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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at|http : //books . google . com/ ) HARVARD UNIVERSITY LIBRARY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION 1 r •. ••• '0 i HARVARD UNIVERSITY UBRARY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION '^ '" ■'■!»■ .•w*;' ■•i«^": \ National Educational Association Journal of PRooEEDiNGe AND ADDRESSES I SESSION OF THE YEAR 1894 HELD AT ASBURY PARK, NEW JERSEY PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION ST. rAXJL 1805 LI3 HAHVAI© UMVWSin Sg/OOkTt. SCHOOL OF i»UCATKDH MQUSQi ft SyT«V^ UBftAllI Preas of the Pioneer Press Co., St. Paul, Minn. CONTENTS. Pags. Constitution .1 By-Laws .4 Act of iDcorporation .5 Calendar of Meetings 6 Officers for 1883-4 ^. 7 Officers for 1894-5 /^ . 10 Life Directors ^ 13 Life Members 14 Addresses Unknown 17 .Vaines of Life Members Deceased 17 Financial Repopt— 1892 18 Financial Beport~1893 20 Reports of Pmsf ees— 1892 and 1893 22 Beport of Emergency Fund 24 QKNBRAIi SBSSIONS. Secretary's Minutes 27 Report of Oottunittee on Resolutions 84 Minutes of Meeting of the Board of Directorb 40 Minutes of Meeting of the New Board of Directors 43 Addresses of Welcome 49 54 ^e Educational Exhibit at the Columbian Exposition 00 ]J« Opganiaers of the Nation and Education 06 Tlie Ethical Element in Literature 71 ^^^^ on Rhythm in Education 84 fweR8ioiiai Training of Teachers in Normal Schools 86 ^jessional Training of Teachers in Colleges 93 p^ *^8Jonaj Ti-aining of Teachers in Summer Schools 100 ^!^*>nal Training of Teachers by Educational Publications . . 106 ^scnsBion 114 ent of City School Systems 121 ^'^^^ussion 126 Th T ® ^fluence of the Higher Education of a Country Upon Its Elementary ^ Schools 128 Wkt'^ on Practical Education 134 X^^^^^kes-What Mars the Teacher? ........ 136 ^^ibility of Modifying the Programs of the Elementary and Secondary f*chools to Meet the Suggestions in the Report of the Committee of Ten 143 ^»«cu^sion- tf^tin 152 ^>>«li8h 155 ^story 160 iv NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Pa OK. Moral Training Through the Common Branched 1G5 Child Study 1'!'3 Discussion - • 1'^'^ Remarks on the Education of the Colored People in the South . . 185 Professional Obligations and Duties of the Teacher 180 Laboratory Methods in Elementary Schools 1^1 Discussion • • 1^8 The Higher Use of Nature Studies 1^ Horace Mann's Country School • 204 The Study of literature 210 Memorial Addresses— Report of Committee on Necrology Greorge Howland 222 Elizabeth Palmer Peabody 231 M. Alexander Newell 234 Leiand Stanford 236 Emily Marwedel 238 John S. Crombie 241 Robert Allyn 247 Robert Wallace Stevenson 249 DSPARTMBHT OF SUPBRIBrTElfDBlVCE (BOSTON MBBTING). Secretary's Minutes 252 Report of Committee on Columbus Day Celebration 256 Author's Reception 2^ Verses by Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes 260 Wood-work in Gkammar Grades 261 Discussion 267 The Study of English in the PubHc Schools 279 Discussion 289 Examinations and Promotions in Elementary Schools— Discussion . . . 294 Plans of Organization for School Purposes in I.«arge Cities .... 298 Supervision of City Schools . . 310 Discussion 322 The Reconstruction of the Grammar School Curriculum 323 The Cambridge Experiment 333 Discussion 338 School Statistics and Morals 342 Grading the Country School 349 The Graded System of the Rural Schools of New Jersey 358 Discussion 364 Supervision of Country Schools 368 Discussion 372 Sources of Supply of Teachers in OSty Schools 374 What Can Be Done to Inorease the Efficiency of Teachers in Actual Service? 377 What Shall Be Done with Non-Progressive and Retrogressive Teachers? . 383 Discussion 387 The Value of Literature in Moral Training 388 History as an Aid to Moral Culture 397 Discussion ^^ CONTENTS. r. DBPARTMB2VT OF SUPBRIJWTBMDDBTOB (RICHMOND BIBBTIHG). Paob. Secretary's Minutes 413 Eniiching the Coarse in the Blementary Schools- First to Fourth Grades 418 Fifth to Eighth (trades 428 Discussion 439 The Keport of the Committee of Ten—Its Use for the Improvement of Teach- ers Now at Work in the Schools 442 Discufision 451 Some Phases of Pi^sent BdacatiODal Problems in Europe .... 460 Gernmn Methods of Using the Mother Tongue 471 Discussion 482 The Relation of the Kindergarten to the Public School System . 483 Discussion 490 The Cnrriculnm for Secondary Schools 4fi6 Discussion 508 The Exhibit of Edacatkm at the Columbian Exposition 515 Discussion 527 The Improrement of Rural Teachers 527 IMscassiovi 534 The Care of Truants and Incorrigibies 536 Discussion 549 The University in Its Relation to the Teaching Profession .... 554 Discussion 559 The South and Its P^blems 567 Teaching Patriotism in Southern Schools 576 Discussion 584 Closing Address of President Kiehle 500 THB HATIONAIi COUNCIL. Ck>nstitution 593 By-LavFs 596 Officers for 1898-94 597 Officers for 1894-95 697 list of Members 597 Honorary Members 598 Deceased 598 Standing Gomnuttees 599 Secretary's Minutes *>2 Treasurer's Report 605 Keport of Attendance 605 Report of Committee on Technical Education— The Relation of Technical to liberal Education 606 Discussion • 617 Report of Committee on Higher Education— Professional and Technical In- struction in the University 6I9 Discussion . 623 vi. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION The Dogma of Formal Disciplinp 625 Discassion 635 Repotrt of Ck>mmittee on Psychological Inquiry— The Psychology of the Imi- tative Functions in Childhood as Belated to the Process of Learning . 63T Discussion 642 Review of the Beport of the Committee of Ten 645 Discussion 661 The Country School Problem 66i> KINDBmOARTBBT BBPARTUBNT. Secretary's Minutes 679 Letter of Greeting to Kindergartners 681 President's Address 682 The Related Development of Morality and Intelligence in the Kindergarten Idea 686 Discussion 6i)0 What Can the Elindergarten Do for History and Literature in the Higher Grades? 691 Discussion 606 Eissential Principles of the Kindergarten System 696 Discussion 701 Ideal Relation of Kindergarten to Primary Schools 702 Discussion 703 BlaBMBNTARY DBPARTMBNT. Secretary's Minutes 705 School Boards 707 Discussion 713 A Few Changes in Blementary School Instruction 715 Discussion 724 The Ideal Primary School Curriculum 726 Discussion 737 SKOONDARY DEPARTMBNT. Secretary's Mdnutes 743 Is It True that the Most Defective Part of Education in This Country Is in the Secondary Schools? 745 Discussion 751 Shall Latin be a Required Study? 752 How May a Professional Spirit be Acquired by the Secondary Teachers of America? 758 Discussion . . . . • 764 Discipline as the Result of Self-Government 764 Possibilities of High School Training in Relation to Public Speaking. . 773 The Training of the High School Teacher 781 Discussion 787 The Future of the American High School 788 CONTENTS, vii. DBPARTMBNT OF UIOHBR BDUOATIOIV. Paob, Secretary's Minutee 785 The Future of the Smaller College 797 Discusaon 804 The Gronp System of College Studies 807 Faperation in College Government 816 UrORM AL DEPARTVBNT. Secretary's Minutes 819 Report of Committee on the Relation of Normal Schools to Universities . 821 The Duty of the Normal School toward the Problem of School Literature . 833 Discussion 840 ^^*Becent Eduoational Theory 843 Scholarship in Normal Schools 850 The Academic Function of the Normal School 853 The Teacher as an Expert 867 Discussion 867 D^PARTUXNT OF INDUSTRIAL BDUOATIOIV. Secretary's Minutes 871 Drawing— Its Relation to Manual Training and the Industrial Arts . 872 Organization and Plans for Manual Training Schools 876 The Progress of Manual Training 877 The Hygienic Relation of Dress to Education 880 Manual Training Methods in PhUadelphia PubUc Schools .... 886 DBPARTMBNT OF ART BDUOATIOIV. Secretary's Minutes 803 Art Education— Its Influence: Industrial, Educational, Ethical . 894 Art £3dacation and Manual Training 000 Color in Public Schools iK)6 Modeling in Public School Work .916 DBPARTMBNT OF MU«IO BDUOATION. Secretary's Minutes 925 President's Address 927 Music in the New Education 928 Discussion 939 Is as Much Time Devoted to Instruction in Vocal Music in Our Public Schools as Its Importance Demands 939 Discussion 947 Pupils' Defective Hearing 947 Some Helpful Things Concerning Music in the Public Schools .... 953 Discussion 956 viii. CONTENTS. DBPARTMBlfT OP BLSINBSS EIDLOATION. Secretary's Minutes 957 President's Address 961 The Religion of Morals as Applied to Business 965 An Ideal Business College 971 Handwriting of the Future 976 Business Training— Gk>od and Bad 980 The Teaching of Writing 984 The Disciplinary Value of the Business Course of Study .... 989 DEPARTMKMT OF CHIIjD STUDY. Secretary's Minutes 995 Report of the Committee on the Study of Child Development, of the Associa- tion of College Alumnae 996 Reports from Various Sections of the National Association for Child Study . 1000 The Motor Ability of Children— A Preliminary Study 1003 Children's Love of Nature 1010 Children's Expression Through Drawing 1015 MISCBUULNBOUS. Annual Membership for the Year Ending July 1, 1894 1025 Index ICXW Volumes of Proceedings 1071 CONSTITUTION OF THE Wational Educational Association. PREAMBLE. To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profes- ^^*^^=i of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the ^' ^"^ited States, we, whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt the ^^Jlowing: CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE I.— NAME. nriiis Association shall be styled the National Educational Association. ARTICLE II.— DEPARTMENTS. Section 1. It shall consist of eleven departments: The first, of School Superiii- tendonce; the second, of Normal Schools; the third, of Elementary Schools; the foTirtli, of Higher Instruction; the fifth, of Industrial Education; the sixth, of Art £daca.tion; the seyenth, of Kindergarten Instruction; the eighth, of Music Edu- ('ation; the ninth, of Secondary Education; the tenth, of Business Education; the eleventh, of Child Study; and a National Council of Education. Seo- 2. Other departments may be organized in the manner prescribed in this <^ Constitution. ARTICLE III.— MEMBERSHIP. Section 1. Any person in any way connected with the work of education, or any educational association, shall be eligible to membership. Such person or asso- ciation may become a member of this Association by paying two dollars and sign- ing this Constitution, and may continue a member by the payment of an annual \«-fe of two dollars. On neglect to pay such fee the membership will cease. See. 2. Each department may prescribe its own conditions of membership, pro- vided that no person be admitted to such membership who is not a member of the General Association. Sec. 3. Any person eligible to membership may become a life member by pay- ing at once twenty dollars. I \ NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ARTICLE IV.--OFFICEUS. Section 1. The officers of this Association shall be a President, twelve Vice Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, one Director for each State, District or Ter- ritory represented in the Association, and the presiding officers of the several de- partments and a Board of Trustees to be constituted as hereinafter provided. Any friend of education may become a Life Director by the donation of one hundred dollars to the Association at one time, either by himself or on his behalf; and any educational association may secure a perpetual directorship by a like donation of oAe hundred dollars, the Director to be appointed annually or for life. Whenever a life member desires to become a Life Director he shall be credited with the amount he has paid for his life membership. Sec. 2. The President, Vice Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, Trustees, Direct- ors, Life Directors, President of the Council, and presiding officers of their respec- tive departments shall constitute the Board of Directors, and, as such, shall have power to appoint such committees from their own number as they shall deem ex- pedient. Sec. 3. The elective officers of the Association shall be chosen by ballot, un- less otherwise ordered, on the second day of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided. Sec. 4. Each department shall be administered by a President, Vice President, Secretary, and such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs; but no person »hcUl be elected to any office of any department, or of the Association^ who is wo<, at the time of the election^ a memher of the Association. Sec. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a pre- siding officer. In his absence, the first Vice President in order who is present shall preside; and in the absence of all Vice Presidents a pro tempore chairman shall be appointed on nomination, the Secretary putting the question. Sec. 6. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Direct- ors, and shall conduct such correspondence as the Directors may assign, and shall have his records present at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors. The Secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, keep a list of the members of his department. Sec. 7. The Treasurer shall receive and under the direction of the Board of Trustees hold in safe-keeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall expend the same only upon the order of said Board; shall keep an exact accoimt of his re- ceipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter, which accounts, ending the first day of July each year, he shall render to the Board of Trustees, and, when ap- proved by said Board, he shall report the same to the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees; and he shall continue in office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the Associa- tion next succeeding that for which he is elected. Sec. 8. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the Association, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; shall make all necessary arrange- ments for its meetings, and shall do all in its power to make it a useful and hon- orable institution. Upon the written application of twenty members of the Asso- ciation for permission to establish a new department, they may grant such per- COSSTITUTION, mission. Such new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and pririleges as the others. The formation of such department shall in effect be a sufficient amendment to this Constitution for the insertion of its name in Article II., and the Secretary shall make the necessary alterations. Sec. 9. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors for a term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member ex-officio during his term of office. At the election of the Trustees in 1886, one Trustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years, one for three years, and one for four years; and annually thereafter, at the first meet- ing of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the As- sociation, one Trustee shall be elected for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a Trustee from two consecutive annual meetings of the Board shall forfeit his mem- bership therein. The Board of Trustees thus elected and constituted shall be the executive financial officers of the Association, as a body corporate, as conferred by the certificate of incorporation under the provisions of the Act of General Incor- poration, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Qolumbia, dated the 24th day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C, and recorded in Liber No. 4, "Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia." Sec. 10. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trustees to provide for safe-keep- ing and investment of all funds which the Association may receive from life di- rectorships, or from donations; and the income of such invested funds shall be nsed exclusively in paying the cost of publishing the annual volume of Proceedings of the Association, excepting when donors shall specify otherwise. It shall also be the duty of the Board to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors; and, when prac- ticable, the Trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding one hundred dollars that may remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year. ARTICLE v.— MEETINGS. Section 1. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five Directors. Sec. 3. Any department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time and place as by its own regulations it shall appoint. Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold their regular meetings at the place and not less than two hours before the assembling of the Association. Sec. 5. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the Board or the President shall determine. Sec. 6. Each new Board shall organize at the session of its election. At its first meeting a Committee on Publication shall be appointed, which shall consist of the President and the Secretary of the Association for the previous year and one member from each department ARTICLE VI.— BY-LAWS. By-laws not inconsistent with this Constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of the Association. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ARTICLE Vn.— AMENDMENTS. This CJonstitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the unanimous vote of the members present; or by a two-thirds yote of the members present, provided that the alteration or amendment has been substantially proposed in writing at a previous meeting. BYLAWS. 1. At each regular meeting of the Association there shall be appointed a Com- mittee on Nominations, one on Honorary- Members, and one on Resolutions. 2. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills approved by the Board of Directors. 3. Each paying member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of its Proceedings. 4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of its departments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be published in the volume of Proceedings without the consent of the Asso- ciation, upon approval of the Executive Committee. 5. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the Asso- ciation to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing' the condition of the said fund, shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees. ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS. The establishment of a special fund from surplus receipts, after the expenses of the Association have been paid, to be known as the ^'Emergency Fund," was recommended by the Board of Trustees, sub- mitted to the Board of Directors at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 12, 1^92, and the following resolution was adopted: Resolved, That there be established, as soon as the current expenses of the Association will warrant, an Emergency Fund not to exceed $4,000. Said fund shall be subject to expenditure by the Board of Trustees in accordance with votes of the Board of Directors at any regularly called meeting. The said fund may be used for the purpose of meeting deficiencies of income of the Association, and for such additional investigations and publications as may be determined by said Board of Directors. The following by-laws pertaining to membership were also sub- mitted to the Board of Directors and approved: First — The membership of this Association shall consist of two classes, to be styled respectively active and associate members, of whom active members alone shall be entitled to participate in the business of the Association and to hold office. Second— The active membership of the Association shall consist only of those who are connected with the work of education or with some educational associa- tion. Other members shall constitute the associate membership of the Association. Third— The Directors shall commanicate to the Secretary of the Association the names of persons worthy of active membership, and the Secretary shall forward ACT OF ISCOBPORATION. to such persons the statement of the conditions and advantages of such member- ship, with a request that they become members, and, on receipt of the annual fees, they shall be enrolled among the active members. Fourth— At the first session of each regular meeting of the Association the President shall appoint a Committee on Active Membership, to whom shall be referred all questions of active membership during such meeting, and persons rec- ommended by this committee may become members by a majority vote of members present and voting at any meeting of the Association. Fifth— During the month of January of each year the Secretary of the Associa- tion shall send to each active member a request for payment of the annual fees, and any member who shall neglect for one year the payment of the annual fee shall, by reason of such neglect, forfeit his membership. ACT OF INCOEPORATION. At a meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Educa- tional Association, held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 14, 1885, the following resolution was passed: Resolved, That a Committee of Three be appointed to secure articles of incor- poration for the National Educational Association, under United States or State laws, as speedily as may be. N. A. Calkins of New York, Thomas W. Bieknell of Massachu- setts, and Eli T. Tapi)an of Ohio were appointed such committee. Under the authority of the resolution quoted above, and with the approval of the committee, and by competent li-gal adAice, the chair- man obtained a CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION. We, the undersigned, Norman A. Calkins, John Eaton and Zalmon Richards, citizens of the United States, and two of them citizens of the District of Colum- bia, do hereby associate ourselves together, pursuant to the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation. Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, under the name of the "National Educational Association," for the full period of twenty years, the purpose and objects of which are to elevate the char- acter and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States. ♦ ♦ ♦ To secure the full bene- fit of said act, we do here execute this our certificate of incorporation as said act provides. In witness whereof, we severally set our hands and seals this 24th day of Feb- ruary, 1886, at Washington, D. C. NoBMAx A. Calkins, [l. s.] John Eaton. [l. s ] Zalmon Richards. [l. s.] Duly acknowledged before Michael P. Callan, notary public in and for the Dis- trict of Columbia, and recorded in Liber No. 4, Acts of Incorporation for the Dis- trict of Columbia. CALENDAR OF MEETING.S. NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. 1867. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1H61 1863. 1864. -PHILADELPHIA. PA. (Organized. ) JAME8 L. ENos. Chairman. W. E. Sheldon. Secretary. -CINCINNATI, OHIO. Z. Richards, President. J. W. BULKLKY, Secretary. A. J. RicKOFF, Treasurer. -WASHINGTON. D. C A. J. RiCKOFF. President. J. W. BULKLBY. Secretary. C. S. Pennell, Treasurer. —BUFFALO, N. Y. J. W. BULKLEY. President. Z. Richards. Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. , 1862.— Nose.sslon. —CHICAGO, ILL. JOHN D. Philbrick, President James Cruikshank. Secretary. O. a Wight, Treasurer. -OGDENSBURG. N. Y. W. H. Wells. President David N. Camp, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1865.— HARRISBURG, PA. S. S. Greene, President, W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1866.-INDIANAPOLIS. IND. J. P. WiCKERSHAM, President. S. H. White. Secretary. S. P. Bates, Treasurer. 1867.— No session. 1868.-NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gregory, President. L Van tioKKBLEN, Secretary. James Cruikshank, Treasurer. 1869 —TRENTON, N. J. L. Van Bokkblen, President. W. E. Crosby. Secretary. A. L. Barbbr, Treasurer. 1870.— CLEVELAND, OHIO. Daniel B. Hagar. Preside -it. A. P. Marble, Secretary. W. E. Crosby, Treasurer. name changed to NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. 1871.-ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. PiCKARD. President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1872.— BOSTON, MASS. E. E. white. President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1873.— ELMIRA, N. Y. B. G. Northrop, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1874.— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. Whitb, President. A. P. Marble. Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1875.-MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President. W. R. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1876. -BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps. President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. A. P. Marble. Treasurer. 1877.-LOUISVILLE, KY. M. A. Newell, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1878.— No session. 1879.— PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President W. D. Henkle. Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1880. -CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. J. Ormond Wilson, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1881.— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1882.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. G. J. ORR, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. H. S. Tarbbll, Treasurer. 1883.-SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. T. Tappan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins. Treasurer. 1 884. -MADISON. WIS. Thomas W. Bicknbll, President. H. S. Tarbbll, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1885.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. F. Louis Soldan, President. W. E. SHBLbON. Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1886.— TOPEKA, KAN. N. A. Calkins, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. E. C. Hewbtt, Treasurer. 1887.-CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. Sheldon, President. J. H. CANFiELD, Secretary. E. C. HEWBTT, Treasurer. 1888.— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. AARON Gove, President J H. CANFIELD, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1889.— NASHVILLE, TENN. ALBERT P. Marble, President. J H. CANFIELD, Secretary. E. C. Hewett Treasurer. 1890.— ST. PAUL, MINN. James H. Canfield, President. W. R. Garrett, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1891.— TORONTO, ONTARIO. W. R. Garrett, President. E. H. Cook, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1892.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. H. Cook, President. R. W. Stevenson, Secretary. J. M Greenwood, Treasurer. 1893.-CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education.) Albert G. Lane, President. iRWiN Shepahd, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1894.— ASB CRY PARK, N. J. Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shbpard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES. OFFICERS FOR 1893-4. GENERAL ASSOCIATION. ALBERT G, LANE Chicago, 111 President IRWIN SHEPARD Winona, Minn Secretary. J. M. GREENWOOD ^« Kansas City, Mo, Treasurer VICE PRESIDENTS. E. H. Cook. New York. M. C. Fernald, Maine. W. B. Bartholombw, Ken- E. E. White, Ohio. tacky. J. W. Dickinson, Massachu- L B. WoLTB, Missouri. setts. G J. Rahset, Louisiana. T. A. Futrall, Arkansas. F. A. FiTZPATBiCK, Nebraska . C. P. Rogers, Iowa. Edward Searing, Minnesota. N. C. SCHABFFBR, Pennsyl- vania. BOARD OF TRUSTEES. N.A.CALKI1V8 Chairman 124 E. 80th St., New York. Zalhon Richards Secretary 1301 Corcoran St.. Washington, D. C. Zalmon Richards. Washington, D. C Term expires July, 1896. E.C Hbwbtt.. Normal, III Term expires July, 1895. N. A. Calkins New York City Term expires July, 1894. H. S. Tarbell. Providence, R. L» Term expires July, 1893. AG. Lane Chicago, ni Ex-Officio. "The Board of Trustees shall be the executive financial officers of this Association as a body corporate.' —Art. IV., Sees. 9 and 10 of the Constitution. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. AG. Lane. Chicago, 111 President. IBWIN SHEPARD Wiuoua, Minn Secretary, i &L Greenwood , Kansas City, Mo Treasurer, N H.COOK., Flushing, N.Y First Vice President. E.A. Calkins. New York City Chairman Board of Trustees. Direotors Ez-Offloio. See Art, JV, Sec. , Bartholomew, W. H., LonisYllle, Ky. Bbabdshbar, W. M., Ames, Iowa. Blow, Susan £., St. Louis, Mo. Calkins, N. A., New York City, N. Y. Dickinson, J. W., NewtonviUe, Mass. Cot, E. W., Cincinnati, Ohio. Pbrnau). M. C, Orono, Me. Fttball, T. a., Marlanna, Ark. Glover, N. L , Akron, Ohio. Gbbihwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo. Hbwbtp, E. C Normal, 111. KiXHLE, D. L., Minneapolis, Minn. Lane. A. G., Chicago, 111. , of the Constitution, Low, Sbth, New York City. Milne, J. M., Oneonta, N. Y. Ramsey, G. J., Clinton, La. Richards, Zalmon, Washington, D. C. RiCKOFT, Rebecca D., New York City. Rogers, C. P., Marshalltown, Iowa. Searing, Edward. Mankato, Mixm. SCHAEFFER, N. C, Harrlsburg, Pa. SHEPARD. Irwin, Winona, Minn. Tarbell., H. S., Providence, R. I. Trant, AMEiiiA E., Buffalo, N. Y. White, E. E., ColumbuB, Ohio. Wolfe, L. E., Jefferson City, Mo. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A8S0CIA7I0N. BOARD OF DIRECTORS. Life Dlreotora. Bkown, LbRoy D., Santa Monica, Cal. Jewett, A. V., Abilene, Kan. Dougherty, Newton C, Peoria, 111. Marshall, T. Mabcellus, Carlisle, Pa. Day, L. W., Cleveland, Ohio. Parker, Chas. I., South Chicago, 111. Fairchild, George T., Manhattan. Kan. Pike J., JerseyviUe, 111. Greenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo. Rickoff, Andrew J., New York City. Gove. Aaron, Denver, Col. Stratton, C. C, Portland, Ore. Hunt, Mary H., Hyde Park, Mass. Taylor, a. R,, Emporia, Kan. Hall, Caleb G., New Berlin, N. Y. Directors by Election. North Atlantic Division. Malne.« J. Corthbll.- Gorham. New Hampshire C. C. Rounds Plymouth. Vermont G. P. Beard St. Albans. Massachusetts W. E. Sheldon.. Boston. Rhode Island T. B. Stockwell Providence. Connecticut David N.Camp New Britain. New York C. W. Bardeen Syracuse. New Jersey- Nicholas Murray Butlbb. Paterson. Pennsylvania D.J. Waller Harrlsburg. South Atlantic Division. Delaware Maryland John E. McCahn Baltimore. District of Columbia Wm. T. Harris.. Wasbington. Virginia West Virginia W. H. Anderson Wheeling. North Carolina Robert Bingham AsheviUe. South Carolina W. B. Lanier Brunson. Florida. Frederic Pasco.-. Jacksonville. South Central Division. Kentucky McHenry Rhoads Frankfort. Tennessee Frank Goodman Nashville. Alabama Solomon Palmer East Lake. Mississippi Dabney Lipscomb Stockville. Louisiana A. A. Tbenby Texas H.C. Pritchett Huntsville. Arkansas Junius Jordan Pine Bluff. North Central Division. Ohio J. A. Shawan Columbus. ndlana Je.sse H. Brown Indianapolis. Illinois W. L. Steele Galesburg. Michigan E. A. Strong Ypsilantl. Wisconsin Albert Hardy La Crosse. Iowa O.J. LAYLANDER Cedar Falls. Minnesota R.E. Denfeld Dulutb. Missouri .TNO.T. Buchanan Kansas City. North Dakota South Dakota - Nebraska Kansas J. N.Wilkinson Emporia. Western Division. Montana R.G. Young Helena. Wyoming Wm. Makquerat Laramie. Colorado R H. Bbggs Denver. New Mexico Arizona Utah J. F. Millspaugh Salt Lake City Nevada Idabo Washington F.J. Barnard.. Seattle. Oregon E. B. McElroy Salem. California. Earl Barnes Menlo Park. OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION. DEPARTMENT OFFICERS. National Council of Education. E. W.COY President Cincinnati, Ohio. F. A- FITZPATRICK Vice PreHdent „ Omaha, Neb. CHAS. DEGARMO Secretary and Treasurer Swarthmore, Pa. Blnderffarten. Miss SUSAN E. BLOW.- President Avon, N. Y. MESS CONSTANCE MACKENZIE Vice President Philadelphia, Pa. Miss ANNA STOVALL.» Secretary...*, San Francisco, Cal. Elementary. Mrs. REBECCA D. RICKOFF President New York City. AARON GOVE.. Vice President Denver. Colo. F. TREUDLEY Secretary Youngstown, Ohio. Secondary. J.S. CROMBIE*. PreHdent Brooklyn, N. Y. AMELIA EARLE TRANT Vice President Buffalo, N. Y. W. H. BARTHOLOMEW Secretary Louisville, Ky. Hlffber. AUSTIN SCOTT- Preitident Rutgers College. N.J. RT. REV. JOHN J. KEANE Vice President Washington, D. C. WM. DEWITT HYDE- Vice President Brunswick. Me. W.G. BALLANTINE Vice President Oberlln, Ohio. J. H. CANFIELD Vice Presidettt Lincoln, Neb. WM. PRESTON JOHNSON Vice Preridenf New Orleans, La. BCELVIL DEWEY Secretary Albany, N. Y. Normal. JAMES M. MILNE President Oneonta, N. Y. JOHN W. COOK.- Vice PreMdent Normal, 111. J.N.WILKINSON Secretary Emporia, Kan. Superintendents. D.L. KIEHLE President Minneapolis, Minn. WARREN EASTON Vice PreHdent New Orleans. La. F. TREUDLEY - Secretary Youngsto^ii, Ohio. Industrial. W. M. BEARDSHEAR President Ames. Iowa. A.C.GORDAN- Vice President Worcester, Mass. W.B. FRIEDBERG.- Secretary New York City. Art. Miss CHRISTINE SULLIVAN PreHdent... Cincinnati. Ohio. E. C.COLBY Vice President Rochester, N. Y. M188 ELIZABETH H. PERRY Secretory Brldgewater, Mass. Music. NATHAN L. GLOVER PreHdent Akron, Ohio. BENJAMIN JEPSON- Vice President New Haven, Conn. GEORGE C. YOUNG Secretary Salt Lake City. Utah. Business. R. E. GALLAGHER President Hamllion, Ont. FRANK GOODMAN First Vice President Nashville, Tenn. W.E. McCORD Secretary and Treasurer Peoria. III. •Deceased. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES. OFFICERS FOR 1894-95. GENERAL ASSOCIATION. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER... Paterson, N J President (Address. Columbia College, New Yofk City.) IRWIN SHEPARD Winona, Minn Secretary. J.M.GREENWOOD Kansas City, Mo Treasurer. VICE PRESIDENTS. A. G. LANE, Chicago. 111., H. A. Wise, Baltimore. Md. G. M. Philips, West Chester. Pa. W. E. Sheldon, Boston, Mass L E. Wolfe, Jefferson City, Ma S. S. Packard, New York City. W. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky. W. R. Malonb. Salt Lake City, Utah. W. F. Slaton, Atlanta, Ga. D. L. Kiehle. Minneapolis, Minn. D. B. Johnson. Columbia, S. C. F. A. Fitzpatrick, Omaha, Neb. BOARD OF TRUSTEES. N. A. Calkins Chairman 124 E. 80th St., New York City. Zalmon Richards Secretary 1301 Corcoran St. , Washington, D. C. N. A. Calkins New York City Term expires July, 1898 H. S. TABBELii. Providence, R.I. Term expires July, 1897. Zalmon Rich ar ds Washington, D. C Term expires July, 1896. E. C. Hbwett. Normal, 111 Term expires July, 1895. Nicholas Murray Bdtlku Paterson, N. J Ex-Officio. rAddres.s, Columbia College, New York City.) "The Board of Trustees shall be the executive financial officers of this Association as a body corporate.*'— vlr^ IV., Sees. 9 and 10, of the Constitution. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Nicholas Murray Butleh. Columbia College, New York City President. Irwin Shepard Winona, Minn Secretary. J. M. Greenwood Kainsas City, Mo Treasurer. A. G. Lane (^hlcago, III First Vice President. N. A. Calkins New York City Chairman Board of Trustees. BOARD OF DIRECTORS. Directors Ex-Offido. See Art. IV., Sec. .?, of the Constitution. Baker, Jambs H., Boulder, Colo. Mehan, J. M., Des Moines, Iowa. Bartholomew, Wm. H., Louisville, Ky. Packard. S. S., New York City. Booth, E. R., Cincinnati. Ohio. Philips, G. M., West Chester, Pa. Bryan, Wm. L., Bloomlngton. Ind. Richards, Zalmon, Washington, D. C. Butler, Nicholas Murray, Paterson, N. J. Rounds, C. C, Plymouth, N. H. Calkins. N. A., New York City. Sheldon. W. E., Boston, Mass. Carter, Chas. N., Denver, Colo. Shepard, Irwin, Winona, Minn. Fitzpatrick, frank A, Omaha, Neb. Slaton, W. F., Atlanta, Ga. Green, J. M., Trenton, N. J. Smiley, W. H., Denver, Colo. Greenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo. Stewart, N. C, Cleveland, Ohio. Hbwett, E. C, Bloomlngton, 111. Tarbell, H. S., Providence, R I. Johnson, D. B., Columbia, S. C. Treudley. F.. Youngstown, Ohio. KiBHLE, D. L., Minneapolis, Minn. Wheelock, Lucy, Boston, Mass. LANE, A. G., Chicago, 111. Wise, H. A-. Baltimore. Md. Malonb, W. R., Salt Lake City, Utah. Wolfe, L. E.. Jefferson City, Mo. Maxwbia., W. H., Brooklyn, N. Y. OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION H Life Directora. Brown. Lerot D., Santa Monica. Cal. Jewett. A. V., Abilene, Kan. DouoHEBTY, Xbwton C. Poorla, 111. Marshall, T. Marcellu». White Cloud, Kan. Day, L. W.. Cleveland, Ohio. Parker, Charles I., South Chicago. 111. Faibchild. George T., Manhattan, Kan. Pike. J.. Jerseyville, 111. GRRBirwooD. J. M., Kansas City, Mo. Rickoff, Andrew J.. New York City. GovB, Aaron, Denver, Colo. Stratton, C. C, University Park, Ore. HUKT. Mart H.. Boston, Mass. Taylor, A. E., Bmporia, Kan. HALJi. Caleb G., New Berlin, N. Y. Directors by Election. iVbWA Atlantic DivUtion Maine W. J. Corthbll. (lorham. New Hampshire C. C. Rounds Plymouth. Vermoni G. P. Beard St. Albans. Massachusetts Ray Greene Hulinc; Cambridge. Rhode Island Thomas B. Stockwell Providence. Connecticut Viroil G. Curtlh New Haven. New York C. W. Bardekn Syracuse. New Jersey A. B. Poland Trenton. SoiUh Aflantir DirUion Pennsylvania E. O. L yte MlllersviUe. Delaware A. N. Raub Newark. Maryland John E. McCann Baltimore. District of Columbia Wn^LiAM T. Harris Washington. Virginia John E. Massey Richmond. West Virginia W. H. Anderson Wheeling. North Carolina C. B. Denson Raleigh South Carolina P. T. BiiODiE Spartanburg. Florida W. N. Shkats Tallahassee. South Central JH vision. Kentucky C. H. Dibtrick Hopklnsville. Tennessee Frank Goodman Nashville. Georgia Oris Ashmore Savannah. Alabama J. H. Phillips Birmingham. Mississippi Dabney Lipscomb Agricult. Coll. Louisiana G. J. Ramsey Clinton. T^xas H. C. Prk'HKtt Huntsville. Oklahoma I). R. Boyd Norman. Arkan.sas Junius Jordan Pine Bluff. Nortk Central Dirision. Ohio J. A. Shawan Columbus. Indiana Jesse H. Brown Indianapolis. nilnoLs ORviLLE T. Bright Englewood. Michigan E. A. STRONG Ypsllantl. Wisconsin .s. a. Hooper Milwaukee. Iowa J. T. Merrill Cedar Rapids. Minnesota C. B. Gh^bbrt St. Paul. Missouri John T. Buchanan Kansas City. North Dakota Lewis B. Aveky Mays^'llle. South Dakota Mrs. Edward P. Faru Pierre. Nebraska James H. Canfield Lincoln. Kansas John MacDonald Topeka. WeMern DivUion. Montana R. G. Young Helena. Wyoming Wm. Marquardt Laramie. Colorado Warren E. Knapp Denver. NewMexico Hiram Ha dley LasCruces. Arizona F. J. Netherton Mesa. Utah ELLA M. Dukes Salt Lake City. Nevada Orvis Ring Carson City. Idaho F. B. Gaut^t Moscow. Washington F.J.Barnard Seattle. Oregon E. B. McElroy Salem. California .... Earl Barnes Palo Alto. 12 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. DEPARTMENT OFFICEEtS. National Council of Education. C. C. ROUNDS Preaident Plymouth, N. H. E. ORAM LYTE Vice President Millersville, Pa. N. C. DOUGHERTY Secretary and Treasurer .... Peoria, 111. Kindererarten. Miss LUCY WHEELOCK President Boston, Mass. Miss MARY C. MCCULLOCH Vice President St. Louis. Mo. Miss AGNES MACKENZIE Secretary London, Ont. Elementary. F. TREUDLEY President Youngstown, Ohio. Miss N. CROPSEY Vice President Indianapolis, Ind. W. C. WARFIELD Secretary Co\lngton, Ky. Secondary. W. H. SMILEY President Denver, Colo. Miss HARRIET L. KEELER Vice President Cleveland. Ohio. C. H.THURBER Secretary Hamilton, N. Y. Higher. JAMES h: baker President Boulder, Colo. .TOHN F. CROWELL Vice President New York City. HORACE GOODHUE Secretary Northfleld, Minn. JOHN F. BRA DLE Y Executive Committee Jacksonville. 111. WM. F. KING Executive Committee Mt. Vernon, Iowa. JOHN B. KIEPFER Executive Committee Lancaster, Pa. Normal. J. M. GREEN President Trenton, N. J. Z. X. SNYDER Vice President Greeley, Colo. C. C. VanLIEW Secretary Normal. 111. Superintendence. W. H. MAXWELL President Brooklyn. N. Y. O.T.CORSON First Vice President Columbus, Ohio. WM. F. FOX Second Vice President Richmond, Va. JAMES M. CARLISLE Secretary Austin, Tex. Industrial. E. R. BOOTH President Clncinnatt Ohio. A N. EBAUGH Vice President Baltimore. Md. CHAS. D. LARKINS Secretary Brooklyn, N. Y. Art. CHAS. M.CARTER President Denver, Colo. Miss SARA FAWCETT Vice President Newark, N. J. Miss WILHELMINA SEEG MILLER. Secretary Allegheny .City, Pa. MuBlc. N. COE STEWART President Cleveland, Ohio. (JEORGE CAROTHERS YOUNG Vice Prettidenf Salt Lake City, Utah. Miss MARY E. GRANDY Secretary Sioux City, Iowa. BusinesB. J. M. MEHAN President Des Moines, Iowa. A. S. OSBORN First Vice President Rochester, N. Y. Mrs. E. E. CHI LDS Second Vice I'resident Springfield, Mass. J.E.KING Third Vice President Rochester, N. Y. W. E. McCORD Secretary and TYensnrer . . , New York City. FRANK GOODMAN Chairman Executive Com . . . Nashville. Tenn. <:;hild study. WM. L. BRYAN President Bloomington, Ind. THOMAS P. BAILEY, JR Vice President Berkeley, Cal. Miss SARA E. WILTSE Secretary Boston, Mass. MEMBERSHIP OF THE xNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOK The dates in the margin indicate the year when the several mem- berships began. The addresses given in this list were received in re- ply to letters sent to the latest known residence of each Life Director and Life Member, in October, 1894, inclosing a postal card addressed for return, with the following request: t^Plea^jm blanks on this postal card with your name, residence, etc., (»^maUatonee. ^ cases where no reply has been received and the residence is un certain, it ig indicated as doubtful by (?). LIFE DIRECTORS. CALIFORNIA. MASSACHUSE'riS. ^ «rown, LeRoy D., 534 5th St., 1887. Hunt, Mary H., 23 Trull St., ^^'ita Mouica, Los An^oles Co. Dorchester District, Boston. COLORADO. MISSOURL ^^e Aaron, 2045 Grant Ave., ^^^ Greenwood, J. M., 8th and Oak ^^^^- Sts., Kansas City. ILLINOIS. 1887. D^,^ NEW YORK. "??giierty, Newton C, 906 E. 1887 p^^ff St., Peoria. 1885. Hall, Caleb G., New Berlin. • ^^k^, Chas. I., 893 71st Place, 1881. Rickoff, Andrew J., 444 Central 189L p-V^^cago. Park W., New York. ^«^. J., JerseyviUe. OHIO. KANSAS. p^. , . 1888. Day, L. W., 805 Cuyahoga Bldg., *i^ohild, Geo. T., State Agri- Cleveland, y'^^utiiral CoUege, Manhattan ^^ett, A. v., Abilene, Dickinson J^o. OREGON. ^S^ahall, T. Marcellus, Sac an.l r^**ox School, White Cloud. 1888. Stratton, C. C, D. D., Portland ^'^yloT, A. R., Emporia, Lyon Co. University, University Park. 14 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. LIFE MEMBERS. CALIFORNIA. INDIANA. 1889. Hobe, Augusta W., 1633 Hyde 1876. Bell, W. A., 66 1-2 North Peim St., San Francisco. St., Indianapolis. 1879. Hoose, James H., 255 S. Euclid 1880. Irwin, John S., 241 W. Main St, Ave., Pasadena. Fort Wayne. 1877. De Jarnette, Anna Kalfus, "Re- 1866. McRae, N. S., Marion. (?) port" Office, San Jose. 1877. Smart, James H., President Pur- 1882. Morris, Harriette N., State Nor- due University, La Fayette. mal School, Chico. 1876. Stevens, M. C, Waldron St., 1884. Twining, N. C, Rialto, San Ber- West Side, La Fayette. nardino Go. CONNECTICUT. IOWA. 1880. Gilchrist, J. C, Laurens, Poca- 1884. Barnard, Henry, 28 Main St., hontas Co. Hartford. 1886. Pickard, Josiah L., 419 N. Clin- 1884. Northrop, Birdsey Q., Clinton. ton St., Iowa City. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. ^^' '^^^%^T'^tyr ^^ ^^"^^" 1884. Bell, Alex. Graham, 1331 Connec- 1884. WiUis, Wm. A., 308 Church St., ticut Ave., Washington. -^owa City. 1876. Harris, Wm. T., Bureau of Edu- ttatsiqaq cation, Washington. jvainsac. 1880. Hitz, John, 1601 35th St., Wash- 1886. Campbell, A. G., Council Grove, ington. Morris Co. 1889. Keane, Rt. Rev. John, Catholic 1886. Clark, Frank Howard, Minneapo- University, Washington. lis, Ottawa Co. 1864. Richards, Zalmon, 1301 Corcoran 1S86. Coover, N. Wilson, Ellsworth St., Washington. Co. (?) 1880. Wilson, J. Ormond, 1439 Massa- 1886. Fairchild, Edward T., Ellsworth, chusetta Ave. N. W., Washing- Ellsworth Co. toil. 1886. Jay, Walter M., A. M., St. John's GEORGIA. School, Salina. 1886. Klock, J. E., cor. 5th and Dela- 1890. Baker, Supt. W. H., Chatham ware, Leavenworth. Academy, Savannah. 1886. Larimer, Henry G., 216 Clay St., 1881. Mallon, Mrs. Frances C, The Le- Topeka. (?) land, Houston St., Atlanta. (?) 1886. Limerick, Alex. H., 902 E. 9th 1870. Manley, R. M., Dalton, Whitfield St., Winfield. Co. 1886. MacDonald, John, "Western School TTTTNnT«5 Journal," Topeka. ±1^1.11^ wio. ^ggg McVicar, President Peter, cor. 1870. Allen, Ira W., 612 Maple St., Euclid and College Ave., To- Englewood, Chicago. (?) peka. 1880. Brown, Geo. P., Bloomington, 1886. Meade, Richard C, Atchison. (?) McLean Co. 1886. Roop, C. Y., 336 S. 7th St., Sa 1.S84. Cheney, Augustus J., Oak Park, Una. (?) , ^ Chicago. 1886. Rose, Geo. E., Rosedale, Wyan- 18G4. Eberhardt, John F., 161 La Salle dotte Co. St., Chicago. (?) 1886. Sawhill, Thos. A., Concordia, 1876. Forbes, Alexander, 202 Wabasb Cloud Co. Ave., Chicago. 1886. Schuyler, Aaron, 1316 S. Santa 1884. Hayward, Emily A., 1233 Irving F^ St., Salina. (?) Park Boulevard, Chicago. 1886. Stanley, Edmund, Lawrence. 1884. Hewett, Edwin C, 200 Ash St., 1886. Tillotson, D. C, 621 Fillmore St., Normal. McLean Co. Topeka. (?) 1801. Hull John, Normal University, 1886. Williams, Philo J., Massachusetts Carbondale. (?) St. Lawrence. 1884. Rabb, Henry, 729 W. Edwards 1886. President Board of Education, St.. Springfield. Abilene, Dickinson Co. LIFE MEMBERS. 15 KANSAS— am«n«ed. NEW HAMPSmRE. 1886. Dodge City Schools, care E. D. i876. Rounds, Charles C, Plymouth. Webb, Dodge City, Ford Co. 1886. Board of Education, City of Ot- NEW JERSEY. tawa, Franklin Co. 1886. Sedgrwick City Schools, Sedgwick, 1876. Thompson, Langdon S., 30 Park Harvey Co. St., Jersey City. 1886. Cowley County Teachers' Asso- ciation, Winfield. NEW YORK. 1886. Riley County Teachers* Associa- tion, Manhattan. 1871. Anderson, Dr. John J., 343 Adel- phi St., Brooklyn. KENTUCKY. 1879. Calkins, N. A., 124 E. 80th St., ,o-- « New York lSi7. Bartholomew, W. H., 426 Gray 1880. Coe, Emily M., 70 6th Ave., Now St., ILiomsville. York. 1877. Monsarrat, Mrs. L. L.., 549 2d i864. Cruikshank, James, 206 So. Ox- St., LouisvUle. ford St., Brooklyn. 1883. Day, Mrs. Albert, , New MARYLAND. York. (?) 1876. Richmond, Miss S.E., 1402 Penna. ^^' ^^^^^^t ^^^t^v^;: ^ ^'^" At© Wftitimnpp loughby St., Brooklyn. ®"' ^^i:i™ore. jggg Hunter, Thomas, Normal College. MASSACHUSETTS. ^^^ ^^^^ j^J^* ^^^ York. (?) Ip. Bascoxn, John, Williamstown. 1880. Rickoff, Mrs. Rebecca D., 444 1864. Hagrar, Daniel B., 12 Summer St., Central Park, W. New York. Salem. 1882. Stern. M., 27 E. 44th St., New 1870. Jones, Daniel W., 4 Hawthorn York. ifio/^ > ^^•» Koxbury, Suffolk Ck). 1884. Van Aken, Mrs. Georgiana, 63 ^«U Mowry, Wm. A., 97 Federal St., Park St., New York. i"^'*^. Sheldon, Wm. E., 3 Somerset St., NORTH CAROLINA. Boston. 3884. Bingham, Robert, Asheville, Bun- AlINNESOTA combe Co. Pennell, Calvin S., 2245 Knapp 1864. 18-0 P?^' ®^- Anthony Park. ^"^^ ' ' ^It^^r^^J^'^f'T^l^ Germania ^gg^ ^^ ^ ^ 218 W. Ash St., 1890 Tni^ ^ Bldg., St. Paul. Piaua ^^- Independent School District, No. 3, .^yj^ l>^^r^aff TT«mnfnn Prnnklin Northfield, Rice Co. ^^' ^^a^^n 0?*°"^*^°' Franklm, MTS«50TJRI ^^^' Burns, J. J., 167 N. Walnut St., JKiioouuiti. Canton. 1»86. Evana, Chas. H., 915 Locust St., 1870. Cole, W. H., Marysville, Union 1077 ^^ iiOuis ^^* 1^. Soldan, F." Louis, 1616 Hickory 1883. Coy, E. W.. Hughes High School, St., gf Louis Cincinnati. 1866. Curran, Ulysses T.. 622 Colum- NEBRASKA ^^^ Ave., Sandusky. (?) 1876 1. JN1.BKA8KA. ^^^ Davidson, Chas. C, 59 W. Ely ■ ^«. Samuel De Witt, 2118 St., Alliance. 1880 ivik "^^nporte St., Omaha. 1880. Dutton, Bettie A., 94 State St., ' iSir^^d^orough, Mrs. Grace, Cleveland. 18^ p'**^ S. 26th Ave., Omaha. 1865. Hartshorn, O. N., Alliance. (?) ' ^^y, Robert, cor. D and 4th 1870. Holden, L. E., Cleveland. (?) 1880 \r *•• Palmyra. 1879. McMillan. Reuben, Canfield, Ma- • ^^ble, Supt. Albert P., 508 City honing Co. 1885 M?^^» Omaha. 1880. McMillan, Mrs. R., Canfield, Ma- ' S®*"' J- H., Room 5, I^dwith honing Co. **ioek, Lincoln. 1880. Miller. Lewis, Oak Place, Akron. 16 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OmO— Continued. 1881. Clark, L. H., River FaUs, Pierce 1880. Peaalee, John B., McGregor Park, ^^ ^^^^^^ pj^y.^^ j^.^l^l^^^ ^^^^^^ ift«9 wJi^or'; !«;«.« A 9^^ «„««.f 1884- Emery, J. Q.,. AlbioD, DaiiG Co. 1882. Robert, James A., 230 Sunset ^gg^ pj^^^^ j^^^ ^^ Watertown, Jef- Ave., jjayion. fprson flo 1804. Shawan, J. A., 1122 K Town ^^ Harvey, Lorenzo Dow, 225 23d St., Columbus. «. Milwaukee 1870. mite, Emerson E., 387 E. Broad ^^^ Huttorr J, 1105 Main St., St., Columbus. Whitewater 1880. Widner, Esther, 1224 N. Main St., i884. Ny^, S H., Court House, Lan iQ'Tn TXTMr^ xr Tk r t *u caster, Grant Co. 1870. Wilhams, Mrs. Delia Lathrop, -jgg^ p^^^^^^ ^^^^^ jy ^ Ri^er Falls, 62 b. Liberty St., Delaware. -jgg^ Parkinson, John B., 803 State St.. PENNSYLVANIA. i8g4. gha^^ Samuel, Crandon, Forest 1870. Arey, Oliver, 303 Springfield, ^ooa oP^i r u ^ri Ave., Philadelphia. (?) ^ ' ^^- l^^'^'i^f ^' TQTT^If-Q. a 1879. Avery, Rachel Foster, 'somerton, ^^^- ^^Zf^' O.^^J^i r^ ' ^ Philadelphia pleton, Outapamie Co. 1876. Brooks, Edward, 240 S. 39th St., ^^- ^^T'^\/'^'^'' ^^^ Wisconsin Philadelphia ^^®-' Madison. 1879. Gratz. Simon,' 1919 Spruce St., ^^- Spencer, Robert C, 178 Prospect Philadelphia Ave., Milwaukee. 1891. Lyte, E. Or'am, State Normal ^^' ^^j^*® formal School, Platteville, School, Millersville. ^^^, m?"**^ tx> xj, a- 1879. Shippen, Edward, 532 Walnut St., Jflf- ^^.^f » f- ^^ ^^f/.^^'^'^ j^ r^ Philadelphia (^) ^^^' Whitford, Rev. WiUiam C, D. D.. 3880. Singer, Edgar A., 4662 Penn ,^^ ^^^'^}''\^''''\^\^ . v i St., Philadelphia. ^^^' ^^^^^ , Regents State Normal 1884. Stewart, Miss Sarah A., 1520 Schools, Wis. Ira A. Hill, Chestnut St., Philadelphia. ^^^^ ^ T ^^^ Madison. 1884. County Superintendents Associa- RHODE ISLAND *^^°» Wisconsin. ixnyjuji. 101.AINU. ^gg^ g^^^^ Historical Society, Madi- 1882. Bicknell, Thos. W., 49 Westmin- son. ster St., Providence. 1884. Board of Education, Beloit. 1884. Board of Education, Janesville. SOUTH CAROLINA. 1884. Board of Education, A. N. Hardy, H o*x^ «,^,,,, . ^.^,,^, . Clerk, La Crosse. 1891. Schofield, Martha, Schofield School, i884. Board of Education, Watertown. Ai^^^' 1884. Superintendent Public Schools TENNESSEE (Board of Education), Milwau- kee. 1887. Conway, Clara, Memphis. 1884. Board of Education (R. H. Hal- sey, Supt. Schools), Oshkosh. WASHINGTON. 1884. Alumni Association, City Normal School Alilwaukee 1884. Henry M. James, 708 Q St., Ta- iS84. County * Teachers' ' Association, coma. Milwaukee. xTirTC3/-.rkx^cTXT 1884. Intermediate and Upper Section, >\IbCUiNMN. Teachers' Corps, Milwaukee. 1884. AJbee, Geo. S., State Normal 1884. Principals' Association, Milwau- School, Oshkosh. kee. 1884. Aylward, John Arthur, 17 W. 1884. Primary Section, Teachers' Corps, Doty St., Madison. Milwaukee. 1884. Beck, Geo., 125 Elm St., Platte- 1884. Athenaeum Literary Society, State ville. Normal School, Platteville. 1881. Carpenter, J. H., 315 Wisconsin 1884. Philadelphian Society, State Nor- Ave., Madison. mal School, Platteville. 1884. Chandler, Willard Harris, Sun 1884. Public School Teachers, Janes- Prairie, Dane Co. ville. 1884. Charlton, Edwin A., Broadhead, 1884. Wisconsin Principals' Association. Green Co. (?) 1884. Wi.sconsin Teachers' Association. ADDBESSE8 UNKNOWN, 17 ADDRESSES UNimOWN. Letters sent to the last known address of the following were re- turned bj the postmasters, marked *\Not called for/' "Unknown," etc. : Brown, Mrs. A. J. Heywood, C. W. Spring, E. A. Crosby, W. E. O* Connor, Joseph. Videlia, Dornia G. De Wolf, David F. Partridge, Lelia E. WUcox, M. C. English, R. F. Pazon, Joseph. Woodward, G. A. Franklin, M. B. Schmitz, J. Adolph. Wright, Edmund W. Harvey, G. I. Setzefaud, A. Young, Cbas. S. NAMES OF LIFE MEMBERS DECEASED. Allyn, Robert, Illinois. Newell, M. A., Maryland. Corey, Lucien B., New York. Rusk, Hon. Jeremiah M., Wisconsin. Danforth, Edward, New York. Stanford, Leland (Life Director), Cali- Graham, Robert, Wisconsin. fornia. Hancock, John, Ohio. Stevenson, R. W., Ohio. Harvey, Thomas W., Ohio. Slone, E. M., Rhode Island. Hobbs, B. C, Indiana. Stone, Mrs. M. A., Connecticut. Howland. H. C, Wisconsin. Tourgee, Eben, Massachusetts. Ingram, S. D., Pennsylvania. Wickersham, James P., Pennsylvania Mayhew, Ira, Michigan. 2 J 18 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. FINANCIAL SUMMARY OF TREASURER'S J. M. Greenniroody Treaanrery In Account 'vrlth Balance of account from receipts of 1891 (Toronto) meeting, as per Treasurer's report, July, 1892 * ^,8U.97 Amount transferred to the Emergency Fund, as per vote by the Board of Directors, July 12, 1892 2,500.00 Balance from account 18S>1 $1,31L97 Dr. To net balance in treasury for account of 1802 J|51,311.»7 , To membership fees paid at meeting Department Superintendents, Brooklyn, N. T., 1892 $lBt5.00 To membership fees paid at the meeting, Saratoga Springs, 1802.. . l.t$86.00 To membership fees collected and paid over by railroad officials... .^).196.90 To membership fees collected and paid over by steamboat compa- niea 144.00 To membership feed from other sources 8.00 To UniTerslty of New York City, fifteen-year membership 20.00 To sale of Proceedings, Department Superintendents 105.00 To sale of back yolimies, National Educational Association 160.26 7,536.15 To interest on Permanent Fund, 1892 2,183.64 Total resources }pl 1,031.76 SUMMARY OF YEAR'S FINANCES. Total receipts for 1892 $9,719.79 Total disbursements for 1892 8,500.73 Net proceeds for 1802 $1,219.06 ASBURY PARK, N. J., July, 1894. Mr. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer, having submitted an account of the receipts and disbursements for the year ending July 1, 1893, to the Board of Trustees, and a summary of the same having been made to the Board of Directors, the report is presented for publication with the Proceedings. N. A. Calkins, H. S. Tarbbll, E. C Hewett, Trustees of National Educational Astoeiation. FINANCIAL REPORT. 19 REPORT. REPOET FOR 1892— (Saratoga Meeting.) the Ifational ESdncatlonal Aiifloclatloit. Cr. lly cxpeoses by the President In making arran^emeuts for the meeting at Saratoga Springs. 18U2 $450.80 By expenses by the Executive Committee, meeting of 1892 254.65 By expenses by the Treasurer 428.11 By expenses by the Secretary 96.85 By expenses for General Association 1,086.93 $2,319.34 136.50 H)o.60 By expenses for Departments- Superintendence— Brookljm $28.00 Secondary Education 25.00 Art 15.00 Music 16.00 Manual Training 53.50 By expenses by Board of Ti*ustees— Rent and care of depository $150.00 Rent, safe deposit vault 25!oo Posuge, telegrams, express 2o!60 By expenses of State Managers— ' Maine $5.25 Maa^ichusetts $14.15 Rhode Island 11.35 New Jersey 20.00 Pennsylvania 20.00 Kansas 19.60 Colorado 20.00 Oregon 20.00 ^ilnnesota 10.25 Ohio 20.00 Michigan 20.00 Iowa 20.00 New Mexico 10.00 Arkansas 20.00 West Virginia 20.00 Nebraska 20.00 Georgia 19.00 Alabama 20.00 Kentucky 13.75 Vermont 2.73 Missouri 20.00 346.08 By pxpen.ses for publishing Proceedings meeting Superlntondeats— Br.')oklyii (special edition) 703.23 By expenses for electrotyplng and printing 1,000 copies History of National Educational Association 430.10 By expenses for publishing 3.000 copies Proceedings of meeting at Saratoga Springs, 1802— Preparing the Proceedings for publication $475.00 Printing and binding 3,000 copies 3.117.70 Distributing copies to members 561.16 4,153.86 By expenses redeeming (108) coupons for duplicate membership fees 216.00 Total disbursements $8,500.78 •Balance for account 1803 2,531.03 $11,031.76 •By special vote of the Board of Directors the sum of $1,000 of this balance was re- served to pay preliminary expenses of the committee of the National Educational Asso- ciation In charge of arrangements for the International (Congress of Education to be held at Chicago in 1893. 20 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION FINANCIAL SUMMAEY OF TREASURER'S INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF J. M. Greenvrood, Tre«,«iirer, in Account vHth Dr. To balance In treasury from 1892, as per Treasurer's report, July, 18(» ^,581.0& To membership fees— Boston meeting, Department of Superintend- ence, 18tt8 ^pJU.OO To membership fees— June, 1893 2U.00 To membership fees at Ohicago, July, 1893 1,232,00 To membership fees, per A O. lAue 1,100.48 To membership fees, additional in 1898 1U.UU To membership fees, at Richmond for 1893 30.00 To membership fees, per B. H. G.» 1893 (net) 48.25 To membership fees, per Secretary Shepard, 1893 33.76 To orders for volume 1898 J. M. G 25.00 ' To orders for volume 1883, Secretary Shepard 201.00 To orders for volume 1898, N. A. C 345.69 To sale back volumes, Z. R 115 25 _ , ^ '— 687.44 10 interest on Permanent Fund for the year ending July 1, 1894 2,369.16 J^. 408.11 SUMMARY OP YEAR'S FINANCES. Total resources for 1893 18,408.11 Total disbursements for 1893 8,'l73!»2 Balance for account 1894 ^234.19 appn^cd^'"^'""'"" ''^^°'* '"^^ ^^^ y^*^ ^"^^^ J^^y !• 1®^ 1^*» l>een examined and N. A Calkims, H. S Tarbell, _ E. C. Hbwett, Trustees of the National Educational Association. FINANCIAL REPORT. 21 REPORT. REPORT FOR 1893. EDUCATION, CHICAGO, 1893. the MAtio-nal Bdvcatlonal Aaaodation. Cr. By preliminary expenses by the Committee of Arrangements fop the Congresses of Bdnoatlon— For circulars and preliminary programs ^460.58 For distribution of circulars, programs and other postage 290.00 For membership certificates 1^25 ^^ By general expenses of the Congresses— For programs of the several Congresses at Chicago $236.60 For membership badges 86.00 For reporting Proceedings of the several Congresses— D. S. Geer and assistants 314.43 For stenographer and messenger— President A. O. Lane 47.00 For printing, postage, telegrams and traveling expenses of President Lane 190.30 For printing, stationery, postage, telegrams and express— Secre- tary Shepard 194.07 For expenses of Treasurer at Chicago for assistants, telegrams, postage and express for 1893 120.20 For expenses of Executive Committee 122.89 For expenses of A F. West, Secretary of Higher Education 32.00 For extra stenographer for the Secretary of Higher Education . . (£2.00 For expenses of Congress of Secondary Education 9.35 For special services of Secretary Shepard, In connection with the Congress, under instruction of President Lane 200.00 Jpl.613.64 By expenses in connection with the preparation and publioatlon of the Proceedings of Congresses of Education- For translating foreign papers $80.00 For typewriting and clerical help 65.95 For telegrams, messengers, postage, express, etc 89.68 For printing circulars, blanks, and other expenses pertaining to volume t>roceedlng8 for 1893, by Secretary Shepard lt$3.74 For editing, supervising, and distributing the Proceedings 600.00 889.37 By expenses, printing, binding and distribution of Proceedings- For composition, electrotyplng, paper, printing and binding 2,000 volumes of 1,007 pages $4,063.25 For delivering volumes Proceedings to members, etc 407.37 — ^— -^— 4 440 (J2 By expenses of the National Educational Association during 1803— For meeting Department Superintendence, Boston, 1893 $94.76 For rent and care of depository of National Educational Asso- ciation in Washington, D. 0 150.00 For special service and incidental expenses of Z. Richards 52.71 For rent safe deposit vault for Trustees 25.00 822.46 $8,173.92 Balance for account 1804 234.19 $8,408.11 SEVENTH AND EIGHTH ANNUAL REPORTS OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES. To the Board of Directors of the National JBducational Association: Owing to the fact that no regular meeting of the National Educa- tional Association or of the Board of Directors was held during the jear 1893, the Board of Trustees submit at this time their seventh annual report of the condition of the Permanent Fund for the year ending June 30, 1893, and also their eighth annual report for the year ending June 30, 1894: SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT. At the close of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1892, the amount of the Permanent Fund was forty thousand dollars (|40,000), of which thirty-one thousand three hundred and thirty-eight dollars (f31,338) was then invested, and the sum of five thousand and sixty-two dollars (J5,062) (from previous investments matured and paid) and the further sum of three thousand six hundred dollars (|3,600) just added to the fund, made a total of eight thousand six hundred and sixty-two dollars (J8,662) not invested, owing to the lack of a favorable opportunity. Early in September, 1892, seven thousand dollars ($7,000) was in- vested, and the balance, one thousand six hundred and sixty-two dol- lars ($1,662), was also invested before the 16th of March, 1893. On the 30th day of June, 1893, the entire sum of the Permanent Fund was invested, with only one thousand dollars (|1,000) bearing interest as low as five and one-half yer cent. The amount of interest received from the Permanent Fund during the year ending June 30, 1893, was two thousand one hundred eighty- three dollars and sixty-four cents (|2,183.64), which sum is included in the report of the Treasurer as a part of the receipts for that period. Kespectfully submitted, :N. a. Calkins, H. 8. Tarbell, E. C. Hewett, Z. BiCHARBS, Trustees National Educational Associ^xtion. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES. 23 EIGHTH ANNUAL REPORT. At the close of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1893, the amount of the Permanent Fund was forty thousand dollars (?40,000). During that jear securities to the amount of thirteen hundred dollars (|1300) matured and were paid. At the close of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894, the amount of the Permanent Fund invested was thirty- eight thousand and seven hundred dollars (f 38,700). The sum not in- vested is thirteen hundred dollars ($1300). The amount of interest received from the Permanent Fund during the jear ending June 30, 1894, was two thousand three hundred sixty- nine dollars and sixteen cents (|2,369.16), which sum is included in the report of the Treasurer as a part of the receipts for that period. There also now remain a few coupons: — for interest due, amounting to fill, which will probably be paid during the present year. The certificate attached hereto states the kind and amount of securities now belonging to the Permanent Fund. Respectfully submitted, N. A. Calkins, H. S. Tarbell, E. C. Hewett, Z. RiCHAKDS. Trustees of the National Educational Association, ASBURY Pabk, N. J., July 10, 1894. CERTIFICATE ATTACHED TO THE PRECEDmG REPORT. '^is is to certify that I have this day examined the securities of . -Permanent Fund belonging to the National Educational Associa- ^^^' now held by the Board of Trustees, and that I found the said ^^•^rities to consist as follows: -''^ first mortgage on real estate in the city of Providence, R. I., for ^^^ thousand dollars (f3,000), with a policy of fire insurance for the ^e amount; of school district bonds to the amount of twenty-three , ^^sand and four hundred dollars (f23,400), with proper coupons at- ^^> of municipal bonds — county, township, and city — to the ^^^t of twelve thousand and three hundred dollars ($12,300), with ^. ^^s attached; making the total amount of said securities thirty- ^^^ht thousand and seven hundred dollars (f38,700). In addition to (|1^ ^^^rities there is in cash the sum of thirteen hundred dollars ^ ' 00) ii^ £ trust company, the proceeds of bonds matured and paid Ih* ^^ ^^ P^®* year. The entire amount of the Permanent Fund at in tK^^^ ^® ^^^^ thousand dollars ($40,000). The securities are kept '^^ Safe deposit vault of the Xassau Bank. ^^ An DR. J. RiCKOFF. -"^BW York, June 29, 1894. FIRST ANNUAL REPORT RELATIVE TO THE EMERGENCY FUND. To th^e Board of Directors of the Xational Educational Association : An Emergency Fund having been provided by the transfer of two thousand and five hundred dollars (|2,500) from the surplus funds of the National Educational Association for 1891, the Board of Directors authorized "the Board of Trustees to disburse, on vouchers signed by the Chairman of the Committee of Ten, so much of the twenty-five himdred dollars (|2,500) as may be necessary to carry on the work of the said committee." (See Minutes, Board of Directors, July 12, 1892,^ While considering places for holding the nine conferences, partly with view to the least possible aggregate exi)ense of members for traveling, it was ascertained that a much greater sum would be neces- sary than had been provided by the National Educational Association. The Chairman of the Committee of Ten immediately set about pro- curing the additional sum required, with the result that the sum of two thousand and ninety-four dollars (|2,094) was added to the amount provided by this Association, making the amount available for the purposes of the committee four thousand five hundred and ninety-four dollars (f4,594). It is deemed proper to state, that owing to the free entertainment of the members of the conferences and of the Committee of Ten at their respective places of meeting, and also to the special concessions obtained in the matter of traveling expenses, several hundred dollars were saved which otherwise would have materially increased the total expenditures of the committee. FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE EMERGENCY FUND, 25 The following report gives a summary of the financial matters per- immg to the Committee of Ten: Total amonnt of money provided ;|54,6S^00 Sums Expended. Expenses of the nine conferences, one meeting each; average, $337.70%; total J^,039.35 Expenses of Committee of Ten, two meetings; average, $219.25; total 438.50 Expenses correspondence, telegrams, printing, etc 4tK).76 Expenses electrotyping, printing reports of conferences and of Ck)mmittee of Ten 562.63 Expenses express on plates, etc 4.70 4,505.94 Balance unexpended $88.0f» In behalf of the Board of Trustees, Respectfully submitted, K A. Calkins, Chah^man. ^'Ew YoHK City, June 30, 1894. MINUTES OF THE THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ASBURY PARK, N. J., JULJ 1013, 1894. FIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS. FIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Aftebnoon, July 10th. The ABsociation was called to order at 2:30 P. M., Tuesday, July 10, 1^94, in the auditorium at Asbury Park, K J., by Prof. J. M. Ralston, Chmnan of the Local Executive Committee- The Rev. dj. e. C. Scudder of the Reformed Church, Asbury Park, offered an ^^ j^ "* un invocation. da (h\ ^^^^ Ralston made a brief opening address, and then intro- liveml ^^' Frank L. Ten Broeck, mayor of Asbury Park, who de- inadil ^ ^^^' address of welcome. Mayor Ten Broeck was followed JeraJ^^^® of welcome by Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler of the New inte L^*^^^ Board of Education and Hon. A. B. Poland, State Super- EB ft ^ of Schools of New Jersey. A letter of welcome from Dr. was ^^^^®' President of the Ocean Grove Camp-meeting Association, Sicyij Ocean Grove, N. J., July 9, 1894. ^^^^Shepabd, jy National Educational AaMeiation, ^•^tiitei ^ ^^** ^ regret that an engagement, of a year's standing, for to-morrow of ^ ^ Scaped my mind, when I agreed to be present and make a brief address *^bn *^^ to the National Kducational Association at its opening service at the iHe^ **«lrk auditorium. Please say to this distinguished body of ladies and gentle- fof * ^ged in the high mission of instructing the youth of our land, that I hereby, fr^ *^lf and my associates, extend a most cordial welcome to our shores and the ^ Of our city by the sea during your stay among us. 28 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, The educational institutes of our land are conspicuous among its chief glories, and the light which shines from them should always illuminate the pathways lead- ing to the highest attainments of that righteousness which exalteth nations. I wish you great success in your noble work, and much pleasure during your visit to us. Very truly yours, E. H. Stokes, President Ocean Grove Camp-meeting Association. The Chairman, Professor Ralston, then introduced Snpt. A. G. Lane of Chicago, President of the National Educational Association, who responded to the addresses of welcome. Responses were also made by Dr. Irwin Shepard of Winona, Minn., Secretary of the Association; by Dr. K A. Calkins of New York City, Chairman of Board of Trustees, and by Dr. Wm. T. Harris, who was introduced by President Lane with the following tribute: We rejoice in the fact, that in the' Educational Department of the National Government we have a leader of educators, and that, in the changes of administra- tion, the cause of education has been lifted above all partisanship, and that this leader, nominated by the teachers of the country, has been retained in the highest educational office of our country. (Applause.) It gives me great pleasure to intro- duce to this audience our leader. Dr. William T. Harris, United States Commis- sioner of Education. The Arion Quartette of Chicago arrived at the close of Dr. Harris' address, and, after an introduction by President Lane, entertained the Association with music. President Lane introduced Dr. Selim H. Peabody, Chief of the Department of Liberal Arts of the World's Columbian Exposition, of Chicago, HI., who addressed the Association on the 'Educational Value of the Columbian Exhibit." President Lane then introduced Austin Scott, President of Kutgers College, New Jersey, who addressed the Association upon the subject of "The Organizers of the Nation and Education." The Association then adjourned to 8 p. m. SECOND SESSION. —Tuesday Evening, July 10th. The second session was called to order at 8 p. m., July 10, 1894, and was opened with an invocation by the Eev. W. A. Allen of Asbury Park. Music by the Arion Quartette of Chicago. President Lane: Three years ago, over 5,000 teachers of the United States met the teachers of Canada at Toronto and received JOURNAL OF FBOCEEDINQS. 29 a right royal welcome. I am glad to-night to introduce to yon Dr. J. A- McLellan of the Toronto Normal School, who will speak to yon on "The Ethical Aim in Teaching literature." President Lane, after Dr. McLellan's address, introduced Dr. G. Stan- ley Hall of Clark University, President of the National Association for the Study of Children, who addressed the Association. Announcements by the Secretary. Adjourned to 9:30 a m., July 11, 1894. SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS. THIRD SESSION.— Wednesday Mobnikg, July 11th. The third session was called to order at 9:30 a. m., July 11, 1894, by President Lane. Invocation by the Kev. Walter Thompson of the Asbury Methodist Episcopal Church of Asbury Park. Music by Mr. Dew of the Imperial Quartette of Chicago and the Arion Quartette. Supt. Henry A. Wise of Baltimore submitted the report of the Committee on Necrology. Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler submitted the following report on the organization of a Bound Table Department of the Association: To the National Educational Asaoeiaiion: The committee appointed at Saratoga in July, 1892, to take into consideration wajs and means by which the system of round tables, inaugurated at Toronto in 1891 might be developed and continued, respectfully report that, in their judgment, the round tables as they have existed up to this time have been of marked benefit to the Association. They haye, for example, attracted to the Association special- ists interested in the subjects of "Child Study'* and the "Herbartian System of Pedagogics" to such an extent that important groups dealing with these subjects have already been formed, and one of them has been admitted to the Association as a department. It seems to the committee highly important to continue and de- velop a policy that has proved its value, and it is respectfully suggested that the committee be continned and authorized to devote further study to the subject and report from time to time as it makes progress. It is believed that, for the present, at least, there is marked advantage in retaining the informality of the round tables and in not giving them too close and systematic an organization. Such organization may reasonably be expected to develop at the proper time. Respectfully submitted, Nicholas Mubbay Bdtlsb, W. T. Habbis, Committee, ASBUBT Pabk, N. J., July 11, 1894. 30 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION The report was accepted, and the committee continued, with, authority to develop the plan suggested in their rejwrt. John W. Cook, President of the Illinois Normal University, ad- dressed the Association on the subject: "The Professional Training of Teachers in Normal Schools." Samuel G. Williams of Cornell University, New York, addressed the Association on the subject: "The Professional Training of Teach- ers in Colleges." Dr. E. E. White of Columbus, Ohio, spoke on "The Professional Training of Teachers in Summer Schools." John A. MacDonald, editor "Western School Journal," Topeka, Kan., addressed the Association on "The Professional Training of Teachers by Educational Publications." The several papers on professional training of teachers were dis- cussed by Dr. R G. Boone, President Michigan State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich.; Dr. Thomas B. Stowell, President State Normal School, Potsdam, N. Y., and D. B. Johnson, President Teacher's Train- ing School, Columbia, S. C. A paper was read by Supt. Henry B. Emerson of Buffalo, N. Y., on 'deeded Improvements in City School Systems." This paper was discussed by Lawton B. Evans, Superintendent of Schools, Augusta, Ga., in a written pai)er, which was not read, but submitted to be printed. President Lane announced State Supt. Henry Sabin of Iowa as Chainnan of the Committee on Nominations of OflScers for the ensu- ing year, which committee was composed of one member from each State and Territory. President Lane then announced the Committee on Resolutions as follows: Supt. W. H. Maxwell, Brooklyn, N. Y., Chairman; Supt. A. S. Draper, Cleve- land, Ohio; Supt. Lawton B. Evans, Augusta, Ga.; President James H. Baker. Boulder, Colorado; Miss Ida Cook, Illinois. President Lane announced that all resolutions proposed would be submitted to this committee without being read. Adjourned until 8 p. »r. FOURTH SESSION.— Wednesday Eveking, July 11th. The fourth session was called to order at 8 p. m., July 11, 1894, by President Lane. The Rev. A. J. MiUer of Asbury Park offered an invocation. Music by the Arion Quartette. JOURNAL OF PR0CEEDINQ8, 31 PfifSiDENT Lane: Mrs. Alice Freeman Palmer telegraphs that she is unable to take her place on this evening's program on account of sickness. We all regret her absence, but I am very glad to be able to introduce to you President C. K. Adams of the Wisconsin Univer- sitj. Following the address of President Adams the audience was enter- tained by music by Mr. Charles A. Dew of the Imperial Quartette of Chicago. Dr. Willianoi T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, addressed the Association on the subject: "The Influence of the Higher Education of a Country upon its Elementary Schools." Adjourned to Thursday morning, July 12th. THIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS. FIFTH SESSION.— Thdbsday Moenino, July 12th. The fifth session was called to order in the auditorium at Asbury rarkon July 12, i894, at 9:30 a.m. Invocation by Rev. Howard T. Widdemer. ^ear in these children when they become citizens in order to perpetuate our common country—our free republic. The rescdution was referred to the Committee on Resolutions. Music by the Arion Quartette. Miss Corinne Harrison of Norfolk, Va., addressed the Association on the subject: '*What Makes — What Mars, the Teacher?" Dr. James C. Mackenzie of Lawrenceville, N. J., delivered an address on the report of the (Committee of Ten, choosing as his topic, "The Feasibility of Modifying the Programs of the Elementary and Secondary Schools, to Meet the Suggestions of the Report." JOURNAL OF PBOCEEDINOS. 33 J. T. Bachanan, Principal of High School, Kansas City, Mo., opened the discussion of the report of the Committee of Ten on the subject of ^Xatin." He was followed by Dr. A. F. Nightingale, who <^i2ssed the report of the committee on the subject of "English." ^^^ E McMurry of the Illinois State University, Champaign, dis- <^U88ed the report of the Committee of Ten on "History," which dis- t^nssion was continued by President C. K. Adams of Wisconsin State t^niv^ersitj^ who was Chairman of the Sub-Committee on History, and ^y Dr. C. M. Woodward, St Louis, Mo. Adjourned to 8 o'clock p. m. SIXTH SESSION — ^Thubsday Evkniso, July 12th. The sixth session was called to order by President Lane, and an inTocation offered by Rev. H. Douglas Spaeth of Asbury Park. After music by the Arion Quartette, Dr. Charles De Garmo, Presi- dent of Swartlimore College, Pennsylyania, delivered an address on "Moral Training through Instruction in the Common Branches." President Lane introduced Dr. G. Stanley Hall, President of Claris Lmversitj, Worcester, Mass., who addressed the Association on the subject of "Child Study." This paper was discussed by Wm. L. Bryan, State University, Bloomington, Ind.; Thomas B. Bailey, Marion, S. C, and Miss Adelaide E. WyckoflE, Brooklyn, N. Y. Adjourned to 9:30 A. M., July 13th. IX)URTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS. ^^VenTH session.— FbidayMobsing, July 13th. iwni v ^^^^^th session was called to order at 9:30 A. m., July 13, ^^Hb.^ President Lane. '^ocatioft by the Rev. Wm. I. GUI of Asbury Park. ^Mic bv the Arion Quartette. ]jgp ^J"^ A. Wright, President of the Georgia State Industrial Col- wiventi ^'^^•■oduced by President Lane, and briefly addressed the IVjp/e j^^ **tt the "Present Status of the Education of the Colored Prgg. , -^ tlie Arion Quartette. %lioolg t^^ Lane introduced Dr. E. A. Brooks, Superintendent of ^«58ional ^^^d^^P^^i^> P^-j who addressed the Association on the "Pro- 3 '^ligations and Duties of Teachers.'' 34 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Mrs. Martha Schofield, General Manager of the Schofleld Normal Industrial School, Aiken, S. C, was introduced by President Lane, and spoke briefly on "Spiritual Training of Children." Dr. E. E. White, Columbus, Ohio, briefly discussed Dr. Brooks' paper. Chaa B. Scott, Superintendent of Nature Study, St. Paul, Minn., addressed the Association on the subject of "Laboratory Methods in Elementary Schools." Discussion by R. E. Denfeld, Superintendent of Schools, Duluth, Minn., followed. Miss N. Cropsey, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Indianapolis, Ind., delivered an address on the "Higher Uses of Nature Studies." Hon. Henry Sabin, State Superintendent of Iowa, addressed the Association on 'Borace Mann's Country School." This paper was discussed by Orville T. Bright, County Superintendent of Schools, Cook Co., Illinois, and Mrs. Eliza B. Bumz of New York. Adjourned to meet at the auditorium in Ocean Grove at 8 p. m EIGHTH SESSION.— Friday Evening, July i;oison. The history and other studies will not save him. There 18 one great universal law that stands by every teacher, and over every school board and superintendent, which should prompt them to teach this subject. Saloon men and brewers in this country are not opposed to it. The world demands that these dangers shall be taught, the emergencies of the time demand it, and Grod is with yon. Truth is not forever on the scaffold, i^or Wrong forever on the throne. This age demands heroism. It demands loyalty to meet the emftifgencies of the situation. It wants men and women who are equal to the times; men who can stand alone, if need be, and do their duty. This age needs such men in the school- room and on the school boards, and all along the line, if this great flag of ours is to wave in the next century over the land of the free a^d the home of the brave. President Lane ; I take gi*eat pleasure in introducing to you Prof. Richard G. Moulton, University Extension Lecturer of the University of Chicago. During the music you seemed to be bewitched by the songs that were sung; but we have learned throughout the West to sit entranced under the words that have fallen from the lips of Pro- fessor Moulton, as he has spoken of some of the great gems of litera- ture and unfolded their beauty to us. I take pleasure in introducing Prof. Bichard G. Moulton of the University of Chicago. Professor Moulton addressed the Association on the subject of "The Study of Literature.'^ 38 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION President Lane: The hour has come to close the thirty-third ses- sion of the National Educational Association. I want to express to the Directors and State Managers my appreciation of their helpful services, and I wish also at this time to publicly recognize the eflftcient services of our Secretary, Dr. Irwin Shepord of Winona, Minn. There is a great body of teachers throughout this country who will read the proceedings of this Association in the press reports and in the published volume when it shall appear. The thoughts that have been expressed here will reach 100,000 teachers in their work during the year. The National Educational Association, appreciating the hospitality of New Jersey, their hearty reception and support, and recognizing the eminent service to the cause of education of one of its distinguished citizens and educators, have elected Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler as the President of the Association for the ensuing year. Ten years ago, when we held our meeting at Madison, Wis., this gavel which I hold was presented to the presiding oflftcer, and has been transferred to each succeeding President from that time to the present. I am glad at this hour to relinquish to my successor, with this sign of my oflftce, the responsible duties of the President of this Association. Permit me to congratulate you. Dr. Butler, Jipon being elected as President of an organization which is to mold and shape educational systems and thought for many years to come. I am glad to introduce the President-elect of the National Educa- tional Association for 1895, Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler of New Jer- sey. Dr. Butler, the President-elect of the Association, responding to the introduction of President Lane, was received with applause, and spoke as follows: Mr, Lane, Members of the National Educational AssoHation^ Ladies and Gentlemen: I little thought, when three days ago it be- came my duty, as a representative of the State of New Jersey, to welcome the National Educational Association to Asbury Park and Ocean Grove, that it would also be my duty, as President-elect, to say farewell to Ocean Grove and Asbury Park on behalf of that Association. In accepting from your hands the high and honorable office for which I have been designated by the too-partial choice of my fellow teachers, I am profoundly impressed with its honor and its dignity. This association has grown to manhood. It has passed the period of struggling childhood and inexperienced youth. It represents the Great Republic's army of peace, enlisted for the war upon ignorance, upon vice, upon immorality. No grade of schools, nx) type of education— lower, intermediate or higher, public or private — is beyond its purview or without its scope. It is a great voluntary body of volun- teers and soldiers in the army of learning. To assist, even for a brief time, in the executive management of its affairs is an honor not to be lightly esteemed. I know JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 39 of no organization that so touches my sympathies and excites my enthusiasm as that to whose guidance, sir, [addressing Mr. Lane] you have devoted a laborious period of service. I pledge my best energies and my best endeavors to it. Should I be able to merit, at the expiration of my term of service, a fraction of the en- comiums that have been justly showered upon you, I shall be fortunate indeed. My position at this moment is a difficult one, and yet one that, in some aspects, is not so difficult as it seems. I feel the double enthusiasm of being a Jerseyman and of belonging to this Association. I feel that perhaps I may speak on behalf of both great bodies— the New Jersey teachers and this Association— that have gained renewed strragth and renewed enthusiasm from this contact vnth each other. The teachers of New Jersey have received from the visit of this great body an enthusiasm and a stimulus that will not soon depart, and the National Educational Association has been inspired and invigorated by its visit to these twin cities by the sea, and its members will return to their homes refreshed and strengthened alike in body and mind. It devolves upon me to say, in explanation of the resolution already voted— by no means formally, but heartily and sincerely— that never has this body been more fully made to feel at home, and never perhaps has it had a more successful and inspiring meeting. (Applause.) We have come to its close. We leave with regret, but with the pleasantest of memories that will long survive, and, as Presi- dent-elect of the Association, I bid our kind friends farewell. President Butler: The thirty third annual meeting of the Na- tional Educational Association will stand adjourned after the au- dience has risen and sung "America," led by Mr. Charles A. Dew of the Imperial Quartette, assisted by the Arion Quartette. ''My Country, 'tis of Thee," etc. The benediction was pronounced by the Eev. E. H. Stokes, Presi- dent of the Ocean Grove Association. The thirty-third session of the National Educational Association of the United States was then adjourned mtw die. Albert G. Lane, Irwin Shepard, President Secretary. 40 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS. AsBUKY Park. N. J., July 10, 1894. The meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association for the year 1893-1894 was called to order in Amusement Hall of Ocean Hotel, July 10, 1894, by President A. G. Lane. Eighteen Directors reported as present. The minutes of the last meeting were read by Secretary Shepard and approved. Dr. N. A. Calkins of New York, Chairman of the Board of Trustees, presented the -report of the Treasurer of the Committee of Ten. (See Financial Reports.) On motion of Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, the report was received, placed on file and ordered printed. The Treasurer was authorized to hold in his hands the unexpended balance as appeared by the report, with authority to expend the same for the purposes for which the appropriation was originally made, on the presentation of the proper vouchers. In the absence of Treasurer Greenwood, Dr. N. A. Calkins of New York presented the report of the Treasurer for 1893, which he stated was not complete; that the completed report would show an exact balance, and that the Trustees would incorporate this in their finan- cial report. The report as finally revised was ordered printed in the Proceedings. Dr. N. A. Calkins, Chairman of the Board of Trustees, then pre- sented and read the financial report of the Board for 1892 (Saratoga meetiug). (See Financial Reports,) President Lane stated that a petition for the establishment of a new Department in Child Study had been submitted to the Board of Directors for their consideration and vote, by letter. Secretary Shepard submitted a report of the vote on this matter, stating that replies were not received from all Directors, but that, from forty-one Directors, there was a total of thirty-seven votes in favor of the proposition and four nays. The result of the vote was ordered recorded in the minutes, and the department was declared established. MINUTES OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS. 41 President Lane reported the action of the oflacers of the Associa- tion in respect to the publication of the Proceedings of the World's International Congress of Education. Secretary Bhepard read the resolution passed by the Executive Committee of the National Educational Association, at its meeting July 25, 1893, referring to this matter, as follows: Betolved, That Dr. N. A. Calkins be appointed to edit the volume of Proceed- ings of the international Congress of Education; that the compensation for this work be fixed at $500, and that Dr. Calkins be authorized to use his discretion in editing the Proceedings, to abridge and condense papers and discussions, as well as entirely to omit such matter as in his judgment is not of suffici^it value to justify publication. A motion was adopted to indorse the action of the Executive Com- mittee in regard to the publication of the Proceedings of the Educa- tional Congress. President Lane reported that there were 300 copies of the Pro- ceedings of the World's Congress of Education on hand. President Lane called for the report of Aaron Gove, Chairman of the committee appointed at Saratoga to report recommendations for reorganizing the administration of the business affairs of the Associa- tion. Mr. Gk>ve not being present, the committee was continued. President Lane called for the report of Dr. Harris, concerning the organization of round tables; but Dr. Harris being absent, this report was referred to the incoming Board of Directors. Secretary Shepard read the following petition for the organization of a new Department of Temperance Instruction : A PETITION To THE National Educational Association. Whertaa, A vast majority of the people of the United States through their Sute and National legislatures have made "physiology and hygiene, including special instmction as to the nature and effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics," a mandatory study for all pupils in aU schools under State control; Therefore^ We. the undersigned, believe the time has come when the question of methods in this branch should be considered by the teaching profession, the legal executors of these laws, just as they consider methods in the case of other studies usual to the public schools. We therefore respectfully petition the Board of Directors of the National Edu- cational Associatiiyi to create, as a branch of that body's work, a Department of Physiology, including special reference to the effects of alcoholic drinks and other Darcotics. The above petition was duly signed by the required number of members, as provided in the Constitution. 42 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Director Wm. E. Sheldon offered the following resolution, concern- ing the establishment of the Department of Temperance Instruction above named: In recognition of a petition, duly signed by the required number of members of the National Association, for the establishment of a new department, to be known as a Department of Scientific Temperance Instruction, and in view of the great importance of the subject, growing out of compulsory legislation in thirty-nine States of the Union requiring that scientific temperance instruction shall be given in all grades of the public schools of these States, it seems desirable that this Asso- ciation should make provision for it. The Association has already too many distinct departments, and to meet the emergency of this petition we propose the following resolution: Resolved^ That to the Elementary Department of the National Educational Association shall be added scientific temperance instruction, and that the Board of Directors orders that this department shall hereafter hold three sessix)ns at the annual meetings of the Association, each to be of the same length as heretofore, one of which shall be exclusively devoted to the subject of scientific temperance instruction; and that a Vice President of this department shall be chosen, who shaU have the charge of this special subject and its presentation. After a full discussion, the resolution of Director Sheldon was lost by a rising vote of two for and fourteen against. An informal discussion followed, in which the general opinion was expressed that it would be desirable for the oflftcers of the Elementary section, or any other section, to give a place on their program to this subject, as is frequently given to other special topics. Adjourned. Albert G. Lane, Irwin Shepard, President, Secretary, MINUTES OF MEETING OF NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS. 43 MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF THE NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS. AsBUBY Pakk, N. J., 4:30 P. M., July 12, 1894. The meeting was called to order by the President-elect, Dr. Nicho- las Murray Butler of New Jersey. On the call of the roll by Secretary Shepard the following Direct- ors responded: N. G. Dougherty, Illinois; Mary H. Hunt, Massachusetts; James H. Baker, Colorado; N. A. Calkins, New York; Nicholas Murray Butler, New Jersey; A. G. Lane, Illinois; W. H. Bartholomew, Kentucky; W. F. Slaton, Georgia; D. B. John- son, South Carolina; W. B. Sheldon, Massachusetts; D. L. Kiehle, Minnesota; F. A. Fitzpatrick, Nebraska; H. S. Tarbell, Rhode Island; Zalmon Richards, District of Columbia; E. C. Hewett, lUinois; W. T. Harris, District of Columbia; Ray Greene Holmg, Massachusetts; V. G. Curtis, Connecticut; C. W. Bardeen, New York; A. B. Poland, New Jersey; E. Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania; A. N. Raub, Delaware; W. H. Anderson, West Virginia; C. P. Denson, North Carolina; C. H. Dietrick, Kentucky; Frank €k)odman, Tennessee; Otis Ashmore, Georgia; J. H. Phillips, Alabama; H. C. Pritchett, Texas; F. Treudley, Ohio; E. A. Strong, Michigan; S. A. Hooper, Wi»- consin; J. T. Merrill, Iowa; C. B. Gilbert, Minnesota; John T. Buchanan, Missouri; John MacDonald, Kansas; F. J. Barnard, Washington; W. H. Maxwell, New York; J. M. Milne, New York; R. E. Gallagher, Ontario; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota. Director Fitzpatrick offered the four following resolutions, which were unanimously adopted: Rfsolved, That the President, First Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer and Chairman of the Board of Trustees be, and hereby are, appointed an Executive Committee of the National Educational Association for the ensuing year, with such powers as are conferred on the Board of Directors under the Constitution. Reiolved That all bills for expenditures by the Association be referred to the Board of Trustees as auditors. Reaolvfd, That all matters involving special or unusual expenditures are hereby referred for approval to the Executive Committee and the Board of Trustees. Revived, That all matters pertaining to the administration of the affairs of the Affiociation, not already provided for by specific resolution, be referred to the Executive Committee, with full power to act for the coming year. Dr. N. A. Calkins of New York and H. S. Tarbell of Rhode Island were nominated to be their own successors as members of the Board of Trustees. There being no further nominations, on motion, the Secretary- of the Board was directed to cast the unanimous ballot of the Associa- 44 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. lion for the election of the candidates respectively, and the President announced that Dr. N. A. Calkins of New York and H. S. Tarbell of Rhode Island were duly elected to succeed themselves as members of the Board of Trustees of the National Educational Associiation for four years from 1894 and 1893, respectively. On motion of Director Sheldon, the Chair appointed the foliois^ng Committee on Nomination of Members of the National Council: Director William E. Sheldon of Massachusetts, Director Pritchett of Texas, Director Goodman of Tennessee, Director Poland of New Jersey and Director Dougherty of Illinois. This committee made the following report: To the Board of Directors of the National Edueaiionnl Assodaiion^ Gkstlembn: Your committee find the following vacancies in the member- ship of the National Council to be filled by the appointment of this Board, viz. : W. H. Bartholomew, LouisviUe, Ky Term expired 1893 Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Omaha, Neb Term expired 1893 Henry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa Term expired 1893 E. O. Lyte, Millersville, Pa Term expired 1893 J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo Term expired 1893 C. C. Rounds, Plymouth, N. H •. . . Term expired 1894 H. S. Jones, Lincoln, Neb Term expired 1894 Z. Richards, Washington, D. C Term expired 1894 James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo , Term expired 1894 John T. Prince, Boston, Mass Term expired 1894 Your committee respectfully nominate the following to fill the above-named vacancies: W. H. Bartholomew, Liouisville, Ky. (to succeed himself) Term expires 1899 Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Omaha, Neb. (to succeed himself) Term expires 1899 Henry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa (to succeed himself) Term expires 1899 E. O. Lyte, Millersburg, Pa. (to succeed himself) Term expires 1899 J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. (to succeed himself) Term expires 1899 C. 0. Rounds, Plymouth, Mass. (to succted himself) Term expires 1900 J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala. (to succeed Mr. Jones) Term expires 1900 Z. Richards, Washington, D. C. (to succeed himself) Term expires 1900 James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo, (to succeed himself) Term expires 1900 Oscar H. Cooper, Galveston, Tex. (to succeed Mr. Prince) Term expires 1900 Respectfully submitted, Wm. E. Sheldon, For the Committee. There being no further nominations, the Secretary of the Board was directed to cast the unanimous ballot of the Board of Directors for the election of those named in the report of the committee, which was done, and the same were declared by the President duly elected as members of the National Council. Director Sheldon of Massachusetts offered the following resolu- tions: Resolved. That the Board of Trustees be authorized to place in the Emergency Fund the sum of $1,000, should such sum remain after all expenses incurred by the MINUTES OF MEETING OF NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS, 45 Nttkmal Educational Association in connection with the Cougress of Education at Chicago in 1803 and the meeting at Asbury Park in 1804 hare been met. Radved^ That, should the Emergency Fund permit, the Board of Trustees are hereby authorized to audit and pay bills presented over the signature of the Chair- man of the Special Committee of Fifteen appointed by the Department of Super- intendence at Boston in February, 1883, and confirmed by the Council at Asbury Park in 1894, for the purpose of inrestigating problems connected with the ele- mentary education and elementary school organization; provided, that the total bQls for this purpose shall not exceed the sum of $1,000; and also provided, that an such bills be for expenses actually incurred with the approval of the Chairman, and that no portion of the fund be drawn upon for compensation to any member of the committee or any officer thereof. Which rescdutions were unanimously adopted. On motion of Director Lane, it was ordered that the Executive Committee be authorized to print a second edition of the Proceedings of the International Congress of Education, to be sold at the same price as the first edition, viz., two dollars per copy, with postage or express added. Director ^eldon of Massachusetts presented communications from Herbert L. Morse, Secretary of the Massachusetts Schoolmasters' Club; from H. E. Kratz, Superintendent of Public Schools, Sioux City, Iowa; from the North Nebraska Teachers' Association, and from Henry Sabin, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Iowa; which, together with a communication received by Secretary Shepard from the South Carolina Teachers' Association, were, on motion of Dr. Harris, referred to a Committee of Fifteen for such consideration and report back to the Board as may be deemed advisable. By direction of President Butler, the roll of the States was called for nominations of places desiring to secure the next meeting of the Xational Educational Association. Secretary Shepard read the following telegram from Denver, Colo.: Denveb, Colo., Jaly 10, 1894. Ben. A. O. Lane, PreMderU National EdveaHonal A»Mfiation, Ai*hury Park: DenTer sends greetings, with a cordial invitation to hold your next convention in this, Americans greatest convention city — the Queen City of the Plains, one mile above sea level, and in the shadow of the snow-cappecl Rocky Mountains; the land of constant sunshine, refreshing air and cool nights; in sight of the grandest pano- ramic mountain scenery in the world. M. D. Van Hobne, Mayor. W. V. 6YER8, PreBident Chamber of Commerce. J. B. Grant, President School Board. J. F. McMUBBAY, Statu Superintendent of Public InMruetion. 46 A'^ TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L ASSOC! A TION. Directors Smiley, Briggs, and E. H. Cook spoke in behalf of Den- ver. Director Bartholomew of Kentucky invited the Association to Louisville. Mr. Porter of Texas incited the Association to hold its next meet- ing in Galveston. Mr. R. E. Denfeld of Duluth, Minn., read the following letter, and invited the Association to hold its next session in Duluth, Minn. : Duluth, Minn , Jaly 2, 1894. To the Board of Directnn of the NntioiMj Educniionnl Asweiation: Pear Ribs: The Board of Education, the Board of Trade, the Common Council, the Jobbers* Union, and the Chamber of Commerce of the City of Duluth extend to you a most cordial invitation to hold the next (1895) meeting of the National Educational Association in the City of Duluth. Our city is centrally located and easily reached by teachers from the eastern and western portions of the United States, as well as from Canada. The advantages as to climate and opportunities for mineralogical and geological excursions are unrivaled. As regards hotels and facilities for entertaining visitors, we are satisfied that Duluth and her sister city across the bay can easily accommodate all who may attend. We also guarantee to provide all necessary halls, publish the bulletin and pay all local expenses, and secure 1,000 memberships from the State of Minnesota. Signed on behalf of the different bodies: ' W. A. Pryor, Board of Education of the City of Duluth, 4 President pro tan. H. W. Peabson, Clerk. '' Ray T. Lewis, Mayor, Benj. F. Howard, President of the OouncU. C. E, Richardson, Qerk. F. A. Patrick, President, j Wm. Buchannan, [^ Secretary, '' E. C. Gridley, President. C. F. Johnson, Sticretary, Mr. Curtis invited the Association to St. Louis, Mo. Director Barnard invited the Association to hold its next meeting in Seattle, Wash. Director Lane of Illinois moved that the whole subject be referred to the Executive Committee, with power to act, and with the expres- sion of opinion from this Board that the meeting shall be held in Ihe West, if possibl(\ Common Council of the City of Dnlnth, Jobbers' Union, Chamber of Commerce, MmTES OF MEETING OF NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS. 47 ^^irectop Sheldon moved as a substitute, that a vote be taken on the preference of the Board as to the most desirable place for holding the neit meeting of the Association, and that the expression of pref- erence so determined be referred to the Executive CJommittee for their consideration, leaving to the Executive Committee power to act as thej may deem best Which motion was unanimously adopted. A hsWot was taken, with the following result: First Second Third Total Choice. Choice. Choice. Votes. Den?er 13 12 8 33 Dointh 10 9 VZ 31 Seattle 12 11 7 30 St Louis a 2 9 14 Loni8ville 2 • 5 1 8 Galreston 1 2 3 Salt Lake .. 1 1 On motion of Director Harris, it was resolved that the National Council of Education be placed on the same footing as other depart- ments of the Association, relative to their fixed expenses, viz., fifteen doflars for each meeting, except by special action of the Board of Directors. Director Maxwell, Brooklyn, N. Y., moved that a sum not exceed- »iig J150 be set apart to defray the expenses of the Superintendents' ^& 1X1 addition to the sum already provided. Trustee Calkins: Is it understood that this «150 is to cover e expense of printing the Proceedings and papers? II I'^^^^^ ^ Butlbr: The Chair understands that it is to cover e additional expense involved in holding that meeting. fi, p .'^ Harris moved to amend the motion, to the effect that Pro jiJ*^^*^^ ^° Printing be authorized to make the plates for the patch *^^ ^^ ^^ Department of Superintendence with all due dis- coDv t ^ *^ print a sufficient number of copies to distribute one atth ^^^ member of the Department of Superintendence present of (jQp. ^^^^g; and that they be authorized to print a small number additional, for sale at twenty-five cents per copy, ameinj^^^^^dment was accepted by Director Maxwell, and the Motion was unanimously adopted. <>ftlieR ^ ^^^ ^^ Director Lane, it was ordered that the Proceedings atHichi^^*^^ Meeting, in addition to the Proceedings of the Meeting The ^^^' ^ printed in the next volume. Q^ ^^on was unanimously agreed to. of tlia r> ^^^^xi, the Board of Directors adjourned, subject to the call "^ O. Lane, Irwin Shepard, President. Secretary, GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION. ADDRESSES OF WELCOME. PROF. J. M. RALSTON, SUPBRINTEXDBNT OF SCHOOLS OF ASBURY PARK AND CHAIRMAN OF THE LOCAL EXKCUTI\^ COMMITTEE. Ladies and Gentlemen of the Nalional Edttcatiofial Association of the United States: It now becomes my very pleasant duty to declare the thirty-tliird annual meeting of the National Educational Asociation opened, and to extend to you as a body this greeting from the citizens of Asbury Park and Ocean Grove. We have recently welcomed the National Editorial Association, and felt honored with their presence; but in your presence the honor is even greater, as we feel that the profession of the teacher is one of the noblest of all callings. It is not my purpose to dwell upon the wonderful development of our twin cities by the sea. I may say, however, that twenty-five years ago there was nothing here but an immense waste of sand, covered with an almost impenetrable thicket of underbrush, without a single human habitation. To-day 3'ou see what we have: the beautiful avenues, the handsome residences, the commodious hotels, and the grand old ocean; to all we bid you welcome. It is our earnest wish that a fuU measure of pleasure and happiness may be yours, and we hope that you may carry away with you kindly remembrances of Asbury Park and its citizens. There is living in our town a gentleman, who, on account of his great energy in public affairs, is known as "The Hustler." It is said of him that he "did'* the sights of the World's Fair in twenty minutes, and was able afterwards to tell more of what was there on exhibi- tion than those that spent twenty days at (^hicago. I have great pleasure in presenting to you the Hon. Frank L. Ten Broe^'k, mayor of Asburv Park. 50 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [GeDcral HON. FRANK L. TEN BROECK, MAYOR OF ASBURY PARK. Mr, President and Members of the National Educaiional Association: I second Mr. Ralston's welcome. We hope you are going to have a pleasant stay in Asbury Park and will carry pleasant recollections when you go away. We feel entirely safe to turn the town over to the keeping of such an intelligent body. We are going to see that you have a good time. DR. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, MEMBER OF NEW JBRSBV STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. It is my pleasant duty, ladies and gentlemen, and I esteem it a high privilege as well, to represent the State Board of Education of New Jersey upon this occasion. As oflScers of the State and as indi- viduals we extend to you a sincere and cordial welcome. It is just a quarter of a century since this Association honored New Jersey with its presence. It was then a small and struggling body that counted its members by the score. To-day you come back to us in your thou- sands, a strongly organized and influential body of teachers from every grade and kind of school, representing every State and Terri- tory and the Dominion of Canada. Animated by a common enthusi- asm, inspired by one lofty purpose, devoted to a single aim, you repre- sent, as no other body in this country can, the moral and intellectual forces of the nation. We have felt already the stimulus of your com- ing. Though the time for preparation has been short, our teachers and our citizens are here to greet you, coming alike from the hills of Sussex and Passaic and the beaches of Atlantic and Cape May. We welcome you to a proud State. Our pride is, we think, justifi- able; for we are not inhabitants of that purgatory, or intermediate state, that the jealous newspapers of sleepy Philadelphia and bustling New York poke fun at so often. We are proud of our past history, of our present prosperity, of our promise for the future. Jersey jus- tice is proverbial the world over, and disloyalty, dishonesty and disor- der have no permanent place among our people. We commend to your respectful attention our manufacturing and agricultural inter- ests, our efBcient and economical government, our contented and happy homes. Most of all do we point to our system of public schools, crowned by that State nonnal school that yields to none in eflSciency and progressiveness. You are in a State — of what other can it be said? — whose only State tax is levied for the support of the com- mon schools. No uncertificated teacher may be paid out of the public funds; no school is a legal school unless conducted for nine months of the year; no life license to teach is issued to a person not profes- Sessions.] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME, 5] sionally trained. The laws establishing our centralized system of administration and supervision are admirable, and enable each local- ity to push forward the work of public education as fast and as far as it will, while compelling the sluggish and the niggardly, if such there be, to do their share, — welding the whole into a State system, and giving us that very desirable thing, a State educational policy. New Jersey stands with her sister States for law and order, for justice and equity, for moral and intellectual growth. She feels her responsibility, as from every part of the civilized world, alike from despotic Russia, republican France, and our own country that we fondly call free, come indications that the ignorant, the vicious and the anarchical are organizing concerted warfare on society. The com- ing struggle is not to be between France and* Germany, Russia and Turkey, or capital and labor; but between law and lawlessness, justice and rapine, government and anarchy. To carry on this struggle, to supply leadership and ideals, educated men and women are necessary. Upon you, ladies and gentlemen, and upon your colleagues and associ- ates, wherever schools are found, devolves the responsibility of provid- ing them. Lay broad and deep in your schools the foundation which is character. Build high and strong the bulwark which is knowledge. Do not be discouraged or dismayed if results are not inmiediately achieved, for the character of a nation, like that of an individual, is complex and of slow growth. Say not, the struggle naught availeth, The labor and the wounds are vain, The enemy faints not, nor faileth, And as things have been they remain. For while the tired waves, vainly breaking. Seem here no painful inch to gain, Far back, through creeks and inlets making. Comes silent, flooding in, the main. And not by eastern windows only, When daylight comes, comes in the light; In front, the sun climbs slow, how slowly! But westward, look! the land is bright. Because we believe that you meet in this spirit and with this purpose, we welcome you, heartily and sincerely, to the State of New Jersey. HOX. A. B. POLAND, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS OF NEW JERSEY. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen of the National Educational Association: In the brUliaut and scholai*ly address to which you have just list- ened, Dr. Butler has alluded to the witticism so often perpetrated by our friends and neighbors at our expense, that New Jersey is not in 52 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [General the United States. Ordinarily we resent such an impeachment as un- patriotic and undeserved. To-day, however, as I look over this vast au- dience of people gathered from all parts of our broad country, — ^from Maine to Texas and from Manhattan to the Golden Gate, — I must perforce admit that this averment of our friends is true: that New Jersey is not in the United States, but that for once the United States is in New Jersey. During the past few weeks our fair State has experienced two unusual events — ^two dispensations of providence quite phenomenal and unexpected. A few days ago we awoke one bright morning to find our fields invested by an army of seventeen-year locusts. They came in a single night. They gave us no warning of their approach. They stayed with us a few days only and then quietly folded their wings and as silently disappeai'ed. The next dispensation, no less remarkable, was the coming to our shores of the National Educational Association. It was in 1869, twenty-five years ago, when its last visitation occurred. Not as the locusts, quietly and unobserved, did you come here, but blazoned and heralded by the newspaper press of the entire country. Nor did this suffice to make the pomp and circumstance of your twenty-five-year visit complete. Little did we think, when we invited you to Asbury Park, that your hegira eastward w^ould tie up all the railroads in the country. I remember last year in London to have witnessed a great civic and military parade. At the head of the procession rode the lord mayor of London surrounded by his escort There was the clangor of steel and the glimmer of polished brass. What a magnificent spec- tacle! What a glorious country! What a grand thing to be the lord mayor of London! But to-day in our free land it is the school- master that is lord mayor; it is he that travels with a military escort. Nowhere else in the world has the schoolmaster ever been so honored. I recall that famous speech of Lord Brougham, made more than fifty years ago, wherein he used these oft-quoted words: "Let the soldier be abroad if he will; he can do nothing in this age. There is another person less imposing in the eyes of some; perhaps insignifi- cant. The schoolmaster is abroad; and I trust to him, armed with his primer, against the soldier in full military array." To-day, ladies and gentlemen, both the soldier and schoolmaster are abroad in our land. The soldier has gone west on a mission of danger and death; the schoolmaster has come east on a mission of peace and good will to men. Which, think you, is to-day the more potent force in our civilization? When the great Judge above us shall make up the final account, which, think you, will have done more for the good of mankind, the schoolmaster or the soldier? SeMioDft.] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME, 53 The teachers of New Jersey, a thousand of whom are here, welcome you to our State. We are greatly honored by your presence. We shall hope to learn from you, during the few days you remain with us, the "glad tidings of great joy'' which you bring to us from all parts of the United States. Tliere is no characteristic of the New Jersey teacher and superin- tendent more pronounced than his ineffable modesty. Hence it was left to our distinguished citizen, Dr. Butler, to make in your presence the large claims for our State to which you have listened. It is true, however, that the State of New Jersey is proud of her school system. Dr. Butler alluded to the centralization of power in our State Board of Education. They apportion ten per cent of the State school tax, at will, to the more needy counties of the State. They license all the teachers in the State through examinations made by the State Super- intendent of Public Instruction. They have almost unrestricted power in all respects over the schools of the State. Under such" cir- ca mstances it is no wonder that the schools of the State steadily prosper. Situated midway between Philadelphia and New York, New Jersey nmst needs come in contact with both of these great centers of civili- zation. All the great railroads of the United States except one, the New York Central, reach the metropolis through the State of New Jersey. Hence we feel the electric thrill of civilizing ideas from all parts of the country. The legislative session of the past winter was a fortunate one for the schools of New Jersey. No less than twenty-eight distinct bOls, all having in view the improvement of our schools, were passed by the legislature and signed by the Governor. We got the township system. We got free text-books. We got many other important modifications of our fundamental school law. We feel, therefore, that, without boasting, we may lay claim at least to an effort to keep abreast of the times. In looking over the records of the Association, I am grieved to note that for the last nine years the average representation of the Htate of New Jersey at the annual meeting of this Association has been but thirty-one. As a result, however, of the inspiration which the teachers of New Jersey will undoubtedly receive during this ses- sion at Asbury Park, I feel safe in predicting that New Jersey another year will send not less than ten times that number, whether your next meeting is held at Seattle, Denver or Duluth. -is the mayor of the city has told you, we wish you while here to enjoy everything we have, — our fine air, our fine bathing, our fine shade, our fine sand. Help yourselves to it all. Eevel in it as you please, and when the time comes for you to go, take with you all you can carry. 