed, Stella, Greeley .\n\nSeem, Chas . J. , Greeley.\nSewall , Jennie , Denver.\nShafer, Etta, Boulder.\n\nShattuck, J. C., Denver .\nShattuck, Mrs. Laura , Denver .\nShaw, Marie H. , Highlands .\nShaw, Marie L. , Pueblo .\nShaw, Sarah E. , Highlands.\nShay, Gertrude , Denver .\n\nSheldon, Josie, Boulder.\nShell, Fred W., Greeley.\nShelpman , Miss L., Jamestown.\nShiland, Helen E. , Denver.\nShepard, A. D. , Denver.\nShepard, Mrs. A. D., Denver.\nShepard,\nMrs. Lois J., Pueblo.\nSheppard, Rubie E., Greeley.\nSherwood, Clara S. , La Junta.\nShields , B. H. , Denver .\n\nShields, David B., Cripple Creek .\nShipman, S. T. , Denver .\nShort, Metella , Palisade.\nShull, Grace , Ft. Collins .\n\nSimmons , Bessie O. , Denver.\nSimms , Caroline E. , Ft . Collins.\nSingletary, D. , Denver.\nSisson , Bertha , Echley.\nSisson , Mary I. , Salida .\nSisters of Mercy, Cripple Creek .\nSisters of Mercy, Durango.\nSisters of Mercy, Denver.\n\nSkinner , Belle, Highlands .\nSkinner , Elizabeth , Highlands .\nSlavin , J. J. , Denver.\nSmall , Edith , Gunnison .\nSmedley , Wm. , Denver .\nSmeigh , Mary S. , Denver .\nSmiley , Wm . H. , Denver.\nSmith, Addie , New Windsor .\nSmith, Belle W. , Denver .\nSmith, Carolina A. , Denver .\nSmith , C. W. , Flagler.\nSmith, Hester, Denver.\n\nSmith , Hetty H. , Denver .\nSmith , Jeanette , Longmont .\nSmith, Jessie G. , Loveland .\nSmith, John J. , Denver.\n\nSmith, Josephine R. , Denver.\nSmith, Julia B. , Canon City.\nSmith, J. W. , Denver.\nSmith, Lora A. , Denver .\nSmith, Mary , Denver.\nSmith, Mary A. , Aspen.\nSmith, Mary E. , Denver .\n\nSmith, Miss M. E., Denver.\nSmith, Mary I. , Denver .\n\n"}
{"page": 1106, "printed_page": null, "text": "COLORADO MEMBERS.\n\nSmith, N. , Denver.\nSmith, Nannie O., Denver.\nSmith , Sidney F. , Denver.\nSmith, V. M. , Newett.\n\nVan Craig, Edna E. , Greeley.\n\nSmith , W. E. , Akron ,\nSmithers, W. R. , Trinidad.\n\nVan Deren, S. E. , Springfield.\nVan Long , C. M. , Denver.\n\nSnook , James E. , Eaton.\n\nVan Sickle, J. H. , Denver.\n\nSnyder, Dora A. , Henderson.\n\nVarney, Julia, Idaho Springs .\nVaughan, Mary St. C. , Denver.\nVella, Mary M. , Colorado Springs .\nWade, Louisa, Buena Vista.\nWalker, F. A. , Russel Gulch.\n\nSnyder, E. R. , Greeley.\nSnyder, Z. X. , Greeley.\n\nSonger, Myrtle, Berkeley.\nSorin, Elizabeth, Erie.\n\nSpann, Ella M. , Denver.\nSpears , W. M. , Denver.\nSpence, Claudius B. , Denver.\nSpencer, F. Clarence, Montevista.\nStanton, Jessie, Boulder.\nStanton, Kate M. , Boulder.\nStanton, L. H. , Boulder.\nStarkey, Eliza, Yuma.\n\nStevens, Eugene C., Trinidad .\nStevens, E. H. , Platteville.\nStevens, Fremont C. , La Veta.\nStevens , J. C. , Villa Park .\n\nStevens , L. B. , Denver.\nStevens, Miss L. E. , Villa Park .\nStebes , Sadie, Boulder.\nStevenson, D. E. , Denver.\nStevenson, Hattie E. , Denver.\nStiles, Bessie, Georgetown.\nStilty, Flora B. , Denver.\nStogsville, Eva, Denver.\n\nStokes, Jennie, Colorado Springs .\nStokely, Minnie, Greeley.\nStone, Mayma, Pueblo .\nStracy, Clara, Trinidad.\nStracy, Geo., Trinidad.\nStracy, Mrs. Geo . , Trinidad.\nStrain, Ella B. , Grand Junction.\nStrain, Lois, Grand Junction.\nStratton, Sophia, Fort Collins.\nStricker, Mattie, Denver.\nStrickland, A. I. , Morrison .\n\nVan Arsdale, Edith, Buena Vista.\nVandagrift, Florence, Denver.\nVandeman, A. W. , Denver.\n\nWalker, Mattie, Kokomo .\nWalker, Nannie, Pueblo.\n\nWallace, Margaret M. , Denver.\nWalters , Ella, Denver.\nWanless, Mary H. , Denver.\nWard, Margaret, Highlands.\nWare, Minnie, Lamar.\nWare, L. E. , Lamar.\n\nWarnecke, Marie L. , Denver.\nWarner, Horace E. , Denver.\nWarren, Sarah , Denver.\nWatkins , Mrs. J. , Pueblo.\nWeaver, Alice, Denver.\n\nWebb, Della, Denver.\nWebster, Helen M. , Denver.\nWeed, J. M. , Canon City.\n\nWeil, I. C. , Denver.\nWeil, Mrs. I. C. , Denver .\n\nWelch, Minnie M., Denver.\nWeld, Amy P., Colorado Springs .\nWelfley, Elmer S., Denver.\nWellman, Mrs. Jennie B. , Fairmont .\nWesthaver, James B. , Edgewater.\n\nWesthaver, Harry, Edgewater.\nWetzel , C. E. , Deer Trail.\nWheeler, D. B. , Denver.\nWhipple, Annetta, Durango .\nWhitehead, Katherine, Denver.\nWhitehead, Sarah K. , Denver.\nWhiteman, W. J. , Denver.\n\nWhittlesey, Fannie R. , Denver.\n\nStrong, R. W. , Denver.\n\nWickham, Mrs. Emma L. , Denver.\nWickard, Lina, Denver.\n\nStrong, Wm. C., University Park.\n\nWiechert, Mayme L. , Denver.\n\nStrock, Frances, Grand Junction.\n\n1091\n\nStruble, Lizzie, Greeley .\nStueland, I. A., Brighton.\n\nWilcox, Clara, Denver.\nWilder, Bertha, Pueblo.\n\nStukey, Magdalena, Idaho Springs.\n\nWiley, Mrs. E. M. , Colorado Springs.\nWilliams , Nellie, Greeley.\nWillson, A. M. , Golden.\nWilson, Mrs. Ada C. , Denver.\nWilson, Elma A. , La Salle .\n\nSturgeon, Agnes L. , Denver.\n\nSullivan, Margaret F. , Pueblo.\nSwan, Alice C., Denver.\nSwansom, Etta, Denver.\nSnyder, Myrtle, Las Animas.\nSykes, Clara, Fairplay .\n\nSylvester, Myrtie, Denver.\nSylvester, Rena, Denver.\nTaggart, Inez L. , Denver.\nTallman, Elizabeth, Denver.\nTarbert, J. T. , Oaks .\n\nTaylor, F. A. , Limon.\nTempleton, Margaret, Denver.\nTerrill, Mrs. A. W. (2) , Colorado Springs.\nThero, Mrs. Chas ., Idaho Springs .\nThoman, Cora, Denver.\n\nThomas , Cora, Greeley.\nThomas, Mrs. F. E. , Canon City.\nThomas, Helen M. , Denver.\nThomas, N. , Ft. Collins .\nThomas, Mrs. N. , Ft. Collins .\nThomas, W. C. , Longmont.\nThompson, Helena, Denver .\nThompson, Lucy, Denver.\nThompson, Jennie M. , Denver.\nThompson, L. E. , Denver.\n\nThompson, Flora C., Pueblo.\nThompson, Alice M. , Denver .\n\nTimberlake, Mrs. Chas . , Holyoke.\nTisdale, Grace S., Denver.\nTisdel, P. A. , Greeley.\n\nTulles, J. W. , Cheyenne Falls.\nTurnbull, G. B. , Colorado Springs .\nTupper, Luella, Denver.\nTurner, Susie S., Longmont.\nTurner, Susy S., Berthond.\n\nUpton, W. L. , Highland Lake.\n\nWilson, G. M. , Denver.\nWilson, Stella, Denver.\nWinkenwerder, C. H. , Denver .\nWise, Miss, Denver.\nWise, W. J. , South Denver.\n\nWisebart, Lina, Denver.\nWitte, Clara A. , La Veta.\nWitter, Miss M. A. , Denver.\nWolcott, Mrs. H. H. , Delta .\n\nWolfe, Burleigh , Meeker.\nWolfersberger, Mary , Denver.\nWood, Alice, Denver.\nWoodruff, Mabel I. , Denver.\n\nWoodruff, Myrna (2) , Greeley .\nWoodson , Marie L., Athens.\nWoodward, J. C., Denver.\nWoody , C. A. , Ft. Collins .\n\nWooldredge. Mrs. Hattie R. , Denver.\nWorcester, Mabel F. (2), Leadville .\nWork, C. T. , Greeley .\nWork, Ella, Denver.\n\nWorking, Daniel W. , Fort Collins.\nWren, Lena, Pueblo.\nWright, J. P. , Cripple Creek.\n\nWrisley, Jennie M. , Denver.\nWyatt, G. w . , Denver.\nWygant, Thos . H. , Jr. , Denver.\nYoung, Edith, Durango.\nYoung , J. S. , Greeley.\nYoung, Lillian K. , Denver.\nZearing, Marguerite, Denver.\nZirkle , H. W., Denver.\n\n"}
{"page": 1107, "printed_page": null, "text": "RECORD OF MEMBERSHIP BY STATES\nIN THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\nAverage\n.\nMembership\n\nFOR EACH YEAR FROM 1884 ΤΟ 1895 INCLUSIVE,\n\n1884 1885 1886\n\n1889\n\nTotal\n.\n\nDenver\n.\n\n.\nPark\nAsbury\n\nSaratoga\n.\n\n.\nToronto\n\n.\nPaul\nSt.\n\n.\nNashville\n\nFranSan\n.\ncisco\n\nChicago\n.\n\n.\nTopeka\n\n.\nMadison\n\nPLACE AND DATE\nOF MEETING.\n\n.\nSaratoga\n\nExcepting for 1893, when no regular meeting was held. Boldface figures show membership\nfrom the state in which the meeting for the year was held.\n\n1887\n\n1888\n\n1890\n\n1891\n\n1892\n\n1894\n\n1895\n\n5\n\n25\n\n11\n\n32\n\n10\n\n4\n\n13\n\nMassachusetts ...\nRhode Island ......\n\n310 145\n\n85\n\n277\n\n206\n\n32\n40\n290\n\n24\n27\n\nVermont..\n\n23\n41\n\n11\n\n8\n\n10\n3\n\n5\n7\n\n43\n\n30\n9\n4\n\n13\n\n29\n\n23\n\n26\n\n48\n\n4\n\n211\n23\n108\n\n210\n\n29\n\n41\n\n13\n\n242\n\n23\n\n8\n\n3\n17\n\n1\n3\n\n32\n18\n\n18\n\n6\n\n6\n\n8\n13\n\n12\n22\n\n16\n\n43\n\nNorth Atlantic.\nNew Hampshire.\n\n21\n64\n\n2\n6\n\nMaine\n\nConnecticut\nNew York ....\n\n....\n\n91\n35\n121\n\nSouth Atlantic .\n\n6\n15\n3\n5\n11\n1\n\nMichigan.\nWisconsin....\nIowa\nMinnesota .......\nMissouri\n\n6\n49\n35\n\n8\n45\n24\n\n2\n20\n\n24\n87\n\n17\n14\n\n15\n\n4\n23\n\n13\n18\n31\n\n163\n\n16\n\n7\n\n4\n\n3\n\n114\n83 607\n123\n45\n10\n87\n71\n19\n89\n29\n12\n29\n\n39\n\n57\n\n67\n46\n\n581\n418\n\n225\n71\n\n89\n\n354 33\n\n164 1750\n\n222\n\n77 12\n546 18\n\n20\n18\n\n204\n29\n\n273\n486\n\n40\n\n304 18\n\n87 1,146\n\n96\n\n9\n132\n46 11\n\n11\n\n58\n\n73\n\n649\n625\n\n57\n\n133\n\n23\n\n1\n\n5\n\n149\n\n8\n\nNebraska\nKansas..\n\n39\n\n5\n\n27\n\n16\n\n11\n\n190\n\n634\n960\n\n40\n124\n\n3\n\n1\n\n1\n\n2\n\nColorado...\n\n12\n\n2\n\n11\n\n9\n8\n40\n2\n\n4\n\nWyoming.\n\n1\n2\n\n1\n\n3\n1\n\nWestern.\nMontana\n\nNew Mexico .\nArizona.....\nUtah\n\nNevada\n\n1\n\n2\n27\n2\n\n22\n\nNorth Dakota.. )\nSouth Dakota..\n\n}\n\n12\n\n121 43\n54 15\n\n261171\n\nNorth Central .\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\n\n117\n16\n76\n\n5\n\n67\n\n7\n11\n\n18\n\n13\n10\n8\n49\n\n8\n\n16\n\n12\n99\n\n42\n\n52\n12\n23\n13\n63\n611 326\n65 969\n178\n323\n\n2\n\n55\n\n22\n22\n\n62\n\n31\n31\n228\n\n114\n\n5\n\n20\n212\n\n7\n21\n\n15\n\n82973\n\nMississippi ........\nLouisiana ..\nTexas ....\nArkansas ...\n\n1\n\n3\n\n4\n\n151\n\n33\n12\n\nKentucky.\nTennessee....\nAlabama\n\n4\n1\n\n10\n7\n3\n\n30\n\n28\n\n8512850\n\nSouth Central .\n\n4\n\n1\n4\n\n121\n\nFlorida\n\n1\n5\n30\n\n324\n\nDelaware ..\nMaryland\nDist.ofColumbia\nVirginia......\nWest Virginia....\nNorth Carolina...\nSouth Carolina ...\nGeorgia.\n\n2282210\n\nNew Jersey ........\nPennsylvania.....\n\n50 13\n4018\n143 159\n40 27\n8128\n\n4\n\n60\n\n1\n\n20\n82\n25\n990\n258\n\n592 3,573\n321 1,692\n\n178\n65\n214\n\n259\n\n285\n\n155\n\n222\n278\n118\n320\n32\n31\n220\n\n72\n110\n54\n189\n16\n20\n126\n\n143\n188 2,241\n164 1,086 3,928\n86 193 2,259\n435 1,113 3,262\n8\n28\n623\n9\n127\n742 2,117\n\n111 1,171 3,827\n\n1\n1\n\n7\n\n10\n\n4\n5\n2\n8\n\nCanada.\nTotal\n\n3\n2\n\n1\n\n4\n\n11\n1\n\n3\n\n11\n204\n18 4278\n143\n\n16\n\n12\n\n20\n\n204 1,461\n\n1\n\n28\n23\n\n61\n30\n\n325\n154\n600\n133\n204\n\n357\n\n205\n297\n57\n192\n302\n\n111\n93\n\n10\n8\n\n146\n\n26\n11\n89\n\n63\n\n6\n\n246\n\n22\n\n145\n\n13\n31\n5\n2\n\n2\n4\n\n15\n48\n\n40\n\n58 1136 1,605\n\n1\n6\n\n442\n305\n257\n669\n326\n\n871 1,495 6,598\n\n3\n\n4\n\n1\n\n18\n\n1\n1\n5\n\n2\n\n1\n8\n\n6\n7\n\n18\n\n8\n\n5\n5\n5\n\n10\n3\n\n12\n\nCalifornia .\nMiscellaneous\n\n1\n1\n\n70\n\n113\n\n355\n149\n666\n\n12\n\nWashington .