54 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General liESFOXSrS. ALBERT G. LANE, CHICAGO, ILL., PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION. Mr. Chairman of the Local Committee, Ladies and Gentlemen of Ashury Park: We thankfully accept these greetings, and hope to show, during the few days that we remain here, how much we appreciate all that you have done to provide for our entertainment and pleasure. When, two or three months ago, a delegation from Asbury Park and the State of New Jersey came to the Executive Committee, at Richmond, and said: "We want the meeting of the National Educational Associ- ation at Asbury Park," great promises were made. You said that 1,000 New Jersey teachers would be here to greet us. You assured us that your homes would be open to receive us, and that you had abundant accommodations for 10,000 teachers. You have redeemed all these promises. The 1,000 New Jersey teachers are here. The homes and hotels have been opened to receive us. Everything has been done up to this point that you pledged to do, and we extend to you our thanks for this preparation and for this greeting. New Jersey holds an important position between the great centers of popu- lation at Philadelphia and New York. You stand where you have all the advantages of higher institutions of learning, whose standard of excellence is known throughout the whole country. There are many problems which are confronting the educators of this country, a solution of which must be made through the slow process of the education of the masses of the people. Ignorance of the fundamental principles of our government and of the rights and responsibility of individuals, on the part of the multitude who have come from other countries, and of many bom in our own land, whose proper education has been neglected, has spread the seeds of discord and suspicion, and there is a growing disregard of law and order. Mistaken ideas concerning the relations of capital and labor are per- verting our minds, and the mistaken ideas regarding the rights of individuals have made capital combines over-ride the interests of the people. A broader study of the social and economic questions will undoubtedly remove the errors and unite the people in the mainte- nance of a standard of right that will be equitable and just to all. The rapid increase in the population of the great cities has made it necessary to expend large sums of money for education. There is a steady increase in the average cost of the education of children. Larger, better heated, better ventilated buildings are being constnicted. SMriona ] BE8P0N8ES. 55 The wages of teachers are steadily increasing. In many places there is a serious agitation in regard to the range of work that should be provided at public expense. Cp to the present time the majority of the people have had unbounded faith in the good accomplished through the public schools. Taxes have been willingly paid, and nearly every demand which promised better instruction and better care of the children has been met The people have looked for the fulfillment of all that has been promised through popular education. The idea that education fits for citizenship has been generally ac- cepted, and the people who have paid the taxes have believed that the government was well protected from any dangers which might arise from ignorance or prejudice. The fact, however, remains that, in spite of the bountiful provision w^hich has been made for the educa- tion of all children, there are many in our gi'eat cities, and in the country, too, who are neglecting the provision which has been made for their training for citizenship. Many are growing up in ignorance of the history of our country, her laws and her constitution, and have no proper appreciation of the rights of others. While in some sec- tions there seems to be a temporary defeat of the laws which have been enacted to protect children in their educational rights, and wholesome laws have been repealed, or so amended as to be inef- fective, still the problem is before the people and must be solved. In the right education of every child is our hope for the future, and effective compulsory education must be enforced everywhere. Tlie inalienable right of a child to a training and education for citi- zenship must be fully established. The National Educational Association has sought continually to exalt the office, responsibility and high calling of the teacher. The idea that any one who had a certain amount of academic knowledge could be a successful teacher, and that the training of the human mind in childhood could be taken up as a temporary occupation, has been largely overthrown, and everywhere there is an urgent demand for thoroughly ti'ained and successful teachers. The increase in nor- mal schools and institutes, and the establishment of departments of pedagogy in the colleges and universities have largely increased the number of eflBcient teachers. New problems in our system of edu- cation are confronting us. Instead of the continued and varied discus- sions in regard to methods and devices, the study of the child's grow- ing mind is attracting widespread attention. The conditions under which a mind develops, and the agencies that favorably or unfavor- ably affect its growth, are continually observed and recorded. The study of the child leads to wiser instruction. To meet this demand, 56 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General for the study of child mind, another department has been added to the National Educational Association, and the people of this country have been looking to Dr. G. Stanley Hall and others as the leaders in this branch of human growth and development. We may rejoice as a National Association that we have ever been ready to encourage all progressive movements in education; that the greatest freedom has been given to the discussion of all topics that relate to the threefold development of a human being. As an Associ- ation, we rejoice in the leadership which has been established in the educational department of the national government, and that al- though a change has occurred in the political control of this coun- try? yet educational service and eminent qualification have been recognized, and the department made a conspicuous exception to con- trol through partisan politics. We rejoice in the fraternal relations which exist between the Na- tional Educational Association and the various State Associations. The Southern Educational Association has changed its time of meet- ing so that its members can attend the national meeting. No bitter jealousies mar our friendly relationship, and we are practically united with all the various educational associations throughout the country, and continue a mighty agency in the molding of educational thought and systems. The Association may also rejoice in the rapid growth of the sentiment in favor of higher education in every section of the country. Since our last meeting at Saratoga, through the report of a com- mittee authorized to investigate and report upon the work of second- ary schools, the whole country has been aroused to a .cai'ef ul investi- gation of that department of our school system. While they have formulated a report upon changes which have been under considera- tion for many years, still the careful investigation of the subject by eminent educators has aroused the whole country and brought into effective prominence many who have been quietly investigating and working out better things in our educational system. The statistics which show a steady growth in the development of the kindergarten system in connection with the public schools com- pels the declaration, that it is of the utmost importance that all children should ,be brought under the ennobling, wholesome, char- acter-building influence of the kindergarten. Steadily and surely manual training, in all its varied forms, both for girls and boys, is being brought into harmonious relations with other forms of educational work, and is being made effective. S«ion8.] RESPONSES. 57 Notwithstanding the controversy that has been carried on in regard to religions instruction in the public schools, there has been a development of the thought, that, in the training of children, the teacher has ever been seeking to increase a knowledge of the truth, as shown in history, in literature, in science, and in philosophy; and that the mighty moral agencies exerted by the public schools place the pupils who remain in them among the men and women of the world who possess the high and noble qualities which enter into per- fect manhood and womanhood. IRWIN SHBPARD, WINONA, MINN., SECRETARY OF THE ASSOCIATION. I have the honorable privilege of responding to your cordial wel- comes in behalf of that farther Northwest, which, beginning at the western limit of the first third of the way across the continent, stretches for another third in billowy and fertile prairies to the foot- hills of the Rocky Mountains, then rises for a five-hundred-mile sweep into the region of eternal snow, thence across the great plains of the Columbia, down the western slope of the fir-clad Cascades, to meet the waves of the Pacific that run eastward from the other hemisphere. The cordial greeting which I bring from this farthest Northwest is as generous and hearty as the country is large. But this Northwest is not unknown to you. If it is not the birth- place of the Association under whose auspices we meet, it may fairly be called the adoptefl home of that greater Association which sprang into being at the great Madison meeting — a meeting from which we are accustomed to date events in National Educational history. For ten years before the Madison meeting, the average annual membership was but 260. For the nine years since, and including that meeting, the average membership has exceeded 4,000, and the center of attendance, w^hether the meeting is held in San Francisco or Saratoga, lies beyond Chicago, and loads the center of population in its western march. Twice the State in which I live has had the honor of entertaining this Association — at Minneapolis in 1875, at St. Paul in 1890. We had hoped to welcome you again to our sea- side resort — our beautiful and wonderful city by the "unsalted sea" — a city which sits like a precious gem on the outstretched westward pointing finger of national destiny. But, for the first time in the history of the Association, the great railroad corporations of the East outran the great railroads of the West in their zeal to place their roads at the disposal of the teachers of the country, and we found it cheaper to come to you than to remain at home. Let me, however, assure vou that Duluth's, and Minnesota's, invitation still stands. 68 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General and will be renewed with larger promise of success. Our delayed welcome will grow deeper and stronger and richer while w^e await your coming. It has been my privilege during the past months, and especially the past ten days, to note the work of your local Executive Committee, and, through their zeal, their largeness of plan and efficiency of execu- tion, to measure the hospitality of your people. Nothing has been left undone which a high appreciation of the interests of our Associa- tion or the most delicate hospitality to our members would suggest. I, therefore, in behalf of the farther-fai'thest Northwest, accept with gratitude your cordial welcome. There is but one regret: all over the great Northw^est hundreds — I may say thousands — of teachers are unpacking their traveling bags, more disappointed than you can possibly be at their absence, because Uncle Sam has not soldiers enough to give them safe conduct through the striking mobs that block their gateway to the East Disappointed though they may be, let me assure you that they do not less appreciate that welcome which, though hrst spoken to-day, has, through the forerunning zeal of your local Executive Committee, been feU for weeks past in every schoolhouse in the land. TKiis disappointment has already taken shape in the hope that, at some time not far distant, w^e may be again invited to meet with you in this beautiful, renowned, incompai'able convention city of the Atlantic coast. DR. N. A. CALKINS OF NEW YORK, CHAIRMAN OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES. Mr. President and Members of the Local Committee of Arrangements: It becomes my duty to respond, in behalf of the Board of Trustees of this Association, to the cordial welcome extended to us, and in their name I thank you for your words of greeting. I thank you, also, in behalf of those who have come up hither from the sunny South, and from the valleys and plains and mountains of the great West, and for the absent ones who longed to meet here to enjoy the com- forts of this seaside tow^n and be fanned by the cooling breezes of the Atlantic, but who have been deprived of this great pleasui*e through the extraordinary difficulties of travel which obstructed their way to the seashore. I thank you in behalf of those dwelling in the cities, who have accepted your kind invitation to come here and receive that rest and reinvigoration of tired nerves which teachers so much need and well know how to appreciate. This Association has a habit of accepting invitations from good places in diflferent sections of the country for holding its meetings. SeaBioDS.] BESPONSES. 59 From WisconslB, and Kansas, and California, Tennessee, St Paul, Chicago, Toronto, and Saratoga it lias received cordial greetings and generous hospitality, and now it has been welcomed to the ocean- washed shores of New Jersey. In view of the provisions that have been made by the local com- inittee — so quickly and so well — ^for our reception here, I regret that thousands who intended to come, and hundreds who had to turn back soon after starting, are not here to renew friendships with fellow- workers and to receive new inspiration for future duties. But those who have come to this delightful convention town will carry away pleas- ant memories of its summer comforts and of its enterprising citizens, who have done so much towards making our visit here one to be cherished among the annual gatherings of this Association. BR. WM. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OP EDUCATION. In behalf of the educational idea in our government ; in behalf of the continually strengthening educational interests of this nation, I thank you, representatives of the State of New Jersey, for this your kindly welcome. We are proud to meet you in this place, in celebra- tion of the great cause of popular education. From all parts of this broad land w^e assemble annually to confer over our educational problems and to exchange consolations and good counsels. We as- semble to-day under unusual circumstances. We aU are congratula- ting ourselves ui)on the bravery of our Western contingent, which has boldly slipped through picket lines of strikers and violent mobs. The teacher stands for order in the school-room. The child learns first of all to respect the rights of organized industry. Punctuality, regular- ity, silence and industry make possible social combinations which may achieve reasonable deeds. The children of this Republic are taught in school to work at tasks in such a manner as not to interfere each with his fellow, but on the contrary to reinforce each the other. It is in these elementary centers of discipline, — ^the schools of the people, — that the pupil has training in those habits which will pre- serve and save us our civil order. In the coming days we shall take counsel how to increase the efficiency of this salutary discipline. We shall take counsel, also, r^arding the best methods by which to in- struct the children of the people in letters and liberal arts. We are sure that when we leave this charming seaside resort, we shall always remember gratefully the New Jersey hospitality with which you have received us. In the name of the nation's teachers, I thank vou. 60 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General ADDRESSES. THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT AT THE COLOMBIAN EXPO- SITION. BY SELTM H. PEABODY, LL. D., CHIEF OP DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS. WORLD'S COLITMBIAN EXPOSITION. The world has never before seen so extensive or so complete an exhibit of its work of education as that shown at the Columbian Ex- position. The position which it occupied, in the grandest of the magnificent congeries of buildings surrounding the grand court of honor, was eminently worthy. With the exception that it was on the second floor, this position lacked no desirable quality. In ele- gance, light, ventilation, and general fitness it was far superior to that directly beneath on the ground floor. The space was ample. In the Liberal Arts building it was 259,600 square feet, the equivalent of a building 1,000 feet long and 260 feet wide. Adding that occupied elsewhere b}' other educational exhibits, the space was the equivalent of a building of the same length and 360 feet wide. Twenty-six foreign countries contributed to the educational ex- hibit. The principal were Germany, France, England, Canada, New South Wales, Russia, Mexico, Brazil and Japan. Thirty-two States sent collective exhibits. Forty-four were in some way represented. Illinois and California were comi)elled, by the conditions of their State appropriation, to make their exhibits in their own State buildings. We greatly regretted their absence. Above all, we should have rejoiced if the Bureau of Education could have occupied an appropriate and significant place as the central figure of all American education. Contributions to the various collective American exhibits came from 1,150 cities and towns, 271 counties, 756 academies and private schools, 53 schools for defective classes, 25 business colleges, 39 man- ual ti^aining schools, 20 art schools, 51 normal schools and 146 uni- versities and colleges. The whole number of American exhibits was 2,566; total American and foreign, 3,614. This account includes only exhibits in the Liberal Arts building. Among the foreign exhibits, that of first importance came from the German Empire. It was prepared by the Minister of Education, under the sanction of the imperial council. • It illustrated, first of all, the admirable organization by which that government manages its educational affairs. The Department of Educalion ha^^ng an or- Seestons.] EXHIBIT AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 61 ganization as complete as that ^vhich has made the Gerraiin army famous, the minister proceeded to call for such items as he was pleased to select, from the faculties of universities, the directors of schools of arts and of sciences, the principal oflBc^rs of gymnasia, real schulevj and primary schools for material illustrative of their various depart- ments. The most distinguished professors and scientists answered with the actual apparatus used in their latest discoveries, contrasted with others of historic fame. They sent huge folios containing the plans and elevations of their latest achievements, as buildings for laboratories, museums, and art galleries; models, to scale, of school- rooms and furnishings; complete sets of the apparatus, furnished to their primary schools and gymnasia, for teaching the physical sci- ences; diagrams and charts, presenting in a few salient points the most impressive educational facts of the empire; histories in many volumes of their great institutions of learning; immense folios of ex- amination impers, some taken recently, some in the early years of the century. Nothing short of a comjilete catalogue will enable one to under- stand the fullness, the richness, and the dignity of this wonderful exhibit. The interest in it is not diminished when we learn that it was gathered at Berlin within two months after orders were given for its collection. One of its charts told an impressive story. An account in the nature of debits and credits, kept with the kingdom of Prussia, showed on one side the census number of children of school age, being more than 5,000,000 souls. Upon the other side there were accounted for, Bo many in each department of schools, so many excused for cause, so many sick; all save less than 1,000 whom the truant officei's had not found. The American educator who gave to this exhibit, or to any spe- cialty therein, earnest and thoughtful study, could not fail to derive information and inspiration of the highest value. He would observe the general absence of two sorts of .exhibits which were so much in evidence in the American section — those of shop training and of the kindergarten. The sacrifices made to give space to this exhibit were surely a thousand times repaid. As had been expected, the Russian exhibit was full and full of interest. Those who remembered the impetus given to shop instruc- tion in America by the Russian exhibit at the Centennial, and were anxious to see what farther development in this Atrection this coun- try had to show, were somewhat disappointed. The exhibits which had attracted so much attention in 1876 were repeated in 1893, but not improved. They were equaled, if not surpassed, by many similar 62 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General exhibits in the American section. The most valuable new contribu- tion from Kussia was the exhibit of girls' handiwork, brought from the charitable institutions under tJie patronage of the women of the im- perial family, and consisting of plain and ornamental needlework and embroidery. The art instruction from Russia was also a subject of special interest. The educational exhibit from Great Britain should not be taken a«4 any criterion of the state of progress which there obtains. Under proper appreciation of the conditions here, and of the material at its handSj the British commission could easily have secured an exhibit second in interest only to that from Germany. Perhaps none of the great European nations has made a more decided advance during the last quarter of a century than has England, and we regret not to have seen more evidence of it But this deficiency was, in a large measure, supplied by the excellent exhibits presented by the British dependencies, especially Canada and New Soilth Wales. Each of them gave evidence of a strong, well-organized system, centralized in its authority, and widely diffused in its application. Rei)orts indi- cate an exceptionally perfect school system in successful operation in far-off New Zealand, as the latest fruit gathered from the wide- spreading English tree. Interesting exhibits were received from remote lands, which were hardly expected to enter the competition. Forty years ago American ships were knocking at the sealed gates of the Japanese empire. Twenty-five years ago that empire sent to various Western countries 700 chosen youths, to be educated at its expense. Last year her accredited judges were reporting awards upon American school exhibits. This exposition is the first to which she has sent any educational harvest. Here she showed exhibits from a state university, well equipped; from a school of technology, whose president was the very able commissioner of her exhibit; from a normal school and an agricultural college. By means of these schools, she is developing her educational system, in which she already shows excellent results in primary instruction, and in the lines of practical science, manual training and natural history. She is pro- ceeding by a logical method, and is rapidly filling all the gaps between her primary and her higher schools. The Alliance Israelite Universelle has its center of operations in l*aris, but its field of effort is wherever Hebrews are found, especially in the cities of the Levant. Hitherto Jewish children in that region have been educated in considerable numbers in the schools supported by Christian missionaries. This society presented a small exhibit, mostly of manual training products, gathered from its schools along the Mediterranean. Seasions.] EXHIBIT AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION 63 An exhibit of much interest came from Egypt; from Cairo and neighboring towns. It consisted of manual work in iron and wood, the latter elegantly inlaid in the Arabic manner; physical apparatus made by pupils; drawing, in variety, well executed; writing in Eng- lish and Arabic, with inscriptions emblazoned from the Koran, etc. Most of this work compared favorably with that done in our best schools, and some could not there be paralleled. Thus is the apokatas- tarn complete. Science and education return, in full circuit, to their birthplace by the tombs of the Pharaohs. The exhibits from the Latin American states of South America, Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina, indicated much activity, with com- mendable progress, especially in the universities, normal and profes- sional schools, and schools of practical science. A like account may he given of Mexico, our neighbor of the south, whose advanced edu- cation will soon cause the land of nianuna to become the land of to- day. The State collective exhibits were notable for their general excel- lence and for their infinite variety. Thirty-two States could not provide exhibits which would cover interests so similar without a degree of sameness, but the predicted barren iteration did not appear. In almost every case the inventive genius of the committee in charge worked out some novel and effective feature, as illustrated by the stenographic reports from the school-room, suggested by Mr. Gove of Denver, and the phonographic tubes from New York and Wisconsin, l^bably neither of these devices, any more than does photography, will reveal exactly what they seek to represent. One has to be urged to look pleasant before the camera, and if the voice of the worried and forgetful teacher should become high and strident, we will pardon the phonograph which omits that episode. Both these devices are ingenious, newly applied, and worthy of repetition. The chief criticism upon the State exhibits is that too many of them failed to indicate the existence of a well-organized and active system which provides for the wants of the State as a whole. Some of them presented only a series of separate city exhibits, which were as distinct as beads upon a string. The rural schools were not suf- ficiently in evidence. It is true that in some cases the State organ- izers could not arrange their exhibits otherwise; first, because they could not secure funds for their work if done in any other way, but mainly, because there was no general organization to be represented. In this respect, the contrast between some of our exhibits and that presents by the German nation is very great, and much to our dis- advantage. 64 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General As to the use of collections of written examinations, themes,- and drawings, the suggestion has been made that they have proved worth- less and will never again be made part of an educational exhibit. But those who t^ame as accredited examiners from abroad, like the German commissioners or the special agents sent by the city of Paris, without exception made more careful study of these papers than any other element of our exhibits. Many requests were made for examples of such papers to be taken home as additions to i)edagogical libraries. It was after reading these papers that Dr. Waetzold, the German commissioner, made his very complimentary statement as to the worthy results of American education. No more notable illustration of the trend of American work since 1876 appeared than in the exhibits of the kindergarten and the man- ual training schools. It is not unfair to say that these subjects were more in evidence in the exposition than was warranted by their exist- ence in the schools. This happened quite naturally. First, because these are among the newest things that have occupied the public mind. Teachers of these specialties were anxious to have the fact known, especially by foreign visitors, who should thus learn that they are abreast of the most advanced movement. Second, nothing which the teacher has to show lends itself to exhibition so kindly as do these products. They are far better than the work of art classes, for they do not include so many ghastly failures. The archbishops of the Koman Catholic Church in America recog- nized the opportunity which the exposition offered them for present- ing the kind of education which they would make popular, and their claims for it in comparison with that of the schools under State super- vision. Brother Maurelian deserves congratulations for his very nota- ble success. He used the far-reaching organization of his church in securing contributions from 37 States and Territories, 57 dioceses, 412 cities and towns, and about 1,200 schools of all grades, from the humblest parish schools to the University of Washington. In a great abundance and variety of material, the prominent features were the work of the primary or parish schools, and art and needlework as taught in convents and seminaries. So far as prestige is concerned, the public State school has lost nothing in the comparison. The following items will indicate some of the directions in which our American education has made progress since the last great American exposition, as illustrated in that which has just closed: 1. Veiy marked progi*ess in the development of the university as compared with the college. While only a few of our great? institu- tions were represented, these illustrated the best phases of such work, in a congeries of exhibits whose merits grew upon one during every Sessiona.] EXHIBIT AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 65 day of the fair and become brighter now that reality is merged into memory; post-graduate work; the seminar; personal investigation on the part of both professor and pupil ; the endowment of research, as well as the endowment of instruction, each energizing the other in the development of both the sciences and the humanities. These are some of the flowers and fruit which dignify and elevate our uni- versity work. 2. The development of the university extension and the Chau- tauquan methods. 3. A large increase in the number of normal schools, and in the evidence of power derived from their methods of instruction diffused through the public schools. This appears to be a most potent factor in the elevation of public school work. 4. The strong, united and systematic character of the exhibits of the business colleges. Hitherto they have been deemed a corps of educational free lances, which corralled students, roped and branded them, and sent them through a short cut, which they called a business tniucation, to the countinghouse, the ledger, and, perhaps, a fortune. On the contrary, this body of teachers laid aside their differences, brought together a solid and instructive exhibit, and proved that they give in their own fleld a worthy and useful training. 5. The continued establishment of, and the advanced method used in, teaching the blind; the deaf, especially in oral speech; and the remarkable results secured in elevating the lives of the feeble- minded. 6. The manual training school has already been noted. Its prog- ress during the last seventeen years has been phenomenal. Thirty- nine distinct manual training schools exhibited, besides schools of technology and colle^ate technological departments in which manual instruction is an integral part of every course. The whole exhibition, from one end to the other, bristled with the work of the tool, from a jack-knife to a machine driven by power. 7. The trade schools in the large cities have developed rapidly. Trade schools teach some kind of work done by the aitisan as a means of earning a livelihood, such as the trade of the tinsmith, the pliunber, the harnessmaker, the dressmaker, the milliner, the cook. Excellent exhibits' of this character came from New York, Brooldyn, Cincinnati, and from the Indian schools of Hampton and Carlisle. It is to be hoped that these schools will multiply so rapidly that when the walking delegate finds them, and attempts to put his foot on them, it will not be large enough for the emergency. 8. The foothold which the kindergarten has acquired as the basis of sound primary instruction. 9. The progress made in the giving of correct instruction as to the evil use of narcotics and intoxicants. 66 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General 10. The development of art schools in many important centers, and of art instruction in so large a number of colleges and schools of technology. Much good is to be expected from this movement, especially when it shall come to permeate all our public school work, and after it has risen above conventionalism, the impressionist vagary, and the baleful and impure influences which flow into it from French channels. 11. The gradual but steady advancement of public school instruc- tion in all parts of our land. This advancement will necessarily be slow. It is the resultant of a multitude of forces, aiding and opposing each other. It involves the just enlightenment of the whole people, which must be trained to know the purposes of education, the need for it, and the needs of it. I feel confident that the exposition just closed shows, in the kind of work presented, in the breadth from which it was drawn, in the earnest feeling in regard to it, in the multitudes that came to study it, and in the inspiration that has grown out of it, that the onward march of sound educational ideas in these United States was never so direct, so forceful and so sure as it is at the present time. The exposition has come and gone. Its marvelous exhibits that illustrated every clime, every nation, every art, and the last and nob- lest developments of human science and skill, have vanished. The lovely vision of its magnificent architecture, its grand arches, its. cloud-capped pinnacles, the glowing beauty of its court of honor, the silent enchantment of its lagoons, the surging crowds of earnest and entranced visitors are now only the elements of a bewildering dream. The hammer of the iconoclast, the torch of the incendiary, have blotted from the face of the earth its latest and its loveliest apparition. But its memory shall be enduring as history, inspiring as prophecy, and will remain forever enshrined within our inmost hearts. THE ORGANIZERS OF THE NATION AND EDUCATION. BY PRBSIDBNT AUSTIN SCX)TT, RUTG-BUS COLLEGE. NEW JERSEY. [Stenographic Report.] I do not offer to you to-day a formal imper, for the subject I had chosen for such a paper, "On the Use of English," had alread}^, your President informed me, been selected by another speaker. I shall therefore say a few words on "The Organizers of the Nation and Education," with especial reference to the proposal to found a national university. SesBions.] ORGANIZERS OF THE NATION AND EDUCATION 67 A few days ago, in looking over the debates in the Federal Conven- tion of 1787, I found in those hundreds of pages of Madison's report but six or eight lines which speak of education. Those few lines, however, are not without great significance. The men who framed the Constitution of the United States were fifty-five in number, and of that number more than half were college graduate& Twenty-nine or thirty were graduates of colleges or higher institutions of learning. They did not speak of primary or second- ary education, by so much as a single word, in their debates. But I assume that they took that for granted on the part of the people of the United States; especially, as there was at that time in the mak- ing that great organic law, second only to the Constitution, the North- western Ordinance, by which education was apparently adequately secured to the people of our Union. Therefore, they assumed that the people in the lower schools were to.be educated. I say this, in spite of the fact that there are many invidious remarks, in their debates, upon the people. But they did propose a national university. I read that, on the 18th of August, 1787 — mark you, when the time of their deliberations was more than three-fourths done — James Madison (the father, rightly called, of the Constitution) moved that there be added to the power of congress, "the powers to establish a university, and to encourage by premiums and provisions the achievement of useful knowledge." Charles Pinckney of South Carolina, on that same day, proposed, "to establish seminaries for the promotion of literature and the arts and sciences; to establish public institutions of reward and immunity for the promotion of agriculture, commerce, trades, and manufactures." And these four proposals, two by Madison and two by Charles Pinckney, were unanimously referred to the Commit- tee of Detail, which then had in charge the duty of making over into a systematic constitution the resolutions that had already been adopted by the convention. On the 20th of August, two days later, Gouvemeur Morris and l^ckney again moved that the Chief Justice, whom they proposed should be a member of the Executive Council to advise the President, should recommend (these are their words), "such laws as may promote useful learning." These five propositions were referred to the Commit- tee of Detail, and the Committee of Detail, in their report on the Con- stitution, gave them not so much as the cold respect of a passing glance, so far as we know. When the Committee on Style and Revision had polished and perfected that instrument — for it is well-nigh perfect in its form — ^Madison and Pinckney again moved that there be inserted among the powers to be lodged in congress this one: "To establish a university in which no preferences or distinction should be allowed 68 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General on account of religion." James Wilson of Pennsylvania, whose name must ever be spoken with. i)erfect respect, supported this motion, but Gouverneur Morris said : ^It is not necessary to insert this among the powers of congress, for the exclusive power at the seat of government will reach the object." On the question whether the power to estab- lish a university should be distinctly and expressly included among the powers of congress, the vote stood six States against it and four in its favor, with a division quite unique; Samuel Johnson, the later president of Columbia College, voting for it, and Roger Sherman vot- ing against it The four States that voted in its favor were Pennsyl- vania, Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina. The six against it were New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Delaware, Mary- land and Georgia. I suppose this meant that they assumed that the j>ower to establish the highest schools of learning was, by implication, already in congress. \Miat has the nation done in this direction for the establishment of the highest education? It has passed three law^s, no doubt familiar to you, friends from all over the Union. One a law which granted lands in the West for the benefit of each of the States that should establish colleges whose purpose should be to benefit agricultural and mechanic arts, but whose scope — as explained by the honorable sen- ator who devised and put into execution the plan, Senator Morrill — •was to be as wide and general as the air. For he expressly says that it is not alone manual, but rather intellectual, training which this act of 1862 has in view; a liberal education which should, how- ever, include all those arts and sciences that are capable of practical application, as well as the classical training. The next act, the law of 1887, was adopted in the interest of agri- cultural and allied sciences, and provided for the establishment of institutions in which investigation should be the chief object. These experiment stations were to be connected with the colleges which had been established by the land grant act of 1862. By the wise, broad act of 1890, these colleges, established a genera- tion ago, are to receive from the national government a large appro- priation annually, to be devoted to certain specified objects, which begin with agricultural, mechanical, natural and physical science, and end with economic science, including also instruction in the English language. So much, in a word, has been done by the national government in the direction of higher training. This, you will obsen-e, of course, is distributed, and wisely so, among the different States, that there may be a judicious planning, general supenision, local attachment. SflBBioxiB.] 0BQANIZER8 OF THE NATION AND EDUCATION 69 activity and direction. Now, it seems to me, that these pieces of legislation by the national government are capable of expansion in two directions. The report of the commissioner of education for the year 1890-1891 points out the results of these three laws. There is a large opportunity, as he there says, for the deepening and strength- ening of lines of activity already begun. These institutions under national direction are capable of expansion in the direction of what is known as university extension. I have brought with me the report of our State college, which was handed in to the board of trustees a few days ago, and I refer to it as an illustration of the work that maybe done by these institutions, so wisely established by the national government CJourses of lectures have been given this year in New Jersey, outside of the college, to 1,500 students. The college proper numbers only about 250 students. The extension subjects have been electricity, English literature, classical archeeology, chemis- try, astronomy, the French Revolution, the Eastern question, iron and steel, and civil engineering. Besides these there have been six distinct courses in agriculture throughout the State. Here is a wide field for growing activity on the part of these institutions specially organized under national law, and the government should encourage, the effort that is here making to convey the best instruction and knowledge to all the people who have not had the opportunity or who wish to make use of further opportunity for higher instruction. There happens to come to my hand to-day a copy of the London "Times" of a fortnight ago, showing what they are doing in England. The Duke of Devonshire says, as he presides as chancellor of the Cambridge University, this: "The university extension movement can be utilized by the State in the development of a national system of higher education." The movement which has taken on large proportions in England, and which is gaining strength with us, might, perhaps, better be called, "the extension of higher learning," or "college extension." The second of the directions in which there may be an extension of national supervision and care of the higher education is through the foundation of a national university. Among the objects cherished by Washington was that of the founding of a national institution of the highest learning. He particularly emphasized this in the last five years of his life. It is just one hundred years ago that Washington b^an a concerted plan to establish, in the new seat of government, a national university. He enforces it in 1794; and in January, 1795, he writes to the commissioners who are planning the city of Washing- ton: "Can you not incorporate into your plans the foundation of a national univei'sity?" — a national university for the cultivation of 70 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General the arts and the sciences in their fullest extent Nothing less will satisfy him. When he came to his death he left in his will, not "gar- dens on the Tiber/' but fifty shares in the Potomac Company (which he had devised as the great bond between the East and the West) for the founding of a national university. I believe that now is the time for founding, in connection with the other educational agencies of a national character, this national uni- versity. It is not right that the nation should permit this matter to rest upon private beneficence or upon the exertions of the separate States. I believe that a duty and responsibility rests upon the na- tion, that it shall give to all, of whatever origin, the right and the opportunity to come to that which is highest, as they have given it to certain classes at West Point; as they have given it, also, to other classes in the Naval Academy at Annapolis. So do I believe, and you and all of us believe, that education is the only weapon with which to disarm anarchy and avoid the awful consequences of ig- norance. We believe that it is, first and foremost, a necessary weapon for self-defense. I say that upon the nation, then, rests the duty and responsibility to form, in these troublous times, such a university, — as Leyden was founded, when Holland was saved from Spain; as the University of Berlin was founded, when Prussia was in the issues of woe and dis- tress; as Strassburg was founded, after the war with France. There is just one thought further in that connection. Haw shall such an institution be provided? It should begin, perhaps, on the basis of the laws already adopted, the three laws of 1862, 1887, and 1890. Its beginning might be made by extending the laws there enacted. I have given no indication of the method of this organiza- tion. I will only say this much in regard to its students: As there has lately come to be a competitive examination for the national schools at West Point and Annapolis, so there should be a competitive examination, under national auspices, for the purpose of bringing from the colleges of the various States the students most higlily endowed and best trained to be received as students of higher learning in this national institution, that the best and highest and largest opportunity may be given to the inhabitants of all parts of the land. I was once, on a dark night, in a caniage with the distinguished historian of the United States. We had been considering together a paper, supposedly written by George Washington, and I said to him : ^^''ashington was a wise man." '^A wise man !" he said; 'Qie was the wisest man that ever lived." I supi)ose he meant, wise not only in the large prudence and the mighty courage with which he did his work, SflBBioiis.] THE ETHICAL ELEMENT IN LITERATURE, 71 but wise also as a prophet He was a seer as well as a doer. I believe that we can trace in the words that he spoke one hundred years ago his resolve that the common people, and all the i)eople, shall come, step by step, from the primary and the secondary and the col- legiate and the academic educations — shall come at last, under the auspices of the nation — to the highest opportunities vouchsafed under heaven for the learning of the wisdom of this nation. We share the blessings which Washington secured as hero and statesman; let us not refuse those which, as a prophet of education, he foresaw, nor neglect the duty which he enjoined. THE ETHICAL ELEMENT IN LITERATURE, AND HOW TO MAKE THE MOST OF IT IN TEACHING. J. A. McLBUiAN, LL. D.. PRINCIPAL ONTARIO SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, TORONTO. I. Development of Chabacteb the Highest Aim in Education. IL The Ethical Element in Litebatube. III. Teaching That Will Make This Element Effective in Mobal Tbaining. L— DB^'ELOPMBNT OF CHARACTER THE HIGHEST AIM IN EDUCATION. Training of Character the End,— There is practical agreement as to the importance of moral training in the schools. No one — at any rate, no teacher — is now satisfied with purely intellectual results. Not mas- tery of facts, or cultured taste, or trained intelligence, but noble char- acter, is the high aim of the American teacher. To have powers of observation, keen and discriminating, through the exercise of fuU and adequate perception; to have a memory stored with the great and fundamental truths of Nature and the laws of her operations; to have the intellect a cold, clear, logic-engine, able to disentangle and reconstruct into harmonious wholes the most complex masses of facts, whether of Nature or of human nature, — all this is good; may, indeed, be admitted as necessary to the realization of the highest ideal. But if the moral and spiritual have been ignored or overshadowed, we have fallen short of our high ideal; we have failed of that triune development constituting the sovereign power of character — character which contributes most richly to the welfare of the individual and the home and to the stability of the State. M is Triune Development. — We want, indeed, an intellect organized through the acquisition and retention of organized knowledge; but, 72 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION £Oeiieral also, we want a spirit that catches glimpses of the Invisible, a heart attuned to the "still sad music of humanity," and a will which clothes the character with steadfastness and courage. In the development of the soul we b^^in with unity and with unity we end — ^the intuition of the sensuous object at the one extreme, the intuition of the Abso- lute Good at the other. Starting from sensation in its threefold aspect, as having an element of knowledge, feeling and will, we strive for the equable and harmonious unfolding of all the powers of man; the evolution of the trinity of powers, intellect, feeling, will, into a divine unity — a rellex of the ineffable trinity in unity, light and love and law — the unity of God. This is character; this makes the man; this is the man — the manly man — ^the heroic spirit who, with unswerv- ing loyalty to Duty, constant as the stars, moves onward in her path, though it lead, through blood and tears, to Calvary and the crown of thorns. That is the "Happy Warrior" in life's earnest battle. Whom neither shape of danger can dismay, Nor thought of tender happiness betray ; Who, not content that former worth, stands fast, Looks forward, perseyering to the last, From well to better, daily self-surpassed. What has made your nation great, and what is destined to make it greater still, surpassing all the predictions of the sons of men? Not kings and princes and potentates and gold-holders. Not high-raised battlement or labored monnd. Thick wall or moated gate. Not cities proud, with spires and turrets crowned; Not bays and broad-armed ports, Where laughing at the storm rich navies ride. These have their places and their parts to play; but the mighty foundations of the Republic were built upon character, and by char- acter alone can the genius of the race rear a superstructure worthy of the foundations. The 8chool Must Give Sound Moral Training.— The school is both historically and philosophically an expansion and continuation of the family, as it is also a preparation for the State; and no matter how excellent the home training may be, upon the school rests, and for- ever must rest, the resi)onsibility for a large part— perhaps the largest part — of moral education. It is generally admitted that every good school, by subjecting the impulses of the pupil to wholesome discipline, both external and internal, powerfully contributes to the formation of character. Such a school is a living organism, i)enetrated and informed by the spirit of the living teacher, who makes all the factors ] * THE ETHICAL ELEMENT IS LITERATURE 73 of exUmal discipline, all the higher modes of internal discipline— all th.e mechanical and intellectual processes — subservient to ethical culture. The natural impulses of the child, the raw material of the will, upon which the educator has to work, must be guided and con- trolled by external authority. His feeble will is to be supplemented by the will of the teacher and the public law of the school till the power of self-control is gained; just as the feeble efforts of his imma- ture intellect are to be supplemented by the intellect of the teacher till his own power of analysis is developed and self -education becomes the law of his growth. In other words, obedience to just authority is the beginning of moral conduct; the conception of the eternal **Shair' — the idea of law and the necessity of obedience — precedes the concep- tion of the eternal ^'Ought," the soul of moral action. Thus, all the elements of school discipline, regularity, order, punctuality, industry, obedience, etc., lead to the formation of right habits, to the develop- ment of physical and prudential control; and ultimately, witli the growth of the moral seuse, the moral control — that is, character. * II.-THE ETHICAL. ELEMlfl^fr IN LITBRATUKK. Ethical Value of Subjects — Internal Discipline. — Without attempting to decide at what point in the school courses the formal teaching of ethics should begin, and how it should be done, I am convinced that there should be regular lessons in morals, and especially that the ethical aim should be paramount and kept consciously in view; and that, therefore, all methods of instruction, and all subjects of instruction, pre-eminently history and literature, should make for this supreme end. Every subject has its valufe even for moral discipline. I still cling to the doctrine of formal discipline, though not, perhaps, in its extreme form. I believe that different subjects, according to the relations with which they deal, may have different values as instru- ments of training, and especially as means of moral training. I see, for instance, that pure mathematics — a process of extreme simplifica- tion, dealing only with space and time relations — is simpler than physics, physics than chemistry, chemistry than physiology, physiology than sociology, sociology than philosophy, and I cannot convince myself that each of these departments has precisely the same effect in intel- lectual and moral discipline. I will not, at any rate, believe that all subjects are alike for purposes of moral culture. The solution of a differential equation, or a difficult chemical analysis, while sharp(*n- ing and strengthening the intellect, leaves no increase of humanism in the heart. These subjects have no direct bearing upon human rela- tions. But the study of some heroic deed as recorded in literature, 74 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Qenerw^l or of a profound analysis of some universal human passion, touches iix^G^ moral element within me and reveals my kinship with the race. I n the one case there is mere intellectual identification with the physical world; in the other there is both intellectual and sympathetic iden- tification with the world of humanity. Intellect and Will. — Literature develops the intellectual factor, bufc pre-eminently the emotional factor of the will. Every subject that demands the exercise of the fundamental activities of the intellect contributes to the training of the will, and so far aids in the develop- ment of character. Voluntary attention depends upon the will, — is the will controlling the movement of ideas for definite ends, — and every realization of conceived end is but a series of external acts con- trolled by the will and paralleled by an antecedent movement of ideas. The power to drive one idea or series of ideas from the field of con- sciousness and to put another idea or series of ideas in full possession, is the essential phenomenon of will and the indispensable requisite in the growth of character. For the development of this essential factor, literature in all its forms is a powerful means. No one subject, it may be admitted, is capable of producing the best possible all-sided culture; but if compelled to confine myself to one subject, I should without hesitation give the preference to literature. More thoroughly than any other subject, it trains memory, imagination, thought, and last but not least, expression, the necessary complement and co-ordi- nate of all these, and therefore secures a more extensive, as well as a more intensive, culture of mind. Literature deals with something higher than mathematical relations and material phenomena. Its subject-matter is the complex, morjtl, and spiritual phenomena which make up human life and human history, and which even give meaning to the physical worid. And so, e. g,, the intellectual and artistic analysis of a noble piece of literature affords as good an exercise of mind as a mathematical demonstration or a physical experiment, while it far surpasses both in culture of the aesthetic and moral sensi- bilities. Literature and the Emotional Factor in WiU — Ethical Imagination. — Literature introduces the student to a world — or to worlds — of human action and interests, of social and moral phenomena, infinitely enlarged beyond the narrow world of his experience, and habituate him to a sympathetic and therefore humanizing reconstruction of such a world. In the study of geography he starts from his concrete experiences, at once narrow and ill-defined, and by means of maps and models, narrations and descriptions, his intellectual imagination con- structs a large, free, reasonable idea of the actual world, which gives . a new and richer meaning to his life and his environment. So in "JTJ^E ETHICAL ELEMENT IN LITERATURE. 75 j^mx^' S^t Skirting from his little social and moral world — at once *^^^ gei^^^ 3.1.1 l>ut meaningless — moving out into enlarged scenes of ^ iQui*^ 'vvli^c^l-e world of human relationships and their interactions), ^^. et*^ ^^icLsigination sympathetically reconstructs a larger, freer, ^^deri|^^^xi€i.xi world which powerfully reacts upon his own person- ^i't<» ^^"^^ ^^ new and richer meaning to life through the recognition f ^ te^^t^loxis with the nation, with his race, and with mankind. ^ od^*^ ^^^^^s> ^^ starts out from himself, shackled by the merely gtj^iLiO^*' ^^^"^^ feelings but little removed from pui*e animal sympathy: i.ja^^^^ ^^yself alone, or, at most, for my family alone." He returns *o^^ ' ^ ^^ man, whom the truth has made free; filled with the a^v^it^^^^^ixnent: "None of ua liveth to himself ;^^ I am not for myself ^otv^ ^^ *^^ W family alone, or for my country alone, but for man- ^\ttAi ^^5 ^s the old Latin poet has it: '*! am a man, and therefore all j^nri*^* ^^terests are my interests." Thus the enlarging, liberalizing, ^ieol effect of literary and historical studies is due to increased rea^^^^^S and idealizing j>oii^«r of the intellect and the imagination, and to tVie Traction into character of the world of human life with a fuller ^nd riAer meaning of its various factors. Xttero/ure and the Ideal Self. — Literature not only forms a sym- pathetic imagination for the world of human relations and interac- tions in general; it helps to widen, strengthen and purify desire throngb the formation of noble ^eZ/"- ideals. We know what we are by the imagination of what we are not; and when we know what we are, we are in fair way to realize what we ought to become. The strong- est impulse to improvement, whether intellectual or moral, is a di\lne dissatisfaction with the actual in comparison with the ideal. This idt^al self is no impotent, shadowy thing; it is the soul's conscious- ness of its possibilities, the necessary condition of determined choice and persevering action. The great ideals with which literature abounds may be made personal object lessons far more potent than the reality to awaken dissatisfaction with present attainments and an all-con- quering desire to leave the things that are behind and to stretch out towards the things that are before. The great heroes of the past, as well as the humbler heroes whose lives were perhaps a richer blessing, are vi\-idly before us, and our hearts are filled with silent worship of the great and good of old, "the dead but seeptered sovereigns who still rule our spirits from their urns." The elements of their mighty strength fill, animate and thrill us with a divine love of truth and goodness and with a strong desire to realize these in acts of truth and goodness. Therefore through literature let our youth be filled with ^oble pictures of human relationship and duty, of elevated character. 76 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General of justice, friendship and love;" let them dream lofty dreams and see inspiring visions, and their dreams shall be prophecies. Literature and the Sympathetic Imagination, — I have but time for a cursory reference to what is probably the most direct effect of literary studies, the cultivation of the emotional nature in general^ and especially of sympathy, the source of the moral feelings. Among all subjects, literature, and especially poetic literature, stands promi- nent for the culture of the sympathetic imagination, which is necessary to the development of the social feelings. The poet-artist is all aglow with love of truth and beauty in nature, and in human life and action, and the student is made a sharer in this enthusiasm for nature and humanity. With his imagination touched by the imagination of the poet he beholds the divine ideas which are clothed in visible forms around us; he feels beauty and truth and pathos — ^life-lessons — ^in the daisy, in the small celandine, in the common dandelion, in "the mean- est flower that blows;" and with an eye made quiet by the power of harmony and the deep power of joy he sees into the life of things; he has a vision of the physical world as embodying the thought and the imagination of God. And this is but the prelude to the higher sympathy for humanity which is born of literature. In the world of human life are there any great and elevated sentiments of truth, goodness, beauty — deeds of patriotism, self-sacrifice, moral heroism — among the great and among the lowly? These things, too, all that is good and beautiful and true in them, are an embodiment of divine ideas, and have their rich setting in literature. For awakening en- thusiasm for humanity, the study of literature is unique among hu- man studies. It, and it alone, arouses in us that profound sympathy with human interests which gives an insight into the significance of human life, and a yearning for its progress towards a divine ideal — an insight and a yearning which are the vision of God. Blessed are the pure in heart (t. c, blessed are the loving in heart), for they shall see things unseen by other eyes. We feel this sentient-seif, the counter-part Of some self vaster than the star-girt sky; Grods fade, but God abides, and in the heart of man Speaks with the clear, unconquerable cry, Of energies and hopes that cannot die; Yea, though our utterance falter— though no art By more than sign or symbol can impart This faith of faiths that lifts our courage high- Yet are there human duties, human needs, Love, charity, self-sacrifice, pure deeds. Tender affections, helpful service, war Waged against tyranny, fraud, suffering, crime. These ever strengthening with the strength of years pjxalt man higher than fabled angels are. ^JETHICAL ELEMENT IN LITERATURE. 77 ' ^.^iwr^ afV4^ .JMorUd Sentimentality. — ^It will be said there is a . 'litv of toc:^ ^nrreat a culture of the emotions as such; that to poB^^^^g the ei3Cfc.^z^'€z:ion8 without corresponding activities leads \x> un- gd^^ ^rl)i(l 8en.tr ^.arzMzient. This is possible, but not probable, under ex- jeftl' ^iiditi»n^ ^ -^ot in general the teaching of literature is too life- \e,i^^^ ^ uniiaas^zMz^^mtive — unemotional. We need be under no appre- \es^ f i-egardix:^.^^^ an evil that is never likely to arise. But at all ^e^^^ ^]ji9 cult^^::*. :b:-v^ of the imaginative and emotional elements is ab- t*v6^ ^y esse^^^^^'*- -tio the growth of character. Next to actual and in- tfol^ 089ociat.x<::^^^3^ with great or noble men is intimate and profound li^^.^^gLintJ ^^^^=^ ^^i*eat ideas. Ideas are behind all action, and senti- f^^ ^^\^^ aW "i^ieas. Saturate a youth with right ideas and noble to^^.^^eiE^^^ an^ ^Itx^ ig in a fair way to become a noble man. As St. ^^ \ U^^^^* "^^^^v5Xt:soever things are true, whatsoever things are hon- J*^ ^'l^Bts^^^x:* ^'tidngs are just, whatsoever things are pure, whatso- ^^ ' ^ tJ^l^p a^T'^ Xovely, whatsoever things are of good report — if there ^^ ^ny ^^^^ ^:i:i.fa if there be any praise — ^think on these thii^." To '^ X r^*^^^^^^^""^^ against oppression of the weak, horror of cruelty, .^1^ ^ ^^^xoxi in the just punishment of guilt; to have admiration ^^r trtJ^^^^'^^^xix and noble self-sacrifice; to love the true, the beauti- ^^ tJi^S^o., Irlxe generous; to have pity for the sorrowful, compas- ^io^ ^^. ^ ^^^^ fortunate, tenderness for the penitent; to have con- f:e^P 1 ^^ception, hypocrisy and shams; to have abhorrence fo^ , . • ' "^l^^ mean, the selfish, the impure: to have all this is to be 0jl y^^ L;\^ ^^ *^^ve that beauty of the inward soul, and that outward ^c^^^ ^ ^-^^xiony with it, which are the fiower and fruit of human f0^'^ "X'HAT WILL MAKE THIS ELBAfBNT BFFECTIVB IN MORAL TRAINING. \- ^ tir\i^^*^^ o/ut forever true. As is the teacher's interest in a giver ftU^i^ t-«-^^ ^^^ interest of the pupil and so the strictly ethical effects *l!to>^ ^ rw!^^ ^^ ^ branches of instruction, but pre-eminently of litera ^^^. V>tie of the saddest sights on earth is a half-dead teacher work - rf t$V^^ ^ lialf-dead class, the product of his own handicraft; as, on ^^^ o^^^ tand, one of the most beautiful is the inspiring teachei t ot^ ^ ^^^8 with hearts thrilled with his own spirit and throbbing ^.^^ certain newness of life and growing sense of power. I have ^ ^fj the mere numerical Babbage machine, monotonously laboring s^ \ ^j^ creaking crank and turning out mechanisms the image of him 'it* andltave seen, too, the artist-teacher, a happy union of culturec ^ L and loving heart, working even upon the inert product of th< 1 78 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General spiritless tradesman with results typified in the dream-vision of the Hebrew prophet. What a marvelous change! How soon is there a shaking of the dry bones, a movement of flesh and sinews and covering skin, and a soul created under the ribs of death. This Essential in Literature. — In literature beyond all other sub- jects is this artist-spirit of the teacher a prime necessity. In gram- mar, arithmetic and the like, the dry-as-dust teacher may be aided by certain external stimuli,— reports, examinations and inspectoral visits. But whatever worth these things may have as a stimulus to interest and as a test of results, they are utterly worthless as a means or measure of the best effects in literature — the ethical and the spiritual. These are subtle, impalpable, divine — ^the work of heart upon heart, of soul upon soul, with spiritual materials to which great and strong souls have given birth; they are hyperphysical and as im- perishable as the immaterial principle which they have informed and transformed. They are therefore infinitely beyond the crude criterion of examinations and percentages. Hence, of the teacher of literature we ask, not only what is his knowledge, his training, his experience, but above all what manner of spirit is he of? Love of literature and a clear consciousness of the profound ethical effects of his teaching are his prime qualification. His own imagination must be touched with the beauty, his own heart thrilled with the pathos, and his own intellect master of the truth and hanpony of it, or his teaching will be but as sounding brass or tinkling cymbal. The mechanical teacher of arithmetic is a spectacle for gods and men; but how shall we characterize the mechanical teacher of literature? Intellectual numbness is less to be dreaded than moral paralysis. "It is a curse," says Byron, speaking of the poetry of Horace, "to comprehend, not feel, his lyric flow; to under- stand, yet never love, his verse." Equally strong language may be used of the teacher who fails to make the truth, beauty, sublimity and harmony in literature produce their adequate effect upon intellect and heart. For the bread of life, he is administering to hungry souls the veriest stones; instead of quickening and nourishing the divine spirit- ual instinct which constitutes so large a part of the wealth and strength of man, he is, lesson by lesson, reducing it to an ultimate state of atrophy and death from which there is no resurrection. ItlvMration. — Not long ago I saw *'The Crossing of the Bar" used as the subject of a lesson to a class of young men and women, by a teacher who had some ability but no depth of nature. There had evi- dently been much preparation, but the lesson utterly failed of its purpose. The shallow nature of the teacher could put no heart into SeBsiaDa] THE ETHICAL ELEMENT IN LITERATURE. 79 it. There w^as much fluent preparation and presentation and all the rest of it; questions and expositions upon tides and rivers and forma- tion of bars; of sunset and twilight and curfew bells; but the beauty and pathas of it, the living soul of it — these touched no chord in the teacher's heart, and left in other hearts no vision of something beyond, which eye liatli not seen nor ear heard. Nov, if tlie Ixeart is touched with the spirit of the theme, with its faith, and hope, and love, what utter weariness to the spirit are elabo- rate eipositions on rivers, and tides, and bars, and twilight, and bell, and 9^\ the »ifTnI>€>ls into which the sentiment alone breathes life- We see for a moment, indeed, the outward and visible form, the signs of gtonn,and nsideration of two components: (a) The presentative ^#^^iits?^^^^vx<3.ixig melody, harmony, rhythm, etc.; and (b) The rep- ^J^^t^^^^ ^^^^"^ic^^zMJts, including harmony of parts, poetic epithets, poetic f^^%t^^^ ^^^'■^^^XMon words and thoughts, so-called figures of speech, e^^ffk^Z"^^^ ^or Moral and JEsthetic Culture, — Now, in right teach- ^ V ^s^ 'R^otors make for moral and feathetio as well as for in i0^' C<^^ tK^^^^^^^^' ^* would need a series of illustrative lessons f^'^^^^H ^ ^'^^ci.portance of these points, but there is time for only ^o ^ ^ ^ ^^^Slvtis by way of suggestion. Why should not the idea ^ i^^^^ x\ ^^^^ ^^s place in teaching (or learning) poetry as well as in t \.y^ ^^^^^>^o ? If there is logical unity, the unity of comprehension, ,^ ^1 „ ^^^ ^^^ ,^. ^. ^_ 0^. ^<>^ ?^^ ^^c dominant emotion which produced it? And above ^^^ 0^ ^^^^ction is concerned — the spiritual interpretation, the im- ^^^x'^ ^'^^th. and beauty which, the concrete form incarnates and ^^\d^ ®P^aks clear-toned to the living soul of man ? V" ^ t^tnember two lessons on "The Chambered Nautilus." The one -^ \tv the mind a transient medley of facts in natural history, biog- ^^ pty, gi^ammar, and so on ; the moral effect of the poem being swal- ^^ved lip and lost by a confused mass of unorganized facts. The sec- rtd lesson, with no elaborate discussion of irrelevant matters — .^^levant to the great and single purpose of the theme — inspired the l^^grt with the great truth of the souFs self -development to higher life. Y true illustration it was of the function of poetry as the profound " fld beautiful application of ideas to life: Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul. As the swift seasons roll! Leave thy low-vaulted past! Let each new temple, nobler than the last. Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast. Till thou at length art free.. Leaving thine out-grown shell by life's unresting sea! So that little gem of Longfellow's, "Excelsior" (in spite of some critics, I call it a gem; i)erhaps through a lingering prejudice of boylKX^d)' I have seen taught again and accain, not only without regard to its artistic unity, but, what is far worse, with little or no perception of the living: truth which it clothes and whicli has a 82 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General lesson for every heart. University graduates, even medalists, have told me that, though they had often read and heard and taught the poem, it had never struck them as being anything but a somewhat imaginative and musical account of the futile enterprise of a rash, though courageous, youth. They had been so absorbed in the bare outward form, the symbol or metaphor of the poet's feeling, that the moral nature had never been touched by the living soul within. Why should we make a mere arithmetical division of the poem into parts — disjecta membra violently wrenched from an organic whole? Why not rather lead the pupil through unconscious group- ing of the related thoughts to a conscious recognition of the unities constituting an organic whole? We have in the first part the intro- duction of the youth and his purpose, and, given with a touch of genius, his qualities typical of a noble manhood; then the physical perils, and the allurements of a subtler kind that would divert him from his purpose; and last of all the issue — apparent defeat — death; but with a suggestion of unrecorded victory. Why pour out mobs of facts and questions upon Switzerland, Alps, mountains, rhymes, monks, Longfellow, glaciers, St. Bernard dogs, avalanches, till the lowest pit of monotony is reached, and the freighted memory is left without a nook for a living thought? The spiritual interpretation that almost alone conduces to spiritual and moral influence has no place, or the lowest place, in such teaching. Never a word about the imaginative climbing, its temptations and threatening perils and dauntless spirit, as typifying the soul's struggle for its higher and highest life; how, perfected through conflict and stamped with the divine hieroglyphics of sorrow, it achieves through self-reverence, self- activity, self-conti'ol, that life of sovereign power which culminates in life immortal. I remember being profoundly touched in my youth by this little poem, and the effect of the lesson has been with me through all the years. I was, for the time at least, the youth of high purpose and heroic endeavor. How I followed him in his perilous ascent, filled with the vision of thoughtful brow and flashing eye, and clarion voice and dauntless heart; of happy home and pleading maiden; of roaring tor- rent and awful avalanche, powerless against his steadfast soul. WTiat deep sorrow filled my heart at the catastrophe! A travelor by the faithful hound Half buried in the snow was found, Still grasping in his hand of ice That banner with the strange device: And I asked, as eA'ery sympathetic soul has asked, with the silent figure vividly before me: Is this the end? WTiat now of the broad SenoDS.] THE ETHICAL ELEMENT IN LITERATURE. 83 brow, the dome of thought, the palace of the soul? WTiat now of the flashing eye, the clarion voice, the dauntless heart? O strong soul, what now of thy king-making heroism? Nay, not all: There in the twilight cold and gray Lifeless yet beautiful he lay; While from the sky serene and far A voice fell like a falling star! Beautiful, as if the triumphant soul's last whisper to its noble co- worker had been of immortality and the resurrection morning. And falling from the opening heavens the life motto of the heroic soul seems to be lost in the mighty chorus: Lift up your heads, O ye gates, and be ye lifted up ye everlasting doors, that the victor may enter into life! THE SKYLARK— WORDSWORTH— TRUTH AND BEAUTY THROUGH CONCRETE FORM. Ethereal minstrel, pilgrim of the sky, etc. • ••••••••* I. Intellectual Analysis. (1) The bird soars heavenward because it loves. (2) Interaction of light and love; the higher the ascent into heaven's light the louder the song, the stronger the bond of home-love. (3) Divine instinct of bird for privacy of glorious light; the two poles — flight and love; the richer song for earth. II. Spiritual Interpretation. (1) Home-love the beginning of heaven-love; the soul true to home is true to heaven. (2) The deeper the heaven-love, the richer the home-love; the soul truer to heaven is truer to home. (3) Home-love and heaven-love are one: divine instinct of the soul satisfied only when home-love becomes love of heaven. Wider and richer benedictions for earth as vestibule of heaven. III. Artistic Analysis. (1) The representative elements. (2) The presentative elements. IV. Oral Beading Essential in the Teaching of Literature. General Principles. (1) The general effect of articulate speech. (a) On the intellect. (b) On the emotions. On the intellectual side, expression develops power. The speech centers of the brain are correlated with the thought centers. 84 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General On the emotional side, speech develops the higher emotions. (2) As there is relation between thought and feeling, there is relation between the language of thought and the lan- guage of emotion. Language of the intellect, so far as thought can be un- touched by feeling, is unmodified articulate speech. The language of the emotions is chiefly modified articu- late speech, i. e.y modified by the voice in "tunes'' of speech. (3) That is, human speech has two factors: "Signs of ideas and signs of feeling, or 'cadence;'" that is, the "tunes of speech" is the commentary of the emotions on the propo- sitions of the intellect. Inferences, (1) As the teacher must help the learner to undersUind, so he must help the learner to feel — this through the language of the emotions, L e,, cadence, which signifies emotion, and excites emotion. Eeading, the test of intelligence and feeling. (2) Full effect of presentative elements, especially in poetry, can be had only by reading aloud. (3) Finer shades of thought and touches of emotion left unre- vealed if no oral reading. (4) Hence it cultivates more thoroughly not only intellect, but eminently the aesthetic and moral elements. (5) It leads to refined pronunciation, and to the removal of the badge of plebeianism from the "commons" whose "speech bewrayeth them." (6) Therefore reading aloud — an essential part of the teacher's preparation for teaching literature. REMARKS ON RHYTHM IN EDUCATION BY DR. G. STANLEY HALL, CLARK I^Xn'ERSITY, [Stenographic Report.] It is difficult, indeed, to come in at the close of an address such as you have just heard and supplement it with anything new or instructive. I shall not try to do that, but will express a single sentiment, and then sit down. I think teaching Swions.] RHYTHM IN EDUCATION. 85 itsdf ought to be the most uplifting and ethical of all vocations, especially to-day. It is chan^ng its aspect. Evolution has taught the teacher that he or she is to be its chief agent in the march of progress, and if we are to have a higher type uf citizenship, of manhood, or of womanhood in the world, it is to be done by cou- scious agencies, and those agencies culminate in the teacher. In the vision of the super-man, if it is ever to be realized, it will be because the school, the college and university will succeed in bringing childhood to more complete maturity, physically, mentally, and, above all, morally. The physical man and woman will be better de- reloped. Those latter stages of growth that are so easily arrested— so often ar- retted in most of us— will be completed. Instead of the hollow chest, incomplete shoulders and slab sides, the weak hi^s which mark the arrested development in the latter stages, we shall have the full physical manhood, which was the ideal of culture in the days of ancient Greece, and again in the best days of Grerman edu- <*ation. I believe that the child-study movement is coming to be a philosophic depart- ment in education, and that it is to bring all these agencies that have for their purpose human upbuilding into the one great science or art, called education. There is one practical point — so practical that it can be introduced into the school-rooms the first day of next term. Plato believed and thought that the cen- tral word in education was rhythm. Now, a rocking chair is a very important edu- cational instrument. It prevails nowhere as in this country. It is an instru- ment of rhythm. Walking is an instrument of rhythm. Let me introduce one technicaf term: If I stand on one leg or one foot, and swing the other like a pen- dulum, this way, [indicating] my own leg has a natural vibration, time 73, and that rhythm pervades everything I do. If you had an apparatus, which recorded ac- curately every accent as I speak to you now, you would find that those accents would be just about 73 degrees. That is my ^^^^ of a second. It is fundamental. If I take exercise— a walk— it is not exercise at all if I used this fixed vibration- time. My legs swing as pendulums. If I exert a little, that is exercise; or if I go •lower, that is exercise, but if I should start fast and go slower and slower, I would invariably slow down to about 73. If I should start slow, I would gradually reach that. The idea is that there is a tendency to fall into that /„•, seconds time. Now, then, if 1 am excited, I begin to walk or step faster. A mother by singing slower and glower will almost always put her child to sleep. The teacher's rhythm is an essential thing, for the teacher's habits invariably produce their effect upon the children. I noticed recently an article which indicated that all the children were afllicted with incipient corea and other forms of nervous disorders, to which childhood is so prone in this American climate and life of ours. Our moral rhythm is ethical, and the moral of it is never to lose your self-control. The moment you do, you are hysterical, more or less. The teacher who does not study these important matters may do great harm to the nervous system of the child. Now, the very essence of motion is rhythm, and my closing sentence is this, that I do not believe we have any right to teach things that do not go through the intellect and affect the heart. All education that is real education is education of the heart. Let us teach nothing that we do not teach so thoroughly that it gets into the heart of the child, and in the heart arouses those deep cadences which have constituted some of the best systems of education in the past, and which in- spired Plato. 86 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [OeDeral PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS. BY JOHN W. COOK, PKESIUEXT STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. NORMAL, ILL. Before the beginning of the constitutional period, American educa- tional literature had nothing to say respecting the professional prepa- ration of teachers. The magnificent plea for popular education had been made, but you will search in vain for any suggestion looking toward a normal school, a pedagogical professorship, or even a teach- ers' institute. The idea that "teachers are bom and not made" had undisputed possession of the American consciousness. The campaign which resulted in the establishment of our finst normal school marks an epoch in the educational history of this coun- try. It was a revolutionary movement. It boldly and unequivocally attacked the generally accepted doctrine that he who knows a sub- ject can teach it; to teach a subject it is only necessary to know it* Without that historic struggle, not only the teachers' semin^uy, but the educational magazine, the summer school, the university professor- ship, and the growing demand for trained teachers must have waited for another age. Take an inventory of the agencies at work to-day for the betterment of methods of instruction in all grades of schools, and you will appreciate the significance of that humble beginning in Massachusetts but little more than a half a century ago. The normal school was obliged to fight its way into popular favor. The extremes of intelligence bitterly opposed it. The liberally educated contingent looked upon it as an attempt to substitute a cheap veneer for the substantial mahogany of the time-honored college curriculum, while the great generality regarded it as the chimerical scheme of a few unpractical visionaries. The struggle is not over, but the battle is substantially won. When our oldest and noblest university announced her courses in pedagogy, the opposition of the scholars became an anachronism. When the new States in the far W^est incorporated in their funda- mental law grants of the public domain for the support of teachers* training schools, Horace Mann's vindication was substantially com- plete. The first movement in this country toward professional schools was an origiifal American impulse. iUthough the idea was not new to the old world, our early educators seem to have had no information of what had been accomplished. The Prussian system, long antedat- ing ours, finally attracted the attention of Mr. Charles Brooks of Massachusetts, who lost no opportunity for acquainting the people ***>*»•] EDUCATION OF TEACHERS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS. 87 ofhia State with what had been done abroad. His efforts well illus- ^e influence which even one intelligent and tireless man maj- ^^ npon hig Q^jj^ j^^ YsXer times, for the development of the normal scliool idea was materially influenced by the European example. To Mr. James G. Carter of Massachusetts, however, attaches the honorable tiUe of "father of the American normal school." To his persistent aad enthusiastic advocacy is mainly due the flnal passage ot the flrst normal school act. The limits set to this paper do not permit me to trace the history* 0^ the movement which resulted in the establishment of the pioneer school. If you would read a story of devotion rarely surpassed in any annals turn to the account of the early days of Cyrus Peirce at Lex- ington. If our younger friends need the inspiration of a great ex- ample— and who does not? — ^let them catch the lofty spirit of that g^atest of educational prophets, Horace Mann. Abandoning the attractive and lucrative practice of the law, declining the political preferment which awaited only his acquiescing nod, stepping aside from the discussions of his time, in the issues of which he had a burn- ing interest, he threw himself into the one great task of building the public school, and as a fundamental necessity to its success, the teach- ^re' training school. What cause has ever failed with such an ad- vocate? What tireless devotion! What unmatched eloquence! What unanswerable logic! What unquestioning faith! Educational literature would be richly dowered if only his contributions remained. Time would fail me if I were to attempt to speak of Henry Barnard ; of Samuel J. May; of David P. Page; of the venerable and honored Br. Sheldon and his forty years at Oswego; of Father Tillinghast and Dr. Boyden at Bridgewater; of Dr. Edwards at St. Louis and in Uli- nois. These and the other builders of the American normal school must be left to another writer and another time. In this movement, as in all great movements, the idea was infinitely richer than its realization. What would not be possible with a care- fully trained and thoroughly enthusiastic teacher in every school, from the remote district to the great university? Is there any other en- terprise in which there is such lamentable waste? The beginnings were necessarily crude, and a half century of experience finds us still in the field of doubt and experiment. Let us hope that we shall never emerge entirely from either. It was not difficult to suggest certain general lines of work. As early as 1824, Mr. Carter proposed three: a thorough grounding of the normal school students in the subjects to be taught; instruction in the science and art of teaching; and practice-teaching under super- vision. Naturally the early schools laid greatest stress upon the first of these three elements. When^ should they turn for pedagogical lit- 88 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General erature, and how should they supervise the teaching work of their pupils before the development of something like a systematic method- ology? And so it was unavoidable that the first work should be chiefly academic. But what academic work it was! It is difficult to estimate the gi'eat service rendered to the cause of thorough schol- arship by the unsparing vigor with which they treated the elements of an English education. Their pupils were usually of mature age but of limited scholarship, having had few opportunities beyond the district or village schools. The epoch of elementary science teaching was far in the future. Their fundamental proposition was: "Teach the prospective teacher what he is to teach, and he will imitate your example." Subjects that are usually studied in the almost forgotten years of childhood and were regarded as only preparatory to the academy, were elevated to the rank of the classics as educative ma- terial. What breezy reading lessons! How simple geography was lifted to the dignity of an inspiring science! How arithmetic was stripped of its mechanical stupidity and made to yield a finer discipline in sharp distinction and critical analysis! It is not strange that the common school curriculum was immensely dignified in the esteem of these young men and young'women, and that they should think somewhat slightingly of the studies that had held the chief place in the estimation of educators ever since the revival of learning. Yet who that has been a pupil of one of the early normal school men can but be thankful for such superb instruction? Had their spirit possessed the Renaissance, Comenius, Rosseau and Pestalozzi would have lived in vain. But their fundamental proposition has its limitations. A method of treating the elementary subjects that is suitable to a youth of eighteen is ill-adapted to a child of eight. Those early normal graduates found a very stubborn and substantial fact in the limitations of childhood. It was very much in evidence that the method of the normal school could not be transplanted bodily into the early grades of a system of popular education. They found that their art was still to be acquired through the fruitful lessons of experience. Yet they were sensitive, enthusiastic, ambitious, and had that indispensable quality, the teaching spirit. They were an immense advance upon the average of untrained teachers, but their methods were empirical. The normal school soon discovered the necessity for the fuller development of its theoretical work, and at this point it encountered practical difficulties of the gravest character. Every teacher of experience can contribute valuable information re- specting the mechanics of the school-room. Nor would I underesti- mate the value of a knowledge of those minor details of management, ignorance of which is so embarrassing to the beginner. But the func- tion of the teacher is the stimulation of spiritual forces, the organiza- rAININQ OF TEACHERS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS ^fii ratio :h::^^:^1 and commanding selfhood in every being under his (i^^^ti^^ ^^^^""^^ A' io\ pr^f''^^ trX.B^,^mt constituted the humble beginnings of professional ai^ A^^^'^^ ^^^^:»L*^^ barren and inconsequential enough, yet the ardor of iP^ t^*"* f ^^^•^'fc^ii endowed even those commonplace platitudes with ^e ^^^ ^^ *: m-,£mctiveness. ^^#^'(^^^^ ^»=^ot long before we began to feel the stimulating in- v^ ^^^ :iprophets of the old world. The spirit of Pestalozzi iJ^^o^ c\ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ its re-incarnation on the shores of the ^<^^\{^y^^^^^^t-io. It could neither be laughed down nor starved. t>^^ V^^^\^^^^^^^^ as it had been in the old. The educational historian \i^ 0^^ ?*^^^ t:he Oswego movement makes a grave omission. It s the most urgent argument for pro- fessional preparation, since one of his principal functions is to sup- plement the inexperience and ignorance of his assistants by his own comprehensive grasp of the whole situation. Why should we sit longer with folded hands in the presence of the situation, or divide into hostile camps and quarrel over details? Let us do something that looks toward a forward movement in securing that professional recognition that we all alike desire and believe our- selves entitled to, but which the public as yet decline to accord us. FR0FE88I0NAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN COLLEGES. BY S. G. WILLIAMS, CORNELL UXI\'ERSITY. A German university has the honor of taking the initiative in the higher professional training of teachers. About 1738, Johann M. Ges- ner, professor of humanities in the newly-founded University of Goettingen, was moved by the wretched preparation of university students to open a seminarium phUologicum to prepare the future teach- ers of secondary schools for the better pursuit of their calling. He saw that the universities were almost wholly neglecting the prepara- tion of men for teaching. **WTiat the theologian or the jurist or the learned man needs,'' he says, *'that is taught at the universities; but not what the schoolmaster needs. Hence men must be taken for the school service who have been prepared for another calling, and who, being fit for anything rather than for teachers, are able neither to think, nor to live, nor even to speak, rightly." To remedy this neglect, and so to root out the evil of students with no love for study nor idea of the true purpose of study, which constantly perpetuated itself in a ricious circle through untrained teachers, who pursued only a bad customary routine, Gesner founded his philologic seminary. ^*lts pur- pose was not the training of learned philologists, but schoolmasters," who should add to a thorough mastery of the subjects that they were to teach a general instruction in philosophy and in the art of effective teaching; in addition to which, "he admonished his seminarists to seek 94 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General everywhere intercourse with children and especially to gain ad- mittance to give some instruction in the city schools of Goet- tingen.'- Thus this earliest of university teachers of pedagogy has sketched with firm hand most of the lines of successful college in- struction in pedagogy of to-day: mastery of subject-matter, knowledge of the science of man and of the art of teaching based thereon, the observation of chUdren and youth, and some practice in teaching. In this connection it is also well to observe that Gesner's success in this work was largely due to his previous experience in directing the famous old Thomas Schule of Leipsic, in which, during his rector- ship, he had introduced many salutary reforms, and had gained the needful acquaintance with the conditions under which secondary in- struction must be carried on. This fact may suggest the importance of having for the college professor of pedagogy a man who has had successful experience in the secondary schools. But though Gesner was a pioneer in the teaching of pedagogy in a university, he was far from being the first to give to teachers of secondary schools a definite preparation for their work. Honor to whom honor is due. During a full century and a half before Gesner, the Jesuits had given a careful two years' preparation to those who should give instruction in their schools; and it is strange that the ac- knowledged superiority of these schools should not have directed at- tention to the means by which their excellence was attained. From the time of Gesner, pedagogy, associated with philosophy as its natural ally, has never been without witness in some German uni- versities. Kant's lectures on pedagogy in Koenigsberg are well known. Herbart's labors both at Goettingen and Koenigsberg always laid especial emphasis on pedagogy. The philosophy of education by Herbart's successor at Koenigsberg has long been known to American teachers, and none need to be referred to Jena and Heidelberg as present centers of great pedagogical activity. It would be a cause of surprise, that in English-speaking countries, effective efforts in the college presentation of pedagogy should be con- fined to the last twenty-one years, did we not take into account the ptTsistence of the idea, that for succe'ss in higher teaching learning alone is needful; and that hence the college does its whole duty by sending out men of sound learning. The idea that the know what needs no aid from the know how, that learning gains nothing valuable from being presented in such manner and order as to be adapted to the youthful apprehension, and that a well-stored memory is rather to be expected from the school than a rightly developed personality, is still very widely prevalent, even in college circles, and is apt to be coupled with a shadowy notion of an inborn capacity to teach which needs no direction. ITiese fallacious ideas have now been radelv TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN COLLEGES. 95 and tb.e recent report of the Committee of Ten, with its well- le^^ eftoi^t: ±0 solve the question of the grouping, order, proportion, ^^ £'0-ordlo,£t^ioii of studies, and the demand made by most of the con- ^^^ces,tlia^ ^^achers be not only more thoroughly equipped in point /^^-^^rningr, l>ut: also trained to present their special subjects more of ^iirely b^^ s:xi^thods suited to their nature, are sure to direct seri- r^^^tteutioia -to college and university instruction in pedagogy. i>J^^^Tierfit'r e-ciu. elation should be considered a science, as a well-known ^goi' of I>^^^l^gogy seems recently to have denied, depends on our ^f^ jtjo^ of "tin. ^3 term science. If a systematized body of principles, Ae^ ffil^^^,^ :^i*<:>xaci experience, admitting of correlation with certain (fC^^ ^ ^^^^^*^^^^ ^^nd of useful api)lication to all indindual cases within ^J^ pr^P^^' e developed into estimable character. Such a study is ^V^<\o^*|y ^* a scientific character, and hence we shall not go far ^ ^tt^- ^^ consider pedagogy as an art with a scientific basis. /^ \ atft asked to treat this science and art in its relations to the iV^Tsity preparation of teachers for secondary schools and colleges. ^^^\i such teachers need a special preparation for their duties is taken ^ granted by the Committee of Ten, and is especially emphasized by he conferences that deal with subjects which are rarely well taught, ^ example history, English, and the sciences of nature. Tlie chief ^fl(js of complaint are the insufficient mastery, on the part of teach- \ '' gf the subjects taught, and the too usual lack of a proper method ^ f their presentation. To supply the first of these deficiences is ob- \^r the oflice of the colleges or universities in their ordinary ^ ^^i The reason for their existence, as usually conceived, is, that h€f ^^^ ins"''^ ^o diligent students a mastery of knowledge. Like- [^^ these institutions should exemplify in their teaching the best 96 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General known methods of presentation. Where they do this (and I do not aver that it is always the case), they naturally do so because it is the best method, but without those explanations which are so needful for unpracticed teachers, both that they may use methods aright and may modify them to suit circumstances. Every thoughtful teacher in a secondary school knows that the best methods used in colleges need very considerable modifications to adapt them to use with stu- dents less advanced, and that such modifications should not affect the spirit of the methods, however much they may vary their mode of application. It may be said in passing that here at once appears the need of a department of pedagogy, even in institutions in which the best methods prevail. Much also will be gained, aside from the work of the special de- partment of pedagogy, if the professors of such subjects as history, mathematics, sciences and languages can be induced to discuss in conferences with intending teachers the special claims of the subjects which they represent and the best modes of presenting them. The somewhat exaggerated and even exclusive claims often made by specialists for their favorite subjects, and the merely individual use of excellent methods exemplified by highly original professors, far from being harmful, may be turned to great advantage, when all sub- jects and methods are considered together by the professor of pedagogy in their relations to each other and to the general purpose which should animate all instiniction. In one other respect the general courses of the college may render a most essential preliminary service to the department of pedagogy, viz., by 80 arranging the course in psychology, logic and ethics that the work in pedagogy may presuppose a fair degree of mastery of these necessary subjects. Indeed, in all small institutions in which the instruction is not completely specialized, these subjects should be assigned to the professor of pedagogy, and such an arrangement would permit them to be treated more fully than is usual, in view of their pedagogic implications. From what has now been said, it is obvious that the college work of preparing efficient teachers for the secondary schools is by no means the affair of a single department, but is rather one which calls for the friendly co-opemtion of several departments, whose labors prepare the materials on which the real work of the professor of pedagogy is to be done. For the philosophic subjects that have been named are of them- selves by no means a philosophy of education. The best methods ex- emplified by various departments are by themselves but isolated frag- ments of a philosophy of methods. The apparently conflicting claims of great departments of human interest are sure to confuse the earn- est student (if not to leave him with distorted views moat prejudicial TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN COLLEGES. 97 j9 9UCCO8S as an educator), if not brought into relative valuation, t^ - tli^s Ixarmonized as being all needful, but not necessarily rival or ^\i^ co^^vi53l1 factors in the work of human culture. And, finally, the ^^ 0te^' ^^ svi"biects to be taught affords little more warrant for skill f i0iP^^^^"^S tliem, than would the X)ossession of a choice and varied ^^(^ ^^'"aa.'ber, for skill in fashioning it into really artistic furniture. ^ rjlie^e considerations may indicate to us some of the distinctive ^ce* tlxa.i: should be expected from the college treatment of peda- \^' ^-^t, US examine them somewhat in detail. f^^^ and most important of all, the teacher's mind and heart MO^^ ^^ ^o prepared for his future vocation, that, to use a somewhat pQ\^^^ ^^pression, he may really receive the entire boy into school, ^^Oivat iu training him he may so bear in mind what the future ^^^"^^xild wish to be that he may truly represent that coming man ^^ i1(^^ ^y. In emphasizing the necessity that tad^ as the fruit of ^^peTience enlightened by science, should act as a mediator between tlieory and the exigencies of practice, Herbart has so weightily expr^ss^ the need of this mental and spiritual preparation, that I cannot do better than to quote from his first lecture delirered at Goettingen: "Let us," he says, "reflect upon what aerive agencies and what influences it depends how this tact shall deyelo]f itself within us. It shapes itself first during practice. It is /asliioned by the influence on our feelings of what we exi)erience in this practice. This influence will produce diverse results according as we ourselves are disposed one way or another. Upon this dispo- silion of ours we can and should act by deliberation. Upon the cor- iiectness and weight of this deliberation, upon the interest and the moral willingness with which we devote ourselves to it, will depend whether and in what wise it shall order and govern our disposition before entering upon the teacher's vocation, and consequently whether and how it shall rule our modes of feeling during the exercise of this vocation ; and finally, with this, how it shall shape that tact on which depends the success or failure of our pedagogic efforts. In other words, through deliberation, through reflection and investigation, through science^ should the educator prepare, not so much his future actions in individual eases, as rather himself^ his disposition, his head and his heart, for correctly apprehending, grasping, feeling and judging the occurrences which await him, and for the state of mind in which he shall meet them." To promote this prepara- tion of mind and heart which Herbart so forcibly urges, to provide through science the means which alone can make experience really fmitful, and to give the future teacher enlightened views of the 98 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [General nature and demands of Ms vocation, is a vitally essential duty of the professor of pedagogy. In the performance of this duty, he should not neglect to emphasize the only sure corrective to the deadening effects of school-room rou- tine, by impressing as the very foundation of scientific pedagogy the necessity of clearly defined aims, lofty indeed, yet never shadowy, and always consciously giving direction, not only to the entire work of education, but also to every operation of the school, the class, and the individual pupil. I surely do not need, in this presence, to go into any detail on the nature of these controlling aims. I surely need only to say that they should partake of that grander utilitarianism which looks to making of every increase of knowledge a fresh step towards rendering its possessor spiritually a free man, eager so to do his work in this world as to promote the well-being of the race and nation to which he belongs, and with a mind open to sympathy with all worthy interests of mankind. For our secondary schools are not to send forth merely skilled but narrow linguists, or scientists, or mathematicians, or historians, but cultured men and women, ready to meet all the exigencies of active life, and to face with modest confi- dence all its problems, — free in the ability to use every faculty to the fullest measure of its capability; free, also, in the subordination through discipline of all mere self-regarding impulses to those higher motives which sweeten and ennoble human life. Doubtless the most significant part of the justly famous report of the Committee of Ten, properly so-called, is that in which it collects the studies properly belonging to secondary schools into groups of allied subjects, i. e., groups of which the various members train the same capabilities to essentially the same puri)ose, and then endeavors, through tentative programs, to express in a practical form their sup- posed relative value, both as knowledge and as means of substantial discipline. Without intending in the least to express an opinion as to the suflSciency of the solution suggested by the committee, for which this is not the place, it is enough to direct attention to it, not merely as a promising effort to make school programs more self-con- sistent and all-sided, but rather as pointing to a highly interesting yet difficult function of the professor of pedagogy. I refer to the dispas- sionate discussion, which he should attempt, of the relative values, both as discipline and knowledge, of various groups of subjects, not only that such values may be duly expressed in the time-allotments of school programs, but that instruction may be given with clear con- sciousness of the spiritual results that should be expected from their proper use. The educational world has long been perplexed by heated ^^fgos-] TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN COLLEGES. 99 «d oii^*^^^^ discussions of the conflicting claims of subjects assumed to be ri^^^®> and such discussions have aptlj been called "the conflict rA stu^^***' It is certainly high time that an honest effort should be made to treat them all as worthy claimants to the favor of educator, to apP^^^^t^ t^ ^ 3^®t estimate of their services, and to assign to jjl their rightful place as indispensable elements of a complete, be- cause all-8ided, culture. And where else can this be done if not in the college treatment of pedagogy in its scientific aspects? Where gtudents are sufficiently mature to follow such a discussion intelli- gently, and are presumably possessed of such breadth of knowledge as to be able to form some judgment of its value and validity. Such a discussion, it may be added, is obviously indispensable to any proper treatment of the important topic of school organization, economy and supervision, which is naturally expected from the college department of pedagogy. It goes without saying that the college professor of pedagogy should treat from a broader point of view than is usually possible in the normal school such fundamental conditions of success as teaching how to study, the theory of interest, the gaining of the co-operative self-activity of pupils, apperception, the due correlation of studies, and the having regard for the essential method of groujw of subjects dependent on the nature of their subject-matter. These all are mat- ters of course. It is almost equally a matter of course that the his- tory of education should be studied, though it should be said em- phatically that to limit its consideration to any of the extant out- lines of educational history is gi'eatly to underestimate its importance in the college curriculum. For the deeper study of important phases of educational history, for practice in the investigation of educational questions, for the study of school systems and their tendencies, and for the examination of school operations, the seminary, or the more familiar conference, fur- nishes admirable facilities with which it may be presumed that the college department of pedagogy will never dispense save from stem necessity. Again, in lectures, in the seminary, and in conferences, a most im- portant service may be rendered to aspiring students by referring ihem to a wide range of valuable educational works with which they would rarely become acquainted without such reference. It should by no means be demanded that all these should be consulted at once. The purpose should be rather to give the future teacher abundant ideas of the sources to which he may hereafter go for inspiration or information during his professional career, thus possibly awakening in him a taste for research and giving hini clues to the means. 100 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [General Finally, we reach the vexed question of practice work, which it is obviously in most cases impossible to give in colleges and uni- versities. With regard to this, it may be said that a considerable proportion of the students who elect pedagogic courses have already- had experience in teaching, or have received their preparation for college in normal schools. These are peculiarly desirable students,, since the lectures are sure to be illustrated by many facts in their previous exi)erience, and their influence in the conference or seminary is more than usually valuable. Visitation of neighboring schools or classes can easily be arranged, and this may be turned to great profit by directing attention to certain vital i)oints on which reports are required. Besides this, highly instructive practice may readily be given within the pedagogic class, through quizzes, conducted by mem- bers of the class on the subject of past lectures, under criticism of the professor. In such quizzes the points that may most profitably be emphasized are: (1) The need of thorough preparation for all class exercises, (2) the attainment of skill in the art of questioning and of exposition, and (3) the ready use of expedients for holding the at- tention of a class. If the visitation of schools and exercises of the kind just men- tioned are thoroughly used, it is possible that we may greatly over- estimate the disadvantage arising from the lack of training classes in colleges. PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN SUMMER SCHOOLS. BY EMERSON E. WHITE, LL D., COLUMBUS. OHIO. I have the unusual felicity of an invitation to present a p ipcr to this body on a new topic. A careful search through some fifteen volumes of the Proceedings of the Association has failed to find a paragraph or even a sentence on the summer school. These volumes contain many papers on the normal school, the same questions being again and again discussed; several papers on chairs of pedagogy in colleges and universities, and the teachers' institute, including the so- called normal institute, have once secured attention; but the summer school has until now escaped discussion in any department of the National Educational Association. The reason for this omission may be the fact that the summer school, as difiPerentiated froni the normal institute, is of comparatively Smods.] training of TEACHERS IN SUMMER SCHOOLS. 101 recent origin. It is but twenty years since the great Agassiz or- ganized the Penikese Summer School of Natural History, the most illustrious, if not the first, experiment in this direction in the United States. Neariy all the summer schools of modern languages, litera- ture, biology, physical science, psychology, etc., have been organized since 1874; and the summer schools of pedagogy, usually called sum- mer schools of methods, are of still more recent origin. Summer schools, as now organized, include several classes: 1. Schools that teach special branches of knowledge, as ancient and modem languages, literature, psychology, natural sciences, etc. 2. Schools that teach the arts, as drawing, industrial art, music, oratory, etc., — one of the first being the summer school of drawing, conducted by Walter Smith in Boston, in 1875. 3. Schools that teach pedagogy, including psychology, principles and methods of teaching, the history of education, school manage- ment, kindergarten principles and methods, etc., properly called sum- mer schools of pedagogy. Many summer schools of the first class are now annually held in different parts of the country, increasingly in connection with colleges and universities — whatever may be the difference between these in- stitutions in this country. Their multiplication has been greatly stim- ulated by the Chautauqua movement, and later by the university extension movement; and there is likely to be a considerable increase in the number of such schools from year to year. They are proving very helpful to earnest students who have not enjoyed full college advantages, and also to graduates who wish to puraue special lines of study and are not able to take resident post-graduate courses. They usually continue from four to six weeks. The influence of these schools in promoting the adoption of better methods of teaching the subjects studied has been marked. The Agassiz school at Penikese, though continued but two sessions, owing to the death of its illustrious founder, gave to the country nearly a score of naturalists who have been leaders in efforts, greatly needed, to improve the methods of science teaching in American schools and ctdleges. The schools of languages (Sauveur's in Amherst, Mass., be- ing one of the earliest), of literature, physics, chemistry, etc., have also exerted a salutary influence on the teaching of these subjects, this being specially true when they have been conducted by eminent scholars and teachers. This class of summer schools also includes those that initiate spe- cial research and investigation, as in child study, physiological psy- 102 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General chology, etc. — schools that promise valuable additions to i)edagogical knowledge. The practical value of brief courses of instruction in the several arts under skillful teachers has been widely attested. How many students have received their first impulse and guidance in some art from a few lessons by a great master! The writer, when a lad under twelve years of age, took twelve evening lessons in vocal music un- der a great musician and teacher, and, as a result of these twelve lessons, he could sing plain music in any key at sight, and continued practice without a teacher, but under the guidance of inspiring ideals, gave him increasing skill. When about seventeen years of age, he took twelve lessons in penmanship from that prince of American pen- men, Piatt R. Spencer, and, as a result, he acquired a natural move- ment and style in writing that has enabled him ever since to write much without the presence of the evils so graphically described by the advocates of vertical writing. A year later he took a few lessons in oratory from a master of that art, who himself was a pupil of the illustrious Brownson, and the few principles of true oral expression thus learned enabled him by practice to exorcise in part the bad habits of reading and speaking acquired in the schools, and years of experience as a public speaker have only served to unfold these simple principles. Happy is the art student who has the privilege of sitting at the feet of a great master and teacher, even for a few days! He not only gains inspiring ideals and a clear grasp of guiding principles, but some knowledge of fruitful methods. This is specially true of teachers of the elementary school arts; eminently so of self-taught and inexperienced teachers. A few in- spiring lessons to such persons by a skillful teacher are of very great value. Scores of the most successful teachers of writing, drawing and music in our schools have been greatly helped by such instruction; and this is just what every summer school of art should provide. To this end it must be manned by great teachers and artists. The novice has no place in the teacher's chair in a summer school. This is the place for inspiration and high ideals, and here must be the master's hand and the master's spirit. In the above classification of summer schools, we have not included those short-session schools which are organized for the review of the several branches of study in which teachers are required to pass an examination in order to receive a certificate. These review schools are called by different names, sometimes normal institutes, a title wholly inappropriate when they do not add to the reviews of the legal branches helpful pedagogical instruction. In the absence of such SenioDS.] TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN SUMMER SCHOOLS. 