\nOregon.\n\n1\n3\n5\n\n773\n\n361\n\n59\n\n7\n\n66 1,243\n\n34\n\n56\n\n8\n12\n27\n\n5\n\n9\n33\n\n8\n\n1\n1\n\n53\n\n118\n\n36\n21\n\n4\n3\n\nIdaho..\n\n12\n39\n\n5\n\n41\n49\n108\n294\n84\n\nOklahoma ..\n\nIndian Territory\n\n81\n133\n426\n\n49\n\n176\n\n9\n\n134\n\n222\n\n21\n11\n20\n\n41\n\n127\n\n2\n\n4\n\n19\n\n235\n\n128\n124\n\n24\n13\n114\n\n1\n\n47\n\n211\n\n42\n57\n51\n\n283\n\n128\n156\n\n53\n\n79\n42\n\n35\n\n29\n241\n\n17\n\n124\n\n25\n53\n\n18\n174\n27\n\n47\n36\n\n1\n\n87\n5\n\n45\n\n521 2,648\n168 1,409\n432 1,717\n\n62\n19\n\n275\n\n26\n\n302\n3:20\n\n64\n2\n\n5\n\n127\n\n55\n26\n\n52\n\n64\n\n1\n\n191 1,910\n\n97\n\n{\n\n4\n6\n\n15\n16\n\n35\n44\n13\n20\n12\n\n206\n625\n137\n28\n443\n67\n572\n16 933\n68\n249\n99\n7\n109\n10\n147\n\n8\n\n109\n\n165\n\n194\n180\n\n1\n\n45\n\n650\n\n48\n\n41\n\n58\n23\n3\n\n69\n\n62\n\n50\n18\n\n6\n\n6\n\n66\n\n6\n\n14\n\n259\n\n24\n400\n\n53 4,395\n1\n\n181\n\n16\n\n32\n\n830\n\n77\n\n2,731 624 1,197 9,086 7,220 1.984 5,474 4,778 3,390 5,915 11 297 53,696 4,881\n\n"}
{"page": 1108, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX .\nPAGE\n\n39\n\nActive Membership, Amendments Concerning,\nList of,\n\n1033\n\nIndex of List of,\n\n1078\n\nAddresses of Welcome by53\n\nSupt. Aaron Gove,\nHon. Judson L. Brush,\nHon. Thomas S. McMurray,\n\n54\n55\n56\n\nMrs. A. J. Peavey,\n\n963\n\nJ. S. Stewart,\nWm. E. Boggs, .\n\n966\n\nAdvancement of the South, by Wm. E. Boggs, .\nAlderman, Edwin A. , Higher Education in the South ,\nAlliance of Business Educators' Assn. with N. E. A. , by Mrs. Sara A. Spencer,\nAmendments, How Made,\nConcerning Membership,\nAmerican History and Good Citizenship, by J. Baldwin,\nApplication of Child Study in the School, by F. W. Parker,\nArnold, Fannie, Songs for Children,\nArnold, Sarah L. , Knowledge of Kindergarten Indispensable,\n\n966\n979\n873\n4\n\n39\n139\n418\n793\n557\n788\n\nMusic in Relation to Other Studies,\nNature Study and Literature ,\n\n570\n\nRecent Improvements in Primary School Work,\n\n279\n\nDiscussion\n\n228\n\n808\n\nArt Education, Department of,\nPapers and Discussions,\nSecretary's Minutes,\nArt Education- Extension of-President's Address, by Charles M. Carter,\nPlace of, in General Education, by John S. Clark,\nArt in Magazines, by J. C. Dana,\nAtkinson, Geo. S. , Botany and Zoology in Secondary Schools,\nAtlanta, Committee on Educational Congresses at,\n\n810\n808\n810\n830\n\n814\n954\n961\n\nInvitation to, by Ex-Governor Northen,\n\n25\n\nBach, Mr. , Discussion ,\nBacon, T. R. , Relation of a College Course to Professional Schools ,\nBaker, James H. , Educational Values ,\n\n790\n665\n\n197\n\nDiscussion,\n\n446, 458\n\nBakeless , Professor, Discussion ,\nBaker, T. O. , Discussion,\nBaldwin, Joseph, American History and Good Citizenship,\nDiscussion,\n\n764\n\n603\n139\n\n443, 474, 498\n\nBall, Katherine, Discussion,\n\n856\n\nBardeen, C. W. , Report of Committee on Necrology ,\n\n204\n\nBarnes, Earl , Child Study on the Pacific Coast,\nInstruction and Improvement of Teachers by Teachers' Classes,\nPunishment as Seen by Children,\n\n902\n\nDiscussion,\nBartholomew, W. H. , Discussion,\n\nBessey, Chas. E. , Discussion,\nBiology in First Year of Secondary Schools, by O. S. Westcott,\nBishop, J. Remsen, Discussion ,\nBlack, W. H. , Discussion,\nBlake, Henry W., Discussion,\nBlodgett, A. B. , Discussion,\n\n173\n\n914\n\n443, 445, 474\n147\n\n953\n604\n602\n655\n\n533\n253\n\n"}
{"page": 1109, "printed_page": null, "text": "1094\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nPAGE\n\nBoard of Directors , Minutes of Meetings of,\nBoard of Trustees, Ninth Annual Report of,\nBoone, Richard G. , Discussion ,\nBooth , E. R. , Philosophy of Manual Training,\nBouton, Eugene, Discussion,\nBoyd , D. R. , Discussion,\nBoyd , Mrs. Gaston, Voice and Body,\n\n38\n16\n\n407\n720\n411\n653\n\n949\n\nBoyden, A. G. , Discussion,\n\n47-4\n\nBradley, Charles A. , Discussion,\nBright, Orville T. , Changes-Wise and Unwise-in Grammar and High Schools,\nBrown, Elmer E. , Child Study on Pacific Coast ,\n\n259\n\nDiscussion,\nBrown, Geo. P., Discussion,\n\n746\n\n904\n603\n\n453, 497\n905\n\nBryan, Wm. L., Child Study in Indiana,\nChild Study-Systematic and Unsystematic,\n\n412\n\nScience and Education,\n\n161\n\nBuchanan, J. T. , Discussion,\n\n622\n\nBurke, John, Discussion,\n\n227\nS62\n\nBusiness Education, Department of,\n\n866\n\nPapers and Discussions ,\nSecretary's Minutes ,\n\n862\n890\n\nBusiness Training, Ethical Side of, by D. W. Springer,\nButler, Nicholas Murray , Introduction of President-Elect Dougherty,\n\n36\n\n952\n\nRemarks to Science Teachers,\n\n59\n\nResponse to Addresses of Welcome,\nWhat Knowledge is of Most Worth ?\nDiscussion,\n\n69\n\n347, 952\n\nBy- Laws ,\n\n4\n\nCaldwell, Wilhelmina T. , Mothers ' Meetings Among the Poor,\nCarter, Charles M. , Extension of Art Education,\n\n810\n\nChalmers, W. W. , Discussion,\n\n226\n\nChanges-Wise and Unwise-in Grammar and High Schools, by Orville T. Bright,\nChanning, Edward, Relation of Geography to History,\n\n192\n\nDiscussion,\n\nChildren, Songs for, by Fannie Arnold,\nChildren's Voices, by Linn Marie Hawn,\nChild Study, Application of, in the Schools, by F. W. Parker,\nIn Indiana, by Wm. L. Bryan,\nIn Iowa, by H. E. Kratz ,\n\nIn Minnesota, by M. V. O'Shea,\nIn New York, by Edward R. Shaw,\n\n535\n\n259\n\n658, 660, 661\n793\n700\n418\n905\n\n893\n$\n95\n809\n\nOn Pacific Coast, by Earl Barnes ,\n\n902\n\nAt University of California, by Elmer E. Brown,\n\n904\n\nMethod and Scope of, by M. V. O'Shea,\nPracticable for the Teacher, by G. T. W. Patrick,\nSystematic and Unsystematic, by Wm. L. Bryan,\n\n924\n\nWith Co-Operation of Parents, by C. C. Van Liew,\nChild Study, Department of,\nPapers and Discussions,\nSecretary's Minutes,\nClark, John S. , Place of Art Education in General Education.\nDiscussion,\n\nCogswell, Francis, Discussion ,\nCole, Chas. W. , Discussion,\nCollege Course, Relation of a, to Professional Schools, by T. R. Bacon,\nColorado, List of Annual Members from,\nCommittee on Amendment to Constitution, Report of,\nOf Conference Between Secondary and Higher Departments,\nOf Educational Congresses at Atlanta,\n\n900\n412\n929\n891\n\n893\n891\n830\n\n$21, 851\n396\n224\n\n665\n1085\n39\n\n579, 637\n35, 961\n\nOf Fifteen, Report of-\n\nReport of Chairman,\n\n232\n\nTraining of Teachers ,\nCorrelation of Studies ,\n\n238\n\nCity School Systems,\n\n375\n\n287\n\n"}
{"page": 1110, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\n\n1095\n\nOn Necrology , General Sessions,\nOn Nominations, General Sessions,\nOn Resolutions, General Sessions,\n\n20, 204\n\nPAGE\n\n21\n\n20, 31\n809\n\nArt Department,\nBusiness Department,\n\n864\n\n214, 216\n\nSuperintendence Department,\nOf Nine, Establishment of,\nOf Twelve, of American Philological Association, Address of,\nOf Twelve on Rural Schools, Resolutions Establishing,\nAction of Board of Directors Concerning ,\nMembers of,\n\nCongdon, C. H. , How Pupils Learn to Know and Do in Music,\nConstitution of the National Educational Association,\nCook, John W., Concentration of Studies in Normal Schools ,\nPractice work in Normal Schools ,\nDiscussion,\n\n863\n632\n441\n48\n442\n778\n1\n\n714\n501\n\n255, 445, 472, 199\n\nCooper, Frank D. , Discussion,\nCo-ordination in History and Literature, by Chas . A. McMurry,\nIn Natural Science, by Wilbur S. Jackman,\nOf Studies, Principles of, by Charles De Garmo ,\nOf Studies in the Normal School, by John W. Cook ,\n\n225\n\nCorrelation of Studies in Elementary Education, by Wm. T. Harris ,\nIn Normal Schools, by N. C. Schaeffer,\n\n287\n\nCropsey, Miss, Discussion,\nCoudry, Mr. , Discussion,\nCouncil, National,\n\n228\n\nCommittees,\nConstitution and By- Laws ,\nMembers,\nOfficers ,\nPapers and Discussions,\nRecord of Attendance,\nSecretary's Minutes,\nCourse of Music in Public Schools , by A. J. Gantvoort,\nCourse of Study Based on Herbart's Doctrine, by Chas . A. McMurry,\n\nCoy, E. W. , Discussion.\nDana, J. C. , Art in Magazines,\nDe Garmo, Charles , Principles of Co-ordination of Study,\nDiscussion,\n\nBy Wm. H. Maxwell,\nDepartmental Teaching in Grammar Grades, by J. M. Fendley,\nDepartments, Names of,\nDickenson, Principal, Discussion,\nDissent from Report of Committee of FifteenBy C. B. Gilbert,\nBy J. M. Greenwood,\nBy A. G. Lane,\nBy L. H. Jones ,\nBy Edwin P. Seaver,\n\nDougherty, N. C., President-elect, introduced by President Butler,\nResponse by,\n\n104\n97\n87\n\n714\n\n709\n\n958\n430\n436\n\n430\n434\n434\n443\n442\n439\n785\n\n477\n622\n\n814\n87\n344\n343\n572\n1\n\n603\n\n336\n333\n389\n341\n388\n\n36\n36\n\nResponse to Address of Welcome at Atlanta,\n\n968\n\nDiscussion,\n\n458\n\nDraper, Andrew S., Organization of City School Systems\nDiscussion,\n\n375\n397\n\nDutton, Bettie A. , Economy in Elementary Education\n\n447\n\nDiscussion,\nDutton, S. T. , Discussion,\n\n349\n\nEconomy in Elementary Education, by Bettie A. Dutton,\n\n447\n\nEdson , A.\n\nW. , Discussion ,\n\nEducation According to Nature, by Wm. H. Payne,\nEducational Congress of Atlanta Exposition,\nPapers and Discussions,\nSecretary's Minutes,\n\n454\n\n358\n114\n961\n963\n961\n\n"}
{"page": 1111, "printed_page": null, "text": "1096\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nPAGE\n\n1031\n\nEducational Press Association,\n\n999\n\nEducational Pride and Prejudice, by A. E. Winship,\nEducational Values, by James H. Baker,\nEducation of Public Opinion, by Chas. R. Skinner,\nEffect of the Theory of Evolution on Education, by Joseph Le Conte,\nEffects of Manual Training, by Chas. D. Larkins,\nElectives in High Schools : By Courses or Subjects, by O. D. Robinson,\nElementary Education, Department of,\n\n197\n126\n149\n748\n586\n561\n562\n\nPapers and Discussions,\n\n561\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\n\n645\n\nEly, Richard T. , Future Organization of Higher Education,\n\n654, 656\n\nDiscussion,\n\nEmergency Fund, Second Annual Report of,\nEmery, J. Q. , Discussion,\nEntrance Requirements to Colleges, Committee of Conference on,\nEthical Element in Patriotism, by A. P. Marble,\nEthical Instruction Through Sociology, by B. C. Mathews,\nEthical Side of Business Training, by D. W. Springer,\n\n15\n359\n\n579, 580, 637\n142\n\n624\n890\n\nExtension of Art Education-President's Address, by Charles M. Carter,\n\n810\n\nFaculty and Ministry of