103 inBtmction, no school is entitled to tke api)ellation "normal." These review schools are here and there called "summer schools," — a mis- leading appellation. I have long doubted the real value of many of these brief review schools as a means of preparing teachers for their high office. They undoubtedly assist their students in passing examinations for certifi- cates, especially when the instructors are the examiners. It is feared, however, that they do not greatly improve the real scholarship of teachers as a class. It is one thing to cram for an examination, and quite another to acquire real knowledge and abiding power. In so far as these brief reviews enable poor scholars to pass examina- tions, and thus gain admission to the schools as teachers, they are of questionable benefit, to say the least. But these hurried reviews often, if not usually, present bad meth- ods of school instruction. While classes are formed, even lessons daily assigned, the instructors do very little genuine class work — such work as must be done in the school-room with young pupils. They do most of the talking, the young teachers being listeners; they teach much by outlines and summaries; and these and other bad methods of real school work are carried by imitation into the ele- mentary schools. The saving element in these review schools is the pedagogical instruction given, if any, and the interest and zeal in teaching awakened. But the special purpose of this paper is to consider the professional value of summer schools of pedagogy, properly so-called. The aim of these schools is to present in brief courses the best that is known of teaching and school organization and management, and to afford fruitful personal contact between superior teachers and those who aspire to superiority. The courses of instruction should be as con- tinuous and complete as possible, piecemeal and unco-ordinated work being of little value, and the instruction in each course should be "beaten oil." To these ends, the instructors should be selected with special reference to their ability to give the results of success- ful experience, as well as special study. They should indeed be ex- perts, specialists, if you please, but not specialized specialists, who, in their microscopic search for isolated facts, often stumble over ob- vious principles. The summer school of pedagogy is not the place for would-be philosophers to air the unoeriain results of their excursions into the regions of the pedagogic unknown, nor is it a place where pedagogic Athenians can come year after year to hear or tell some new thing. The summer school is a place to which earnest and aspiring teachers 104 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General come for lig]it and inspiration in their great work. It stands over against the teacher's professional need, and its duty is to meet that need in the most helpful and practical manner possible. It should in- deed be possessed of the spiiit of investigation and inquiry and should present the most advanced results of pedagogical study and experi- ence. It should bring to teachers the latest report from the labora- tory, but it should be a verified report All its instruction should have passed through the assay-room of successful experience. Ear- nest teachers who cross half a continent and spend half of a needed vacation, at great expense, seeking professional assistance, should receive the clearest light and the most helpful instruction wliich peda- gogical research and experience can give. They ask for bread and should not be given a stone. The summer school of pedagogy assumes that some things in edu- cation are known and determined, that there is a body of truth that may be so taught as to be clearly grasped and successfully applied in school work, and that there are also true methods of teaching which may be so presented and illustrated as to be profitably studied. I have the habit, possibly an unfortunate one, of transferring instruc- tion in pedagogy to the school-room, and there endeavoring to harness it and put it to work. This habit involves the belief that all tiiith will work well, and when a theory of education can neither be har- nessed nor yoked I half suspect that there may be error or uncertainty in it, and when the would-be philosopher has never harnessed his own theories, or seen them harnessed, there is at least ground for the fear that the average summer school student will never do so. I have sometimes visited the schools of teachers w ho were fertile in pedagogi- cal theories, but weak in their application, and, disappointed, have left thinking, ^*What a sad divorcement of theory and practice, and what a strange alliance of new doctrines and old methods!" Wliat is greatly needed for the improvement of the American school is the successful application of true principles in actual school work. In the school-room there ought to be no wide divorcement between doctrine and method, principle and practice. It is not urged that practice should keep fully abreast of opinion; but opinion that has not seen practice is poor help for teachers who are earnestly seeking for assistance in their work. The special value of the true summer school of pedagogy is that it puts fruitful professional training, under superior educators, within reach of teachers who are actuftUy engaged in teaching. Its organi- zation is demanded by the fact that there are thousands of teachers in American schools who had no special training for their work before entering ui)on it. Tlie summer school offers to these teachers SeasioM.] TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN SUMMER SCHOOLS. 105 helpful professioDal training tthih teaching, and few, vho have had no exx)erience in this direction, can realize how much three or four weeks of vital instruction in pedagogy- means to such teachers. Both obser\-ation and testimony justify the statement that a teacher, with two or more yeai's' experience in the school-room, will receive much more help from three or four weeks of instruction in a good summer school than the student, who has not taught, receives in as many months in the normal school. Certainly no one who has taught the two classes of students will question this statement. The fact is that the great majority of American teachers must receive most of their professional training while they are actually engaged in teach- ing, and to these the summer school affords a coveted opportunity. It is not possible for anyone to make full preparation for teaching in advance of expenence. Preparatory training is very important, but experience and training must also go hand in hand. It may be too early to establish a summer school of pedagogy of high grade in every state, but it ought now to be feasible to organize one such school of the highest grade in each section of the country, say ten or more in the United States. To this end, each school ought to be at least partially endowed, making it possible and finan- cially safe for the managers to employ the best qualified instructors in the profession. It may be proper to add that it is feasible to unite the three classes of schools above named in one summer school, and this is now done in a few of the best summer schools in the country; but, in their fuller development, differentiation will, I am sure, more and more appear — a movement already initiated by the organization of schools of the first class in the universities. But the summer school of pedagogy, however efficiently manned, cannot fully meet the increasing demands of teachers of scholarship and experience for an opportunity to learn from masters in the pro- fession the best that is known of teaching, school organization and management. I do not know where, in this country, experienced and scholarly superintendents and principals, including principals and teachers in our normal schools, can go to receive even a year's pro- fessional instruction and training adapted to their needs. Our State normal schools are too elementary for teachers of such scholarship and exi)erience, and even the departments of pedagogy in our colleges and universities are more specially adapted to undergraduates. I am happy to add that the new course of instruction in pedagogy in the University of the City of New York has much of promise in it, and that several other universities have made more or less auspicious begin- nings. 106 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [General What is imperatively needed in this country is a coUege of peda- gogy of university rank — an institution which in faculty and equip- ment is at least the equal of the best schools of theology, medicine and law now established. It is my earnest hope that this century may not close without seeing in the United States at least one high and worthy college of pedagogy. Whose name is to be forever associ- ated with such an institution as founder and patron? His would be the highest service that this century has yet rendered education. PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACRER8 BY EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. BY JOHN A. MacDONALD. TOPEKA, KAN. This year about 400,000 teachers will be needed in the schools of the Republic. All the vacancies will be filled, but not all by teachers. Imagine if you can or will a grand review in which this vast array of teachers and would-be teachers should march by the assembled educational magnates and philosophers of this land. There pass the worthy and the unworthy; those who are clad in the wedding-garment of fitness; others, alas! fit only to be cast into outer darkness. The halt, the maimed, and the blind are here, and contrary to all the teach- ings of science, a survival of the unJiUest is plainly visible to everyone who hath eyes to see; and, alas! also contrary to all human experiences, the dead appear to be marching with the living. It w^ould be interesting and instructive to know how many of the 400,000 have had a normal training, either complete or partial; how many have had a collegiate education of any kind; how many have, by self-education, reached the degree of excellence which is repre- sented by a State diploma or certificate; and, last of all, how many persons, wholly unqualified, are preparing to rush in where angels might well fear to tread, to mold the minds and to shape the desti- nies of tens of thousands of immortals. In the last report of the Bureau of Education there is no information on this subject, probably because it could not be obtained from the States. A letter of inquiry brought back from a number of States the surprising information that there was no way of ascertaining how many untrained teachers were employed during the year; from others came estimates, more or less accurate, and from a few, definite figures. To the question, 'What percentage of your teachers began w^ork last fall without train- ing or experience?" twenty of the twenty-eight State superintendents Smiom.] training of TEACHERS BY PERIODICALS 107 who responded, answered in substance, ^*We have no means of know- infr." The estimates made as to the number of untrained teachers ranged from ten to sixty per cent. As a basis for inquiry and dis- cossion we should, first of all, have before us something more definite than approximations and estimates. Cannot the Bureau of Education set some statistical machinery in motion, which would bring to us, from erery State and Territory in the Union, the exact facts in regard to the training of teachers? But while the statistics are far from being complete, there are, in the reports of the Bureau of Education for other years and of State superintendents and commissioners, figures, facts and estimates enough to prove that tens of thousands of young people enter our school-rooms as teachers every year to succeed or to fail by blind ex- perimenting. In 1889 the senate and assembly of New York passed a resolution asking the State superintendent for statistics concerning the need of additional normal schools in the State. In response to this resolu- tion Superintendent Draper stated that of 31,726 different teachers, employed in the schools of the State of New York, six or seven thousand inexperienced persons began teaching every year. In Kansas, in the year 1892, of 10,868 certificates granted, 3,127 were given to inexperienced persons. Turning from statistics to the experiences of county examining boards, one is filled with amazement, largely mixed with melancholj', on contemplating the vast tracts of intellectual desolation revealed by the candidates' manuscripts. They were young people who thou^t themselves thoroughly fitted to take charge of young immortals who told me, on examination in United States history, that John Brown of Ossawattomie — our John Brown — "was in command of the South- em Confederacy;*' that the Monroe Doctrine was a "kind of religion ;'' that Joe Hooker — ^'^fighting Joe" — "composed 'Hail Columbia';" that Bayard Taylor was a "member of Cleveland's cabinet;" that Cotton Mather was "speaker of the Southern Confederacy." Another applicant —dead or married now, let us fervently hope — told the dazed examiner that the Monroe Doctrine was, that "any attempt to colonize this con- tinent would be declared unconstitutional;" that Goodyear — ^the india- rabber man — "was known among the colonists as the year of good feeling." Do you wonder that the examiner longed for "a lodge in some vast wilderness with boundless contiguity of shade," when other candidates for teachers' certificates told him that, "at Bunker Hill the Federalists at first had the advantage, when suddenly Stonewall Jackson appeared upon the scene and turned their left flank"? As a flanker, Jackson was perhaps unrivaled, but this brilliant movement 108 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [General on the forces at Bunker Hill was the greatest flanking feat of his life. They were would-be schoolmasters who told us that Cornwallis "was an American general," and that "the Alabama claims extended from about the forty-eighth parallel to the Gulf west of the Missis- sippi to the Pacific Ocean." Seeking for the opportunity to train young people for citizenship, for life and its responsibilities, were those other aspirants who told us that, "when letters of marque and reprisal are issued, a letter of marque grants one the right of citizenship, and a letter of reprisal takes it away from him." Would that a letter of reprisal could be given to some schoolmasters! They were pros- pective teachers — now in the realms of darkness, let us trust — who clouded our cerebrums and caused our meduUa oblongaiaa to diverge alarmingly from the perpendicular by telling us, on examination, that "the substance of the preamble to the Constitution is connected in some way with the election of President in case where there is a He vote;" also, that the preamble to the Constitution was "Patrick Henry's exclamation: 'Give me liberty or give me death!' " that "ti^ea- son is hypocrisy and contempt," and that "the difference between a republican and monarchical form of government is that a republican form of government is one that has a president to set at the bead of the nation to inform the laws the people have made; it is not binding on any individual; everything goes on in harmony, love and peace. But it is not so in a monarchy government; the laws are binding." These answers, culled from the manuscripts of candidates for teachers' certificates, have been copied with religious care. They are but few of many such answers which came under my observation during a twelve years' experience in examining the papers of candi- dates. The answers are not peculiar to our State, for they can readily be duplicated by every other local examining board in the Union. It would be most unjust to say that these answers represent the intellec- tual condition of a majority of those who aspire to be teachers. But they do represent a large number of young perons who seek to enter, and — "pity 'tis, 'tis true" — do, in too many instances, enter the sacred I)ortals of our schoolhouses as teachers. That means for professional training are needed abundantly, and needed now, must be apparent even to the wayfaring man ; much more is it evident to those of us who are brought, every year, face to face with the conditions. Could we, by some divine process of sifting, reduce our army as Gideon did his, eliminating the faint-hearted and the weak, what could be done? What could not be done with a small compact Gideon's band of thor- oughly equipped teachers in conquering the principalities and powers of ignorance! But our army must be more than 300 ; must not be less than 400,000. The divine power of sifting, by water-lapping and other tests, is not ours. Behind every desk there must be placed a teacher TBAININQ OF TEACHERS BY PERIODICALS, 109 f soto^ ^^^^9 and the question of questions before us to-day is how, the to^^ns of nonnal institutes, summer schools, university exten- '.^^g^\>ooks and educational journals we can give the tens of thou- ^g^^^s'mour army, who, educationally and scripturally speaking, are ^-Yetched and miserable and poor and blind and naked, some degree 0f fitness for the great work they are proposing to do. The nonnal schools are utterly inadequate to supply the demand, and, w^ere they ^^^uate, trained teachers can hardly be expected to barter profes- sional skill and divine gifts for precariousness of tenure, thirty dollars a month and boarding around. Therefore, while we are praying and jjQping, ^^^ above all, working, for a sufficient number of normal siAools to furnish qualified teachers to all the schools in the land, our duty now is to meet the needs of the hour with such materials and ap- pliances as are at hand. phOosophers sitting "apart on a hill retired," far above the "mad- ding crowd," and all unconscious of the conditions which prevail be- low, vnll theorize, and possibly — though one hopes not — may, in this convention, urge that no one, who is not normally trained, who is not able to measure the height and the depth and the width of the German philosophies, should be suffered for an instant to teach in a public school. But while philosophers are theorizing, we must fill these 400,000 aching voids with material of some kind. If a brother or sister be destitute it will do little good to say, "Depart in peace; be ye warmed and filled;" when we do not give them those things which are needful. In the absence of the normal school, the college, the university, these thousands of callow and crude recruits can, if they remain in the work long enough, be fitted for excellent service. The reading circle movement has done, and is doing, a vast deal of good, in giving direction to the reading of untrained and partially trained teachers. In Illinois the membership in the teachers' reading circle last year was 7,500; in Iowa, 11,000; in Indiana, 11,295, and from a number of other States figures equally cheering and eloquent can be produced. The circle regulations insure that each member shall study at least two books during the school year. This is much, but it is far from enough. In an excellent paper read recently by Supt. W. S. Picken of lola, at one of our Kansas educational meetings, he advised that university extension be substituted for the reading circle, and that it be made a part of the county teachers' association work. This is a suggestion worthy to be jwndered. Tlie extension work, including a course in pedagogy, would place the teacher in line with the univer- sity; would periodically bring him in contact with the university pro- fessor; would place before him in the form of a degree an objective 110 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATON. [General point worth reaching, and would in every way broaden his intellectual horizon and eliminate from his system that crudeness and provincial- ism which doth so easily beset the teacher who does his work amid the solitudes. But whatever system may be adopted, extension or circle, there is needed more than aught else a divine sagacity in laying down a course of professional reading for untrained teachers. Thousands of those whom we seek to reach are in the alphabet stage of the pro- fession, and stand helpless as babes before the profound treatises which are thrust before them by ^^ ^understood that the foregoing extracts are thrust be- ^/^^''^an^y sa jpirit of levity. Far otherwise. One stands — or sits — (0^ X:»:«:-t^iundities with reverential awe. In the Convent La ^ h0^ ^^^^^^ ^%^^orld's Fair, visitors were requested to remove their JJ^' in ^^ I>^»*c:^^s^nce of a certain ancient writing, and it was observed f^^ ^ri^^^ ^^^»=^X^>^Dkers that many absent-minded pcK>ple and others, tiV iiol^ 'fc^'^iM.-Bmp of reverence was abnormallv developed, did make 'P ^^U^^^ ^"^ ^^^^^ces in front of the venerable relic. So we — but time f ^ ^i^^' ^ ^^ ^^^ "^?^^e must huny on. '4^yh^^^* ^^^^ ^^^ young untutored people who will begin work in ^'' ^ ^"^^ ^^*^^^^:>^:>ls this year have in them the germs of growth, and n^ 0^^ "iX.^^*^ guidance to become workers who need not to be (^ ly conscious of their crude and callow condition, hun- ^ vv ^^ ^^ifciting after knowledge, they come to educational philos- ^^i^V^^^^"^^^^^ inquiring, "What lack I yet?" and often enough re- t^ ^C ^^ ^^*^"vv-^>r^ "the sense-total," "proximate universals," and "at- ^^"^ 'cl^ ^^^^^Vousness." They ask for bread and are given a stone; ^ ^^\%. '*^^oeive serpents and scorpions; or, what is worse than ^ /!< Ig/^ , '^^^'^ of learned length and thundering sound." ^^^Vl . ^^^^>^Tit one feels moved to inquire: why it is that the smaller ' c^ ^^*^^^r discussion in certain books and papers is, the larger ^^ ^ . ^^^^ used concerning him? As it is manifestly impossible ^ ^ ^t^p out of tbe ranks and look at himself, it is difficult for i^ ^^^ ^^ discuss educational journals as a means of growth in 0^ {i^^^^ grace. ^^ -^ft^^'^^ional journals should be. primarily, not for the college pro- ^t^,\iigh school principals or superintendents, but for the masses t^ tV^^ teachers. It is not the righteous, but the sinner, we wish to ll ^^ repentance. The professors can care for themselves. The \A co^^^rn of the educational editor should be to rescue the perish- a: r^^^^ ^^ ^^7 bones, awaken the dead, inspire the living to step ^^ L|rlier things. From these purposes the editor will not suffer him- ^^\{ to 1>^ diverted one moment by the clamors and even shrinks which \ ^ g to Wiu from people who think that an educational journal's chief ^ J is to furnish cunningly devised lessons, patent methods, and j.jne-down recitations. jlie educational editor will give in scriptural measure space to the x|tute, the association, the reading circle, and to all other agencies ^ A ffieans whereby the teacher's growth toward excellence can be ^ jjjoted. He will, in season and out of season, with such skill and ^\ffQt as naay have been given to him from on high, advocate legis- lation which shall raise the standard of qualifications for teachers; 112 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General which, shall broaden and deepen the sources from which school reve- nues flow, so that wages worth}- of skilled work may be possible. The journal which is to be a factor in the training of teachers will class among rejected manuscripts all psychological dissertations, philoso- phical profundities, and till in^elevancies which in any way resemble the address now being hurled at this forbearing audience. The edu- cational editor who desires to reach the great untrained will not ap- pall the young seeker after truth on the very threshold of inquiry by a discussion of such fearful and marvelous subjects as that which astonished the earth and reverberated through the heavens at the Saratoga meeting, namely, ^*The Failure of Scientific Pessimism to Establish Cosmic Suicide as an Adequate Solution of the World Drama." In all his editing the wise educational journalist will ever keep conspicuously before him this fact: that one truth which shall be in the teacher's heart as a fountain of living w^aters springing up into everlasting life is worth more as an inspiring force in the school-room than all the devices and machine-made methods in the universe. With which remark we now gladly leave the editor to work out his own salvation. So with summer schools, books and educational journals, we may take these raw recruits, and after a few years may be able to lead them up even to the sublime summits of the "sensed-total," the "proximate universals,'' and the consciousness which is "attuitional.'' But after all this work is accomplished, behold and alas! the period- ical disbursement arrives, and our graduates, just as the point of fit- ness for service was reached, depart one to his farm, another to his merchandise, and henceforth are as completely lost to us and to the schools as the lost tribes of the house of Israel. For, in what we are pleased to call **the profession," the teacher is but as a bird of passage. Here he hath no continuing city. Let these facts and figures, from our own country in the West, be carefully and prayerfully noted. In the rural schools of Shawnee Co., Kansas^ during the twelve yeai*s from 1876-1877 to 1888-1889, there were employed in the public schools 568 dilTerent persons, and the average number of teachers needed was but about ninety. Making allowances for deaths, marriages and other accidents, it will be safe to say that 125 different persons should have been more than enough to do the work. As to the loss to the profession by marriage, it has been and will continue to be what scientific men call "a constant." As a flower of the field the young lady flourisheth in the school-room, then the hour and the man arrive, and she is lost to us forever. 'Twas ever thus since Eve and Adam wended their solitary way from Eden; and it will continue to be thus long after our souls are beyond the reach of the varying and J TRAINING OF TEACHERS BY PERIODICALS. 113 ^^/actoi'TS of this problem, and we may as well at once place ^'^R^ ^^in lio-i-xmiony with Mother Nature's inexorable decrees. ^^ flotwitlxstanding this constant rush from our school-rooms to ttie fifygjan zfi^lds of matrimony, we should be able to hold in the proi ssiou ttkG^ xxxen, and the widows, and the young women who are not ^Qabitious -to support men. I^ alioui* ^discussions and animadversions, has the thought ever ^jiteTGd ottr o^xT-^brums that when the people pay for a pi-ofession jt ^^ ^^^^ ai:^i^5^^"^ ^ocxany has to educate chiefly Germans; France,' French; fO ^^y^ ^^^^^'^^"^^^gians; England, English ; but we are called upon to ^O^^i^ T:*\^ diildren of every kindred and tongue and nation and ^^^1^' \:^ r^^''^^ pour in at every port every year mighty rivers of i^ ^ ' ?^^*^^^^ — ^Italians and Irish; French and Finns; Germans and \s^Ji^^ s. ^^'^iards and Swedes; Danes and Dutch; Hungarians and A<^^'? ^^'trians and Russians. It has been a question — ^yea, it is ^i*^ ^ ^^^^tion — ^whether the assimilative powers of the Republic ^O e^>V^^ ^^ tte work to be done or not. Certain it is, that without ^^ 4^ ^ the public school the assimilation of these diverse and <\v^ ^ ^^^agonistic elements is impossible. The phenomenal increase c^ ^tJ^ population ; the sudden springing up of villages, hamlets, towns V^ ^ cVties in the forests and on the plains, have forced us to go out ^ >(j tiehyrsays and hedges, and to draft into the public school service '^ yV attainable man, woman, boy and girl. It must, therefore, be \ ^ narent to the wayfaring man, be he fool or philosopher, that tempo- ' r driltogf agencies — summer schools, reading circles, educational \ '' bii^ations— are, and must be for many years, an outcome of the Auditions. nuring the most serious part of the Franco-German war Sheridan ^panied the German commanders to observe the movements ^^f th^ contending armies. Will lecturers, philosophers, magazine- ter&j ^^^ ^^ others whom it may concern, note in a prayerful and 0 I I i 114 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General meditative manner this from Sheridan: "It must be borne in mind," said he, "that campaigning in France — that is, the marching, camping and subsisting of an army — is an easy matter, very unlike anything we had during the War of the Rebellion. The country is rich, subsistence abundant, the roads all macadamized highways. Thus the conditions are altogether different from those existing with us. I think that under the same circumstances our troops would have done as well as the Germans, marched as admirably, made combinations as quickly and accurately, and fought with as much success. I can but leave to conjecture how the Grermans would have got along on bottomless roads — often none at all — through the swamps and quicksands of northern Virginia, from the Wilderness to Petersburg, and from Ohattanooga to Atlanta and the sea." In the language of Capt. Jack Bunsby, "The bearings of this ob- servation lies in the application on it." The German educational ma- chinery, concerning which we hear so much, would be as poorly adapted to the work which confronts us as was Locke and Shaftes- bury's "Grand Model of Government" to the colonial conditions in the Carolinas. DISCUSSION. De. R. G. Boone, President of the Michigan State Normal School, Ypsllanti, Mich., in discussing the subject, said: It has occurred to me, that in these ten minutes I might better make a kind of comparison of the four agencies for the preparation of teachers as they seem to me to be able to render their respective services. They all have their value; I think, indeed, each one might be put first in a list. I mean by that, that the normal school has its advantages and its points of superiority over the other three. I think the college professorship, the college department of pedagogy, has its advantages. The summer normal school, as just described by Dr. White, has elements of real strength. Moreover, the school jour- nal, educational papers and periodicals for the teacher have some real virtues. Just a moment or two, then, with a reference to each. Let me start with the school journal. The usefulness of the educational paper, in its suggestiveness, for younger teachers, seems to me greatly in its favor. I do not know that its methods are always the best; I think rather the opposite. I do not know that there is always sound doctrine in it; there is sometimes just the reverse. There seems to be little continuity in the articles of most educational magazines or journals; no well defined course or sequence. The teacher^ are not drawn to any line of study. But there is an abundant suggestiveness, and therein lies the strength of the educational publication. It is healthful to the young teacher who has seen little of the world, who has attended few associations, who has had little opportunity for wide reading, who has not gone to school; that is, had no opportunity in the way of association with liberally educated teachers of the college or normal school. It is the suggestiveness in pointing out to these young teachers TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 115 the experimentas <«»^n€3 experience of others, through these journals, of which, perhaps, they would neve- XT It now otherwise. Ofl thiotlK^xr l»«ind, the influence of the normal school, because of its intensely professiooaJ ctM.sL:xr-^3LC:t.eT, the considering of professional studies, and the professional interpretatian o:^ «i.ll questions that come up, is wholesome. Whether pupils study ^ence oreduc?«i-"tio^i» or psychology, or history; or whether they go into the practice ^cliool as obse^ir'v^rs of work; or make a review of what we call the common brftiiches.or urla.^'fclii^r they study the higher branches; it is still held before the young ^nchers, that -tiS^a^^T" are doing this in order to understand the science of teaching. TheT ^^°^y al^^lb^x-fii., not as algebra, but that they may understand how it may be ^ged *8 anin8't:«rm:a^ja«nt of culture for the pupil. In every true normal school there jjjes to be a. ^>:aro Sessional atmosphere, everything being interpreted in terms of ^Q learning ac-t- rfhen consici*^:^- *:he college department of pedagogy. One here gains an insight . ^^ educationa.1 :K>x-obIems, needs and conditions not to be had elsewhere. There is ^ftaio largexi^^ja of view, and a knowledge of related subjects which is greatly jpful. ^" ii^^'^ijeritiit is gathered into educational conditions and forces of the past, 0€ lig^tof o^:ii.^i:ir factors and civilizations,— that is, we look at the school as one *^^ct 0^ s^'cia-l ^sE"xrowth. We have come to make a study of the State and of the rhiJ^ ^^°'^^^^^*^^ in the development; the life of the various peoples from the fli^^ *^^*' ^^ -ixa industry, commerce, society and law. So we come to look at ^^bo^lt J^ot ^i. :K3ci.K>ly as an institution, but as one institution, and there is developed \0,fS^^^^^^ ^""^^^^ *^^* ^® wholesome. It is not only with reference to history; * a ea^^^^ trti.^ of science, that one's view is extended. And so, when one comes ^' \o^^ ^* ^^^^faool, the teaching of the children, their school work, recitations, ^ t'b^^^^' ""^ <=oia.rses of study, in a large sense, it appears that these are simply t^^ ^ oi *^ ^*^"^«3i.t: tendencies that are making for culture. Let me stop here to * i^^^ *^i^^xx:is: one of the dangers incident to all this discussion of professional ^^' 10 m tu^ v»rx ^'ith all its methods, cannot succeed, if it does not build up right \ -^jSS^^^ ^. That education or preparation of the teacher is best which touches this ^Mt^' t c^^^^^' It must be deemed of more importance than all the so-called pro- ^^^^'l^(MhA^.%Toyf^UL,VTiiicv^Q\ of the State Normal and Training School, ^-jjj» N. Y.-In determining a course of training for teachers much will depend f ^*fb^ conception of the end or aim of school life, much upon the conception of tjp^** f^iD^ °^ *^^ mind, and much upon what results may be reasonably expected ilje ^ co^m of training. 116 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Genera! The end or purpose of academic training is defined variously, according to th^ point of observation, whether regarded as utilitarian or cultural. It is not a noatter of surprise that the Committee on Secondary School Studies, appointed by the National Educational Association in 1892, and known as the Committee of Ten^ should answer Question VII. in the negative, and recommend, that "every subject which is taught at all in a secondary school should be taught in the same way and to the same extent to every pupil so long as he pursues it, no matter what the probable destination of the pupil may be, or at what point his education is to cease,*' whether he is fitting for college or the scientific school, or whether he will pre- sumably attend neither; for these gentlemen by profession belong to the cultural school, have the cultural bias, and their judgments cannot be other than influenced in the direction plainly indicated. Another presentation of the aim or final course of school life might be somewhat as follows: to effect accuracy, quickness and versatility in judgment. Accuracy must depend in large measure upon the content of the concept, the clearness and definiteness of its elements. Quickness in decision is in a large degree- a matter of heredity, and yet every teacher knows something of the value of training along this line. Versatility, or ability to bring all related knowledge to bear at once upon a ^ven problem, is one of the characteristics of genius; and still I am per- suaded that much can be effected in the school-room to secure this habit of mind. Without attempting a discussion of the means to be employed to secure the three ends or qualities named, it is evident that the training of the teacher must have these activities in view. The final cause of education may be said to be the development of character; by which expression reference is generally had to ethical, rather than to intellectual, training. With this end in view, the training of the teacher should consider the conditions which cultivate or give guidance to the emotional life. These four elements in education may be combined in varying proportions, with varying prominence to any one of the four; the cultural, the practical or utilitarian,, the ethical, and the aesthetic elements. PRINCIPLBS ASSUMED. I. The unity of the self or soul. n. The transmission and the inheritance of psychic traits. ni. The constancy of the totality of self-energy. The total energy of the self is constant. rV. Potentiality of innate energy. The relation of the potency and the kinesia is variable. The amount of energy at command at a given time is limited. V. The end or final cause of training or discipline or experience is to render the potency of the self kinetic; to make the potential actual. VI. The automaticity of the self; or the response of the self to stimuli. VII. The acquisition of conditions, both physical and psychical, which conserve energy, subjective and objective, and which insure a strong tendency toward a certainty of conduct, namely, habit. VIII. The possible acquirement of such conditions of soul or self as will incite to a given conduct, namely, tastes. These tastes are the effect or the concomitant of habit, and in turn create habit. • These principles I take to be primal or fundamental in all educational effort. OOROLLARIBS. I. The pupil can be prepared for the lesson. rr. The pupil can be adjusted to the task set or the end sought; that is, subject- matter may be so selected, arranged, and presented as to induce in the pupil the activity or the conditions desired. Sessions.] TRAINING OF TEACHERS, 117 THE ADJUSTMENT OF THE SOl-L 1X> THE SUBJECT-MATTER. In the adjustment of the self to the subject-matter, the pupil not only perceives —an act which is purely automatic and has no special disriplinary value, beyond increased readiness of response to stimuli — but he compares, judges, reasons, or "thinks/* as is commonly said. Tlie care to be taken by the teacher is to guard against giving a name to a I»rtx^ess or result before it is certain that the process or result has clearly taken place in the pupiFs mind; otherwise he is misled or misdirected, and forms a con- cept quite foreign to what would have b«?en formed had his own processes been permitted to occur in their normal order. By this systematic adjustment of the pupil there is formed in him a habit of -ielf-adjnstment, whereby he recognizes a familiar or natural way of addressing him- ^If to a given task. When the habit is acquired he is said to be a logical and systematic investigator, and he works correctly and with dispatch. Such a mind is disciplined, and yet it is well to note that the training simply took advantage of the child^s automaticity. To prevent the introduction of foreign matter into the concept — to render it exclusive, as well as inclusive — requires the most careful foresight and the keenest sensibility on the part of the teacher; for in spite of precautionary measures the pupil will incori)orate percepts not yet apperceptive, and will give to these meanings which are irrelevant and which in turn invalidate the concepts into which they 4nter. It is for this reason that the teacher must be sensitively alert to every lendency to wrong activity on the part of the pupil. This becomes an essential factor in the training of teachers, to which I shall presently revert. Because of the necessity of regarding wholes before parts, the first forms of the child are vague, indefinite, irrelevant. To resolve these wholes into parts, or groups of proper content and relation, requires (a) critical knowledge of the matter to be presented, the possibilities of subdivision and regrouping, and (b) critical knowledge or discernment of the practical condition of the pupil, so that his adjustment to the part or group (simple or complex) shall be readily and economically effected. The *'.\T<>nt to which this analysis can be carried is determined by many conditions, as, the future use to be made, the maturity of the pupil's mind, t. e.. the scoikj or con- tent of his concept, the clearness with which he holds concepts, etc. In the so- called preparation of the lesson this is one of the most di^cult ends to be secured. For such adjusting or relating of the self to the subject-matter as will insure the desired form or condition, the teacher must (a) understand the order of depend- ence of the various phases of psychic activity, and (b) he must discriminate in his lielection of material for illustration and demonstration, having reference to the age, maturity and personality of the pupil. He must ascertain that the pupil's knowledge i? true in essence and correct in form. Defective or erroneous or partial percepts are chief sources of error in the ?«ohool-room. The order to proceed from the familiar or known to the new or un- known is fundamental. I see but one answer to the inquiry as to the cause of the deplorable results ^f school life. I can put the responsibility in only one place, viz., upon the teacher. There may be causes or conditions explanatory or apologetic for the teacher's failure, but the failure is not the less real. THE SELECTION OF MATTER. The selection of matter or stimuli should regard: 1- The inherited status; or innate capacity of the child. 2. His future needs; should 1m» in some degree utilitarian. 118 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General 3. The stage of advancement; or the experiences of the child, beginning with the familiar. 4. The maturity of the child; or be considerate in some measure of his years- and environment. 6. The tastes of the child. THE ARRANGKMBXT OF MATTER. The arrangement or the system should have regard to the degree of progress; the rate at which the student can work, his grasp of matter, the readiness and the correctness with which he generalizes, ». e., the scope of his thought. THE PRESENTATIOX OF MATTER. The presentation must be such as to call forth the largest activity on the part of the pupil, holding clearly in mind the principle that all education must be in- dividual. It must regard susceptibility of the sensorium to stimuli. The pupil may require repeated illustration to effect a summaiion of glitntUi before the self will respond. The trainer of teachers must unremittingly demand certain intellectual quali- fications and effect their development, among which I mention two: First, scholar- ship (which will be readily conceded), familiarity with subject-matter, with analysis and synthesis of elements involved, so that the teacher's energy may be concentrated upon the work of the pupil. Second, a condition which seems to the writer to bt* primal, viz., vividness of imagination, powers of visualization, seeing distinctly the end to be attained. In proportion to the possession of this ability is the teacher's work consecutive, unified, and his energies conserved; in proportion to its absence is his work disconnected and detached. The training of the teacher must regard this end. It is my conviction that much may be gained in this direction by retrospection. At the close of each recitation^ or of each day, the teacher in training should be directed in retracing the work of the recitation and in analyzing the conditions which produced prompt and accurate results and those which failed in securing this end. He who can picture vividly to himself the route by which he traveled and can put guide-boards at each turn or digression from the direct road will not be long in attaining the mastery of the art of teaching. The power of the teacher to effect moral tone in the school depends primarily upon vividness of imagination, power of visualization; for if I err not, sympathy is the essence of moral power. This power of visualization is indispensable for discovering the relation of any given matter to the kind of activity sought. The teacher must see how a given illustration or exercise will relate the mind of the pupil to the truth desired. Vividness of imagination will enable the teacher to hold a principle or central truth clearly before the pupil until the principle shall become a central bond uniting and relating all cognate truths. As a summary of the discussion so far there should be for training of teachers: I. Knowledge of subject-matter, to the end that this may be used readily as a machine or instrument. II. Knowledge of the forms of psychic activity and their order of dependence. HI. Knowledge of the means by which the self can be related to matter. TV. Knowledge of the educational values of studies for adjusting the self to matter. To which may be added: V. Observation of model lessons. TRAINING OF TEACBERS. 119 MODEL LESSONS FOR PSYCHOLOGIGAL STUDY. Barly in the j^rofessional study model lessons should be given before the classes, whose attention should be directed to the workings of the children's minds in the i^sception of tbe lesson, and these observation lessons should be the foundation of the study of psyotiology, in order to familiarize the teacher in training with the study of mind rather than with the study of books. OBSERVATION WORK BY TEACHERS IN TRAININa. Since teachiz&s is an art as well as a science, at first the teacher in training cau leam more by observation than by study of abstract principles. The teacher In ^^^iuing should first observe model lessons given by the method teacher, and addi- '^i^aal lessons ^^en by associate pupil-teachers of larger experience. The fact of "*® fanltlessness o:f a lesson given by a model teacher is often a source of dis- f^'i^ageiaent to -tino teacher in training, which discouragement is removed by observ- ^^ the work don^ equally well by an associate or classmate. ^^Q8idera.t»le Amount of such observation should be required before the teacher **ainiDgia peirmitted to have charge of a class, the amount varying from two to J ^«elM, accordixkg to proficiency. Whenever the "system" and the **mode*' of the Dro«vwr °^^^®^ fitie comprehended, so that a clear and accurate account of the wer» ^ ^^ ^^ tJxe results attained can be given, especially how backward pupils fought to s^^ the point of the lesson, the teacher in training may with profit ^ ciiargo ojp a class; but chKrvation work should extend through the entire year. SIZE OF PRACTICE CLASSES. th t th^^ * *^'3ae>^«vhat extended experience in normal school work I am convinced of th ^^*®®^® ^-^ the beginning should be small enough to require only a minimum eicht t '^ ^^*® energy in maintaining order and in awakening interest,— perhaps attenti ^^*>^ I>iipils in a class. This permits the teacher to give the maximum his **mod " * * study of the mental condition of his pupils and to the effect of kept promia**^ ^^^xiing them to the end sought. The personality of the pupils is thus account of t>» l>efore the teacher. When he has acquired ability to give a clear reauire ten '•jo-^ condition of each member of his class— which on the average will be DUt in cl* ^^^s of teaching, five periods per week— the teacher in training may serioQS que^t:^^^^ ^^ * ^^^^ difficult grade, or a larger class. It is a matter of than twenty ^^^ - **^ ™^ ^^^^ whether much advantage is gained by having more When tVk ^^*^* ^° * ^^^^^ taught by a teacher in training. caTriteO.BO tl* **^^*^**^ *^ foUow a subject accurately and systematically has been • etc! tlxe t:** ^ degree of certainty has been gained in the sequence of question- a*^'- Uue«LXia ^^^^^'' ^° training may be asked to assume the more difficult task of iscip "teaching at the same time. But this is practically after graduation. CRITICISM. ^^Miou^^ ^^^° ^® ^^^^ should be given daily by heads of departments of ^^^ m^^^ methods, who teach subject-matter and methods and who criticiae Vn. ^* ^ ^ ^^^ject. This work has unity, and the teacher in training can see the coftes^^^^^ce of theory and practice. Xn^vey of |.jjg importance of training teachers; in view of the practicability of tbe ^o^ j^^^ view of the results of training, is it not time that the National Edu- <^tiotia\ ABsociation take formal action to effect greater uniformity in the training ol leadiers, to the end that greater efficiency may be secured and that the status ot l\ie pTofession may be more clearly defined and understood; looking ultimately fo \ 120 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General a national standard of training, which shall hare a legal status throughout the Union. D. B. Johnson, President of the Teachers' Training School, Columbia, South Carolina, said: It is to the discredit of human intelligence that one of the most delicate, difficult and important vocations should be one of the last for which special training should be demanded. This can only be explained upon the ground that injury to the body and to the pocket is more readily and surely felt than injury to the mind and spirit. But it is cause for rejoicing that very generally the teaching vocation is advancing in the estimation of the public, and is approaching, though yet afar off, its true place in rank and dignity with the other professions. This is due in great measure to the improvement in professional skill and spirit, resultinj; from the good work of the many agencies now in opeiation for the training of teachers. I hope to see the day when no one will be allowed to teach either a public or a private school without a license from the State showing him to be qualified, as is now the case with lawyers and physicians. This w^ould make teach- ing a profession in fact. The provision now made for teacher-training is properly grouped under two heads: 1. The training of those already teaching. 2. The training of future teachers. Though a normal school man, I cannot shut my eyes to the very great im- portance of the first of these provisions. There are about 275 normal schools in the United States, and they send out annually over 4,300 graduates. There are more than 400,000 teachers in this country. Estimating the number of new teachers going into the schools each year at twenty per cent of the whole number of teachers, which was ascertained to be the rate of annual change in one of our great States, we find that more than 80,000 persons begin the work of teaching each year in the United States. Of this number, since there are about 4,300 normal school graduates an- nually, over 75,700 do not receive any special preparation. The great and pressing need of training for teachers in the field is thus clearly seen. One of the most important of these provisions is the summer school, and very close to it is the institute; when properly conducted, a method of normal school extension. With Chancellor Payne of the Peabody Normal College, I believe that the institute, and for that matter also the summer school, when properly conducted, will have for its aim, so far as the teachers are concerned: 1. A wholesome preparation of the soil, through a healthful stimulation of the emotional nature; the awakening to a knowledge of need and the arousing of a desire to know. 2. The giving of a clear and vivid conception of what it is really to teach and to educate— a sure route to method; for to know the end is almost to know the way, and to feel a strong desire to reach the end is practically to find the way. 3. Method as applied to instruction and government. 4. Instruction in subject-matter. The normal school needs and desires, in most cases, 1 presume, to get away from academic work and to confine itself to strictly professional work. In order to do this it must receive students well prepared in scholarship. It may be that in North Carolina we are favored in the material for our female teachers. As a result of the war there occurred in the South one of the greotest social revolutions of modern times. Women from homes of wealth, refinement and culture have been brought to the necessity of self-support, by loss of fathers. SesBiona] IMPROVEMENT OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 121 brothers, supporters, and we hare, in consequence, as teachers and prospectivo teachers, the brightest and the best. With adequate professional training rigidly enforced, compensation would be increased, dignity and permanency of position could be secured, child life would be relieyed of the baneful influences of ignorance and incompetency in the school- room, the best talent would be attracted to the profession, and all the vexing school problems would be satisfactorily solved. IMPROVEMENT OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. BY HENRY P. BSMBRSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BUFFALO, N. Y. The question of school administration in large cities is a compara- tively new question, and grows out of two causes; the rapid expansion of population, and the recent advance in the aim and proper methods of education. When the population of our cities was smaller and less eomjdex, and an intelligent, active public opinion was vigilant in behalf of school interests, a very simple school organization was adequate to provide the fundamentals of an education. But a more complex condition, the growth of our cities by the addition of thou- sands of foreigners coming from countries where the public school idea has not taken deep root, as it had with our earlier emigrants from Germany, the increasing proportion of people who are un- acquainted with our institutions and traditions and have no feeling of attachment to them; all this has brought new problems, not only relat- ing to the proper maintenance of our public schools, but to every department of municipal government. More and more has been de- manded of the schools, and yet, at the same time, new difficulties in school management have been constantly present. So long as the task set before the public schools was to get the pupil through such and such books, and the chief duty of the teachers was to see that the pupils got their lessons, almost any teacher could do it and the simplest machinery was sufficient. Perhaps concrete examples are better than abstract principles in getting at a subject like the one we are considering. At any rate, I shall draw some illustrations from the educational history of my own city. You have all heard of the Buffalo system, but I have never happened to meet a man outside the city who understood it. Mark Twain once made a war-map which he submitted to Generals Grant and Sherman for their criticism. The humorist was much pleased with the commendation of General Grant, who said: "I never saw anything like it!" And General Sherman exclaimed: *^It is fearfully 122 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General and wonderfully made!" I suppose that many are ready to bestow the same kind of commendation upon the Buffalo system. Buffalo was organized as a city in 1832. At that time there were six schools at which tuition was partly free. These schools were open but a few months of the year, the lowest possible price was paid for teachers, and not half of the children of the city attended any school at that time. In the year 1837, after much agitation and many public meetings, the schools were reorganized and the office of superin- tendent of schools created. This new officer was appointed by the common council. A committee of the common council took the place of a board of education. This system worked fairly well under the conditions then existing. The schools, from 1837 to 1854, were, I judge, better than those of most other cities at that time. During^ this period the rate bill, or tuition system, was abolished, and school- ing made free earlier than in any other city in the State. Buffalo was also one of the first cities in the country to employ a superintend- ent of schools, and it is not strange when we consider the prevailing- ideas of those days that the duty of electing a superintendent, like other school affairs, should have devolved upon the common council- This body was made up of the best people, the representative men of the city. The superintendent's term of office was two years, and as a rule the common council chose one of the school principals for the office, or some other citizen who was known to be interested in edu- ^cation. The men who took the lead in public affairs in that day of small things were intelligent, enteiprising and energetic, and they chose superintendents of the same character. We must remember, also, if we would do justice to the Buffalo of 1837, that the idea of close supervision of educational work was then undeveloped. There was scarcely a normal school in the country. To teach children how to read, write and cipher was the end of education. Few cities had any system of exact grading or promotion or graduation, or any free high school. Long after that period the common schools of the entire State of New York were superintended by a deputy in the office of the Secretary of State. These hard-headed pioneers of Buffalo doubt- less thought that they were in the van of progress in providing for supervision by a central authority, instead of allowing each school district to manage its own affairs, as many cities were then doing. The superintendent was clothed with great power, and it seemed to them that they were accomplishing at one bound what cities like Philadelphia have since been doing by degrees. This system existed for seventeen years, or until 1854, without material change. Buffalo, as I have said, was reputed in those days to have the best public schools in the State, and so they continued to be, while large-minded men of integrity and enterprise and public ScBioiw.] IMPROVEMENT OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 123 spirit were influential in civic alTaii*s. But it could not be expected, as the city gi'ew in size and the government complex, so that the people could not understand its inner workings, that a superintendent who had been elected by aldermen, who were themselves looking for re-election, would furnish a model of independent action, especially in the matter of appointing teachers. Abuses of the appointing power became more frequent, and fiuaUy a public scandal resulted from the alleged selling of appointments by the superintendent, and as a result the office was made elective by the people. This action would seem to most of us like jumping from the frying-pan into the fire; though really it is not more incongruous than nominating the State superintendent of New York in a party caucus, or electing a State superintendent by popular vote, as is done in some States. The system lasted without farther modification for thirty-eight years, or from 1854 to 1892. There was a superintendent elected by popular vote for a term of two years. Each of the leading parties nominated a candidate in its city convention; generally, as before, one of the school principals. Some of these were men of ability, in- tegrity and organizing power. But the idea of rotation in office seems unfortunately to have been generally accepted, as it was rare until recent yeara for a superintendent to be re-elected. The super- intendent had power to appoint and dismiss teachers and to recom- mend to the common council such measures, both educational and ma- terial, as he deemed to be best for the schools. The only really good feature about the system was the superintendent's absolute power of api)ointment and dismissal, and the good effects of this feature were largely destroyed by the manner of his own election. The evils of snch a system, and I speak from an observation extend- ing through twenty years, were these: (1) With the absolute power of appointment in the hands of an elective officer, the temptation to favoritism was greater than most men could resist (2) The super- intendent was loaded down with responsibilities, growing out of the business affairs of the schools. It was not possible to repair a fur- nace or mend a lock without an order from the superintendent. This demand on his time made any real supervision of the educational work of the city impossible. (3) School legislation was intrusted to the common council whose members were not elected for that purpose, and who, as the city expanded, were almost certain to make school matters mere make-weights in realizing their larger political ambitions. Thus a system which worked well enough in a small city and under favor- able conditions, showed its vicious possibilities as the city increased in size. It brought forth its worst fruit during the last ten years iejrin as soon as he can leave his mother's arms. Therefore, schools should claim him as soon as he can learn anything. Therefore, the infant play schools, the nursery schools, the kindergartens logically belong to the public school systems. I know of no reason why the State should keep its hands oflf until the child is seven years of age and has learned many wrong things. I look for our city schools in the future to reach down and take hold of the three-year-olds and start them in the proper roads of learning. Likewise, there is no reason, in morals, why any kind '>f education should be barred. Popularly we think only of a literary training in public schools. But logically children are entitled to musical, artistic and industrial ed. And if Dr. Harris, or some other of the great educators of this country, can tell us just what those studies are that are best qualified to give these peculiar characteristics of which I have spoken, I would then put pupils to work on these studies, and I would keep them at work. I believe that the Germans, in this respect, have been wise, in requiring that their pupils shall continuously work along certain lines that have been decided by experience to be the most fruitful in the results of which I have spoken. I believe we might profit by studying their experiences and following their example; and I believe, if we have to reconcile ourselves to study more of the few things, we should, in the end, know something valuable about things prac- ticaL Our pupils have the impression, because they have studied twenty or thirty or forty things in early life, they know a littie something. They have had an intro- duction to all, and they are ready to go about anything that may present itself when they get into life. They are not, in my judgment, so well prepared for the events of life as they would be if they had concentrated their education upon a small nomber of subjects, and had studied them with corresponding continuous applica- tion. I believe in the next twenty-five years the advances in this country that are to be made in primary and elementary education will be made upon these lines. When throughout our country some system has been adopted which will carry out 136 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General these principles, we shall no longer hear it said, as we have so often heard it said within the last ten years, that our boys and girls at eighteen are not better educated for the work of the world than are the boys and girls in some of the countries of the old world at the age gt fifteen. It is by the intense and continuous applicatioD along certain lines of study, that these great results, I belieye, are to be obtained. WRAT MAKES— WHAT MARS, THE TEACHEBf BY MISS CORINNB HARRISON, NORFOLK, VA. In a paper to be read in twenty minutes, it will be impossible, as you know, to make more than certain broad statements upon a sub- ject so important, so suggestive, as the topic assigned to me on this program. If, therefore, I succeed in emphasizing upon the minds of any, some truths recognized by all, but not fully assimilated by most of us, my purpose, at present, will be accomplished. This age, to me, seems pre-eminently the age of self-recognition, the age in which the race is to realize or must realize its possibilities for complete and harmonious development. It is the time, when, more than ever, thoughtful man I'ecognizes why he was created; that he is a creature endowed with Gk)d-given power, capable of being developed to a degree hitherto scarcely con- ceived of. With certain great steps in human progress already taken singly by nations of the past, we stand to-day, I believe, on this com- pleted foundation, this mosaic of commerce, law, philosophy and religion, realizing that upon this completed foundation may be built, high towering, a structure, a civilization — a unified, harmonious, enduring, civilization — as a worthy and full expression of the Creator. An enduring civilization, because each single stone in its foundation has been, by its individsial age, rounded and polished, thus fitting each into the other; the cornerstone — Christ — which the builders rejected, has been added; the capstone to be illumined by the love of humanity, which will shine serenely, lighting the ages to come. Since the teacher's part in the development of the possibilities of the race is so important and responsible a part, since much of the teacher's life is to be spent with those of whom Christ has said, "of such is the kingdom of heaven," and the spirit of the true teacher is to look with similar reverence upon every soul in whose development he may be engaged, I hope we may discuss with profit certain steps in the development of the possibilities of our nature, that we may become in faith and in humility as the little child, when to us may be revealed tiniths as wonderful as to the children are the stories of Sessioiis. ] WE A T MAKES— WHA T MA RS, THE TEA CHER ? 137 Mjthland. It does not seem unwise to talk together of the possibili- ties of oar nature so far as we know them, as well as of the means by which these possibilities may be soonest recognized and best developed, and of what to-day are some of the things most antagonistic to the best development of these possibilities, that what we believe to be remedies for evils noted may be suggested. Man, a complex creature, must needs have opportunity for the full development of his complex nature. There must be brought about the co-ordination of his physical, intellectual and spiritual powers. The whole end and aim of the teacher should be to bring about this co-ordination. Growth, constant and harmonious through the self- activity of the child, will be the successful test of this co-ordina- tion; the unfolding and development of all the possibilities of the child — the perfection of the individual — its end. What is the school of to-day for? Is it for the child? Is it not too often a refuge for the indigent men and women of the commu- nity? a place in which popularity must be gained by the teacher? an institution to be so manipulated as to insure financial success to the publisher? And, too, does it not too often furnish the means for the gratification of the whims of the politician, who has under his con- trol both teacher and child-— the child the sufferer? Teachers, do we sit humbly and willingly at the feet of all sources of knowledge from which power may be gained, at the feet of the child and at the feet of the sage as well, that we may gain that true insight, which will enable us to help on the uplifting development of the human race? Check this development in any way — the physical by neglect, the moral by the egotistical desire we may have to impress our individu- ality upon the child — leave the spiritual aepiralions of tlie child unstirred, and by just so much have we checked, thrown back, the development of the race. Were not the opposite of the above state- ments as true — that all we do for the individual child helps on the uplifting of the race — as teachers we might well shrink more con- sciously from the resx)onsibility placed upon us in the part we play in the development of this image of God — ^the child. Then let us not turn aside from the work of our high calling, but in humility and in faith seek to know the being whose possibilities we would unfold, for whom we may make self-development a reality. The foundation of this possible development must be health. There must be the strong, vigorous body, the development of that activity which shall be always an expression of genuine vitality. You wiU tell me heredity is to be overcome, conditions changed, before this ideal state of the physical can be brought about. In one of the commandments, learned long before we could comprehend its 138 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General meaning, we are told, "The sins of the fathers shall be yisited upon the children unto the third and fourth generation." I say it in all reverence: Are there not enough of the fifth generation with whom we doubting ones may begin our work of physical training? It is already past the time, it seems to me, when a universal begin- ning should be made to change existing physical deficiencies of the race; when this Association, as its part in the universal beginning, should at more than one round table plainly and practically discuss the importance of recognizing and recommending, yea, aiding, that this lowest form of development, yet absolutely essential to all devel- opment that may follow, should be scientifically understood by every teacher and scientifically taught by those specially prepared for the work. Scientific physical training has been much discussed in America, as we know, for the past ten years at least The advocates of the various systems have emphatically stated what they believe to be the excellencies of each. Still I have yet to hear of more than one educa- tional institution in America that allows a course in physical training to count toward a degree. Correlate, co-ordinate as we may the studies of the separate schools, or the schools one with the other; even reach that ideal devel- opment in our system of education, ideal co-ordination and co-educa- tion, begun in the kindergarten ended in the university, when the members of society are but then better fitted for co-living; when we have reached, I say; this ideal system of education, the results hoped for would be disappointing were not physical development the basis and accompaniment of each step in this system, not ideal without it The young child's world is the sense world, though we too often make it to the child th^oiiliar interest at this time. Dr. Scudder's and Dr. Moj er's very exo^Uexit papers on this subject of physical deformi brought aboiiftt: 7t>^C5ause in many instances we have been unwilling spend the mon^y needful to get the right desks for the pupils. Su deslis there ar^e £fe.x^d every school should be furnished with them. A gjmnsLslwjtLicacM. connected with every school, this gymnasium cc dacted by a soi^nn^^fically trained instructor, who is allowed to gi to the teachers o* the school, as well as to the pupils, the need period of physic ^^1 exercise, explaining to the teachers, at least, c tain broad and ^v finable principles underlying these exercises, w enable us to tald^ -^visely the first great step toward the long-postpou development orT -tln^^ physical possibUities of the chHd of this age. The impar^«^xxc!^«e and readily recognized close connection betwe the physicaUy s^trong, morally pure, and mentally fine is too w known to be ^:iT^r-txed, but a too rarely carried out scheme not to urged upon the- titi^oughtful consideration of every educator in the lai The teaclxe-xr -«rith that insight necessary to the intelligent und standing of "ti^^ -^ ^ meaning of health as the basis of all futi development, -v^i^^ j^as the trained eye to see the uneven shoulders, 1 unnecessarily Ti^^^a. positions of the chUdren in school, wUl soon be r ognized as (kT -v-^ane to the profession; the teacher ignorant of t meaning, or *^x:^<^a.-i:Berent to it, is a clog in the way of true developme Witb his phy-^x^i^^ functions properly energized, there is made possi for the cluld ^XX the developing influences to be found in the real of ^^^^^^' ^^^^OTy, literature and art. The world created for ir mnst, aa me ^v^-^^xie of man, be understood by man, that he may righ accmamodat,^ ^^^imself to his place in the universe. KnsKm a^3^^ • ^^x>le and religious delight in watching the processes adxii.\rxa^ Xlv^ cireatures of the natural universe. Deprived of 1 •oxLirce oipv^^^^^^ nothing is left to them but ambition or dissipati anA. tl^e Tv^^ ^^ ^^^ c\a^&e» of Europe are, I believe, chi ^o \>e attn\,^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^.^g^^ ^^^^ ,, 140 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. fGeneral Man, a law unto himself, made so only by fliiding out the l^w for himself, would scarcely make for himself the fiendish clii^tOB of to-day, nor submit to the misrule and anarchy brought about, w^are his relations to the universe understood. As teachers, it seems out? prov- ince to place the child in that relation to the universe, that tUcie dis- covery of the law being a possible thing, simple at first, but a^^ true as when more complex, he may be better fitted to take his rightfiil position and maintain it, not by struggle, but by obedience to law, which alone can make him free. Make materialists of our children? Yes, as we have made formalists of them. Materialists are not nec- essary outcomes of nature study, but of the ignorance of the meaning of nature, its beauty, its harmony, its inspiration. Happily abstract science, or science in the abstract, is no longer in great favor, the true teacher realizing what life is, and giving the child a chance to get this life. Who that has watched the child chasing the butterfly, studying it when caught, gathering the flowers to learn more of them, examining the stone, or asking unanswerable questions about the heavens and the earth will doubt the fact that the self-activity of the child is at work, its percept clear, appercept strong, and content valuable. The teacher, who with reverence opens up to the sense-getting child this universe of wonder and beauty, and leads him to catch, in his soul even the distant harmony of the spheres, has done more for humanity, more for its elevation, its purification, than can be estimated, or even imagined. Specific scientific training has its place, and its value upon the character and upon the mind of the pupil is inestimable, and none but the over-enthusiastic or thoughtless will depreciate its value. Should not every one of us try to be intelligent readers of God's universe? Listen once more to Kuskin as he talks of the grass: "We may not measure to the full the depth of this heavenly gift in our own land; though still, as we think of it longer, the infinite of that meadow sweetness, Shakespeare's peculiar joy, would open on us more and more. Yet, we have it but in part. Go out, in the spring- time, among the meadows that slope from the shores of the Swiss lakes to the roots of their lower mountains. There, mingled with the taller gentians and the white narcissus, the grass grows deep and free, and as you follow the winding mountain paths beneath arching boughs, all veiled and dim with blossom — ^paths, that forever droop and rise over the green banks and mounds sweeping down in scented undulation steep to the blue water, studded here and there w^ith new- mown heaps, filling all the air with fainter sweetness — look up toward the higher hills, where the waves of everlasting green roll silently into their long inlets among the shadows of the pine; and we may lojia J WMA T MAKES^ WHA T MA R8, THE TEA CHER f 141 Perhaps at last fenow the meaning of those quiet words of the 147th -t^alin, Be maketh grass to grow upon the mountain/ " Earth's orammed with beauty, and every bush afire with God, But only lie who sees takes off his shoes. ^itb this jTO^v^erence toward God in our heart we shall feel more oi rererence for Ood's creature, man. Contact with each other will Pliable to better understand each the other, and understanding our place in fi^e worlcl we shall be willing to grant to our brother his place. Contemi>lation of the great and good in man will react with Jncneasing fullnoss on our natures; each from the other may get ^ ^ood, eacb to tJxe other may give a good. Qiaracter ^will be strengthened by this association, culture broad- ^'led, and natlxiiig do I believe to be more necessary to the real suc- cess of the tea,dxer than that he shall be a recognized social factor, made possiblo o:M±ly by this broadness of culture. T\^e have l>e^xx t:oo long content that our minds should be filled with f^^^^ • ^ore tixa.li extracts of fragmentary knowledge, plus partially visions €>^ manifold examinations generously distributed from patent gr-ixx'^iiig machine of those who by common consent and gree ent or x^'^^l^lic opinion are allowed and expected to continue the ^1 ^^1 ^^^"*^®^^i^t association with those less cultured than our- tbos 1 ^^^^ si^ssumed and peculiarly self-assertive authority over us doffmati^ ^^^^^ rather to be dreaded additions to society to be a tea -H ^ ^*^^aiiy exceptions to this rule prove that it is possible beinir Bat X^ ** ^nd still to be a truly cultured, as well as knowing, of our profess. ~ ^^^I^^at : I believe the general tendency of many members clubs, consist- ^^^^^ ^® toward the dogmatic. Clubs other than teacher's special work ^"'^^ a^d well directed efforts towards self -improvement, with, the bes-*~ ^-^"^side of work engaged in, but, more than all, contact hamanity at 1 "^^"^^^ ^^ ^^^ best minds in other callings, contact with US "women. 'X^V^ ^^^^e, will make us human, will make us men, will make lives of thos^ *^^^ inspiration thus received we give again, and so the broadened. ^^Xider us — ^I like to say with us — are brightened, are [Nothing ^ ^ tlxan the gen - ^eems to me, is more helpful to pupil or to teacher, stored miad. '^'5^^ brightness which comes from the fusion of a well- TWb cult:^^^^-^ *^^ culture of a broad experience. history, lite»^^^» happily, is possible to the humblest of us, through element We ^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^» increased by contact with the himian aliility to V>^^^^ always about us. All know the teacher who 'Oias not ^ practical man, and not enough genius to be a crank." 142 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General The habit we unconsciously fall into of complaining of alleged difficulties and the burden of work, having no time for general culture, etc., arises, I believe, from lack of insight into what it needed for the child's development; hence, working under this discouragement of poor results, because of incompetency on our part to do the work. Annoyed and irritated, we are apt to vent the spleen of self-incom- petency upon the child, and thereby stifle the development of the child. Child life, the beginning of human life, can be only truly under- stood when this human life is known and understood. Hence, con- tact with the human we must have, that we may be human, that our knowledge of him may be clearer, our interests in his pursuits intelligent, love for him increased, and sympathy with him intensi- fied. Teachability, the willingness to be cultured beings — not knowing beings only — to get from every source, and when this getting has changed to got, to give and give and get again: this will bring about in our rank and file that unity so longed for; not "the unity of one- ness," but "the unity of universality." To sum up what I have so hurriedly sketched: First — This age seems pre-eminently the age of self -recognition. Second — In order to enable the human being to develop these recognized possibilkies, the teacher, to be successful, must recognize and emphasize the three-fold nature of the child, and must be able to lead the child to bring about the co-ordination of its physical intellectual and spiritual powers. Third — To be able to bring about this co-ordination of the powers, the teacher must know the physical child, his needs; he must know, too, the world of this child, and how best to lead the child to know this world. The historical, aesthetical and philosophical environment of man must be the teacher^s en\ironment, thus completing that circle of knowledge which will enable the teacher to bring about in the child's development that "unity, not of oneness, but the unity of univer- sality.^ ^^ jr€?Z>I^riNG PROGRAMS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 143 ^^^^^.sjrjbjlllty of modifying the programs of ^^ jblrjsj%i:entary and secondary schools to ^^^2" t^:r,e suggestions in the report of the coumiti^jhjje of ten RY REV. J-.A.AIBS C. MACKlflNZIE, PH. D., LA\VRE)NCBVILI/E SCHOOL. NBW JERSMY. Is it not \K^ orcler to congratulate American teachers, the National ^elation, a^xn^^ in particular the National Council, upon the produc- ^ of this Pex>c>x-t of the Committee of Ten? Doubtless it has defects ^ gbQrtcoiri^i:^!^^ — j^ jg no^ offered to our intelligent teachers as a ^^b«J^^^?^^^^^^^ golden image — but it has the capital character of "jug ^ direct, p>ositive scheme, a description and philosophy of super- ti^^ ^^^^^txonal work; in brief, it is offered as a good working <^^^^^ ^oxr trlie teachers of our high and other secondary schools. frijp'*^^^^^^^ ^^" ^^^ ^'^ ^^ made in the methods and ends it \0^^^' ^^ ^l3.e totaUty of educational good possible to our 400,000 ^ cfr^^ ^^ i 5,000,000 pupils is now believed to be possible only ^^to^^A'^ ^Kency or influence of a co-operative movement, such ^ i0 ^^ ^<^x*th in the report. ^^ A^ ' ^^^^Tefore, of the one hundred teachers, and in particu- ^0 ^^ .^ Jttie Committee of Ten, I think it is becoming to felicitate \0^^ ^^ ^^^>-Oxi upon the reception which has been accorded the re- il^^ t)< ^^^^^^^^irnental officials, by the newspaper and magazine press, '^ A ^^ ^^ "foremost educational writers and thinkers. To begin ^^ -^ i^ ^^vil^ hardly have been hoped that any educational work ^^^-i^^, ^^ attracted such widespread attention. That the concensus ^ «*] JkTODIFYim PROGRAMS W SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 145 ^scu8s,„„ of trlie report that is to follow this morning, I beg you to ^i npon -tlie conditions of the secondarj- schools as they con- frontedtjie committee. Forty ]ea.«iiiig subjects, a majority of them mere information studies, Here iToaind in the programs of our important high and fitting 8CliooIs,arnaxa.f5cd in no clearly logical order, without suggestion of co-ordiBation -with preceding or succeeding studies; marked diversity of opmjon as tro the value of different studies and as to their time, claims aiid Ji^raciits; such hetci-ogeneity in schools of the same grade, that pupils i».:k«>^nng from one part to another of our otherwise homo- geneouscoun. t j^-^-, or from public to private school, or the reverse, in- ^*"dsof^*^ ^^"^ reassignment precious years in their school life; '^LiitJeT^^*^"'*^^ ^°^ ^^^°^^ managers apparently in ignorance of the ° W^elevat successful school work, and failing to do that which '^ ffiirsiexr^ ,*^e teachers' work to a professional career; a condition "^A^ irrart ^ *' '^^ ""'^ '"'^^'^ ^y "^'^^""^ ^"t t'^^'ee Pe^* cent of the n '^merici^****^ ^^ **"'" ^'^^^ P"^"*^ ^'^^ ^^^^^ «°te'* ^^ollege; the existeac^ <^olleges evidently vying with one another to compel *^^tnn eaeb. ^^ ^^ different classes in every fitting school; a pro- -16 whose- '^^®'' *"''" t^e ^«^"" t« the high schools of an army of P"P" secoaa** *^^^«»tio° t^us far secondary teachers— either because ^^riticisin^**^ teachers have too little or too much wisdom— persist ^ ♦he part VT-.^ *" *^™**** criminal or sordid standard of admission "" atoTS ^-OM P"'^^^*""^* a":». ^^ ^^^^^ prospective pupils is hopelessly prostituted " nchtoo^:-J^**'^"°^^' men in after life become an inexcusable re- P^t anonx^i^ general standards of culture; and finaUy, what appears ""^^ionstlisi^^^^ ^^ ^"' «"^'^ aj^ endless circling of educational dis- ''"^tice thW > ^* '^^^ remained for this report to concrete and fuse into ^ fbiii m^i- "^^tter intelligence and zeal of our teachers. , «r to M^^'^J'^^^}''^^ «' the work that presented itself must make ^^^cUthe ■t>rj/f^°*.*''^ secondary school is the real pivot about *'Tf«lt itsa^iT.f'K*'"''^ '"'*'''' """"^ *"™' «°^ ♦« ^J^^t an extent it L&e arta.%5 *°,^^ ^^'^^ the upper and nether millstone of the ^^^riiv m 4^f elementary school. And if further word is needed to ''*^«8tY>^ ,? * *^^ apparently wide scope of the committee's work ^^ ^^st ^^-epeated that all educational work, in all true philosophy '^*T^d ^""l^'-g^'^ens and as university professors, it may be ^aa.ft. ^^ V- are members of one body." ^^™S^t! °?'/'* ^^^"^ **^ '""^ *" *^^ surprises that have greeted ^e wmmutee before examining some of the criticisms ?teviOTi8 to the submission of the report to the public, the chair- ;aaB expressed the belief that no two of the committee could agree ^^n a model program. He saw that if the experts and specialists 10 146 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General were to have what they deemed necessary, pupils would recite as often as thirty-seven and one-half times a week, an average in a four years' course of thirty recitations a week. Our first surprise, then, was that, of the ten gentlemen composing the committee, nine signed a report containing some apparently startling educational judgments and four model programs. Confessedly such a result was not reached without compromise, and no one on the committee yielded more or yielded more graciously than the chairman. On several vital ques- tions the college men of the committee yielded to the school men. .Antedating this significant unanimity, was the still more surprising agreement of the conferences. Asked to return catogorical answers to eleven far-reaching questions, involving educational philosophy and pedagogical art, they replied with a unanimity that has been pro- nounced by others little short of miraculous. Then followed the dis- cussion in the press and in teachers' meetings of various character, in which the report has been considered from various points of view ; the public high school, the endowed academy, the small college, the collegiate preparatory school, the citizen and the parent. You know the trend, the drift, of all tliis discussion. Of the twenty -five formal articles in periodicals, I know of but two that can be called unfavorable. With but rare exceptions the newspaper articles have commended the report and awarded high praise to the National Edu- cational Association. Our next surprise has to do with the appre- hension that tot) much is proposed by the report; that haste, cram and pressure would follow the effort to realize the recommendations. The chairman was able to testify, with penetrating significance, that "there are already many secondary schools in this country in which quite as many subjects are taught as are mentioned in Table II., and in which there are more weekly periods of instruction provided for separate classes than are found in any year of the table. In some urban high schools, which provide from five to nine different courses of three to five years each, and in some endowed secondary schools which maintain two or three separate courses called Classical, Latin-Scientific, and English, or designated by similar titles, the total number of weekly periods of unrepeated instruction given to distinct classes is even now larger than the largest total of weekly periods found in Table II. The anntfal expenditure in such schools is suffi- cient to provide all the instruction called for by Table 11." And it should be borne in mind that the model programs are not those of Table IL, but those of Table IV., upon which the committee at its final meeting spent nine-tenths of all its time. It was seen that these programs called for the introduction into the elementary schools of some of the new learning that all thoughtful people realize should have place. Unquestionably, the high school work has for two Sessions.] MODIFYING PE00BAM8 IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 147 generations been retarded by the "arithmetic of many puzzles, the spelling-book with its child-frightened words, and the endless geog- raphy in which the pupil has to be thorough.^ ^ The testimony, there- fore, is most welcome that already in several communities these older subjects are receiving less time, and room has been made for the new ones. *Tji the best city systems," writes an experienced supervisor, ^children leam more during their first year in school than was for- merly learned in three years. A good foundation is now laid in the first grade for instruction in two or three branches of natural science, substantial acquisitions are made in language and number, while the advance in reading, phonetics, spelling and penmanship is quite surprising. Those who are familiar with the recent changes and im- provements in primary education confidently look for a simOar ad- vance in the work of the gi*ammar and high school The pressure in these upper schools has already been largely removed by the absorp- tion of their work into the lower grades. Only a few years ago Eng- lish and American history, elementary botany, zoology, physics, physiology, civics and literature were all considered strictly high school subjects: now they are all taught in the lower schools, and some of them in the primary grades. The work in geography, language and drawing has been increased, and time has been found to give such oral instruction as would make children intelligent concerning occupations, manufactures and commerce. Meanwhile, the overpres- sure, which a few years ago was so common in schools, has disap- peared most completely where these improvements and enlargements in the work have been carried to the greatest extent." Turning now to different types of secondary schools, I quote with pleasure the statement of the principal of Andover, that the college preparatory school can meet the increased requirements without ad- vaucing the age of entrance, and to the same effect another promi- P^nt schoolmaster in New York, who says: "If the present movement 18 to be fruitful, let these new programs be considered as the minimum ^^ attainment In fact, it was, we may assume, the purpose of the -'oniinittee of Ten to offer what no high school could hereafter con- ^^^^tiously curtail. Even the first year's work of the four-year scheme, ^^idered in some quarters too decided an advance on the grammar J^^^h, will, a few years hence, when the latter attain greater pro- ^^^^or, BO^m devoid of unusual difficulty." \s- ^^hy ^^ safely said, that thus far complaints as to the amount of ^ ^^Pi»0pos^^ for either the elementary or secondary school have a¥ ^^0/^ ^^^^oxmunities where old methods, insuflicient appropriations, .%0iizMs j)revail. kjk it: ^i Spears that not only has the report accentuated the \ ^t ^^^^*«vements of our schools: it is serving the better purpose 148 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General of bringing to clear view the few s^^hools and teachers that are already doing what is proposed for all. I hesitate for various reasons to speak of the more forcible criti- cisms, because they have been offered chiefly by gentlemen who are in attendance upon this Association. They are naturally the best judges of the w^ork, and in the main have spoken so kindly, even when criti- cising, that only loyalty to the ninety-nine other makers of the report constrains me to refer here to their criticisms. 1. It is objected that tho scheme is not feasible, because it was ap- parently prepared for the college-fitting school and not for the public high school. It has been urged that the framers of the programs know a good deal about preparatory but little about high school work. I wish to say, as publicly and forcibly as I may, that this objection is made without knowledge. I have already referred to the preponder- ating influence of schoolmasters in the work of the conferences and in the committee. It should be a matter of easy observation that our more highly-equipped preparatory schools must make important sacri- fices and concessions, in both quality and quantity of work, if they adopt the committee's report, and surely those who make the criti- cism overlook the following words of the report: **The secondary- schools of the United States, taken as a whole, do not exist for the purpose of preparing boys and girls for colleges. Only an insignificant percentage of the graduates of these schools go to college or scien- tific schools. Their main function is to prepare for the duties of life that small proportion of all the children in the country — a proportion small in number, but very important to the welfare of the nation — who show themselves able to profit by an education prolonged to the eighteenth year, and whose parents are able to support them while they remain so long at school. There are, to be sure, a few private or endowed secondary schools in the country which make it their principal object to prepare students for the colleges and universities ; but the number of these schools is relatively small. A secondary school program intended for national use must therefore be made for those children whose education is not to be pursued beyond the sec- ondary school. The preparation of a few pupils for college or scien tific school should, in the ordinary secondary school, be the incidental and not the principal object." This, I submit, could not be the language of a bod}' of gentlemen whose report concerns only the col- lege preparatory school. 2. A second class of criticisms relate to the omission of art stud- ies, manual training, ])enmanship, elocution and book-keepine:. 1 think it could be shown that methods of teaching drawing are pointed out in connection with work in natural history, mathematics, and other science subjects, but I am sure every member of the committee' SeasioM,] MODIFYISQ PROGRAMS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 149 would be glad to see proper provision for this and other subjects named; but we were soon confronted with the stern necessity of clioosing between the information studies and courses and those that {possess training character. And it must be borne in mind that the tinal recommendations of the committee contemplate only the minima — the least that shall be attempted in a co-operative movement. We all know that French and German pupils would esteem the day's work proposed for our pupils not severe, and every alert school could find time for these subsidiary subjects. 3. But the most formidable criticisms, I presume, are those that have to do with the epoch-making words and phrases, "co-ordination," "equivalence," "educational values," and "correlation of studies." For myself, I am going to admit frankly that the committee should have depressed somewhat the use of the word "equivalence." I be- lieve there w^as no valid difference of opinion upon the subject sug- j^ested by the word. If the chairman is known to have a marked con- viction to the effect that Choctaw or road-making have as much edu- cational value as Latin, there w^as nothing done or said by the com- mittee in its official capacity, so far as I can recall, to give the slight- est warrant or authority to such opinion. But words have crept into the report that are calculated to mislead the suspicious or unwary, and so far forth I deplore their presence. As to the settled conviction of the committee, they need only point to the programs to make clear their hyx)er-orthodoxy on this mooted question. Much more natural would it be to challenge such an affirmative statement as the follow- ing: "Although the committee thought it expedient to include, among the four programs, one w^hich included neither Latin nor Greek, and one which included only one foreign language (which might be either ancient or modem), they desired to affirm explicitly their unani- mous opinion that, under existing conditions in the United States as to the training of teachers and the provision of necessaiy means of instruction, the two programs called respectively Modern Lan- guages and English must in practice be distinctly inferior to the other two." But the challenge aside, these are clearly not the words of people who think one study is quite as good as another for mental training. With regard to the other phrase, "correlation of studies," we have heard strictures ranging from sharp rebuke to a gentle plaint. It is regretted that since success in introducing the newer subjects into the elementary schools depends so largely upon the proper interlacing and co-ordinating of kindred studies, more is not revealed by the com- mittee as to how this is to be done. Admittedly our younger teachers iould not be expected to have acquired this higher science or skill in work, but every well organized system of instruction faces the 150 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General problems proposed with composure and confidence. The report itself abounds in references and illustrations of the methods to be employed, as, for example, page 21: " *That the best results in the teaching of English in high schools cannot be secured without the aid given by the study of some other language; and that Latin and German, by rea- son of their fuller inflectional system, are especially suited to this end/ In the case of high schools, as well as in schools* of lower grade, the conference declare that every teacher, whatever his de- partment, should feel responsible for the use of good English on the part of his pupils. In several passages of this report the idea recurs that training in English must go hand in hand with the study of other subjects. Thus the conference hope for the study of the history and geography of the English-speaking people, so far as these illustrate the development of the English language." But the fullest and boldest illustration of the method is found in the postponement of Greek to the third year of the high school. In the light of the discussions it may appear unfortunate that the com- mittee's explanation of this postponement deals so exclusively with the somewhat practical necessity that controlled. I believe it could be shown, also, that the postponement is feasible and desirable, be- cause of the organic unity of all language work and the sure operation of the principle of the interlacing of related studies. Five hours a week for two years in a foreign language, taken up after two other foreign languages have been studied, should produce more satisfac- tory results than the ordinary three-year provisions for Greek in a less generous course of four years. I should be very sorry, too, if our teachers have not been sufficiently aroused by the claiD;is made for the theory of concentration or co-ordi- nation in study to have already put it to test. They are surely not unaware of the existence of such books as those of Herbart, Stoy, Rein, the McMurrys, Seeley and Lange, and the long list of treatises upon educational psychology. Teachers have been asking themselves and others whether reading is not required in nearly all school studies, whether much in number work is not done in elementary science, geography and history; whether mastery and thoroughness in a given subject do not come quite as surely through onward as well as through circular movements. As an American teacher, I should take umbrage at the suggestion that I could not work out the essential problems projwsed in the cor- relation of studies, with the stimulus of these conference reports and the other valuable literature at hand. To have gone further into either prescription or description in the committee's report would have exposed the committee to the suspicion that it lacked confidence in the ability, learning and devotion of our teachers. They will now SwswM.] MODIFYING PROGRAMS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 151 m yet larger numbers betake themselves to summer schools, to volun- taiT classes under principals and superintendents, and to special courses in our universities; and in every intelligent community there will be a growing disposition to help defray the necessary expenses of teachers who exhibit an ambition to further perfect themselves in iind for their work. Over against these, and any criticisms, let us set that body of clear, clean cut and largely new pedagogical affirmations of the report, about which we are all agreed, of whose feasibility in practice there is no question, for which our profoundest educational thinkers de- clare they are ready to vote with ^Ojoth hands." The time is Tipe for the trial of the scheme of the report. It flToold have been premature ten years ago. The activities of a decade in education have prepared the way for the modifications proposed. Heralds must now precede it with appeals for some definite, prepara- toiy steps, saying to superintendents, principals and boards of con- trol, lengthen your secondary courses to six years, whenever possible, and begin high school work two years earlier in the life of your pupils. In this ivay, as in no other, you can harmonize your work with that of systems in England, France and Germany, that have been slowly evolved after generations of experience; to the typical elementary, particularly to the district school, saying, in the name of outraged childhood, cease to exact three-fourths of a pupil's time and strength for arithmetic and geography; to the college, spare school- masters further agony and confusion confounded by your experi- mentations in entrance requirements. Our work is one, and does not admit of such violent hiatuses between different colleges on the one hand and different schools on the other. After the pupil is yours exploit galore your inscrutable a priori theories ; we now pray for union, for generally open doors for the graduates of the people's schools; to the public, to parents and boards of control, saying bravely, almost sternly, "there must be no caste in public elementary educa- tion." All children are entitled, in sheer public defense, to the best we can give. Three-fourths of them leave school before they reach the fifth year, not because of poverty, but because school life and school courses are not attractive. More accomplished teachers, richer, inller courses of study would successfully compete with the street, the shop, and the bad book. More highly equipped teachers for yonnger pnpUs nieans better paid, more permanent teachers; in short, national body of professional workers whose aims and methods ^ .^^Jy inspired and directed by a public opinion enlightened snstamed by the general circulation among parents of what will tiess in time be regarded as the first classic in American peda- g^cal literature. 152 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General DISCUSSION OF REPORTS OF COMMITTEE OF TEN. Latin, by john t. buchanan, principal of high school. kansas city, mo. To-day the world is moving faster intellectually than it has ever moved before. There are more eyes open to see; more ears eager to hear; more tongues ready to criticise. It is, then, but natural that revolutions come faster, that extremes follow more quickly. We are confronted with a revolution in educational matters. Educators are not satisfied with the methods used in a large number of our schools; nor with the time taken to perform given amounts of work; nor with the qualifications of the teachers attempting to do this work; nor with the methods of articulation of one system of schools with another; nor with many other things belonging to the pedagogics of our schools. To get unity out of the great diversity that exists In our heterogeneous system, and to get before the public mind the conditions as they are, and to get suggestions as to what remedies might be applied, the Committee of Ten called together nine conferences of ten persons each to discuss the matters pertaining to their respective departments of secondary education, and instructed them to report back their recommendations. Of all the various reports of these nine conferences, the two referring to the classical languages seem to me the most rational. In them no attempt has been made to show how much could be demanded, nor do they comprise a new encyclo- paedia on the subjects. They emphasize quality; they limit quantity; they are con- cise and to the point. As to the demands made by the Greek conference, I have but little to say. The report asks for three years of Greek, and that the study of Greek be commenced one year after the pupil has entered upon that of Latin. The inductive fad is kindly referred to, but not viewed with any favor, and the proper way to pronounce Greek with the Attic, Ionic and JFmMc accents is not mentioned. The report is clear throughout. One need not be a college professor to understand it. The Latin report is fully as strong as the Greek one, but, unfortunately, it is not quite so clear. In the second section of the "Recommendations" we find the following language: "Education below the high school course should be so organized that students may be prepared to enter upon that course at least a year earlier than, in most places, they now do.*' What does this mean? Does it mean that the grammar school course shall end at a time one year earlier than it now does? or does it mean that pupils in these schools who intend to take Latin shall be allowed to take it there for one year before they finish the course, from teachers doing other work in the grammar schools, or from teachers from the high school set apart for this special work? To the uninitiated the report proposes to water the stock. It proposes to demand two more years of the child's life to perform work that ought to be accomplished in the four years granted by the people in most of our cities. To them the report is not even definite as to where it wishes the two years placed ; whether the high school course should be extended from four to six years, or whether Latin should be taught in grammar gnades. They say, if in the grammar grades, who are to be the instructors? College graduates of experience will not teach at grammar grade salaries; and we all know that the first years of any study are the important ones. They ask the question: "Will the people allow the appoint- ment of si)ecial teachers for Latin?" There may be special teachers in German and French in some of the larger cities where the foreign vote counts, but alas! Sessions ] DISCUSSION— LA TIN. 1 53 there is no Latin vote to be gained. They ask further: **Will the people permit the high school course to be extended from four to six years, in order to allow a pupil to use the time of sixty months in getting what he ought to get in forty?" I agree with them in their answer: "We fear they will not.'* If the Latin teachers will only be practical in their demands, practical in their work, practical in their method?, the results will show what they can do, and the people will stand by them. There is no need of extending the time, if they do hard, honest, efficient work and do not waste their time in unburying mummies, — so-called Latin fads, — mummies that common sense and practical experience entombed long ago in European countries. But ihe uninitiated have the wrong idea. They have not interpreted the language of this section as the authors of it intended. In the Latin conference, it was shown that in many parts of the United States, notably in Massachusetts, nine years are taken for the completion of what is called the grammar school work; while in other parts of the country, Kansas City, Mo., for instance, only seven years are taken for doing the preparatory work for the high school. The members of that conference believed that nine years was too long a time to be given to grammar grade work, and they therefore couched their courteous and respectful recommendation in the language as found in section 2. It was never intended by them that the high school should dip down into the grammar schools, take two of their years, and thus increase the course of the high schools to one of six years; but rather that grammar school courses should be so arranged as not to take more than eight years for their completion; and that the time thus gained should be given as a part of the four years allowed for high school work. The amount of work demanded by the conference is reasonable. From uiy personal experience and observation, I know that every requirement, both qualita- tive and quantitative, can be fulfilled, and is fulfilled in many places; and I am of the opinion that if it is not fulfilled wherever Latin is taught it is the fault of the teacher, who, either on account of his lack of scholarship or of his method, or of both combined, does not accomplish what can be accomplished. The truth is forced upon us, that the objections against the study of the classics have their source largely in the superficial way in which the subjects are taught. The subject is often attacked when the method of teaching it should be censured. The remedy offered by the committee may be found in section 14 of the "Recommendations," where it emphasizes the necessity of a high grade of scholarship in the teachers of Latin, especially in the teachers of the lower classes. If this be insisted upon, we shall have greater efficiency in our teachers and better methods of teaching the subject. As long as we shall find teachers in our best high schools wasting their time and that of their charges in unscientific teaching, and in following fads, we have no right to demand more time. In a beginning Homer class, I once saw a teacher waste four weeks of valuable time in expounding to his class Wolfs "Theory," and in trying to prove to his pupils that Homer's poems were not written by Homer. It would be as useless as for the English literature class to while away their time by investigating Bacon's interest in Shakespeare's work, or Ignatius Donnelly's interest in Bacon. In a beginning Latin class, I know a silver-tongued teacher who used a full recitation period in a masterly rhetorical effort to explain to his class the different shades of meaning of the various Latin words meaning "to journey," something after this fashion: "Now, young ladies and young gentlemen, if you lived in the cultured city of Boston, a city so full of historical associations, surrounded, as it were, by the greatest Institutions of learning on this continent, and you were a Latin and should 154 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General wish to depart from that city, to go away from its hallowed influences,— what word would you use to express that wish? You, you, you (pointing to different pupils in the class). All, you cannot tell me? Well, then, I will tell you. You would use the word ^proficiscor.^ FroficiBcor is a deponent word of the third con- jugation, .whose principal parts are proficiaeor, profidaci, profectua avm and it means to depart, to depart, to depart. Y'es, you see, to depart, to go out of or away from. Now, after leaving this renowned city, and traveling for days through the beautiful fields of the Mississippi Valley, and coming to that bustling, thriving, noisy city of Kansas City, situated at the mouth of the Kaw— a city resembling in many features that ancient one on the banks of the yellow Tiber— a city of seventy and seven hills, one not of the Roman soldier but of the c;>wb y, you should wiah to go out to the beautiful little suburb of Westport to see Sister Brown, and then go over to that other little suburb of Harlem to see Sister Smith, and down to that beautiful capital city near by. Independence, to see Sister Jones, and you were a Latin, what word would you use to express the wish? You, you, you (pointing again). Ah, you cannot tell me? Well, I will tell you. You would use Uer facere.^ Iler is a neuter noun of the third declension, young ladies and young gentlemen: iter, iiineria. The peculiarity of the third declension is, that the accusative and vocative endings in the neuter are the same as the nominative; and the ending of these three cases in the plural is always *a.' Facere is a verb of the third conjuga- tion, from facto, facere, feci, factum; and iter facere means to make a journey, little visits out a short piece, a going from place to place to see friends, visiting, as it were. Leaving this city that reminds one so much of ancient Rome, passing through the blooming valleys of Kansas, once called the Great American Desert, 'doing* the beautiful city of Denver, with all her kaleidoscopic beauties, passing rapidly in panoramic view the Royal Gorge, Marshall Pass and the Black Canyon of the Gunnison, and hurrying through the lovely homes of the Mormons and the thrifty vineyards and orchards of California, and taking passage in one of those magnificent ocean steamers that ply the placid waters of the Pacific; if then, arriving at one of the great cities of the Eastern hemisphere, you should travel from place to place, visiting the noble art galleries, the wonderful and mighty amphitheaters, the soul-stirring musical conservatories, you should behold all the great and grand things of that peerless Eastern country, and were a I^atin, what word would you use for this traveling from place to place? You, you, you (with the old gesture). Ah, you cannot tell me? Well, I will tell you. You would use the word 'peregrinor.^ Feregrinor is a deponent verb of the first conjugation, from peregrinor, peregrinari, peregrinatva. and means *to journey in a foreign country.' Now, young ladies and young gentlemen, I regret exceedingly that the hour is so short that I cannot continue further this recitation which you have griven so well. Don't you agree with me that this recitation has brought out many things that you ought to know?'* It seems to me that work of this kind does not belong to the first year of Latin. It is more in keeping with college practices, and should be left to these institutions. Another reason for the poor quality of work done in some communities may be found in the fact that poor text-books are used. In former times, when the good, old-fashioned text-books were the only ones in the market, there was little com- plaint of the chasm between the first year's work and that of the Csesar class. In modem times, new books have been manufactured by ambitious educators. "An Easy Way to Get Latin," "Latin in Six Weeks," "How to Get Latin Without Studying It," have become very popular. It is strange that this popularity lasts only during the first year, for when Csesar appears on the stage, and Dumnorix, the SeasioDB.] DI8CU8SI0N^ENQLISH. 155 illusion Tanishea. Bridges have to be built and the beautif al stories of the Gradatim hare to be composed in order to arouse genuine enthusiasm in the juvenile mind. In my estimation, a good, thorough first-year book in Latin will be found the most efficient bridge to Caesar. The recommendations of the committee are all right when properly interpreted; but, in some of the side lights thrown on to illuminate them, the glare is somewhat brilliant. Those outside the chosen few are made to see that sight-reading is to be made the beginning in the study of language, rather than the end to be attained by it, and that Latin is now to be read from a literary standpoint, and by students, too, who are sadly deficient in the rudiments of Latin etymology. Some will go so far as to say, "Before long we shall have a «manual on Boman elocution." But I wish to say right here that Cicero himself, if he should find time to return from the Elysian fields, could not help us to obtain the true Roman accent and intonation. Some writers on the Latin tongue describe more or less accurately the positions of the organs of speech while uttering the various Latin sounds. But who will hare the boldness to say that the bill of the crow, although in the same relative position, wiU produce the same sweetness of sound as that of the canary? Our atilitarian citizen, as he, looking over the schemes for the sounds of the letters, comes upon the following, "Final *m' preceding an initial vowel (or vowel with 'h*) should be pronounced as a faint nasal sound, the lips approaching the ordinary *m' position, but not touching; the pronunciation before a consonant is doubtful; and for the present, a change from the sound of the English *m* is not recom- mended,'* can almost be heard to say: ***0 tewpora! O moresP The people see it; the people read it; and these men live! and they live not only to lay down their vrisdom, but even to increase it; for ere long they will discover the sound of *m' before a consonant, too; and what a revolution there will be!" And this brings to my mind what a chance the Greek conference lost, when it neglected to regulate the pronunciation of Old Ionic, New Ionic, and genuine Attic. What a mental training could be obtained, if only we could read Homer's verses as Homer used to read them, follow strictly the enunciation of Herodotus; and if we could but reach the correct imitation of the Attic Bee, the mom of the miUen- xnnB -wsoflld oertainly have dawned upon ua. As these are but reflections upon the side lights and not upon the recommenda- tions, I will close by saying: To sum up, I should not attempt to modify the programs of elementary schooU for the purpose of introducing the study of Latin. I should recommend, wherever to be taught in secondary schools, a four years' course of Latin and a three years' course of Greek; the quantity of work as now found in our best high schools to remain the same; the quality to be improved, not by adding time, and therewith watering the material, but by improving methods, teachers and text-books; by leav- ing out things immaterial and strictly ornamental, and by giving time spent in cultivating fads and satisfying vanity to thorough, honest, practical work. English. BY DR. A. F. NIGHTINGALE, ASSISTANT SUPERINTBNDBNT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. The Committee of Ten, clothed with the authority of the National Educational Association to appoint nine other committees of ten each, men of the largest ex- perience and the widest repute, who should consult concerning the application of 156 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General proper remedies to cure the evils which make the secondary schools (God save the mark!) "the most defective part of the education of this country," have published their report. No such educational movement, whether considered in the light of its con- ception, or in the light of its denouement, was ever before attempted. The report is by far the best contribution to educational theory of the century, whether we consider the range of subjects discussed, and the exhaustive treatment of each, or the high character, scholarly ability and rich and varied experience of the contributors. The committee was nationally appointed for a national purpose, and it was fair to presume that the results of- their deliberations were published for no other reason than to receive the commendation, the criticism, or the condemnation of the free-thinking, individual-minded educators of this country. Personally I have had no words but those of exalted praise for this marvelous report, issued with such marvelous unanimity in such a marvelously short time; but there are those who, out of their large experience, and with the independence of the American spirit, have dared to place some strictures upon the conclusions reached. They are men whose experience entitles them to be heard with candor, whose opinions I respect, and whose judgment on educational matters would lead me to review my own. Wendell Phillips once said: "If the Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, bo the emblem of despotism, then the ever-restless ocean is ours, which girt within the eternal laws of gravitation is pure only because never still." So it seems to me that the far-reaching and long-abiding benetits of this report are to be secured, not from an idolatrous adoption of its every tenet, but through the ceaseless agitation, in every educational circle, of the ideas propounded, so that out of the revolution that has been inaugurated may come reformation, progress, advancement. Less than one hundred years ago a young girl in Hatfield, Mass., was in the habit of going to the schoolhouse, and sitting on the door-step that she might listen to the recitations of the boys, in a building across whose threshold no girl might pass as a pupil. Less than four score years ago, Emma Willard, of sainted mem- ory, gave tlie first examination in this country to a young lady in geometry, and about the same time she introduced into her little school in Middlebury, Vt., the study of physiology, and so great was the innovation, that at the examination the entire audience, shocked at the indelicacy of teaching such a subject to girls, rose and left the room, and they were not Christian Scientists either. These instances, with which our own fathers and mothers were conversant, seem strange to us now. and I refer to them only to show, that notwithstanding all the defects of our present educational system, its puerile methods, and its meager results, there has been constant improvement since 1792, when a Massachusetts town was indicted for voting "not to be at any expense for schooling girls." It is with this optimistic spirit that 1 approach the discussion of this much analyzed subject of English. It is my conviction that the highest interests of our schools would be best sub- served, if, without a single attempt at exegesis, this most admirable and most exhaustive report of the conference of English could be adopted and placed on trial as the ne plus vlira of matter and method in the instruction of the English language and of English literature in all our primary and secondary schools. I do not agree with all the propositions of all the conferences as set forth in this educational encyclical, but I am in hearty accord with this superb report of the conference on English, which is so largely permeated with the empirical thought SessionB ] DISCUSSIOy—ENGLISfr, I57 of that teaching genius, who has aroused on this subject the white heat of enthu- siasm, Dr. Samuel Thurber. It is not my province to discuss the recommendations of the conference relative to elementary schools, but "if," quoting from the report, "during the period of life when imitation is the chief motive principle in education," the child could "be kept away from the influence of bad models and under the influence of good models," and if "every thought which he expresses would be used as a proper subject for criticism as to language," all of which is practically impossible amid such a lament- able lack of language culture among the common school teachers of to-day, then indeed would there be little to change or criticise in our secondary schools, and our colleges would be a veritable "Paradise Regained" for the professors of literature. It is the process of undoing what has been poorly done, and of doing what has been left undone, that dissipates the strength, shocks the sensibilities and destroys the nerves of our secondary teachers, most of whom are the products of the wisdom of the colleges. When the radical reforms now being attempted shall have culminated in per- fecting the whai aad the hmo in our lower schools, then shall we make axiomatic the maxim that "the beginning is half the end." Taking exceptions to the brief and summary way in which the committee discard the ^)eIIing-book, which we believe to be still a spell of power and of might in all schools where the foreign element largely predominates, we commend this portion of thd report as a New Testament on the teaching of English. I do but echo the universal opinion of all competent to judge in maintaining, that language is or ought to be basic study in all our schools. It is the fountain head whence flow all the helpful, healing streams of education. Language is the key that unlocks all human thought and gives voice to all human aspirations. To think well, to speak well, to write well; these are the rightful heritage, the common prerogative of all who are correctly educated. Words are ammunition in the battery of intelligence, steam in the engines of thought, true coin in the exchange marts of scholastic culture. A man without words is like a beautiful ship launched upon the welcome bosom of the sea without a pilot. There is no substitute for language. It is the common carrier of all thought, the drawn sword in all strife, and the one language that American pupils should study through all their career is the English language. Courses of instruction, how- ever, that confine language study to the English, eliminating foreign tongues, ADcient or modern, ignominiously fail in the production of that power essential to modem culture. I would have children at the age of ten or eleven years commence the study of that language, which in rne fields of persuasion and philosophy, of literature and law, is so largely the progenitor of the English— the incomparable Latin. This is the international arsenal out of which men in all ages have taken the weapons of words with which they have fought the battles of all genuine culture. Latin is the carboniferous age in its relation to modern thought. We heat our firesides now by the consumed and adapted sunlight of paleoswic times, so the light of modern literature and law comes from the intellectual sunlight that warmed the souls of the great masters of Greece and Rome. Side by side in daily study the two languages should be pursued, the Latin constantly illuminating the English, and making the study of our native tongue more and more a delight, therefore, more and more fascinating, and as an inevitable sequence, more and more profitable. It cannot be controverted that Latin, as someone has recently written, is the mo«t valuable and loyal handmaid in securing that accurate and discriminating use «f the English language which is the sign and seal of the educated and the cultured. 158 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Gf«neral I therefore deprecate thfe force and fervor of that movement, now gathering strength, which would permit some modern language to usurp the place which rightly belongs to Latin, and for which there is no adequate alternative. In large cities, for utilitarian reasons, German may be suffered as an elective. But to introduce French as a culture study into our grammar schools, to accompany that of the English, to the exclusion of Latin, will work mischief, and defeat the very ends for which we all labor, viz., a fluent and facile use of the English language as an instrument for the expression of thought by our pupils. The controversial history of the last two decades in regard to humane studies has established the fact, that there is no substitute for classical learning. I still believe in the Cape Horn route to culture; not in the short cut, the miasmatic way across the Isthmus. If we would be strong, we must contend with something, resist something, conquer something. We cannot gain muscle "on a bed of eider-down." Toying with straws will only enervate the faculties. The blacksmith's arm becomes mighty through his ponderous strokes of the hammer upon the anvil. The very facility of acquisition of the modem languages precludes the possibility of discipline. Put Latin into our common schools and the puzzling problem of English gram- mar will be nearing its solution, for the why that meets the pupil at every step, the very laboriousness and difficulty of the task, will open the intellect, develop the powers of discrimination and adaptation, enlarge the vocabulary, enable the student to write a better English essay, use a more terse and trenchant style of speech, and grasp with more avidity and keenness any promulgated form of thought, than if he should spend quintuple the time in the study of English grammar alone. It is clear that the English conference, as President Eliot says, "intend that the study of English shall be in all respects as serious and informing as the study of Latin;" but they did not commit the error of saying that it should be as serious and informing as the study of French. Permitting me to digress a moment, I have always believed until recently that the course of study in our high schools should be the same, whether the pupil's immediate outlook was the activities of life or a college course; that a good prepara- tion for college was the best preparation for any alternative; but the demand on the part of some of the leading colleges, that pupils must enter with an elementary knowledge of three foreign languages will forever prevent this desideratum on the part of our high schools. Pupils cannot afford to devote so large a portion of their time to foreign lan- guages at the risk of not going to college, but substitute one or two sciences, physics and chemistry or biology, for one foreign language, ancient or modem, then will the high schools of this country rise to the occasion and infuse the college spirit into all their pupils. While no one will essay to contravene the logic that each teacher in every school (and I would not except the college) should be a paragon of excellence in the use of English, an exemplar of a pure and polished style, and an untiring critic of those habits, formed from environment, which make our young people careless in their choice and slovenly in their arrangement of words, spoken and written, never- theless I believe it of paramount importance that the departments of rhetoric, English language and English literature should be under the care of special teachers who are enthused on this subject; teachers of a contagious personal influence, who worship at the throne of language, who have mastered the subtle power of rhetoric, and who constitute a Thesaurus of English literature from which they may enrich the heart, stimulate the intellect, and infuse the reading spirit into the soul of every pupil. SearioDS. ] DISCUSS TO 2^^ENG LIS H. 1 59 To be sure, a physicist, who looks with contempt upon the idea that he must watch the Ehigrlish expressions of his pupils in the laboratory and correct the form as well as the fact of their written exercises, is a poor teacher and ought not to W tolerated; yet, as it is essential that science should be taught by scientists, and Latin and Greek by superb linguists, so it is equally desirable that the essentials of a good style in writing and the inculcation of a taste for good reading should be in the keeping of specialists who have made the history and the masterpieces of literature their chief delight. As we can learn to conyerse only by conrersing, to debate only by debating, and to write only by writing, so the pupils in all schools of all grades, including especially the college and the university, should be constantly employed in giving their thoughts a tongue, and in transferring them to written exercises, essays and theses. Rhetoric is being taught to-day in the colleges very much as it is in the high schools, and with about the same results. There is too much distrust of the higher for the lower, and time is wasted in trying to do what we are prone to believe others have left undone. So long as New England colleges insist in dividing the entrance examination in English into two parts, the second of which shall be: 'The candidate will be required to correct specimens of bad English set for him at the time of the examina- tion," so long will our secondary schools produce miserable results in a study that ought to be the crown and glory of those schools. At the risk of excommunication, I would recommend that a conference of pri- mary and secondary teachers be appointed to suggest to the colleges some rational method of examination in English. Then would this idea of correcting bad speci- luens be "relegated to the limbo of discarded absurdities." I am not quite in sympathy with the plan to postpone the study of technical rhetoric until the third year, to be limited to forty lessons. I appreciate that this course is good form, and quite consonant with the dictum of the so-called inductive method. O thou baleful word, Induction! what sins are committed in thy name! Yet, I believe that, following the pursuit of technical English grammar in the lower schools, there should be a somewhat systematic study of the principles and maxims of elementary rhetoric and English composition in the first year of the high schools; that all these exercises should be illustrated and illuminated by the reading of choice specimens of English style, and by original work on the part of the pupil, as a basis for the after study of the English classics and of English literature. In this way, the first object of the teaching of English may be secured, viz.: "To enable a pupil to understand the expressed thought of others, and to give expression to thoughts of his own." To secure the second, viz.: "To cultivate a taste for good reading, to give the pupil some acquaintance with good literature, and to furnish him with the means of extending that acquaintance,** I would have forty or fifty lo ks for the English laboratory of each year of the high school. They should be furnished in such quantities in duplicate as to accommodate all the pupils; they must be wisely graded and selected with the greatest care as to style and content; they should be suited to all talent and to every good taste, and each pupil shouM be encouraged to read one book a month throughout his entire course. In the earlier years he should present original reproductions of some of these books, and as his ability to reflect and draw inferences increases he should prepare intelligent book reviews. All this written work should be conscientiously and pleasurably criticised with each individual writer, the best productions read as class exercises, and frequent 1 60 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL AS80CIA TION. [General conversations indulged in between teachers and pupils concerning the motive of the book, and the lessons it inculcates. This is no idle theory. I have watched its results for some years, and it is no exaggeration to say, that I know of scores of pupils the current of whose life and character has been turned into new channels by this method, and who will be readers of the best literature while life lasts, always finding contentment, even in solitude, and enjoying the sublimest associations, whatever be their lot in the daily drudgery of life. In conclusion, in no one study has there been such advancement in late years as in the teaching of English; and since all educational reform must come from above, if the colleges will modify their methods of examination, abandon the dele- terious system of presenting specimens of bad English for correction, allow our high schools to introduce a laboratory method of teaching English, similar to that used in the department of physics, permitting pupils to present note-books, essays and book reviews as a partial test of their preparation, change the requirements of admission in foreign languages, to two instead of three, allow a few discreet substitutions in the sciences, then will the requirements of graduation from the high schools and the requirements of admission to the colleges be in harmony, and we shall enter upon a new era of educational progress in this country before we cross the threshold of the twentieth century. History. by frank m. 3kie /^ o/>f>osec3 to short courses. Their theory is already generally applied in t>(,^ o«* ^jsreiiooJs and in American universities. If it is correct, it should be applied ^(l^ Or aJl, of our studies; hence, it may ultimately exert a great influence upon ^^0 ^^t ^'"•"^■* "^^^^ have not blindly demanded more than four times the usual ^^jw^' ^t h.iss-^ attention. We are inclined to believe that we are fully up with the times in that department; but the words of the committee, in speaking of wall maps and historical atlases, run thus: ''In no other civilized country are good and cheap maps so rare, and our school atlases are notoriously inferior to those of France and Germany." The maps at the World's Fair attested to this fact. Those of France, and especially of Germany, were much superior, for school purposes, to the others there exhibited. It is suggested, further, that there is much room for improvement in the nature of our questions. Instead of being dry memory tests, as is so commonly the case, they can better be so framed as to awaken thought and test the pupiFs good sense. This applies to examination ques- tions for entrance to college, and also to questions in reviews, as well as to others. These numerous recommendations are modern and pat: having been reached unani- mously by such distinguished gentlemen they should have great weight with every teacher in the land. But, in my opinion, the committee have also shown a remarkable degree of weakness in two points, one of which is the most fundamental one in the whole report. The latter pertains to the purpose of school and the purpose of history. The report affirms that the principal end of all education is training; that the mind is chiefly developed in three ways, t. r., by cultivating the powers of discriminating observation, by strengthening the logical faculty, and by improving the judgment; that, while the natural sciences are best adapted to cultivate the habits of observa- tion, and mathematics the reasoning faculties, history and its allied branches ate peculiarly fitted to promote the invaluable mental power called judgment. I fully believe that this statement of the principal end of education and of history and this conception of the human mind are behind the times. It used to be asserted that discipline was the main object of education, and that word has been employed so seldom in this report that I suspect that the committee purposely avoided it. But they did not better matters by substituting training in its stead. Training is a still more indefinite term. I scarcely understand what is meant when one says that the principal end of all education is training; and when the explanation is given, as in this case, that it means the development of the powers or faculties of the mind, the reply is at hand, that recent psychology and pedagogy tend to deny that the mind is composed of a bundle of powers or faculties. Even if the old style psychology were probably correct, the committee's state- ment of the chief object of historical study would still be a surprise. It is declared to be "the training of the judcrment in selecting the grounds of an opinion, in DISCUSSION— HISTORY, 163 ^^^^mnhting tihe materials for an opinion, in putting things together, in generalizing ^Pon f^^^ .^ estimating character, in applying the lessons of history to current ^^^nts, and in accustoming children to state their conclusions in their own words." IS erideat, fjroiii these words, that the training or exercising of the intellect is the *^^aiMig tbonglxt: iJX the minds of the committee. Recent educational theory does not ^^Pt that aa tlxe highest work of history. It makes the development of good ^^'^cter the xnain object of the school; it regards motive as the chief element In 5^^ character, and relies upon history and literature as the most effective agents **e develop m^xit of right motive. According to it, the highest value of history ^^^^ in its a.t>illty to awaken right desires by presenting ideals which pupils learn o loTe. Jt ixa't oxily teaches them to discriminate between right and wrong, to ^timatg charac t:^x-» ». e . to show a knowledge of the right, but to love and gradually . ^ ^hatis Ti^±^ <:- The committee seem to recognize this value of history, but they ^ '^ A subordixscLt^ rank. Inasmuch as they declare the training of the judgment ,® ^® chief tlilx3£r« they take an unpsychological stand and set a low estimate upon ^^ favorite bx-az2t cJaaaified; ^Jba..zm.^ the facts stand in one long list, without a discrimination of the f® ^njportant :£t-*z^x:x:» the less important. The committee advise that some facts be onaitted; but th&^r ilC-ia. rnish no criterion by which to determine the relative value of lacts so that th^ ri.^5Lht ones may be omitted. In this respect history is far behind natural 8cieaxr^<35.jation of the desired generalizations, the laws and rules. Other facts may be in-fc^Tarv^ ^ ting, but it is wise to omit them; knowing the generalizations, the way is clear. But in histoiT3^ iKiao one has ever stated or collected the generalizations and shown just what materi«.i x^^ ^ wmtwn^/or^^^^^'^^^ ^"^ ^^^ ^^^ history could well teach is, that the world toward^^pam\^^^^ * ^^^^ civilization is progressing. A conviction on this point tends ^^^^^» and hence has a benign influence on life. A. careful comparison 164 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General of the ways, at different periods, of caring for the sewerage of cities, of heating houses, of treating children, etc., would make this valuable thought clear and strong. But our history instruction is omitting such truths as these three mentioned, or is leaving them entirely to accident. If arithmetic and the sciences showed the same carelessness they would prove utter failures. Generalizations are not properly reached unless they are consciously aimed at, and even laboriously planned. It is upon this point that discussion of method in teaching history greatly needs to be centered. Our committee have signally failed to open up this field; they hovered about its entrance a little by a few blind remarks in regard to inductive work and generalizations, but they did not seem to know it. In conclusion, I would say that we have before us the most valuable publication on history in the English language, so far as I know. It is valuable both because of the eight or ten extraordinary recommendations that it makes, and because it shows the present state of history instruction in this country. It is, however, weak in two points— probably the most important ones possible — 1. e.. first, as to the purpose of the public school and of history in particular; second, as to the generalizations that history contains and the arrangement of its subject- matter so that they can be reached. The standpoint on the former topic is not up with the times, and the latter is, strange to say, almost entirely omitted. PBicfliDENT C. R. An AMR of the Wisconsin State University said: As chairman of the Committee on History, I have been very much entertained and gratified by the commendations and by the criticisms to which we have listened. I do not feel disposed to take much time in discussing the matter. I wish only to elaborate a little one of the points touched upon in the report. It seems to me to be a most' useful recommendation in the report, that the study of history should not be pursued spasmodically, as it now is, but through a long period, beginning earlier in the course of the students and carried on continuously to the end of the student's preparatory course. The recommendations of the Committee of Ten perhaps departed quite as far from the recommendations of the Conference on History as on any other subject. It was, I suppose, because the conference had a profound conviction that history must be studied as a whole; that it could not be taken up and studied in parts; that History should be a part of the work and the life of every pupil, from the time he is l^ginning to study until he goes to college. In our opinion the study should begin in the primary school, but not through the use of text-books. I remember very distinctly, when a student in Germany, I went into one of the preparatory schools, and the most impressive thing I saw was the teaching of history to a class of boys of eight years of age. The first lesson I heard, was on a subject that would ordi- narily not be thought to be very inspiring. It was entirely oral, and very interesting, as the teacher called attention to the leading facts in the life of the person, and it seemed to me at that time that I never saw a class of any age listen to instructiou with more attention; and as I went into the class the next day I never heard results reported more successfully than by those boys of eight. The work was repeated with so much fidelity and accuracy, that it seemed to me they had learned every word that had been given to them. Although the conversation or talk of the teacher was all there was of it. They do not believe that pupils from six to twelve can do very much in the way of actual study. The committee were impressed profoundly with the idea that important changes in this regard should be introduced into our methods of teaching history. I am glad to see that changes have taken place within the last few years. Ten or fifteen years ago it seemed to me, when I was engaged in the active work of teaching history SmoDs.] MORAL TRAINING. 165 ID the nniYersity, that it made absolutely no difference whether the student had studied history in the preparatory school or not; he came to his work with a mind that was practicully yacant of all historical knowledge. I believe that is no longer true; but it is still true that our pupils do not come to us with that systematic knowledge desirable, concerning what the growth of civilization has been. Every German boy, before he goes to the university, has been taken three times over the whole of history in three different ways— first in a biographical way, then in a way that shall teach him a narrative of events as a whole, and thirdly, in a way that shall emphasize and teach him the meaning of the great events with which he has already become familiar. Until we can do this in our own schools, we cannot pre- tend to have done so much as the German and French schools do for history, in fitting students for the university. MORAL TRAINING THROUGH THE COMMON BRANCHES. BY DR. OHAELBS De GARMO, PRBSIDTCNT SWARTHMORB COLIiE»B. PENNSYLVANIA. Hie public schools being for all sects, we have instinctively re- sisted every effort to sectarianize them in the interest of any given organization. Setting our faces thus resolutely against every tend- ency to ntilize the schools for proselyting purposes, we have doubtless succeeded in intellectnalizing them to an unwarranted extent Doing so much to sharpen the wits, we have perhaps not done enough to develop the character. Without underestimating or displacing any means or method now found in the school for the development of moral character, the purpose of the present paper is to inquire if we caanot utilize more fully for moral ends the means now unquestion- ably at our disposal. It is not unnatural, in view of the history of such efforts in the past, that men should jump to the conclusion, that because we cannot teach religious doctrines in the public schools we are consequently unable to accomplish in them any adequate moral training. Only an analysis of what constitutes moral training and an examination of the value of the common branches in this respect can show what we may fairly expect from an honest, clear-sighted teacher working in the most efficient manner with these materials now at conunand. It takes a weary time for the world to acknow- ledge the validity of a new idea or to view old problems from new standpoints. The notion that specific religious doctrines and observ- ances are the indispensable basis of any moral development worthy the name has been so long prevalent in the world, that it is difficult to get serious attention to other means, which, if not so good in some respects, have the advantage of being at free disposal. Teach morals 166 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General through the inculcation of religious systems we cannot, but not a hand will be raised to stay us when we propose to utilize to their highest extent the value of the common studies as instruments of moral training. A man is religious when he bears the right relations to his Maker. He is moral when he bears the right relations to his fellow- men, both in their individual and in their organized capacity. Some men who would scorn to cheat an individual out of a nickel, will un- blushingly steal a ride on a train if the opportunity offers. They distinguish between i)ersons and organizations. They are moral in private, but immoral in public intercourse. An analysis of moral character shows three prominent character- istics, viz., moral insight, moral disposition and moral habit Un- less one has an intelligent insight into the quality of moral actions, his deeds can never be counted moral, however agreeable or useful they may be. We ascribe no moral or immoral nature to the ox that drags the load, the rabid dog that destroys his master, or the bird whose song delights the ear, because these are lacking in power to discriminate between that which is morally good or bad. In the same way moral disposition, or the right attitude of the mind toward those with whom we come into moral relations, is es- sential to the moral deed. If I deal honestly for fear of punishment merely, if I refrain from stealing merely for lack of opportunity, if I am polite simply to secure trade, if, in short, I am not right at heart, my insight avails nothing, and my habits, though good as to apparent results, are morally indifferent, if not actually negative. Furthermore, no man can be said to have a strong moral character if he has not well-grounded moral habits. Until this end is reached he is not safe. Not only must his thought be clear and his disposition right, but his corresponding deed must be assured through well- grounded habits of consistent right actions. If through instruction in the common branches and the discipline of obedience the public schools can give clear moral insight, if they can develop the dis- position that always springs from right feeling, and at the same time fortify the soul through weU grounded moral habits, they will accomplish a noble work, and may confidently intrust to the Church and the family the specific religious training for which they have laid so firm a foundation. Can the common branches be made to reveal to the child, in any adequate manner, the moral relations that should exist between man and man and between the individual and the organized business, social and x>olitical groups of men with which he comes into contact? In other words, is it possible through their agency to make a monil ^A MOBAL TRAINING. 167 ^t t:lie world? Furthermore, if it is possible to do so, is \tBeem\rj xm^ mBke this revelation in order to fulfill the demands iiiadewVJtitiLe modern citizen? In tk first place, I should like to point out that the moral prob- lem in its concrete filling changes from age to age. The golden rule It^Bj indeed, eternal validity, but the deeds that I would my neighbor jshottld do to me differ with the chan^ng ideals of different ages. Fur- aiermore, ideals of morality arising from the relations of individuals to societjy as grouped into civil, social, educational, charitable and family oi^fli^ations, are subject to still wider variations. In ancient Greece moral conceptions were focused about the art ideal. In Bome, the bors were taught to swim and to know the table of the laws. Virtue was military and civil in essence. During the middle ages, when the Church became both the spiritual and the temporal power that ruled the world, morality necessarily focused upon the religious idea, when obedience to Church authority and strict conformity to her or- dained ceremonial was naturally esteemed the basis of moral char- acter. In our own age, however, science and political evolution have changed the point of view. In theory, at least, every individual has political freedom and equality. All are alike in the liberty to in- fluence the economic and political policy of the nation. Science has made it i)ossible for many more people to live much better. Not only are large populations now possible, but medical science and hygiene enable even the feeble to survive; civil equality has raised the demand for universal education, and this in turn lifts the ideals of the people as to what belongs of right to human existence — a high standard of life, good, wholesome food, decent clothing and housing and some leisure. The scholar has long been able to make his recreations de- velop his body; the laborer's demand now is for leisure to enable him to make his recreations cultivate his mind. In spite of the fact, therefore, that there is much in morality that is unchanging and eternal, the emphasis, perpetually changing, is now economic, social, and civil, as it was once aesthetic, then military, then ecclesiastical. This being the case, we may turn all the more earnestly and expect- antly to the inquiry as to whether the studies of the common school are capable of becoming the means of a moral revelation of the world to the child. The moral training possible in the public school is foreshadowed in the kindergarten. This is the most potent instrument in the hands of teachers for developing the social instincts of the child. All pride and selfish enjoyment of isolated pleasures are soon cast aside or strictly subordinated to the larger groups of pleasure found in par- ticipation in the songs, plays and occupations of organized groups. 168 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General The domineering temper, the peevish disposition are both dissipated in the air of good-fellowship that always pervades the true kinder- garten. The mental training that can be given in such an institution is not to be compared with the moral good that is the inevitable conse- quence of its influence. To one whose conception of common school education is the mas- tery of forms without thought-content, with labor lightened and sweet- ened it may be by artificial devices and educational confectionery, the proposition to get any serious moral training from the studies of these schools might recall Swift's satire on the professor who undertook to extract sunshine from cucumbers. But however great may be the obligation of the school to teach the child the use of the instruments, of knowledge, as in reading, spelling, writing and early number work,, it has still more important and serious obligations in the way of the development of character. The studies of the curriculum fall natu- rally into three groups: (1) The humanistics, such as literature, history, civics, languages,, music, art and i)olitical geography. (2) The sciences, such as botany, zoology, physiology and physical geography. (3) The economic branches, as manual training, industrial draw- ing and art and commercial geography. Each of these groups has some function in the moral training of the child. Perhaps the highest duty of the teacher is the imparting of ideals, especially as to the institutional relations into which the child must in future enter. It is inevitable that children in forming these Ideals do so largely through the imagination. They must be taught to look ahead, to picture situations, to forecast desirable modes of action, to foresee consequences. They must be led to pass sound moral judgment upon historical or imaginary occurrences; that is, to test important events by a few fundamental moral ideas, such as truthfulness, good wUl, justice and equity. Literature and history are marvelously rich in their moral content. Every conceivable moral situation, both individual and institutional, is therein repeatedly set forth, and may be put before the child in form so simple that he can easily understand, and in colors so bright that the heart may be warmed and attracted toward the highest ideals. With the noblest literature in the world, applicable to every grade of intelligence, the teacher must indeed be stolid who cannot secure therewith to the young both sound moral insight and moral disposition. We must, however, be careful to distinguish between the literature that is childlike and that which is chUdish, Nothing could be more Insipid than the manufactured juvenile literature that crowds the 8«8ioM.] MORAL TBAININO, 169 modem press. As Rosenkranz says: ' '*The best literature for children from their seventh to their fourteenth year consists of that which is honored by nations and the world at large." This is the literature that has grown out of the experience of the race when in its earlier or more childlike stage. It always appeals to childhood, for it is in the naive form that children can always understand. The enduring early literature of every nation has thus a charm and value that never grow old. We have a living example of this in the stories of the Old Testament up to the separation of Judah and Israel. Rosenkranz remarks: "These patriarchs, with their wives and daughters, these judges and prophets, these kings and priests, are by no means ideals of virtue from the standpoint of our modern lifeless morality, which would smooth out of its model-stories for the dear children everything that is hard and uncouth. For the very reason that the shadow side is not wanting here, and that we find envy, vanity, evil desire, ingrati- tude, craftiness and deceit among these fathers of the race and lead- ers of God's chosen people, have these stories so great an educational value." I quote also Dr. Harris, in the same volume: *^very child should read as indispensable the stock of stories which furnish general types of character and situation. ^Robinson Crusoe,' 'Gulliver's Travels,' *Don Quixote,' the 'Arabian Nights,' Plutarch's *Lives,^ Homer's TQiad' and 'Odyssey,' and the dramas of Shakespeare should . be read sooner or later; earlier than these the old English stories and fairy tales, and Itfother Groose's Melodies.' A scale thus ascending from the earth to the fixed stars of genius furnishes pictures of human life of all degrees of concreteness. The meager and abstract outline is given in the nursery tale, and the deep, comprehensive grasp is found in Shakespeare." Prom these elementary stages of literature we rise gradually through such authors as Hawthorne, LongfeUow and Scott, to Lowell, Emerson, Tennyson, and then to Shakespeare, who mirrors almost every possible phase of modern institutional life. Every play begins with some conflict between the individual and the institution of fam- ily, church, state, or business world. King Lear shows us the logical results to family and state when absolute authority is no longer guided by reason, but by caprice. Gloster conmiits the unpardonable crime against the family. Macbeth passes from the extreme of pa- triotism to that of treason. In "As You Like It" Duke Ferdinand and Oliver are both usurpers, one wronging the state and both the family. When these negative deeds have culminated, the world begins to purge itself from the wrong. In the tragedies harmony is restored through the destruction of the offender who has gone so far that his deeds must react ui)on himself; in the comedies the offender is medi- 170 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. LGenwal ated through repentance and restitution. Thus both Shjlock and Antonio, the one unchristian in the pursuit of revenge, the other in contemptuous treatment of a fellow mortal, are both mediated and saved from the natural consequences of their deeds through the ef- forts of Portia. Youth must, in short, see life through literature, but interpreted by the teacher, who should be able to see literature through life. In no more effective way can high ideals and ri^t dis- position be inculcated. Our main reliance heretofore for teaching political morals has been United States history. But this is subject to great limitations. The mythological and biographical preliminary work reconmiended by the Committee of Ten can be made much more effective, for they are simple, concrete and of great interest to children. Not much in- sight into political duties or much permanent disposition to do them is cultivated by the ordinary school history, which consists of descrip- tions of conquests, campaigns and battles, together with brief and formal statements of their causes and results. A much more efficient method is to make a detailed study of the nearest and most obvious political forms under which we live. This study should embrace the present facts and how they came to be. Children should be set to a study of the town, its origin, its methods of work, the rights and duties of citizens and officials. They should be led to investigate the subject of taxation, its purpose, its rightfulness, its methods, its justice and injustice, its benefits and necessities; what role it has played in wars and revolutions, and what the rights and duties of citizens are concerning it. In similar ways students should make a detailed study of county, city and state; of written constitutions and of the organizations, rights, duties and privileges of political parties. This is the root out of which history must grow if it is to have any ethical vitality. Thus far we have dwelt chiefly upon the formation of moral in- sight and disposition. Even the most formal subjects of the cur- riculum, like grammatical and mathematical studies, may have a beneficial influence upon character, leading under proper teaching to appreciation of exactness and truthfulness as ideals, and to dili- gence and persistence in the w^orking out of results. The will of the pupil is daily trained to acquire strength and general efficiency, thus forming habits of decision and uprightness that will be of service in realizing any ideal that the mind may form. Even natural science, though essentially non-moral in content, may become a powerful instrument for reaching moral ends, being especially effective in developing a love of truth and a kindly dis- position. Even a boy prone to cruelty may become so interested in the habits and life-struggle of birds that he will no longer desire to J MORAL TRAINING. 171 Stone them or break up their nests. The literature of natural his- tory, as presented by such incomparable writers as John Burroughs, can do much in this direction. Not long ago a Philadelphia young man owning an uncleared lot in our village directed by letter that his land should be cleared at once. Happening to visit the town next day, he wrote again upon reaching home, saying he thought it would be well to wait for a week or two, since he had discovered in the bushes a brown thrush's nest with unfledged young ones in it. It is related of the late Dr. Joseph Leidy, while a professor at Swarth- more College, that he had one day taken a dozen young turtles from a neighboring pond, saying, as he departed, "Little turtles, Til bring you back.'* He took them with him that evening to Philadelphia, but receiving a telegram making it necessary for him to leave the next morning for a considerable journey, he returned to the college, a distance of twelve miles, on foot, in order to restore the little reptiles to their home. The love of nature that can be engendered in the hearts of the young is closely akin to the love of men that we strive for in moral training. That this kindly disposition is worth striving for even in the study of nature, we know from the fact that even those who have been deemed religious have not always had it, for nowhere else in history do we find a record of more inhumanity to man than in religious wars and persecutions. Without stopping to dwell upon the healthful moral influence that may be exercised through the industrial or economic phases of the curriculum, I should lUce to point out the important function that may be performed by the industrial or commercial phase of geography. Political geography is a declaration of what history has accom- plished in the way of political subdivisions of the earth, and, to some, an explanation of how historical forces have produced the results they have. Physical geography lies at the basis of the natural sciences, being in this respect, also, essentially non-moral; but com- mercial geography, more than any other study, reveals to the child his own present and possible future relation to the business world. Even the barefooted urchin of the country cross-roads may be led to see that his parents, or even himself, cast their mite into the world's commerce, to see it returned to them, not after many days, but at once, enriched and magnified. The car-load of cabbage heads may be transformed into a college education for one of the children. The crop of com brings back fruits, clothing, books, papers, maga- zines; it produces educational opportunities; it beautifies the walls and helps to pay the preacher, besides enabling its owner to pro- mote the public good. The narrow horizon which always shuts in the ignorant now becomes as wide as the world. Electricity brings instantaneously news from the remotest countries and strangest peo- 172 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General pies; the railroads, canals and oceans bear the commerce of the world, reinforcing the puny might of the isolated individual a thousandfold when he enters heartily into co-operation with his fellows. The heart of youth is fired as he beholds the possibilities of a life of co-operative harmony with others; he sees the possibilities of his own worth en- hanced a thousandfold, his petty selfhood infinitely enlarged, his dig- nity exalted, through the reinforcement that the race brings him when he learns the supreme lesson of serving himself through service to his fellow man. There is time for but a single consideration more, yet it is an im- portant one. The moral content pointed out in the common branches has always been there; their potentiality as instruments of moral training is not new. If we have not utilized them for this purpose in the past, the fault is in ourselves, either in not being able to dis- cover their value or in being too bungling to use them aright. We have indeed often been content to exercise the children solely in in- tellectual gymnastics (more demoralizing far than college foot-ball), or to imagine we were educating them while desiccating their brains through barren forms, or to regard knowledge as more nourishing when sugar coated with hysterical methods or atomized into homeo- pathic doses. We must look, therefore, not only to the subjects of study, but to ourselves. It is the teacher who must make the moral revelation to the pupil through these studies; who must cultivate through their instrumentality the kindly disposition; who must secure the moral habits. President Eliot says there are two evils in our schools, namely, lack of strong interpst on the part of the pupil, and lack of continuous strenuous exertion. Both of these lacks pertain as strongly to moral as to intellectual training, the first one especiaUy. Who can expect the child pampered by exciting methods and play- work to form any growing, abiding interest in the subjects that should give him his moral insight, disposition and habits? Teachers are leaning on a frail reed when they think entertainment a substitute for the interest a pupil can be made to feel in his studies, when they graduaUy unfold before his eyes the life of the future, when they convey to him even dimly the experience of the race, either in real or ideal forms. To secure this interest the subject mat- ter must bo wisely chosen and well articulated. The report of the Committee of Ten makes a noteworthy contribution to the solution of this problem for the secondary schools. It is to be hoped that we may soon have a similar report for elementary schools. More im- portant even than selection and co-ordination of studies is the daily method of the teacher. This should be guided by the apperceptive capacities of the child in the sequence of presentation, in the in- ductive approach to generalizations, in the application of rules and SeasiDDs.] CHILD STUDY, 173 principles to concrete problems; but most of all it should be inspired by a mind suflSciently cultivated to grasp the noble purposes of educa- tion, to apprehend the splendid opportunities of the teacher. This daily method should be directed by a heart full of sympathy with the highest ideals of conscience and duty. With such subject-matter, 80 taught, the public schools can produce a tyi)e of moral character, which, if not precisely that to which tradition accustoms us, will yet be in harmony with the social or institutional morality that must ex- ist in our highly complicated society, where men, through co-opera- tion, have such tremendous power for harm as well as for good. If Niagara, through the beneficent use of her heaven-lent strength, may lig^t and warm a million homes, so a labor agitator may likewise have the power to paralyze the industries of a nation. In addition, therefore, to aU that the past teaches us resi)ecting the develop- ment of character, shaU we not utilize this other potent means, which, like an unused element, lies all about us? CHILI) STUDY. BY DE. G. STANLEY HAIiL, PIIBSIDBNT OF CLARK UNIVBRSITY, WORCESTER, MAaa fSTKNOGKAPHIC REPORT. J This occasion reminds me of another occasion twenty-five years ago, when I pronounced this sentence as the culminating effort of my commencement oration, a sentence so magnificent that I shall never forget it "To thee, O future historian! we commit the issues of the present hour." The issues of this hour, which I think the future historian will not forget, lie in the single fact, that unto you is bom this day a new Department of Child Study. I am not sure, lusty as this infant is, and visible as I believe it to be, that we shall -be likely to overestimate the importance of this event, which gives, as I believe, a new scientific character to education and to this section. The circumstance reminds me of another story, just about as old as my oration, which I will repeat (although every one of you have heard it, I hope) because I have a new application of it. "Mary and John were courting one Sunday night in the kitchen. There was but one chair in the room, and no one was standing. When she had sat in his lap two or three hours, she finally turned to bim and said: ^Tiy, John; you must be getting a little kind of tired,' to which John replied gallantly: *Not a mite tired, Mary. You just keep on sit- tin' where you be. I was dreadfully tired about an hour ago, but now 174 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General I am numb.' '' My new application of this old story consists in saying* that this vigorous, stalwart, well-blooded Educational Association is John; the kind of philosophy of education that has generally played the chief role in the past history of this Association is Mary. Xow, Mr. Chairman, will you kindly permit Mary to arise from where she has sat until the Association is a little numb, and let me present this new baby, which has been adopted but not bom to this Association, for John to dandle half an hour, to get over nis numbness, if it has not already passed into atrophy. Child study represents four or fire lines of work which are quite distinct the one from the other. In the first place there is anthro- pology, this study of the human species from infancy to old age, and which now, within perhaps three or four years, has begun with great zest to study the civilized child in several countries, so that we have a large body of literature which a friend of mine is to take six lectures to describe. We have also the pathological side. A distinguished German has looked over the writings of thirty of the chief writers upon edu- cation, and noted down in the dictionary every word designating faults of childhood. How many fault words do you think he Uas found in this pedagogic library of thirty writers? He has found 927 words which designate a distinct fault. Third, in every civilized country, children are tested by the scores and hundreds, with reference to sight, and they find that it decreases in acuteness as we go up in the school grades, until in some coun- tries it reaches forty to fifty, or sixty-three per cent in the high school senior class. The ear has been tested, and the sensibility of the muscles, etc., and a large body of literature seems to suggest that the modem school may be making the child a little sickly and arresting its development. At any rate, the percentage and numbw of school- bred diseases was never so large; nor is it strange when we reflect that the child in nature plays freely, and uses all its muscles, and lives in the free air, while the school shuts him up in an artificial atmosphere, sets the child down on a seat, and at a desk, perhaps, which does not fit him. Physiologically it throws the whole strain of school work upon the tiny muscles of fingers and tongue and leaves about ninety per cent of the muscles idle, not in use in the exer- cise of the school-room. That fact may bring home to us the impor- tance of what we have called pedagogical pathology, which now con- stitutes an important study in education, and is now claiming our attention in perhaps half a dozen shapes. Then we have another great department which is devoted to the study of the child's mind ; and a very strange and anomalous thing ia SesBioDB.] CHILD STUDY. 175 the great amount of ignorance that has been discovered. The num- ber of things which children ought to know, and do libt know, would make a vast body of literature. The direction in which most of these defects of ignorance lie is known to us, and we must go forward and direct the forces of enlightenment toward the real enemies of our civ- ilization. Thus we have from many sources a great body of truths, that have come, as it were, to the rescue of the child. It seems as though science were dealing with life and history, and that everything must be understood through right conceptions of the right side of man's souL This is the fact which lies behind and out of sight of the move- ment which has caused the creation of this new section, and which I ask you to guard as the very apple of your eye. It is this depart- ment alone that can make education a science, if it ever can be made a science. This philosophy is almost new, for the adult psychology is quite a different thing, as different as is the child from the adult. Some have even gone so far as to say that those of us who have spent our lives in teaching the old philosophy could never enter into this new kingdom of child psychology. It certainly will require an educated insight to enable us so to do, but enough has already been done to prove to my mind a satisfactory augury of the future. The little child now standing in our midst is, I believe, again to be the regeneration of education, to moralize it, to make it religious, to bring the child (because it brings the school) home to the hearts of the men and women, where children should always find a warm place. (Applause.) I projKwe to speak briefly of three chief points in this course of study, where they seem to me to have their practical focus. If I was to address you from the standpoint that I hope to be the motto of this section, it would be, child study is first and foremost for the benefit of the teacher. It educates and stimulates, and keeps the teacher young as nothing else does. By contact with children in their years of growth anybody ought to keep on growing to the very end of life. I believe that by contact with the child, in sympathy and interest, there is a growth for the teacher that no device in all education, no kind of extension movement, can equal in efficiency. So I say that the first chief good to be sought and expected is stimu- lating an interest, a renewed professional spirit, a scientific spirit, for the best science. The most progressive science of the day is behind the teacher in this movement and it does refresh and invigor- ate the teacher. Child study is, secondly, for the sake of the child. To enable us to adapt our methods to the child, so the young teacher shall not 176 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General merely run the school machinery and keep order, but shall give out an influence wfiich shall go straight from his heart to the heart of every child in the room. Teachers should know that every child they touch has somewhere a secret spring, and it unfolds wonders, while not reducing the general efficiency for the room. Thirdly and lastly, the value of this study is its advantage for science. Teachers can do great things for science here, and they have done so. Part of this is technical and part scientific; but part of it any teacher can do perhaps better than scientific men. It involves a new contact between the best science of the day and the best teach- ing of the time, and that is the standpoint for which I appeal for it. The three practical advantages, which I desire to refer to, are, first, that of health. It does much for health, because the beginning of child study ought to be a great interest for the health of the child, and in that way you can interest the parent. This movement has resulted in Paris in the appointment of about thirty young doctors, before they have established their practice, who about twice a year fill out a little 'health book" for each and eveiy child in the schools where this system has been adopted. If a child on examination has bad fyes, €.g., they write in this book to "send him home at 3 o'clock." The child goes home, and they see that he has excellent medical care. That pleases the parents. This has been one of the best results of child study advocated by the government there. The fact is we are coming to realize what health means. The sign of health is exuberance. He rejoices in play, the superfluous euphoria, the joy of being alive, and it is a greater joy than any other. The form of greeting among all civilized people, as they shake hands with each other is, "How do you feel" — how is your heart, your euphoria, — ^have you any extra life in you, over and above that nec- essary to keep your heart beating and lungs going and just to keep alive? This superfluity of life, over and above sufficient to support the more vital processes, is the raw material of culture. Every discovery, every great work that man has done, has been made out of this spontaneous material. Every great original creative work of man has been done out of this euphoria. Some men have done some- thing when they were sick perhaps, but it is because the dear Lord has not quite denied euphoria even to the sick room. I think, then, it was not without considerable wisdom that the English physician, who lately died, said, that if he could only have the selection of the future queens of Great Britain, or Germany, or the other countries of Europe, he would ask two questions: **First, has she a good normal appetite for wholesome well-cooked food? and, second, does she sleep well? and being satisfied on these two points, for all the rest," he said, SesBioM.] CHILD STUDY. 177 **I would trust God." I do not think it is irreverent, therefore, to ask, with all seriousness: ''What shall it profit a child or a teacher, if they gain the whole world of knowledge and lose their own health, or what shall we give in exchange for health?-' It is not without significance that, in the last three years, hygiene has come to take a prominent part in our education. My second point is as old as health, and yet new, for the feature of child study is that, like the Gospel, it makes old things new. The first requisite of the good teacher for young children might perhaps be said to be: "Does that teacher succeed in opening the senses of the child?" Many children, it is said, are color blind. A great many people have no ear for music, but experts agree that it is absolutely unnecessary — that everybody might have a good musical ear. The object of the teacher should be to get the child in a condition of responsive sensitiveness to every aspect of nature. It all makes life larger, this contact with nature. There is a sdiool of literature now devoted to the discovery of new sensations, that they may exjxerience a new thrill; and all education should be directed to the unfolding of the senses and the widest [wssible development of the mind. So what we want to-day is to get as many sensations and as many different views of life as possible. As a boy I was brought up on the farm, or my father very wisely let me spend summer vacations on my grandfather's farm, where old fashioned industries were seen, and I count the time spent there as the most educative of my life, because I had a natural ambition to do everything. Let me tell you some of the things I learned how to do and can do to-day, and am proud of it, although you may think me egotistical. I can mow; I can milk a cow, imd know the right side, which many an artist does not; I can whet my own scythe; I know how to make a garden; I have woven a piece of cloth, or helped to do it, all myself; I have made palmleaf hats as a boy, from the very straw, finished them, and got five cents apiece for them; I can plant, chop, butcher, team it, cut ice, etc.; make cider, maple sugar, fences and stone walls, and all these things have stood me in useful stead in the laboratory, where a man must know and do a little of everything. My laboratory discipline is helped out by the farm work more than anything else. It is the impulse I got there that made it necessary afterwards for me in Germany to go and take a dozen lessons of a bookbinder, and another half dozen of a glass blower; and finally, when two or three years ago, I went into Boston I found a goldbeater, who gave me some lessons in the fine points of gold beating, in this way you open up to the eye of the soul the avenues of impression and expression; you get the soul in har- mony with the life without, and there is an exchange between the soul 178 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General within and the external life without. You thus multiply life, and you increase it two, or three, or four fold. See what our psychologists are doing — spending their vacations in asylums, among the idiots and insane, and in prisons. We have to visit all kinds of institutions, because it is indispensable that we may know human nature; know it as it is. If you wish to study and underatand life in any adequate way, you must look at it through these many different sources. Look at the microscope, and see what new worlds come before you. The man who has studied the microscope, knows many times as much of the world as he who looks at nature with the natural unaided eye, because he sees so many other things. It increases two or three times his capacity to enjoy the world and understand its problems; to know nature and know life. It helps to follow that principle which we have heard stated: "Necessity of tak- ing the whole child into school." That is the second point. Now the third andJast is this: If you were to stop here it would be a very strange kind of a being you would develop. It would lack the very root of personality ; namely, unity. Therefore we must have unity, and we must have all these various elements of our nature so compact and incorporated tliat they will not be easily broken up. You have aU read, no doubt, stories of hypnotism and dual person- ality; but the essential quality in child training and in all education is unity of all the faculties. The eye and the ear, and all the senses, must not only be opened up and developed, but must be brought into their relative relations one with the other, and they grow together by association, and so unity, so far as we can study it, is growth. The pieces of the child's mind are made separately, and then they are put together. It is very important that their combination should be thorough, so that the pei'sonality will not be decomposable. One phase of this is seen at adolescence, when many natures almost break up as they pass through adolescent years with such great difficulty. I plead for this unity. I believe it is a question of the greatest seri- ousness which we have discovered here in the study of adolescence. We must get at the j>ersonalities of the child. That unity which accompanies old age, and which is fundamental for moral and ethical training, should be the cardinal aim and end of our endeavor. There- fore I saj', children will be selfish before adolescence. It is nature to be selfish. Let them be selfish. Do not impose upon them any arti- ficial conformity to your standard. Do not watch them always while they play, imposing limitations of adult standards upon them. A little child is a bundle of sentiment. It has all the tender feelings of the adult, almost; it can sympathize with your soul, your heart, and it can sympathize with your individuality. Not the intellect, but SosioDL] DISCUSSION. 179 the heart of the adult and child are almost alike; therefore appeal to ihe heart, which is the strength and source of life. The mind is krdly able to think in childhood along other than selfish lines, but it should be developed, and the child sent out of the school-room, not .selfish at the end, but altruistic and devoted to others, and if the i?chool does not do that I believe it does very little for moral civiliza- tion. What do we need in this country to-day, and what do these men who are rioting in Chicago, and what, alas! do many of my own col- leagues, I fear, who teach political economy, to-day need? Why, they need to take the altruistic standpoint, and show that the center of life is not self but others. WTien the struggle for the survival of the individual has given way to the higher struggle for the survival of others, inspired by Christian sentiment, then will come a better civil- ization, life is for service; it is not for self, and this idea should be implanted deeply in the heart of every child. Let us remember, then, that while selfishness has its own place in childhood, that religion and civilization show that fundamentally all morality is the instinct or discipline of service and doing good f<>r others, and that ^aew alone, I believe, will elevate education to the plane which it ought to occupy. It has already saved us in the past, and is to do much in the future for this country if it survives from the standpoint of the new enlarging educational philosophy — ^larger far than any philosophy we have had — ^the first glimpses of which appear in the study of the child; a philosophy so large that all science and evolution shall have its place in teaching, in order that the very best in the child may be inspired and roused and developed, and I give to teaching a new consecration. DISCUSSION. Wm. L. Bryan, Indiana State University. — 1 wish to ask a single question, which I am not able to answer. Can we co-operate in child study ? For one thing, can ^e persuade the people to allow experiments upon their children ; that is, experiments by those who are competent? For, as Colonel Parker suggests, the public already t^Terywhere yields the children to the mortally perilous experiment of incompetent t^'aching. It is already clear that the most skillful and devoted friends of the chil- dren, those who wish to study the children for the children's Kak<». must seek warily ^f'r a chance to do so. The wreckers have the frecnlom of the coast. Can the life saving crew get a chance to put out boats? For another thing: Can men with money be made aware of the claims of child «ndy upon the wealth they hold in trust? They put a telescope upon the Andes. 180 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [General They send an endless line of ships to the north pole. They send out costly expedi- tions to collect the bones of prehistoric men. All of which is good. But nobody yet has fitted out an expedition to hunt for the child, although many are eager to go and although the child bears the whole hope of our race. For the third thing, will those interested in child study consent to work together? Quite upon another plane are doubts and fears which deserve from all sides respect- ful consideration. It is undeniable that the teacher and the specialist have points of view that do not coincide. The teacher is confronted not with nicely defined questions in muscle physiology, but with so many beings each of whom is a whole child. The immediate demands of the school cannot be satisfied by an outlay of scientific scraps. It may be useful, so the teacher contends, to know how fast a boy can wag his finger and what part of his brain he does it with, but this knowl- edge gets hazy when one is facing the boy. For this reason, — which always comes against new science from men whose work it offers to direct, — for this not trivial reason the teacher refuses to surrender at discretion to the specialist, and demands place as a real co-operator in the work of child study. On the other hand, the scientist is predisposed to distrust all amateur investiga- tion. He knows fr^m his own experience, after what severe initiation, on what hard conditions, he is willing to trust himself; in how many different ways it is pos- sible for research to end in fiasco. He knows how hard it is to find a good method of research. A good method is like a good machine or a good proverb. It has risen to that which is essential through innumerable sagacious rejections. To devise a method that will go to the heart of some matter is precisely as easy as to write a poem that will do so. No good intentions, no patience, nor zeal, nor work, will make a way for one whose plan has not in it the secret of nature. For these and such reasons the specialist sometimes justifies himself all too easily in ignoring amateur interest in child study. These reasons should rather ur^e both to come together. Teacher and scientist need each other. All the ways in which they differ in point of view, in knowledge, and in ability are ways in which they can supplement each pther. It takes variety to make a co-operative organism. I do not know whether we can have co-operation in this matter on a great and effective scale or not. If not, if the forces we have cannot be mobilized, if we can have only scattered bands of militia and free-lances, but no regular army, then, still, at the worst, something will be done. Here and there, as at present, a school- man will lead teachers to observe and to work in the psychological spirit. Here and there, as in the past, a good piece of research will be carried through by in- dividuals. If, as many of us devoutly believe, we bear a message from the Holy Ghost for the saving of the children, then the divisions, the delays, and the blunders may be what they will; but when we have devoutly blundered on for ten years the situation in America will be changed,— just as to-day the situation is vastly changed from what it was ten years ago, when President Hall read to astonished and un- believing ears his epoch-beginning "Contents of Children's Minds." But if by some happy means we can be brought together for child study, as we were brought together for the making of the World's Fair, then it seems to me we shall stand in reach of these throe things: 1. Teachers everywhere may be wisely directed in observing the children in their charge. In the cities and normal schools, where this is now done, the effects first upon the teachers and then upon the school are sometimes almost incredibly beneficent. I am assured that one Western city owes its far-known spiritual growtli more to the inculcation of this habit among its teachers than to any other cause. If we believe in the principle of self-activity, how can we doubt that the teacher DISCUSSION, 181 ho^^^ K ^vio^er and thirst after personal knowledge of child life is on the yioS»^^^^^ «^o child and herself. <» ^ Vi'e covi\^ "kicLve, from experts in all the sciences touching child life— anthrd- \ogJ' ^^^*^^^*^^y. neurology, psychology, etc.,— authoritative advice on school ^'^^ejve- ^^ «k\oxie is reason enough for organization. Let us never forget this ^' te 0^ ^*T^* ^Ha.t these sciences have help to give, and that the children far and ^^Ae\ft^^ ^^ Viody and mind and fall short of the fullness of life which is pos- 3. ^^ could have high-class research on a greater scale than has ever before Q attetapted. There is no reason why, within the next few years, hun- are^ of thousands of children should not be tested by experts in all the lines I ba^® mentioned; why the problems and methods and personal skill developed in |t ^ese Vmes should not be brought into action; why the normal and abnormal haxDB.n body and mind should not be studied more thoroughly than has ever yet lycen possible. To be discreet, I must not prophesy the outcomes of such research. To mSL^y ^^ seems impossible that it should not bring a great illumination for the reading ot all history and for the direction of all affairs. THOS. P. Bailey, Jr., Ph. D., Superintendent of Schools, Marlon, S. C— In the bioJo&cid professions there are naturalists, specialists and co-ordinators. The prac- ticing teacher (naturalist), like the practicing physician, 'reports cases by means of s minute record of symptoms. Statistical and other .mass-experiments are of little ralne to the study of character and to the effort to devel<^ it, unless the child is irtudied, also, by means of authentic facts (doings and sayings) recorded of children whose life-history is known. So-called character-studies ("sizing-up" of the child as to temperament, disposition, mental growth, etc.) have all the faults of a sub- jective find unscientific method; their results are useless to the profession at large; they lead to misplaced confidence in the mystical "intuition" of the **sizer-up." Ticketed collections of sayings and doings are valuable, but are to psychology what dried and stuffed specimens are to the biologist. Vital phenomena must be studied in the functioning organism. Mass-studies are to be supplemented by ^unit-studies. The records of physical facts, and of doings and sayings of individual children who have been sympathetically and scientifically observed, are of far greater immediate importance to the practitioner than are the results of the specialist and the generali- zations of the scientific philosopher. On the other hand, the specialist and the philosopher are continually crying out for the facts. We must study children before we make bold statements about the child. We cannot educate children until we know them; in order to know them we must study their doings and sayings. The •ordinary observer can best study these by seeing and hearing them and setting them down in writing just as they occur and just when they occur. It is with the hope that naturalist work may be stimulated that the following authentic account is given of a seven-and-a-half year old South Carolina girl. Her ancestry is a blending of English, German, French and Scotch. The physical data about the child and her parents and grandparents are tolerably full, but there is not time to record them in this brief sketch. The following admitted character- facts about the child's parents are given: Mother: Cheerfulness, skill in mimicry, sociability, love of order, self-sacrifice, religion of doing. Father: Teacher, college-bred, strong believer in material reward and punishment, strongly and dominantly emotional. The mother died when the child was a babe a month old. The father is living. There is nothing abnormal about her physique. She is being brought up by her aunt, who is unmarried. The aunt is strongly ideal in character, reflectively religious, very impulsive in conduct. 182 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General The foHowiuK sayings aiul doings are olassitied only according to the child's agi"^- They were carefully though spontaneously recorded, and have been corroborate* 1 and verified: DOINGS AND SAYINGS OF H. 1. (Two years.) Remembers and repeats, after several days, her aunt's stat**- ment that H.'s mother is "with God," "She's with God." 2. Several hours after, while aunt is recounting it to the family, as soon as thii- words "with God" are reached, H. looks into aunt's face, and says, "Papa told me." 3. Told to call father **Papd." Nurse says, **Pd pa." Child cries, "Say PapA/' 4. (Two and a half years.) Father: "Whose baby are you?" H.: "Papa's** — then, noticing her aunt's presence, "Auntie's baby." 5. (Four years.) H. doesn't want to be an angel, because it's too much likt^ a "wooster" (rooster). 6. Doesn't want to go to heaven, because she will "butt" her head. 7. (Between four and five years.) H.'s song (founded on "Jesus, Lover of My Soul" and "The Little Lord Jesus Laid Down His Sweet Head" : Want to go to bosom fly; Want to go to heaven; Want to hug God; Want to eee my mamma. 8. Puts .a present in her stocking for Santa Glaus: "I know he has plenty of things, but I just want to show him 1 love him." (This was said very earnestly.) 9. (Five and a half years.) On seeing lightning through the window at night:. "What is that making the dark jump back?" 10. (Six years.) While walking with aunt on outskirts of town, sees a cowv lets go aunt's hand, crosses silently to the cow-side. Aunt: "H., do you want to go- on the cow-side?" H. (demurely): "Yes." 11. (Seven years.) Recites with great earnestness "Charge of the Light Brigade." Afterwards: ""'Where is the place?" "In far-away Russia." "Oh! I want to go^there and see their foot-prints!" 12. (All that follow occurred during seventh year.) "Why does God punish the Jews for not believing in Christ? Didn't he make our souls and bodies? Didn't he make us just what we are?" 13. "Would like to be like God, so I just couldn't do anything wrong or think anything wrong." 14. "I would like to be a person like God ! Just like a person that's hypnotized and can't knock over an arm, but only under it. When he makes us suffer pain it's^ to do us good; just like when pa switches L., and it does him good." 15. "Did God marrj- the Virgin Mary?" 16. She wishes to say her prayers whenever she changes her dress in the^ forenoon. 17. If she gets out of bed to drink w^ater or to get her doll to go to sleep with her, the good-night kiss and the formula, "God keep you all the night," must be repeated each time. 18. She sets great store by being in time to go to school with the other children. When she first began school, her first question in the morning, before her eyes wen* well open, was, "Is it late?' 19. After drilling her in spelling, her father told her to spidl "soldiers" (a worncert. **I just don't try to answer." 25. It lay upon her conwiience that sometimes she waited for the others and called out what they said. 2G. Reading: Learns lesson by heart and quickly catches expression. « 27. Spelling: Ear not drilled. Delights in words of similar sound. In a woni like **glossy" she is apt to begin with an **8." Sometimes puts the final letter first. 28. Q: "Can you?" A: "I might can." 29. "I oughtn't to have driven out pussy. Granny is never sick, and he didn't know what to make of it. So he just went in the room and said, *Me-ah! What is the matter?' " 30. She is told that pussy must wait. "If you were a cat, how would you like to wait?" 31. She pets domestic animals. She was bitterly grieved when a dog she had petted snapped at her. 32. H.'s little cousin said: **H. is gooder'n she used to be." When H. heard this she said: "It's because there are no rabbits now. When he used to squeeze my rabbit I slapped him. Would you let anybody squeeze your rabbit?" 33. H/s aunt takes care of her. H. thinks aunts take care of children, and that the person sitting at the head of the table is a "grandma" or "granny." 34. She thought she grew a great deal in the night before her birthday. Thinks her fourteen-year-old cousin must be older than her aunt booause he is larger. SPONTANBOUa ACCOUNT OF THE CHILD'S CHAllACTBR BY HER AITNT. She habitually confesses all her little foibles and scrapes to her aunt. Easily obeys everybody but her aunt, but during separation obeys her aunt's wishes generally, and confesses when she fails to do so. Strenuously tries to have her way with a weaker will; easily yields to high authority or to a stronger will that makes just demands. When aunt is feeling "blue," H. looks up and says, "What is the matter with your eyes?" She catches the "tone" of those nearest and dearest to her. Has a talent for friendship. Of one of her playmates she says: "She is the best friend I have in the world." Not ordinarily inclined to self-consciousness, but sensitive to ridicule. If they tell her that her ears are large, she wants her hair to flow loosely, so as to hide her ears. Objects to her aunt wearing anything that "looks funny." Wouldn't recite with an older child (eight) that said "wead" for "read." Broke down and wept when given a piece to recite in public. She was excuseil. Shy with strangers at first, but soon friendly and hospitable; fond of company. Likes to run errands. Passionately fond of music and poetical rhythm (even when the wjrds are un- intelligible). Loves stories; doesn't want words left out; prefers telling to reading, but at the age of seven is satisfied with having stories read to her. Likes pictures, and picturesqueness in narration, but cares not for "style." 184 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General Enjoys a simile when it is explained to her. Has become tired of Old Testa- ment stories; prefers folk-tales, etc.; never wearies of the **01d, Old Story" of the New Testiament. Is inclined, but not allowed, to dive into the doctrine of the Trinity, etc. (The fear-feature has been kept out of her life as far as possible. Her nurse was an exceptionally refined young colored woman.) Going to church tires her; she likes Sunday-school; prefers Episcopal service. (Methodist family.) Can't bear to miss school; has continuously been on roll of honor. Fond of number, writing and drawing. From babyhood she has been fond of books, whether with or without pictures. , Has a passion for collecting: Stones, pieces of "china," pictures, trimmings, \jooks, old letters, leaflets— anything. Stores away her rubbish in boxes that are carefully put away. Great idea of meum and tuum ; her aunt's belongings are meum. Expostulates with her aunt when there is a difference of opinion. Particularly dislikes for her aunt to betray little confidences; on the other hand, she sometimes seems anxious, yet reluctant, for her aunt to tell something H. has said or done which has amused the aunt— but it is a risk; sometimes she is offended at the telling of the most innocent thing. When they spoke of her crying at st^hoi.tl she wept bitterly at the dinner table. If she says anything about her aunt that sounds uncomplimentary, and her aunt laughingly alludes to it, she "weeps and is greatly huii;." When she wishes to compare her aunt to some one, she begins by saying: "Mrs. So-and-So is a very pretty woman." Her loyalty is exceedingly strong; she cherishes what is told her of her mother; preserves little objects belonging to her mother. She loves beautiful objects, beautiful dressing, surroundings, etc.; loves to "settle things," but needs a companion, as in play. Easily amused; very happy when alone if sympathy is in reach and she has any little congenial thing to do. Loves to make up Vsongs" and "accompaniments" on her toy piano. She is quite a tomboy (the house is full of boys) ; yet one of her favorite amuse- ments is "playing lady" in her aunt's clothes. Ordinarily cheerful and sunny, but influenced by the tone of others. Can give "railing for railing" when the boys worry her. She is a considerable tease when she sets out. Plays harmoniously all day unless her companions are cranky; if they are, she becomes cranky, too. Keen sense of justice; believes in the "eye-for-an-eye" doctrine. Persuasion in- duces generosity, but unless she sees with your eyes she is obdurate, or else obeys sullenly. She is quite a mimic. Her little tempests are generally brought on by undue friction, and are soon over. All at home join in saying: "She is her mother over again." Miss ADELAins E. Wykoff, Brooklyn, N. Y.— There is one phase in this dis- cussion of child study which has interested me very much, and that is the making of good citizens. The Chicago anarchists have been referred to. I wonder if we all know that in Chicago the anarchists have Sunday-schools where they train members to defy the laws of the country? Th*e class-room is a place where the teacher stands before her children as the embodiment of law and the guardian of liberty. Responsibility for these children and respect of the child for the teacher will en- courage respect for justice and love of order. A teacher may do a great deal to send children into life to become part of the lawles.s. There was a boy ten years Sessions.] EDUCATION OF COLORED PEOPLE. 185 olJ who belonged to a missionary society, aiid the leader of the missionary society did not understand the boy and they clashed, and this boy withdrew from the mis- sionary society and went out and organized an infidel club and managed and ran his infidel club in opposition to the missionary society. There was a class of grown students who showed a leaning towards anarchy, and there was an investigation in this case made, and the symptoms were traced back in their beginning through nine years to the time when they were misled by a teacher. Did any one of us ever feel the crushing force of humiliation? There are children who have been known to die from grief and mortification at the loss of promotion at examination times. But we teachers take our turn in examining these children, and we urge them on to the highest standing, and strain the powers of the child for success or failure. What does failure mean to them? It means not only the loss of principle, but it means a disturbing influence in the very soul of the child. Dr. Hall spoke of the little child that was sitting in our midst. It has taken us a long time, many centuries, to begin to realize what was in the mind of Jesus Christ when he said that the little child should lead them. At last the meaning of childhood begins to dawn upon us, and there is one word that he spoke that seems to be written in fire,—* 'Whoso shall cause one of these little ones to offend, it were better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck and that he wwe cast into the depths of the sea." B EM ARKS ON THE EDUCATION OF COLORED PEOPLE IN THE SOUTH. BY PBBSIDBNT RICHARD R. WRIGHT, OF THE GEORGIA STATE INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE. [ Stenographic Report.] FeHcw Teachers and Fellow Workers in the Great Cause of Education: All of us, whatever may be our complexion, are engaged in that grand work of attempting to elevate mankind, in the work of making men better and purer and nobler. There should be and there can be no higher calling. We in the South are striving to lift up our people so that they may go with you of the North in the irand march of progress. We come and look into your faces and catch inspiration from yen as we listen to your words of wisdom. Thirty years ago we would not have been met by a representative of this great band of teachers. Thirty years ago noble men and women of your ranks came down into the southland to open our eyes and to show us what we should do to make ourselves worthy citizens and people, worthy of the opportunities which had been given to us. We have, in the State of Georgia, 3,500 teachers— 3,500 colored men and women striving in their humble way to teach the childn u the rudiments of an education. We have had a hard time to get hold of education. I have heard the statements made which caused me to feel proud— not proud of the fact that the statements were made, but encouraged by the fact that I saw that you, too, in the North have had to come along almost the very same way we are now struggling to come. We have had the difficulty of bringing our people to the place where they could understand that education was worth having. I am president of the 186 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Qenoial State Teachers* Association of our own State, and I was selected to come here to get such methods and such principles and such ideas as I might, to carr>' back to the teachers in Georgia over whom I have had the honor to preside for some years. The colored teachers of the South are anxious to join hands with the educators of the North, and do whatever they can for the development and better- ment of the country. We need your help to make these people all they csni be. The colored people of the South are an industrious, law-abiding race. You never hear of labor troubles or strikes or riots. No i)eople of the country, pardon me, I believe, would do the work which the black man is doing in the South, year after year, without grumbling, without strikes, as cheerfully and as well as has beeu done by the people of my own race in the South ever since the war, and, for that matter, long before. (Applause). And we shall continue to do that. After all of these years, through benevolent means and by the State and other aid, we have been able to give the rudiments of education to seventy-three out of every hundred colored children throughout the State of Georgia, so that to-day only twenty-seven per cent of the colored children in that State cannot read and write. I want to say to this audience I believe in education. I believe in religion. I believe in those grand principles that shall develop the soul of man, and I be- lieve that the time will come, and is coming, and I sometimes think it is almost here, when we can grasp hands and say, that we shall unite for the uplifting of mankind regardless of race, color or previous condition of servitude. (Applause.) I sometimes think that the teacher's greatest power does not lie in the accumula- tion of knowledge, but it is sympathy and zeal that helps build up character in children and students. I have sometimes thought, fellow teachers, that it was the heart that was most important in the child ; that if we could, help develop that, that child will be bound to become a good citizen in this free land. I thank you, in the name of the teachers whom I have the honor to represent, for the honor that you have given me in permitting me to stand upon this platform and speak to this great audience in behalf of colored eilucation in the State of Georgia. PROFEISSIONAL OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES OF THE TEACHER. BY DR. EDWARD BROOKS, SUPERTXTENT>ENT PUBLIC SCHOOLS, PHILADBLPHLi, PA. The professional obligations and duties of the teacher are mani- fold. To enumerate them in distinct propositions would occup}' the time assigned to this discussion; to treat of any one of them, seems like the repetition of thoughts that have become platitudes through the discussions of the last thirty or forty years. I shall be pardoned, I trust, if I vary slightly from the original intent of the question in presenting two considerations which are at present uppermost in my thought. My first thought is, that the paramount duty of the teacher is to elevate the standard of professional qualifications. One of the Sessiona.] OBLIGATIONS OF THE TEACHER. 187 best means of accomplishing this is, to develop in the consciousness of the young teacher that teaching is to be conceived and studied as a science and an art. That there is a science of teaching is now generally admitted. When Mr. Page wrote his book, which has be- come an educational classic, he called it "The Theory and Practice of Teaching." Were he living to-day and preparing a work for teach- ers, I believe he would entitle it "The Science and Art of Teaching." Since he laid the foundations of normal education at Albany, the theory of teaching has been lifted up into the certainty of a science and the practice into the excellence of an art. Teaching should there- foi-e be conceived and studied as a science of great underlying prin- ciples, and as an art based upon and growing out of these principles. Young teachera are stud^>dng the different phases of educational doctrine with an earnestness and enthusiasm never before witnessed; but much of the knowledge which they obtain is fragmentary and useless, because of the lack of a unifying and co-ordinating principle which is to be found in the scientific conception of a subject. The age is characterized for its novelties in educational thought and ex- position; the public journal and the lecture platform fairly bristle with claims of new educational ideas. As valuable as these may be, ihey will stand in the mind of the young teacher a chaotic mass, without fonn and void, until the spirit of scientific thought shall move upon them, reducing to orderly relations and giving them their proper place and significance in the system. A clear conception of the great leading ideas and classifications of pedagogical science will give a meaning and virility to these ideas which they could not otlier- wise possess. Science has been defined as organized knowledge. On its in- ductive side, as in natural history, it consists of facts, generalizations and classifications. On its deductive side, as in mathematics, it consists of general truths, demonstrations and classifications. Teach- ing embraces both of these two phases of science. It collects facts by patient obser\'ation, and derives principles and laws of culture and instruction from these facts. It takes the general truths of psychology, and of the natural and formal sciences, and unfolds by deductive inference the great laws of human growth and develop- ment It is its glory and power that it can work in both of these directions, uniting induction and deduction in its investigations and conclusions, and thus rounding out its completed sphere of truth by the union of these two hemispheres of human thought. It is not claimed, of course, that the science of teaching has at- tained that completeness and perfection that belongs to geometry or logic, but that there are great classes of definite conceptions and universall}' admitted principles that can be co-ordinated into an or- 188 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General ganized body of truth which is the characteristic of science. There is a great body of doctrine which a lawyer must acquire before he enters his profession; and there is a body of doctrine no less exact and diflScult and comprehensive and dignified w^hich a teacher should study and master to fit him for his vocation. The science of pedagogy is as broad and deep and high and comprehensive as the science of law or of medicine; and teachers should so conceive it and master it if they would be masters in their profession. The foundation of the science of teaching is a knowledge of the nature of man — a knowledge of his capacities and potentialities, and the laws and methods by which they are to be awakened and de- veloped. Thus the sciences of physiology, psychology and anthro- pology lie at the basis of a teacher's qualifications, giving a mag- nificent field for study and investigation worthy of the best minds and the highest talent of the age. Correlating with this knowledge of mind stands the great world of knowledge, consisting of science, literature and art, all of which are to be used to awaken and de- velop the spiritual activities. These branches of knowledge, originat- ing in and coming forth from the mind, bear certain relations to its powers and activities, and are thus adapted to its growth and de- velopment; and it is the teacher's privilege to trace their origin, to see their relation to the faculties which produced them, to estimate their educational values, and to determine the principles and methods by which they can be employed in the work of education. Here, also, is a problem of the deepest interest, and worthy of the profoundest study and investigation. Then comes the consideration of the school where the educational work is to be carried on, embracing school buildings, school furniture and apparatus, school organization, school government, school systems, and all those practical and economic ar- rangements necessary to supply the conditions under which the work of education is to be carried on. Supplementing these is the his- tory of education, in which may be traced the rise of educational ideas and doctrines, the gradual development of our present systems of educational thought and practice, and the organization of educa- tional systems and institutions. Around and above these four di- visions, as the crowning feature of the system, comes the consideration of those universal and comprehensive principles of education which unite the parts of the science into an organic unity of power and Airility. To grasp the subject of teaching thus in its great outlines and thoroughly digest its leading principles, is a necessity for the high- est and most intelligent work as a teacher. It gives him an independ- ence in weighing and estimating the value of educational doctrines, iind enables him to preserve his mental balance amid the whims and SeerioM.] OBLIGATIONS OF THE TEACHER. 189 vagaries of educational thought which so often confront his atten- tion. Standing firm amidst the verities of established truth, his mind can be open with confidence and liberality to the reception of that which is, or seems, new in education, and he is enabled to co- ordinate the new with the old in a deeper insight and a larger vision. If Herbartianism comes with a seemingly new revelation of pedagog- ical truth, he can form an intelligent estimate of its claims^ see its relation to the teachings of standard psychology, and give it its proper place in the general system of educational thought. If he hears assertions that the so-called "faculty psychology" is an absurdity of a defunct philosophy, and finds himself, through mental idiosyncracy or infirmity, unable to grasjj the meaning of the terms perception, memory, judgment, etc., without thinking of them as naming parts of the mind as the blade, springs and handle are parts of the knife, he ran tentatively use the indefinite circumlocutionary expressions, hop- ing in time to be able to rise to those more definite psychological dis- tinctions expressed by the terms made significant by the great think- era of ancient and modern times. With a catholic spirit he will give cordial welcome to the in- teresting investigations of child study, seeing how the inferences from the facts of child life harmonize with the conceptions of standard psychology, and often vi\dfy and give enlarged meanings and new applications to these standard conceptions, and in a word, he will have in his mind solid foundations upon which he can build, year by year,, higher and loftier, the grand temple of pedagogical truth. I can conceive of no higher professional duty than to endeavor 1o inculcate and make universal some such conception of the dignity and scientific character of the teacher's vocation. It has been cus- tomary to claim that teaching is a profession; but this claim means but little unless by our higher qualifications and artistic work wo demonstrate its professional character. We lower our calling by our low standard of requirements in the education of teachers. The mass of teachers still look up to medicine, law, and divinity as the three learned professions; and the mass of mankind still look down upon teaching as merely a means of gaining a livelihood. The time should come — is it not rapidly coming? — when the vocation of teach- ing, by the culture and skill of its members, shall be placed along- side of these other vocations as a fourth profession, fully equal in dignity and value to the other three. To hasten such a consummation ij« a professional duty of teachers, than which I can hardly conceive one more important or inspiring. My second thought is, that co-ordinate with the duty of actually elevating the teacher's vocation is the correlative one of elevating it in public estimation. This is partly accomplished by the professional 190 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General improvement of teachers and the elevation of professional standards; but something even more than this is needed. The sentiment of the "blushing flower unseen," and "gem of purest ray serene," applies with special force to the vocation of teaching. The teacher's work, done in the quiet seclusion of the school-room, is withdrawn from public gaze; the spirit of devotion so common in our public schools is unknown to the public; and the teacher is thus largely lacking in public appreciation. And even more than this: there is a general depreciation of teachers among the cultivated and influential classes of society. At the public meeting of the city, no teachers are on the committee or sit upon the platform along with the repi-esentative men of other occupations; and even at the dedication of school build- ings, the speakers on the program are usually lawyers, ministers and politicians. Our literary circles in the larger cities are not only not conducted by teachers, but teachers are often igi^ored h\ them. 8ays a lady to another at a cultivated literary gathering: "T^lio is that flne-looking woman coming into the hall?" "Oh, that is Miss Blank; she is only a public school teacher," was the reply. Such a fact, unfortunately, is a typical one. Public sentiment among the cultured people of our cities is too truly indicated by the expression, ^^She is only a teacher." My thought is, that it is the duty of teachers to labor to change this public sentiment. To do this, we must rise to higher planes of scholarship and culture. As mortifying as is the admission, the fault is largely in ourselves that we are or have been underlings in those accomplishments which command public approval. If the men teach- ers of our cities were all men of high scholarship, reflned literary culture, and accomplished talkers, the public platform would gladly welcome them. If our women teachers all possessed those graces of culture afforded by the continued study of literature and art, they would soon become the leaders of the literary societies which are an inspiration to the intellectual and social life of the city. TNTiat we need is a higher culture among ourselves, more study and scholar- ship, and the development of those graces of mind and character which are the outcome of an intellectual and scholarly life. Towards this end the influence of our profession should be ear- nestly directed. Higher standards of scholarship, as well as of pro- fessional training, should be the teacher's watchword. One cannot but admire the high thought, the cultured manner, and the grace , of expression of many of our representatives who took part in the discussions of the Council during the early part of this week. Such attainments, the result of a life of study and reflection, should be the ideal towards which the young men teachers of the country' should aim. In my official position as superintendent, a prominent object has Sessions.] LABORATORY METHODS IN SCHOOLS. 191 been to hold out inducements and provide the means for the higher scholastic training of the young men teaching in our public schools. .Many of these men, though excellent teachers and supervisors, were denied the early advantages of a collegiate education. One of my earliest acts was to arrange with the University of Pennsylvania a special course of study for such young men, which when completed would entitle them to the degree of doctor of philosophy. My thought is, that one of the best ways to lift up the profession in public estima- tion is to elevate the teachers who constitute the profession. The signs of the times are most hopeful in this direction. Tlie teachers themsdves are showing a deep interest in this higher cul- ture. The teachers* institute of our city arranges for classes in lit- erature, French, German, etc., and many of the women teachers of the city are availing themselves of these privileges. With still higher aspirations, they are now soliciting me to make arrangements by which they, also, can pursue a university course of instruction and secure that breadth of scholarship that will entitle them to the doc- torate degree. With such a spirit on the part of teachers, stimu- lated and directed by those in positions of influence and authority, we shall be able to have, in our large towns and cities at least, a cultured class of men and women who will command a fuller share of public appreciation and admiration. Then will come increased compensation, provisions for pensioning teachers of long continued sernce, and a thousand things that will, in some measure, be a re- ward for the spirit of devotion that characterizes the great body of men and women who are laboring in our public schools and making of them fountains of influences that are to purify and perpetuate the life of society and the nation. Higher scholarship and higher pro- fessional qualifications should be the watchword of the hour. LABORATORY METHODS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. BY OHARLBS B. SOOTT, ST. PAUL, MINN. As we watch the kicking, creeping, toddling, little child, and note from day to day his life and actions, his growth and development, two etry, in the sense that it appeals to the ideal nature and leads beyond the mere external contemplation of things to their in- ternal movement and significance. Children get from a poem or story a general meaning rather than a critical understanding of each phrase. In Hans Andersen's story of the pea vine, the children understand in a general way the corre- spondence between the life of the growing plant, which blossomed into beauty as the life of the sick child blossomed into health; that as the plant was imprisoned and by patient growing at last rejoiced in its perfect expression of beauty, so the life of the child, which was im- prisoned by sickness, slowly returned to power and joy. ^Vll of this story might be reduced to a few didactic statements, or to a few clear, agnificant similes. The child could not fill these condensed state- ments with life or explain them by his experience. We cannot set the style and measure of our lives by the electric raflway and the fashion plate, though these are great factors in our civilization. In our great cities, nature should bring to the children, 204 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Geneial to the toUer, that wealth of life, that repose of spirit, which "a host of golden daffodils" could bring to the poet. I Uttle thought What wealth the show to me had brought. For, in moments of weariness or loneliness, They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude, And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils. nORACE MANJPS COUNTRY SCHOOL. BY HON. HBNRY SABIN, SUPERINTENDENT PUBLIC INSTRUdTION, DBS MOINES, IOWA. The country school as it existed in the thought of Horace Mann had nothing in common with the college or the university. In his mind the education of the child of the humblest laborer in the com- monwealth was of as much consequence as that of the child bom to an inheritance of millions. The act defining his duties, after enumer- ating certain methods of work, declares the end to be, "that the chil- dren depending on the common schools for instruction may have the best education which those schools can be made to impart." In his times, when people talked of the common schools they had in mind the country school, the little red schoolhouse of which Whittier wrote: Still sits the schoolhouse by the road, A ragged beggar sunning; Around it still the sumachs grow, And blackberry-vines are running. The entire school nomenclature of the present day is a new inven- tion, which would have been senseless jargon in the ears of those who lived in the times of Horace Mann. Of state universities, of agri- cultural colleges, of secondary schools, of manual training, of uni- versity extension, of the Committee of Ten, he had no occasion to learn, and so he was left free to concentrate the powers of his mind upon his work in behalf of the common district school. He recog- nized the apathy, the absolute indifference, of the people as a great evil. In order to remedy this, he scattered circulars and letters every- where; he enlisted the prominent men of the commonwealth^ gathered information from every possible source and spread it broadcast among the people. aeamons.] HORACE MANN'S COUNTRY SCHOOL, 205 But the most powerful means which he used was his personal presence and his addresses. He went from village to village, and from hamlet to hamlet, preaching even^'here to the common people the saving gospel of education; and the common people heard him gladly. His words came to them like water to the thirsty soul, and like bread to the hungry. Secondary schools, high schools, city super- vision, manual training, have usurped nearly the entire educational field, while the schools in which the children of the farm laborer, the miner, the rural community, must receive at best a limited education, sit in the valley of the shadow of ignorance waiting for their redemp- tion. The country schools in every state need an educational regenera- tion, a fresh baptism into the spirit of Horace Mann. It is to be noted here that the subjects of his lectures were such as were calculated to enlist the sympathies of his audience. They appealed to the common heart of the populace. There is danger that as a profession we may yet become too professional. Psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, scientific teaching, are well enough when we are debating among oui'selves; but if we expect to interest and in- struct the people we must talk common sense. WTien he said, "The mobs, the riots, the burnings, the lynchings, perpetrated by the men of the present day are perpetrated because of their vicious or defective education when children;" and again when he said, "If we permit the vulture's eggs to be incubated and hatched, it will then be too late to take care of the lambs," he was lecturing upon "Means and Objects of Common School Education." He once used these words: "If republican institutions give greater scope and impulse to the lower order of facjilties belonging to the human mind, then they must, also, give more authoritative control and more skillful guidance to the higher ones. If they multiply temp- tations, they must fortify against them. If they quicken the activity and enlarge the sphere of the appetites and passions, they must at least in an equal ratio establish the authority and extend the juris- diction of reason and conscience." He was talking to the people con- cerning the 'Necessity of Education in a Eepublican Government." In his lecture, *What God does and what He leaves for man to do in the Work of Education," he combines more pure pedagogy than is sometimes contained in an entire volume which is put into the teacher's hand to study. The work of the creature must follow and supplement the work of the Creator. "Surely," he says, speaking of the training of children, "in no other department of life is knowledge so indispensable; surely in no other is it so little sought for. In no other navigation is there such danger of wreck; in no other is there such blind pilotage." He was speaking to a promiscuous audience, not to one composed of teachers alone. 206 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Geneml I have dwelt at some little length upon this point, because I know, that if we expect to rescue the common district school from its present low^ estate, we must catch the spirit of Horace Mann and talk to the people in plain unmistakable language, concerning the duty as w^ell as the necessity of providing for every child in the State the best edu- cation possible, at the public expense. Ministers have lately dis- covered that if they wish to convert sinners they must go where sinners are. If we ever reach the people, to convert them to our way of thinking, educationally, we must go where the people can hear us. If we would bring common truths home to the conscience of the peo- ple, we must render them luminous with the light of common things. AVe have no need of a Moses to lead us a tedious journey of forty years through the wilderness; but we do need a Joshua who can stand by the river, even when it fills all its banks, and bid the priests who bear the ark of popular education, go forward, and stand in the midst of the stream, that the people may pass over dry-shod. It is a most serious question which confronts us in many localities: What can we do more than we are doing to arouse an intelligent en- thusiasm in behalf of better schools? We are having fair success in many cities, although even there many ignorant and unworthy men are elected to the board of education, often through party politics. But in many country districts in those States where population is scarce and schoolhouses far apart, apathy, ignorance and indifference brood like a thick cloud over the entire community. When National and State Associations are busy with the mint, the anise and the cumin, who is there left to attend to the weightier matters of the law ? There are two questions which claim the attention of the public just now. The one is, how to obtain better results from the work done in the elementally schools in our towns and villages; the other is, how- to raise the character of the instruction given in the common country school. The Committee of Ten which can solve these questions will build for itself a monument more enduring than brass. These are far above all questions concerning secondary or collegiate education, be- cause they are nearer the common people. It is interesting to note the importance which Horace Mann at- tached to the rudimental branches. He says of the normal school, then just started at Barre: "There are fifty students in attendance, which number might have been doubled if the instructors would have consented to carry them forward into algebra and chemistry and astronomy and geometry, instead of subjecting them to a thorough review of common school studies.