Song, by W. L, Tomlins,\n\n551\n\nFarrell , Edward D., Discussion,\n\n111\n\nFederal Educational Union, Prospects for, by Wm. Carey Jones ,\nFendley, J. M. , Departmental Teaching in Grammar Grades,\n\n594\n\nFraudulent Advertising, by J. W. Warr,\n\n879\n\nFrazer, W. H. , Organization of University of Toronto ,\nFreer, H. H., Discussion,\nFroebel , Theories of, by James L. Hughes,\nFuture Organization of Higher Education, by Richard T. Ely,\nGantvoort, A. J. , Course of Music in Public Schools,\nGarvin, Mr. , Discussion ,\n\n638\n\nGeography, Physical-Its Possibilities and Difficulties, by Edward L. Harris,\n\n615\n\nGilbert, C. B. , Dissent from Report of Committee of Fifteen,\n\n336\n\n572\n\n654\n\n538\n645\n785\n957\n\nReport of Committee on Resolutions, Superintendence Departm't,\nDiscussion,\nGlover, N. L. , Discussion ,\n\n790\n\nGoodnough , W. S. , Discussion,\nGordy, Dr., Discussion,\nGove, Aaron, Address of Welcome,\n\n821, 856\n258\n53\n\nHow to Test a Teacher's Work ,\n\n222\n\nDiscussion,\nGrammar Grades, Department Teaching in, by J. M. Fendley,\nGreen, James M. , Discussion,\nGreenwood, J. M. , Dissent from Report of Committee of Fifteen,\n\n231\n572\n\n187\n333\n\nDiscussion,\n\n227\n\nGriggs, Herbert, Discussion ,\nGuaranteeing Positions, by J. W. Warr,\nHailmann, Mrs. Endora L. , Discussion ,\n\n790\n879\n545\n\nHailmann, W. N. , The Next Step in the Education of the Indian,\n\n80\n\nDiscussion,\n\n546\n\nHall , J. N., Standard of Admission to Professional Schools,\n\n661\n\nHall, W. F. , Discussion,\n\n601, 621\n\nHarper, Wm. R. , Ideals in Educational Work,\nHarriman, Mrs. S. S., The Work of the Pestalozzi-Froebel Haus ,\nHarris, Edward L. , Physical Geography,\nHarris , Wm. T., Correlation of Studies in Elementary Education-Report of\nCommittee of Fifteen,\nEducation in the South,\nDiscussion,\n\n216\n\n148, 456, 458\n\n987\n525\n615\n\n287\n1021\n\n345, 349, 407\n\nHart, Albert Bushnell, Discussion,\nHartwell, EdwardM. , Report on School Hygiene,\nHawn, Linn Marie, Children's Voices,\nHayden , P. C., Discussion.\n\n391\n\nHerbart Club, Round Table,\n\n959\n\nHerbart's Doctrine, Influence of, by Chas . A. McMurry .\nHerbart, Theories of, by James L. Hughes ,\n\n475\n\n931\n\n790\n790\n\n538\n\n"}
{"page": 1112, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\n\n1097\n\nPAGE\n580\n\nHead Master's Association, Recommendations of,\nHermanns, Edward F. , Physical Training,\nHervey, Walter B. , Discussion,\nHigher Education, Department of,\nPapers and Discussions,\n\n65\n\n257, 346\n636\n638\n636\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\n\n645\n\nHigher Education, Future Organization of, by Richard T. Ely,\n\n979\n\nIn the South, by Edwin A. Alderman,\n\n360\nHinsdale, B. A. , History Teaching in Schools,\n482\nLaws of Mental Congruence,\nDiscussion,\n109, 346, 396, 473, 481, 499, 600, 655\n360\nHistory Teaching in Schools, by B. A. Hinsdale ,\n514\nHofer, Amalie, The Social Settlement and the Kindergarten,\n802\nHolt, H. E. , Vocal Harmony,\n790\n\nDiscussion,\n\n778\n\nHow Pupils Learn to Know and Do in Music, by C. H. Congdon ,\nHow to Test the Quality of a Teacher's Work, by Aaron Gove,\n\n222\n\n218\n\nBy W. C. Warfield,\n\nHughes, James L, Comparison of Theories of Froebel and Herbart,\nHughes, Mrs. James L. , Kindergarten and the Home,\n\n538\n\nHyde , A. B. , Discussion,\n\n661\n\nHygiene, Report on Schools, by Edward M. Hartwell,\nIdeals in Educational Work, by Wm . R. Harper,\nImprovement of Teachers, by Teachers' Classes, by Earl Barnes,\n\n931\n\n531\n\n987\n173\n165\n\nBy Teachers' Institutes, by Arvin S. Olin,\n\n179\n\nBy Teachers' Reading Circles, by L. H. Jones ,\nIncorporation, Act of,\n\n5\n5\n\nCertificate of,\n\n759\n\nIndian Schools, Industrial Training in, by R. H. Pratt,\nIndividualism in Mass Education , by P. W. Search,\nIndustrial Education a Necessity of the Times , by Albert R. Robinson ,\nAs Applied to Indian Schools, by R. H. Pratt,\nPlea for, by Mary A. Pinney,\nIntroduction of President-elect Dougherty, by President Butler,\nInvitation to Atlanta, by Ex-Governor Northen,\nJackman, Wilbur S. , Co-ordination in Natural Science,\nNatural Science in Grades Below the High School ,\nJesse, Richard H., Discussion,\nJohnson, A. A., Discussion,\nJohnson, Isaac T. , Discussion,\nJohnston, Theo. H. , Mind and Music,\nJones , L. H. , Dissent from Report of Committee of Fifteen,\nImprovement of Teachers by Reading Circles,\nDiscussion,\n\n398\n741\n\n759\n753\n36\n25\n97\n\n955\n661\n655\n592\n\n795\n341\n179\n\n406, 457, 499\n594\n\nJones, Wm. Carey, Prospects for an Educational Union,\n\n17\n\nJournal of Proceedings of National Educational Association,\n\n1004\n\nKellogg, Mrs. Eva D. , Progress in Primary Education ,\n\n731\n\nKeyes, Charles H., Modifications of Secondary School Courses,\nKiehle, D. L. , Discussion,\n\n256, 445, 457, 472\n\nKimberlin, Miss N. D., Physical Training in Public Schools,\n\n946\n\nKindergarten and the Home, by Mrs. James L. Hughes,\nAnd the Social Settlement, by Amalie Hofer,\nKnowledge of, Indispensable in Prim. Instr., by Sarah L. Arnold,\nKindergarten Department,\n\n531\n\nPapers and Discussions,\n\nSecretary's Minutes,\nKing, Wm. F. , Report of Discussion ,\nDiscussion,\n\nKirk, John R. , Discussion,\nKnowledge of Kindergarten Indispensable in Prim . Instr. , by Sarah L. Arnold,\nKratz , H. E. , Child Study in Iowa,\nLane, Albert G. , Dissent from Report on Organization of City Schools ,\nLarkins , Chas. D. , Effects of Manual Training,\nDiscussion,\n\n514\n557\n\n512\n512\n510\n453\n\n660\n190\n557\n893\n389\n748\n747\n\n"}