*' He evidently preferred for tlie district school that a teacher should be thoroughly prepared in a few- important branches, rather than have a superficial omniscience gained by a cursory study of every known branch of knowledge. Tlior- HORACE MANN'S COUNTRY SCHOOL. 207 V\(\ ^^X>aration induces thoroughness in work; a superficial prep ^^Xi^^rs thoroughness in instruction impossible. Eoiae^ aiaixxi's teacher for the district school must possess aptness to teach, as Nvell as knowledge, which he says embraces a knowledge of niethote and processes. He adds: "He who is apt to teach is ac- qcflinted not only with common methods for common minds, but with peculiar methods for pupils of peculiar dispositions and tempera- ments/' The best normal schools are not always those with the finest baUdings, or the most extended curriculum, but those in which the students study and apply "the principles of all methods," so that they laay vary their modes of instruction to suit the individual wants of tlie child. Tlie era of individuality is at our doors, and the teacher of the future will be compelled to deal with his pupils as the wants of each one may require. Rules, regulations and systems must give way, and the individual chUd must be enthroned as the one supreme object for whose welfare the school was established. This was Horace Mann's idea. It can best be carried out in the country school, but it can no- w^here be successfully done unless the teacher possesses, and is gov- erned by, the teaching spirit. The teacher in the country school, isolated in her work, with but little advice or supei-vision, finds here her only solace; her only refuge from the dull monotony of hearing lessons and keeping order. But Horace Mann's teacher must also possess the power to gov- ern and control her school; not necessarily through fear, for love is far better and more enduring. Yet when love fails, force must be called in, for disobedience is the open gate to all evil influences. He, however, expresses a pungent truth when he says: "Children coming from homes where they have always been accustomed to love and sympathy, should expect to find love and sympathy in the school; and those coming from homes in which there is no love and no sympathy, above all others ought find these in their teachers." As Horace Mann desired that teachers for the district schools should be prepared in the common branches, he did not hesitate to deprecate the tendency, even in his day, to increase the number of branches in the common schools. What would he have said, could he have inspected the courses of study in some of our high schools. Said an earnest teacher the other day : "We have so many things to do, so much instruction to give in different branches, that we have no time to build character." And yet character endures, when knowledge fails. "If there be tongues they shall cease; if there be knowledge it shall vanish away. Xow abideth these three, faith, hojK?, love.'' 208 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General Horace Mann's idea was very far from confining instruction in the country schools to the three R's. Whatever has a tendency to make the boy more useful on the farm, or to make the life of the farm more attractive to him; whatever will make the daughter more useful in the home, or make the home a place of supreme pleasure to her, may legitimately be taught in the district school. The subjects taught in the country school ought to bear a close relation to country life. The great storehouse of nature opens her doors and displays her treas- ures to the rural school. Seedtime and harvest, bud and flower, blos- som and fruit, the care of animals, singing birds and running streams can be made the source of lessons useful as well as pleasant to the children. The country school is shorn of half its usefulness because the teacher is not able to rise to the height of her opportunities. And what wonderful opportunity she has to teach the pupil to "translate forms of beauty into thought, and thought into words!" To make a system of education effective it must be in accord with its environments. The country school should be thoroughly coun- trified; it should never put on metropolitan airs. It is not desira- ble that the country school should keep equal pace with city systems in the character and kind of studies introduced in it. But especially in nature studies, and in elementary science as bearing upon agri- culture and rural life, the curriculum of the country school should be greatly enlarged. Wliat the city school ought to do in fitting boys for the office or for professions, the country school must do in fitting boys and girls for the farm. Just as soon as the farmers in the .agricultural sections of the land find that the school is making the boys and girls more useful on the farm, more intelligent, and more con- tented to remain at home, they will value it for its usefulness and rally to its support. In an article in the "Common School Journal," then (in 1840) edited by Horace Mann, the writer, after enumerating a long list of eminent men, says of them : "All common school men ; some scarcely that; but yet all educat(?d men, because they were made alive." The school, whether it be in city or country, which does not do this for the pupils, is failing of its purpose. We have lost sight to some ex- tent of the purpose of common school education, and possibly we may have to go back to the country school of Horace Mann in order to get our bearings again. I do not say we do not, but I do say we ought, to turn out of our common schools reasonable, thinking, live men and women, anxious to be of service to mankind, eager for knowledge, with a quickened conscience, with the seeds of growth planted so deep that neither drouth nor frost can reach them; growing year by year like the young sapling of the forest which does not reach its maturity until it has SorioDS.] HORACE MANN'S COUNTRY SCHOOL. 209 been nourished by the sunshine of a hundred summers and has bn?asted the storms and winds of a hundred winters. He is edu- cated, then, '%ho thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best." But where are we to get our teachers fitted for this work? This is true, that no State in the Union is so thoroughly equipped with nor- mal schools as to be able to give all her teachers a professional train- ing. This is also true, that the normal school takes apparently high- est rank which approaches nearest to being a well-equipped college. I do not object to this, and yet but few of the graduates of these schools will find their work permanently in the country. The State must bring its normal training close to the farmer's door. O the pitiless, merciless, barbarous experimenting which is being practiced upon thousands of American children in the school-room I The blind teaching them to see; the dumb teaching them to talk; the lame and the halt teaching them the grace of motion; it is a sin which cries to Heaven. Horace Mann tells this story: A by- stander, after witnessing a wonderful operation upon the eyes, per- formed by the most skillful oculist in London, asked him, "How in the world did you learn to do it?" He replied, "By practice; but I spoilt a bushel basketful of eyes in learning how." The State should inaugurate a series of normal schools, one in each county, or at least each congressional district, with a curricu- lum confined almost exclusively to elementary branches, and hav- ing special reference to country schools; the course to be completed in two years, and in charge of the best instructors whom money can get. Then we may look for the dawn of the educational millennium; the day when the door of the public school will be locked against eTery candidate who has not had some special preparation for her work. Then the seedtime shall not fail, and thousands of happy chil- dren shall yearly celebrate the hary-^est home of knowledge. There are but two other points to be touched upon. Long and earnestly did Horace Mann labor to reform the architecture of the country schoolhouse. From his day to this there have been spurts, spasms of reform, but nothing lasting; there will never be suitable buildings, built with due regard to health, comfort and convenience, in accordance with the laws of sanitary science and of civilized de- cency, until the State exerts its authority and compels it, as a pre- requisite of obtaining a share of the public funds. It will take years to reach this conclusion, but the agitation should begin now, and bear with it the active influence and co-operation of this National Educa- tional Association. Finally, the district schoolhouse must be the rallying point for every influence which tends to elevate or benefit mankind. Within 14 210 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General its walls should be kept the district library; the museum of specimens gathered and labeled by the children; the herbarium of flowers and leaves which the children have gathered on the prairies or the hills. Here may be held the country lyceum; the debating society; the sing- ing school. No matter if religious meetings and Sunday-schools are held here, provided the religious conscience can be so elevated that the worshipers will not desecrate the room by tobacco nor purloin the books of the pupils. Here may be held historical or scientific lectures for the benefit of both parents and pupils. The surroundings should be sightly and attractive. Trees and flowers and shrubs should adorn the grounds, which should be scrupulously cared for. In short, the district schoolhouse and the grounds should have such a hold upon the community that they would be the last places which they would permit to be desecrated by the vandal or the tramp. This would be the district school as Horace Mann would have it. THE STUDY OF LITERATURE. BY RICHARD G. MOULTON OF THE UNIVERSITY OP CHICAGO. [Stenographic Report.] I consider it a vei'y high honor to be allowed to speak, myself a teacher, to this magnificent gathering of teachers, and also to be allowed to speak to you on a topic which is the most interesting of my life, and that is, "The Study of Literature." My particular thesis may sound to you a paradox, but I can assure you it is a paradox I heartily believe; and it is this: That the study of literature has yet to begin. I mean, of course, the study of literature in any adequate sense. Who is there that cares for literature that will say that we have at the present time, in any organized form, a study of literature that will compare in dignity, in equipment, in method, with the other great studies of the times; with the study of language, the study of history, and above all, with the study of physical science? Look around at the universities. My own University of Cam- bridge in England makes no pretense of teaching literature; search its calendar from beginning to end and you will not find the name of this study. For a Cambridge Master of Arts the whole of English literature is represented by Paley's ''Evidences of Christianity," which he has been required to read for its religious, cot for itsliterarv effect. Sesnoos] THE STUDY OF LITERATURE, 211 The other great English University of Oxford, has, within the last few months, set up a school of English literature after existing com- fortably for five or six centuries without one. When you come to the universities and schools of America, I grant you things are much better; your universities, most of them, have classes of English litera- ture. But I am informed that this is a matter of comparatively recent date; that it is still looked upon in many quarters as a con- cession to external pressure, and not an integral part of educational machinery. Moreover, with some honorable exceptions, the universi- ties have in this matter no method or plan of their own, but treat the whole subject simply as a hanger-on to the province of philology. Someone will say, "look outside." I do look outside, and I see plenty of time spent on the subject of literature, but very little study. 1 find a number of i>eopLe who are buying books, piling up libraries; but there is all the difference in the world between books and litera- ture. Some of the world's greatest literature, like Homer, was pro- duced when there were no books in the world. The greater jmrt of this book buying is due to nothing more than a spirit of coDection. T\l]en a man has a certain amount of money and a certain amount of leisure, he must collect something. One man will collect but- terflies; another man will collect beetles; and a third will col- lect books; and he soon gets to know all the outward marks of books, and the things that make the trade price, or rather, the ^S-alue*' of books. But, if I may trust my own experience, there are comparatively few bibliophiles who have any real grasp of literature. Then, again, I am aware that outside the universities literature becomes a staple subject of conversation amongst educated people. But that fact tells in two different directions. People do not talk about music or mathematics unless they have given some attention to them; but the idea is that anybody may talk about literature. And w^hat is the talk? It merely consists in catching Kome opinion of somebody about some piece of literature, and passing it on without any thought or examination. It consists in reading reviews, to find what people are saying about books; people are anxious to know about books, not to know books. It consists in reading reviews, in order to find what is being done in the literary world, just as people read the fashionable papers to find out- what is going on in the world of fashionable society. That is not the study of literature, but simply literary gossip. Then again there is another class of people, who are sincerely anxious to read, and to get the reigning book, whatever that may be. But when you come to look below the surface, you find that this means no literary study; some people in their dress, in the character of their houses, must be 212 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General up to date; and so with regard to books, they are "up to date." People of this kind will at the present moment be exceedingly un- comfortable if they are not able to say that they have read "Mar- cella;" but they are not at all uncomfortable over the fact that they have not read Dante. It seems to me, then, the result is very much the same whether you look within the university or without. Universities give the cold shoulder to literature, either altogether ignoring it or making it a mere branch of philology; and outside of universities you see not much literary study, but simply a great deal of spurious imitation of it, in book buying, book gossip, and book fashions. We can see not only this fact as to literary study, but we can see also the causes that have brought it about. I should like to put to you two causes as mainly responsible for this low status of literary study. The first cause is the study known as classics. There is a dif- ference between practice and theory. In theory many a man supposes that a study of classics is giving him literary culture; as an actual fact, the study of classics — ^by which is meant always Roman and Greek classics— is proving the most formidable obstacle in the way of literary culture. A moment's consideration will explain how this has come about. The study we call classics took its rise at the Renais- sance, and it then was synonymous with the whole of liberal educa- tion. And a magnificent education it was. The diflficult dead lan- guages gave the gymnastic element of education; and for the other element of education — that which stimulates taste and imagination, which sets the mind to thinking about life — ^what could give that better than the literatures of Greece and Rome? So it was, as long as these classics constituted the sole education of the world. But in process of time, necessarily and unavoidably, other subjects forced their way into the educational program, such subjects as science and the like, and thereby diminished the time allowed for the study of the classics. As the day still consisted of twenty -four hour», all that diminution in the time allowed to the study of classics had to be taken from the literary side of classical studies, since the study of the literatures cannot be commenced until the languages have been mastered. Thus you get this extraordinary' fact, that all the while that education as a whole has been becoming fuller and more rich, all that time, in just the same proportion, the study of classics has been becoming less and less of a training in literature; so much so that at the present moment its defenders put it forward simply as a train- ing in gjTnnastic and mental discipline. For the vast number of classical students the literary element has gone out of it altogether. I know you find a few bright students who get some literary training 1.] THE STUDY OF LITERATURE, 213 out of their classical studies. But these bright persons are of slight importance in educational matters. It is the average man you have got to provide for. If you consider the great masses of our boys and girls who study classics at school, our young men and young women who study classics at the universities, do they get any proper training in literature out of their classical study? They get something, but is that something a training in literature? They talk about the number of pages of Latin or Greek they can read. Pages! Why, in the study of literature, the very unit is a book; to estimate your prog- ress m literature by the number of pages you read, is like estimat- ing your study of elocution by the number of words you learn how to pronounce. Thus it seems to me, that in actual fact as distin- guished from theory, the study of classics, whatever other value it may have, must be reckoned ai^ obstacle in the way of the study of literature. I proceed to the second of the great influences which appear to me to be prejudicial to the study of literature. Here, again, we have a thing which is good in itself, but which is an obstacle to what we are considering to-night — ^the study of literature. I refer to the great modern institution of journalism. Journalism, I know, is one of the most magnificent institutions of modem life. It is the auto- matic record of our civilization- Just as the telegraphic message not only makes itself known to the operator, but automatically records itself upon a tape for reference afterwards, so by the aid of the news- papers, this civilization of ours, is recorded for future ages to be able to follow. I think there are few agencies in modern life which are doing their work so well as the newspax)er. To go further, I believe that journalism has, to a certain extent, an educational influence. But we are speaking to-night about the study of literature. If you look at journalism from this point of view, you cannot resist the conclusion that it is an obstacle in the path of literary study. For what is the very law of existence to journalism? Is it not this, that the currency of thought shall vary inversely with its ma- turity. Look at the facts. Here is the enterprise that goes to make up the newspaper: News is being brought in with the rapidity of lightning; shorthand reporters are taking down speech literally with the speed of thought; the matter is put into literary form almost as rapidly, and almost as rapidly it is printed and multiplied. This haste is necessary because the newspaper is only to have an ephemeral existence of a single day: and this ephemeral literature is sold for two cents and circulates by the hundred thousand. Here is another kind of thought that is manufactured a Tttle more slowly; there is time to see if news is contradicted before it is printed; there is more 214 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [General leisure for arraugement and criticism, more care can be taken in the composition; for what is produced is to last on your tables for a whole week; and this weekly paper is sold for ten cents and circulates by the ten thousand. Now there is another kind of matter being put together in which there is ample time for choice of subject It is written by the best writers, with all possible elegance; all that art can do in the way of illustration is done; it is clothed in the most beautifully tinted covers: and all this can be done because the produc- tion is to have an immortality of a whole month; and this monthly magazine sells for twenty-five or fifty cents and circulates by the thousand. Thus the law is apparent: the ephemeral matter, only made to last a day, circulates by the hundred thousand; the more carefully prepared matter, made to last for the whole month, cir- culates only by the thousand. Ii\ other words, the currency of thought in journalism varies inversely with its maturity. Now, is that a pleasant reflection, when you look at it from the point of view of literature? Literature is the immortality of thought; is it then a pleasant consideration to the lover of literature that the foremost institution, perhaps, of our day, is an institution of which the very law is that the currency of its thought shall vary inversely as to its maturity? There are degrees of danger to literary study in this institution of journalism. Of its various forms the least harmful is the news- paper; the most harmful is the magazine. I call these literary maga- zines the organ of literary spoon-meat. They are the weeds in the literary garden, choking up thv.» mental soil and preventing it from finding time for literary reading, I look upon them as the saloons of the cultured. Men in society would never go near a saloon, but they will waste their time and mental energy in lingering over magazines. We can see with absolute precision what the harmful effect is that this kind of journalism exerts upon the study of literature. It is this^ that it is rapidly destroying the power to read. Don't imagine I am conjuring up imaginary difficulties. I speak as a teacher of literature of twenty years' standing, and I have had as my students for the most part adults, not children, and i^eople having for the most part a certain amount of education and refinement. Now, the fault I find with my students is, not that they are deficient in taste or in judg- ment, but simply that they have not the power to read. When one puts to them the conception of an author they are touched by it as much as one can desire. But they come to us and say, **We do not see these things when we read by ourselves." Why, of course they do not, because they have lost the power to read; they have dissipated the power by skimming these newspapers and magazines. Who ever Se99iou8. ] THE STUD Y OF LITER A TUBE. 21 5 reads a newspaper or inagaziDe? They are not meant to be read. The editor would be the person most surprised if he found that you did read the newspaper; I mean, if you took it at the left hand top comer and went through, column after column, carefully, to the bot- tom of the right hand corner on the last page. The thing would be absurd; the way you deal with a newspaper is to skim it and get through it, cast your eye down and leave out all you possibly can. He reads the newspaper best who reads it fastest. And that is why I think the American press is so much ahead of the rest of the press of the world — it giA^es you so much help through the headlines. Every successive headline means so much less in the paper to be read. The newspapers of the millennium will consist of nothing but headlines. (Applause.) I put it to you as a matter of common sense — how is it possible that you should day after day, some of you many hours of the day, exercise ^"ourselves in this skimming, in this rapidly casting your eye over the columns, leaving out all but just the most prominent things, without developing the power of overlooking? And then, with that power of missing things fully developed, you come to an author like Milton, in whom every word is a picture, in whom every collection of sentences and the very framework of the clauses may be an echo from the literatures of the past. How is it possible that you should read with that attention which such literature requires?. A friend told me something which I think puts the whole matter in a nutshell. He said he had been seated next to what he described as a girl of the period. It was the period when "Daniel Deronda" was the reigning book, and so he put to her the inevitable question, ^Bave you read 'Daniel Deronda'?'' And what do you think was the answ^er? *'No, but I have been told it." Think; she had been told "Daniel Deronda" ! You who have read "Daniel Deronda" — that compendium of a whole philosophy of life, combined with a story as intricate as Shakespeare's plots — fancy a young lady being told the whole! It was as if someone had been asked, "Have you read Herbert Spencer's ^Psychology?' " and he should answer, 'Well, no; but I heard it across the dinner table." "Have you heard Mendelssohn's 'Elijah'?" And the ix*ply would be, "Yes; that is to say, a friend hummed it over to me." I tell you, ladies and gentlemen, — more especially the cultured ladies and gentlemen of America, — ^you are losing the power to read by spending so much time over magazines and newspapers. You are rapidly sinking into a mental state which can only be likened to what men of science call parasitism. You are so accustomed to live upon the brains of others who do the thinking for you that you are losing the power to give attention to the subject yourselves. (Applause.) Therefore, journalism as an institution I am forced 216 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Genesal to-night to reckon as a second great influence hostile to literary study. Thus, when we survey the study of literature we find that in the universities it is ignored, and thereby educated i)eople are turned out without any training of the literary sense; and when they have left the period of their school days and ventured into life we find their daily habits are undermining their power of attention. But I presume we are in an assembly of teachers. If so, perhaps we ought to rejoice in the state of things I describe; I mean, rejoice in the way that a gathering of medical men rejoice in some new epidemic that wDl test their powers. In my opinion, fellow-teachers, we are face to face with a gigantic problem. I have not the least doubt that, so far as higher education is concerned — I say nothing about elementary edu- cation— but so far as the higher education is concerned, the great problem of this coming generation is the development of the study of literature; the bringing of literature up to the position that in theory everybody thinks it ought to have. I should like to be allowed to. turn now from retrospection to prospect, and suggest to you what steps it appears to me must be taken to bring the study of literature up to its proper rank. I see before me three great revolutions that must take place in the study before it is worthy to hold its proper place. The first of these three revolutions is the recognition of the unity of literature. Natural science was not a great study when one man spent all his life on plants and knew nothing else, and another man studied animals and knew nothing about plants. Natural science began to be great when people recognized that there was a great deal in common between the life of the plant and the life of the animal, and the two sciences of botany and zoology dissolved into the wider biology. And the reason that natural science is the foremost study in so many schools at the present day is, that in that study more than any other has been recognized the unity of all nature; the naturalist knows that lie is dealing with one and the same system, whether he is chemically analyzing a fragment of dust he had picked up in the street or turning his spectroscox>e upon the light that has come from suns millions of miles away. It is the same with philology. Not long ago one man would give his time to the study of Greek, another to the study of Latin, and a third to Persian or Sanskrit; others con- fined themselves to German. And when tliat was the case, language was not a science, but an "accomplishment." It began to be a science when people perceived that there was a great deal in common between one language and another. It became more of a science when the comparative method came in, and ''comparative philology" occupied Smuoim.] the study OF LITEBATUBE. 217 men's thoughts. It has become a foremost science now, because we recognize that underneath all the separate language-studies there is one common study of language. Now, apply all this to litera- ture. For the most part we are satisfied to read with one set of people English literature, witk another set possibly Latin literature, with another Greek literature, with another set Hebrew literature; and as long as you do that your literary study will be provincial. To make it catholic you must recognize the unity of literature; that beneath the separate literature-studies there is one great study of literature. The question is, how is this practical problem to be accomplished? Xow, it is to me very interesting to watch the different approaches made in practical education to this recognition of the unity of litera- ture. Many mere approaches have taken place within my own mem- ory. A great English educator has said that the Roman and Greek writers are our literary ancestors. When you come to consider it, that dictum runs counter to the old-fashioned mode of studying litera- ture. It was supposed that to study English literature thoroughly Tou must begin with Anglo-Saxon. But it is a most misleading idea to think that our great classical English literature is developed from the early Anglo-Saxon literature. Thring was right when he said, **You must look to the writers of Greece and Rome for your literary ancestors.*' They were the ancestors of our classical writers. Through these have come every page of Spenser and Milton, if not Shake- fcpeare. But this jwlnciple implies another; all that has been said of Greek and Roman classics is equally true of the Bible. It also is our literary ancestor. Thus a recognition of the classics of Greece and Rome, and of the literature of the Bible, as our literary ancestors, makes one approach to the recognition of the unity of literature. Another approach I should like to dwell on if I had the time — that is, the formal recognition of comparative literature. But the third of these stages of advance is associated with America. It is an inter- esting movement that has been set in motion outside of the univer- sities, by such men as Mr. Denton T. Snider, Dr. Harris (the United States Commissioner of Education), Mr. Hamilton W. Mabie and others. They speak of themselves as students of the four great "world- bibles," Homer, Dante, Shakespeare and Goethe. That is, these four are to the literary world what the Bible is to our religious life; and an organization is formed for studying, year by year, one of these great world-bibles. Of coiu'se, you may object to the choice as arbitrary, but we are dealing with problems of practical education, and I ven- ture to say that one who has thoroughly trained himself in these four world-bibles will be far more of a literary scholar than a classicist 218 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [General who has given his life to the study of Greek and nothing but Greek. I regard, then, the recognition of these four world-bibles as a great approach to the recognition in education of a unity in literature. But I think one step has been taken in advance even of this. The Univer- sity of Chicago, like other universities, has chairs of English litera- ture, but it has one chair which I believe cannot be paralleled any- where else, and that is a chair of "Literature in English." (Applause.) The difference between English literature and literature in English, is the difference I desire to point out, with regard to a recognition of the unity of literature. The holder of that chair has power to treat all literature, — what Thring regarded as our literary ancestors, the literature of the Bible, the four world-bibles of Mr. Snider; he has the right to treat these or any other literature, and upon him is thrown the problem of combining all these so far as is practicable for his students. There is only one limitation upon him, and that is the best part of the whole arrangement, — that whatever literature he presents must be presented in the vernacular English, and not in the original. This is the only way of dealing with this field of universal lit- erature; you must not only make your selections from the literatures of the world, but you must present them to the students in their own tongue. Of course a specialist may say, you lose everything when you study literature out of its original tongue. But this simply shows that the specialist has never emancipated himself from the old confusion between language and literature. People said just the same thing centuries ago about the Bible; they said, it will be the deatli of our religion if the Bible shall be given to the people in the ver- nacular. But we have got along for several centuries with our English Bible, and the record of religious thought since Biblical literaiture has been entrusted to the people in their native tongues will be some indication of the success that will follow when the great literature of the world comes to be studied by the English people in the Eng- lish tongue. This recognition of the unity of literature, then, is the first of my three revolutions. The second of the revolutions I will only just mention: It is the study of literary evolution. Evolution, which has made our physical science so great, must be applied to the study of literature. In doing so we must get rid of the talk about authors. How authors come to write their great works, and all such personal matter is literary gossip. If we are to have a great scientific study of literature we must fasten attention upon the literature itself, and the stages thi'ough which it has been evolved. Then, briefly, the third and last of the revolutions is, that the whole spirit of criticism must change. There are two ideas which S«8ioiis.] THE STUDY OP LITERATURE. 219 hare made other sciences great. Evolution is one of them, and the other is inductive observation. Criticism must become inductive; and that is third of our revolutions. There is no mystery about this word induction; it simply means that criticism must be based upon observation. People study nature, not by sitting in their chairs and making up their minds what natui-e ought to be, but by careful obser- vation of what nature really is. We must do the same with regard to literature. At present the criticism of the reviewer and of the dinner table is based upon a totally different principle: it deals with what literature ought to be and not what literature is. The critic examines literature to pick put the faults, to say that this is better than the other; not like a man of science does he examine literature to know its different qualities and compare them. The reviewer tells us how very inferior Ben Jonson is to Shakespeare; everything that in Ben Jonson is different from Shakespeare's style this reviewer de- scribes as so many faults. He should examine the respective works in order to discover the varying qualities of them. It is very difficult to persuade people to give up this idea that the office of the critic is to pass judgment as to right and wrong, as to better and worse. The answer to all that is in history: the whole history of criticism is a triumph of authors over critics. So long as criticism passes judgment upon authors, so long each generation of critics has had to reverse the verdict of the generation before it. Voltaire said that Shakespeare's poetry was the fruit of the imagination of an intoxicated savage. Dryden sighs to think that Spenser should take so bad a model of verse, and said that blank verse never could be used for poetry except possibly in drama; but Spenser's stanzas and Milton's blank verse take rank among the classics, while Dryden's criticism is forgotten. Jeffrey tried to put down Wordsworth, but now Wordsworth is a classic and Jeffrey is a curiosity. Now, I have been referring in these instances to some of the greatest names among critics; meanwhile plain men and women have read their Shakespeare, their Spenser and their Wordsworth and gathered inspiration from them. These great critics were blinded, though they thought they were fair. Their dif- ficulty was that they attempted to pass judgment, and judgment is the restraint of sympathy, and sympathy is the great interpreter. Is not the figure of justice always modeled with a bandage over the eyes? Perhaps it never occurred to you that this was meant to sj'^mbolize the blindness of reviewers, attempting to judge with closed eyes. It is only by sympathy that you can get at the meaning of the author. Now, this is the third of the three revolutions which are to make the study of literature great. Criticism must come down from its throne of judgment, and like all other science must sit at the feet of that which it studies; not attempting to give laws to literature, but 220 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. simply taking laws from literature. It is only through humility and sympathy with the author that the critic can make literature known to others. There is a certain legend which tells us how some Jewish rabbis, followed by their disciples, were walking along the shore of the Lake of Galilee, discussing high matters of the law. They stumbled by chance upon the carcass of a dead d<^. One started back in disgust, another cried out upon the stinking object, and the third cursed the thing in the name of his God. Then there was a stir in the ranks of their followers, for they had just seen approaching the sympathetic rabbi of Nazareth. They wondered what he would have to say to this object; for there was no denying it was all the rabbis had said of it. The lowly rabbi of Nazareth with his followers came up; his eye fell upon the object; for a moment his face seemed to darken with sorrow, and then it lit up again; "See," he cried, "See; its teeth are white as pearls." There you have the true spirit of criticism. The man who judges, who pronounces judgment, who finds fault, leaves art where he found it The man who discovers a beauty that has never before been noticed, has added to the intellectual wealth of the world. With these three revolutions — the recognition of the unity of lit- erature, the recognition of evolution as the true method of the study of literature, and a change in the spirit of criticism to the scientific spirit of observation — ^the study of literature will have begun and will be in a fair way to attain its proper rank. gttjemcrrial giddrjessjes CONSTITUTING THK REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY FOR 1894, Indnding Several Addresses Read in the Departments of the Association. George Howland^ Chicago, III. By Albert G. Lank ; by J. L. Pickard ; by John W. Cook. Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, Massachusetts, By Wm. E. Sheldon. M. Alexander Newell, Maryland. By Miss S. E. Richmond. Leland Stanford, California. By Will S. Monroe. Emily Marwedel, California. By Miss Elizabeth Harrison. John S. Crombie, New York. By John E. Bradley ; by Ray Greene Huling. Robert Allyn, Illinois. By Edwin C. Hevvett. Robert Wallace Stevenson, Ohio. By Emerson E. White. 222 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [In GEOEGE HOWL AND. BY ALBERT G. LANE. [Read BEroRE Department of Spperintendexce. i>l£B. 21, U93.] George Rowland was born in Conway, Mass., July 30, 1824. He died in Chicago, Oct. 22, 1892. He received his preparatory training in the country and village schools, and taught at times to pay the expenses of a college course. He entered Amherst when twenty- five years old, and graduated with honors in 1850. He spent three years as a tutor and three years as an instructor of languages in his alma mater. In January, 1858, he went to Chicago to accept a position as an assistant in the high school, and in 1860 was elected its principal, which position he held until 1880, when he was elected superintendent of the schools of Chicago. He resigned Sept. 1, 1891. He was unmarried. He had few intimate friends. He lived and died alone. His own words seem to bear to us the spirit that often filled his heart: And when this fitful dream is o*er, And friend or foe can do no more, All earthly comfort flown; When brightest mortal glories pale, And heart and flesh together fail, The parting spirit lifts the veil And passes through alone. For more than forty years he was a teacher. He loved to teach. He won his pupils. Thousands of the prominent active business men and influential women of Chicago honored George Howland because he gave them an inspiration for study and culture during the twenty-three years he was teacher and principal in the high school. He taught them to love books and to find companion- ships in the writings of thinkers. Books were his friends, and he wrote : Thus in union strong but tender. Sweetly live my books and I; Kindly offices they render, While the evening hours go by, Till soft slumber o'er us creepeth, And we rest, while nature keepeth Sacred silence, till the day Gently drives the shades away. Memoriam.] OEOROE HOWLAND, 223 Mr. Howland loved children, and he loved to see them happy. There were great gentleness and tenderness manifested in all his dealings with them. His ideas of the government of children in a school were so radicall}' different from those usually entertained by teachers that his plans for the discipline and conduct of a school were frequently deemed impracticable. He entered upon the super- intendency of the Chicago schools when it was trying the experi- ment of governing them without corporal punishment Mr. Howland 80 fully believed in moral suasion that his strong positive influence enlisted the teachers, many of whom had been his pupils, in support of the principle of developing the good in every life and watching for the angel side of every character. Quoting his own words, he endeavored "to rid the schools of the old dull, dead routine, and make them living fountains of health, hap- piness and growth, to which we no more shall see the school boy ^creeping like a snail unwilling,' but with earnest thoughtful face hastening to a new discovery. The one great thing needed in our schools, public and private, is the spirit of humanity and culture which shall make their life healthful, happy and progressive, the well-spring of an upright, true, cultured manhood and woman- hood, and a willing, working, watchful and faithful citizenship." Mr. Howland*s administration of the perplexing duties of the superintendency were characterized by wisdom, firmness and defi- niteness. His knowledge of all phases of the educational work made him a trusted and competent adviser. Mr. Howland was a man of marked literary ability. His se- cluded habits gave him time for meditation and study. His trans- lation of Virgirs **JEneid'' in two volumes, the '*Odes'' of Horace, his book of poems entitled "Little Voices" and his "Practical Hints for Teachers" have made his name familiar to educators throughout the country. He was prominent in State and National educational conventions. He was a member of the Illinois State Board of Edu- cation and a trustee of Amherst College. He was for many years an honored member of this Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association. He strove to elevate the pro- fession of teaching; he encouraged a fuller study of the principles of education; he sought to break up the monotony of the text-book drills; he opened the beautiful field of literature and history to the children of the common schools. Friends and associates in Chicago have inscribed upon the marble that marls his resting place the simple words: *'A Teacher.*' 224 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [In GEORGE HOWL AND, BY JOSIAH L. PICKAKD. [Read before the National CtorxciL. July 7, 1894.] JifLY 30, 1824— Oct. 22, 1892. The dates above written are the limits of the earthly life of one who enriched all the stations he was called to fill. As plow-boy upon his father's farm in Conway, Mass.; as student at Amherst College, from which he graduated in 1850; as tutor in Latin at his alma mater; as assistant teacher in the Chicago High School from January, 1858, to June, 1860; as principal of the same school from 1860 to 1880; as superintendent of the schools of Chicago from 1880 to 1891, George Howland proved himself a worthy scion of the Puritan stock. He was of the eighth generation descending from John Howland, and Elizabeth Carver, daughter of Governor Carver, who came to Plymouth in the Mayflower. It is certain that ancient blood lost no strength in the keeping of his veins. Close application to the work in hand, honest performance of every duty, careful attention to the perfecting of minute details, intense hatred of superficial work, abhorrence of shams, modest shrinking from public observation, and unselfish devotion to the interests of others, were his marked characteristics. Born to command, he loved to obey. No one associated with him failed to find in him a loyal friend. Born to command, he secured loving obedience not from display of authority, but from conscious possession of a power recognized by all under his direction. The thought of disobedience never entered the mind of a pupil. How- ever severe his reproof, it was felt to be deserved and it left no sting. Sympathy with those struggling against obstacles was constant. A friend once said of him : "George Howland will go as far as any man to do a kind act, and then go a little farther that he may con- ceal if He would blush like a girl and turn away in apparent disgust from one who sought to acknowledge a favor bestowed. His left hand was not suffered to know what his right hand was constantly doing. To say that Mr. Howland was a teacher expresses only a half truth. He was more than a teacher; he was an instructor. He inspired his pupils with a love for truth, and so taught them that they were at every step building character. Mr. Howland was a thorough student, and his literary ventures prove the depth of his MemoiMun. ] QEOBGE HO WLA ND, 225 studies. His literal rendering of the "^neid" in English hexameter is a work of extraordinary merit. His translation of the "Odes" of Horace, and of portions of the ^lliad" and the "Odyssey," attest his familiarity with Greek and Roman classics. These are changed into English classics, and are used in the schools which he served for thirtj'-three years. He was not confined to setting in English verse the product of other minds, but in simple beauty he set forth, in "Little Voices," the thoughts that teemed in his own brain. His extreme modesty kept him for many years from appearing npon the lecture platform. Well do I remember the diffl.culty en- countered in securing from him an address before the Educational Association of Illinois. His success was gratifying to him. After entering upon the city superintendency of Chicago his annual addresses were looked forward to with the greatest interest. Ten of these addresses have appeared in the '^international Educa- tion Series," edited by W. T. Harris and published by D. Appleton & Co. These addresses are models of clear presentation of the teacher's opportunity for building character and of the teacher's responsibility for the results of her influence. They are helpful and inspiring. Thirteen years of intimate association with George Howland awakened in my heart a love for the man which as many years of separation have not suffered to grow weaker, and which his sudden death has made sacred. Chicago cannot fail to recognize in the life work of George Howland a prominent factor in her greatness. GEORGE HOWLAND. BY JOHN W. COOK. [READ BEFORE THE NATIONAL COUNCIL, JULY 7, 18»4.] George Howland has not lacked biographers. I am informed that an intimate and faithful friend will speak of his character and public services at the general meeting of this Association. JJ^n the invi- tation of our President, I have ventured to speak of him in an informal manner, trusting to the impressions made upon me by a somewhat intimate acquaintance which extended over many years. I saw him first in December, 1865, at the meeting of the State Teachers' Association of Illinois. It was my first glimpse of the edu- cational notables of my adopted State, and the impressions made upon me were very vivid. Many of them have lost none of their 16 226 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [In freshness. I was a young teacher, having barely finished my first term, and looked with all of the quick interest of a novice upon the men and women w^ho had already established themselves as leaders among the school people of the young and vigorous West, Should I call the roll you would hear the names of several who have filled con- spicuous places in this organization and have won merited recognition in the larger circle outside the limits of the State which then claimed them as peculiarly her own. But no other person then present made so marked an impression upon my youthful imagination as George Howland, the principal of the Chicago High School. He was then in the early forties. His genial face and abounding good humor singularly attracted me, and I became, at first sight, what I never ceased to be, a devoted admirer. The president of the association was the late Samuel G. Etter, whose life reached its end under circumstances peculiarly pathetic. He was not a graceful speaker, and wisely selected the accomplished academician from the metropolis to respond to the welcoming address of a local celebrity. Mr. Howland was in his quaintest vein, and made the occasion memorable by an impromptu speech that at once took an abiding place in the traditions of the organization. Some of Ms eccentric conceits were annually repeated, and are still current among the older generation of schoolmasters in the Prairie State. So my first insight into the nature of this peculiarly interesting man was from the humorous side. When, a few years later, he admit- ted me to a prized intimacy, I found that the playful instinct was most easily excited, and that the phase which he quite habitually presented to the world was lighted with a gentle merriment that was at once an invitation and a foil. His humor was never broad; it was delicate and silky. It sug- gested depths of good will and tender regard in a shy sort of way that seemed trying to disguise the esteem in which he held his friends. It constantly lurked in the background of his public addresses, giving them a suggestion of smiles that rarely reached the borders of laugh- ter, although they were sometimes unequivocally mirthful. I have alluded to his shyness, which, for a man of his breeding and experience, always surprised me. That it was one of his character- istics no one will deny who knew him well. I have seen him tremu- lous with timidity before an audience of students and singularly dif- fident in addresses before assemblies where custom denies the privi- lege of the manuscript. It explains, also, a certain inoffensive irony quite habitual with him, and that sentineled the approaches to a sen- sitive and somewhat shrinking nature. It was usually difficult to en- gage him in controversy, and his opinions were often hidden by a mask of pleasantry. I have reason to think that this peculiarity was some- Memoriam.] QEOBGE HOWLAND. 227 what trying to a few of his friends, more especially to those whose tliought was turned with great seriousness toward the fundamental presuppositions of method. It seemed to class Mr. Howland among those who deny the possibility of formulating much of anything in the way of a positive philosophy of education. That the superin- tendent of a great city system should occupy an equivocal attitude respecting matters of such momentous concern appeared especially nnfortunate and paradoxical. While I believe him to have been in sympathy with all movements looking toward the improvement of educational conditions, I have not been able to resist the conviction that to the close of his life he entertained no small degree of doubt respecting the utility of anything like elaborate sj'stems of method- ology. As you know, it was not unusual for him to discuss appercep- tion and concentration with that ambiguous and quizzical manner of his, that left him free to enter into either of two hostile camps without any charge of apostasy. Indeed, I may go further, and say that he appeared to be something of a loiterer about the porches of the normal school, not quite sure whether it was his duty to advise the young people to go in or stay out. It is not difficult, I think, to explain his i)osition. While I should be the last person to declare his administration of the Chicago schools as in any sense a failure, yet I must be permitted to remark that, in my opinion, his old function of high school principal was far more congenial than the supervision of the work of elementary schools. He was a true son of the Kenaissance in his scholarly sympathies, and, measured by its standard, he was indeed equipped in no ordinary way. His long service as a teacher of the classics had endeared them to his fine artistic nature in a rare way. He was fond of the solitudes of the study and the companionship of books. His style as a writer quickly betrays his love of the beautiful. His fancies freely flowed into verse, and many an exquisite bit of song indicates the shady covert where his hours of rest were si)ent. His long contact with pupils who had reached that self-directive period, in which method is of smaller significance, had i>erhaps diminished the sense of its importance. He had dealt with fruitful knowledges rather than with the beginnings of the forms of things, and the habit of a quarter of a century did not, I think, suffer any very radical change. He had great faith in scholarship, and believed that the scholarly man or woman would find a way that would suffice. His transfer from his old and much-loved work to the arduous position of superintendent must have broken into his life in many ways. He was not a young man when the change came, nor was he old. He would never have been old, I think. He made the transi- tion in a way that surprised those who knew him best He took 228 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [In upon himself the myriad details of his position with good-natured patience. He retained or won the affectionate support of the large body of principals under his supervision. His annual addresses to his teachers, suggesting certain reforms in elementary instruction, elic- ited generous praise, but more, I think, from the surprise which their utterance occasioned than from anything essentially radical or advanced which they contained. I may be entirely wrong, of course. I am not si)eaking as an authority. Others will do that. I am giving only personal impres- sions. But my conviction is that his influence ui)on his schools was moral rather than professional. It was the infusion of a spirit of good will, of generous culture, of personal regard. There was not much shop talk, but there was much dignifying of the beautiful in childhood, much softening of the severer side of life. Out of the humanities that were his passion numberless concrete humanities found their way into the lives of little children. His life had always stood for culture ajid now it stood for kindness, that finest culture of the emotions. I do not forget his occasional brusqueness, nor even his rudeness at times; but they were superficial and did not stand for fundamental traits. I well reiiember once sitting with him at his desk after a busy day, during which his office had been thronged with visitors, most of whom had made some call upon his patience. All had at last gone. The door opened and a shy, plainly-dressed young woman entered. She was painfully embarrassed and approached the desk of the some- times gruff superintendent with extreme diffidence. The kindness of her reception apparently surprised her, and she retired with her eyes filled with grateful tears. I expressed my pleasure at his thoughtful- ness, and remarked that one might well be envied whose opportunities for conferring happiness were so abundant. But a crusty "Humph! You are growing sentimental!" was the only reply. It was frequently said of him that his ingenuity often was painfully taxed in trying to disabuse his right hand of the notion that his left hand had been indulging in some graceful benefaction. His relations to the political and self-seeking interests that seem inseparable from the administration of a great city system were unique. If he was what is called "a manager," I have misunderstood him, and yet he got on better than most managers. It excited no small amount of surprise that a man of his tastes and experiences could hold his own so successfully in a community where politics is a trade and where so many enter it for what there is in it. Without professing to have any inside view, I desire to suggest that it is wortli remembering that a large, reputable and influential portion of the Chicago public received its secondary education from the old high Memoriam. ] GEORGE HO WLA ND. 228 school on the "west side" when Mr. Howland was its principal. They were his loyal friends. The leading professional men of the city, notably Professor Swing and some others of his kind, recognized the value of a scholar at the head of affairs and had a strong personal attachment to him, and the influence of such men as Professor Swing, even in the wicked city of Chicago, is in no danger of being over- estimated. And even the simon-pure politicians, the city hall oflQce- dispensing fellows, seem to have had a regard for him which is one of those seeming contradictions occasionally encountered. He was dis- creet, doubtless, and did not needlessly offend them, but he did not cater to them, and I am misinformed if they ever attempted to use him. The State at large knew Mr. Howland chiefly through his public addresses. While not greatly in demand, he made frequent pilgrim- ages to a goodly number of counties, especially in the institute sea- son. He was for many years a regular attendant at the State Teach- ers* Association, and often appeared upon its programs. Yet his influence there was largely personal. The gracious tributes to his memory uttered at the meeting succeeding his death illustrated this fact in an interesting way. While he was delightfully acceptable on the platform, his influence was no less strong in the social meeting and the hotel lobby; and yet, as I have intimated, he was in no sense on exhibition. The volume published by the Appletons and edited by the dis- tinguished commissioner of education contains a number of the addresses alluded to. No one can read them with any care without getting a just appreciation of his tastes and dominating sympathies. As I have intimated, you would not expect elaborate treatises on the history of education, criticism and reforms, or the theory and science of education. If you knew the writer from the point of view from which I knew him, you would make no mistake in predicting the topics toward which he would instinctively turn. The speculative was not his habit of thought. To him the teacher was by far the largest element in the educational problem. Upon him his view would be focused. As he has so well expressed it, he believed that "the one great thing needed in our schools, public or private, is that spirit of humanity and culture which shall make their life healthy, happy and progressive, the well-spring of an upright, true, cultured manhood and womanhood, and a willing, working, watchful and faithful citizen ship." I have alluded to his faith in the widely humanizing influence of scholarship. He looked for gentleness and sincerity as its necessary outcome. The first pai)er, "Moral Training in City Schools," has little to say of that systematic effort at moral culture by the use of the 230 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [In etkical elements in classic literature in the lower grades — an agency so highly prized by the Herbartians. He looked toward the concrete embodiment of the ethical idea, the teacher, quite to the exclusion of any methodically organized system of moral training. And in him he had the profoundest faith. Was it because he lived and died a bachelor that his views on the subject of punishment were so one-sided? He could not endure the thought of severity with the young. He loved to idealize childhood. He saw its beautiful side in the cultured homes where he was always a welcome and honored guest. His life as a teacher was spent in secondary schools almost exclusively. I often thought that he had small appreciation of the years of patient discipline through which the child emerges from his natural selfishness and becomes altniistic and human. But who shall say that this very fact did not the better fit him for the duties of his later life? City systems have tremendous tend- encies toward machine methods. Where there are so many children the individual cannot count for very much unless the teacher is peculiarly sympathetic. Into that hurried, formal, and, shall I say it, commercial life, this poet-superintendent was forever throwing his delicate fancies about the beauty and dignity of child life. It is related of him that he once rebuked a teacher in the presence of her school for sending a pupil from the room for some misdemeanor. As he left her smarting under the sense of humiliation, he failed to see the mischievous lad with his extended foot just outside the door, and rumor has it that he tripped and fell. It is admitted that, in the presence of the insistent actual, he forgot some of his gentler theories and attended to a matter of discipline. If the story be true, and it is as well authenticated as such stories ever are, it shows how he might have been spoiled for a superintendent if the fates had made him responsible for the conduct of children. What he called the 'nt)ar- barism of corporal punishment" always encountered his indignant pro- test, and it was well that he should feel as he did about it, although the rod is sometimes an unmixed blessing. He believed in the irresistible potency of moral suasion, and he never surrendered his belief. A passage from the paper already alluded to illustrates his faith in the refreshing influence of culture, and is quoted to suggest a cer- tain stimulating influence which Mr. Howland exerted in his quiet and indirect way. He advises a hobby, "though it be nothing rarer or more costly than moth hunting, the jingle or jangle of rhymes, or even reformed spelling — ^they are, some of them, as I well know, of boundless possibilities. But at your daily mount of your hobby-horse, take not your way down the crowded street, nor over the choice Memoriam.] MI8S ELIZABETH PALMER PEABODY. 23 L flower-beds and fragrant exotics of your friends; but rather turn aside into the quiet lane, or the unfrequented country road, or still better, off for a free stretch over the wide, open prairie, where, with tossing arms and expanding chest you can shout forth your happiness, till, with loud-answering echo, the solitary places shall be made glad with your presence." It is in such topics as "The Character of the Teacher," "The Ele- ments of Growth in School Life," "The Scholarship Aimed at in the School," "The Teacher in the School Room" and "How the School De- velops Character," that he is most at home. And with what charming graces of style he deals even with the common-place! It is quite as much the literary, flavor as the theme that charmed him in Horace Mann, while to the author of "Tom Brown at Rugby" he gave his whole heart. This volume of the Appletons is a fine memento of our friend, and will be read as a frequent recreation, rather than as a study, in our lounging half-hours of restful peace after a weary day. We shall pencil mark its pages whore we And this poetic fancy leaping up with a fine illumination, and we shall perpetually see in the book, what is rarely present in treatises of this character, the warm personality of the author. To read a chapter is to re-live a quiet hour with him, in his office at the close of the day, or by the genial grate of his favorite club, or in my own home to which he was not entirely a stranger. No episode of his life can dim my affectionate regard for him. He died in the solitude that was so dear to him, and I think that he would not have had it otherwise. MISS ELIZABETH PALMER FEABODY. BY WILLIAM E. SHELDON. Miss Elizabeth Palmer Peabody died at her home in Jamaica Plain, ]^lass., Jan. 5, 1894. She was bom at Billerica, Mass., in 1804, and at her decease was in her ninetieth year. Her early childhood was passed in Salem, Mass., where she received her elementary education, mainly in a private school, established by her gifted mother. She enjoyed the companionship of her sisters, widely known as Mrs. Horace Mann and Mrs. Nathaniel Hawthorne. Her mother was a very remarkable woman and developed her strong character amid the trying days of the American Revolution. She never had any school privileges, yet hep thirst for knowledge and culture was so intense that she overcame all obstacles and became a lady of rare literary culture. She estab- 232 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Id lished the school in Salem where her daughters were educated. 'In this school," says one who knew the family intimately, "English com- position was largely the basis of knowledge. Girls of ten and twelve read Blair's 'Rhetoric' and Kaimes' 'Elements of Criticism,' and con- sequently practiced what they learned. They studied no foreign lan- guages, and no mathamatics beyond arithmetic, but gave an immense deal of time to histoiy, geography, physics (studied in text-books), and, above all, to English literature. Mrs. Peabody read to them from the 'Hiad' and *Odys8ey,' from Tasso, from the 'Spectator,' and from the 'Edinburgh Review,' and translated much of Chaucer and Spenser into modem English for them; some of these versions being afterwards printed. This was about 1815. Pupils who wished had teachers for languages; and Miss Elizabeth Peabody studied Latin with her father, who was a dentist. Her mother, she says, led her daughter to read the lives of learned women, such as Madame Dacier, Elizabeth Carter and Mrs. Somerville, and the history of New England, by Miss Hannah Adams." This fragment of family history explains the secret of Miss Peabody's remarkable intellectual moral power. Her culture was the result of careful individual training, like that of Margaret Puller and some other noble women who lived prior to the dawn of a collegiate period of training for women. In 1822, at the age of eighteen. Miss Peabody became a teacher in Boston, and was eminently successful in her work. She began early to use her pen in the interest of education, and continued to write during her entire life, beginning with contributions to educational papers, the "Dial," "Christian Examiner," and the "Democratic Review," all prominent periodicals of their day. She translated De Gerando's "Moral Self-Education," edited "Esthetic Papers" (1894); "Crimes of the Home of Austria against Mankind" (1850). She also published R. G. Hagard's "Essay on Language" and other papers (1857). Her "Records of a School," "First Steps to History," and her "Chronological History of United States" and others, were well known by educators of the time. She was probably best known as an enthusiastic and devoted pro- moter of the kindergarten in this country. In 1863, in connection with Mrs. Mary Mann, her sister, she published "Moral Culture of Infancy and the Kindergarten Guide," and has been the recognized pioneer leader in the movements to introduce "object teaching" and "oral instruction" into the primary schools. In the kindergarten she was the authority on methods for years, and advocated the Froebelian philosophy, pure and simple, with great ability. She claimed that the two cardinal principles of the kindergarten system are: First — "The child is a spiritual being made in the image and likeness of his Creator, and, therefore, must be given room to create like God." Memoriam.] MISS ELIZABETH PALMER PEABODY, 238 Second — "That education should lead the child to unit^^ with Gk)d, with nature, and himself." Through her influence the first public kindergarten in America was established. This was opened in Boston in 1870. It was carried on with increasing numbers and growing interest for several years, but to meet the call for kindergartens in other parts of the city a larger expenditure of money must be made than the appropriation warranted, so the one successful public kindei'garten was given up. But private benevolence did, in succeeding years, what Boston thought she was too poor to do, and the efforts Miss Peabody had so heroically made were not lost. The free kindergartens took hundreds of children from the street into an atmosphere of love and happy work, until the city should be ready to invest money in this best of beginnings for its future citizens. In England, Miss Peabody had a large share in establishing a Froe- bel Society, and the American Froebel Union owed its existence to her. For three years she carried on the 'kindergarten Messenger," as an index)endent publication, and kept the public alive to the new educa- tional thought by frequent newspaper and magazine articles. She Kterally gave herself to the cause, for she received, if anything, the most meager compensation for what she did; if her traveling ex];)en6es were paid she was more than satisfied, thinking nothing of her own great personal sacrifices; and as she saw the gradual triumj^ of the better way, and others making easier conquests^ she rejoiced simply and fervently. For a number of years Miss Peabody has been withdrawn from active service, and obliged by failing health to lay down even her pen, which had been mighty in its strokes for truth. We ought never to forget, at the full harvest time, those who toil- somely made the ground ready and sowed the seed. Without their springtime labor, where would the harvest be? She was the last of a remarkable group of educational reformers, among whom were Horace Mann, Geo. B. Emerson, Gideon F. Thayer, Thomas Sherwin, David P. Page, John D. l*hilbrick, and many others worthy of special remembrance, who have gone to their rest. Miss Peabody was the companion of Emerson, Hawthorne, Thoreau, A. Bronson Alcott, and a large and noted circle of Concord and Boston men and women who will live in the history of American literature and philanthrophy. TVTiile her own life was devoid of any specially conspicuous or sensational incidents or events, we should assign to her a place in educational history among those who richly deserve to be honored pemanently for eminent seriices and for an example of self- denying devotion to the highest welfare of the children. 234 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [In M. ALEXANDER NEWELL. BY MISS SARAH B. RICHMOND. M. Alexander Newell, Ph. D., was born in Belfast, Ireland, Sept 7, 1824, and he died in Havre de Grace, Md., on the 14th day of August, 1893. Mr. Neweirs early education was in the private school of his father in Belfast. Later on he attended Queen's College in Belfast and afterwards entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated when twenty-one years of age. After teaching two years in the Mechanics' Institute of Liverpool he came to America and located in Baltimore, Md. Mr. NewelFs first important position in Baltimore was that of professor of natural sciences in the City College, which he resigned to accept a professorship in the Madison College at Uniontown, Pa. He returned to Baltimore in a few years, and with his brother-in-law, established a business college, patronized by many of Baltimore's most influential citizens. The Southern army so diminished the sources of revenue to his school that Mr. Newell applied for and obtained the principalship of one of the largest male grammar schools of Balti- more. He remained here but one year, when he went to Pittsburgh, Pa,, to assist his cousins, John and James Newell, in the management of Newell Institute, a large and flourishing private school. In 18G5 Mr. Newell was elected principal of the Mainland State Normal School, just established by an act of the legislature. His life-work may then be said to have begun. Three years later he was appointed secretary of the State board of education, and superintend- ent of public instruction of Maryland, retaining at the same time his I)osition as principal of the State Normal School. Mr. Neweirs attainments were- many and varied. He was a scholarly man. Though Princeton conferred on him the degree of doctor of philosophy, yet his special aptness was for mathematics. Abstruse and difficult problems were solved by him through short and simple processes that were a revelation to those who had plod- ded through them. At six years of age he had mastered the First Book of Euclid, for which he received a prize. He had one of the most retentive memories, remembering readily that which he had read but once. Many an hour has been delightfully spent listening to Mr. Newell, as he quoted from his favorite authors, lines fitted to every occasion and circumstance. He was master of any situation in which he was placed. His knowledge of men and events, combined with his keen insight and cautious judgment made him an able Memoriam.] if. ALEXANDER NEWELL. 235 debater, and the wit which never deserted him disarmed his opponent and left nothing for him but unconditional surrender. Maryland has had no abler defender of her interests, public education no stauncher advocate than our late friend, Dr. Newell. He kept his fin^jer upon the public pulse, and by its throbbings knew its needs, and, knowing them, fearlessly proclaimed them. He was a progressive man, being one of the first and most ardent claimants for the introduction of manual training into the public schools and a change in the school curriculum. Mr. Newell has left but a spare record of his work upon the printed page. He was a teacher, and though his executive abil- ity was great, yet he was at his beet in the class-room. In that room there was no law save the law of love and self-respect, and that which was right for one was right for all. His pupils were treated with the same courtesy that he extended to his peers. To them he was an inspiration, and the road to learning was more than royal in its pleasantness. Though the teacher has crossed over and is resting under the shadow of the trees, the charm of his voice and wisdom of his words yet linger in the ear and heart of those he taught and will help to make the story of their life. Much might be said and man^' facts cited to show his keen appre- ciation of the services rendered by those associated with him in his daily labors. His consideration of their feelings was most delicate, and he had special regard for whatever might uphold their i)ower or extend their influence among the students. Nor did our friend ignore the social side of life. He loved men, children and nature. Often in the evenings did he gather the little ones to romp with them, or to tell them some choice bit of history or literature which the childish mind could appreciate. And often, too, did he gather around his board those whom he admired, respected and loved. They who have enjoyed his hospitality remember him as a most charming host whose affability, intelligence and wit lent a grace that was far more tempting than even the dainty fare spread before them. Mr. Newell was a generous man. Open-hearted, frank, helpful, straight-forward himself, he could not tolerate meanness, selfishness or subterfuge in others. He helped those who sought his aid freely with his advice and his means. He was quick to forgive, but he never forgot a kindness done him. His simple manners w^on many towards him. Called to the head of the educational department in Maryland at a time when its gov- ernment was passing through great political changes, he not only won the admiration and esteem of those whom he found there, but by his ready help, wise counsels, scholarship and earnestness secured 236 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [In their hearty co-operation in perfecting a system of public schools just begun, which system stands to-day as a monument to Dr. Newell's ability as an administrator and organizer, No higher tribute can be paid Mr. Newell than the following article, embodied in a series of resolutions passed by the Maryland state school commissioners at their last meeting: "Recognizing his absolute fitness for educational work, his intelligence and his culture, his admirable executive and administrative ability, he was for twenty-five years the head of the educational system of Maryland, with the approbation of those who controlled and directed that system." With this we close our tribute to Dr. Newell, a former president of this Association, as well as of the Department of Superintendence; also, a laborer in the educational fields of Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, North and South Carolina, as well as in his own State, a self-sacrificing friend, a teacher devoted to his calling, a true man and a scholar. THE FOUNDER OF STANFORD UNIVERSITY. BY WILL S. MONROE. The National Educational Association has lost an honored member in the death of Leland Stanford, one of its life directors. Bom near Albany, N. Y., March 9, 1824, he passed his early years on the farm, where he combined the varied industrial activities common to country life with the meager intellectual opportunities of the country school of fifty and sixty years ago. In later life it was his custom to attrib- ute much of his own success to the character of this early rural farm and country schooling. He taught school a couple of terms before he was twenty, when he entered a law office in Albany, and during the next four years fitted himself for the legal profession. But the West — always the land of promise to the young and hopeful — ^had most attractions for the young lawyer, and he began his legal practice at Port Washington, Wis., in 1848. His law career was attended with no brilliant results; and, although pursued stu- diously for four yeai*s, it was at the end of that time given up and never afterwards resumed. In 1852 Leland Stanford came to California to try his fortunes; not at the mines, as was the epidemic of the time, but as the keeper of a country store. First, at Michigan Bluffs, Placer Co., and subsequently at Sacramento, he was engaged in general merchandise, with a success and insight that gave him front rank as a man of business affairs. By Mcmoriam.] THE FOUNDER OF STANFORD UNIVERSITY. 237 1861 he had amassed a fortune of between two and three hundred thousand dollars; and although but thirty-seven years old he returned to Albany with the thought of making this his permanent home and living principally in retirement. But shortly after his departure he was nominated as the Bepubliean candidate for governor; and, anxious to save his State to the Union, he returned, made the canvass, was elected, and discharged the gubernatorial duties with great credit to himself and the State. During the time that he was Governor of California, John Sweet was State Sui>erintendent of Public Instruc- tion, a date usually agreed upon as the beginning of the educational renaissance of the Pacific coast. Both Governor Stanford and Super- intendent Sweet were members of the State Board of Education, and together they labored earnestly and harmoniously in the common cause of giving to California the best possible system of free com- mon schools. At the close of the gubernatorial term, Mr. Stanford, associated with Huntington, Hopkins and Crocker, conceived and realized the first transcontinental railroad. Mr. Stanford was its moving spirit, and to his wise management its final success was largely due. This is neither the time nor place to enter into the details incident to the accomplishment of this great enterprise, but it is only right to say in passing that the success of this gigantic scheme, amid difficulties innumerable, entitles him to large consideration as a man of brains and energy. Mr. Stanford was chosen to represent California in the United States Senate in 1885, remaining in continuous service up to the time of his death, June 21, 1893. Here, as was his custom, he rarely made speeches, but when he did he spoke for movements likely to improve the condition of the race. He frequently urged the abolition of the army, and recommended that the funds now used for its supjwrt be used for the erection and maintenance of public schools. But the crowning work of Mr. Stanford's life is the great educa- tional foundation which bears his name. In the first flush of the sorrow incident to the death of his only child, Leland Stanford, Jr., in 1884, he said: '^The children of California shall be my children;" and this determination had its first public expression March 9, 1885, in an act, which passed the California legislature, "to advance learn- ing, the arts and sciences, and to promote the public welfare by pro- viding for the conveyance, holding and protection of property, and the creation of trusts for the founding, indorsement, erection and maintenance, within the State, of universities, colleges, schools, semi- naries of learning, mechanical institutions and galleries of art." On the 14th of November that year the grant of endowment was made public and a board of trustees appointed. The cornerstone was 238 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [In laid May 14, 1887, and the institution formally opened with 465 stu- dents Oct. 1, 1891. At the present time (June 1, 1894) the end of the third scholastic year, the university has an attendance of 975 stu- dents, and a teaching force of eighty professors and instructors. The object of the Stanford University, as stated by its founder, is "to qualify students for personal success and direct usefulness in life,'' and its purpose "to provide for the public welfare by exercising an influence in behalf of humanity and civilization, teaching the blessings of liberty regulated by law, and inculcating love and reverence for the great principles of government as derived from inalienable rights of man to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness." And its creed, as provided by Mr. Stanford, shaU be "the teaching of the immortality of the soul, the existence of an all-wise and benevolent Creator, and that obedience to his laws is the highest duty of man." Upon this broad foundation the new university was planted ; and Mr. Stanford lived to see it organized and well started. One who knew him intimately for years has appropriately said: "Though his fame will ultimately rest on the work of his age, yet the laurels of his youth were such as few earn in a full lifetime and his maturer years were a succession of successes. At thirty he had fought his way from i)overty to affluence; at thirty-seven he was governor. For twenty years thereafter he directed the forces that ci^ated 5,000 miles of iron highway; and in his declining years, with eye slightly dimmed and vigor somewhat sapped, but with mind as clear as ever, and with faith in the future and its possibilities as firm as in his youth, he crowned his own career with his greatest work, — he unlocked the doors of the Leland Stanford, Junior, University." i¥7^Sf5f EMILY MABWEDEL, BY MISS ELIZABETU HAURISON. "Men and women who set us palpitating with the thrill of some- thing loftier than we yet have dreamed are God's sublimest poems." In 1817 to an obscure home, in the kingdom of Hanover, there came a girl baby, soon christened "Emily." On Nov. 17, 1893, there passed away from the German hospital in San Francisco, an old woman. This is the brief record of a noble souPs entrance into and exit from our world. It tells of a life which transmuted obscurity, poverty, ill-health and all its other limitations and obstacles into Memoriam. ] MISS EMIL Y MAR WEDEL. 239 courage and strength and culture for mankind. Lessing has said: The best thing a hero can do is to be a hero." No one who has ever come into close contact with Emily Marwedel will deny that she was an heroic character in this truest sense of the word. Surely her utter forgetfulness of self, ease and comfort, her courage under the most disheartening failures, her complete disregard of popularity and pecuniary profit, should give her entrance into the Valhalla of the educational world. Her life was also full of energy and rich in deeds. From 1865 until a short time before her death she was actively engaged in educational work. In 1871 she came to America at the request of Miss Elizabeth Peabody, having previously been con- nected with the Art Industrial School for Women in Hamburg. In 1872 she established her first kindergarten in America at Washington, D. C. In 1875 her first training class was organized in this same city. In 1876, by the advice of Miss Peabody and other warm friends, she went to California, hoping there to establish kindergartens with the much needed out pf-door gardens, as a regular part of the child education. She first settled in Los Angeles; afterward she was in- duced to establish herself in San Francisco, and later in Oakland, as the latter place offered better opportunities for the free open air life which she so earnestly insisted upon. During her California period she set out nine "school-gardens" with her own hands, oftentimes at great personal sacrifice. She be- lieved most heartily that "nature is the foster-mother of the soul." To use her own words: "She calls the child without frightening him; she teaches him without repelling him ; she speaks a language which he understands better than words, and it is in proportion as he does not forget this grand, simple dialect that he remains long a child, that is, a poet." Her high standard for the training needed by the teacher of the young child is shown by the fact that in 1882 in the outline of study set forth by her curriculum, she announced that not only would she lecture on ancient, medieval and modern history of education, com- paring the various systems leading up to Froebel, thereby showing the ps3'chological advance he had made on all previous educators, but she had succeeded in getting Prof. Josiah Royce (now of Harvard fame) to assist her in the study of the child's mind. In one of her books she says: "Until the education of the inner man ceases to be subordinated to the need of the .outer, physical man, we shall never evolve the highest perfection possible to the race." This was no mere theory with her. Her whole life was a vivid illustration of what she meant by subordinating the outer to the inner. In 1882, when the Kindergarten Department was for the first time added to the National Educational Convention, she was filled with a 240 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [In desire to be present. Her finances, always limited, were at ebb- tide, but, nothing daunted, she undertook, during the heat of July, the long journey from San Francisco to Detroit in a common caboose, attached, if I remember aright, to an emigrant train. She reached Chicago weary and worn, travel-stained and physically exhausted. The inconveniences and discomforts of the trip were such minor mat- ters to her, that within five minutes after she reached the friendly home of a Chicago co-worker, she was eagerly and joyfully talking of the coming convention, and what it signified for the kindergarten cause. How many of us would undergo a like discomfort for the cause of education, and not complain of the heat, or the dust, or the food! The deep comprehension which she had of the cause for which she labored so indefatigably, is shown by a quotation taken from her "Conscious Motherhood;" a remarkable book, by the way, which, notwithstanding the many defects which mar its style, ought to be in the hands of every educator. When comparing Wilhelm Preyer with Proebel, she says: "It is a great error to suppose that Froebel's system is only applicable to very early life. He bases the funda- mental principles of education on the universal laws of nature. * * * He therefore demands a methodical unification in educa- tion, in order to reach the divine, through a unification of action." She thus foreshadows the "Eeport of the Committee of Ten,'^ Twenty-four years before the college alumnae of America took up the important work of keeping a systematic registration of the psychic phenomena of child infancy and childhood, she publicly and privately urged that mothers should keep a record of the unfolding of their children's characters and. actions with "as much religious consecration as the Egyptians used in keeping their diaries." To philanthropists and reformers she always replied, that to "save man" we must first "study man," eloquently urging that "if the human being is destined to enjoy at least equal privileges with the now scientifically reared fowls, fish, cattle, and even pigs, the mother of our age can be no longer excused for ignorance in her special sphere, ordained to her by the Creator." "We are very far from wanting to limit woman's culture and a broad contact with the past or the present social problems," said she, "but, considering the education of a human being, it seems as if woman would be hardly able to accomplish half the tasks w'hich devolve upon her at present. It would seem that attending lectures illustrated by able physicians, visiting hospitals, asylums and kindergartens, thereby learning to compare normal with abnormal conditions of the child, and by dis- cussing these topics with experienced mothers and nurses, would open to women a field of further study in the science of man, history JOHN 8, CROMBIE. 241 q{ m^^\^Xk.^ the study of Froebel, the study of temperance, of crime, ^ ^^Ha.nity, of idiocy, suicide and kindred topics." fiet ^^^Vls&ation of the sacredness of childhood is shown in many gigniftcaui passages throughout her writings. In one place she says: "^^ ^rap our little ones' bodies in furs against the winter's cold, ^'^ temper for them the summer heat, and, meanwhile, we assault theip souls with the spectacle of our anger or our cynicism, and we do not hide from their innocence our self -excusing for lack of duty, our moral debility and cowardice." Much of her life was spent with children, watching and wisely directing the unfolding of their powers. She was full of that fine comprehensive sympathy which comes only when life flows deeply and continuously through us. Her poetic nature is made manifest in the following passage: "Without riches, without honor, without merit, without science or art, childhood finds the world full of priceless treasures and of ineffable wonders. Given a few broken pieces of glass, a flower, a fruit, a colored string, a doll, and out of them baby constructs an unmeasurable happiness. A few anointed ones of our race have kept this power of creation — of symbolizing alike the mysteries and the realities of life; we call them our or- dained poets and artists, and receive with reverence the gifts they bring us from their childhood." She worked patiently and persistently for many years to elabo- rate a system of hand-work, including her much discussed "circular drawing" for children who had outgrown the kindergarten "schools of work." However much we may be compelled to differ from the results of her labor, artistically and psychologically, we must admire the self-sacrificing devotion with which she clung to her ideals. In speaking of death, she once said: "We do not sufficiently realize the value of leading children to an affirmative conception of life before we fill them with negations. From the beginning, in- stead of putting life and death in sharp antithesis, we should direct them to the idea of life, rather than lives; and of death, as not so much the extinction of life, as its change of form." It is lives such as hers, lived upon exalted, spiritual planes, which lead us to comprehend this meaning of the word "Death." JOHN 8. CROMBIE, Ph. D. BY JOHN E. BIIADLEY. John S. Crombie was a man of marked personal traits. No one could meet him casually without recognizing his strength of char- acter. Those who came into intimate relation with him could 16 242 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [In scarcely fail to receive lasting impressions. Over his pupils he ex- erted a powerful and highly stimulating influence. He was in turn greatly beloved and admired. The brief time afforded for the preparation of this sketch will preclude any attempt at biographical narration or analysis of per- sonal character. It is only permitted to offer a word of tribute to a well-tried friend and fellow-worker and hastily sketch a few of the traits which endeared him to those who knew him best. The writer first became acquainted with Dr. Crombie in the autumn of 1886. He had recently become the principal of the Minneapolis Central High School. He brought to the position culture, experience and enthusiasm, and the school, weak in its work and failing in numbers, at once sprang to a new life. Its attendance was quickly doubled, its scholarship became genuine and thorough and its graduating classes increased in five years from fifteen to upwards of one hundred. Still more important was the change in the spirit pervading the school. Boys and girls, who had been lacking in ambition and unable to appreciate worthy motives, dis- covered a new significance in life and became eager to make the most of the .opportunities to prepare for it. The master's office was often thronged with such students seeking advice with reference to their work and plans for the future. Personal difficulties and problems were confidently brought for the beloved principaFs solution, and many a youth departed from these interviews with a smiling face and a new light in his heart. Obstacles were removed, ambition was stimulated, and not infrequently tangible assistance was given, so that during the last year Mr. Crombie was in Minneapolis, fifty or more of each graduating class entered college from the Central High School. As a teacher, Mr. Crombie was most inspiring. Every mind w^as constantly on the alert. Although the principal of a school of nearly 1,000 pupils, he was never willing to give up all class instruction, wisely concluding that he thus gained an influence over his pupils not to be reached in any other way. His favorite subject was Latin, which he invariably taught without referring to the text-book. So familiar was he with all the text that he could without it correct every error and ask every variety of question upon the etymology, syntax and incidental allusions. If this had been a mere feat of memory it would have no doubt elicited the admiration of his pupils. But it was much more, and it is safe to say that the moral ele- ment in literature, the training of the imngination, the aesthetic- tastes and the will, have seldom been more effectually brought out than when Professor Crombie led his class in the study of Virgil or Cicero. JOHN S. CROMBIE. 24 /Ua prix:i.^:^ijpal his work was done quietly and with no apparei ft ^*\.l>»oX^«it:ely fearless in all relations, able to assert himse ^^^v eJct^xiL-t ^^^hich his circumstances might demand, he was neve 0^.a^^ c?o:BiM.sai:ant illustration of the superiority of influence i ( e^ (fvi^^* 'DC:*i:i.e recognition by his pupils of his fairness and gene Va^^ '^^ "tl:M.^xr boundless confidence in his good will forestalU fit?/ d^flScir^j^i-ti jr and made his word law to teacher and pupil alike. Jjl t^^ «"*:«- :K=DLxiier of 1892 he was called to the principalship of tl / ^^J* ^"^^^^^^^^^i-^my, Brooklyn. While he shrank from the chang iri^^ ^^*" ^:>oii his new field with enthusiasm and with the highe J^A^' "^^ ■m^:».ti his health quickly gave way under unfavorable c! /^ f ^^^ *-^ ^:>xis, and his work was ended in March of the first yea ^{^A^V ^^^^^^-"^^^ won hosts of friends in the great city and large ci ^^ Yif ^^^'^^^X>ly stirred at his death at the early age of thirty-nine. j^^^i^ '*~*^^^ ^^ ^^® death he was president of the Department < ^^ f ^ ^ -^^^ ^iiication of this Association and a valued member < i ^^/^ ,^/^^^^^^*::^ferences appointed by the Committee of Ten. 3r ^'^ y -the university. (^ ^ 0 " ^^^ ^Itfinneapolis and in Brooklyn he identified himself wi1 C^ r^ xf" ^^ ^►xid religious life of the community, and was always e ^^^ IP^^ilanthropic work. He was an elder in the Presbyteria '^^^ (J^.^^ ^oth cities, active in Sunday-school, Young Men's Christia ^^^^ ^c^^^^^ ^^d other enterprises. In these various branches ( iv^^^^c^,^^ reached out a helping hand, and many whom he has thi ^^^ unite with his former pupils, and those who enjoyed his clos( ' 0>7 ^Aaliip, to honor his memory and to rejoice in the uplift they ha^ \ it^^ *^ed ^rom association with so true and noble a man. \ re*"' \ JOSN 8. CROMBIE, Ph. D. Junk 19, 1854— ^pbil 16, 1893. BY RAY GREENE HULING. [Bead in thb Secondary Section, Thursday, Jitly 12, 1894.] tn obedience to the call of the acting president of this section, • to speak of him whose absence has been to some of us a moi f^^^^ggjye feature of our reunion. When we last assembled as tl ceeoBdaiT Section at Saratoga, we elected as our presiding oflSc^ 244 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [In for the present meeting a brilliant young teacher who was just leading the West, where he had earned the good will and esteem of large communities, to assume the direction of an important academy in the East. His tall manly form had for the eye no hint of weakness, no prophecy of dissolution. Strength and vigor, hope and promise, usefulness and helpfulness were the suggestions that beamed from his presence. Yet within a single year his name had become a simple memory. It is well that we cease from our dis- cussion for a while to-day, to consider his history and contemplate his character; for, short as was his career from a human point of view, incomplete and all too early ended, it has earnest lessons for us — lessons of a kind that as teachers we should heed. John S. Crombie was bom at Pontiac, Midh., June 19, 1854. His father was a native of Vermont and liad gone to Michigan in 1842. At the age of nineteen the lad graduated from the local high school, the first branch high school of the University of Michigan, and at once went on to the university. From its halls he graduated in 1877 with marked honor. The following September found him begin- ning his career as a teacher. His first position was that of principal of the high school at Coldwater, Mich. There in the following year he became the super- intendent of schools, and retained this position three years. From this, his first field, he passed to Big Rapids in the same State, still as superintendent of sc^hools, and remained in this position four years. This early period we may regard as, in a sense, preparatory to his proper work. But in it he had not only stored up power for future use, but indicated the qualities that attach pupils, parents and fellow teachers to a leader in educational work. He already stood high among the teachers of Michigan, and his departure from among them was greatly regretted. In the summer of 1885 he w^as invited to the principalship of the Central High School of Minneapolis, and here it was that he did tiie best work of his life. It had been his good fortune at Big Rapids to bring order out of chaos in educational affairs, and he had found it an enjoyable task. Here at Minneapolis there was a school which presented a similar problem. It was his especial delight to take a school that was somewhat run down and put new life into it. At his coming, the superintendent is said to have predicted that they could never have a large, flourishing high school in that city, because all Western young people are impatient to get into business. At that time, it is said, there were seldom more than six or eight graduates each year. Certainly the school was then not at all above the rank of other high schools. By Mr. Crombie's executive ability, MemoiiMnJ JOHN S, CBOMBIE, 245 his talent for organization, and yet more by the earnestness and nobility of his personal character, it was raised little by little, till, before he left it, it was pronounced by competent authorities one of the best schools in the United States, as it was one of the largest Its annual graduates exceeded a hundred in number, and many of them pushed on to college. Some of the elements of his method appear in the testimony of one of his later pupils: "He governed the school both strongly and kindl3\ No one ever heard from him a threat or an unkind rebuke. He laid down no iron rules. He governed by reason, by moral influence, by the development of manly boys and womanly girls, who felt a pride in their school and in their work. The courtesy of a thorough gentleman marked all his relations with his pupils. He had the rare and invaluable quality of making every one of us love him and feel that he loved us. He knew every pupil by name, and gi'eeted him cordially wherever they met. We were his friends, never his inferiors; and feeling this, we acted as befitted his equals. We knew that our success made him glad; that our failures, and especially our faults, grieved him; and we worked the better for the knowledge. Of all the men I ever met, I think there was never one who made himself so dear to all who knew him. And few there are who have done more good in the short span of life." In the summer of 1892, Mr. Crombie left Minneapolis with the affectionate regard of the community, to assume the duties of the principalship of the Adelphi Academy. As in each preceding change, this was a step to higher responsibility and honor and recompense. The i)osition strongly attracted him. The very last week of his life, he said: 'If I could only have five years at the Adelphi, we would have the best preparatory school in the country." Naturally enthu- siastic, and therefore courageous, industrious and capable of vast exertion, he threw himself into the effort to upbuild the institution he had come to love with a fervor that was unsparing of self. And even in the few months of his seiTice Mr. . Crombie had strongly impressed himself upon teachers and pupils alike, and was winning a high place in the esteem of the community in which he lived. Then the hand of disease was laid upon him. For some years a weakness of the heart had been apparent, and when the severity of the winter had combined with a depressed condition of his general system, due perhaps to something of over-work, the weakened organ succumbed, and on April 16, 1893, he died from heart failure. Tenderly his friends carried the loved form back to his native place, where it now lies, beside those of his father and mother, in the beautiful cemeterv at Pontiac. 246 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [In In the minds of those who knew Mr. Crombie his name stands for certain qualities that every teacher may well desire to possess. Let us linger a moment to consider them. The first is scholarship. As a student he was faithful, and attained high honors. As a teacher and superintendent he was always busy, but never too busy to continue his studies. Even amid his arduous labors at the Adelphi he was pursuing steadily his work as a candidate for the doctorate of philosophy, and had completed his thesis on the very day when the fatal disease seemed to smite him. The coveted degree was conferred upon him, but only when he lay, insensible to all honors, in the quiet grave. It is pleasant for his friends to think of him as a scholarly man* He was a successful teacher and organizer of school education. The learning which came to him through his scholarly habits he transmitted to the young spirits that successively passed before him, transmuting it, meanwhile, into graces and energies of mind and heart that should sweeten and uplift common life on every hand. It is pleasant for his friends to remember him as an efficient and inspiring teacher. He was eminently a man of sincerity; and this, perhaps, was one secret of his great personal influence on youth and adult alike. He had built his whole life on truth. This, too, gives his friends much pleasure in the remembrance. But the crowning characteristic of all, that which lingers as the dearest memory in the hearts of those who loved him best — was the richness and fullness of his spiritual life. This colored all phases of his activity. "He was most beautiful in his home life," writes his wife. "Never in the twelve years of our married life did I hear an unkind or impatient word pass his lips. He lived very near to God and had not the slightest fear of death. After his death" she adds, "I received scores of letters testifying to the great spiritual help he had given to the writers." This trait constitutes one of the best excellences a teacher can possess. Boys and girls cannot associate many months with one facing God ward without turning their own eyes in the direction of his gaze. Let us emulate, then, his scholarly ways, his tact and skill as a teacher, his sincerity and enthusiasm as a man among men; but above all and throughout all, let us cultivate the spirituality of his life. For thus shall we most surely catch the afterglow of his set- ting sun and with it brighten, each recurring day, the horizon of our own busv lives. Mem«ti«m.] SOBEBT ALLYN. 247 BOBEET ALLYN, D. D., LL. D. BY E. O. HBJWBTT. ■ Read before the National Council. July 7, 1894.J On Sunday morning, Jan. 7, 1894, our brother and friend breathed Ws last at his home in Carbondale, 111. He lacked only eighteen days of having completed his seventy-seventh year. He had been in fairly good health until about ten days before his death, when he was seized with la grippe, which soon took the form of pneumonia, and the end came quickly. Two daughters and a son survive him. Funeral services were held in Carbondale on Tuesday, Jan. 9. In the morning, were the services at the normal university, in which the faculty and students joined. At a later hour the public services were held in the church where he had worshiped for twenty years. Appropriate and discriminating addresses were made by several of Ws fellow-workers, and a great throng of people were present to show their respect and affection for one who, for so long a time, had beld a conspicuous place among them. Among his latest words, he said: "Let the teachers and the preachers bury me." And they did it, tenderly and lovingly. The following is a brief outline of Dr. Allyn's life and activities: He was born in Ledyard, Eastern Connecticut, Jan. 25, 1817; graduated from the Wesleyan University in 1841; began to teach in Wilbraham Academy the same year; became a pastor in 1843; took the charge of Wilbraham Academy in 1845; was made principal of an academy in East Greenwich, R. I., in 1848; was appointed school commissioner of Rhode Island in 1854, and served till 1857. At this time Dr. Allyn resigned the office, and left New England, to accept a professor^s chair in the Ohio University at Athens. After two years' service, he became principal of the Wesleyan Female College in Cincinnati, which position he left in 1863, to become President of McKendree College at Lebanon, 111., where he remained for eleven years. In July, 1874, the Southern Illinois Normal Uni- versity was opened at Carbondale. Dr. Allyn was installed as its president, and he remained at its head eighteen years, till he re- signed in 1892. As Dr. Allyn taught country schools several terms before going to college, it will be seen that he gave about sixty full years to the work of education. He was seven years past the "dead line of fifty," when he took hold of his last and greatest work; and when he laid it down, he was past seventy-five. Nor was he ready to give over work even then. During the last two years of his life, he was fre- quently preaching and lecturing, and at the time of his death he 248 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [In was editor of a teachers' paper. So that it might be said, that he lit- erally "died Willi the harness on." Those of us who have met him at these meetings and elsewhere, during the last five years, will agree, I think, that he did not impress us as a man who had by considerable passed the Psalmist's limit of man's life. There was a buoyancy and a cheer about him that did not seem to belong to age. And may we not say that his period of activity was prolonged by these traits of disposition? Is there not much of truth in saying that a man cannot become old till he con- sents to do so? • The outline of Dr. Allyn's labors that we have sketched contains only the way-marks. He served tw^o terms as a member of the legis- lature of Rhode Island. He was a preacher for fifty years; and although he had charge of a church but a little while, he preached a great deal and on some very important occasions. I am not aware that he ever published any book, but he wrote much for religious and educational periodicals, nor was he silent on political and social topics. As a writer he was clear and discriminating, humorous at times; and as a speaker he always commanded attention. When he edited the "Rhode Island Schoolmaster," nearly forty years ago, it was. I think, the most entertaining and lively teachers' paper that had appeared up to that time. From his sturdy New England ancestors. Dr. AUyn inherited a vigorous constitution. And not that alone: he inherited moral pith as well as physical fiber. He came of a family that has stamped its name in many ways on places and things in Eastern Connecticut. He had his life-long convictions, — they were not mere opinions, — and they were almost invariably on the side of truth and righteous- ness. And he had the courage to adhere to them, and to express them on all proper occasions. Of his power as a teacher, we have the testimony of hundreds who have sat under his instruction. His influence upon educational affairs is wide and lasting. Especial- ly in Southern Illinois, where he lived and w^rought for the last thirty years of his life, it is probable that no man in his field has been more influential than he. It is the testimony of all that Dr. Allyn was, always and every- where, a manly man in the highest and best sense. Of his friendly, genial ways, I do not need to speak in this presence. His tall figure^ cordial hand-clasp and cheery words have been familiar to us on oc- casions like this for many years. We miss them to-day. We shall miss them in the days to come. The man has gone, but he is not dead. He is not dead to us; he is not dead to the thousands whose lives he has touched to higher issues, and in whose hearts and lives words and teacher are living to-day. **To live in hearts we leave behind, is not to die." ROBERT WALLACE STEVENSON. 249 ^OBEBT WALLACE STEVENSON, Ph. D. BY EAIEItSON B. WHPPB. [RKA]> BEFORB THE NATIOXAL COUNCIL, JULY T, lf®4.] B(Obert Wallace Stevenson was born near Zanesville, Ohio, July 1^ 1832, and died in Columbus, Ohio, March 6, 1893, in the sixtj-fli-st year of his age. His great grandfathers were both natives of Scot- land, and he manifested in life many of the sterling qualities of his Scotch ancestry. He spent his boyhood on the farm, and received his early educa- tion IB the common school. He attended Madison College (now extinct), Guernsey Co., Ohio, several years, but in his junior year entered Muskingum College, Ohio, where he graduated in 1854 with a good record as a scholar. He began the study of law, though his parents desired him to enter the ministry; but in a few months, he accepted the principalship of the public schools of Dresden, Ohio, thus entering upon his life work. He taught at Dresden with marked success five years, and in 18G0 was elected superintendent of the public schools of Norwalk, Ohio, where he remained eleven years. Here he developed rare qualities as an organizer and super- visor of schools, as well as teacher. Under his efficient manage- ment the schools of Norwalk became models in organization and efficiency. The decade ending in 1872 was a period of marked de- velopment in the organization of the public schools in the cities of Ohio, and the schools of Norwalk participated in this improvement. In July, 1871, Mr. Stevenson was elected superintendent of the public schools at Columbus, Ohio, where he remained for eighteen years. His experience at Norwalk had prepared him for the man- agement of the schools in a larger city, and this experience was utilized in a happy manner. He thoroughly reorganized and re- classified the schools, and introduced improved courses and methods of instruction in all grades. Several new branches were added to the elementary course, including drawing, botany and physics, and the course of study in the high school was greatly improved. A normal training school was organized, and later an art school, both attaining high efficiency. Mr. Stevenson was a close student of the science and art of teaching, and auxiliary sciences, and he gave freely and intelligently to the schools the results reached. He was never satisfied with the success attained, and so each succeeding year was one of increasing progress. As a result, the schools at- tained a high degree of efficiency, being among the best in the countrv. 260 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [In In 1889 Dr. Stevenson failed of re-election, no reason satisfactory to the public being given or known. It was an unexpected and severe blow, unfortunately occurring just when, owing to an unfor- tunate investment, his financial affairs were somewhat complicated; but he accepted his defeat bravely, and in due time retired with the most gratifying evidence of public esteem and commendation. In the fall of the same year he was called to the superintendency of the schools at Wichita, Kan., where he remained some three years. His previous experience admirably fitted him for his new position, and the improvement of the schools was marked and rapid. They were reorganized, the course of study revised, and improved methods of teaching introduced. Progress in all directions was wisely inaugurated. But his promising work in Wichita was cut short by attacks of the grippe, which impaired his general health, making a change of occupation desirable. He resigned the superintendency of the Wichita schools in June, 1892, and retired from the profession to which he had so long been devoted, and in which he had attained unusual success. He returned to Columbus, Ohio, and entered upon business life, but his heart was not in his new work. He missed the bright and happy faces of pupils, and the sympathy and love of teachers and other co-workers. His health did not im- prove, as he had hoped, and though able to attend to his duties with his accustomed fidelity he was conscious of failing vigor. On the 6th of March, his heart suddenly ceased to beat, and his life work was ended. The news of his death was a great shock to his numer- ous friends in the city and elsewhere, few of whom had heard of his illness. The event called forth heartfelt expressions of sorrow, and his funeral was an occasion of general mourning in the city which he had so faithfully served. As a school officer, Dr. Stevenson was affable, genial and gen- erous, but was firm and persistent in the carrying out of his plans. He was open minded, quick to discover mistakes and happy in their correction. He allowed and encouraged originality in his teachers; asking for results, but leaving them comparatively free in method and detail. At the same time, he easily secured their confidence in his plans and their hearty co-operation in their execu- tion. He won in a high degree the confidence and esteem of the successive boards of education under whom he served. He was greatly beloved by the pupils in all grades, and ever manifested a deep interest in their welfare. He was a constant observer of child life, and kept himself in close touch with it. Dr. Stevenson long held a leading position among the edu- cators of Ohio, enjoying their full confidence and high esteem. He Memoriam.] ROBERT WALLACE STEVENSON, 251 took a prominent part in all important measures for the improve- ment of the schools. He was an active member of the Ohio Teach- ers' Association, and was its president as early as 1870, his in- augural address being one of the ablest ever given before the asso- ciation. He joined the National Educational Association in 1877, and was its secretary at the time of his death. He was president of the Department of Superintendence of the Association in 1886. He was elected a member of the National Council of Education in 1883, and attended most of its meetings, showing the deepest interest in the proceedings. He seldom participated in the discussions, but when he did speak, he was heard with interest, for all realized that back of his modest words was an experience attained by few edu- cators. He was most interested in the discussion of practical questions. Dr. Stevenson was a true man, and in life and speech a model of purity and refinement He was modest and retiring, even dis- trusting his fitness for the service to which he was called. He wad not a seeker of place or position, rarely assumed leadership; bu* when duty called, he responded with a courage that knew neitheir fear nor failure. He loved nobility and manliness, and hated pre- tension and sham. He was from childhood an active member o^ the Presbyterian church, and for years a ruling elder. He took arx active interest in all movements for moral reform, and nobly gav^ the influence of his life, as well as his words, to every cause that: sought the alleviation of human distress. He was married in 1856 to Miss Rebecca A. McConnell of Mc- Connellsville, Ohio, who, with a son, Robert J. Stevenson, survives him. In the death of Dr. Stevenson, this Council lost the fifth of its early Ohio members, the departed being I. W. Andrews, W. D. Henkle, Eli T. Tappan, John Hancock and R. W. Stevenson, all men of blessed memory, worthy representatives of the noble com- monwealth that is the first-born of the Ordinance of 1787, the pio- neer and for years the leader in educational reform. Andrews, Henkle, Tappan, Hancock and Stevenson, each the soul of honor! They all stood within that inner circle of true and generous friends, and it has been my sad duty to pay successively in this Council a tribute to their memory, and how inadequate have been my poor words! DEPARTMENT OF SUPERmTENDENCE. BOSTON MEETING. SECRETARY'S^ MINUTES. FIRST DAY. MORNING SESSION— Tuesday, Feb. 21, 1893. The Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association met in Huntington Hall, Massachusetts Institute of TechnoloK.v, Boston, at 10 o'clock, Tuesday morning, Feb. 21, 1893, and was called to order by the President, Dr. Edward Brooks of Philadelphia. Professor Runkle of the Institute of Technology, in behalf of the President au«l Faculty of that institution, extended a cordial greeting to the members of the department, and kindly tendered Huntington Hall for the use of the department during the convention. A fitting response was made by President Brooks. His Excellency Gov. W. E. Russell of Massachusetts was then introduced and delivered an address of welcome that was highly appreciated by the department. At the close of Governor Russell's address. President Brooks introduced Mr. S. B. Capen, Chairman of the School Committee of Boston, who extended a cordial welcome to the department in behalf of the city of Boston. President Brooks then, in behalf of the department, responded to the addresses of welcome. At the con- clusion of his remarks. President Brooks called upon Supt. Andrew S. Draper of Cleveland, Ohio, to more fully express the thanks of the department. Immediately after Superintendent Draper's remarks, a recess was taken in order to give the members of the department an opportunity to meet His Excellency Governor Russell of Massachusetts. After the recess an invitation was extended to the department to attend a re- ception to be held by the Governor on Wednesday morning, between 11 and 12 o'clock. The members of the department were then invited by Mr. Francis Bellamy to visit the "Youth's Companion" in its new home, and to receive its courtesies while in the city. After a few business announcements, the President introduced Supt. Virgil G, Curtis of New Haven, Conn., who read a paper on "Wood-work in Grammar Schools." The paper was discussed by Supt. C. E, Meleny of Somer- ville, Mass.; Prof. George B. Kilbon, Principal Manual Training School, Spring- field, Mass.; and Professor Rondinella of Philadelphia. The President then declared a recess until 2:30 p. m AFTERNOON SESSION. The department was called to order at 2:30 p. m.. President Brooks in the chair. Upon motion. Dr. W. E. Sheldon was appointed Treasurer pro tern., until thi» arrival of Treasurer Greenwood. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. 263 Upon motion, a committee on nominations of officers for the department was then appointed, consisting of Superintendents Draper of Ohio, Lane of Illinois, Seaver of Massachusetts, Gilbert of Minnesota and Cooper of Texas. The selection of a place for the next meeting of the department was, upon motion, made a special order for Wednesday afternoon. On motion of Superintendent Draper, it was resolved that the rule limiting par- ticipants in discussions to ten minutes each be rigidly enforced. The regular program was then resumed, and a paper on "The Study of English in Public Schools" was read by Supt. Albert P. Marble of Worcester, Mass. The paper was discussed by Mr. James H. Blodgett, Census Bureau, Wash- ington, D. C; Dr. John T. Prince, Agent of Massachusetts State Board of Education, West Newton, Mass.; Mr. Robert C. Metcalf, Supervisor of Schools, Boston, Mass.; Mr. Edgar A. Singer, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Philadel- phia, Pa.; Col. F. W. Parker of Chicago; Supt. Henry A. Wise of Baltimore; and Supt. Aaron Grove of Denver, Colo. The President of the Cambridge School Board then extended a cordial in- vitation to the department to visit the Cambridge Public Schools, After a brief recess the department listened to an address, "In Memoriam, George Rowland," by Mr. Albert G. Lane, Superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools. Assistant Superintendent Nightingale and Col. F. W. Parker of Chicago; Supt. A. S. Draper of Cleveland, Ohio, and others, spoke feelingly and eloquently of the memory of Mr. Howland. After a few announcements the department adjourned to meet in the Latin school at 7:30 p. M. EVENING SESSION. The department was called to order by President Brooks at 7.30 p. m. The absence of Supt. Oscar H. Cooper of Galveston, Texas, who had been detained at his home by illness in his family, necessitated the omission of his paper on "Examinations and Promotions in Elementary Schools." Supt. W, A. Mowry of Salem, Mass., consented to open the discussion on the topic, and was followed by Superintendents Minor ofxNorth Adams, Mass.; R. K. Buehrle of Lancaster, Pa.; Henry A. Wise of Baltimore, Md.; W. B. Powell of Washington, D. C; Col. F. W. Parker of Chicago; and Inspector James L, Hughes of Toronto, Canada. The department then adjourned to meet at Cambridge, at 10 o*clock a. m. Wednesday. ' SECOND DAY. MORNING SESSION— Wednesday, Febeuaey 22d. CA3£BRrDGB DAT. The department was called to order at 10:30 in Boylston Hall, Cambridge, by Supt N. O. Dougherty of Peoria, 111., who had been requested to preside on account of the enforced absence of President Brooks. The Secretary read a letter from Supt. O. H. Cooper of GalTeston, Texas, expressing his regret at not being able to be present on account of sickness in Ws family. 254 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston Supt A. S. Draper of Cleveland, Ohio, being then introduced, read a paper on "Plans of Organization for School Purposes in Large Cities." The next paper on the program, "The Supervision of City Schools," was read by Supt. W. H. Maxwell of Brooklyn, N. Y. The discussion of the two papers was participated in by Supt C. W. Cole of Albany, N. Y.; Supt. J. A. Shawan of Columbus, Ohio; Supt. W. B. Powell of Washington, D. C; Supt. W. N. Barringer of Newark, N. J.; Supt. F. J. Fitz- patrick of Oma^ia, Neb., and Supt. Warren Easton of New Orleans, La. After the discussion had been closed by Superintendents Draper and Maxwell, the Presi- dent introduced President Eliot of Harvard University, who extended the courte- sies of Harvard to the members of the department, and invited all to partake of luncheon immediately ui)on adjournment. The department then took a recess 4intil 2:80, during which the members accepted the hospitality of the President and Fel- lows of Harvard University. AFTERNOON SESSION. The department was called to order at 2:30 p. m.. Acting President N. O. Dougherty in the chair. Upon motion, the special order of business for this hour,— the selection of the place for the next meeting,— was postponed until after the reading of the first paper on the program for this session. The following resolutions, submitted by Superintendent Maxwell of Brooklyn, N. Y., were, upon motion, adopted: Besolved^ That a Committee of Ten be appointed by the Committee on Nomina- tions, to investigate the organization of school systems, the co-ordination of studies in primary and grammar schools, and the training of teachers, with power to organize subconferences on such subdivisions of these subjects as may seem ap- propriate, and to report the results of their investigations and deliberations at the next meeting of the Department of Superintendence. Rennlvetl. That the oflBcers of the Department of Superintendence be, and hereby are, directed to make application to the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association for an appropriation of $2,500, to defray the expensed of the Committee of Ten and of the conferences which that committee is em- powered to appoint. The selection of a place for the next meeting of the department being then in order, Superintendent Draper placed Cleveland, Ohio, in nomination. New Orleans, La., was placed in nomination by Supt. Warren Easton, and Richmond, Ya., was nominated by Dr. John E. Massey, State Superintendent of Education of Virginia. After voting upon each place separately, it was found that Richmond, Va., had received a majority of the votes cast. On motion, the selection of Richmond was made unanimous. The program was then resumed by the reading of a paper by Mr. Francis Cogswell, Superintendent of Schools, Cambridge, Mass., on "The Cambridge Experi- ment." Superintendent Cogswell's paper was discussed by Prof. Albert Bushnell Hart of Harvard College; Supt. A. Hardy of La Crosse, Wis.; Supt. W. H. Maxwell of Brooklyn, N. Y.; Supt. W. B. Powell of Washington, D. C; President Eliot of Har- vard, Superintendent Hunt, Professor Walsh and others. A recess was then taken until 7:30 p. m.. during which time the memberi of the department enjoyed the courtesies of Harvard University. SECRETARY'S REPORT, 255 EVENING SESSION. ^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^as called to order at 7:30 P. 3i,. at Sanders Hall, President <\ Ci ^^^^ *!/ " Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, 1 W^^ ^t yj^^^^P^^ ^^ "What do School Statistics Teach in Respect to the Moral y ^ ^^s on "University Extension" was then delivered by Mr. W, Hudson ^* Th d- ^^ ^*^"^^ College, Oxford, England. ^^Scussion was participated in by Prof. 6. 6. Wilson, Brown University, pjotideiiec?, ^ J . g^p^ p Truedley of Youngstown, Ohio; Superintendent Green- wood of Kansas City, Mo.; Superintendent Maxwell of Brooklyn, and Superintend- ent Cole of Albany, N. Y. The department then adjourned to meet at 10 o'clock Thursday morning, in Huntington Hall, Boston. THIRD DAY. MORNING SESSION— Thursday, Febbuaby 23d. The department was called to order at 10:30 am. In Huntington Hall, Presi- dent Brooks in the chair. The first paper on the program for the morning session was *'The Grading of Country Schools," by Mr. Henry Sabin, editor of "Iowa School Journal," Dcs 3Ioines, Iowa. The next paper was on "The Graded System of the Rural Schools of New Jersey," by Hon. Addison B. Poland, State Superintendent of Schools, New Jersey. At this point, Treasurer Greenwood made an announcement relative to the railroad certificates of members. Dr. Winship and Superintendent Seaver extended invitations to several re- ceptions, especially that to be given, at 12:30 p. m., at the Vendome Theater, by the publishers of Boston, to meet Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes and other authors of note. The discussion of the papers was then opened by Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, and was continued by Hon. Henry R. Pattingill, State Superintendent of Schools, Michigan; Hon. Henry Raab, State Superin- tendent of Schools, Springfield, 111., and closed by Hon. Henry Sabin of Iowa. A ];>aper was then read by Hon. D. J. Waller, State Superintendent of Schools, Pennsylvania, on "The Supervision of Country Schools." Supt. A. S. Draper, Chairman of the Committee on Nominations, then sub- mitted the following report: President— J^T, D. L. Kiehle of Minnesota. Vice Premdfnt^ Hupt, Warren Easton of Louisiana. FfH^ptnry - Supt. F. Treudley of Ohio. The Committee of Ten, provided for in Superintendent Maxwell's resolution, to coosist of the following: OA"irt/»"M Supt W. H. Maxwell of Brooklyn, N. Y.; Dr. Wm. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education; Supt. T. M. Balliet of Spriugfield, Mass.; Supt. N. C. Dougherty of Peoria, 111.; Supt. W. B. Powell of Washington, D. C; Supt. H. S. Tarbell of Providence, R. I.; Supt. L. N. Jones of Indianapolis, Ind.; Supt. J. M. Greenwood of Kansas City, Mo.; Supt, A. B. Poland of New Jersey; Supt. Edward Brooks of Philadelphia. 266 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Boston Superintendent Maxwell moved to amend the report of the committee by adding to the Committee of Ten the four members of the nominating committee. The motion was carried. The names thns added to the committee are the following: Supt. A. S. Draper of Cleveland, Ohio; Supt. E. P. Seaver of Boston, Mass.; Supt. A. G. Lane of Chicago, 111.; Supt. Chas. B. Gilbert of St Paul, Minn. The report of the committee as amended was then unanimously adopted. A recess was then taken until 2:30 P. M., during which time the department enjoyed the hospitalities of the publishers of Boston. AFTERNOON SESSION. The department was called to order by the President at 2:30 P. M., and the dis- cussion on the last paper of the morning session, "The Supervision of Country Schools," was opened by Hon. J. W. Dickinson of Massachusetts and continued by Superintendent Draper of Ohio and Mr. John MacDonald, editor of the "Western School Journal," Topeka, Kan. The topic of the afternoon session, "The Scholastic and Professional Training of Teachers." was then opened by Supt. Aaron Gove of Denver, Colo., who read a paper on "Sources of Supply of Teachers in City Schools." "What Can Be Done to Increase the Efficiency of Teachers in Actual Service?" the next paper, was presented by Supt Thomas M. Balliet of Springfield, Mass. The last paper of the afternoon session was read by Supt J. M. Greenwood of Kansas City, Mo., on "What Shall be Done with Non-progressive or Retro- gressive Teachers?" The discussion of the several papers was participated in by Princii)al J. C. Greenough, Normal School, Westfield, Mass.; Col. F. W. Parker of Chicago; Supt. A. B. Blodgett of Syracuse, N. Y.; Principal A. G. Boyden, Normal School, Bridge- water, Mass., and others. The Committee on the Public School Celebration of Columbus Day, appointed one year ago, then made the following report through its Chairman, Mr. Francis Bellamy of Boston. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON C5ELBBRATI0N (M COLUMBUS DAY BY THE PUB- LIC SCHOOLS. Your committee, appointed one year ago to promote the celebration of Colum- bus Day, Oct. 21, 1898, by the public schools of the United States, and to pre- pare an official program for universal use on that day, submit the following report: We first addressed, through the press, two general letters, simultaneously, to the teachers and to the pupils of the American public schools, explaining the plan of the celebration and proposing a demonstration in every school in the country. We then addressed private letters to all the superintendents of education in towns of 1,000 and over, to the number of 7,000, inclosing needful information, requesting their co-operation, and soliciting correspondence on the subject In the meantime we entered into direct correspondence with over 5,000 news- papers, inviting them to champion the celebration in their localities, offering to sup- ply them continually with news and editorial matter relating to the subject. It is gratifying to report that the press of the country almost unanimously supported the celebration of the day by the schools. Our next step was to invite the alliance of the Grand Army of the Republic. The commander-in-chief and department commanders entered into the project with enthusiasm, and issued general orders that each post encourage the schools to cele- brate, send a detail of veterans to assist schools in raising and saluting the flag, and that it act as a guard of honor to the schools in the afternoon review. This movc^ ment on the part of the veterans went far to make the celebration general. We then sectired a series of interviews with the most prominent statesmen of the Republic, beginning with the President, upon the idea of the leadership of the Colum- bus Day Celebration being given to the public schools. These interviews were pub- lished through the Associated Press. Snperintendence.] SECRETARY'S MINUTES, 257 Your committee also gained from Conifreas a joint resolution authorizing the President to issue a proclamation setting apart Columbus Day as a general holiday to be observed by all the people in the schools and other places of assembly. The in- fluence of this proclamation proved of the first importance in arousing the people to the school celebration. The committee was also able to secure from congress a fur- ther act changing the date of the Federal dedicatory exercises of the World's Fair grounds at Chicago from October 12th to October 2lBt, in order to correspond with the date of the school celebration, and thus to concentrate the interest of all the peo- ple upon one day. The Governors of thirty-four States, influenced largely by the State Superin- tendents of Education, who, as a general committee, co-operated with your Execu- tive Gommittee, issued proclamations in accord with that of the President, recom- mending to the peo^e that the schools be the center of the day's demonstrations. Finally, the committee prepared the official program, which was published the 1st of September and was generally used throughout America as the nucleus of tho local exercises. It is impossible to give statistical results of this school celebration. Th^ pres» reports, however, indicated it to be general throughout all the States and Territories of the Republic. The South was not behind the North in doing honor to the schools and to the flag, the Confederate veterans assisting the schools to raise and salute the natwaal fliM? and marching side by side in the review with the Federal veterans. The moral results of the observance can be more definitely stated. The leader- ship of the pfnblic schools made Columbus Day a people's day. The consequence was a patriotic and thoughtful uprising of the people such as America has not seen since the Civil War; a celebration less attended with noise and mere display and more marked by seriousness aad unanimity than any other day for a quarter of a century. Bat most of all, there is reason for gratification at the educational significance of this apriaing. America lifted up her public school system as the most characteristic product of the four centuries, and as one of the principal sources of her greatness. She reafiirmed her faith that the common education of the citizen in the common duties of citizenship is the function of the State. She seemed to utter her trust that the distinctive principles of true Americanism will not perish so long as free public education endures; and in token, she placed the nation's flag, not over her forts and battlegrounds, but over her public schools. The flag over the schoolhouses, also, impressed powerfully upon the youth that we are a nation. As the millions of pupils, with upturned faces and outstretched arms, saluted the nation's emblem in the same words, **I pledge allegriance to my flag, and to the Republic for which it stands; one nation, indivisible, with liberty and jnstice for all," a lesson of thoughtful patriotism was taught not to be forgotten. That united salute makes an episode in American history. The marching of an army of eager children. With drilled precision of step and with pride, as the appointed bearers of their country's banner on this greatest of American days, was a prophetic picture of gladness and solemnity to all the people. No triumphal procession of vic- torious armies was ever so benign and appealing as this review of our nation's pupils, the citizens of the new century, at the opening of that century. The conspicuous presence and patronage of the veterans of the war, under the nation's flag, seemed like the bequeathing of a sacred trust to those who are to com- mand the future. That Columbus Day proved a day of such courage and hope, was due in large measure to the wise action of the Department of Superintendence one year ago in as- suming that the leadership of the people's observance belonged peculiarly to the pub- lic school — the institution closest to the people, most characteristic of the people, and fullest of hope for the people. Respectfully submitted, Fbakcis Bellamy, Chairman^ BosUm, Mass. John W. Dickinson, Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education. Thomas B. Stockwkll, Commissioner of Rhode Island Public Schools. W. R. Gakbbtt, Superintendent of Public Instruction of Tennessee. Fkeris S. Fitch, Superintendent of Public Instruction of Michigan. The department then took recess, to reconvene at 7:30 p. m . in the Latin School hall. 17 Committee, 258 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston EVENING SESSION. The department was called to order by the President, Dr. Brooks, at 7:30 p. M., and, after some brief announcements, the general topic of the evening, "The Comparative Merits of Literature and History for Moral Culture," was introduced by Dr. Charles De Garmo, President of Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania, who read a paper on the sub-topic, "The Value of Literature for Moral Culture." The second paper was read by Chas. M. Andrews, Professor of History, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania, on the sub-topic, "The Value of History for Moral Culture." The discussion on the papers of the evening was opened by Mr. Francis Bellamy, of the "Youth's Companion," Boston, followed by Supt. J. A. Reinhart of Paterson, N. J.; Prof, James Seth, Brown University, R, I., and Supt. N. C. Dougherty of Peoria, 111. The following resolution was then offered by Supt. C. W. Cole of Albany, N. Y., and, on motion, was unanimously adopted: Rfaolved, That the thanks of this department are extended to the Governor of Massachusetts and the city of Boston; to the School Committee, Superintendent Seaver and his associates; to the President and Fellows of Harvard University; t the authors and publishers of Boston, and to Mrs. Hemenway for the cordial welcome and generous hospitality accorded us; to Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, for granting the rare privilege of meeting and hearing him; to President Dr. Edward Brooks, for the courteous manner In which he has conducted our meetings; to Secretary Phillips and Treasurer Greenwood, for constant and efficient labors in our behalf; to the railroad officials, for facilities and favors furnished, and to the newspaper press for full and accurate reports of our proceedings. The President, Dr. Brooks, then, in a few words, introduced the newly elected President of the department, Dr. D. L. Kiehle, who briefly accepted the responsi- bilities of his position and adjourned the department, to meet next year at Rich- ^^°<^' ^'a- T. H. Phillips, Secretary. / ~ AUTHORS' RECEPTION, 269 AUTHORS' RECEPTION. ffl^^rt ^^^'^^^^^^^ of Boston, through their Chairman, Mr. Houghton, ^Jr -^ "•^^^kx.^ sui)erintendents a cordial welcome in a brief but 4f'X^\ ^^^'■^^^ss. {^Not secured for publication.) ^ji^^C' ^^^^^^^^^^^ President of the department, then responded as fol- /'' \0 RESPONSE OP PRESIDENT BROOKS. A^ t^^^^^^ -^N: In behalf of the members, I desire to say that we esteem it '<^^^ VW ^^^^^'^d the meeting of the Department of Superintendence in the city ^^ufi^^' . ^ ^^^Br-^dle of popular education and liberal learning in this country. Tho ^ ^ ^^0^ , ^"^x xi.8 by the elements has been rather chilling to our feelings; but the ^^ jd^ ^ ^*x V>y the friends of education in the city has been so warm and hearty ^e/^ 1>^ ^ ^^ forget snow and rain and to call forth an expression of our deepest ^0 'ty your Chairman have awakened chords of feeling in our hearts -^o^^^V<^ *^^^ lips can find no fitting expression. f o^ rt\)C V^^^Bbers of a great city are a source of untold blessings to a country. ^e\t 'Work is a labor of love, a great missionary enten»dse, of course goes ^t%^ ^i BO^yiixg; but what a splendid work it is in the dissemination of intelligence ^^>^,g^rning throughout the land. Among these the publishing houses of Boston fL^^ l>een most conspicuous; and through them has gone forth from this center ^ ^^\ ^fiy^^S the light of scientific and literary knowledge with its illuminating and ^ ^^ ting influence. Here in Boston was established the "Atlantic Monthly," the \ ^^^1 of ^^^ toned literary periodical literature in the country. By means of it J** an author's name has become a household word throughout the country. ^*!L Appeared the names of Emerson, Lowell, Longfellow and Whittier, names \ iio^^ ^ ^® pages of modem literature on both sides of the Atlantic. In it was J h^ jjjtroduced to the American public the "Autocrat of the Breakfast Tabic," an ^^tacr&t with as much power as he who presides over the destinies of Russia *** pjaase), an autpcrat not of slavery but of freedom of thought. ^ 0ere to-day it is our privilege to meet this autocrat. Dr. Holmes, an autocrat r onT minds and hearts, and who by the touches of his genius has made us happier *^ d merrier and wiser; for in those articles it was difficult to tell which was the rtuae prominent, the tender sentiment and humor so genial and hearty, or the - p and subtle thought which often taxed our utmost comprehension; and I am are that I express the sentiment of every member of the department in saying that -t i« a highly prized honor that we have the privilege of meeting "The Autocrat of tbe Breakfast Table" this afternoon, y^e cherish his memory as the man who in our childhood, even among the oldest of oBf touched our hearts with his delicate and genial humor; who made us latig^ at some of our "Unmarried Aunts;" who made us almost split our waistcoats • a» we read "The Height of the Ridiculous," in which the author told us that since tbAt »ad catastrophe "I never dared to write as funny as I can;" and who has lifted onr hearts to higher planes of feeling by that one poem which will live as 260 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston long as the English language endures, ''The Chambered Nautilus/' wherein he in- vokes us to build more stately mansions to our souls. Oh, to write one poem like that is an honor more highly to be prized than to be President of the United States. (Applause.) And so, twining a wreath of gratitude and love from the blossoming feelings of our hearts to offer to Dr. Holmes^ we tender you again an expression of our appreciation of your courtesy and generosity. Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes was then introduced, and after a few happy remarks, read to the department a few vet^ses prepared for the occasion: VERSES By Dr. Olivkb Wendell Holmes. Teachers of teachers! Yours the task Noblest that noble minds can ask. High up .^nia's murmurous mount, To watch, to guard the sacred fount That feeds the streams below; To guide the hurrying flood that fills A thousand silvery rippling rills, In ever- widening flow. Rich is the harvest from the fields That bounteous Nature kindly yields; But fairer growths enrich the soil Ploughed deep by thought's unwearied toil, In Learning's broad domain. And where the leaves, the flowers, the fruits. Without your watering at the roots, To fill each branching vein? Welcome! the Author's firmest friends, Your voice the surest godspeed lends. Of you the growing mind demands The patient care, the guiding hands Through all the mists of morn. You knowing well the future's need, Your prescient wisdom sows the seed, To flower in years unborn. Other brief addresses were made by several notable authors, after which the department was invited to partake of an elegant luncheon. Soperintendenoe.] WOOD-WOBK IN GRAMMAR GRADES. 261 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS. WOOD -WORK IN GRAMMAR GRADES. . BY VIRGIL G. CUETIS, SUPEBINTBNDBNT OF SCHOOLS, NEW HAVEN, CONN. Within the last decade the value of manual training has been a prolific theme for discussion among educational writers and speakers. As a protest against the one-sided training so long in vogue in our schools and as a plea for a symmetrical development of the human powers, progressive educators have urged its introduction into the public schools. As a potent moral force, as an aid in securing respect for labor, as an important civilizing agent, and as a possible remedy tor some of the evils which menace modern society, philanthropists and reformers have advocated its claims. As a practical and economic measure, as a means of raising the skill of the American working- man with the view of promoting American industries and placing tms country in the front rank of the manufacturing nations of the wid, utilitarians have eagerly caught up the novel idea of some- bi \ ^^^^}^^^ ^ education, and these various interests have com- ., *^ ^^^ manual training a veritable boom, which has advanced "8 interests with wonderful rapidity. And the utilitarian idea (however much we may deprecate that P^ of the question) is really what has captured the people,— the 2 dT^^ ^^""P^sh the funds,— and they have thus been readily per- lines^ ? ^^ish us abundant means of experimenting along these until definite conclusions have been reached. ^^Kecognizing the supreme need of this industrial element to bridge ^IT^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ objective and the subjective and to bring our lea" h^^^ *^^ *^^ meaning of life and its realities, we have yet to now to administer the educational forces at our command so 1^ ^ assimilate the principle and incorporate it into every grade of ^up schools. ^ The baptism of the spirit of the kindergarten upon all our public I ^^* ^as wrought a wonderful transformation in all who have ^<>nieunder its benign influence. ^^ edagogues who have stood aloof and looked upon its pretty theo- ' ^^^ely from the standpoint of historic incident, have been drawn 262 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Boston nearer, and have seen through, and beyond the plays and games the true spirit of ProebePs thought. In the new i)0S8ibilities of child effort and execution they have discerned meanings of a higher, purer and sounder education. In this gradual evolution of the workings of the kindergarten, our primary methods have been regenerated, and we stand to-day in the midst of an educational renaissance, the light of which is illuminating every phase of school work. We recognize another vital element in education, the creative, and we are keenly alive to the necessity of giving this element its proper place in our school system. The first essential in approaching the problem of a course of study is through comprehension of its purpose. So long as many of the advocates of manual training see nothing in it beyond the development of mechanical skill in the use of tools and tlie ultimate production of better artisans; so long as many of the patrons of our schools cherish the notion that manual training simply opens a shorter path to the point where their boys may become bread- winners; so long as many people, well informed on other subjects, con- sider the manual training school a kind of dumping ground for the intellectual refuse of the school system — a place for boys who have no mental ability — the difficulties before us are somewhat perplexing. We have to combat such erroneous notions and hold manual training up to the high plane of pure education. We must insist that intel- lectual and moral results are far above mere mechanical skilL While we may not ignore the practical element, while we must admit that this special training of hand and eye cannot fail to stimulate and develop those faculties ujwn whose activity success in life depends; yet we must tenaciously hold that the supreme pur- pose of manual training is to quicken and develop the mental powers^ to cultivate the moral iustincts, to awaken and stimulate the aesthetic tastes, to lead up towards the good, the beautiful and the true. With these inspiring objects before us, we are prepared to under- take the reconstruction of our school courses, willing to weed out some of the accumulated rubbish and substitute this long-neglected but important pari: of the new education. The demand is fairiy upon us for a consecutive course of manual training from the year where the kindergari:en leaves the child to the end of the high school course. This work should go on with unbroken continuity. It is a perfectly feasible plan, and will not involve an excessive outlay. Drawing, the alphabet of all industrial education, is, after a struggle of twenty- three years, permanently established in our system, and ample pro- vision for its inclusion is now made in the curriculum of every well- ordered school in the land. Clay-modeling, paper cutting and folding, have, in some instances, been carried on through the grades up to the third or fourth year. Sewing and cooking are provided for the girls Superintendence.] WOOD-WORK IN GRAMMAR GRADES. 263 which should be filled by some kind of hand work. Whether it be sloyd of the Swedish, Russian, English or American variety, I hope we shall soon be able to determine. ^'ow, if my introduction has been too long, I trust you will pardon me, and I will now enter upon the task assigned me of outlining a suitable course for grammar grades. In grammar grades I include the sixth, seventh and eighth years of school, or the three years previous to entering the high school. SIXTH GRADE.— AVBRAOB AGE, ELEVEN TEARS. Place. In the school-room, by the regular teacher under the direc- tion of a competent supervisor. Suitable covering to be used to pro- tect the desk; also, to hold the tools. Time. Thirty minutes, three days each week during the school year, one and a half hours per week. TOOL8.-OON8TRUCTION TOOLS. One fixed blade steel cutting knife. One 6-inch trj-square. One 5-inch bevel. One 12-inch rule. MECHANICAL DRAWING INSTRUMENTS. One 45-degree set-equare or angle. One 60-degree set-square or angle. One pair 6-inch dividers, with pencil and needle points. One 2.foot T-square. MATERIALS. The common materials of construction are wood, cast iron and wrought iron. Houses and other buildings, bridges and railroads, hmiture, carriages and all sorts of vehicles, tools and agricultural implements, are largely, if not wholly made of these materials. Of ^^^ great construction materials, wood is the most abundant, the most important, the cheapest It is strong, light, clean, familiar to everybody, the easiest to work; therefore, superior. This, together ^|th the fact that larger classes can be taken in wood-work than ^th any other substance, undoubtedly makes it the most suitable Diaterial for the purpose. Material for this course, basswood and whitewood, cut one-quarter mch thick. COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. Mechanical drawing one-third of the time. ^ the first place, I think no work should be undertaken of which a drawing, either full size or to a scale, has not been previously made. 264 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [fiofllon It is not necessary to speak of the great value of drawing as a form of hand, eye and mind training. In its relation to wood- work, though not always indispensable, it is particularly useful as giving an impres- sion of the appearance of a finished model which may not exist in reality. In drawing the model, the pupil becomes thoroughly familiar with the general aspect of his work. His appreciation of what is required is stimulated when he has to create, first his drawing, then his model, instead of merely copying the dimensions of a completed model directly onto his wood and from this making a precise copy of the model. Then the pupil learns here how to interpret a working drawing, the ability to do which is always a valuable acquisition to his powers to interpret the thought and achievements of the world's workers. So I should insist that every exercise in wood- work should involve a good useful drawing lesson. The tools to be used in this grade are recommended because of their simplicity, light weight and slight expense. This set of tools would not cost more than |1.25 for each pupil. The mechanical drawing instruments will cost more or less, depend- ing upon the quality of the dividers. Cheap sets of mechanical draw- ing tools can be purchased for one dollar, or even seventy-five cents; but a good serviceable pair of dividers would make them cost three dollars or four dollars per set. The question of the quality of the tools may be disposed of in a brief sentence: "The best is always the cheapest." Never give a lad a poor tool, unless you are content to receive from him poor work. The covers for the school desks cost J1.50 or $2.00. So that the whole outfit would involve an expense of six dollars per pupil. Instruction to be given in the use of these simple tools of construc- tion in the execution of the type forms, as follows: Square, representing section of cube; triangle, representing sec- tion of cone; circle, representing section of sphere; rectangle, repre- senting section of cylinder; five, six and eight pointed stars; wheel, with spokes and hub; ellipse and oval; angles representing pitch of roofs; section of fiight of stairs, showing relation of tread to use. SEVENTH GRADE.— AVERAGE AGE, THIRTEEN YEARS. Place. In the school-room, as in case of the sixth grade. Time. Same, one and one-half hours per week. Tools. The same, with the addition of a flat chisel, three carving chisels, a six-inch marking gauge, a small hand scroll saw and a brad- awl. An additional cost of fl.50. auptfia^'^^^^^o.] WO0D'}V0EK IN GRAMMAR GRADES, 266 GOURSB OF INSTRUCTION. Mechanical drawing, as before. Tool work, cutting in thin wood representation of side of house or section of engine, water wheels, or other pieces of apparatus illustra- ting science work. Exercises in incised work and veining in wood carving, followed by carving in relief, pupils to make their own designs. We have experimented in New Haven with this seventh grade, or with bovs from twelve to thirteen years of age in a shop where they spend two hours per week at the bench, with the tools recommended for the eighth grade. But our exi)erience proves, to our satisfaction at least, that the plan is not practicable. The boys are not strong enough to handle the ordinary tools. Their minds are not mature enough to appreciate the value of the training. EIGHTH GRADE— AVBBAGB AGE OP PUPILS, FOURTEEN YEARS. This, with us, is the last year of the grammar school course. It corresponds to the ninth in most New England schools. It is desirable to give to the boys of this grade, and to the girls who prefer such a course to the cooking lessons, quite a thorough course in wood-work, either in a shop fitted up with benches in the building in which they regularly attend, or in the manual training school proper, in case such a school is provided. . TOOLS FOR REGULAR SHOP WORK. One 22-inch splitting saw or rip saw. One 1-inch mortise chisel. One 1-inch cross-cut panel saw. One %-inch mortise chisel. One 10-inch back saw. One 1-inch firmer tang chisel. One 18-inch jack plane. One %-inch firmer tang chisel. One 10-inch smoothing plane. One pair 6-inch dividers. One 8-inch marking gauge. One 2-foot rule One 8-inch bevel. One hammer. One 8-inch try square. One mallet. One 3-inch try square. One scratch awl. One screw driver. One fixed blade knife. One 4-inch butt brace. A set of such tools, the best in the market, will cost ten dollars. A good bench will cost from twelve to fifteen dollars. An expenditure of f 500, then, will fit up a shop for the accommodation of 200 boys, giving each class of twenty, two hours a week. COURSE OF STUDY. Mechanical drawing to scale. Much attention to working draw- ings. Lessons on tools, parts, materials, theory of construction, use and care of. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Bofiton Marking, with scratch, awl and thumb-gauge; sawing and planing to dimensions; chamfering with plane and chisel; horizontal and ver- tical chiseling; halved joints, right angles and forty-five degree an- gles; half and full dovetailing; open mortise and tenon joint; wedged mortise and tenon joint; mitred angle bridle joint. One of the chief aims of manual instruction — the fostering of the power of construction — is to be attained by the making of models. To keep boys continually working at exercises, with no opportunity of putting their knowledge to practical application, is likely to have a dispiriting effect. In designing models from familiar objects the question of utility need not necessarily enter in. It is not a factory we are aiming at, but a training school. The essence of manual training lies in the doing, and not in the thing done. The chief object is to develop the creative powers of the boys themselves, and any model which will serve this purpose may be accepted. Utility may be combined with instruction, and there is no objection to the useful as long as it fills the more important requirement of being educational. So the box and the frame, the bracket and the book rack, are admissible. The two prominent systems of manual instruction which are before us for consideration, are the Swedish and the Russian. Experi- ments are going on in Boston and in other cities which will doubtless help us to a final conclusion as to which is best adapted for American schools. Both of these systems are founded on the principles which I have endeavored to set forth. They strive to teach no trades. They teach only the principles which underlie all trades. They are both progressive; both seeking the same end, the development of the child. The Swedish selects its course from the small wooden articles used in the house and garden. The Russian selects the various fittings used by the carpenter in building and furnishing a house. It teaches exactness of fit. The work is judged by itself without regard to util- ity. The Swedish seems to place much more stress on the value of the article, and seeks to interest and please the child with the finished piece. Working drawings are not considered essential in the Swedish system; while in the Russian, the drawing always precedes the con- struction. The Swedish sloyd, then, with some modifications, may be better adapted for younger children, from ten to twelve years of age, who need the incentive of a finished piece of work; but a boy of thirteen or fourteen years should certainly be brought to severe exercise of his thinking powers, in studying out the interpretation of working draw- ings and planning intricate mortises and exact fitting joints. Herr Salomon of Naas, the great exponent of the Swedish system, says: *T^t is quite possible to employ the sloyd principles and to main- DISCU88I0N. 267 \eV^ ^^ educational value without the use of a single Swedish A^S^V^Vl ^^^ are noted for the readiness with which we adopt ^ A^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ things from other countries. No doubt the ^^^xmwv^^^^^^ ^^ ^ easily adapted to the needs and conditions ot ^ ^^^ public school education. We can supplement this by g^d&J^S uxe best features of the Russian method and finally evolve a sy*^^^ ^Wch shall be distinctly American. DISCU88I0K Clabbncb E. Melbnky, Superintendent of Public Schools, Somerville, Mass.— Wben I accepted the invitation of the President to discuss this subject, I had no thought beyond a few general remarks on the point made by Mr. Curtis. A few days ago I received the program, and seeing that my name came first and that there was no one to speak for Boston, I immediately came into town to find some one to take my place and properly represent the city which is the home of manual training and the source from which so much has gone out to all the country. My efforts were unavailing, and I was urged on the contrary to go on with the subject myself. I wish to explain at the outset that I have no official relation with the city of Boston and have no right to speak of the work done here or to show the courses of wood-work which you see here on the platform, except so far as this is a type of the educational work done in this metropolitan district represented by Cambridge, Somerville, Brookline, Waltham and other cities about Boston, in which we are all interested. It was my good fortune to take a course in sloyd a few years ago, which gave me an interest in the subject not soon to be lost. You all know that experimental wood-working was begun in the Boston grammar schools a dozen years ago. Ten years ago it was officially recognized by the Boston school board, and boys were permitted to attend the North Bennett Street Industrial School, an institution established by philanthropic people for two objects: to afford an industrial education to the children of the North End and to try an educational experiment which might be an object lesson to educational authorities. But the real interest in wood-work began when, in 1888, Swedish sloyd was introduced under the patronage of Mrs. Shaw and those associated with her in her grand educational work. Mrs. Shaw, after the establishment of the kindergartens and their adoption by the city of Boston as an integral part of the public school system, saw in the Swedish sloyd a system in which the fundamental principles of the kindergarten could be continued into the grammar schools for the instruction of boys. Two sloyd schools were established, boys from the grammar schools were received and ^*^^^1 in relays, and classes of teachers from Boston and neighboring cities were instnict:. ^^ evenings and Saturdays. A great interest was thus awakened, and it became ^,^^ object of close study from the practical and educational sides. A stndy ox ^^^^^^ American schools and American homes, customs and ideas soon convinced Swedish teachers that some modification of their models would be necessary. ▼!oua to 1888 all the wood-work had been after the Russian system, which 268 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Bo«tMm know was first introduced into this country by Prof. John D. Runkle in the School of Mechanic Arts of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The sloyd teachers and the other teachers of wood-work, all working with a common end in view, began to compare their views, their systems, and the educational effect on the child. The result has been the free and unselfish modification of all the courses to meet the needs of the case and to conform to the highest educational and prac- tical requirements. I have secured through the kindness of the directors of Mrs. Shaw's work and the city of Boston the three sets of models you see on the plat- form and the charts which set forth the principles and the courses of Mr. Larsson's sloyd system. I wish you to examine the models of the course in the light of the principles set forth on this chart. Sloyd does not consist of the models, but of the principles. Models constantly change, the desire of the teacher being to attain eventually a higher exemplification of the principles by an improved set of models. A copy of the chart Is here given: 0 DISCUSSION. 269 Is M H ^4* M H 4D ^4* H fH • M H H < M ® M M M M ^, M 1 1 1 J . d « ^ « .2 I ^ I s * « g § I iS .2 -a Of tf O H fe a Wo ■* *^ 5 'S 3 i g 0^ ao Q 270 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boeton ll i ^+r r • t ^ •%s — •*• «,;**. y 5„- M ^ « Jl H H H H M M M 1 S o •m4 M N 2 -** M ST ^ . »* H Hn M H H S " S 3-2 •I t-i ^« 1H i-lN H ^ M 10 "5 3 1-1=1-1 3 2 2 e 0 1 s" !•§ * -^ til ^ « » » « « oS o! . •a 4) 0/ d d d S ^ a d a a a a a °| s 1 w o •a E E S S £ £ £ E E Z a a E •& II a II ^1-3 1 -^ ©si 1 i E £ H 6 6 ill 1 If 1 ll III i "< « CO ■ "«• lO o t^ 00 o> 0 fH C« CO 1 1 •^ VH ^^ fii^ 1 i 1 i i *3 a 1 6 IIM 1 1 1 KI'A •3 .d ce 1 H b 5 I 1 fJ|Sl^ .ell III II 1 S i SI, S g 'C 1 § 1 W QQ « W O H u K 0 0 t A. 5 '5t 1 ^ ill! 1^ ^ d % ■w •w ^ bfi -o boS " « sJ^ bo . d 2 1 1 1 1 1 if ll 1 1 1 3 1 § a s s o* a si = 1 1 mnm ^ *• l?|i|s|l tf ffi o 02: ^ i ill fl 3 Ti •a Ja a 1 a 6 1 1 1 || 1 Is »-• ; , - 1 a 1 :- -3 1 1 '^ ^ ! -* 5 1 d fl d Pi • ■ s 1 * s g S ^ .8 -a ^ 1 -2 1 ^ ^ •" 8 1 5 2 ^ «i 2 5 « S ft '^ ? s fl i s t3 g ^ .S «s S M d s 2 ■0 h3 5 o 3; J Sopexiotendeiice. J DISCUSSION. ^i 15 3 H H CO H H QD CI oahf. M M 00 M O M H M H ^ N ^ ^ H 00 H Si a 1 IS •OK "2 2 S? t4 J! -a CI4 ec p» 3 g 2 e« »-< c: *^ a 0 •s ^ >• 0 ii 1 1^ i i 5 OD ^ XI ^ 1 4> ?3 ^ ^a « S o o. S5 o a bo 3 a s 03 03 S '^^ ti) 5« to s 03 to O to to .2 IS a o I s 1. o B s O 2 & •g •3 1 0 s K 0 is g 2 OS H P5 CL, m 7i it) C3 fl O O . n to ••g.2 a « fl '^ c 5 fl *o £ 09 0 O* 00 to c I fl fl 03 to fl 1 o a fl t3 fl & s fl O O OQ to fl S o 00 S '^ "* »-l 11 " 0) 1-1 S S 8 to fl .fl to .2 to tc bo o E b *j B a a ■ c l-i O 04 1 ® 10 S .a s '& £ s 1 B, O 1^ s ^ « >4 o •§ 1 4^ !i 1 42 ■? >^ g O J It 1 1 1 "3 g ^ 1-^ 5? •OK 8 S K s s s s % 60 ao . u. • S'u ■a & 11 £3 1 P4 1 ^ a5 1 • O a bfi B •a t g a ? 1 Is 1 I a 1 bo 3-§| in U) C OB 111 i 1 •3 60 P^ cc ^ Q Pm S ^1 ^ 1 1 i 1 1 1 ^ a| « II - ^ •& 1 t 1 ? ^ i i g 1 1 s 1 i j 2 ■§ s : ^ 1? 9 $ i "2 be ■« •1 S .1 g 1 § 5 P C H 5 o d 13 d Id o H pq O i R Hi w i O Sopermtendence.] DISCUSSION. 273 PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE 8L0YD SYSTEM. 1. The progression of exercises should be so arranged as to secure the constant and proportionate development of mind and body. The one should never be sacri- ficed to the other, as sometimes happens in manual work; the cube, for instance, is an easy problem for the mind to grasp, but too diflScult at first for the hand to execute in wood, and it is also possible that a model should present a too serious problem to the mind while it gives little training to the body. Sloyd especially calls attention to this fact. 2. Exercises should be so arranged that each model should prepare the way for the next, not only physically but mentally. 3. Exercises should always result in a finished article of use. To a child the whole of anything is but an element, and in making its parts his thought is simply to complete his unit. Sloyd claims that by means of a finished model a continuous interest is obtained of great intellectual value, since "real discipline comes to the mind when it acts, not languidly, but with full energy, and it acts with energy only when it is interested in what it does."— (Rev. James Freeman Clarke). But more than this, Sloyd values the finished model as a means of securing the moral stimulus gained, not only through an interest which holds over from lesson to lesson, but by the use of the creativA faculties of the child. 4. The proportions of the models should be such as to educate the artistic sense, and the construction simple enough for the child to reproduce in drawing. The drawing should go hand in hand with the tool work, and should include freehand work, applications of simple geometrical problems, and mechanical drawings with T-aquare, triangle and measure. 5. The models should admit of great variety of exercise and form. Sloyd claims that variety is necessary in the training of children, not as an amusement, but as a stimulus to varied mental activily. For this reason, as well as for the training in the sense of form, models introducing curves should be frequently inter- spersed among the strictly rectangular objects, as well as those calling for a variety of tools. 6. The work should be of such a character as to admit of the best hygienic conditions. The positions assumed in tool-work should counteract, as far as pos- sible, the ill effects of long hours of sitting in school. The modifications of the Swedish sloyd models have been the result of a study of all the work done by American teachers, a better appreciation of American ideas and sesthetic tastes and the articles found in the American home. The in- struction in the sloyd schools has been greatly improved by the introduction of drawing. The child makes a drawing from the model by the aid of the teacher's instruction at the blackboard; he then makes his own model from his own draw- ing. By a careful comparison of the models with the charts you will appreciate the progression, and the value of the instruction and exercises of the course. You will notice that tools are introduced gradually; that one exercise follows logically and practically the preceding; that each step is an easy one in consequence of the previous work done. The work is consistent with the principles of the kinder- {:arten, in that every model is a complete article and is the expression of the child's thought. The model is presented to him as an object of knowledge, wliich he studies, examines, thinks about and draws, thus making it his own. He t:b.en creates the object himself as an expression of his thought. It is claimed t;\ictt this principle enhances the value of the exercise as an educational process- ^y making a whole thing, the child expresses a whole thought; just as a seti^^^^^ is the expression of a whole thought in language. There is the same satlsf^^**^''^ in making the whole thing that there is in making a complete statement a» **-^ 274 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Boston expression of a thought in language. In making the article the various steps or elements that enter into its construction are made. But it does not end with the elements; it is only finished when the whole is perfected. There is as much more interest in completing the object than in making only parts as there is in com- posing a sentence instead of spelling certain isolated words. The child is also conscious that he has nmde something of value, thus adding to the home or creating wealth. He makes it not only for himself but for others, thus increasing their pleasure; an instance of the altruistic principle. This sloyd principle will be noticed in all the models here exhibited, and marks the modifications made in the other courses in their approach to the. sloyd system. , Ever since the establishment of the kindergarten at the. beginning and the manual training school at the end of the cpurse, educators have been trying to devise a system of work to bridge the gap between. This has been partially accomplished by means pf clay modeling, which ought to occupy a place in every grade .from, the kindergarten to the high school, and paper or card work in con- nection with drawing. We now have the sloyd, which is capable of supplying the needed course of work by carrying out the principles of the kindergarten. The introduction of manual training into the grammar school, by employing the exer- cises of the school of mechanic arts, has been an extension of the manual training school and its methods downward, while the introduction of sloyd has been an extension of the kindergarten upward. You may judge for yourselves which comes nearest to educational' principles. In the kindergarten and primary school the child creates his forms by using material adapted to his tender hands. In sloyd he finds resistance in the harder material, wood, but which he- uses, by the aid of simple tools, to express his thoughts and create the object he wishes to produce. He models with his knifn just as he has modeled in clay with his hands or cut from paper or card. The use of the knife, which is the most universal and the simplest tool by which alone a complete model can be made, calls for the exercise of a most delicate manipula- tion; it affords the fullest and broadest freedom of any tool that can be emp!oyed. Its use necessitates the greatest exercise of the muscles of the wrist, hand and fingers, and this, in a physiological and psychological sense, possesses the highest educational value. It is the simplest and most natural tool as an introduction to manual training; in that it affords the least barrier between the child and his model. Mr. Larsson*s course covers four years, from the fifth to the eighth grades. Mr. Leavitt's, four years, from the sixth to the ninth; or, as the Boston classes are graded, from the fourth to the first. Mr. Eddy's course is designed for one year, the eighth— a modification of a course previously taught to ninth grade boys. The two last-named courses are modifications of the Russian system. You can readily see how they have been influenced by the sloyd. Photographs Of the models of Mr. Leavitt's course are here given. These are samples of the work done by pupils. A brief expFanation of Mr. Leavitt's course will be interesting: FIRST YEAR. OR FOURTH GRADE. The first year's work is shown in the nineteen pieces of the class known as the fourth grade. In this year drawing is the special feature, light tool work only, being introduced. The thin wood (one-quarter inch) eliminates all question of form, other than in two dimensions. A piece of thin stock is fastened firmly to the bench, in such a position that it may be drawn upon by means of the ordinarv ^Perintendence.] DISCUSSION, 275 J^ughtsmau's instniments, T-square, triangle and compasses. The drawings con- ^^ of plane figures which are made up of horizontal, vertical and oblique lines, '■^'s of circles, and some free-hand curves, and are such as require for their con- '^^i-'tion a few geometrical problems. -^t the beginning of the lesson the model is held by tjie teacher, who makes ^e drawing step by step on the blackboard at the direction of the class, in response ^ ^e question, "What must be done next?** the pupil being required to express ^^^self accurately. After the pupils have drawn the figure on wood, it is cut out W means of a bracket saw, and finished with a plane and file. The lesson not only results in a finished piece, but makes clear to the child the meaning of drawing and the importance of accuracy. SECOND YEAR, OR THIRD GRADE. Mne figures. Continuation of first year. Thickness introduced and with it necessary additional views. On thin wood, same as in first year. On thick wood, two views are drawn on thin wood used as templates or patterns. The pupil thus learns what top, front and side views really are. The tool work intro- iuces more and larger tools. TTORD YEAR, OR SECOND GRADE. The third year's work is shown in the ten figures of the second grade. The more practical methods in both drawing and tool work are here intro- luced. The two are here separated for a time, the pupil making on paper correct (Torking drawings simply as illustrative of principles, and, in tool work, execut- Qg various exercises from prepared drawings, using for marking out the rule, quare, gauge and bevel; that is, the ordinary tools used by the mechanic for that Purpose. The drawing and tool work are at length brought together again, the mpil making in the school room the working drawings of the models he is after- vard to make in the shop. This temporary separation of the drawing and tool vork, while not absolutely necessary, is thought advisable for the following rea- sons: The subjects are now to be presented to him in a new light, the drawing IS a means of expressing to some one else facts of form and dimension necessary for the construction of the piece, the tool work as the expression in wood of facts some one else has expressed in drawing. Then, too, the whole subject of putting [>n dimensions must be taught; that is, of expressing accurately all the facts about the model, though the pupil, by reading the drawings for the two previous years, has unconsciously been learning this most important branch. He has been learning how to express himself in drawing by seeing his teacher draw, as he has been learning to express himself verbally by hearing his teacher talk. FOURTH TEAR, OR FIRST GRADE. The work of the fourth year is shown in the seven figures of the first grade. The tool work illustrates further principles of construction, and brings the whole course into harmony and unity in the two finished pieces, the construction of which involves a familiarity with all that has gone before. These pieces are made entirely from the pupil's own drawings, and these are made in four ways: First, from models with blackboard instruction; second, from models only; third, with a written description with one model to make the meaning clear; and, fourth, from a written description only, being thus purely the expression of thought. It will be evident to any one who has followed the course thus far that while each year's work of seventy hours can readily be given independently of the rest. 276 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Boston yet that there is a very distinct advantage in having the whole given in consecutive order, that the greatest possible benefit may be derived by the pupils for the time spent. The element of progression is a very important principle underlying all these courses. It is essential that the models follow each other in such a course as shall train the mind and the body, by calling into exercise the faculties of thought and the various muscles of the hand. The selection of models must be made in recog- nition of the growing dexterity of the pupils, the strength of body and the in- creasing knowledge of tools. The variety of models is of great importance; because it increases the interest, stimulates a wider intelligence and greater mental activity. In designing new models the instructor strives to satisfy the desire for utility and beauty. The aesthetic taste of to-day must not only be satisfied but continually cultivated. The models should not only take the ideal form, but possess the high- est elements of art, thus contributing to the cesthetic education of the pupil who works them out. They must not only show the ajsthetic idea in the ornamental carving upon them, but possess beauty of fprm in themselves— the beauty must not be added to, but incorporated in, the model. I have not put up these exhibits for the purpose of comparing them. They all embody true educational principles, and show the individuality of their authors. I do not ask you to choose the best. No one should pass judgment upon a series of models by a superficial examination. The merits of a course are not deter- mined by the number or variety of the models, by their form, their apparent use- fulness or their market value, but rather by their educational value. Examine each course during the noon recess, to see if possible how much observation, judg- ment, carefulness, is required. Learn the effect upon the children who work then) out, as to the faculties trained, skillfulness acquired, how the general health and strength of body is improved and maintained. Examine the models to see how each exercise grows out of the preceding, how familiar tools are kept in use and new ones gradually introduced. That is, the merits of a system cannot be deter- mined by the models alone, but by a study of the child who takes the course. I deem it of the highest importance to the success of manual training that the systems employed be strictly founded on educational principles. There has been a great deal of time and money spent on shops and carpenters. Almost everything in the shape of shop work has been tacked on to our school system. Is it not time for educators to cry "Halt!" to stop and investigate what is proposed, to incorporate what Is educational and to root out what is not? One great obstacle to the kindergarten has been the work of superficial observers who claimed to be kindergartners, and incompetent persons who have foisted upon the primary schools the use of material which they called kindergarten work. The name trouble, per- haps in a greater degree, exists in regard to the manual training There has been too much experimenting— too much mechanic and too little teacher. Let us study this from the educational standpoint and pronounce upon it. In closing, I wish briefly to state my conviction that the training of teachers for manual training is of as much importance as the training of kindergartners. We as superintendents should insist that our manual training teachers be trained for their special work and for the broader teaching as well. Since 1888 hundreds of teachers in the Boston schools and in the neighboring oities have taken courses of instruction in sloyd. There is to-day a normal sloyd school, supported by Mrs. Shaw, where the instruction includes studies in educa- tional psychology, the principles and the actual work with tools. This course is required of all who expect to receive the certificate entitling them to teach this branch in the schools. Most if not all of them are experienced teachers in the \ .n*:?'^ ^S^^r^'^M ^ i^Llll^ jndence.] DISCUSSION. 277 schools. This school is doing a grand work, and is destined to establish a teachers the existence of which will compel the recognition of the neces- killed teachers of manual training. rciPAL George B. Eilbon, Springfield Manual Training School.— Manual at Springfield is organized in three departments. First, high school; »ighth and ninth grammar grades; and third, sixth and seventh grammar High school pupils do daily work for three years in wood and iron, rade grammar pupils have one lesson each fortnight in elementary wood- d ninth grade pupils have one lesson each week in the same. Boys in 0 grades leave the grammar buildings and go to the manual building from LO A. M. in classes not exceeding eighteen. All attendance is voluntary, pleasant to be able to state that out of 104 ninth grade boys 102 take iial lessons, lessons given to eighth and ninth grades are outlined in a pamphlet pub- 7 the school. A selection of ten lessons was published last year in the ork School Journal." urse in knife work is arranged for the sixth and seventh grades, which is the regular school-room, the desks being protected for the purpose by a le cover of one-half inch pine. These lessons are given by the regular who are themselves instructed at the manual training school once a >m 4:30 to 6 p. m. Knives are kept in order and work inspected at the training school, and the manual principal makes occasional visits to the r schools as necessity arises or time allows. Knife work was, by a vote of 3l committee, permitted in such sixth and seventh grades as made request id in a short time such request came from every grammar principal in the ►er. It is everywhere taken by every boy and they make a total of 411. ses are reported of phlegmatic interest, while in other cases boys are re- J "crazy for it." In one school, during the illness and consequent absence acher, a ninth grade boy is being allowed to direct the knife work with success, the room, of course, being meantime in charge of a teacher who fitted herself in knife work. The text-book used in this department of Id manual work is published by The Milton-Bradley Co., under the title e Work in the School-Room." ^ing in the grammar grades is under the excellent supervision of Miss y, and every manual problem that admits of drawing is drawn in advance anual work, though the preliminary lessons in both of these studies must ly be practiced independently of the other study. The interest of gram- as in, and the quality of, their manual work is owing in a great degree terested and effective co-operation of the grammar principals and of the teacher. esting experiments have been made with knife work in grades four and ?vo j;' ^had rather' or *had better' with the present infinitive, etc." mportance of close attention to the speech consists less in lilxe \ and expressions whose proper use is learned than in the lx;^t>it ending to the expression. It is the study, of both pupil Jixid. ?r, which produces the good habit of thought; and this lLal>it not only to correct expression, but to correct and orderly tilxixili- nd this is vastly more important From this habit o^ xiwieh g by the pupil, under the guidance of the teacher, the lxa.l>it of ig grows naturally. He has expressed his thought in sx>eeeh- m take his seat, and in the presence of his teacher a.neech and in written language, as I have endeavored to point ^ the thought should grow^ correspondingly, and be nourished by ation and reading, and by expression all along through the tary stages, so it appears to me the student's own language form the basis of his study of literature. That is to say, his ^dge of the structure, the force, and the beauty of the language be developed from within; should be a gi-owth and not a iccretion. begin again at the bottom. Is spelling to be learned? The one uses are of most interest. Is the grammatical structure sentence to be studied? For this study the pupil's own language be examined. It is his own. He knows what it means; and I therefore more easily appreciate the force which he has put ^ery part of it, and can understand the effect upon the sense any modification of its form and structure may produce. Is c to be learned? How can the nature of a figure of speech be understood by the student than by recognizing the one which IJ! 286 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boaton he himself has used? The same is true of the orderly and effective arrangement of words and of every other principle of rhetoric. The student may study grammar indefinitely, but he will never really know grammar till he has used the language; and it is better for him to study the grammar in his language than to attempt to learn the grammar and then conform his language to it. He may study rhetoric for years without appreciating fully what it is, unless he has put its principles in practice in actual writing; — not merely in inventing examples and dissecting the examples of other people, which is gen- erally worse than a waste of time. Does anybody suppose that any one of our great writers, Macaulay for example, while writing, ever stopped to say to himself, "Now I will introduce a striking meta- phor;" 'TS'ow I will set forth this incident in a brilliant period?" He could not have made those glowing sentences of his in such a way if he had tried. He was full of his subject, and the writing and the illustrations did themselves. Much less can any young student write well, when he is thinking of writing well instead of thinking of his subject, and what he has to say about it. In the study of grammar, which is the study of English, I would have every principle pointed out in the language which the pupil has used. Those grand divisions, the subject and the predicate, that which is spoken of and that which is said, may be pointed out very early. The uses of w^ords in the sentence, as nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc., may be made very clear by reference to the child's own writing or speaking. All the rest may be found in some one of the brief manuals, such as the first chapters of 'foundations of Rhetoric," lately issued by Pro- fessor Hill of HaiTard, and the "Manual of English Composition," by Nichols, published by Macmillan & Co. In the report of the committee already referred to it is noted that skill in athletic sports cannot be acquired from books; it must be attained^by practice if at all, and the value of the scientific instruc- tion in ^e books consists in directing merely, and correcting the prac- tice. Tlie same is true in learning the English language; and the inference from the report is, that students come to Harvard well fit- ted in athletics and poorly prepared in English. This inference, undoubtedly, corresponds to the facts; and my aim is to introduce into the learning of English the principle of practice now used in learning the athletics. But the study of English does not consist merely in learning how to use the language. The main purpose of the study is, to mine from the literature the treasures embedded there. For the thorough, or even a partial, discussion of this important part of the study of English there is not now time; nor is there very much necessity, because the ground has been carefully covered in the intendence.] STUDY OF ENGLISH IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 287 3US works on the teaching of literature. The latest to come under ►bservation, and one of the best, is a little work entitled 'longer lish Poems," edited by J. W. Hailes, M. A., and published by Mac^ m & Co. To show what may be done in the study of any se- on of prose or poetry, in an introductory essay on the teach- 9f English, the author has taken up Scott's "Rosabelle." The ? is first learned by heart; its meaning is next considered; >r, subsidiary matter, allusions to manners and customs, etc., then taken up; next the questions of prosody or of rhythm ve attention; something about the author, next, and matters [•ammar, the words of ^^Rosabelle" with reference to derivation )rigin; and finally, the subject matter of the X)oem having been dered in its various aspects, an attempt at criticism may be u*aged and a recapitulation of the whole. "After some such D as that just attempted," the author goes on to say, "proper cur- lent and expansion having been made, will not the intelligence a pupil have been thoroughly exercised? will not his previously ired knowledge have been called into use and arranged better? tie not have added something to that better ordered store? will [)t, whift awakening to a pleasant consciousness of what the r of his mind is, and what apparent entanglements it can unravel )perly trained and directed, leani also how much there is that yond his reach, and how, of what lies within his reach, the better may not be won, 'without dust and heat;' learn the great lesson h concerns not only his schoolboy days but all the days of hia that there is nothing worthy to be achieved without sincere, unted, never- varying industry?" or this kind of study I commend the little poem on "Columbia's lem, the Golden Corn," to be recognized, no doubt, as the typical of America, as the thistle is of Scotland, and the lily of France. COLUMBIA'S EMBLEM. Blazon Columbia's emblem, The bounteous, golden corn! Eons ago, of the great sun's glow And the joy of the Earth, 'twas born. From Superior's shore to Chili, From the ocean of dawn to the West, With its banners of green and tasseled sheen. It sprang at the sun's behest; And by dew and shower, from its natal hour, With honey and wine 'twas fed, Till the gods were fain to share with men The perfect feast outspread. For the rarest boon to the land they loved Was the Corn so rich and fair. Nor stars nor breeze o'er the farthest seas Could find its like elsewhere. 288 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston In their holiest temples the Incas Offered the heaven-sent Maize — Grains wrought of gold, in a silver fold, For the sun's enraptured gaze; And its harvest came to the wandering tribes As the gods' own gift and seal; And Montezuma's festal bread Was made of its sacred meal. Narrow their cherished fields; but ours Are broad as the continent's breast, And, lavish as leaves, the rustling sheaves Bring plenty and joy and rest. For they strew the plains and crowd the wains When the reapers meet at morn, Till blithe cheers ring and west winds sing A song for the garnered corn. The rose may bloom for England, The lily for France unfold; Ireland may honor the shamrock, Scotland her thistle bold; But the shield of the great Republic, The glory of the West, Shall bear a stalk of the tasseled Corn, Of all our wealth the best! The arbutus and the goldeurod The heart of the North may cheer. And the mountain laurel for Maryland Its royal clusters rear; And jasmine and magnolia The crest of the South adorn; But the wide Republic's emblem Is the bounteous, golden Corn! In all that precedes, no allusion has been made to that broad and fertile field for cultivation, the imagination, a world in itself for the child. What an imaginative child life has recently been portrayed by Frances Hodgson Burnett, in her description of the "One I Knew Best of All;" and J. G. Holland some years ago, in a stor^' called ^^Arthur Bonnicastle," published in the early "Scribner's IVfagazine," shows most admirably how character and power may be develoi)ed by a proper culture of the imagination. But for all this there is here no time. My simple purpose is to show that the basis of all study of English should be the child's or the student's own language by which he has expressed thought, to show that the growth should be from within. idence.] DISCUSSION. 289 DISCUSSIOJ^. James H. Blodgktt, Census Bureau, Washington, D. C— The child's language begin with his first perceptions. It is of immediate consequence the work at school shall be uplifting, indecisive or degrading to the e acquires elsewhere. Speaking and writing will be purified and broad- ;ood reading. A stray key is hardly more than a bit of old iron, but we ey that admits us to our home and our goods. Of what use is reading to one who reads nothing or only degrading print? It is a complaint in and France that numbers who passed the requirements at school in the ry age have forgotten how to read and write in later life, even when h the military age. ake reading a prized key, there must be a suggestion at least of the lock I of the goods it might reveal. The baby that cannot talk but has learned its favorite pictures from a wholesome book and to delight in the explana- ts mother, has begun to choose books for the ideas which they contain, ing in school can be made infinitely more effective by replacing all mean- fading lessons with material of intrinsic worth. Teachers who try to od material are hampered by the antagonism men so generally have expressions conflicting with their ideas. Publishers making books for the market are compelled to cut out what might offend an adherent of any religious or political idea until such books have no moral vitality. The vho would select material of decided worth must avoid all that would )uble among his patrons. Public school oflScials in whole States have i the use of any text-books outside of prescribed lists. In the city systems, , many children go through a grade knowing their instructor only by the ame "teacher," without personal identity, a mere cog in the grinding ►tion. Under such conditions it is diflicult to suggest what the individual »ay do. He or she has need of great knowledge, great moral force and msiasm to penetrate the crust of routine formed over the childish mind, iction in literature, bad, neutral or good, begins with the first knowledge ? at home or at school. ng at first might embrace standard nursery rhymes, ballads, fairy stories, avels, anecdotes of men, animals and plants, advancing indefinitely ^orks of poetry and prose with whose contents one should be familiar, acy in reading depends more upon the relation of the words to tlie usual vocabulary and the relation of the ideas to the reader's thought 1 the length of the words. This develops a difference between the reading pupils supplied with good books at home and those who have only the iding or a stealthy influence of the dime novel type. ave been tending toward the use of mechanical appliances of no interest e class. We ought to use books that would be valued in the home and m the family, so that the whole community would share in the work of 1. The persistent use of classic reading, now happily available even for Idren, would influence spoken and writton English and enlarge mental iJ conceptions of the individual, the family and the community. There Is where all the reading lessons are made directly helpful to the best . More teachers than constituencies are ready for better work, which upon a public sentiment at least as extended as the patronage of the 290 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [BoBton One of the highest offices of the teacher is to assist his pupils and patrons to learn the names, intrinsic character, size, appearance, cost and authorship of books on every subject that tempts their investigation. Even with the freedom of a great library many educated people are bewildered in their inability to select what they want, to distinguish original authorities from scrappy clippings or unverified repe- titions, or to discriminate authorized editions from cheap reprints. It is quite as important oftentimes to know where knowledge is to be found as it is to possess the details. How many know where to find authoritative information by which to test the flood of matter daily printed about the Sandwich Islands that have suddenly become important to us? The office of the teacher in aiding the search for desirable books cannot be emphasized too strongly. Mb. John T. Prince. Agent of Massachusetts Board of Education.— The results of the teaching of English in preparatory schools, as shown by a recent report of a committee of Harvard College, were not poor, when it is considered that the papers exhibited were the poorest of all that were examined. Yet it must be confessed that the work in English in the elementary schools is far from what it should be. A recent inspection of the high schools of two counties of Massa- chusetts showed that great diflferences exist in the amount of time given to English, the number of recitations of a four years' preparatory course varying from 120 to 880. The amount of written work required was found to be lamentably small, being limited in some schools to one exercise a month. The teachers of high schools attribute the neglect of English to wrong requirements of the colleges, which emphasize unduly the so-called classical subjects. It is hoped that the closer association of college and preparatory school officials will help to give English its fair share of time in the high school programs. Much good also is hoped to come from the report of the Committee of Ten appointed at the last meeting of the National Association. But amend our programs as we may, we must not forget that the character of the work in English, as in other branches, depends largely upon the teacher. As an association of superintendents we should constantly insist upon high scholar- ship and good professional training for all teachers of both primary and secondai*y schools. It is only by putting in the schools good teachers that lasting improve- ment in the teaching of English can be expected. R. C. Mktcat.f, Supervisor of the Boston Public Schools.— The teacher should never lose sight of the fact that language is an expression of thought. With this in mind, he necessarily divides his work into (1) thought-getting, and (2) thought- expressing. Clear and vigorous thinking leads to clear and vigorous expression. In the lower grades, say in the first four years of school, the work of the teacher should be confined, mainly, to these two phases in language-training. The policy of crowding into these grades a great variety of work is, to say the least, questionable. Paper cutting and folding, clay modeling and stick-laying, sewing, and work in color, are all good in themselves, and worthy of time and attention, provided they do not demand too great an expense. But the cost must be counted. So far as the different forms of manual training contribute to thought-getting and thought-expression, so far has manual training a right to a place in the primary school course. But let us be sure that the teacher understands the end and aim of what he is required to teach. It is just here that the work of a good superintendent is needed. There are two kinds of supervision, (1) a kind that makes the pupil's work the object of examination, and (2) one that examines most carefully the work of the teacher. lendence.] DISCUSSION, 291 first demands a large expenditure of time and ener^ in testing the work pupils, and from the results of these tests judges of the fitness of the The second examines carefully the methods of the teacher, well knowing Ki methods, skillfully used, will surely bring good results, second kind, or method, of supervision is the one most worthy of com- on. The first is usually pernicious. It exalts a high percentage of correct , and ignores, to a considerable degree, the method by which the percentage led. uaguage-work, the teacher*s method is all important. To promote **thoughf- ' the teacher must understand the child nature and the child mind. He iderstand the right order of presentation of subjects of thought; how to e the curiosity of the child; how to give him favorable opportunities for on. He must be familiar, also, with the principles governing criticism. In these are so essential, that failure in any one point may prove disastrous, he importance of careful and skillful supervision. it should not be forgotten that careful and skillful supervision does not iat every teacher must adopt all the peculiar notions of the supervisor, er trains his teachers in right principles; the former makes the application I principles. The best "method" for any teacher is that which is best to his peculiarities of mind; or in other words, it is that which works best 1. Peculiarities of method will vary with the peculiarities of the teacher. is true that "thought-getting" and "thought-expressing" are peculiarly : of the lower teachers, it follows that all the work of the primary grades e made to contribute to these ends; and the value of any work that seeks ice to the curriculum of the primary schools must be judged by its fitness te the work in language. I the grades of the grammar and high schools, the pupil's best work should nded in his efforts at oral or written expression. Carelessness should ' permitted. Oral expression should be given in tones that are at once Jtinct and pleasing. ten expression should show careful penmanship, correct spelling and ion, and the best English at the writer's command. All expression, oral or written, should follow (not precede) accurate thinking. AB A. SiNGKR, Asst Snpt., Philadelphia.— The importance of this subject i that it receive the closest attention, not only in all grades of elementary but also in high schools and colleges and universities. This importance acknowledged, whether we regard the educational value of the subject its intimate connection with every other branch taught in these schools ier institutions of learning. two important considerations are (1) the matter to be taught, and (2) the of teaching it thoughts are suggested or created in the young child's mind mainly by and environments, his language will, at first, be limited by his narrow f experience and of thought; while, as his experience increases and his ge extends, he will need a greater vocabulary to express his more numerous Id his more complex thoughts. Again, as he is chiefly dependent for his e upon those with whom he associates, he acquires the expressions, correct rrect, used by those with whom he is brought in frequent contact view of the subject suggests two lines of teaching: (1) That* which the learner's mind with thought material, and creates or encourages >r thought expression. (2) That which provides influences and presents and rules for the correction of errors of expression already acquired. 292 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boaton Hence, the same general methods must be employed in school as those which obtained previously— things and personal experiences to furnish thought material, and practice in expression to give skill in the use of language as the embodiment of thought. The results desired will be just in proportion to the teacher's ability to aid the child in getting material upon which his mind can operate in the creation of thought; in training him to remember sense impressions and concepts; and, above all, in promoting his self-activity not only to acquire knowledge and to formulate thought, but also to reproduce to express what he acquires. To accomplish these results, the teacher must not, however, tell the pupil what to say. She must merely put his mind in the right relation to the objects or the matter to be studied or learned. The thoughts themselves, the sentences to be used, the thought expression, must be the outcome of his understanding and knowl- edge of the subject presented. If the language used does not represent the learner's own thoughts, it is valueless. When pupils shall have made sufficient progress to put their thoughts in the form of written language, the same general methods must be pursued. They must still be trained to see, to observe, to think for themselves. They must get thoughts, they must have something to say, and then they must be led to express in the best possible form the results of their observations and mental processes. The mistakes made— their inaccuracies of expression— should always be noticed, and they must be trained to see how such errors may be avoided or corrected. In more advanced classes, it becomes necessary to introduce into their language exercises some of the most important principles and terms and rules of grammar. The thing, the word, the thought, the expression, have had a real existence, a practical use. There are certain forms and uses of words and of sentences, certain principles of arrangement and rules of construction, that must be known and ap- plied in the expression of thought by means of verbal language. The terms in which these forms and principles and rules are stated become convenient in ad- vanced exercises, because through use they become known and understood alike by pupil and teacher. Teachers are not, however, to consider that their language work can, to any considerable extent, be improved through so-called drill in tech- nical grammar in classes or grades below the high school. If attention has been given all along the line to the thought as the origin of verbal expression, to the forms and the uses of words and sentences to express thought clearly, always with a correct style held up by the teacher before her pupils, then the technicalities of grammar, so far as they are necessary and ap- plicable in our elementary schools, assume their right place in their proper order as general principles or truths following practice or particular examples, as the science following the art of expression. Besides being the expression of thought evolved in the mind, language is a means of interpreting and acquiring thoughts verbally expressed by others. All along the line from the primary school to the university, attention should be given to language as literature. Throughout the successive stages of language training, teachers should seize every opportunity to cultivate in their pupils a taste for good reading. Our literature for children is full of simple verses which they should read and memorize. For those a little more advanced, there is a rich store of both prose and poetry, excellent in matter, in style and in sentiment. In higher schools, when the minds of pupils become further developed and their tastes somewhat matured, systematic effort should be made to interest them in literature in its wider and more comprehensive meaning and application by bringing them in contact and association with all that is beautiful in prose and poetr>', and in ercouraging them endence.] DISCUSSION, 293 their minds with gems and masterpieces of literature that will influence d heart and character through life. BY A. Wise, Superintendent Schools, Baltimore, Md.— Nothing is of so iportance in the course of study as intelligent instruction in reading. h instruction in reading not only begets the ability to see the thoughts i in the printed page and to utter them so as to give their sense, but as I, while reading the best English authors, is thrown in contact with the Tect and elegant forms of expression, it cultivates the eye and ear in ng and imitating these forms. In fact, it may be justly claimed that this, iversation and written language exercises, constitutes the most effective teaching, and should be systematically and unremittingly pursued through ary and gramnoar grades. The cultivation of the correct sound and ap- of language is the proper sort of grammar at this stage, and not technical . By teaching reading so as to habituate the pupils to understand what 1, a taste for good reading is formed, also, which induces them to read 16 literature instead of the pernicious trash which is thrown broadcast e youth of the land. Lowell says: "But have you ever rightly considered mere ability to read means? That it is the key that admits us to the ►rid of thought and fancy and imagination; to the company of saint and the wisest and wittiest at their wisest and wittiest moments? That it 8 to see with the keenest eyes, hear with the finest ears, and listen to est voices at all times? • • • We are apt to wonder at the scholarship m of three centuries ago, and at a certain dignity of phrase that charac- em. They were scholars because they did not read so many things as r had fewer books, but they were the best. Their speech was noble tey lunched with Plutarch and supped with Plato." For the purpose of a knowledge of English and the ability of using it, both in speaking and nth accuracy, elegance and force, nothing is so beneficial as a study of classic English authors. This study should begin in the lowest classes, ork should be successively extended and developed throughout the course. IN MEMORIAM— GEORGE HOWLAND. BY ALBERT Q. LANE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. Mr. Lane's address, in memory of George Rowland, will be found in the Report of the Committee on Necrology of the General Association. II IM> 294 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boeton EXAMINATIONS AND PROMOTIONS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. [No Papsr Prssentbd.J DISCUSSION. De. W. a. Mowby, Superintendent of Schools, Salem, Mass.— There are two distinct topics in the subject as placed before us for discussion this evening. The one is examinations; the other is promotions. Reversing the order, I desire to discuss first the matter of promotions. When once the pupil has entered the primary school, his advancement from class to class through all the elementary grades should be easy and natural, with- out difficulty and without an unnecessary strain upon the nervous system. On the other hand, no laxity of supervision should encourage indolence or carelessness in study. It seems to me, however, that the various means of stimulating the pupils' ambition to excel, to be faithful and to be thorough should be largely outside of this matter of changing from class to class. This should be natural and regular. Having finished the course of study prescribed for one division ho naturally proceeds to the studies of the next division in precisely the same way, that having accomplished the work of one week he proceeds to the work of the next week. The main question, however, to my mind, is what should be the class intervals. Should they be longer or shorter? The prevailing custom, more general than any other throughout the country, has been to make the class intervals one year apart. To my mind this is not the wisest. For many reasons the class intervals should be shorter. For the present, in all the lower grades, a half year interval is doubt- less the wisest plan. Many, however, prefer intervals of ten weeks, but in a majority of cities difficulty would be experienced in carrying out this method. It is doubtless true that a general movement is already in operation tending to shorten the intervals between the elementary grades. A circular upon this subject, recently published by the commissioner of education, shows that in the several elementary grades in public schools, up to and including the eighth grade, the half year interval is practiced by nearly as many schools as the full year interval. The reasons for this are so apparent that it is unnecessary to spend time in stating them. The other question involved in our subject is concerning the part w^hich set and formal written examinations should play in determining each individual pupiKs promotion. Twenty-five years ago written examinations were urged by the leading educational men of the country, and the introduction of that system effected great good. It promoted thoroughness and accuracy which had not before been possible. To-day, however, new issues have arisen, new measures are necessary. The set, formal, written examination has had its day. It has been carried to too great an extreme. The examinations have been made too difficult for children. The time taken by them has been too extended. The strain has been too great. We are now learning the important lesson that the written exercises rather than the formal written examinations should be more frequently introduced, and that, in fact, they should become part and parcel of the daily work in the several branches of sDce.] DISCUSSION. 295 ementary schools. Written examinatioDs have their place and their )rtance. They should be held at frequent intervals, and each one by 1 not be too difficult for the age and grrade of the pupils. e difficulty arises, what should be the relation between the written 1 and the promotion of the pupil from grade to grade? For one, 1 L especially in the lower grades, the written examination should play K)rdinate part; if, indeed, it should not be entirely discarded and the be based wholly on the judgment of the teacher. estion now presents itself: What shaU be done with the poorer scholars; will fail to secure a proper fixed percentage in a written exammation t passed over? In accordance with what has already been said, is it not clear that the main question to be asked concerning the promotion of aal pupU is this: Is he capable of taking the studies of the next grade ^t as much success as he has already taken the studies of tl^»« ^^'^^J we must not lose sight of the question: Will his presence m t^e next . a detriment to the progress of the class? If it will not and ord n.r^^^ his will prove to be true, then the sole question to ^^,,^«^;^, ^^^ ve a greater benefit by being promoted than he will by bemg retained the work of the present class again? ^ . . .. .♦i^,, „„^ .estion of examinations and promotions is oneof^^^^^^J^^^J^^ depends principally upon judicious discnmrnabon. ^^^^^'^^^ „„ : principles by which all should be governed in the premises, iney may Eis follows: e school is for the pupU and not for the teacher, e end sought is the greatest good of the greatest nunaoer. e chief characteristic of a good school may not necessarily be a high J in examination marks. «. ^- ^, , ,e whole subject should be treated, not as a matter aflectang the class, nt as a matter of justice and right to each individual pupil. «e several principles are borne in mind, there is httle doubt but that uuninations will hereafter play a less conspicuous part in the promotion le to grade, and these promotions wUl be at more frequent intervals than B. Y A. WISE, Superintendent of Schools. Baltimore, M^-^^\^.^°'*„/™^- ecnring go^d schools may be said to center in providing and ,„,t„,„. teachers Written examinations made by the «"P«"''*«'^„^°* f "^ JT" r the Principals have been tried and ^'^^^-JZiZT, ^hou ^ J ings that should not be done and have failed to *» ""V' -nbordinntn hey make the teacher a part of a vast piece of machu^e^ and su^rdinato ag to examination. Before the close of t•^^ «<^;'°°'« '.'^l^""''^^^^'^ oard Of Baltimore ordered ^^\^^X'^-,:T:^J2rotZZZt en examinations, should be '"""^^ "^'^^n/e^^pHshment of the work of recommendation ^-''S "X"^" f "b,ncq,ired the knowledge and ae in such a manner that the pupus n»u »^h i. 4.1,^ „^^*. V, ^1. i. ,«^ortftkP successfully the work of the next necessary to enable them to undertaKe sucwoo j mi. ..1 t-. c 4.T>:„ «ion flo far as the time for its trial tmB The practica workmg <>« *»" P'»"' ^^ ^^j, i„.possible fb give an exa.ul- us to judge, has been '"ost satisfactory^ It « P ^^ ^ ^ ^^^^ .^ embracing only a '«- ^"^^'^^ .'^Ve^^^.t "isclose the mental power of time, that wil cover the work of the y^\ ^.^ .^.^ „^,,^^ that it is, and experience has '=«'^^'^<^^y" ^^ „f teaching and cramming, in with most teachers m superficial metiiods of ^^^^^.^ ^^^^.^^^ ^ ect of reading and oral instruction, ana lu s^ "s 296 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [BsotoD valuation entirely disproportionate to their worth. Arithmetical problems, parsing, the spelling of isolated uninflected words, with scarcely any effort to accomplish the main work to be done in teaching spelling— that of getting the pupils to spell the variations of ordinary words as modified by number, case, tense and com- parison; geography, which means going over and over again the drill questions of the grade so that pupils may be able to gain a good mark at the examination. Educational work is in this respect like other work: when too much time is given to one thing it must be at the expense of something else. Teachers soon adapt themselves to the conditions under which they work, and if, in estimating what they do, we allow ourselves to be deceived by sham and commend it instead of genuine work, our teachers will gravitate almost unconsciously towards rote- teaching. The plan of promotion adopted by the board does not do away with the uses to which written examinations may be put. Teachers who know, from the daily instruction of their classes, what their pupils should be able to do, will continue to give such examinations from time to time during the year, to test by such exercises so far as such aid may be helpful in instruction and in enabling the teachers to judge of the attainments of their scholars, but the teachers will also (which is a most important matter to be considered) test their pupils quite as rigidly in reading, oral language, and in their ability to think, by means of examinations, which cannot be done on paper. In this way both oral and written exercises will be combined in testing the proficiency of the pupils, better teaching will be brought about, and far more satisfactory results secured. Nothing requires more industrious, searching and discreet supervision than a teacher*8 work, and when it is examined by those charged with the duty in such a way as to observe all that is being done, and to commend the good and point out and advise a remedy for the bad, then teachers will work up to a higher standard of excellence. Noth- ing is more delightful to a teacher than to have his work commended, and if by industrious examination we ascertain the parts of each teacher's work which may be justly commended, he will daily seek to make it worthy of praise in al) respects. The teacher is daily finding out the attainments of each member of his class, and when the time arrives for promotion, is it not wise, if we would properly grade the schools and stimulate the scholars and honor the teachers, to avail our- selves of this knowledge? If the teacher knows that his opinion of his pupils, ascertained through daily contact with them in the class-room, is going to be the most important item in determining the question of promotion, will he not endeavor all the more faithfully to teach his class so that his work may have the greatest possible effect in getting his pupils ready for promotion? And will not the pupils, who know that their teacher decides upon their fitness for promotion, be more anxious to deserve their teacher's good opinion? And here I would say, that thia point is entitled to careful consideration, as it is the tendency of the times to take from the teacher all power to enforce obedience and attention to duty, and to expect him to beguile his pupils into doing what he should have power to enforce, if necessary. Under our present system there is no doubt that our pupils are acquir- ing not only more knowledge than by the old method, but that they are acquiring vastly more power; and what is most desirable, our teachers are encouraged to use better methods of instruction. SuPT. B. K. BuKHRLE, Lancaster, Pa.— Having to a large extent organized tho^ systems of two^ cities, I trust I may be pardoned if I should speak rather dog- matically. We have organized our schools on the two-grade system for each teacher; that is, each teacher is in charge of about fifty pupils, arranged in two classes, each covering the work of about one year. In doing this we act on the principle that each school should, as nearly as may be, repres€»nt a home; that th© itendence.] DISCUSSION. 297 hould know the teacher and her ways and the teacher should know the pupil. [uire this knowledge requires time, and hence pupils should on an average promoted oftener than once in two years. We believe that the pupils in jond class learn much, sometimes even unconsciously, from the instruction 0 the other. > believe in examinations; not as an exclusive reliance for promotion, but as to teacher and pupil, a stimulus and corrective. Taking all the branches into account, we guard against failure because of weakness in a single Unavoidable absence from examination does not debar from promotion, mt must be exercised with any method, and this we endeavor to do. )ther fundamental principle with us is, that the grade and the examination lelp the pupil, is made for the pupil; not the pupil for the grade or the Eition. The question is never: Does the teacher think the pupil is fit? but e pupil on the whole get more good out of the grade above? If so, promote. James L. Hughes. Inspector of Schools, Toronto, Canada.— I object to Gitions as a basis of promotion: First, because a pupil's promotion should on his capacity for higher work, not on his power of remembering and re- what he remembers. Second, because examinations very imperfectly test :ative, conceptive, reflective and executive powers; and promotion should on these powers more than upon any others. Third, because no one but cher of a class can really fairly test the class for promotion by examina- Fourth, and chiefly, because so long as promotions depend on examinations cational ideal of both teachers and pupils will be low. Nothing else has de- educational ideals so thoroughly and prevented the improvement of educa- lethods so much as the holding of examinations for promotion. The London who said, on hearing that one of her pupils was dead, **0h, well, he t have passed anyway!" was a terrible illustration of the degradation of J ideal of making examinations the standard of success in teaching. As they remain so, teachers and pupils will naturally be satisfied with success sing.'* minations are useful in guiding teachers in regard to the work they should nd in enabling them to test their work by the standard of their superior They may be very suggestive, and as such should be given frequently; but L basis for promotion. take five elements into consideration in making promotions in Toronto, ligher classes. In the lower classes the teacher's recommendation is the *is, with a time limit beyond which a pupil must not remain in a class, ^e elements are: Examination results. ^^Q age of the pupil, ^e physical health of the pupil. C'he length of time in the grade. C'he pupil's capacity for taking new work, as shown by the progress made he term. 7 pupils who cannot pass an examination are ready for advancement, ipils who pass the examination should not be advanced. Age and physical 1 should always modify decisions based on the examination results. 7e known teachers to object to the promotion of pupils who had not worked ►ugh in their classes. •*You promote them because they have been lazy." •u have had them for a considerable time, and they have not learned to nestiy with you. It is time they were placed in charge of another teacher be able to inspire them." 298 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [BoBton The teacher's recommendation should be the chief basis for promotion, and in the primary classes pupils should be promoted as soon as they are ready for higher work. The new work of a higher class may be the needed cause to stimulate a boy to independent investigation. Brightness is usually dulled by being kept too long at the same kind of work. PLA^S OF OBGANIZATION FOB SCHOOL FUEP0SU8 IN LARGE CITIF8. BY ANDREW S. DRAPER. SUPHRINTBNDBNT OF INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO. Of all the unsolved and troublesome problems in government which present themselves to the minds of thoughtful Americans, the most prominent one is that of municipal administration in large cities. The news editors, the magazine writers, the good people in the liter- ary and scientific clubs, the great body of honest voters throughout the country, discuss it perennially and then vote so ineffectually that the worst elements of society control the governments of the great cities of the Kepublic. It is a suggestive fact, that the only real progress in the direction of municipal reform has been made through the imposition of limitations upon the common suffrage, through tak- ing away authority from the representatives of the people, through the centralization of power and responsibility in fewer individuals, and through statutory requirements and prohibitions upon public offi- cers. It will continue to be so. Unintelligent voting is not wholly responsible for, nor is intelligent voting the cure for, all maladminis- tration in municipal affairs. If honest voters will vote only for proved men for city officers, if they will be guided by business prin- ciples rather ttan by political preferences in ail that x>6rtains to municipal business, the problem of municipal reform will become solvable. But even then the larger the city the greater will be the necessity for statutory plans of organization, which centralize respon- sibility and direct and limit official action. The most important public work of any community is providing and managing the means of popular education. The people may neg- lect municipal business, and the penalty is the plundering of the city treasury. In time, mismanagement and thievery become intolerable, there is a municipal revolution, the house is cleaned, a boodler or two indicted, the loss struck off, the plan of city government remodeled, and quiet and comparative indifference once more resume their sway. The people may neglect the schools, and permit them to be despoiled by thievery or degraded by place hunters, and the penalty is, not sndenoe.] PLANS OF ORGANIZATION IN CITIES. 299 plundered ti^easurv but a low and almost irredeemable tone of and intellectual life. Defective municipal organization and ainistration of municipal business can benefit only a very small r of individuals, while they affect the pockets and arouse thf iion of the multitude. Defective school organization and mal- 3tration in school affairs are not only more far reaching and ing in their influences, but more subtle and insidious in their station. School boards lay larger claims to character, fitness interestedness than aldermanic boards, and as a rule they are ?e respectable and responsible. Occasionally they loot the y, but more commonly they do what is not technically so crimi what is in effect really worse. The circumstances press them he wrongs they do, or suffer to be done, are not so deep ; their and not themselves get the benefit; they fail to appreciate deceive themselves abont the harm that flows from their acts, at element in school expenditures is the wages of the teach- lis one item amounts to |88,000,000 annually in the country. 'se, many people want to share in the distribution of this fund, less competent they are for the service the more intense is re for a share in the fund. Incompetency creeps in, and once scarcely be put out. The people do not understand what the rtency of the teacher means or how it burdens school work, mpetent or incompetent, the teacher has a large hold upon sympathy. The result is deadening and disastrous. Under cumstances the standard of popular education becomes loWj intellectual life of the people of the city lacks purity, virility er. Little is demanded of and not much given by the schools, little strength and no growth. The more intelligent will not e them and the whole structure of public education is weak- 3 falls into disrepute. Even those who have been in them indifferent to them. And when the people, the body of the up of the country, high and low, rich and poor alike, are affection for or come to lack confidence in the public schools, imstances will be hard and the outlook very much obscured. «^olume of municipal business enlarges, the magnitude of the ions becomes more and more appalling, the subjects presented id more involved, the temptations become greater, and dis* more and more difficult of detection as cities increase in popu- ?ven out of proportion to the advance in population. As it B more and more imperative to have strong men, experienced i honest men to manage the business of great cities, it also h for obvious reasons, more and more difficult to secure them p basis of an unrestricted suffrage. It is therefore meet that 300 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Boflton the best thought of the country should be turned, as it is turned, to plans for the government of cities. And what is true of municipal business in great and growing cities is true in still larger degree of their school business. The proper education of the children is infinitely more important than even the management of the street, fire and police departments of such cities. And in view of the marked extent to which our people are congrega- ting in cities, it is well for us to remember, that if the public school system is to hold the confidence and esteem of the country it must hold the confidence and esteem of the cities, and to do that it must bear fruits worthy of confidence and esteem. So here is the pressing question of the day in public school work, one which goes to the very life of the system. It mill be solved because it is one which goes to the life of the system. The following table showing the development of American cities will indicate the scope of the question under consideration: TABLE SHOWING GROWTH OF AMERICAN CniES Census. igS-. J_ 1790 , 1800 1810 1820 1830 , 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1 110 1890 147 2 4 7 11 20 34 63 76 111 1 3 3 2 3 10 14 23 39 55 86 o|o 9 008180® 2 1 1 7 12 14 21 33 1 3 3 2 « 9 10 2 1 3 5 3 7 14 3^8 O o ' > c c Total 6 6 11 13 26 44 85 141 226 286 411 Per cent of Toial Popula- tion in Cities of moTP. ttaan 8,000. 3.3 3.9 4 9 4.9 6.7 8.5 12.5 16.1 20.9 22.5 29.4 The plan of organization, — that is, the number of members of the board of education, the manner in which they are chosen, the powers of the board, the way in which the work is divided, the means which are afforded for carrying on the different departments, the purpose and intent of the whole scheme, — ^this does not constitute all there is of school administration in large cities, but it lies at the root and i)ermeates the life of the whole system. Upon it all the operations of the system must be predicated. If the plan is wise, evil tendencies find large obstacles, and sound and fruitful adminis- tration is comparatively easy; if unwise, the floodgates of wrong doing are wide open, and good, healthful, life-giving school work is practically impossible. While there have been two or three contributions to the literature of this subject by notable individuals and an authoritative declaration mdence.] PLANS OF ORGANIZATION IN CITIES. 