{"page": 1113, "printed_page": null, "text": "1098\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nPAGE\n\n482\n\nLaws of Mental Congruence and Energy, by B. A. Hinsdale,\nLe Conte, Joseph, Address to Science Teachers,\nEffect of the Theory of Evolution on Education,\nLeviston, Mr. , Discussion,\nLincoln, D. F. , Report on Ventilation and Heating of Schools,\nLing, Chas. J. , Discussion ,\nLiterature, Nature Study and, by Sarah L. Arnold,\nLyte, E. Oram, Relation of Normal Schools to Public Schools,\nReport of Discussion,\nMagazines , Art in, by J. C. Dana,\nManual and Industrial Education, Department of,\nPapers and Discussions,\nSecretary's Minutes,\nManual Training, Effects of, by Charles D. Larkins,\nPhilosophy of, by E. R. Booth,\nMarble, A. P., Ethical Elementin Patriotism,\n\n956\n149\n957\n934\n958\n570\n973\n497\n814\n718\n720\n718\n748\n\n720\n142\n395\n\nDiscussion ,\n\n134\n\nMartin, Geo. H., New Standards of Patriotic Citizenship,\n\n259\n\nDiscussion,\n\nMathews, B. C., Ethical Instruction Through Sociology ,\nMaxwell , Wm. H., Dissent from Report of Committee of Fifteen,\n\n624\n343\n239\n\nDiscussion,\n\nMcCullough, Mary C. , Mother's Meetings-How to Conduct Them,\nMcGinniss, James, Discussion,\n\nMcMurry, Chas. A., Co-ordination in History and Literature,\nDiscussion,\n\nMcMurry, Frank M. , Discussion ,\nMeetings, Time and Place of,\n\n533\n570\n104\n\n230, 345, 478, 479, 480, 481\n343, 549\n\n.\n\nCalendar of\n\n3\n6\n\nMehan, J. M. , President's Address,\nMembers , Amendments Concerning,\nLists of Active and Life,\nAnnual , from Colorado,\n\n866\n\n1\n, 39\n1078\n1085\n\nMerrill , Jenny B., Child Study in New York,\n\n899\n\nMetcalf, R. C., Discussion,\n\n396\n\nMethod of Child Study, by M. V. O'Shea,\n\n924\n\nMethod, Real Province of, by James M. Milne,\nBy Howard Sandison,\n\n689\n\nMethods of Teaching-Round Table Discussion, by Mrs. M. E. Riley,\n\n859\n\nMilne, James M. , Real Province of Method,\nDiscussion,\n\n258\n\n.\n\n694\n\n689\n\nMilne, Wm. J. , Discussion,\nMind and Music, by Theo. H. Johnston,\n\n255\n\nModifications of Secondary School Courses Most Needed, by Chas. H. Keyes,\n\n731\n\nMoral Instruction in Elementary Schools-Discussion,\nMorris , R. Anna, Object of the New Department,\n\n946\n\n795\n\n443\n\nMothers' Meetings-How to Conduct Them, by Mary C. McCullough,\n\n533\n\nAmong the Poor, by Wilhelmina T. Caldwell ,\nMosely, F. Y. , Discussion,\nMusic Education, Department of, .\nPapers and Discussions,\nSecretary's Minutes,\nMusic, Course in, for Public Schools, by A. J. Gantvoort,\nIn Relation to Other Studies, by Sarah L. Arnold,\nMind and, by Theo . H. Johnston,\nStudy in the Public Schools, Purpose of, by F. Treudley,\nNatural Science Instruction, Department of,\nRound Table Discussions,\nSecretary's Minutes,\nNature Study and Literature, by Sarah L. Arnold.\nNecrology, Report of Committee on, by C. W. Bardeen, Chairman ,\nNew Department, The, by Francis W. Parker,\n\n535\n\nNew Standards of Patriotic Citizenship, by Geo. H. Martin.\n\n134\n\n622\n765\n\n767\n765\n785\n\n788\n795\n771\n\n951\n952\n\n951\n570\n204\n949\n\n"}
{"page": 1114, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\n\n1099\n\nPAGE\n\nNext Step in the Education of the Indian, The, by W. N. Hailmann,\nNicholson, Professor, Discussion,\nNightingale, A. F. , Discussion,\nNominations, Report of Committee on,\nNormal Schools , Department of,\nPapers and Discussions,\nSecretary's Minutes,\nNormal Schools, Concentration of Studies in, by John W. Cook,\nCorrelation of Studies in, by N. C. Schaeffer,\nPractice Teaching in, by J. N. Wilkinson,\nPsychology for, by M. V. O'Shea,\n\n80\n\n255\n\n601, 620, 632\n27\n\n672\n674\n672\n714\n\n709\n707\n681\n\n674\n\nBy Z. X. Snyder,\n\n973\n\nRelation to Public Schools, by E. Oram Lyte,\nNorthen, Ex-Governor, Invitation to Atlanta by,\n\n25\n\n25\n\nSpeech of,\n\n946\n\nObject of the New Department, by R. Anna Morris ,\n\n2\n\nOfficers, Names of,\nDuties of,\nOfficers of National Educational Association for 1894-95,\nBoard of Trustees ,\nDepartment Officers ,\n\n2\n7\n7\n9\n\n8\n\nDirectors by Election,\n\n7\n\nDirectors Ex- Officio,\nDirectors , Life,.\nExecutive Committee,\nOfficers of National Educational Association for 1895-96,\nBoard of Trustees ,\n\n8\n7\n10\n10\n\nDepartment Officers ,\n\n11\n\nDirectors by Election,\nDirectors Ex-Officio,\nDirectors , Life,\nExecutive Committee,\n\n11\n\n10\n10\n10\n\nOlin, Arvin S., Instruction and Improvement of Teachers by Institutes,\nOrganization of City School Systems, by Andrew S. Draper,\nOrganization of Practice Teaching in Normal Schools, by J. N. Wilkinson,\nOrganization of Training Schools and Practice Teaching, by Kate D. Stout,\n\n165\n\nOrganization of Ungraded Schools,\n\n464\n\n707\n700\n\n895\n\nO'Shea, M. V. , Child Study in Minnesota,\n\n924\n\nMethod and Scope of Child Study,\n\nPsychology for Normal Schools,\nPalmer, Chas. S. , Remarks in Science Department,\nParker, F. W. , Response to Addresses of Welcome ,\nThe New Department,\nTraining of Teachers,\nDiscussion,\n\n375\n\n681\n\n953, 957, 958\n61\n\n949\n969\n\n114, 191, 344, 396, 408, 549, 846\n\nParsons , Cora Z., Report of Discussion ,\nPatrick, G. T. W. , Is Child Study Practicable for the Teacher ?\nPayne, Wm. H. , Education According to Nature,\n\n906\n\nPeavey, Mrs. A. J. , Discussion,\n\n184\n\nPestalozzi - Froebel Haus, Work of the, by Mrs. S. S. Harriman,\nPetition for Department of Physical Education,\nSchool Administration ,\nScience Instruction ,\n\n821\n\n114\n\n525\n\n44\n, 944\n45\n46\n720\n\nPhilosophy of Manual Training, by E. R. Booth ,\nPhysical Education, Department of,\n\n944\n\nPapers and Discussions ,\nSecretary's Minutes,\n\n946\n944\n\nPhysical Education, Petition for Department of,\nPhysical Geography-Its Possibilities and Difficulties, by Edward L. Harris,\nPhysical Training, by Edward F. Hermanns ,\n\nPhysical Training in Public Schools, by Miss N. D. Kimberlin,\nPictorial Drawing in Primary and Gram. Grades, by Wilhelmena Seegmiller,\nPinney, Mary A, Plea for Industrial Training,\n\n44,944\n615\n65\n946\n822\n\n753\n\n"}
{"page": 1115, "printed_page": null, "text": "1100\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nPAGE\n\nPolitical Economy in Secondary Schools , by Charles F. Thwing ,\nPowers and Duties of State Superintendent, by N. C. Schaeffer,\nPractice Teaching , Organization of, by Kate D. Stout,\nIn Normal Schools, by J. N. Wilkinson,\nPractice Work in the Normal Schools, by John W. Cook ,\nPratt, R. H. , Industrial Education as Applied to Indian Schools ,\nPresident's Address-Philosophy of Manual Training , by E. R. Booth,\nWhat Knowledge is of Most Worth ? by Nicholas Murray Butler,\nExtension of Art Education, by Charles M. Carter,\nBy J. M. Mehan,\n\n370\n350\n700\n\n707\n501\n759\n720\n\n69\n810\n866\n582\n\nBy Wm. H. Smiley,\nBy N. Coe Stewart,\nPreston, J. R. , Discussion,\n\n767\n\nPrettyman, E. B. , Discussion,\nPride and Prejudice, Educational, by A. E. Winship,\nPrimary Education, Progress in, by Mrs. Eva D. Kellogg,\nProfessional Schools , Relation of a College Course to, by T. R. Bacon,\nStandard of Admission to, by J. N. Hall,\nProgress in Primary Education, by Mrs. Eva D. Kellogg,\nProspects for a Federal Educational Union, by Wm. Carey Jones,\nPsychology for Normal Schools, by M. V. O'Shea,\n\n148, 357\n257, 359\n999\n1004\n665\n661\n\n1004\n594\n681\n674\n\nBy Z. X. Snyder,\n\n914\n\nPunishment as Seen by Children, by Earl Barnes,\nPurpose of Music Study in Public Schools, by F. Treudley,\nReal Province of Method, by James M. Milne,\n\n771\n\n689\n694\n\nBy Howard Sandison,\n\nRecent Improvement in Primary School Work, by Sarah L. Arnold,\nRelation of Geography to History, by Edward Channing,\n\n279\n\n192\n16\n\nReport of Board of Trustees-Ninth Annual,\n\n204\n\nReport of Committees in General Sessions on Necrology,\n\n27\n\nNominations ,\nResolutions,\n\n31\n\nReports of Standing Committees of the CouncilCommittee on Elementary Education, by Miss Bettie A. Dutton,\nCommittee on State School Systems, by Henry Sabin,\nCommittee on Pedagogics, by B. A. Hinsdale,\nCommittee on Normal Education, by John W. Cook,\n\n447\n\n459\n482\n\n501\n47\n\nReport of Committee in Regard to Committee on Rural Schools ,\nReport of Committee of Fifteen ,\nRepresentation and Voting,\n\n232\n\n39\n36\n\nResponse of President-elect Dougherty,\nResponses to Addresses of Welcome byNicholas Murray Butler,\n\n59\n\nIrwin Shepard,\n\n59\n\nFrancis W. Parker, .\nEx-Governor Northen ,\n\n61\n\n62\n968\n\nN. C. Dougherty,\n\nResolution in Regard to Expenses of Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools ,\nResolutions, Report of Committee onGeneral Sessions ,\nArt Department,\nBusiness Department,\nSuperintendence Department,\n\nReveley, Ellen G., Discussion,\nRevenues of Ungraded Schools ,\nRice, J. M., Substitution of Teachers for Text-Books ,\nRichards, Zalmon, Discussion,\n\nRiley, Mrs. M. E., Methods of Teaching,\nRobinson, Albert R., Industrial Education a Necessity ,\nRobinson, Oscar D. , Electives in High Schools,\nRothwell, W. R., Discussion,.\nRounds , C. C., Discussion,\nRound Table Discussion of Herbart's Doctrine,\n\n48\n\n31\n809\n\n864\n216\n256\n\n449\n562\n\n445, 453, 454, 458, 764\n859\n741\n\n586\n661\n\n444, 445\n475\n\n"}