301 by the National Council of Education, still it cannot be said has had the serious attention of the country, oi* even of the onal leaders of the country, or that very much has been done ling it 883 Dr. J. L. Pickard read a pai)er before the National Educa- ^.ssociation entitled, "City Systems of Management of Public ," which, like all of Dr. Pickard's work, is characterized by iformation and deep thought upon the subject. He concludes er by recommending small boards of education, having long f service, subject to no party in politics or religion, with large including the power to determine the amount of money to ised for school purposes. He divides the school w^ork into two aents, and styles one the business side and the other the dve side, and would have the school board "confined largely (usiness side," with i)ower to select a good leader in the work uction, who should be secure in position so long as merit war- md leave to him the fullest freedom within the pecuniary heir business sagacity determines as proper." He undoubt- t upon the essential elements of an ideal plan, but left it for e else to treat of details and methods of carrying it into on. L885 Dr. John D. Philbrick prepared for the Bureau of Educa- notable report on "City School Systems in the United States." leral value of this able and exhaustive document can hardly estimated, but it was a report of facts, as they existed rather , argument with a view to changes. After briefly describing IS of organization in operation in the leading cities, he, how- Fs: "The history of city systems of schools makes it evident, the matter of administration the tendency is towards a centralization and permanency of authority, and that thia J^ is in the direction of progress and improvement." Committee on City Schools of the National Council of Educa- i from time to time reported on the general subject in their In 1888 the report treated of the "Business Side of City Systems." This report related to the plans of organization, J the most detailed, thoughtful and progressive treatment of iect that has appeared. It was drafted by Dr. B. A. Hinsdale, haracterized by his well-known studiousness, force and direct- to conclusions, briefly stated, were: (1) That there is no good for giving school authorities separate autonomy and the power mine the sum of money to be levied for school purposes, any han there is for giving it to the street, park, police or fire Qent (2) That the powers of the board should be "parily ive, as in the adoption of studies, books and rules; partly 302 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Boston executive, as in the election of teachers, and partly judicial, as in handling cases of discipline." (3) That, if the board is chosen by popular election, it might better be by wards than on a general ticket; but that, on the whole, appointment by the mayor would be prefer- able to election. (4) That the terms of members of the board should be lengthened. (5) That the board should not attempt to transact its business either through its own membei*s or committees, but acting as a legislative body should establish three executive departments, viz.: (a) a dei)artment of finance, accounts and records, (b) a dei)artment of construction, repairs and supplies, (c) a department of instruction and discipline; and that the heads of these respective departments should be experts in the duties appertaining thereto and "the sole channels of executive administration within their several limits," (6) That a board holding the executive duties in its own hands should be small, w^hile one that delegated them, as suggested, might as well be of con- siderable size. The members of the Council proceeded to certify to the ability of the report and then attempted to demolish its several propositions. Beyond the declaration of Dr. Pickard, that as cities grow larger the boards of education should be reduced in the number of members, given longer terms and larger powers, and in some way freed from the influence of politics, there has been no agreement upon the sub- ject among the prominent school men of the country. This is not strange, the nature of the question being such as to permit of solu- tion only on the field of experience and by reason of necessity. So much as to what has been said. The following table will indicate to some extent what has been done in the twenty-eight cities of the country having each more than 100,000 inhabitants: fodeiMse.] PLdm OF OB^AmZATION IN CJTim. ► 1* s * J ^ « / ^ 5 src =: ^ c « aj t ■£" " ^ *r 'H '^ ^ll^X/^i/j ^4 lij^rri 13 ! 3 I n « £ » & c tt< £< O 4; »7 0} 7 t^ 0 ^ a tJ -£ e S' s «»' 3> >^ >♦ >* l^* >' S^ >*>'>*^ >* X >* y^ >'>* > »*>*> > >* O C O 3 S !C C^CTQT ^ O O ^ ^C> S rtCOO o ^ C1SJ» o a? ee 9D 01 -ra o -^^of^ o o s o c»^ p cooo o o <^ op*< o ■ «S; '^ 1-* « « n *»*c» _ ^ TO _ «« p^ «BBqB9 ^ Si'"** ^ -♦ W 93 ■*« ?fl tCtlfttS n *3 "^ ^-J-TT ■« : » 3, 5; 1; 4; * ^ « # «i Oi «- ^ V » 4^ ^-^ cj u "j ':, «* r C! c- c: to?D c i-t-^ij^ © £^ J *^ ,rt s ■ * s s « I- -^ T" i*r,, -^ '* ^ ill 1 |||i 0 S I = 2 « — ** CiS d o tk ^ t^ ti P_^ Shi 1>'^ s o : o c o m \ais it o goo 5 o ^ o c o t* 1^5 t- t»Qai^ 5g| '^ t~.35rt-4.T si 5 ^ tS-* kfl t-^Oi^_*n 0^ — »ft tE lif-^ *^ -jTc'i'^ffl 'i. C4 ciOl r-l P*r**-.« HP^ M pa tip C -. C- B — 1-' S^ = ^ « "2^ s « o «■ ^ - i> jS & .2 tt>, tu c =J -^ >i>l # , X .f cc ** 304 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston In eiffht of these cities the board of education alone determines the sum to be raised for school purposes. In seventeen of them it is determined by the city council or by some other city board; in two by the State legislature, and in one by congress. Wherever there have been changes in the plan of organization the tendency has been towards smaller boards. In New York, Brooklyn, Jersey City and St. Paul members of the school boards are appointed by the mayors alone; in Chicago by the mayor and city council; in Philadelphia by city judges; in Baltimore and Milwaukee by the city councils; in Pittsburgh by district direct- ors; in Washington by commissioners of the District of Columbia; in Buffalo there is no school board, and the common council, or a committee thereof, with the superintendent elected by the people, control the schools; in the other cities named, the school boards are elected by the people. In eleven cities the boards stand for the city at large; in fifteen cities members represent wards or districts; in one, some members represent the whole city and in others certain districts thereof. In twenty-four cities the superintendent is chosen by the board, and in twenty-five of them he has a fixed term of oflSce from one to four years. In two he is elected at a general city election, and in three his term is unlimited. In one he is elected by 222 district directors. In four of these cities there are district or ward trustees, who share administration with the central board of education. In two cities the teachers are apiK>inted by the superintendent alone; in seventeen by the board alone; in four by the joint action of the superintendent and board; in one by committees of the board, and in four of them by local trustees. In twelve the superintendent certificates teachers; in seven it is done by the board; in two by joint action; in five by separate boards of examiners, ordinarily apix)inted by the board of education; in one by local trustees; in one by the State and county superintendents. The only recent and important change in the plan of organization in any one of these twenty-eight large cities has taken place at Cleveland, Ohio. That change is so very decided and radical that it justifies more than passing notice. The movement did not originate with, and, as I am informed, was not favored by the former board' of education. It resulted from a movement for reform in the city government, to effect which a bill had been presented to the legislature framed upon what has come to be called the 'Tederal Plan," with a mayor as the chief executive and a city council endowed only with legislative powers, and single- headed departments of administration, with the chief of each. idence.] PLANS OF ORGANIZATION IN CITIES. 305 Ml by, and amenable to, the mayor. While this measure was several gentlemen drafted a bill, upon the same general the municipal bill, for the reformation of the government of ols. It may be of interest to us to know that the school bill 3ared by four men, three of them lawyers, of whom one was on the bench; the fourth was president of one of the city In previous years the bank president had considerable experi- id had rendered valued service in the school board, and one )ther8 also had at one time been a member of the board, ill were men of affairs, they were not connected with the lystem, they claimed no expert or professional knowledge of and they made their bill without the assistance of school tendents or the aid of the volumes of Proceedings of the Na- Cducational Association. V pushed their bill aggressively. The school board was com- l twenty members, elected by districts. It was insisted that jtem worked badly; that members were bullied by constitu: procure special favors for individuals or the districts they ited, and naturally reflected this spirit and disposition in the It was said that buildings were unwisely located, certain tors favored, and, worse than all else, that teachers who were ?re continually appointed in the schools. The school govern- is administered by innumerable committees, and nobody could i who was responsible for what was done. It was urged that, unicipal reform was a good thing, it was vastly more impor- the life and future prosperity of the city that there should be ^ the management of the schools than in the care of the )r the control of the police of the city. It is well known >ut ihe country that for many years the common sentiment ty of Cleveland has been very jealous of the management and he schools of that city. This sentiment came promptly and to the support of the school bill. Interested persons were «vever, to delay its passage for a year after the municipal )ill became a law. But in the meantime sentiment rapidly ated in its favor, all the newspapers demanded its passage, current was irresistible. It became a law in 1892. what is the plan of this law? First, it creates a school and a school council of seven members, together constituting [*d of education, all elected by the people on general ticket elections. The director's term is for two years; and that of ibers of the council is also for two years, but a portion retire T. director receives a salary of $5,000 per annum, and is required I his entire time to the duties of his office; the members of 306 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston the council serve without salary. The director is the business man- ager and chief executive officer of the system. He is required to give bond in the sum of $25,000 for the faithful discharge of his duties. Legislative power is vested in the council. The director sits in the coun- cil, and may sjyeak, but cannot vote. Every act of the council must be by formal resolution, and all acts involving "an expenditure of money or the approval of a contract for the payment of money, or for the purchase, sale, lease or transfer of property, or levying any tax, or for the change or adoption of any text-book" must be presented to the director, and his written approval gives it binding effect. If he disapproves, he returns it to the council with his reasons. If repassed by a two-thirds vote the act is valid without his signature. If he fails to return it to the council, it also becomes valid; otherwise it fails to become effective. All contracts are made by the director ; but if the expense involved is more than |250, the contract must be approved by the council. The city auditor is the auditor of the board of education and keeps all accounts, and upon the proper certificates draws warrants for and supenises the settlement of all bills. The director certifies all accounts arising in his office; the superintendent certifies the teachers' salaries. The result of this is that the director manages all details on the business side of the administration of the schools, and the superintendent on the instructive side; but large or unusual transactions must first be specially authorized by vote of the council. All resolutions levying a tax must be approved by the board of tax commissioners of the city. _ The council authorizes the employment of a superintendent of buildings, janitors, and other officers and employes, but they are appointed by the director, are under his direction, and are removable by him. The law and the public holds him i-esponsible for their efficiency and proper behavior. The council also appoints the members of the free public library board, and the help of this beneficent institution is therefore brought to the support of the public schools. It was evidently the determination of the people, as certainly as it was of the projectors of this school law, that the whole work of instruction should be completely separated from the management of the business affairs of the schools, and that no antagonistic influences should be permitted to come in the way of its being carried on with the greatest possible advantage to the children of the city. To effect this, it was provided that a superintendent of instruction should be appointed by the director, with the approval of the council, whose tenure should be during good behavior, and who should be removable by the director only for sufficient cause, which he is tendence.] PLANS OF ORGANIZATION IN CITIES. 307 ed to specify and enter upon the records of his office and com- ate to the council. WSL8 also provided by law that the superintendent should ^^ave le power to appoint and discharge all assistants and teachers ized by the council to be employed." This authorization is, in 26, given in general resolutions adopted prior to the summer Dn, covering the whole number of teachers likely to be needed : the next school year and fixing the general schedule of salai'ies. 16 policy to make the number large enough to cover the outside T of teachers likely to be required, so as to avoid the necessity ndment, with the understanding that only the required number J appointed. ere is no more connection between this general legislative act )pointment of teachers than there is between the passage of neral appropriation bill by congress and the appointment of in the United States Bureau of Education, pampering or promising, either directly or by inference, can 6 necessary to secure the x>assage of this general resolution, and it the superintendent first makes appointments and later assign- to particular positions. The mass of appointments is made to the summer vacation; the assignment to positions just prior opening of the schools in the fall. He may make changes or piments at any time during the year, and does so freely when- t may seem to be for the good of the service; the pay of each m to which a teacher may be assigned is determined by the lie of salaries. is not for me to enlarge upon the advantages of this plan of zation for school purposes; the results are in large measure yet ttained. It is not for me to say that it is ideal. I do not think it le fact that the director and members of the council are elected ^neral city election, and that their choice is, therefore, to some , made an issue between political parties, is unfortunate, but ty diflBcult to obviate. The projectors of the measure undertook iate it through a special election, but surrendered the point interest of economy and in order to make the passage of the )re certain. But it is a new plan. It is radical in its innova- There is nothing else like it in the country. It came from the nd most substantial thought of a great city, which has deep St in its public schools. It is supported and upheld by the ' opinion of that city, without reference to religious or political )n8, and, of course, it is so administered. It is in the direction of, loes not go beyond, what has been advised by the best educa- thought of the country. It confers authority, and it specializes entralizes responsibilitv. If a building is in unsanitary con- 308 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, Boston dition the director must remedy it with alertness, or answer for it. If a teacher lacks strength or acts badly, it is charged up to the account of the superintendent. One thing is certain, and it may well be said thus early, it insures sharp attention to the business of the schools at every point of the system and along all the lines of their work. It necessitates close attention to all the business interests of the schools. It involves close supervision of instruction; it puts all teachers upon the merit basis and sets them at work; it harmonizes and solidifies the force; it rewards competency, faithfulness and indi- vidual gi'owth, and it drives indifference and mediocrity to the wall* How long will it endure? It is not for me to predict. That will dex)end largely upon the spirit, the wisdom, and the strength with which it is administered. It may be observed that in the preparation of this paper I have not been disposed to speculate or to argue. It has seemed best to suggest the importance of the subject, and point out what has been said and what has been done concerning it. The review gives me gratification, that the trend of thought is unmistakably in the right direction, and confidence that such steps as should be taken to main- tain the integrity of the public school system will be taken when imperative, even in the greatest cities where the circumstances are so forbidding and the difficulties which encompass the system are so appalling. The substantial sentiment of the people will come to the help of the public school system when the outlook is the darkest; and when it comes, it will be exerted with effectiveness. In the meantime, it is incumbent on us to understand the general principles upon which the good government of the schools in great cities rests, and to declare the lines upon which reforms must pro- ceed. These are, in my opinion: 1. The elimination of politics from the selection of school boards. Dr. Philbrick rightly characterized this point as "the supreme educational problem," but we will not cease hoping that it may be solved. Special school elections and appointments by public officers do not offer a complete solution, but they are certainly in that direction. Much depends upon the state of public sentiment, which should at least demand the complete elimination of politics from school administration, if not from school elections, and no opportunity should be lost for asserting the principle. 2. Small school boards with members representing the whole city and not wards or districts. 3. The complete separation of school administration from munici- pal business. This is iin]>erative. Laws which put the schools at the mercy of a board of aldermen are unsound in principle and deplorable riatendenoe.] PLANS OF ORGANIZATION IN CITIES. 309 heir operation. Even the determination of the sum to be levied school purposes should not be left to a common council which, egislation and by usage, has come to represent, and has become 'esentative of, interests not in harmony or sympathy with school dnistration. If there is a finance board or tax commission which ^ives estimates from all sources and finally determines the amount e levied, it is not so objectionable that the school estimates should vith the others to this board; for such a board may be assume*! »e independent of all special interests and representative of the ; sentiment of the whole city. But the only sound rule is that )ol administration shall be entirely independent of municipal busi- L The two do not rest upon the same foundation; the power ch manages each proceeds from entirely different sources, and the ^ct and purposes of each have nothing in common. L The school system of a great city must not only have an >nomy of its own, but its administration must be departmental- . Material affairs should be entirely separated from the work of miction. OflScers must have ample authority, be properly paid services of high grade, and held to personal accountability. If e is cause for complaint, there should be a place to make the com at and an officer who can neither shift nor shirk responsibility. Cleveland plan, which creates a salaried officer directly respon- '■ to the people for the proper care of all their school property and he proper management of all the business affairs of their school ^m, is in that regard, at least, very nearly ideal. It is economical businesslike. It will secure a responsible man, and it will insure ilert and careful administration of business interests. All sub- mtes and employes are amenable to him and to him alone. The will not only have responsibility, but he will have independence self-respect as well. The superintendent of instruction should ^ burdened with any of the material interests of a great school Di or with keeping records or accounts relating thereto; but d be chosen with special reference to the work of instruction, n that department should likewise have full authority, be given e assistance, and charged with complete responsibility. Such >n8ibility is well nigh overwhelming. To secure a teaching force t)ering hundreds or thousands of individuals, all of whom are We and have individuality and teaching power, and to so organize a as to get the best results from each, and then to lead and feed 1 so that there will be harmony, enthusiasm, growth, and con- ally mcreasing power, is a great undertaking, but under proper litions it is not altogether impossible of accomplishment Where hers are appointed by school boards or committees, or members Bof, or by ward or district trustees, its accomplishment is impos* 310 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston sible. If superintendents are only allowed to nominate, and nomina- tions are to be confirmed by a board or committee, other elements than the fitness of the candidate will of necessity be taken into considera- tion. If a superintendent cannot dismiss teachers, or change them about, as exigencies may require and experience suggest, without being obliged, to advise with and secure the approval of boards or members who are looking for votes or who are anxious to please friends and have no appreciation of the importance and delicacy of the questions involved, he will not do it at all. We all know that this is so, and we all know why it is so. We all know, also, that there is no danger of his doing too much in the right direction. This is no reflection upon superintendents. To expect otherwise would be to expect more than that of which human nature is capable. Compara- tively few men have all the elements which adapt them to such serv- ice, and those who have can accomplish their undertaking only when given a position of such power, responsibility and dignity as will give them the undisputed right of leadership and will command the respect of their associates and subordinates and of the body of the people. These are the lines, as it seems to me, upon which reforms in the administration of the school systems of great cities must proceed. Such reforms should proceed more easily when we remember that schools do not belong wholly and alone to the communities in which they exist, but are parts of a State system which derives its existence and character from State legislation, and that the w^hole subject is one which claims the attention of all the reformers and the foremost statesmen in the country; for it is one which goes not alone to the material well-being, but to the intellectual life and the public security of the city, the State and the Republic. SUPERVISION OF CITY SCHOOLS. BY SUPT. W. H. ALAJtWBLL. BROOKLYN, N. Y. I propose to speak, first, of the supervision of a school by its principal; second, of the supervision of a system of schools by a superintendent; third, of the conditions necessary to make any system of supervision thoroughly effective; and fourth, of what the National Department of Superintendence may do to improve the work of super- vision and to establish it on a rational basis. irintendence.] SUPERVISION OF CITY SCHOOLS, 311 I.-THB SUPERVISION OF A SCHOOL BY ITS PRINCIPAL. rhe principal of a school ought to be held to a strict responsi ty, within certain well-defined lines, for the administration of the )ol or schools placed under his direction. He has duties to perform ard his pupils and those in parental relation to them, toward sub nate teachers, and toward his immediate oflScial superior, the ?rintendent. le should, in the first place, be an expert in school sanitation. It not be well to place in the hands of a principal the power to md money to make repairs or alterations in the school buildinJ,^ lie should know when the condition of the building is not right, should make life a burden to those who have the power until de- j are remedied. He should have a keen eye to discover physical knesses in children, such as myopia or astigmatism of the eyes. ?rvous disorders, and should be skilled to take measures of pre- ion, if not of cure. Equally keen should be his discernment of lectual and moral defects, such as a poor memory, lack of con- stive ability, lying, dishonesty, and the like; and in all such cases his duty to devise, if possible, a course of educational treatment Te the disease. He should endeavor, with the aid of his teachers, scover particular aptitudes and talents in his pupils, and should Je with pupils and their parents as to the most fruitful course ucational work. I do not refer in this connection merely to the r that ou^t to be vested in the principal of permitting and en- iging bright pupils to advance more rapidly than their duller anions. That the principal ought to possess and to exercise >ower will be conceded. I refer more particularly to the duty nsing as to whether, for instance, a boy should stop going to 1 at the end of the grammar school course, as it may be better ^ny boys to do; or whether he should go on through the high 1 and then through college; or whether he should go to the liter- ^gh school or to the manual training high school. It is perhaps ful if a principal has a more important duty toward society than Socialists and communists, and many who are not socialists i term is commonly understood, and who are not communists, lain of the dreadful inequalities in the distribution of wealth, point to the extremes of poverty and wealth, and denounce onditions of society which gave them birth or which permits to exist. The discontent engendered finds vent in all sorts of ilous and impossible schemes, from a prohibitory tariff to abs(»- ree trade, from the nationalization of land to an enforced equnl ion of wealth. But it may well be doubted whether inequalities e distribution of wealth work as much evil as inequalities in istribution of talent. It is not at all improbable even that the 312 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston wrong distribution of wealth may be in no small degree due to the wrong distribution of talent. There are college professors who ought certainly to be making shoes or building fences; there are shoe- makers who have by nature all the mental and moral qualities to fit them for college professorships. There are principals of schools who ought to be selling ribbons; there are men selling ribbons who ought to be principals of schools. There are men in the pulpit who ought to be driving reaping machines; there are men driving reaping machines who ought to be in the pulpit. What a change there would be, not merely in the distribution of wealth, not merely in the in- crease in the product of labor, but in the happiness, the morality, the general well-being of mankind, if every man could be set to that kind of work which he can do best. There is no man in the community who can do so much to insure the right distribution of talent as the schoolmaster, if he will but study his pupils and give honest advice to parents. High schools, colleges, and professional schools of all kinds, might be saved from the weary and impossible task of en- deavoring to educate the unfitted or the incompetent, if principals and teachers would seek earnestly to discover the special bents of their pupils' minds and advise their education along appropriate lines. Toward the teacher, the principars duties are manifold. He should know the plan of work in every class. He should know exactly what every teacher is teaching and how she is teaching it. These two things he may find out by inspection and examinations; not stated examinations, but sporadic tests used as elements in teaching. The principal who has to wait to the end of the month or the end of the term to determine by a written examination whether a given stint of work has been accomplished is lazy and ineflicient. The stated monthly examination by the principal is probably responsible for more machine teaching, more injurious cramming, than all other causes combined. The only proper way for a principal to find out what and how his teachers are teaching is by the diligent exercise of his eyes and his ears. He should inspect by listening to recitations and by examination of the pupils* written work in language and other subjects. I have known the language work of a large school to be revolutionized in a few weeks by the principal's requiring his teachers to send to his office the children's written exercises, after they had been corrected but before they were returned to the writers. The principal's inspection should be hourly — daily. In it, or in allied work, he should spend his entire time during school hours. When we consider that a principal is required to work only five hours a day five days in the week during about nine months in the year, it is not too much to ask that all such labor as preparation for school intendence.] SUPERVISION OF CITY SCHOOLS. 313 cises, the keeping of the records, and the like, should be done out- of the regular school hours. rhe ever present question, which the principal should seek to rmine,'^ says Colonel Parker, "should be: Are these pupils doin^ work in the most economical manner, which is immediately ed by them for their growth and development?" This question )rincipal should seek to determine, not only absolutely with re- to the work of each teacher with her class, but also relatively regard to the teachers above her and the teachers below hen )w a system of schools where each pupil passes through fifteen es in as many half years: and receives instruction from as many iiers. The child receives his knowledge of arithmetic, for ex- le, at the hands of fifteen teachers. It goes without saying, that issing through this course, in changing from one teacher to her, much time is lost, much energy is wasted. It is one of the important duties of the principal to reduce this waste to a mini- I, by taking care that the change is made with as little friction )ssible and by unifying the work of all his teachers in each sub- of the course. The principal should see to it that all the studies ly given grade are properly correlated; that the energy of the pupil t deviated from the line of least resistance every time he changes lers. ^ut if economy of energy in attaining given results be the object ^ the principal should have in view, and if inspection and fre- t oral examination are the means by which he is to determine and how his teachers are teaching, what are the means by I he is to correct faults, to institute better methods, and to late enthusiasm? The chief means are three: Private criticism: pointing out to a teacher privately — never ■ presence of others — what her shortcomings are and how they be amended. The principal who reports against a teacher lit having, first, made himself thoroughly familiar with the ts in her work, and, secondly, having given her abundant warn^ rtticism and assistance, is dishonest, as well as a coward. The second means by which a principal may improve the work ^ teachers is by giving model lessons. As Colonel Parker well "A principal should be thoroughly capable of giving model 18 in every grade in his school and upon every subject taught." The third means is the teachers' meeting. The principaVs ings should be of two kinds: (1) The general meeting of all the ers in the school; (2.) special meetings with teachers by grades. le general meeting should be devoted partly to the discussion eral questions of discipline, promotion, and the like, that con- B the teachers, and partly to the discussion of fundamental prin- 314 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boeton ciples of education and clothing these principles with concrete illus- trations. The best way to conduct such a meeting I believe to be that by which John Stuart Mill, George Grote and their associates studied logic and political economy. "Our first subject " says Mr. Mill, "was political economy. We chose some systematic treatise as our text-book ; my father's ^Elements' being our first choice. One of us read aloud a chapter, or some smaller portion of the book. The discussion was then open, and any one who had an objection, or other remark to make, made it. Our rule was to discuss thoroughly every point raised, whether great or small, prolonging the discussion until all who took part were satisfied with the conclusion they had indi- vidually arrived at; and to follow every topic of collateral specula- tion which the chapter or the conversation suggested, never leaving it until we had untied every knot which we found. We repeatedly kept up the discussion of some one point for several weeks, thinking intently on it during the intervals of our meetings and contriving solutions of the new difficulties which had arisen in the last morn- ing's discussion." If the discussion of sound works on pedagogy and psychology were carried on in this manner, under the direction of a thoughtful, energetic principal, each teacher would almost necessarily become a thinker and a discoverer of truth. Until a teacher has learned to think for hei-self and to discover truth for herself, sbe will not be able to teach her pupils to think and to discover truth for themselves. If, on the other hand, the principal conducts these meet- ings by assigning lessons to be studied and recited, as by a class of pupils, he is probably doing nothing more than setting a conspicuous example of bad teaching, and disgusting his teachers with the study of professional literature. The grade meeting, on the other hand, should be for the considera- tion of plans of teaching. To make this w ork effective and of perma- nent value, or, if it be inefficient and valueless, to prove its worth- lessness, there should be kept a grade book for each grade, in which would be entered complete outlines of the work in each subject and suggestions as to methods. If this book is kept systematically, if the results of experiment are carefully noted down, if whatever is found to be faulty in method is so marked and a better plan substituted, the book becomes the most valuable manual of work for the teacher. The time has gone by when it was thought necessary to have teaching done in a uniform manner, in accordance with a manual issued from the superintendent's office. The grade manual would be prepared by the teachers of the grade, under the supervision of the principal, would not be printed, and could be amended whenever new light were thrown either on the subject or on the method. Other ways there are, no doubt, of improving teacher's work. Commissioner Harris has pointed out somewhere that the art of turn- itendence.] SUPERVISION OF CITY SCHOOLS. 315 poor teachef into a good teacher is a heaven-sent gift which principals possess, but which is often impossible to explain, lese three methods — private criticism, the giving of mqdel les- nd teachers^ meetings (general meetings and grade meetings) — cans that onght to be employed by all principals, ward the superintendent, the principal has duties to perform as s toward his subordinate teachers. These I have not time to than mention. They are at least four: To carry out faithfully and to the best of his ability all rules •derg. An army of teachers can no more be managed without and orders than an army of soldiers. To try such experiments as the superintendent may request ) report faithfully the results. In this way the principal be- the most efficient aid to the superintendent either in bringing Bneral use a good method r, on the efficiency of eveiy teacher under his charge. TVTien ier is too ignorant or too indifferent to do effective work, when beyond the reach of supervision, it is the duty of the principal so firmly and manfully, and then if the superintendent finds incipaPs judgment correct, the inefficient teacher should be Hi. all this work belonging to the principal, there is one danger he liarly liable to fall into — the danger of training his teachers or of permitting them to become, mere machines. Against 'ril he must be constantly on his guard. When it becomes, or ^ns to become, a real peril, it is one of the first duties of the atendent to step in and secure to the class-teacher that rea- e liberty of thought and action without which no teacher can ctive, no system of schools can be progressive. -SUPEKVISION OF A SYSTEM OF SCHOOLS BY A SUPERINTENDENT. raing now to the duties of the superintendent, we may find, I that they naturally fall into five divisions: Duties in the matter of certificating teachers and preparing alible list from which appointments may be made. Duties as an officer of what may be called administrative ap- 316 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston 3. Duties in the way of improving the efficiency of teachers, and of guiding and directing the work of teaching. 4. Duties toward the board of education. 5. Duties toward the press and the public. 1. I>utie8 in the Matter of Certificating Teachers. — Before this de- partment it needs no argument to prove that teachers' licenses should be issued only by those who are themselves teachers. The determination of the qualifications of applicants for teachers' certifi- cates is the most important work a superintendent has to perform. It is his business to see to it that no one is licensed as a teacher who has not had thorough scholastic training and who has not had thor- ough professional training and successful experience. The most im- portant of these qualifications, however, in the first instance, is scholarship. Ignorance lies at the root of most of our bad teaching — most of our machine methods. If all teachers were well trained schol- ars, methods would very largely take care of themselves. I know of few more pitiable sights than to see a young girl who could not pass the entrance examination to any college of standing struggling to understand Sully's "Psychology," or endeavoring to thread the mys- teries of Herbartian pedagogics. Scholarship, however, is but one thing. Pinal determination should come only after ample trial. In his efforts to raise the standard for entrance to the teachers' pro- fession, the superintendent is confronted with three great obstacles: (1) The apathy of public sentiment, which is seldom aroused by any- thing short of corruption in a board of education; (2) the lack of co- operation among superintendents to maintain a high standard oi ex- amination; (3) political and personal pressure to give certificates to unworthy persons. If superintendents everywhere would endeavor to arouse public opinion on this subject of education, if they would strongly resist i)olitical and personal pressure, and if they would co- operate for the purpose of maintaining a high standard of examina- tion, much might be done, through the granting of certificates, to raise the standaixi of scholarship among teachers. 2. Duties as an Officer of Administrative Appeal. — The superintend- ent should be the court of last resort to settle differences of opin- ion regarding the promotion of pupils and differences of opinion be- tween principals and teachers, to determine all disputes regarding interpretation of the course of study, and to decide in all cases when difficulties arise regarding the admission of pupils to school or the transfer of pupils from one school to another. If the superintendent be clothed with these powers, it follows that he is the officer who should be charged with the direction of all the mep,ns employed to enforce compulsory education laws. Superintendence.] SUPERVISION OF CITY SCHOOLS. 317 3, Duties in the Way of Improving the Efficiency of Teachers^ and of Guiding and Directing the Work of Teaching, — Coming now to my third division of the superintendent's duties, I find that the agencies at his disposal fall into three groups: (a) the examination of teach- ers for higher grades of ceitificates than the grade given at the initial examination; (b) the inspection and examination of classes followed by criticism and instruction to principals and teachers; (c) the holding of teachers' meetings. My own experience has taught me that the most effective way to induce the average teacher to study the principles of (education and professional literature, is to establish several grades of certificates, each grade corresponding to a certain well-defined step in promotion. When each examination covers a definite area of the best professional literature, and when promotion to higher rank and higher pay depends on passing the ex- amination, a stimulus to study and to work, which nothing else can give, is provided. Ten years ago, there was not a single book on principles and methods of education on the list of books supplied by the board of education of the city of Brooklyn. Ten years ago it would be safe to say that there was not ten per cent of the teachers who had ever read a professional book. To day nearly every impor- tant professional book is supplied free to the teachers by the board of education. To-day it would be safe to say that there is not ten per cent of the 2,200 teachers in the city who are not making system- atic studies in professional literature. The effect on class-room work, even though it is readily conceded that there is still a great deal of very poor teaching in the Brooklyn schools, has been most marked. These results are directly traceable, in my judgment, to the examina- tions established for the higher grades of teachers' certificates. The inspection and examination of classes by the superintendent and his associates has given rise to much discussion and many con- flicting theories. These theories, however, fall into two main divi- sions. One is that the object of inspection and examination is to de- termine what methods of teaching are employed; the other, that it is to determine results. The prevailing trend of opinion at the present time I believe to be, that the determination of results should be tlie chief, though not the only, object. Certain it is, that no superintend- ent who values the esteem of the profession or who desires the prog- ress of the schools under his charge, would now think of writing out a series of methods of teaching and then bending all the influence of his office to have those methods practiced by every teacher. But even if no east-iron system of methods be laid down, the mere inspec- tion of teaching is a weapon of doubtful utility. I have read and heard much from very eminent persons in favor of the plan that would require the superintendent to sit in a class for two or three hours 318 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. {Boston at a time, note all the good things and all the bad things he sees done, and afterwards award praise or censure as the case may require. My own experience is, that while there are cases in which this method of inspection may be employed to advantage, yet that such cases are very few. In the first place, many of the very best teachers go utterly to pieces, so to speak, when they are required to work under the superintendent's eye. The high-strung, nervous organiza- tion, the vivid imagination, the sympathetic nature, that make a teacher invaluable to pupils whose judgment she does not dread, prove her ruin in the presence of the critic who may have the power to blast her professional reputation. The coarse-grained teacher or the tricky teacher, on the other hand, is altogether likely to come off the best when measured by this sort of test. Again, the fact that a teacher shows an examiner a good method of teaching for an hour or two, is no guarantee that she uses this same method when he is absent, I have known teachers to prepare a few show lessons for exhibition, and when no critic or examiner was present to relapse into concert recitations and other machine-like devices. The average teacher, if the results of her work are not tested, will be careless as to what these results may be, and will do her work in the way thai will interfere least with her comfort and convenience. If, on the other hand, the teacher feels that the results of her work may be tested at any moment, not only by the principal but by the superin- tendent, she will most certainly employ methods that will produce the results required. If the examiner calls for such results as are produced by "cram" and "routine," the teacher will inevitably use "cram" and "routine" methods. But if the examiner calls for devel- oped power, the teacher will strive to develop power. I include, therefore, the examination of classes, either orally or by written test, not at stated intervals, not to determine promotions, but solely for the purpose of determining by results whether proper methods are in constant use, as one of the chief agencies in the hands of a sui)erin- tendent either to elevate a school or to make known its deficiencies to both principal and teachers. That it is an infallible method no one will contend. Mistakes will often be made, but these may be avoided by supplementing examinations by inspection; inspection, however, that should appear not to be inspection. When the results are clearly not satisfactory, the superintendent should i>oint out the fact to both principal and teacher; but in such a way that they will not feel them- selves deprived of reasonable liberty of action. There is nothing more demoralizing to a system of schools than a superintendent who has a patent method of doing everything and who insists that everything shall be done in that way. itendence. ] SUPERVISION OF CITY SCHOOLS. 319 ► the rule that the superintendent's examination of classes should B at stated intervals, and not to determine promotions, I would one exception — an examination for promotion from the gram- chools to the high school. As it is the principal's duty to pre- :he waste of the pupil's time and energy, by unifying the work the teachers of a school, so it is the business of the superin- at to prevent waste of time and enei-gy by unifying the work the schools* under his charge. That the superintendent's ex- tion at the end of the grammar school course is the best means lire this result I have not the slightest doubt. Such an examina- f it be, as I think it should, what President Hyde has well called oprehensive" examination, will influence the teaching through- II the schools, and will comi)el children to acquire a compre- ^e notion of each subject taught. One of the great dangers of •aded system, in which the pupil passes through the hands of so teachers, is, that his knowledge of each subject will lie in hia not as a symmetrical whole, but in detached fragments. The v^ of each subject from the beginning, rendered necessary by a [^hensive examination, at least in a measure overcomes this dif- Y and forces the child to see each part of a subject in its rela to the other parts and to the whole. This examination should ', however, be of such a cast-iron order that it will close the doors i high school to those (a small minority) who never show to good itage at an examination. In all such cases the class record may fely taken as the guide. ' ^ of this work, the superintendent should endeavor to deter whether the principal is doing his full duty by the school. It fortunately true that there is a constant tendency for a man »man who has nothing to do but to supervise the work of others jk into laziness and a perfunctory discharge of routine duties, 'act of frail human nature is the chief justification for the inter- le on the part of the superintendent with the inside workings? ichool. me does not permit me to treat as I should like the relations of uperintendent to the teachers' meeting. In the smaller cities tless much of what I have outlined as the work of the princi- III devolve on the superintendent. In the large cities the super- dent should also hold teachers' meetings, but chiefly to supple- the work of the principals' meetings and of the voluntary con- ices which the teachers should be encouraged to organize among selves. From time to time the teachers should hear the voice le superintendent on large comprehensive questions of school y and educational work. He is a poor superintendent, indeed, cannot stimulate to better work, to higher ideals and nobler 320 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Boston aspirations. That tlie superintendent, however, in a city the size of Boston, let us say, should devote the greater part of his energy to the teaching of psychology, seems to me neither desirable nor possi- ble. I am told, however, on high authority, that there are superin- tendents who make lecturing on psychology their chief work. It is only men who are peculiarly gifted who should undertake such a task, and even these should not undertake it except where the number of teachers to be reached is strictly limited. In a large city teachers must be called together by grades or sections; and the chief object of these meetings should be to remedy defects which the superintend- ent's investigations have shown to be general, or to introduce new work or new methods which have been found eminently successful when tried on a small scale. Suppose the superintendent discovers the work in some study in any given grade to be weak. He finds or invents what he believes to be a better way. How shall he introduce it? My method is this: I go to three or four teachers and principals in whose judgment I have confidence, and ask them to give the new way a trial, to discover the weak point in my plan, and to suggest improvements. At the end of the term I gather up the results. Next term, if the first experiment was successful, I enlarge the area of trial to say twenty schools. If the second trial be successful, I endeavor to assimilate and co-ordinate all the suggestions I have received, and then lay them before all the teachers of the grade at a teachers' meeting. This, however, is but the first step. Teachers receive from a lecture but a general notion of the work or the method to be under- taken. Their ideas of the details are always hazy and indistinct. They invariably see lions in the path that had not presented them- selves to the instructor. The grade meeting, then, is but the introduc- tion to individual instruction. This may be best accomplished by assembling the teachers in smaller groups of not more than ten or fif- teen each. In these groups the superintendent should not lecture, but should talk freely with the teachers, and encourage them to state all their doubts and difiiculties without reserve. He will thus be able to meet each objection squarely and distinctly as it arises, while all the teachers present will receive the benefit of the discussion and will probably learn more from each other than they do from the superintendent. I need scarcely add that the superintendent's con- ferences with principals should be frequent and systematic. The next two divisions of my subject, the duties of the superin- tendent to the board of education and to the press and public, I shaU not attempt to treat in the time at my disposal. Nor if I had the time could I add anything to what has been so well said on these subjects in the writings of Dr. Harris. fenilwre.] SUPERVJSTON OF CITY SCHOOhFi. 321 asteii, therefore, to say a siugle word on the conditions necea- [) make any systc^m of supervision thoi*onghly effective. These e summed up in one word — responsibility. The teacher should lK)iisible for the work of her class to tlu* principal, the principal I be responsible for his school to the superintendent, and the ntendent should be responsible for all the schools to the* local pities who ])ay the bills, and to the State, ^hose agent the city he management of schools. There is but one way to establish •esponsibility. The suinn-i ntendent must be nmdc* the sole nty in licensing teiichers, the* principal must be pennittttd to his subordinate teachei-s from the eligible list prei)arL*d by the ntendent, and the superintendent must be empowered tx) nomi he principals of schools. Even this, however, revQlutiona;-y as r seem, would prove ineffective unless the sui)erintendent be ted, so long as he proves efficient, in the possession of his office. 8 to be turned out of office at the end of a two-year or a three- Miu, l)t^'aus(» he has offended some members of the local board cation or has failed to gratify the washes of some politicians, tie in the way of reform w ill be accomplished. Three years I a paper read before this d(»partmeut, I ventured to suggest* best solution o\ this problem, that, as every superintendent lly a State officer, the Stat^ educational authorities ought to eonfirming power over his appointment and a veto power over noval, which should be only for demonstrated cause. This a I have since seen no reason to change. lat can the National Department of Superintendence do to es- L these or shnilar conditions? Are our meetings always to be k and entei-tainment and never to result in acrtion? With all t for the greater wisdom of those I see around me, I propose Committee of Ten be appointed, with pow(*r to organize con- ^ each numbering ten, whose duty it will be to investigate department of public school organization, including the forma- f boards of education, to examine every question pertaining ►ervision, and to repoi-t at the next meeting of this department ™e of organization that would enable every teacher, every pal and every superintendent to do his or her best work without Hid without molestation. If we can agree \\\yo\\ this scheme, then be presented, in the name of the l)(i)ai'tment of Superin nee of the National Educational Association to every State and oard of education in the land, to the end that all public schools >e made equal with the best — the best nui-series of citizens. 21 322 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION * [Boston DTSCUSSrOK SUPT. CflAS. W. Cole, Albany, N. Y.—We have at Albany a small board, consistinjcr of seven members, appointed for a long term of office; namely, seven years. Theoretically the duties of superintendence and of business management are separated, although not so practically. In the matter of selection of teachers, we have a system of appointment by merit only. The names of candidates are entered upon a list once a year in the order of standing, determineint. He seems to doubt very much the efficacy of inspection by the supervisor of schools, and to think very little can be done to help schools by even more or less freect his judgment, he certainly w^ill have much to say in granting certificates. If he is in close touch with his committee on teachers, as he should be, they will be governed almost wholly by his recom- mendations. What greater power can he ask? I concur most heartily with the writer of the paper that the superintendent's most efficient work is through his principals. Intelligent supervision implies intelligent men and women as principals and teachers. tendence.] GRAMMAR SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 323 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE GRAMMAR SCHOOL CUR- RICULUM. BY SUPT. CHAS. B. GILBERT, ST. PAUL, MINN. es the grammar school course need reconstiniction? If so, why 1 what? A curriculum may be faulty in any one or in all of Uowing particulars: It may be badly constructed, it may be lated, it may be essentially wi^ong, based on false educational pies. In which of these respects, if any, is the average school ulum at fault? In order to answer this question intelligently, i be necessary to have distinctly in mind as a criterion the ob- >f education, the essential principles underlying true education le function of the cundculum. ese principles are old and common property. But I shall briefly e them, at the risk of w^earying you with platitudes, "to stir up pure mind by w^ay of remembrance," for, as the chorus leader occasionally sound the pitch for his chorus, so it is well for us nes to refer to our creeds, and we shall often find that our ice has wandered far from them ; that in the hurly-burly and e of the daily struggle we have lost sight of the high ideals -with 1 we started. merson says "man is endogenous, and education is his unfold- The best education is that which gives the child the fullest ssion of himself, best develops in him power and supplies him the highest ideals, so that he shall use his power to make the of his possession of himself. )wer is an attribute of personality and not of things or state- 3; it exists only as an adjunct of life and moves from within ird; it cannot be poured in or put on, but comes by natural 88 from the exercise of the faculties. Of the powers which we d aim to cultivate in the child — physical, intellectual, moral — the nentioned, while important, I shall not attempt to include in this ^ The intellectual powers needed by the good citizens have been stated by President Eliot as "the power of observing accurately, ding correctly, comparing, grouping and inferring justly, and ex- iing cogently the result of these observations.'* This statement bear the closest analysis, and I think practically covers the in- ctual needs of the child. He needs these powers that he may ble to make a living for himself and those dependent upon him. life is more than a living. Teach the child how to live, then it ►mes worth while to teach him how to make a living. I make bold 324 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston to say that it would be better for humanitj if many so truly failed in making a living as to cease to live. The child needs these powers, then, that he may live wisely and be able to adapt himself to his environment. He is best educated who can meet the new problem and master the new situation best. The classes most dangerous to themselves and to society are not the tx)tally ignorant, but those who have just enough education to enable them to use their powers effectively for evil. The man totally blind, who must trust absolutely to the leadership of those who can see, is safer and less likely to do mischief than the half-blind man, who "sees men as trees walking" and thinks he can go alone. The child needs the cultivation of moral power. The difference between a high and a low civilization is not a difference of intellect but a difference of morals. The devil possesses all the intellectual powers necessary to make him a good citizen of the universe; his lacks are of a different sort. If the partial education of the intellect is dangerous, vastly more dangerous is that partial education of the man which includes the intellect but omits the moral nature. The child needs power over himself, power over others, a love for truth and the spirit of altruism,, and the development of these powers is as much the legitimate, nay, the necessary, part of the teacher's work as instruction in reading and arithmetic. Indeed, it is vastly more so, since these are higher than those. This is, I think, a fair statement of the true basis of educa tion. Now, what is the relation of the course of study to education? It is not, as we have been disposed to treat it, the principal thing. It is a tool, a means; chiefly a gymnastic. We use it to produce certain effects upon the mind of the child. It is, perhaps, the chief instru- ment for his spiritual development. Its basis must, from the nature of things, be very largely a body of knowledge, and this fact has doubtless produced the common false impression that the excellence of the curriculum is to be measured by the practical usefulness of the knowledge it seeks to impart. Knowledge is not power, and the aim of education is to develop jwwer. Hence, that branch of knowledge is most valuable in the course whose study tends to develop most fully the powers of which I have spoken. Many facts become practically valueless the moment they have fallen into the past. Nothing is so ephemeral as a fact. The fact of yesterday is the falsehood of to-day, and the dream of to-day is the truth of to-morrow. The knowledge of yesterday is only useful as it enables me to live well to-day and prepare wisely for to-morrow. But though facts are ephemeral, truth is eternal; and those branches of knowledge should be selected to serve as the mental Saperintendenoe.] QBAMMAB SCHOOL CURRICULUM, 325 gymnastics of the child which have to do with the eternal verities rather than the fleeting facts of the moment. They should, moreover, be those troths which touch life most intimately, so that the child from his earliest days may acquire, by actual exercise, the powers he is to need when he meets the real difftculties of life. No truth is so important as the love of it The spirit of research and the desire to find the new and know the true are worth infinitely more to the child than the possession of any number of facts. Has the curriculum of the past, which is in the main the curricu- lum of the presint, offered the best gymnastic? Has it tended to pro- duce acuteness of the senses, clear reasoning, breadth of view, appre- ciation of the good, the true, the beautiful, nobility of purpose and a sense of the brotherhood of man, so that the child has made the most of himself, for himself and his brother man? The average man of to-day is the best answer. A few unique and noble specimens do not show the effect of a general system; to ascertain that we must go to the average man. The average man is too often sordid, superficial, incapable of grasping large truths or broad principles, without strong personal conscience (especially with regard to the duties of the citizen), without a fine sense of honesty. The latter limitation applies also to many of our so-called great men. Our civilization is altogether too gross, materialistic, uDSBSthetic, egoistic. Our school system is both the natural offspring of our civilization and the means for its perpetuation. The parallelism in character between them is perhaps closer than most have thought The chief characteristic of modern civilization is its sordidness. It is a game of grab; acquisition is the chief virtue. The protests against it are fee- ble, coming from those who have got nothing in the grab, and are only half sincere. Is there no connection between the civilization for which we blush, and the school which we applaud? Dr. Edward Everett Hale, in a conversation recently, told of an educated Japanese who was visiting this country, and after inspecting the schools remarked: "We do not give so much time to arithmetic in our country." *'\Miy?'' asked the Doctor. '^Because we believe that it makes men sordid." We can- not hold one ideal for our maturer life and another for the child. There is quite as much philosophy as wit in Dr. Holmes' famous remark: "I have an immense respect for a man of talents plus 'the mathematics.' But the calculating power alone should seem to be the least human of qualities and to have the smallest amount of reason in it * * * I always fancy I can hear the wheels clicking in a calculator's brain. The power of dealing with numbers is a kind of detached lever arrangement which may be put into a mighty poor watch. I suppose it is about as common as the power of moving the ears voluntarily, which is a moderatelv rare endowment/' 326 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Boston Even this power, much pains as we take to cultivate it, fails to accomplish the one end aimed at, — what is known as success in life, by which we mean the acquisition of property. The average man is a business failure, not because he cannot calculate, but because he has had no training which enables him to fit himself to his environment, and many of our most successful men, so called, have not had even this modicum of education of the school. This, however, leaves our fetich, arithmetic, in a sad plight. It has not produced noble man- hood and it has failed in the one thing it aimed to do.^ I say so much concerning arithmetic because it is a type, and best represents the narrow, utilitarian, materialistic character of our elementary educa- tion and of our civilization. What has received the modicum of time and attention not needed for arithmetic? First, oral reading, practiced upon meaningless and silly selections or improvisations, read over and over again until the child has become tired and disgusted. Very little attempt has been made to cultivate taste for good reading, or to present to the child a proper amount of matter of real value. Did you ever think how small a volume all the good literature read by the child in his course of eight years w ould make if bound together? I am si)eaking now of the unregenerated school. Can we wonder that the boy has turned eagerly from the trash and dry bones of the school reader to "Jim Bloodso, the Indian Killer," or to "Wild Billy, the Boy Scout''? And yet we call it perversity. He shows better sense than his teacher, for he has, at least, chosen something alive. G-rammar used to be taught almost as seriously as arithmetic. Grammar is a valuable study. It is the study of form, it is true; but valuable. The mistake was, that it was given to children too young to comprehend it. It is food for adults, not infants ; and because the infants could neither masticate nor digest it, it was thrown out, and in its place we have that nondescript, unsi)eakable language lesson, a sort of grammatical and rhetorical olla podrida, A tramp, seeking a breakfast, was given an ax and told if he would pound a log with the back of it for half an hour he could have his breakfast. He thought that easy, but after five minutes threw down his ax with the exclamation, "I'll be hanged if I will chop with- out seeing the chips fly!" Many a boy put to his silly task of dissect- ing idle sentences might well sympathize with the tramp. Other subjects to which a limited amount of time has been given are history and geography, both taught in the worst conceivable wa}'. History, that noblest of studies, has been in the schools the acquisition of a few names and dates, w ith perhaps a single patriotic note, badly overdone. Sapcrintendence.] GRAMMAR SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 327 Geography, also a noble stud\. has been limited to the reciting of uetes and bounds, to memorizin^^ the so-called map questions — may [leir memory perish! — to the finding of certain black spots upon eer- iiu colored pieces of paper. This was the orthodox average school n"riculum. The child's mind was not directed to noble subjects; his idly was all of form, not at all of content. The truths of the uni- rse were reversed to him. If, all through his school days, form, 3res8ion, acquisition and selfishness are kept constantly before his nd, can we wonder that man fails to see things in their true light, t false ideas rule the world, that men believe it better to make how than to be honest, to appear, than to be? The worst in our lizn tion and the worst in our schools have a closer connection than in our self-conceited blindness have been willing to admit. Lt ^^^xx\ in a single generation could be lifted from its position '^^ of the w^eakest powers of Euroi)e to one of the first by infusing solxools with a spirit of militarism and of patriotic devotion to f ^^ tlxerland, we can elevate the tone of American civilization ^1^ €1, generation by elevating the tone of the schools of to-day. ^^ common school curriculum, then, needs reconstruction. It ^^^eonstruction because it is essentially bad. Based upon no ^I^hical principles, it has tended to no definite end; it has failcnl ^X>^rly develop the child, both intellectually and morally. It is ^ *^r our educational pettifogging, and not because of it, that >ve ^^ Sood men and as able men as we have. Our schools havo *^c3ered rather than helped that broad and noble education ^^x-lronment, dealing with large affairs, associating with lax^ge * ^ brought to the citizen in mature years. In school the child *s ^^ lias been trivial; we have taught tricks of trade, pecked at ^^ Kze of things, and have not cultivated breadth of view or pro J^" <^f intellect. Morally the same criticism applies. Little in :^^^1<3 course tended to make the child nobler, to exalt his ideal, ^^^ laiin more sensitive to truth, more obedient to duty or more ^f Xo ; it tended rather to make him selfish, deceitful, superficial ^ix^-^^^ a conscience for forms and ceremonies and not for real ; 0.xxd services. How can a child w^ho lives in an atmosphere ^^o^xity, superficiality and triviality grow into a broad, consci- ^^> truth-loving, altruistic manhood? Morality is vital; it is not ^^ "by instruction or precept; it is the product of the air we ^^^, the influences we unconsciously assimilate, the idea and ^^ Xipon which our minds dwell. If the school is to make nobler ^ ^txa women of the next generation it must create a purer atmos^ ^^, furnish sweeter associations, interest the child's mind in mat- J^ tliat are more elevated and more elevating. The disease is at yveroot; the remedy must be radical. This admits of no tinkering. i 328 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Boston The addition of this study or the removing of that will not remedy matters. It is not so much, reconstruction as revivifying, spiritualiz- ing, regenerating that our schools need. The whole atmosphere needs changing, the motive reforming. The changes I am about to suggest are changes of heart. It is not merely that the studies are important, but that tliey make possible a new work; they are the new bottles for the new wine. The first thing needed is simplification, — doing away with the old, disjointed course of many dissevered knowledges and grouping all about a few essentials after the Herbartian idea of co-ordination. Knowledge is one and spherical. Each subject divides naturally into content and form, of which the former is the eternal and valuable, while the latter is the variable and less valu- able. Choose studies which have a noble content, the nobler the better; make the center of your curriculum to which the child's mind is constantly turned those matters which are of the widest and most lasting importance, so that he is always contemplating that which is noble. The noblest and most useful subjects that either the child or adult can study are man and nature. These two prac- tically include all that to which the human intellect can properly be directed, excepting the Creator of both. By the study of man I mean history in the broadest sense, including history proper, or the records of his deeds and literature, or the record of his thoughts, his hopes and despairs, his regrets and prophecies and geography, or the scene of his action, and the physical environment of mountain, sea, plain, soil, climate, which have constituted prominent factors in his life on the earth. By the study of nature I do not mean science, falsely so called, as too often taught in schools and colleges. I mean the study by actual contact of the world about him; that wonderful world of living, breathing things, rocks with the records of ages, drops of water containing centuries of history and centuries of prophecy; 'Tx>oks in the running brooks, sermons in stones and good in every- thing." As I have said, these two subjects are the broadest, most compre- hensive and most helpful which can be contemplated by the human mind, and if the cultivation of large powers, noble ideals and high aims is the true end of education^ they constitute the best gymnastic. The study of nature especially renders the senses acute and leads from the minute and particular to the broad and general, thus developing through the necessary steps of comparing and inferring that highest and most useful of the intellectual faculties, the power of generaliza- tion. Its ethical bearing is, that it cultivates sympathy with all liv- ing creatures, introduces the child to the men and women who have loved and interpreted nature in liverature, leads to respect for nature's laws, the eternal fitness of things, and to reverence for nature's God. rintendenoe.] GRAMMAR SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 329 ticularly, above all else, it cultivates the rarest of traits, a love truth. The child who has studied closely some natural phenonie- or some form of life until he has found out the exact facts, has } a long way toward loving the truth and hating falsehood, f the aim of education is to fit the child for living, to make of jelf the best man, his fittest study is the record of the evolution e race toward this ideal, — man's deeds, his ideals and his approxi- on to them,^ the sources from which he drew his inspiration, the es outside of himself, such as physical and moral environment, h made him what he is, the reasons of whatever sort which have 0 his success or failure in whole or part. The study of history 3 particularly to the comprehension of the inevitable relation of e and effect in human affairs, cultivating thus both the reason and moral nature; but its special value is ethical. It stimulates ition, furnishes ideals, leads to a comprehension of human mo- of action, creates sympathy with men, teaches the abiding power jodness, the duty and glory of philanthropy, and the littleness ephemeral character of selfishness. Especially through liter- e it touches the spiritual side of life. laving chosen for the basis of the curriculum subjects with each ble content, it is easy to teach the forms of expression in their 'ral relations to these nobler topics. We have hitherto exalted 'orm and minimized the content, and thereby have lost much and ed nothing. The forms of expression are better and more truly ht as such than when taught as the principal thing. To illus- -: The content of history is the record of man^s life on earth. Its ' of expression is language ennobled into literature; form and ' ennobled into arts, sculpture and painting; mechanical con *tion ennobled into architecture; organization ennobled into insti- ns and states. he content of science is visible nature. Its forms of expression iidied and used by man are not dissimilar to that of histor}^, art, iture, mathematics, mechanics, all the beautiful and useful con- nees for the enjoyment and help of man; and, above all, the ical universe. would, then, make man and nature the basis of the school cur urn, and teach the various arts of expression from and by appli- >n to the essentials, arranging all so as to give the child a just eption of educational values, a true perspective of the world of fledge. iet me illustrate by some of the specific arts of expression. Of e, language is doubtless the most important. The power of using uage effectively and elegantly is acquired by using it effectively elegantly. TMiat the child needs is stimulus 1^1 to think and 330 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [BoBton encouragement to express, and the inspiration of the best models. The child will express thought readily enough if he is encouraged to express his own thought; if truth, not affectation, is made his ideal. He must feel the importance of his own thought and of its truthful expression. The nobility of the content ennobles the form and ren- ders it easy to impress upon the child the rules of good expression. A lesson on grammatical form interests him when he sees that it will enable him to express truthfully and effectively some, thought that he wishes to express. The best form of expressdon is ever the truest. Noble deeds require noble art; beauty, beautiful expression. Truth requires clearness. So, other things being equal, the more worthy the content the easier to teach the child to use ndble, true and pure forms of expression. So the ethical and intellectual can be united. What is true of language is true of all the useful arts, a knowledge of which we seek to impart in our schools, — they are best imparted in relation to a noble content. As children advance in grade more time should be given to the formal study of the laws of the useful arts. The study of the principles of an art does not properly precede its tentative use, but accompanies and follows. We cannot learn to swim before going near the water. One great gain of this method of presentation is the increased interest of the children. I have been astonished to see with what zest children, who have appeared dull and unruly, who have viewed school and all pertaining to it with scorn and aversion, have taken up their work under these new circumstances, all because they were doing something that seemed worth while. In one school in which this idea has been carried out the children actually cry for the privilege of writing about what they have studied and of illustrating what they have wTitten. After an interesting lesson one day a boy asked his teacher if he might not write a composition on the subject of the lesson. She replied, "I do not think that you know enough about it yet." The boy appeared greatly put out. After school tiie teacher went to his desk and found that he had spent all of the time he could steal for the rest of the day in surreptitiously writing his compo- sition. This is not an isolated case. This principle of unity I believe to be of inestimable value because it is in accord with the constitution of things. If it is followed in education not only will better immediate results be obtained with regard to all arts which we have deemed it important to teach, but the child's conception of material and spiritual values will be right and will not have 1o be remodeled when he finds out the truth of things in the larger life, nor will he go through life worshiping the form for the thing, the material rather than the spiritual, because he has never found out the truth. This enlargc»ment of intellect and broadening of Snpermtendence.] GRAMMAR SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 331 sjmpatliies creates naturally a pure spiritual atmosphere and leads unconsciously to the doing of good deeds, and thus to the cultivation of altruism. In the schools of a certain city of 150,000 people during the past ear much time has been given to the study of history, especially of ie Jives of great men, and the study of nature has also been pur- led systematically. As a result unconsciously the sympathies of le cliildren have gone out to their fellow human beings, and their ►usins the animals. No one can say when or how the movement irted, but the school authorities became aware that all the schools ^1^ pervaded by a spirit of altruism. As Thanksgivmg time came d tlieir thoughts in history were directed to the first Thanksgiving, ttxe sufferings of the fathers, and indirectly to the sufferings of 'ir brothers at the present, spontaneously, through no one's direc- fJ, tile desire became universal to do something to help. As the day ^ XI oar, the children, encouraged by their teachers, began to brinir s 1^^ ^^^ ^^^' Provisions in great abundance came into all of ^ <;iiools, the principals' offices were filled, the halls were filled, /^ inany buildings it was almost impossible to walk without ^^^^ on groceries. Both rich and poor were alike interested in ,^ ""^^i as a result on Thanksgiving morning 172 wagon loads of pro- &^ ^* various kinds were distributed to the poor. Much of it ^ ^^ted great personal sacrifices on the part of the children, of ^, '^^'^O.ny touching instances occurred. Little ones scantily clothed ^ ^ Crlothing for those who might suffer, those who had been hun- I ^^ht food for the hungry, but those, too, who had never known ^^3^(j hunger brought in large quantities of food for those who |T~^^-^man hearts beat very near to human hearts. ^^^trle girl, herself as poor as need be, brought to her teacher the ^^x*e Thanksgiving, while the provisions were being accumu- '^ little bag containing an apple, originally wormy, from whic]i /^^ Ciarefully removed the defective spots, and two bits of candy, ^^^^T all, but she could not be deterred from giving it for some . ^^x*^r than herself. The study of arithmetic is not responsible ^^- In one school, in one of the poorer districts, after the chil ^^"^d brought their contributions, the boys insisted on taking ^^l^^mselves to the relief rooms. Now, these boys were a very ^^tx sort of boys, coming from homes without culture, rough and ^^tc. doubtless doing many things every day that would shock ^^^r sensibilities, but they had studied the noble deeds of noble ^ ^xxd acquired a sympathy for others; they had read "Black '^^^y and learned to sympiathize with dumb beasts. They bor- )VJd than six years." Last year, under this rule, ten per cent of graduates did the work in four years, twenty-seven per cent in rears, forty-five per cent in six years, and eighteen per cent in 1 years or more, those taking more than seven years being only ction of one per cent. It is expected that under the new rule §:er percentage will complete the course in less than six years, ^^t there will be a corresponding decrease in the number of ^^o take six years or more. ^^'•oniotions are no longer made on the results of written ex- ^^^ns. In the primary schools, and from the primary to the ttar Schools, they are made by the teachers, under the direction spe^iial teacher of primary schools and the superintendent. In "^-xnnag^j. schools, and from the grammar to the high schools, ^e made by the teachers, under the direction of the master and l^^i-intendent. ^he course in arithmetic is now called the course in mathe *^ study. The following orders of the committee show the range >^k: Q) «rpij^» course in mathematical study, beginning with ^ber, 1892, shall allow more relative time for mental arithmetic ^ ^^elative time for written arithmetic ; and book-keeping shall "^^ted to simple personal and business accounts/' (2) ''To the *^ shall be added geometrical forms and relations, including men- Ltion, leading up to and including the demonstration of simple jrems in plane geometry in the last year." (3) "The application of piU' m^ 336 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Ronton elementary algebra to arithmetical problems may be added by any grammar school master." Of the former requirements the* special committee wi't)te: "The mathematical studies in the presi*nt cumculum include mental and written arithmetic throughout the nine gradt-s, and book-keeping in the ninth gi»ade. It is not apparent to your cxmimittee that any branch of arithmetic no^^ taught in the 8(4iools ought to be discon- tinued. The list has already hiKni cur^ailed of most of those subjects to which exception has been taken. It does not appear that sys- tematic book-keeping has ever becni taught in the schools, and 3'our (committee recommend that the subjiHit be coufined to simple personal and business accounts, inti^duced toward the* end of the coui-«e. We are of the opinion, however, — an o])inion in which the supenntend- ent and many of the masters coincide, — that much time may be saved in arithnu^c by using simple problems and simple processes, and by omitting a part of the reviews which now sometimes occupy the early months of each succeeding year." 4. The reading of standai-d English authors is now required in all the grades. Books of this character have bt^en authorized, and have been used in the thr(*e upjK^r grades in «a part of the schools, and in the highest gi*ade in all the schools, since 1884. The books now to be used are: for the fourth gnide, Scudder's 'Tables and Folk Stories" and Hans Andersen's "Stories;" for the fifth grade, Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe," and Ruskin's "King of the Golden River ;" for the sixth gra^e, Hawthorae's "Little Daffy do wndilly and Hiogi'aphical Stories," and Longfellow's "The Childrens' Hour;" for the seventh grade, Hawthorne's "Wonder Book," and Eggleston's "First Book in American History;" for the dghth gi*ade. Burroughs' "Bii-ds and Bees," Hawthorne's "Grandfather's Chaii*" and Hawthorne's "Tangle- w^ood Tales;" for the ninth gi'ade, "Masterpieces of American Litera- ture. The last-named book includes "Evangeline," "Snow-Bound," and selections from Ir\ing, which have biH^n a part of the i*<:»-ading in this grade for nine years. Five of these books have be(*n adopted recently. Other books can be obtained at any time under the following rule adopted by the school committee in 1887: "Standard books of English literature may be uscmI in each grade of the giMmniar schools, the choice of books to be made by the maMer of the school, subject to the ap])roval of the school committee." No request undc^r this rule has been refused. 5. In the study of language* there has been no material change*. The formal study of spelling is to end with the seventh gi-ade instead of the eighth. Special attention is to bt* ])aid to exercises in writing and speaking English. Language exercises are to continue through the whole courses in counection with the various subjects. tendence.] THE CAMBRIDGE EXPERIMENT, 337 The most radical change has been in the study of geography, first year the text-book is to give place to objective and experi- 1 work, based on the elements of physical geography. The work itical geography is to be combined with that in histor^^ with 1 attention to historical geography; and in the last year the its of civil government are to be taught in connection with r. Greography, as a separate study, is discontinued in the Grade. Beginning with the school year in 1893, eleipentary physics is 'aught by the experimental, or laboratory, method, and is to ? exact weighing and measuring by the pupils. Any master berty to introduce the study the present year. This has been t one of the schools. The master gives weekly two lessons of minutes each to the pupils of the ninth grade. The work is : by the teacher of physics in the English high school. Addi- time is given in connection with the language work. It is d that a part of the apparatus needed for the teaching of will be made at the manual training school, and the expense o exceed the cost of materials. For this favor the city is d to the superintendent of the school, Mr. Harry Ellis, ve now indicated the changes in the plan of classification and ^us, and in the course of study. It remains for me to speak ^ork as it goes on in the schools. Harvard University offered ish instruction to the grammar school teachers in geography^ y and physics. The generous offer was accepted as an expres- tlie interest of the university in the experiment Professor * the instructor in geography. Professor Hanus in geometry, fessor Hall in physics. The teachers of the three lower grades the lectures on geography; those of the thi-ee higher, on y ; a.nd a class of twenty-two (each school being represented) on These lectures are given weekly during the current school Lcations excepted. I need not say they have pix>ved inter- and profitable. No teacher can listen to them and not elated and assisted in his efforts for higher attainment, not ^he special study discussed in the lectures, but in every ^^ his school work. Outlines of the courses in geography ometry have been prepared, and the teachers are working ^^ lines indicated. These outlines are in print, — the one in try by Professor Hanus will soon be issued as a manual. e new work has not yet been taken up in its completeness. >graphy it is limited to the lower grades. Geometry is to be t in the seventh, eighth and ninth grades, but it was thought 0 introduce it this year into the ninth grade only, in order that achers might have the benefit of the instruction given by Pra 338 NATIONAL EDVCATIONJLL, jLSSOCJ^ feasor Hanus, and that the subject-matter miglil There is no magic in the word geometry. Its e^ the grammar schools will depend on tlie kind ot and the methods of instruction. Tlie time gi'^^i two hours a week, the same as before; and to geami a half. This time is secured, not by crawdingr out nx teaching all subjects so as to make tliem mutually j It is too soon to speak of results. Tiie pupils classified for the first time on the plan by which a p to do one-fourth of the whole work each, year, and part one-sixth. The new studies were introduced onl ber. In several of the schools the work in geometry i up during the first two or three months, the teaciiers give special attention to it later in the year; and it wi bered that physics as a required study is not yet introdw be said, however, that the circumstances under which the is being tried are favorable to success. DISCUSSION, Pbof. Albert BusHK ELL HABTof Harvard CoJlege.— Periiaps some ( say, "Friend, how earnest thou in hither, not having on a wedding garmt what right shall I speak to a body of experts in education, for it is we that college professors are not included within the popular de&nitiou of t ''educator." I will speak, therefore, simply as a man interested in the of his own city, and profoundly interested in the public schools through country; one who through an oflScial relation with the public schools of Cam and through contact with schoolmen, has learued much in the past year c and has still much to learn. To the concise and dear statement of Mr. Cogswell with reference t Cambridge schools there is little to add. It ought, however, to he pointed out, with characteristic modesty, he has omitted to mention to you the author ot four and six year parallel courses,— the new four-track railroad of education which express and accommodation trains can move side by side in the same dli tion and reach precisely the same point, though at varying rates of speed. Mr. Cogswell is due all the credit for introducing this natural, flexible and cffectu system of grading schools. There is, however, perhaps still opportunity to enlar^ on some of the principals which animated the Cambridge School Committee h making the recommendations which have just been stated. In the first place, the "Cambridge Experiment" is not an experiment. It wW be noted that the reforms indicated by Mr. Cogswell are far short of the recom- mendations made by the New England Association or the Barnard Club of Provi- dence. The principle of the school committee has been to build op tiie Bystem which was already worked out, and to make changes slowly and with cantioD. Probably no recommendation embodied in Mr. Cogswell's paper ia absolote/y new; every part of it has been somewhere tried before. Hence, the "experiment," it you choose, is in the combination of parts, each of which has elsewhere been showu to be practicable. Nor is the system an experiment so far as the teachers are SaperinteDdence.] DISCUSSIOy. 339 concerned; for they were consulted before the recommendations were made, and DO suggestion was included against which they took decided ground. We believe that any reform of school methods must be carried out by the teachers, and with- out their co-operation must fail. That these recommendations have their good will &ud that the experiment is passing into the stage of success is shown by a series of letters from the masters of the grammar sctiools of Cambridge, dated yesterday, and written at my request for use at this meeting. They speak clearly and can- didly, and no one of the masters has hesitated to criticise, where in his judgment criticism was needed. These reforms, and therefore the letters of the masters, cover two distinct subjects. In the first place, a series of administrative changes has been made; set examinations have been abolished; provision has been made for promotions without examinations; and the four and six year system has been introduced. These administrative reforms commend themselves to the teachers of Cambridge; only two of the nine masters reporting desire a return to set examina- tions; but one expresses himself against the system of promotion without examina- tion; the system of transferring at irregular intervals and of double grouping seems to be received with much favor. Nevertheless, one teacher points out that the number of children in the quick-moving group will probably prove less than was anticipated. I do not believe that any of these three reforms will ever be retraced. The second series of changes is in the curriculum, and comprises: first, a more rational method of studying geography; second, the introduction of geom- ^'try into the grammar schools; and, third, the introduction of experimental physics into the grammar schools. The teachers welcome the improvement in the teaching «f geography. Against the teaching of geometry there seems no further objection. Physics is, of course, the most difficult to introduce. Physics, however, seems to 08 one of the most important subjects in the whole curriculum, because it fur- nishes an opportunity of teaching the accuracy of observation and manipulation, which is so necessary a part of education and which is not provided to the same degree elsewhere in the course. I believe that the teaching of experimental physics win succeed, although it will require judgment in its introduction and painstaking care in its administration. The connection of the university with the grammar school teachers has been Tery satisfactory. The principal complaint from the teachers is that the body of information and suggestion which they receive is so great that it causes them trouble and confusion to select such parts as they can offer to their pupils. In other words, the teachers are learning more than they need to teach. This can hardly be considered a misfortune. Another principle underlying the system is, that it is intended to benefit the mass of the children. We have had constantly before us the necessity of bringing the best and most effective parts of education within the reach of the larger nomber of children. One of the things which the schools most need is to empha- size the studies which tend to develop power, individuality and independent judg- ment We strengthen our schools by strengthening these now Ifnes of study; and if there is any advantage in the choice of one subject over another, that virtue oaght to be extended as far back as possible, by introducing the new subjects at the earliest point at which the pupil can profit by them. The Cambridge system, or rather the Cambridge adaptation of well known and successful principles, aims to give a practical, vigorous, sensible, education to those who cannot go beyond the grammar schools. Again, we hope by these reforms to assist in breaking up the pernicious notion that education ought to tend to uniformity. The danger of republics, and par- ticularly of our republic, is that they may develop into a rigid cast-iron system, in which individuality, independence and life may be crushed. Rn long as human 340 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston nature remains irregular, so long as individual characters differ from each other, 80 long school children are certain to need a variety of treatment; and a system of education which expects that any two children can be taught precisely alike is a mistake and a misfortune. It is the special duty of the public schools, so far as is possible, to allow for differences of capacity, and to adjust their teaching accordingly. Another purpose of the Cambridge School Committee is to develop Ih;* power of literary expression among the children. Under the most favorable conditions in this country the opportunity of learning a foreign language by grammar school children must be confined to a chosen few. But they all use English; and English must continue to be a main part of the school curriculum. President Eliot in his recent article in the "Forum'* speaks of training "the faculties;" President Schur- man, in his address before the Massachusetts State Teachers* Association at Springfield, rather violently traverses this statement, and urges that pupils should have the "humanizing** influence of a study of literature. I leave these two eminent doctors to disagree; or rather, I leave to some acute student of philosophy the task of finding out the difference between their views. To my mind, they both aim at the same result, namely, the development of character and power to deal with problems as they arise. One subject certainly meets the requirements which both have in mind— the study of our mother tongue. It is a study of high im- portance; it is a study of thought; and at the same time it is a training study. In two ways the Cambridge School Committee purpose to improve the teaching of English: first, by insisting upon the early and continuous reading of standard English authors; and in the second place, by connecting the study of English with that of other subjects. Much may be done by taking from other studies the ma- terial for compensation. The next task which I should like to see the Cambridge School Committee under- take is an examination of the study of English throughout our schools, and par- ticularly of written exercises. Perhaps we may find it desirable to introduce thv Seattle method, by which every scholar composes a piece of written English every day throughotit his school life, from the point where he is able to frame a sentence. Finally, it is the purpose of the Cambridge school authorities in these reforms to make a contribution, however slight, to the general improvement of education, beginning with our own city. The Cambridge schools were not perfect a year ago, they are not perfect now, they will not be perfect a year hence, nor fifty years hence. There may be perfect schools somewhere, but perfection in educa- tion seems very like malaria — always to be found in the next town. It does not exist here; we are not satisfied with our schools, and we never expect to be satisfied with them. One improvement should lead to another. Until the human race is perfect our education must be imperfect. Furthermore, in "our town*' we are not afraid to criticise our own schools and we recognize in those who point out defects and suggest improvements, not enemies but friends. The system describe*! by Superintendent Cogswell must be followed up wherever we si'e a new point to gain. One thing, at least, I tliink I have learned from a brief contact with school systems and school men: I have found the spring of action in public school matters, and it is in the school superintendents. You, gentlemen, seated here in this hall, and your associates throughout the country, are the moving forces in American primary and secondary education. Changes which you oppose cannot be carried out; reforms which you advocate will be put into action. One of tlio most encouraging things about American education is the fact that the schot^l superintendents are aware that the existing system may he improved and are endeavoring to devise right methods of improvement. adence.] DISCUSSION, 341 dAZWRLL, Superinteiideut of Schools in Brooklyn.— The Cambridge ex- seems to me to be worthy of all praise, so far as the "enrichment*' of e of study is concerned. I doubt, however, whether it is equally worthy ^udation in the method of **8hortening" the course. The objections are plan seems to require the segregation of the dull pupils, by which they timulus that comes from reciting with the bright pupils, and the fact that er is compelled to teach two divisions, one division goes half as fast as I prefer the departmental system of teaching for the upper grammar EESSOB Hart asked leave, in the absence of Mr. Cogswell, to offef in- on two points not included in Mr. Cogswell's paper, but which are a le Cambridge system, and w^hich meet some of the objections made by fvell. In the first place, the difficulty of having several grades in one •artially obviated by the appointment of an extra teacher in the large -a teacher without grade, whose business it is to wind up the loose &d by the existence of parallel courses and to form and instruct classes rAXWSLL: How many classes does such a teacher have? SPOR Hart: As many as may be necessary. There is no trouble about what district school teachers have been doing for years. ?cond point was with reference to the separation of dull from bright As a matter of fact, the separation does not exist to the degree that i'ell supposes. In many cases the classes are made up of children of egrees of quickness; the places of the bright scholars who have gone •e taken by the set of bright scholars a year younger. A. Hardy, La Crosse, Wis.— Prominent writers have told us tliat in ►octs public education is a failure. We tacitly admit it by discussing means of improving it. The real aim of all of us is to enrich the pupil, intellect, his heart, his imagination, his emotions, his life. The real hen to "shorten and enrich" the teacher. I think it was Emerson who does not make so much difference what you study, but it does make all nee in the world who your teacher is." are serious difficulties in the way of adding so many new subjects to of study. Our patrons, the taxpayers, are, many of them, hard-headed and men, educated in the "three R's." They have been successful in ' cannot see the need of so many *'new-fangled" studies. In the next have not the teachers to do this work. It is impossible to get enough fed teachers to teach the subjects now in our schools. These are serious oal difficulties in the way of the proposed reforms. Even if we could these objections, I feel that the true reform is to enrich the teacher. intellect, her heart, her life, ent Eliot has well said that the child of the son of toil needs to be lifted 1 sordid conditions, needs to be humanized. Ho pleads that the course »e enriched for the child of poverty. This is true. Tlje question is: Will t>ii of so many studies do this? In our limited time only the formal part, :>l8, can be taught. Their content, their substance, is the true source of It. The study of a foreign language in'our grammar schools must, from be elementary— confined to the verbal, formal part. To get to the content, ;ht, a much longer study is necessary. Where, then, shall we find the sub- ►r enriching the mind, the heart, the life of the child? In the study of of historj*, especially of biography, and of nature. The best will be found )ble literature. We must reform our teaching of English. We must give 342 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston this study the place it deserves. Professors in our collegres haye shown how poor are the results of our teaching of English. Prof. J. M. Hart has shown us the true remedy. We must teach English as an art We must have daily written exercises with the reading of our poets and prose writers. We need to concentrate and unify; not expand. The elements of science, "earth-knowledge," must be taught with geography. So, too, physical geography, instead of being made a separate study, must be made the basis of the study of political and commercial geography. The substance of these studies, too, will furnish a content for language study. Especially should we enrich the minds and hearts of our children by a fuller and more appreciative study of English literature, and enrich and improve their expression by careful daily practice in the use of the "mother tongue." Pbesidbnt Eliot of Harvard urged that all experience shows that a foreign language, whether ancient or modern, should be begun as early as ten years of age, whereas the ordinary American school program made no provision for be- ginning any foreign language before the age of fifteen. He also thought it re- markable that the prevailing school program for cities actually prevented ninety- three per cent of the children from ever studying demonstrative geometry, although geometry was a subject lying at the very foundation of all the con- structive and mechanical trades and arts. The generally accepted programs were, therefore, undemocratic; because they did not give every child capable of learning a foreign language or geometry a chance to take up these subjects at the proper ages. So far forth the city public school fails to reach the true democratic ideal; namely, for every child at each stage of progress every chance which he is capable of improving. SCHOOL STATISTICS AND MORALS. BY W. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OP EDUCATION. The question of the relation which school education bears to mor- als is a very old one, but it is always coming up again in some new form; and inasmuch as it is always profitable to inquire how we may make the school more effective in the direction of moral train- ing, it is wise to have the question in some shape on every new program of this association of superintendents. Morals include a wide range of virtues, on the one hand bordering on the province of religion, and even over-lapping it in the case of such traits of char- acter as hope, faith and charity — what the church calls celestial vir- tues to distinguish them from the secular virtues of prudence, forti- tude, temperance and justice. All kinds of well-wishing and well-doing towards our fellow-men come under divine charity or loving kindness. Under faith as a virtue come all those mental convictions which hold us to the theory of the supremacy of good in the universe, and under hope, as the irintendence.] SCHOOL STATISTICS AND MORALS, 343 rd of the religious virtues, come all such acts or endeavors as we ke on the side of the supreme good. Faith is the intellectual tiie and hope is the virtue of the will, while charity is the virtue )oth intellect and will. rhe lack of these celestial virtues produces what is called crime, ause it sets the intellect and will and the heart against one's fel- men— that is to say, against the social whole, ^ery justly, then, do theologians claim that religious education lis broad sense is the foundation of the institutions of civiliza- But it does not necessarily follow that the school should be ^pannage of the church, or that anything but secular education Id be attempted in it. This will depend upon the further ques- whether the secular virtues and the secular work of the school real auxiliary to the good work of the church. If the habits it in the school reinforce the spirit of kindness and mutual help- as towards one's fellows, if the intellectual studies aid in the d of Christian doctrines, then the secular school has a moral ncy although it does not take up any direct functions of the h. think that the most scientific student of social science will ad- lat the school is no substitute for the church, and that a nation possibly exist without a school, but that no nation can exist "t a church. Even the savage tribes with their rudimental civ- ^11 have the rudiments of a church, and it occupies a far greater ^^ savage life than it does in the most advanced civilization. ^^ dictates to the Indians of the Pueblos what figures they ^^^ve into their blankets and how they shall plant and har- leir corn. But the religion of the highest civilization per- ^<1 encourages the conquest of nature by science and art, and ^®> one after the other, the cardinal institutions — the family, piety and the state — from the direct control of the church and ^.I^^tes them from its authority. Thus, Christianity is forever ^^^ the circle of superstition and increasing the realm of ^^ment. ^^ liere, however, comes in the first appeal to statistics, and *^ attack and defense of the school on the line of moral in- ' It is supposed, on the one hand, that purely secular in- ^^ in ideas and habits must be anti-religious and consequently ^^'ards vice and crime. On the other hand, it is claimed that ^ ^^cular instruction reinforces religion and exerts an influence *^We of vice and crime, although it does not include any theo- ^^aching. Statistics are collated to show that the majority of ^^als in our jails have attended school for a longer or shorter >^- Statistics are likewise quoted to show that those States 344 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston which have the oldest and most efficient school systems have the largest number of criminals in their jails and State prisons. Asser- tions are made that education merely clianges the character of the crime, for example, from robbery and theft, the crimes of the illit- erate, to forgery and embezzlement or breach of trust, which are the crimes of those who have had school education. The returns of prisons and jails have been often studied with a view to get the facts in these particulars. Most teachers are familiar with the col- lation of statistics made on the census returns of 1870 by E. D. Mansfield and published in General Eaton's report of the Bureau of Education for 1872. The returns from prisons and jaiU of seven- teen States, fourteen of which were Western or Middle States, gave an aggregate of 110,538 prisoners, of whom 27,581, or almost ex- actly twenty-five per cent, w ere illiterate, or not able to w rite. The fact that three-quarters of all the prisoners could read and write and had had some schooling looked serious enough to chal- lenge the good influence claimed for the schools. If school educa- tion is adverse to crime, w^hy should not the statistics show that a majority of the prisoners are illiterate? At this point the subject was taken up by those w ho understood arithmetic, and the question was modified so as to ask whether a given number of illiterates in the population furnished as many criminals as the same number of persons who could read and WTite. Put in this shape the answer was intelligible. The illiteracy of the population in the seventeen States which fur- nished the twenty-five per cent of illiterate criminals was about four per cent, according to the census of 1870. This four per cent of the population furnished twenty-five per cent of the criminals, and the ninety-six i)er cent who could read and write furnished only seventy- five per cent. If one per cent of the illiterates had furnished only one per cent of the criminals it would appear that education made no difference in regard to crime. But the illiterates furnished more than six times their quota, while those who could read and write furnished one-fifth less than their quota, and the ratio of the two w'as one to eight. A thousand illiterates on an average furnished eight times as many prisoners as the same number who could read and WTite. This result worked out with much uniformity where the same degree of accuracy in keeping statistics prevailed. The very small quotas of illiterates in Iowa, Kansas and Minnesota gave more than eight times their share of criminals, while the three Southern States included in the seventeen were reported as having twenty-two per cent of illiterates in the population and as having fifty per cent of illiterate criminals, thus showing the illiterates to have five and one- third times their proper share of criminals. [Hjrintendence.] SCHOOL STATISTICS AND MORALS. 345 Within the past ten years many of the jails and reformatories ive published comparative tables, showing: results for a term of ^ars, during which accurate records have been kept These are, course, more valuable than the returns for any single year be use inequalities and unusual conditions are eliminated. In 18S7, r instance, the jail at Detroit gave a summary for twenty-five ars, showing an aggregate of 40,338 committals, of whom 28,652 lid read and write and 11,686 could not write. This gives ht times the quota of criminals to the illiterates, because in the ill population of the State there were less than five per centum of erates. To be mentioned as foremost among institutions keeping and lishing accurate and discriminating records in these matters are Illinois Penitentiary at Joilet, the Elmira Reformatory of New k, the New York Juvenile Asylum and the Eastern Penitentiary Pennsylvania. riie main point in the interpretation of criminal statistics is to lider the ratio between the number of criminals furnished by ven number of illiterates as compared with a like number who read and write. We must consider not only the numerators^ also the denominators of our fractions in order to get at the true le. ^ut there are other important items which some future census ^ '^ill give us; for example, the number of persons who can and write but who are so poorly equipped as to be very igno- -^ the statistics taken in the better class of our jails and prisons ^ classification of prisoners prevails. In 1870 the illiterate and ^^y deficient amounted to sixty per cent of the prisoners accord- ^ the returns from New York and Pennsylvania; t6 fifty per cent ^®^ from Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas and California ; to seventy-five '^t ill those from Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wiscon- , ^^Shtv-five per cent in those of Marvland, Kentuckv and South ina. ^^y keep careful statistics in regard to previous condition of ^ ^yy the character of parents, the time of leaving home, the ^f health. A large proportion of criminals were orphans or . ^tt home at a tender age. Many have been brought up by ^^1 parents; very many have never learned how to work at an 8t ^iid honorable occupation. ^*^^ question of the prevention and cure of crime is a very compli- -a one, having many co-operative causes besides that of defect ic^ooling. But that schooling is a very powerful influence is made Jbable by these statistics, and it is made certain by considering its ture. m ii is not an attribute of humanity in this nineteenth century. ler does any one desire to put the children of the country school straight jackets in order to regulate their progress, nor into dling bands in order to produce symmetry at the expense of ectual growth. In short, classification in the country school : calculated to induce mental ossification, as many seem to fear. is a mistake, as it seems to me, that the discussion of this % which began at Saratoga last summer, assumed from the ' a very narrow phase. Hitherto it has had reference only to 'i^are of a few exceptionally bright or exceptionally dull pupils school. It is capable of a much broader discussion, involving ^aterial points. ' ^'■ganization of the country school includes as its basis the ^^ of the township, and not the district, as the unit; the man- ^^ of the schools in the township by the entire board; the "^ of teachers by this school board, and their assignment to par- ^^^Ixools in accordance with the ability of each one to meet '^s of location. ^^^ ^s an essential point in the organization of the country ' ^^ classification is to reach its highest degree of success. In ^^ ^ccomi>lish the best results district lines must be abolished, ^^ship divided into wards like the city, the number of schools ^^^> With a corresponding increase in the character and efficiency - instruction given. There can be no intelligent discussion of the ^^ Without reference to this vital point J^^o^nization also requires the use of a course of study formulated ^^^ competent authority. It is a mistake that the attempt has I 352 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Boston often been made to base such a course upon that of some city. The conditions and environments of the country schools are radically different from those of the town. The country school needs a broader, all-round teacher, and the course of study should be much more flexi- ble. Many things may be put into the form of suggestions, and all non-essential points should be left to the discretion of the teacher. Yet there should be certain ends set forth to be aimed at in each branch; certain clearly defined steps to be taken; certain carefully designated lines to be followed; and the teacher should be rigidly held accountable for results. Such a course may be so formed as to pre- serve to a large extent the individuality of the pupil, and, what is of equal imjwrtance, the individuality of the teacher. The crowning glory of the country school hitherto has been the free contact of the teaching mind with the minds of those taught, and there is noth- ing calculated to lessen this in the process of classifying the school. 1 wish not to be misunderstood upon this point. When the course of study tends to unify and simplify the work, the effort is in the right direction. Wlien It prescribes an undeviating line, a straight furrow in which teacher and pupil must walk Indian file, it works only evil. It may be made so helpful and suggestive as to add to the teacher's self-reliance; it must not be so minute and imperative as to form a convenient crutch upon which indolence or ignorance hobbles over the ground. It should set forth what parts of each branch demand the most attention and the essential relations of the various steps through which the pupils must advance. It should be so framed as to render it easy for a pupil passing from the country to the city to find a place in the grades witJh. little loss of time. It may be objected that such a course of study is useless unless it determines something. The trouble hitherto has been that our courses of study have determined too much. The force of the objection, however, rests very largely upon the character of the teacher. Sir William Hamilton says that the pri- mary principle of education is the determining the pupil to self- activity. But there can be no self-activity on the part of the pupil without a corresponding self-activity on the part of the teacher. The course of study which is most desirable for the country school is one which gives the teacher something about which to think, as well as something to do; which awakens him to newness of life; which gives him a sense of freedom and strength; which maps out the course, points out the destined harbor, but leaves him to navigate his own ship. An additional factor in the organization of the school consists in a set of records accurately kept and preserved as the property of the district. The department of public instruction should prepare ice.] GRADING THE COUNTRY SCHOOL. 