{"page": 1116, "printed_page": null, "text": "1101\n\nINDEX.\n\nPAGE\n459\n\nRural Schools, by Henry Sabin,\n\n1010\n\nBy Chas. R. Skinner,\n\nRussell, James E. , Discussion,\n\n657, 660\n\nSabin, Henry, Ungraded Schools ,\nDiscussion,\n\n357, 445\n\n459\n\nSandison, Howard, Real Province of Method,\n\n694\n\nSanford , H. R. , Discussion,\n\n410\n\nSchaeffer, N. C., Correlation of Studies in Normal Schools ,\nPowers and Duties of State Superintendents,\n\n350\n\nDiscussion\n\n709\n\n188, 255, 359, 449\n790\n\nSchauffler, Dr., Discussion,\nSchneider, Mr. , Discussion,\n\n821\n46\n\nSchool Administration, Petition for Department of,\nSchool Hygiene, Report on, by Edward M. Hartwell ,\n\n931\n\nScience and Education, Wm. L. Bryan,\n\n161\n\nScience Department, Establishment of,\n\n951\n\nPetition for ,\nSearch , P. W., Individualism in Mass Education,\nDiscussion,\n\n398\n\nSeaver, Edwin P., Dissent from Report on Organization of City Schools,\n\n389\n\nDiscussion,\nSecondary Education, Department of,\nPapers and Discussions ,\nSecretary's Minutes,\n\nSecondary School Courses, Modifications of, by Chas. H. Keyes ,\n\n45\n\n411\n\n230, 257, 396\n579\n582\n\n579\n731\n\nSecretary's MinutesArt Education,\nAtlanta Meeting,\n\n808\n\n961\n\nBoard of Directors , 1894,\n\n38\n\nBoard of Directors, 1895,\nBusiness Education,\n\n863\n\n45\n\nChild Study,\n\n891\n\nCouncil,\n\n439\n\nElementary Education,\n\n561\n\nGeneral Sessions,\nHerbart Club ,\nHigher Education,\nKindergarten Education,\n\nManual and Industrial Education,\n\n17\n\n959\n636\n\n510\n718\n\nMusic Education,\n\n765\n\nNormal Schools,\n\n672\n\nPhysical Education,\nScience Instruction,\n\n944\n\nSecondary Education,\nSuperintendence,\nSeegmiller, Wilhelmena, Pictorial Drawing,\nSeeley , Levi , Discussion ,\nSeerley, H. H. , Discussion,\n\n951\n\n579\n213\n822\n113\n456\n\nShaw, Edward R., Child Study in New York,\n\n899\n\nShearer, W. J. , Discussion,\nSheldon, E. A. , Discussion,\n\n408\n\nShepard, Irwin, Response to Addresses of Welcome,\nDiscussion,\nShorthand and Typewriting , by W. A. Woodworth ,\nSites , C. M. L. , Discussion,\nSkidmore, Sydney T. , Discussion,\nSkinner, Chas. R. , Education of Public Opinion,\nRural Schools ,\n\nSmiley, Wm. H. , President's Opening Address,\nSnyder, Z. X. , Psychology for Normal Schools ,\nSocial Settlement and the Kindergarten, by Miss Amalle Hofer,.\nSociology, Ethical Instruction Through, by B. C. Mathews,\nSoldan, F. Louis, Discussion,\n\nSongs for Children, by Fannie Arnold ,\n\n228, 258\n59\n230\n882\n\n602, 632\n958\n126\n\n1010\n582\n\n674\n514\n\n624\n\n113, 446, 454, 480, 497\n793\n\n"}
{"page": 1117, "printed_page": null, "text": "1102\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\n\nPAGE\n\nSouth, Advancement of the, by Wm. E. Boggs,\n\n966\n\n1021\n\nEducation in, by W. T. Harris ,\n\nHigher Education in the, by Edwin A. Alderman,\nSouthworth, Mr. , Discussion,\n\n979\n\nSpencer, Mrs. Sara A. , Alliance of Business Educators' Association with N. E. A. ,\n\n873\n\nSpringer, D. W. , Ethical Side of Business Training,\n\n890\n\nStandard of Admission to Professional Schools, by J. N. Hall,\n\n661\n\nStewart, J. S. , Address of Welcome,\n\n963\n\nStewart, N. Coe, President's Address,\n\n767\n\nStorm, A. V., Discussion ,\nStout, Kate D., Organization of Training Schools and Practical Teaching,\nStrong, Professor, Discussion ,\n\n700\n\n632\n\n622\n\n958\n\nSubstitution of Teacher for Text-Book, by J. M. Rice,\n\n562\n\nSudborough, Mrs. Grace B. , Discussion,\nSuperintendence, Department of,\n\n444\n213\n\nPapers and Discussions ,\n\n218\n\nReport of Committee of Fifteen,\nSecretary's Minutes,\nSupply of Teachers for Ungraded Schools ,\nTalbot, Mr. , Discussion,\nTarbell, H. S. , Report on Training of Teachers ,\n\n232, 238, 287, 375\n213\n\n467\n821\n238\n\nDiscussion ,\n\n259\n\nTeaching of Political Economy in Secondary Schools, by Chas. F. Thwing ,\n\n370\n\nText-Book, Substitution of Teacher for, by J. M. Rice,\n\n562\n\nThompson, Wm . O. , Discussion,\nThwing, Chas . F., Political Economy in Secondary Schools ,\nTomlins, W. L., Faculty and Ministry of Song ,\nToronto, Organization of University of, by W. H. Fraser,\nTraining of Teachers, by F. W. Parker,\nTraining of Teachers , Report of Sub-Committee on, by H. S. Tarbell,\nTraining Schools, Organization of, by Kate D. Stout,\nTreasurer's Report, July 1, 1894, to July 1, 1895,\nTreudley, F., Purpose of Music Study in Public Schools ,\nDiscussion,\nTurner, Mr., Discussion , .\nTwelve, Address of Committee of,\n\n654\n370\n551\n\n638\n969\n238\n700\n13\n771\n228\n\n958\n632\n\nTwiss, Mr. , Discussion,\n\n958\n\nTypewriting, Shorthand and, by W. A. Woodworth,\n\n882\n\nUngraded Schools, by Henry Sabin,\nUniversity of Toronto , Organization of, by W. H. Fraser,\nVan Liew, C. C. , Child Study with Co-Operation of Parents,\n\n459\n638\n\n929\n\nVentilation and Heating of Schools, Report on, by D. F. Lincoln,\n\n934\n\nVocal Harmony , by H. E. Holt,\nVoice and Body, by Mrs. Gaston Boyd,\nWarfield, W. C., How to Test the Quality of a Teacher's Work,\nWarr, J. W., Guaranteeing Positions ,\nWestcott, O. S. , Biology in First Year of Secondary Schools ,\nWhat Knowledge is of Most Worth? by Nicholas Murray Butler,\n\n802\n\nWhite, E E. , Discussion ,\n\n949\n218\n\n879\n604\n69\n\n231, 258, 346, 389, 410\n\nWilkinson, J. N., Practice Teaching in Normal Schools ,\n\n707\n\nWilliams, S. G. , Discussion,\nWilson, H. E. , Discussion,\n\n408\n\nWinship, A. E., Educational Pride and Prejudice,\nDiscussion,\n\n764\n999\n\n358, 400\n\nWise, Principal, Discussion,\n\n958\n\nWood, Mr., Discussion,\n\n623\n\nWoodworth, W. A. , Shorthand and Typewriting .\n\n882\n\n"}
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{"page": 1121, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATION\n\n"}