353 hem; they should be uniform and their use compulsory in f the State. The statistics which are gathered in many 1 the country school are comparatively worthless because e records made by the teacher. This evil cannot be cor- il the schools are organized ui)on a common basis. The Jd not be intricate, but they should be so definite that a ng into a new district would find the school organized and vork. rmanent organization is calculated to add strength, sta- ency and dignity to the oflSce of the country school teacher, e points, then, seem essential to the organization of the country school: (1) The township as the unit. (2) A tudy compiled with special reference to the wants of the iiools, and its use made obligatory by school authorities, ►f records designed to show the same facts in each school ; Iso being obligatory. Examinations, pmmotions, gradua- ses are not essential. Their use has been found to be n many cases, stimulating the ambition of both pupil and creasing the average attendance, and inducing pupils to le entire course; but the classified school could be carried them. ay believe the universal testimony of men and women who ^ this question from an experimental standpoint, this n has resulted in an increased attendance, in an awakened liberal public sentiment, in better buildings, in better id in breaking up the feeling of isolation which has hitherto terly felt by the country school teacher. The attempt to leir testimony is simply the plea of the lawyer who must k down the evidence of the opposing witness or lose his his point we have not attempted any diagnosis of the dis- is said to afflict the classified country school. We have ourselves with a rapid review of the environments which he patient The nature of the disease, however, which is readed is not very obscure. It consists simply in that ignation which is supposed to accompany any attempt to school to the dead level ol uniformity. It is feared that 3 brightest pupils will waste their time in doing nothing, any of the dullest pupils will be thrown into a high fever empts to keep up with them. all there is to the disease, and it ought not to be very find the needed remedies. The administration of the Lool is very closely allied to its organization, and is at least oaportance. It concerns the duties of the teacher, the 854 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boelon rights of the children, and the claims of the public. It is true that in the life of a teacher who is quick to apprehend the situation, accu- rate in conclusions, prompt in action, there will occasionally come a crisis in school affairs when an ounce of common-sense is worth a pound of rules and regulations. The administration of the classi- fied school should not weaken the individual power of the teacher or render him less ready to meet emergencies when they arise. !Nor is it in any way calculated to hinder or impede the progress of the pupils. To put this in an affirmative rather than in a negative form, the administration of the classified school must afford the pupil the greatest possible advantage for the prosecution of his studies during the time of his attendance. He should ui)on entering be assigned to that class in any study which offers him the greatest opportunities for improvement. He should, when he can devote but a few weeks to his school, take only such studies as are of immediate importance. He should be allowed to attend the school one-half of each day if imperative duties demand his attention elsewhere during the other half. In short, the administration must be such as will Vender the school most useful to the scholar. **But these remedies will not meet all the cases." They will meet a great ma- jority of them and leave the patient in a healthy condition. The organi- zation of the country school, the pupils in different stages of advance- ment being in one room and under one teacher, admits of great lati- tude in the choice of studies and classes. The classification of the school is not affected in the least by this. Nothing can be plainer or more simple or more practical, and as it meets the wants of a major- ity of the pupils it ha« proved highly satisfactory. Th^'e is, however, a form of this disease which is supposed to be fatal. At least prominent school men tell us that there is no remedy for it in the educational pharmacopoeia; the only safety is in quaran- tining the country school against anything which looks to uniformity of organization. There is a point here which we ought to keep carefully in mind. The classes in the different schools in the township are in a measure independent of each other. If the third class in arithmetic in dis- trict No. 1 have finished the work assigned them six weeks before the close of the year, they are not kept marking time while a duller class in district No. 2 is finishing the work, but they may go on at once with the work of the next section. Neither are the classes in these classified schools necessarily kept one year apart. The space of time between the classes varies in different schools, and at different times in the same schooL The course of study is used as a guide and a stimulant, but not as a fetter. Saperiniendence.] GRADING THE COUNTRY SCHOOL, 3ft5 The same is true as regards individual pupils. There may be no eighth grade in the schooL The bright boy in the seventh who must leave school in a few months, and who desires to finish the course and obtain his certificate should receive both encouragement and aid from hi« teacher. I do not believe in keeping classes or individuals marking time. It is a sin on the part of the teacher which can hardly be atoned for. I have said too much in past years against this crime of crimes in the graded schools to wish to see it introduced into those of the country. These classified schools are not in any sense types of the old fashioned graded schools, although the object- ors are determined that they are, must be, and shall be in order to sustain their objections. Each pupil is given credit for all that he does. If in the fourth section he is able to do more work than is allotted to his class, he is given supplemental work, or work in the 9ame book in advance, or he may occupy his time in bringing up his standing in some study in which he is deficient lliere is no occasion for any waste of time, and when the term ends his record shows just what he has accomplished. We have been told that in the ungraded school there is a chance for the bright and industrious pupil to make good progress by the aid of a good text-book and without much help from his teacher. Thzt is true; and it is equally true in the classified school, while he has the added incentive of knowing that when the term for him ends he is credited with all the work he has done. The Educational Council of California at their late session came to these conclusions: **When the intervals of promotion are unneces- sarily long, the strong and the weak pupils alike suffer." That is good educational doctrine; no one disputes it Again: "The right of pro- motion is earned the instant a pupil proves his power to do the work of the grade next higher." That is pedagogy reduced to common aense. Hiese principles are at the very foundations of the system of the classified country schools. The bright pupil has his promotion as soon as he earns it, if no other member of the class is ready for it. Hut he is encouraged to take the work along in regular order, without progressing in one branch at the expense of some other and to pass successively from one step to the next. Its tendency is to prevent one-sidedness in his education. The question will be asked here: "WTiat will you do with the extremely dull pupil?" "In case the classes are some distance apart what shall be done with the boy who finds it difficult to keep his place?" It is a perplexing question in the graded as well as the ungraded school. Separating the classes by intervals of ten weeks does not answer it The boy who has dropped from the A back into the B class needs just as ranch nagginj^: as ho did before. Drop 356 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Boston him back into the C class and he will do nothing without nagging. If his dullness comes from his laziness then he might as well be nagged in the A class as in any; if it comes from incompetency, then each individual case must be settled on its merits as it comes up. One-half of the worry and trouble over dull pupils comes from our fruitless efforts to make a peck measure hold a bushel. Neither would this question be settled by going back to the method of indi- vidual instruction, for then the dull pupil would have only his pro- portional share of time and attention. The Lancastrian system might benefit the bright pupils, but it would be disastrous in the extreme to the dull ones. The evil of the uncultured teacher is bad enough. How much would it be lessened by substituting as a moni- tor the half-grown boy or girl who has not finished the course of the country school? If any one thinks that the best remedy for the dis- organized condition of the country school is increased disorganiza- tion, let him try the experiment and the educational world will wait patiently for the results. The worth of theory is best determined by applying to it the touchstone of experience. But the question is asked, and that I may make no mistake I quote it: **In a class in arithmetic containing pupils some of whom are two years in advance of others, is it possible for the teacher to hold the pupils responsible for their work?'' It is very easy to frame a question so that only one answer is possible. "In a kindergarten containing children under five years old in which the study of the differential calculus has taken the place of Froebel's gifts, would it be iwssible for the teacher to interest the children in their work?" One question is just as reason- able as the other, and neither admits of anything but a negative answer. In each question the conditions are such as were never dreamed of. It is true that at first the organization is crude and the administration defective. The classification is in the rough, if I may use that expression. The work of claesifying the country school, like that of grading the city system, is a growth and not a creation. It is a gradual process. As the older pupils drop out, the younger come up with the classes and the work of classification becomes each year more natural and effective. Teachers become more skUlful, pupils more responsive, parents more appreciative, and the results more certain. Probably, however, the time will never come in the country school when it will not be. necessary to make provision for a class of irregu- lar pupils, whose needs are as great as their opportunities have been limited. The question will be asked: How is this classified school an improvement on the classified school of fifty years ago? In some things not any. In fact, it is a return, in part, to first principles. I dence.] QBADI^G THE COUNTRY SCHOOL. 367 lember a school in New Hampshire in a little village under ow of the Grand Monadnock. Of aU the pupils there, but left to tell the story of life's struggles; some have slept for the graveyard of their native town; the soldiers' monument [ids on the common where we played when we were boys, e names of others who went out to battle and returned no rhat school was as thoroughly classified as any school of to- [) new teacher thought of turning us back in our lessons, and ^olar went at once to his place when his class was called. To nto a lower class was a punishment for idleness, and to be to recite in any branch with the next higher class was the honor. It was no unusual thing in that school for a boy, es several of them, to work in advance of his class and to \ way through the intricacies of "Adams' Arithmetic" with- from the master. What was true of that school was true I, and I have yet to learn that they were like similar schools , Missouri, Illinois, Massachusetts, and nearly all the North- ^, stiflers of talent." In a word, we have taken some of the igs from the graded schools, and adapted them to the wants untry schools; and we have at the same time endeavored to the best things which dominated the old-fashioned country nd gave it its strength as a promoter of knowledge and a f character. ^stem is open to criticism and is liable to be abused, as what ur educational system is not, fi-om the stately halls of Har- lie little schoolhouse which to-day, perhaps, is beleagured by trd of the bleak Western prairie. of the teachers are uncultured, yet they make the best of ortunities. In Iowa, at least, the country school teachers out scanty resources sustain the normal institutes at a cost of >00 annually. It is a disgrace to the State, but it speaks 'or the teachers. Hundreds of earnest men and women are > this plan of organization and administration of the classi- '1 as the most hopeful sign of the times. What they have know. It will not do to pass it by as an idle tale when they the rural school can be so arranged and classified that the he individual pupil may be regular, systematic and progres- accept criticism in the kindly spirit in which it is given; •rd it as wholesome since it puts them on their guard against tices which have a tendency to creep in. But they repel : like wholesale denunciation; they are not yet ready to liey are in the broad way which leads to destruction, while ihows a narrow path with here and there a few lone travelers. 1 368 NATIONAL EDUCAIIONAL ASSOCIATION [Bostoo THE GRADED SYSTEM OF THE RURAL SCHOOLS OF NEW JERSEY. BY HON. ADDISON B. POLAND, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, TRENTON, N. J. So far as I am able to ascertain, :New Jersey is entitled to the distinction of being the first State to attempt a systematic and uni- form grading of rural schools. It is for this reason, I dare say, and not because the system possesses any special novelty or superior merits that I have been requested by the president of the department to present briefly its history and essential features. I have said that the New Jersey system is the oldest. This assertion is based upon the fact that in June, 1872, twenty-one years ago, Supt. F. R Bntce established a uniform course of study in all the schools of Oamden county. This course included, besides the ordinary common school branches, book keeping. United States history, algebra, physiology, physics and English composition. At the outset no provision was made for a system of uniform county examinations, the. issuing of certificates and diplomas, nor for public graduating exercises. All these features were introduced by Superintendent Brace in the suc- ceeding three or four years. While the Oamden county system was still an experiment, Supt. S. R Morse adopted a system of grading for the schools of Atlantic county. Having assisted Superintendent Brace in organizing the Camden county system, he knew its defects and sought to remedy them in his own county system. He inaugurated a number of impor- tant changes to make the Atlantic county system not only more com- plete, but more flexible and better adapted to all classes of schools, district, village and city. At about tliis time, also, several other counties adopted a system of uniform grading. Superintendent Terhune of Bergen county, at the northern end of the State, though one of the last to adopt a graded system, has perfected it almost beyond precedent. It should be here stated that, under the :New Jersey school law, county superintendents have the power, by and with the approval of the trustees, to prescribe a unifonn course of study for their respec- tive counties. For this reason, among others, a uniform State system has never been adopted. It has been thought best by my predeces- sors to leave the matter of grading entirely in the hands of the county and city officers, and to discourage the adoption of a uniform State system on the ground that a uniform State system for rural schools is no more needed than a uniform State system for city schools. A riBtendence.] BUBAL SCHOOLS OF NEW JEBSEY. 351I fol comparison, then, of the several countj systems will show oJlowing to be th« essential features of most of them: . A Course of Study Consisting of Five Grades.-^The first four grades p all the work usually done in the primary and grammar school*, ir best city systems; tl last, the work of the first two yeari. e ordinary high school. This course is little more than a gen outline of studies. It does not go into details in any subject, ) case does it give more than the proper sequence of topics. It also, to fix only approximately the time at which the work of jrade may be completed. Wb latter is important, since to fix definitely the time for the letion of a grade would be fatal to the system; it would not sufficient latitude for the special needs of particular schools, 80 a detailed program would tend to narrow and mechanize th<* as in some cities where it is the bane of the system. f creating few grades it becomes possible for both rural and cii \ Is to work together under the same course, since any snb- Ification that the local conditions or exigencies of each district ty demand may be made within these grades. While thus ig in a measure to unify the schools of a county, this system of Qg does not reduce them to the inflexible, cast-iron classification L is so objectionable in many of our city systems, my opinion this happy division of the course into five graden below the high school and one high school), each representing two years' time for the average pupil, is the fundamental and ? feature of the New Jersey system. Eight or nine annual 8, as in the cities, would be impossible in rural schools; a greater pr, still more impossible. Such a classification would give rise nual or semi-annual promotions, which are entirely out of the ion in most rural schools. But five grades, on the other hand, ao stated time for completion, break up this system of ];)eriodic )tions. Bright pupils not infrequently cover the entire course the high school in six or even five years' time. So also a pupil >e at one and the same time in two or more grades according scholarship and capacity. It will be seen, therefore, that thij* 11™ ™g by biennial periods interferes in nowise with the proper clas- f {H ion of pupils; it leaves the door open for all the intermediate 8 or classes which local or occasional conditions make desirable pessary. It is not unusual, for example, to find two, or even sab-classes in each grade in arithmetic, grammar or othei- pal study; this will depend wholly upon the number of pupils school, their comparative proficiency and the time at the teach- sposal. So far from holding back bright pupils, the chief danger ^ew Jersey system has been found to lie in its enabling tlieni I 360 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Bcston to get on too rapidly. To counteract this tendency to complete the course too early, it has been found necessary in nearly every county to adopt a rule that no pupil shall be allowed to graduate under the age of thirteen or fourteen years. The point to be clearly appre- hended is this: that the system of grading under discussion is not for the purpose of reducing to a minimum the number of classes, but for directing, and especially for vitalizing, the work of a school by the additional incentives that it introduces, as will be seen here- after. In theory at least every pupil is working wherever he can work to the best advantage; if otherwise, it is not the result of the system, but of the natural and unavoidable conditions that limit the time of the teacher, and consequently the number of recitations she is able to hear. It may be said, however, that the tendency of the system is to reduce somewhat the number of daily recitations common in ungraded schools. 2. The Work of the County Superintendent — The second essential feature of this system is that it broadens the work of the county superintendent. The success of a school depends largely upon the ability and intelligence of the teacher; the success of any system of grading, whether city or rural, depends also in a great measure upon the superintendent This does not imply, however, that some systems are not better than others. Some may be run with less fric- tion; some produce better results than others. The graded system under discussion needs just as careful supervision to make it efficient as a city system. Many, if not most, of the evils that attend the closely graded city system also appear in the ungraded rural schools. Thus, for instance, "marking time" will be found in its worst form, not in the city but in the ungraded country schools. I well remember how the district school teacher of my boyhood days always started the advanced class in arithmetic at common fractions. This enabled us to get on to percentage, say, at the end of the term. At the beginning of the next teim it was the same old story, — "The first class in arithmetic will begin at common fractions." But in rural schools this evil of "marking time" is not due as in the city systems to annual or semi-annual grading, but rather to no grad- ing. The tendency of rural schools is always towards too many classes for economy in teaching; of the city systems towards too few. There is a point where the two extremes meet. I believe it is found, so far as rural schools are concerned, in the system under discussion. But no system will make careful and intelligent supervision un- necessary. One of the chief advantages claimed for the grading of rural schools is that it compels and encourages the coxmty super- intendent to live in the saddle, so to speak; to visit, inspect and super- vise his schools with indefatigable industry and untiring zeal. idencej RURAL SCffOOLS OF NEW JERSEY, 361 Iniform County Examinations,— It was early found in the his- the New Jersey system that uniform examinations could be important and valuable accessory-. These are held annually ir the close of the school year. The questions are made out 50unty superintendent. The examinations are conducted in •al schools by the principal or regular class teacher, by whom papers of the lower grades are all first examined and marked. Its are tabulated and sent to the county superintendent. In mties, also, the papers of the three upper grades are submit- le county sui)erintendent, who is assisted in reviewing them nty board of examiners. 1 who object to stated examinations this feature of the New rstem will be regarded as a defect. We must not, however, Lt of the fact that examinations in rural schools are less than in city schools and are looked upon with much greater both pupils and teacher. Properly conducted they are not eat incentive to pupils and teachers, but are anticipated with The chief objection to exa^linations as ordinarily con- 8 that a pupil's promotion depends thereon. Kemove this 18 may be done under this system, and examinations are no bugbear. A pupil's promotion at the end of a given period 8 system will depend upon the conditions that prevail when les come to be formed. The county examination will be only >r of many to determine this result. not improbable, however, that under certain conditions a I county grading, just as a system of city grading, could be n successfully without examinations. Where, for instance, , teacher and pupils are doing the best they can, the spur mination is not necessary. But it is not true, in my opinion, minations are always and necessarily an evil. They have per place in a school system; not their use but their abuse ieplored; they can be made so comprehensive as to render g impossible; they can be so carefully and discreetly devised ucted as to reduce deception and fraud to the barest mini- ^^^^n^nent and Systematic Records are Indispensable to this System. the most common defects to be noticed in ungraded schools ck of permanent records. The frequent change of teach- ural schools make them especially necessary and desira- thout them a new teacher, usually a novice, is compelled a re-classification of the school. The result is a woful loss >oth for those who are imprudently set back in their studies Pelled for the second or third time to go over the same ground those also who are quite as unfortunately pusbed into water 3^ NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ABSOCIATION, [Boston beyond their depth and left to flounder as best they may. A properly graded system makes necessary two sets of records; one tlie class records of each school, showing its peculiar classiftcation and the proficiency of its pupils; the other the county records which certify the results of the official inspection and examinations made by its superintendent. The former enable a new teacher to organize her school with ease and dispatch; the latter enable her to compare her school with others of the same class in a town or count^^ and serve also as a general guide for framing a suitable program. Promo- tions, as a rule, are made upon the local class records; the oflBcial county records enable pupils removing to other districts in the county to be more readily classified. 5. Certificates for Uach Grade and a Final Diploma. — PupiJs who complete any grade receive a certificate bearing the signature of the county superintendent, district clerk, princii)al and teacher. Those who complete the four grades below the high school receive a diploma; the fifth or high school grade, a special diploma. I need not say that these certificates are highly prized in rural districts. To the child seven or eight years old the receipt of his first certificate is the great- est event in his life. Nor does the desire to gain these "papers" honors grow less until, at the age of fourteen or fifteen, the last in the series is secured. Some moralists will doubtless decry the practice that supplies to children and youth motives so base and unworthy. But are we not all of us chasihg madly after some supposed good as useless and ephemeral w^hen we get it, as the paper on w^hich the child^s certificate is writ? It is the present or immediate, and not the remote good that appeals to the child's interest. Time may come wh^^ these farmer boys will be found "Seeking the bubble reputation even in the cannon's mouth;" but now the height and breadth of their ambition is a roll of parchment. Who shall say which is the more laudable ambition, this or that? But moralizing aside, the infiuence of the county certificate on rural schools is an incentive to effort which can hardly be overestimated. 6. Recognition of Diplomas by Higher InstittUions. — All graduates of the county course are admitted to the State normal school and to many city high schools without a re-examination. So, also, several colleges accept these county examinations in lieu of their own in the same subjects. This is an advantage not to be lightly estimated. Such, then, in brief are the essential features of the New Jersey system of grading rural schools. A few words now as to the general working of that system. It was devised to correct certain evils and to secure certain definite ends. It should l)e judged, therefore, by its specific results. tendence. ] B URA L SCHOOLS OF NE W JERSEY, 363 e principal evils which it aimed to reach and correct are the ing: The Short Period of School Attendance. — ^The entire school at- ace of most children in the large cities does not exceed upon erage three to four years. In rural districts pupils attend :h a longer period of years, but for fewer months in a year and pequent lapses of one or more terms. The cause of this short of school attendance is not infrequently the actual need of the lahor at home; but quite as often it is due to an indifference part of the pupil himself. The value of an education is not d by him. The end is too remote. Some more immediate end, s securing a county diploma, is a more powerful incentive, ' single county for instance. In Atlantic county, prior to the iction of a graded system, fifteen years ago, not one person d ad\^anced studies where twenty or more pursue them now. ) of matriculants at the normal school and colleges; the num- 8 increased at least twenty-fold in the same period. Irregularity of Attendance.— Th\^ is due to many causes, such ness, bad roads, need for pupil's help at home, etc. Experience undantly proved, however, that the principal cause of irregular anco is lack of interest on the part of pupils. When deeply ited in school nothing but absolute necessity will keep them The county grading, with its system of examinations, certifl- md diplomas^ furnishes the necessary incentive to keep pupilsi >ol. Untrained and Inexperienced Teachers.— The small salaries paid Bt rural districts compel the employment of untrained and rienced teachers. They need every help that can be devised. Qspossible for the county superintendent, owing to the extent of trict, to visit and advise with great frequency; hence reliance 3e had upon some general directions. These are furnished by iirse of study and the regulations that govern it frequent Change of Teachers.— The average term of service ot mtry district teacher is less than two years; just time enou^^h 0 the work of a predecessor, and not enough to establish a new - Hence, chaos is likely to prevail without the guidance and fforded by some uniform system of grading. Grant that the Diportant need is the personal supervision of an intelligent and 'iastic superintendent:' in lieu of such supervision the county ^ system is a necessity; with it an additional help. Large Number of Glasses.— T\i\^ must always be an obstacle in y of improvement of rural schools. It is the opposite extreme city system, where by reason of a larger number of pupils and iploynaent of a greater number of teachers advantage can be 364 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston taken of a division of labor. There is a compensation, however, even in a large number of classes, since individual work, so rare in cities, is thus made necessary. Pupils are thereby thrown upon their own resources; hence the two principal evils incident to the city system of grading, towit, mechanical routine and "marking time" are less likely to arise. There is a happy mean to be found between too many classes and too few. The system of grading under discussion aims to find it. 6. Lack of Esprit de Corps. — The preceding conditions that I have mentioned tend without some corrective to reduce the esprit de corps of rural schools to the lowest ebb. There is little in the ungraded schools to fire the ambition or excite the love of the average boy or girl. True, history affords many examples of illustrious men and women who have flourished on such a soil. But history likewise fails to record the achievements of that far greater number whose buds of promise never opened in the cheerless atmosphere of the district school. Next to the intelligent, enthusiastic, skillful teacher the system of county grading \^ith its records and diplomas will be found a most effective stimulus to arouse and foster a love for school. In conclusion, it may be said that the conditions prevailing in rural districts are so unlike the conditions that prevail in cities that any a priori judgment, based on a knowledge merely of city needs, should carefully be scrutinized. The contention of Dr. Harris and others, that the greatest need of all schools, city or rural, is a frequent re-classification in order that all pupils may at all times find their normal level in the school curriculum, is not traversed by this paper. On the contrary, this need of frequent readjustment of classes is admitted. It is claimed, however, that the New Jersey sys- tem of grading rural schools makes this frequent re-classification pos- sible, while affording certain additional advantages, such as com- parative standards, approximate uniformity, and, especially, stimu- lus, so essential to intelligent organization, profitable instruction and effective supervision. DISCUSSION. CoMMissiONRB W. T. HARRIS. — In this matter of grading in the country schools two items are involved. The first is that of making out a course of study by years or grades, laying down the work in each of the several branches and co- ordinating it in a proper manner. The amount of work that can be done within a year is ascertained by experience and so prescribed. The second item in grading is the classification of the pupils. Often in the schools of cities as well as the schools of the rural districts the mistake is made endence.] DISCUSSION 365 wrting the classification with the course of study in such a way that there )ne class for each grade, and so that there is an interval of a year*s work one grade and the next. So, too, in the rural schools, superintendents •range a course of three grades or five grades, and require the country to be classified so as to correspond with these grades. It happens, then, the country schools there are intervals greater than a. year's work between s and another. , while the laying down of the course of study by grades is in every way hing, the classification of pupils in accordance with it leads often to great '. For classification is effected in such a way as to bring together pupils y different qualifications, and the consequence is that the lessons assigned aing are too hard for the least advanced pupils, while they are too easy nost advanced pupils in the class. It is thought sometimes that as grading d thing so classification is a good thing in and for itself. Whereas classi- cs a bad thing if the intervals between classes are too large. In all schools c of instruction tends to develop differences. At the beginning of the year re classified according to advancement as well as possible. After two work the more mature pupils, those who are quicker and more intelligent re, those who are more regular and industrious, begin to be able to get flsons than the less mature or sluggish intellects or those whose attendance lar on account of sickness and other causes. In a school where the inter- ween classes are short and involve less than a half year's work, it is to promote a few of the best pupils into the next class above at intervals 3r three months. If the intervals involve a year's work, or more, such •n is not feasible except in rare cases. The consequence is, that the ex- n the class are suffering from the want of adaptation of their lessons to vers of achievement. The weaker and less competent pupils are dragged the average pupils, and the brightest and best pupils are held back by the erage. The poorest pupils become discouraged or "demoralized" (as the described), while the brightest pupils are kept "marking time." The in the class, amounting to perhaps more than one-half of the pupils, do ■r materially. But the brightest pupils are kept in lower schools year ir when they should be going on into higher studies. Their pace must ^ to the standard of the average. Hence intelligent college men havo lie fact that the graded school system does not send its due quota of pupils ^er education. The public schools, by the process of holding back the *8. use up at least two years more than should be used in completing the ^ and secondary education. If the student is twenty or twenty-one yearn ^ he completes the high school work, he is generally too old to think of college. This is a very serious charge asrainst the public education, that ^e opportunities of the most talented and able of our youth. I have ^nt out inquiries to the various cities of the United States and obtained to several questions relating to class intervals. hundred and sixteen cities have reported regarding the class intervals of ►"8 in the twelve years of elementary and secondary instruction. More ^ of these cities reported that the intervals are less than a year in the faeight cities out of 416 report that it is the natural effect of classifying with intervals of a year or more between classes that the bright pupils are held back and not given work enough to develop their capacity, and that the teacher is obliged to expend the greater part of his time on the slow and less competent pupils. Two hundred citjes out of the 416 answer decidedly that this system dis- courages the less mature and the sluggish minds of the class, while it wastes the opportunities of the bright minds. Two hundred and thirty-three cities out of 416 report that under the system of year-long intervals between classes the progress of the whole school is kept down to the pace of the average pupils, and in some cases to that of the slowest and weak- est pupils. Now, in the rural schools in those States where much has been done to extend the methods of city schools into the country, graded courses of study have been made out and there has been an attempt at classification. Much benefit has undoubtedly arisen from the preparation of a course of study. But much injury has resulted from the attempt at classification. The teachers have been benefited by a course of study showing the average amount to be expected from pupils in a given grade through the fact that teachers who find themselves doing less work than that laid down in the grade have had occasion to question th^uselves regarding the efiiciency of tlieir methods, and this has led to improvement. On the other hand, those who have found that they were taking classes over more ground than the course of study required have had occasion to question the thoroughness with which they have been teaching the branches of study, and these have likewise been much profited by having their attention called to the normal amount. This, of course, is under the supposition that the super- intendents and directors of education have set down, in their course of study, the actual average amount which could reasonably be expected of pupils. Another very important advantage of a printed course of study, always pro- vided that the course is well arranged, is this, that the country school teacher has in mind the proper branches which go to make up an elementary education, and can see how these branches should be co-ordinated, in what order taken up and what branches should go together. But in the matter of classification, the tendency of grading country schools has led to the habit of bringing together, in one class, pupils one, two and three years apart in their grade of advancement, just for the sake of making classes of sufficient size. This has greatly damaged the work done in arithmetic and grammar. The method adopted in many rural schools of allowing pupils to belong to one grade in one branch and another grade in another has not by any means wholly corrected this evil, for it has happened that that the highest class in arithmetic or grammar or geography, as the case may be, has in it pupils differing by one, two or three years' work from the lowest pupils. Of course, the system of grading in different classes in different subjects is a much better plan than the rigid grading which is practicable only for city schools. In the old ungraded school the higher pupils often made classes of one indi- vidual each. The consequence was that the teacher had but very little time, five or six minutes perhaps, for discussing the merits of a lesson learned by the pupil. The teacher became a sort of overseer who looked out that each one in his school labored with due industry, and on occasions helped the pupil over difficult places. But the teacher could do, under such circumstances, very little in the way of teach- ing the proper methods of study. Grading and classification in schools has per- mitted much more time to be given to the recitation and to the teaching of proper endence.] DISCUSSION. 867 of study. But where the classification has been poor and the teacher haa liged to expend most of his time in goading on the laggard members of s, it must be acknowledged that most of the benefit derived from the of time devoted to recitations has been lost or wasted. . Hknby Raub, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, ill teachers were properly prepared and educated for their work, the endi ition of the individual would be best served by a plan like this: When have attained the age of six years, from fifteen to twenty of them are nder a teacher who educates them until their fourteenth year. But, the not rich enough yet to follow this plan. The next best plan, provided the J position is permanent, is to let one teacher educate the children of a from the age of six to that of fourteen, having charge of all from their school to their final promotion. This is the so-called ungraded school aa it still in rural districts. In villages and towns, where the number of is too great to be instructed by one teacher, division of labor has to take id each teacher has charge of the education of only a part of this course* les necessary then to fix the amount of work and time of the school period ich teacher has in charge, ». f . to formulate a course of study. I the growth of cities the school had to be graded, and courses of study g over the eight grades of primary school work had to be worked out, » been done somewhat in the same manner as the work in factories had jsigned, as if we were dealing with matter, not with mind. We have )iit courses of study, prescribing carefully how much is to be done in each >y the quarter, the month; yea, even the week. Not satisfied with thia, duced a system of monthly or quarterly written examinations, in order to e pupil's proficiency and express it in per cents. r thus making the school work mechanical, and reducing the teachers to chanics, we wonder how it is that the results are so inadequate; that th© rely, and not the substance is acquired by the children. When the teacher by the text-book, and conducts the recitation by written question slips, astonished that the pupils can not express themselves in vigorous, good when composition writing is almost unknown in the courses, that they write an essay in the mother tongue. it is proposed, also, to grade the rural schools, and to formulate courses V for them in the same manner as we did for city school systems. My is, that courses of study should, under all circumstances, be broad and suggestive rather than directive, even in city schools. In the country vhen the length of term is so different the ages of pupils so varying, th© >f study should gfive no more than the ends and aims, the results to Ui l» in long intervals, and not prescribe minutely for every quarter or he attainments in every branch. The whole question, however, will bt atisfactorily when the State insists that the teachers in the public school?? educated in State normal schools; when a mere high school certificate, Jnse based upon proficiency in scholarship is no longer a claim to be em- w teacher; when maturity, of intellect and character will be the pre- 8 for the teacher's position. If 1. 368 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston SUPERVISION OF COUNTRY SCHOOLS. BY HON. D. J. WALLER. STATE SUI»BRINTENDBNT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION PENNSYLVANIA. When men sang, He who by the plow would thrive, Himself must either hold or drive; a closer supernsion of country schools by a judicious specialist was as improbable as a gang plow. The presence of a superintendent was then desired chiefly to prevent the exemplification of the truth, that ''When ,the cat's away, the mice will play." But since those days organization has become a characteristic of industrial and of social, as well as of military life and of civil government. When each neighborhood had a school isolated from all others, men had not learned that, while on a farm of 500 acres it cost seventy cents to raise a bushel of wheat, it cost only forty-five cents on one of 50,000 acres. Now, economy in its highest, broadest sense demands for country as well as city schools not uniformity, but unity; courses of study, methods, the classification of pupils, the fixing of the require- ment of teachers, the financial administration of schools, including the choice of grounds and erection and care of buildings, — all de- mand organization. ORGANIZATION NiEXJBSSITATBS SUPERVISION. Until majorities in school boards are experts in school affairs, and willing to neglect private business to attend to that entailed by the position they hold, they will have to choose one to represent them in this work. The features distinguishing the problem of supervision of country schools from that of city schools are, that the limit of the field is not defined, the resources for carrying on the work are less abundant, salaries of teachers are lower, terms are shorter, graded schools are fewer, the work in the boards and in the schools is far less systematic, directors are less experienced in public business, teachers are less per- manent, schools are smaller and at greater distances from one another, the influence of the superintendent upob the directors is less, and the desire to secure cheap schools is stronger. How to secure efficient supervision under these circumstances is the problem. THE DEFINING OF THE FIBLrD IS IMPORTANT. It must be according to divisions easily recognized, because the united flelds must cover the entire State. The field must be large endence.] SUPERVISION OF COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 360 L to warrant the payment of such a salary as will secure a itendent qualified for the position, and to give the dignity and ee that such an official should have. It should be huge enough ►ly the money and the number of workers nee essary for suceese- A'entions or institutes in order to stir up the people and cre- 5ti*ong, healthy sentiment in favor of goinl schools. On the Land, tlie field must not be so large as to jirevent the super- 'nt from having a personal knowledge of all its parts, and of ce engaged in it. Tlie county meets these conditions more than any other division. There should, therefore, be county itendents. qualifications of this officer will in a great measure detei'mine ility of the schools. He should be a man of unquestioned nior- hose motives are known to be pure; one who w4!l not tolerate ;gestion of trading teachers' certificates for votes, or pander who would work the schools for gain or who tliink uiore of ney paid in school taxes than of their children. He should m of courage, and, at the same time, of common sense, bavin;*: ducational ^iew^s; one who will make it part of his business the ideal of education in his county, and who, w ithout fear of of re-election, will use all the means afforded by his office the people and the boards to better schools. Strange as it 'Ui, it takes more courage to face the people after a vigomuSj faithful administration than it does to ask their suffrages penurious, truckling, unprogressive one. superintendent, in addition to being a nmu of such hi^h moral er as will enable him to command the ctuifitTpnce of the pub- uld have two other qualifications. He should possess sonae e of scholarship. No one should be eligible who doe« not a teacher's certificate of a high grade, issued at least one ^fore the election, or a college diploma. He should also be need in school affairs. Success in teaching, or in superintend- thin three years of election should be n^garded as essential, superintendent is the educational expert in the county. He cted to know the salaries paid, the number of permanent cer- s, and the number of schools to be supplied in the county, 'before, is well qualified to fix the standard for the lower cer- s or licenses, so as to obtain the best teachers jio^sible under cumstanees. Consequently, he should have sole authority to the teachers who do not receive permanent certificates^ and have a voice in the awarding of certificates of all grades. He t)ethe responsible head, determining the qnaHfit-ations of the body of teachers in his county. He should be the adviser of eachers and directors, or committeemen. He should visit the 24 J I 370 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [BoetoD schools in person to note their excellences and their deficiences. He should gather the teachers and the public in convention or institute, that thej may be stimulated in interest and that branches needing discussion may be presented by special instructors. The county superintendent should not have control of the salaries, of the employ- ment of teachers, of the selection of books, of the plan or location of schoolhouses, or of any other local measure involving the expenditure of money. His power should be limited to the exclusion of unfit candidates for teaching, but his advice should be sought and freely given upon all such questions. He should be an officer of the State. He should hold a commis- sion from the State, should be paid out of the State treasur}^, and should report statedly to the State Department of Schools. He should have a term of at least three years, so that he may carry out his plans and give consistency to the administration of affairs, and should be eligible to re-election. The way he should be chosen is important. In order to keep the people in touch with school affairs, the office should be an elective and not an appointive office. In order to avoid the influence of politi- cal parties and to secure electors best fitted to make a choice, it is well to have the superintendent chosen by a viva voce vote of the majority in a convention of the whole number of directors or com- mitteemen in the county. His compensation should be based on the amount of work to be done, which varies with the number of schools* the length of term, and the extent of territory. In Pennsylvania his salary cannot be less than fSOO dcllara. In counties having over 290 schools, or 1,200 square miles of territory, or a school term extend- ing seven and a half months, it must be at least $1,500, and no more than |2,000 may be paid by the State; but the convention of directors which elects the superintendent may vote any additional sum, and it must be taken from the share of the county in the annual State appro- priation. In 1892, of the sixty-six county superintendents, five received less than |1,000; fifteen, |1,000; eighteen, f 1,500; six, between |1,500 and 12,000; seven, |2,000; three, more than |2,000 and less than |4,000; and one, |4,000. It is obvious that in many counties close supervision is by this means impossible. The remedy for this difficulty is not to be found in subdivision of the county and the election of an independent super- intendent in each subdivision, because this necessarily reduces the salary, results in the election of inferior men, and so divides the educa- tional force of the county as to diminish the number of teachers and the amount of money available for institutes, destroying the enthusi- asm peculiar to the larger bodies. The distinguishing feature of the rintendence.] SUPERVISION OF COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 371 ity superintendency, that of being the office of an expert of high inments and extended experience, with a salary somewhat in ing with the requirements, must be preserved. The need of closer rvision must be met by assistants. Not less than twenty nor more seventy-five schools should be allotted to each. They should such attainments in scholarship and in experience as are re- ?d of superintendents. Let these assist in holding examinationw achers when required to do so by the superintendent. Let them and thoroughly inspect the schools and report monthly to the tors or commissioners and to the superintendent, respectively, affairs belonging to their work, making recommendations and g statistics as may be required. Let them direct in the art of ing and instruct in the science, thus keeping in touch with the ers, directors or committeemen and superintendents. By this s the advantages of close supervision may be secured without ? those which come from having an educational director for the J county, giving unity and vigor to the whole work. These as- its should be elected for three years by the directors or commit- Jn within the subdivision, and should be paid, not from the fund, as the others, but from the funds of the districts electing This difference is important, because if the salaries were paid e State while the subdivision remain to be made by the people, umber of assistants would become unnecessarily large and the J upon the State treasury would be enormous. Furthermore, s is an agency not vital to a system of free schools, but highly )tive of its efficiency, it is but just that the people, having con- id enjoying the benefit of the increase in efficiency, should bear art of the burden. These assistants, like county superintend- ihould be removable by a majority vote of the directors only on aint, duly made and proven, of incompetency, negligence or rality. hiie any system of supervision will depend for its success upon en chosen for the work, it is believed that the system herein sd meets the conditions of the problem more successfully than Jier plan for country schools. It gives a uniform standing to engaged in the work throughout the State, and provides ade- means for their support without making them a burden upon leveral constituencies, and thus diminishing their acceptability, s not interfere with that local control that is always the life d schools, while it reduces to a minimum the disadvantages g from a want of technical knowledge and skill on the part of 'al authorities. It provides a competent examiner for teachers grade and a counselor for all. It promotes organization, con- 372 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston solidation and the pursuit of an extended course of study. It is favorable to longer tenns and better salaries for teachers. Furthermore, the annual county institutes throughout Pennsylva- nia are uniformly limited in size only by the capacity of the largest halls that can be obtained, and the people, besides paying an average local tax of nine mills on the dollar, heartily approve of the annual appropriation of |5,000,000 to the public schools by the general assem- bly, in addition to the sums appropriated for the salaries of the county superintendents, for the twelve State normal schools, for the State College, and for the salaries and expenses of the State Department of Public Instruction, aggregating last year $650,000, a total annual appropriation for education from the treasury of $5,650,000. The general public interest in education manifested by this unparalleled attendance upon teachers' institutes and by this unprecedented appro- priation is directly traceable to the system of county superintend- ency herein outlined, which has been in successful operation in Penn- sylvania since 1854. DISCUSSION. Hon. J. W. DirKiNSON. Secretary Massachusetts Board of Education.—! take it for granted that the supervision of the country schools is very much Uke the su- pervision of the city schools, in so far as the kind of service is concerned. The county supervisor as well as the city supervisor should have the delegated authority to nominate the school teachers that are to be employed; to make out courses of studies that are to be adopted; to direct the teachers in their method of teaching; to select the text-books that are to be used; to provide a good supply of all necessary means of teaching; to secure a regular attendance of the children upon the schools; to see that the schoolhouses are in good order and are provided with all things necessary for the well-being of the schools. The authority to do these things, or to order them to be done, should be granted to country and to city superintendents alike. The great problem to solve in relation to country super- vision is: How shall it be supported? The small towns are poor and are already burdened with taxes. They are required to support their schools, and this is more than they can do well. A way has been contrived in our commonwealth by which the rural towns, as well as the cities and the larger towns, may employ skilled and special supervision. The first law providing for the appointment of super- intendents of schools in the State was passed in 1854. This was a permissive law granting authority to the towns to appoint school superintendents to act as agents of the school boards. Eighty-nine towns have availed themselves of the pro- visions of the law of 1854. In 1870 a law was passed permitting two or more towns to unite for the purpose of employing a union superintendent. Twelve towns in all have taken advantage of this permissive act to form themselves in districts of two towns each. The laws of 1854 and of 1870 made no provision for assistance by the State in the support of the superintendent apix)inted. In 1888 a law was passed permitting intendence.] DISCUSSION. 373 E-ns with a valuation of taxable property not exceeding $2,500,000 to unite in ts containing not over fifty schools nor less than thirty for the employment c^hool superintendent. is law of 1888 provided that every district thus formed shall receive from ate the sum of $1,000, and that one-half of this sum shall aid in the pay- )f the salary of the superintendent and the remaining half shall be paid to Evus comprising the district, to aid them in the payment of the salaries of :eachers. The towns must together raise $750, to be added t9 the $500 riated by the State. One hundred and nine towns have accepted the pro- of this law, so that now we have under special supervision the public i of 210 of the 352 towns of the State. Eighty-five and eight-tenths per cent the school children in the commonwealth are now in schools under special ision. The results of this supervision in the small towns already appear in Teased attendance of the children upon the schools, in the introduction of ed courses of studies, in better methods of teaching, in the improved char- >f the teaching force, and in the intense interest the people feel in the of their public schools. have now thirty-five districts formed under the law of 1888, and the re- ? towns are all discussing the advantages of more intelligent supervision * schools, and are moving to secure them. i efficient causes that produce the schools are the people that make the hich govern the schools, that choose the teachers, that support the schools uish them with living material to be educated. They are the school boards e chosen by the people, and afterwards are united in their action by the ader which they act in organizing the schools and in administering their They are the superintendents chosen by the school boards to act as their in doing what the members of the school boards have neither the time preparation to do well. They are the teachers whose duty it is to present and subjects to the learners* minds that they may acquire knowledge and tion, and method of study, and mental development; and who are to direct idren to the formation of good moral habits. And lastly, they are the who are to be trained into that state of intelligence which is the founda- an orderly public and private life. These are the causes that produce the and the highest success in school affairs requires that each distinct cause )bserve its place and its proper relations to the other causes. committee or the school board should be the medium between the super- it and the people. The superintendent should not go to the people for the ishment of his ends. The superintendent should be the medium between mittee and the teachers. The teachers should go to the superintendent for itructions, and not to the school boards. The school committee should hold B to the superintendents, but not directly with the schools. The teacher be the medium between his schools and the superintendent. The super- it should never take the school he visits out of the hands of the teacher iduct its exercises himself. He should give his criticisms and directions eachers in private. These relations which the different departments of our aanagement bear to one another are not generally observed, and confusion agonism are too often the results. ■ John MacDonald. Topeka, Kan.— Rural supervision suffers because of ious environing influences of politicians. The rural superintendent, like 's pilgrim on his way from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City, IS through all sorts of besetting troubles— fightings without and fears within i excellence. 374 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston Because of the method of election, incompetent persons are often injected into the superintendent's oflSce. Officials who are required to do expert work should not be elected directly by the people, but by committees selected for that purpose; in other words, by boards of education. It is somewhat amusing to hear city superintendents, who are themselves elected by boards numbering from six to twenty members, strongly urging that county superintendents should be elected by the people. In twenty-five or thirty States of this Union county superintendents are not required to have any qualifications. They need not be able to read or write. Qualifications should be required of every official who is expected to do expert work. Pennsylvania and Indiana have the best methods for selecting county super- intendents; but it by no means follows that the States named are doing the best work. Kansas, with a lamentably defective school system, has the best schools. In some States, county supervision is complicated with the making and chang- ing of districts, and with much other work wholly foreign to supervision. The work of the superintendent should be to inspire teachers and people to go from high to higher; to lead children to the crowning slope of a complete manhood and womanhood. SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF TEACHERS IN CITY SCHOOLS. BX. AARON GOVE, SUPERI^'TBXDBNT OF SCHOOLS, DBNAT5R, COLO. At the annual meeting of the Massachusetts Teachers' Association in November, 1849, Charles Northend of Salem presented his paper on a subject kindred to the one assigned me. At the meeting of the same body, October, 1868, Dr. Henry Barnard performed a similar task. Mr. Daniel Hagar again undertook it in 1877. In reading the proceedings of those meetings and the names of the participants, some of whom are still living and acting, others dead, but as I believe still acting — ^names largely of my own personal friends or acquaint- ances— I hesitate to write further on the subject of sources of supply of teachers for city schools. A review of educational gatherings throughout our country for the past twenty years demonstrates, that few meetings have occurred wherein indirectly, if not directly, the subject before us has not been considered. Notwithstanding the thought and consideration already for forty years bestowed upon it, in the light of later experience, ob- servation and progress, I quite agree with the executive of the depart- ment in the propriety of re-opening the discussion. While the average teaching life of woman in America is not to exceed three and one-half years, without data, I presume the life of the city teacher to be but little longer. A popular source of supply Jitendence.] SUPPLY OF TEACHERS IN CITY SCHOOLS 375 ? city normal school, the output of which, unless well scattered a large extent of country, fails to accomplish the full measure I power. tie conditions decree that the girls in the schools to-day must e teachers of to-morrow. This is not time or place to bewail the ness of their professional life. I am not sure that I care to do Is I remember my association and acquaintances, it is a fair ion to ask whether the average unmarried woman teacher over years of age be superior or equal to the average younger one. alue of professional experience is frequently lessened by the -ncrasies of advancing age. The old school mistress does not and never has, occupied the place in educational history that d schoolmaster does. The Emma Willards and Elizabeth Pea- 1 are few; the Arnolds, Barnards, Northends, Hydes, Pages, is, Brooks and Hagars are many. And so it may not be a mis- le, after all, that the throng of young women so soon are called the teacher's platform to higher and nobler duties for which veve created. e girls, and they are the source of supply to which the text , after completing the high school course seek for and obtain ons. The better to fit them for the few years of public service, ttg in normal schools is urged. This training having been led, they are rightfully deemed superior and are preferred. This face of the fact that many high school and grammar school when once in harness, distance in power their older sisters in hool-room. tiepting the conclusion that the maintenance and support of tig schools for teachers is a necessity, as well as a public duty, L to urge that an effort be made amongst us to encourage the er of the product of the city normal school to duty in a city than that where the training is obtained, rmit me to allude to the uncouth and not quite applicable illus- n of the stock-raiser. His herd is maintained at its greatest ncy and value only by the regular and persistent introduction 7 blood. The ranchman's range of thousands of acres and hun- of thousands of horses, cattle and sheep depreciate in quality alue if confined within permanent "side lines." has been said of a large interior city that of the names of over teachers borne upon the roll, nearly 800 were born, bred and ted within that school district. The schools of that city are ven good; the notorious critic of the "Forum" to the contrary thstanding. But who shall say how much better the results, a interchange of graduates of city normal schools occurred? 376 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. • [BostoD For the management of the schools, and especially for the super- intendent, this common source of supply is exceedingly comfortable and dangerous; comfortable, for ho is so well informed as to what ia doing and how it is doing in the hundreds of rooms officered by teach- ers who were trained from the kindergarten up under his own sui)er- vision that personal observation and inspection is unnecessary, hence often omitted; dangerous, for, as I have already intimated, the entire establishment is wearing monthly and yearly deeper and deeper into the grooves and- ruts of precedent and habit. The reliance of the community as to the betterment of their schools is upon the disposition of the superintendent to inform him- self well and truly both from the printed page and by frequent jour- neys of inspection to other and often far away towns; particularly by the latter means. A recent space contributor writes that from school reports and superintendent's essays upon their respective administrations one can learn but little truth about the schools. I am willing to add to that that the reader learns much that is misleading. When the corps of teachers in a city is composed of representa- tives of many and widely separated parts of the country, not exclud- ing foreign countries (for England and Germany, and especially Prance, have latterly made extraordinary progress in pedagogical science), and w^hen that body of teachers assemble from time to time^ as they must under all well regulated and efficient school systems, out of the various and varied presentations and diverse views portrayed by eai'nest and vigorous discussions must issue conclusions healthful for the schools. For a comfortable, easy and uneventful, nnprogressivc administra- tion, the superintendent would better officer his school-rooms with the product of the schools of his own city. The other plan will make much friction, create dissensions, cause experimenting, and seem to mar (what is to-day the great danger) a beautiful and harmonious system (the thing to avoid); beauty, har- mony, quiet and peace being nowhere "in place" except at the ceme- tery. I am informed as to the obstacles that exist in the execution of a plan that shall cause the girls of one city to make a home in an- other; the domestic reasons are abundant; financial reasons are many; the family must remain intact. While I do not believe that any great or sudden revolution on this line can be effected, I realize that a united sentiment in this Department of Superintendence would tend to promote an interchange of the sort indicated. Marble,. Tarbell, Seaver, Lane, Jones and Long would indirectly learn of each other and not from reports. Fall River, New Haven, Albany^ intendence.] TRAINING TEACHERS IN ACTUAL SERVICE. 377 leapolis, San Francisco and Denver, each could have a little of :ood of the other, and no one be a loser. lie best and surest post-graduate course for a normal school late is a season in charge of a country school. Elements nee- y for the teacher's character can be acquired there, some of 1 cannot be obtained elsewhere. Dependence upon a principal weakness seldom overcome by her who never has been obliged ce responsibility. Most of the best teachers of to-day are those remember the discipline obtained by the trials and tortures of ^ng a country school and associating with scores of all sorts rents and committees, any one of whom believed he knew better :o conduct that school than did the teacher. T CAN BE DONE TO INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS IN ACTUAL SERVICE? SUPT. THOMAS M. BAIX.IET, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. think it was Charles Lamb who divided the human race into ilasses, money borrowers and money lenders. Teachers may Tided crudely into two classes, the efficient and the inefficient, le propensity to borrow or to lend is met with in different degrees,, e finds different degrees of efficiency and inefficiency amon^ ers. In the days before the fifteenth amendment, when we not yet as a nation color blind in politics, it is said that a joliciting politician walked up to a rather fair mulatto on on day and asked him, "Are you a colored man?" '^o, sah,'* :he reply, ^Tse bo'n dat way." Now, there are inefficient teach- ^ho were "bo'n dat way," and for them I see no hope, even if are in actual service, as many of them are. Superintendent nwood, who is to read the next paper, wiQ, no doubt, tell us to do with them. ut what can be done for teachers who have the inborn qualities itial to success, and yet ai-e only partially successful? They may impered by the want of thorough scholarship. If so, then a Je of reading and study may be suggested by the superintendent h will enable them to make up in part for the lack of good emic training in early life. Summer schools, such as have ng up in many parts of our country, are doing every year a great for such teachers. A word of counsel from the superintendent ^gard to the choice of studies may make attendance at these ols additionally profitable. 378 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Boston The most serious limitation, as a rule, of teachers who are not wholly successful, is want of thorough professional training. What can be done for them in this respect? There are at least three things that can be done: 1. The superintendent can lay out a course of reading in peda- gogics for them, meet them from time to time in a body, discuss with them what has been read, and supplement this discussion with such additional information and comments as may serve to throw light on the line of thought pursued. 2. In the second place, there ought to be a city normal school in every city of any considerable size, as indeed there is now in nearly all our larger cities, for the purpose of training young recruits for the teacher's ranks. In this school there ought to be, besides the regular class for young "undergraduates," also a class for "experi- enced teachers." All such teachers as are not doing satisfactory work by reason of deficient professional training ought to be required to take a year's leave of absence, go to the normal school, and be "made over." 3. In the third place, the work of supervision ought to have for its chief aim the professional training of teachers. In the past, school supervision has occupied itself too much with the machinery of the system, and with matters of secondary importance. The superintendent has often expended most of his time and energy in looking after the erection or repairing of school buildings, their heating and ventilation, the purchasing and distributing of books and supplies, and in doing cheap clerical work. Many a superin- tendent has allowed his time to be absorbed in such work to an extent that has made it impossible for him to give much attention to the pedagogical phase of the work supposed to be in his charge. He has become an expert in schoolhouse sanitation, perhaps in schoolhouse architecture; he is, no doubt, an efficient superintendent of janitors and of school buildings, but not a superintendent of teachers and of schools. It is entirely correct to say that, theoreti- cally, a superintendent of schools ought to be an expert in all these things, and in education besides; practically, no such superintend- ent has ever been found, and it is not likely that any such will ever be found. The result of burdening the superintendent of schools with such work (which, although important in its way, is, after all, secondary to the educational work of the schools) has been, that if real expert supervision in any line of work was needed a "special teacher," or ^^special supervisor," had to be elected to do it. In this way we have lo-day in most cities a "supervisor of drawing," a "supervisor of music," a "supervisor of physical culture," a "supervisor of primary itendence.] TRAINING TEACHERS IN ACTUAL SERVICE. 379 Is," and in some a "supervisor of science teaching." These risors are needed, not always because the superintendent has ifficient time to direct the work himself in these lines, but 36 he is incompetent to do it. In short, he is not an expert strictly educational work of the schools. w, I hold that the first duty of a superintendent is to be an :ional expert, to give the board of education expert counsel ird to the strictly educational work of the schools, and to teach achers how to teach. As long as he is not able to do this, for lack of time or of knowledge, he has no right to devote rge part of his time to such matters as have been mentioned, persons can be hired to attend to them whose time is not as much as his is, or ought to be. lools are never going to be reformed by a wholesale discharge ^mpetent teachers, and for two reasons: First, because in in which there are many such teachers, salaries are so low that lid be impossible to secure competent teachers to take their . Secondly, in such cities the educational sentiment is always ad the schools are entangled — often hopelessly entangled — in s, so that other considerations than merit and demerit deter- ;he appointment of teachers. But it ought to be said in this ition that the ward politician is often not the most embarrass- stacle in the way of an earnest school committee who endeav- nscientiously to discharge at the same time both its duty and competent teachers. The minister of the gospel, the deacon le elder, whose sympathy for an incompetent "Christian woman," lappens to be a member of their fold, runs away with their lent, often block the way of reform more effectually than the 5ian. I believe that more incompetent teachers are kept in positions through church influence than through the influence itics. lis being the fact, the best that can be hoped for is that the glaring cases of incompetency be dismissed and the rest receive natic training. ) accomplish this, the superintendent and his corps of assist- aiust organize themselves into a teaching body; their chief work be to give systematic instruction at stated times to the teachers eir charge, in the science and art of teaching, and to follow up instruction by helpful criticism and private suggestion in the »l8. There ought to be every year a series of lectures on educa- l psychology. This subject lies at the very basis of pedagogics, •ears the same relation to it that anatomy and physiology do to cience and art of medicine. Physiological psychology has pro- l results within the last two decades which will before many 380 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston years entirely revolutionize pedagogics. The results obtained in the attempts to localize the functions of the brain are suflBciently definite and certain to warrant some very important conclusions in regard to the nature and activity of the so-called "faculties" of the mind, and they throw a flood of light on the problem of manual training. The strong opposition to this newcomer in the schools^ so recent that the echoes of it have scarcely yet died away, was based on an obsolete psychology which still forms the basis of all the current books on the science of teaching. The facts which have been brought to light in comparatively recent years by Kussmaul,. by Wernicke and by Charcot and his followers, in regard to aphasia^ furnish a scientific basis for the pedagogical study of the problems, involved in teaching a child to speak, read and write his mother tongue, as well as for those involved in the teaching of foreign lan- guages. The recent investigations into the nature of volition by Exner, Muensterberg and others, and its relation to thought and habit, give a foundation for the solution of the problems of moral culture which psychology had never before been able to furnish to pedagogics. The investigations into the time-relations of mental phenomena have not yet produced results of much consequence, as far as their bearing on the science of education is concenied. No one can to-day either study or teach pedagogics without con- siderable familiarity with the results of modern psychology and physiology, and anyone who would give professional training to teachers in actual service must present them in a clear and intelli- gible way and point out in detail their application to the work of the school-room. In addition to this instruction in psychology, there must be sys- tematic instruction in the methods of teaching the various branches of the school curriculum. It has been my experience that merely discussing general principles is not sufficient; I find it necessary in my own work to discuss quite minutely the details of methods, and even devices, and to refer these details at everj^ point to general principles as their scientific basis. There is a delusion prevalent among educators at the present time, that the discussion of devices and of details of method is pettyj that the scientific educator ought not to condescend to it, but ought to study and teach the general principles of education. Now, it has been wickedly said that no one despises a pun except he who cannot make one, and I fancy many a man who can write a bright magazine article on some general principles of teaching would be quite help- less if he were asked by some unsophisticated young teacher to take a class of children and show the application of it all to the actual work of teaching. ■intendence.] TRAINING TEACHERS IN ACTUAL SERVICE. 381 L first-class teacher usually passes through three stages— a sort edagogical metamorphosis. In the first stage, he notes happv ^es used by other teachers, and reproduces them with Chinese ity in his own school. In the second stage, he reads some book le general principles of education; begins to talk about passing the concrete to the abstract, from the simple to the complex, the whole to the parts, from the particular to the general; t teaching ideas before words; and in his school keeps on teach ^ords before ideas, and passing from the general to the particu- Tom the parts to the whole, from the complex to the simple^ 'rom the abstract to the concrete, steadily raising ignorance to econd power. This is the stage in which normal schools which no practice departments leave the large majority of their ?nts at graduation, ''hen a man of good academic training, who has also, at the time, some acquaintance with the history of speculative phi- tiy, reaches this stage in pedagogical growth, he is often mistaken profound philosophic thinker on education. If he knows but ^h of Hegelian or Kantian phraseology to make himself unin- ible, his reputation is made — provided he stays away from the •1-room and escapes its tests. It is easy to make water appear by stirring up a little mud, and it is difficult to realize that a g may be thirty feet deep, if the water is so clear that you can nickel at the bottom. at there is a third stage reached by the best teacher. Whilst e first stage he sees only disconnected devices and blindly tes them, and in the second stage sees through a glass darkly •al principles in their general or "abstract" form, in this third he recognizes general principles in devices, and is able to view, out and apply devices in the light of general principles. It 3y to see a disconnected fact; it is not very difficult for an igent mind to see a general truth in its abstract form; but to ptly recognize universal truths in single facts, and to view facts in the light of universal truths, is a kind of thinking ti comparatively few minds can do with facility. If you examine terature in our educational papers, and even that in our most ntious educational magazines, you will find that most of it spends in character to the first two stages; most of the books en in English on pedagogics belong to the second stage, and L of the work in the practice department of many State and lormal schools does not go beyond the first, et him who thinks lightly of devices remember that a device aplj an application of a principle to a particular case, that every cation of a principle is an intei-pretation of it, and that he who 382 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston cannot apply a principle, or give detailed directions as to how it must be applied, does not comprehend the principle. It would seem to follow from this, that he who has never taught public schools himself is not competent to teach others how to teach public schools, and that it is exceedingly unfortunate if he holds a position in which he cannot do his duty without doing the impossible. But to return to the thought from which I have digressed. The superintendent and his assistants ought to give detailed instruction in methods of teaching, the grading of the work, and the mode of preparing the lessons in each study taught in the schools. To make this work effective, teachers will have to meet in sec- tions not exceeding 150 or 200. For some of the work the number ought not to be above fifty. In large cities a considerable force of assistants is needed, and the city must be divided into districts small enough to prevent the meetings from being too large. It is essential that the superintendent himself come in personal contact as often as possible with all the teachers of the city. By a carefully arranged series of meetings he can speak to all the teachers from four to five times a year in our largest cities, and in the smaller ones much more frequently. It is essential, too, that the superintendent and his assistants spend a very large part of their time in the schools, partly to give individual criticism and help to teachers, but especially to keep themselves thoroughly informed of the details of the teaching, and of the teachers- weaknesses and needs; else the teachers' meetings become dull and unprofitable. It is also desirable that the super- intendent and his assistants do actual teaching of classes from time to time, both to illustrate their suggestions to teachers and to keep in close and sympathetic touch with the children. The mode of school supervision which contents itself with issuing commands and sending printed directions from the central office, and with gathering statistics and writing reports, will soon be a thing of the past. The superintendent of the future will be a trained expert; who will be, in fact as well as in name, a director of educa- tion ; who will have, not only the ability to lead in thought, but also the power to inspire enthusiasm and life — even to raise the dead when politicians will not permit him to bury them. He will be recognized by the school board, not as their clerk, but as their counselor in educational matters, whose advice they will accept as they would accept the legal advice of their attorney. He will make the course of study, select the text-books and supplies, appoint the teachers, determine the methods of teaching to be followed in the schools, and instruct, both personally and through his assistants, the teachers in his charge in the science and art of teaching, and will hold office during good behavior, and be removable only for cause through the courts. rintendence.] NON'PBOQEESSIVE TEACHERS. sm lAT 8EALL BE DONE WITH NONPROGRESSIVE ANI» RETROGRESSIVE TEACHERS? BY SUPT. J. M. GREENWOOD, KANSAS CITY. MO. Dhe literal significance of the word progressive is to step or ? forward, of retrogressive is to step or move backward, and progressive implies that passive condition of mind in which tht- ler fights a losing battle in trying to keep up with the march ents by consuming a continually decreasing intellectual capital, ►efore attempting to answer the inquiry so pertinently statefl e subject proposed, it is necessary to ascertain, if iwssible, ho^\ icher may become either non-progressive or retrogressive as 'a-distinguished from that state which is called progressive, nder what physical or intellectual conditions, then, is a teacher ? to become non-progressive or retrogressive? Are these condi- , if they exist, physiological, psychological, or a combination of ? Does the profession of teaching necessitate any such condition nditions per sef To observe an effect that is widespread and far- ling in its consequences is a sure indication of a producing cause where. here is also a jwpular impression that teaching has a narrowing t on most minds; in other words, that after a few years' work e school-room the teacher drops insensibly into a very limited re of intellectual life. This is the usual rule, to which there are exceptions in every institution dedicated to learning, he law that obtains in learning a trade, so far as the physio al effect can be determined, is not very different from that in expanding, strengthening and solidifying of those channels in )rain along which intelligence cuts its way and then acts, iter the blacksmith has once learned his trade, he is rendered to learn other trades requiring finer qualities of artistic execu- Working with heavy tools measurably debars one from hand- skillfully those tools needed in all the lighter and more refined pations. The movements of the muscles at first in learning an\ ? are slow and directly under the control of the will; but with tice, the painful and careful movements are made with more and less attention, till eventually the muscles are simply set in on, and the movements are practically automatic, or have changetl habit. "his clue furnishes an adequate explanation, doubtless, of those onary and retrogressive states into which so many teacherij 384 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boeton unconsciously force themselves. Not only this, but the habits of mind and mind activity, whether of children or adults, engendered by routine work requiring little or no mental effort, produce mind atrophy. All students of mental activity, from whatever side the subject is approached, agree in this: that what was at first hard to learn, hard to assimilate, and harder still to reproduce, by pass- ing it through the mind till it is firmly fixed there, becomes largely a matter of habit. The earlier writers dwelt ui>on it as a principle of association ; the later, as habit or automatic action. The teacher who goes over the same class work year after year contracts mental habits that dwarf, cramp and deaden intellectual activity by focus- ing it on small bits of the subjects taught To concentrate the atten- tion is a narrowing process, not only in regard to the scope of the subject-matter, but through the channels along which the thought lines run. Figuratively speaking, habitual mental activity within a limited range cuts mechanically, and perhaps chemically, deep channels in the brain substance itself, and the longer these channels are used the more fixed they become, so that, eventually, it is next to impossible to change their direction or the quality of the thought To use continuously one set of muscles involves at least a premature breakdown, and consequently an early death. This fact is now recog- nized by all clear-sighted teachers of physical culture, whether of animals or human beings. The best physical specimens of enduring manhood or womanhood, and those capable of doing the most work and keeping it up for the greatest number of years, are those whose varied exercise had called into play every set of muscles of the body and develoi)ed all of them proportionately. During the working hours, it is not cessation from aU labor so much that is required as it is a resting of one set of muscles and the working of another set. •Change is the law that prolongs life. Moreover, the same law holds true to a greater extent concerning the nerve and brain forces. It is not the work in the school-room as such that produces "mind-cramp" in the teacher, but the concentration of attention to a very restricted limit in one single-line direction. Evidently this kind of mind-action, so confined in its operation, wiiile intensely exercising one chain of brain cells allows all the others to solidify and destroy their power of responding to proper stimuli. When the process by fre- quent repetition becomes virtually automatic the case is slightly different from that in which a i)erson has learned the alphabet, the multiplication table or a nursery rhyme. Here the mind retraces with perfect ease, while in lesson hearing and lesson thinking the brain channels are worn deeper and deeper by constant attention, depending upon the physiological fact that brain centers and neu- ral action are permanently modified by different kinds of mental mteodeoce.] NON'PBOGRESSIVE TEACHERS. 385 ity. This is the cause of those mental conditions which are to langed entirely, or greatly modified. To throw the neural cur out of gear, and to set cross-currents to work, cutting other ?ht channels, is the only way to break up the monotony of the ler's life. To utilize as much of the brain surface as is'^possiblc o set as many different counter currents into active operation ITS to be the only rational solution of this question. Tiat has now been stated clears the way for dealing with the ct m a practical manner, namely, by putting in motion those s which will cause a re-adjustment of the nerve cells and by ng up new lines of investigation. It is observed that a few achers are always young, but the number is small. Such teach^ ?ver die at the top. The early deaths, however, intellectually JDg, IS only a fraction less than plus infinity. When the bniiii lels, or gullies, are so deeply carved out, and the walls are hardened, so to speak, counter currents of thought at work on rain itself are about as effective as sheet lightning is in a that has passed; a mere light flashing on the surface and noth^ lore. When one has passed into this stage of intellectual ization, nothing short of volcanic or dynamic action will pro- any appreciable effect, and then perhaps only a temporary REMEDIES. illful indeed is he who can apply the proper curatives to a ^ condition of the human mind that is more fatal than "Addi- disease" is to the bodily tissues. And here, without attempt^ enerahzations, the writer will state his own experience with ^rs under a vaiiety of conditions both favorable and unfavorable. 18 a favorite practice among the older members of a religious egation to put the younger members into active church work le form or other; it matters little what it is, so they are doing hing. With teachers, however, an outline of progressive work i be purposely planned, and then carried forward for the accom- aent of definite results. The first kind of help is that of ascer- g information as to the teacher's knowledge of the branches t, and also what knowledge the teacher possesses of other iary branches, or of those usually pursued in the highest insti- 8 of learning. This information is best ascertained at recess, or in conversation at the superintendent's office. Such conversa- should be brought about in an informal way and ought to be cted as a free interchange of ideas, touching the subjects under eration. Much, during such interviews, will come to the sur- howing the tastes and inclinations of the teacher. All this can iveniently classed as sub-conscious help. An interest in the 15 386 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston special work of others has a strong element of encouragement con- nected with it, and after one interview, it can be deepened by suit- able inquiries from time to time touching progress made. Should the superintendent be wider read than the teacher, which is some- times the case, then can he still further direct the teacher to addi- tional sources of information. The idea that is here uppermost in any mind is, to have each teacher always forging ahead, adding new capital, as it were, to the ready cash capital on hand. No two teach- ers will work exactly alike along the same lines. New work of some kind for every teacher is absolutely necessary, and it is always better retained if the worker forms the habit or practice of telling it over to some one of an evening; or if there is no one to talk to, then to think it over item by item in the order in which it was acquired. If there be those who are engaged in similar work, it were better for them to form a club for study, and meet once a week and talk over matters, compare notes, and reconcile, or widen, differences. The second means of improving teachers is that of monthly or some other regular meetings, in which as many as possible take part in the proceedings. These gatherings are usually of a professional or semi-professional character. Yet, by a judicious selection of topics, including a wide range of subjects, such meetings, if not turned into mere "verbal preachings at the teachers," are productive of great good. The real danger to be ajyprehended from them is that of doling out instructions and directions in regard to grade work — nearly all of which is forgotten before the teachers leave the hall. A kind of mental inertia is developed in many teachers' meet- ings, which is responsible for much of the 'Hbrain cramp" found in too many city school systems. This species of disease may be robbed of its most malignant form, if the superintendent will tell his teach- ers each month of the best new books he has read on subjects bear- ing somewhat on the work they are doing. Also, a few good, active, progressive teachers in one school will set all the others to think- ing. By selecting the most alert in each school, a little leaven will leaven the whole lump. The fear of being left in the dust of the pro- cession is a spur if wisely directed. Teachers ought not to be kept on the jump, or in a high state of enthusiasm, but rather on the think-side of all questions. A third source of energy, and that through which the most suc- cessful force is generated and applied to any corps of teachers, is that of a well-organized literary and philosophical society. Here are grouped the strongest intellects of the schools. It is more than a mere pedagogical society, for in it topics of all kinds are read and discussed. There is hardly a phase of intellectual work in the whole circle of the sciences, law, medicine, theology and lit- LQtendenoe.] DISCUSSION, 387 ire, that is not laid under contribution in one form or another rr ,^/^"^^^^*^^^- ^^^t two subjects should be studied each At the present time, in our organization, the British const!- 1, takmg HaUam, Dicej, Bagehot and Gneist as texts, is the after which the labor problem will be attacked and cut into lents for the remainder of the school year. These meetings are aal, except at each se^ion some one person previously selected a review of the lesson as treated in the text After this r a free discussion is had, and all who are so disposed take This body is composed of all persons in the citv who delight cb exercises, such as teachers, lawyers, doctors, ministers, ' cranks, single tax advocates, and what not, all are repre- 1— a free lance contest. Of course, the influence of such a body, f seventy-five or a hundred persons, engaged in a struggle for lation, is a tremendous power in any community, ter all that can be done, the poor and decrepit remain with ome natures are so constituted that they mature early and ss comes to a standstill ahead of time. For such there is pe. When that stage of petrifaction is reached, a funeral is ?r. The interest of the children demand it, and the superin- t should oi-der it upon the grounds of "military necessity." th the average teacher, signs of decay set in from the third fifth year. Others, more \igorous, hold out ten or twelve but the ranks are greatly thinned. At twenty, a few strag- till improving, and on to thirty, forty, yea, even at fifty, there )wing souls. They used nearly all the powers God gave them, inter currents, excitations of larger brain arejis, luss preach, ichine drill, with grades not more than ten weeks apart, more ity in regard to thought, methods and devices, more contact igorous outside forces, less mechanism and more intelligence, ^Ip non progressive and retrogressive teachers. But the breath- jad— those who have passed "the last chance," — let us bury y, reverently and peacefully, — the last sad rites to the early ed. DI8CU8SI0K C. Gbkenough, Friuciual of the State Normal School, Westfield, Mass. in charge of the schools of a city or town, as superintendents and :ees, should furnish opportunities to teachers to progress. The means of al knowledge should be put within the reach of those engaged in teaching, mblic library of the town fails to furnish helpful books, superintendents 'mittees should take means to provide them. They should also see to it 388 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Boston that the teachers have time and strength to avail themselves of the means of culture and professional advancement Some teachers are so overworked that if they go through with the required routine faithfully, there is no time or energy left to spend in gaining additional culture or professional knowledge and skill. Some teachers are supervised in so narrow a manner and with so little individual encour- agement that all endeavors for personal and professional improvement are cramped and chilled. Teachers in their class work are in large degree isolated from the enthusiastic encouragement of fellow workers. Teachers need opportunity for in- tellectual advancement. They need inspiration. A. G. BoTDBK, Principal of Normal School, Bridgewater, Mass.— There are those who enter the school-room, saying, **I will simply do what is required," who feel that they have done their whole duty, according to their business contract, if they secure regular attendance, keep good order and hear their pupils recite their lessons. They "keep school." Others come to their work seeking to present subjects as clearly and fully as possible, who feel that they have done their whole duty when they have so presented each subject in the school program, and if the pupils do not learn it is their own fault. There are others whose aim is to secure an all-round development of the child. Their thought is focused upon the action of the pupil's mind, their constant en- deavor is to adapt their teaching to the needs of the child so as to bring up the boy and the girl to the stature of full manhood and womanhood. It should be the constant effort of superintendents and principals to induce all teachers to focus their thought upon the child to secure for him the best develop- ment of all his powers and the complete command of himself. The course of studies should be adapted to this end. Pupils should be trained to observe, to think; to express their thought in good English, orally and in writing; to govern themselves by the higher principles of action which spring from their moral and spiritual being. The study of nature should prepare the way for the proper use of books. The slavery to the text-book should be abolished. The pupil should be trained to think for himself. THE VALUE OF LITERATURE IN MORAL TRAINING. BY PRESIDENT OHABUOS DB OARMO, SWARlTaMORB COLLBQE PBNNSYT.VANIA. Has literature a value in moral training? The answer to the question depends upon two things: first, our idea of what constitutes moral training; and, second, our notion of what constitutes literature. It is quite possible that, when measured by either or both of the standards that we may have, literature as a factor in moral training may be regarded as little more than an impertinence. Some of us lay all the stress in our direct moral training upon the inculcation of maxims of moral conduct and their enforcement by authority. We have first the maxims and discipline of the home, then those of the school, and then such as arise in the Church and State. Finally, Jitendence.] LITERATURE IN MORAL TRAINING. 389 ^ordfi conscience and duty are appealed to as internal obedience e will of God manifested in his Word. Such a view of moral mg would find small use for literature or any other unauthori- * content of knowledge. Its motto is, "This is the law, obey it, fer the consequences." This is a simple system, for it requires sight into the development of motives, ideals or disiwsitions. ^hoolmaster has only to reveal the law, and then enforce it. Nor ^e vex himself about any refinement of methods in moral educa- He may calmly give his mind to sharpening tke wits of his I, leaving it to whom it may concern to look further after their welfare. ere are, on the other hand, people who see no real truth in lire. They are, for the most i>art, matter-of-fact men and 1, who never recognize a truth unless it is dressed in homespun, ?m fairy stories are lies, while the higher forms of literature ly fanciful devices for representing the unreal. To a man who 0 more truth in Lowell's "Vision of Sir Launfal" than in '^aron ihausen," literature is not likely to appeal as an important in moral training. Its more harmless forms might do to the children, but it would be strange to suppose that it has >preciable value as a moral force. w educational men will deny that good maxims and proper rity well enforced are indispensable factors in moral training^ ere are strong reasons for claiming that they are not the only ?'en supi>osing authority to be well enforced, there is still a wide of conduct in which "the child may be bad without suffering gors of the law. He may, for instance, as a child, be harsh or 5ruel in his treatment of animals or other children. He may be f, surly, selfish, discontented; he may be obscene in his language, pollution to the whole neighborhood. When he becomes a man, ly give way to one after another of a whole catalogue of vices; iy> for example, become a tyrannical husband and father, a lessor injurious citizen; and yet from infancy to manhood never seriously from the retributions of violated human law. It I evident that the disposition of the child is an element in moral ng that cannot be ignored. While authority should make the live up to standards that he himself may not yet have reached, iction should at the same time be developing within him disposition. We may drive a child up to some of our own 5, but we can only lead him to his own. Potent as well directed >rity is in moral training, it may still exhaust all its devices lil to touch the heart or disposition of the child. 390 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Boston The present paper assumes, therefore, that we need to change the emphasis somewhat in moral training, or at least to add a new element. It is quite true that we now develop character in the schools, but we need to do it so that the results shall be somewhat different from what they are. Perhaps, in an abstract sort of way, our pupils may be said to be fairly intelligent as to what is right and wrong in conduct, yet the present wide-spread interest in school ethics seems to indicate that we are not quite satisfied with an intellectual apprehension of moral relations. The special function of authority in its enforcement of rules of conduct lies in the fact that it tends to make a desired line of action habitual with the child. The idea of habit is necessarily associated with that of character, so that whatever means we may employ for the development of ideals, we shall still have to rely on authority to help transform them into moral habits. Habits alone, however, are not an armor of proof for the soul, for good ones may decay and bad ones grow. If the heart has never been wai*med for a line of conduct, there is danger of a moral relapse as soon as the pressure of authority is withdrawn. A widow's son may thus become a tower of strength and comfort to his mother, or a heart-breaking burden. The insufficiency of our present direct moral training seems to lie mostly in the feebleness of its effect upon the disposition of liie pupil and upon the formation of warmly conceived ideals. This being the case, we need to discover the best means of awakening a sympathetic interest in adequate ideals of conduct and of securing a proper disposition towards them. There is a tendency just now to give the children systematic lessons on morals from little books on ethical instruction. I can but regard this as an inadequate method, for it is only an accentuation of our fondness for imparting maxims. It tends to a premature, abnormal self-consciousness on the part of the child. It fastens to a stick the flower that should grow from the stalk. However valuable introspection may be in the psychologist, it is of small account in the moral growth of the child; for it is food that nourishes, not reflections on hygiene. The same is true in the school-room. The matter of the daily lessons should be of such a character and so presented that it will furnish ample means of sustenance for the child's moral nature. The chief thought, therefore, that I wish, at this point, to offer for your consideration is that our main line of advance in moral training lies, not so much in the inculcation of more maxims or a more vigorous exercise of authority as in the better utilization of the ethical content of the curriculum of studies, and especially of literature. It may be a strange thought to us that the ordinary subject-mat- ter of secular instruction is regarded as having a high value in rintendence.] LITERATURE IN MORAL TRAINING. 391 ging about these ends. Yet I am persuaded that our surprise s from the fact that we have not been in the habit of looking ch igources for any moral potency. If, however, we are willing; imine the content of these studies, and at the same time recon : to some extent our conceptions of the psychology of moral Dg, I am persuaded that we shall open up a new and fruitful >r the cultivation of the moral aspects of the mind, mllueiice a child's disposition favorably toward right moral ses we must have a subject-matter of instruction that has a t eth-ical content, capable of easy apprehension and of appealin^^ ly to the child's natural interest. througt our instruction we can awaken his interest in moral and arouse his enthufidasm for them in their concrete shape, QS evident that we shall enlist his active sympathy for certain ble lines of thought to w^hich otherwise his mind might have Bed closed. Suppose, for illustration, the reading of a story, Little liord FauntleiH)y," sets up a childish admiration for a V little chap who always thought of others before he did of him- ' It does not follow, of course, that the child will be able to XV off selfishness, but at any rate his disposition towards unsellish^ ; bas received a favorable impulse. The teacher or parent now s an ally in the child's own mind. His understanding for certain ral relations has been quickened; this line of unselfish conduct is ociated with a boy for whom admiration has been aroused. And, er all who does not know that a boy seeks to imitate what in his .s is big and manly? If he like® to swagger, brag, smoke, chew swear, this liking can usually be ti-aced to some other boy whom admires. ^. . . . v. We shall see, I think, as we go on, that literature is admirably ipted for fixing the attention of childi-en to plain cases of right i wrong conduct, of leading them to unbiased moral judgments, I, most of aU, of awakening their sympathetic admiration for wor- ^ ideals. . No other subjects taught in the school are so rich m moral con- t as historv and literature, for these portray especially the exer^ 3 of the will, in which all morality inheres. History portrays the Tcise of the will largely in its organized, institutional manifesta^ ns; literature reveals it more in its individual forms. History is •ticularly valuable in developing the sentiment of patriotism, since deals mostly with men in their relations to their countiy; bu ^rature has a much wider range, for it exhibits every phase of all ief moral ideas. In the first place, not being hampered by limi^ tions of time, place or causal relations, it adapts itself pertectiy ro erv grade of intelligence, from the kindergarten to the university i 392 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Boston It is equally unrestricted in its choice of subjects, being free to treat any phase of morality. Furthermore, literature has one immense advantage, in that it always deals with wholes. No good story ever needs a sequel, for it is all told. It is rounded up, closed, completed, whether its length is a volume or a paragraph. It is to the fact that literature deals with ethical wholes that much of its adaptability to all classes of minds is due. Not being restricted to matter of fact, literature is enabled to portray its lessons under the moat variegated and pleasing forms. The imagination is always at its service, so that the most commonplace truths may appear again and again with all the freshness of original creation. What instrument for peaching the disposition and better moral judgment of the child could be more perfect than this of literature, with its complete range of moral ideals, its perfect adaptability^ to every age and state of mind, and its imaginative treatment of each topic as an ethical whole? The fundamental ethical virtues are not numerous. The chief ones are: (1) truthfulness; (2) prudence; (3) good will, with its various aspects such as kindness, benevolence, charity, fidelity, good- ness, generosity; (4) further regard for property and other legal rights; (5) requital for good and bad actions; and (6) the altruistic conception of promoting self through service to others. Over against this list of virtues we find the corresponding faults, such as lying; imprudence; ill-will and its variations, like cruelty, malevolence, hard- heartedness, treachery and selfishness; injustice and avarice; ingrati- tude and revenge; and finally the desire to benefit self through the injury of others. All these ideas are closely porti'ayed in elementary literary forms, and may be brought to the consciousness of the child in such a way that his mind will be enlisted on the right side. As practical schoolmen we are interested in knowing how to select the literature most effective for ethical purposes, and in con- sidering the most effective methods of presentation. Taking up the second topic first, it is clear that for the first two or three years of school life our main methods of teaching literature to children must be by narration and oral reading on the part of the teacher. When the pupils can understand by reading what they could otherwise grasp through narration, the latter may be gradually discontinued, though it will always possess a subtle personal element that reading cannot contribute. We have now two eflBcient means at our disposal, viz., the class and outside individual reading. The school at this stage should accordingly be supplied with suitable material for class use, and with a small select library of approved books. In the high school the reading class may merge gradually into the class for the study of the masterpieces of American and English literature, while itendence-j LITERATURE IN MORAL TRAINING, 393 ading matter of the library may take a more extended range, leans at our disposal, then, are narration and oral reading by acher in early primary grades; class supplementary and indi- readin^ by the pupils in intermediate and grammar grades^ terary study and use of the library for the high school, t even after we are persuaded that literature furnishes a valu- Leans for moral training, much remains to be determined as to Jxaeter of that which is of most value for this purpose. I sup ae may say of all primitive literature, ae of primitive life in 1, that it emphasizes the mechanical principle of requital, of I for right, and retribution for wrong action. The Old Testa- 3 a treasure house of illustrations for this idea. The righteous ^served even in the fiery furnace and the lion's den, while the [ are slain, often directly at the hand of Jehovah. Job's friends be persuaded that his afflictions do not spring from faults Y committed. T^is doctrine of the mechanical return of the deed tie doer is very prominent in most chUd literature, having its in the primitive life of peoples. The same doctrine has received 1 recognition in Spenser's system of natural consequences, popular theory of school government. Professor Patten in nograph on ^^conomic Causes of Moral Progress" has clearly the negative effect of this kind of moral training. It seeks to reduce the pleasures of e^il-doing by showing its ultimate tian to build up positively a group of much greater pleasures is made possible through the inhibition of the strong, iso- pleasures that may be associated with wrong-doing. It is ble that all will recognize the danger of emphasizing the idea ect retribution too much with the very young. In the first nurses often keep the minds of their charges in a state of for years by filling their imaginations with direful pictures of and goblins which will come to devour them if bad. On the hand, finding that vengeance does not inevitably pursue wrong- they may become skeptical of its reality. A little boy, reproved 5 playfellow for not saying his prayers, remarked: ^1 am not to pray to-night. I did not pray last night, and I rfiall not to- w night, and then if Grod Almighty does not kill me, I'm never to pray again." it, notwithstanding these dangers from exaggeration, a limited f this negative element in literature is allowable and even use- ith children. We live so close to a system of natural rewards mnishments, and the demand for adequate requital for deeds spontaneous in our nature, that any literature which should y ignore the idea of retribution would be defective. We may, fore, I think, select a somewhat large amount of literature '^^ 394 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [BoetoD with this negative aspect from fairy tales, myths, fables and folk- lore for the use in the early grades. With judgment in the selection, we can give the child the joy he always feels in drinking at these primitive fountains, yet protect him from any morbid or unethical tendencies. Nor should we forget, in this connection, that it is of considerable advantage to a child to pass through important epochs of human experience in imagination. By so doing he may hit upon, ideals toward which to work, that might not otherwise have occurred to him ; or seeing a deed in its whole round of consequences, what other- wise might have seemed desirable may lose its charm or even become repulsive. On the other hand, however, I am persuaded that ideals are formed and the heart warmed for them much more efficiently through the positive phases of literature. Few children are scared or allured into permanent goodness. Instead, therefore, of laying so much emphasis on the reduction of the pleasure of evil-doing through the threat of future punishment, or of encouraging the child to think that he can buy an exact equivalent of immediate good by doing a right action, it seems to me we should lay more stress upon the pos- sibility of enjoying a much larger group of associated pleasures by resisting temptation to enjoy the strong but isolated ones that may arise temporarily from wrong-doing. Miss Harrison told us last year at Brooklyn about a little miss who came to the kindergarten dressed in silks and spangles, and whose pride at first kept her from entering into the games with the other children. The next day, however, she gave up this isolated enjoyment in order to participate in a much larger group of pleasures of a social nature, and she no longer objected to cooking a dinner, at least in imagination, for plain Tommie. Such a surrender of an isolated and unworthy satisfaction for a larger group of more wholesome pleasui'es was worth much more for this child's character than a lecture on the sin of pride would have been. Not denying, therefore, all moral potency to the great body of classical literature that emphasizes the negative side of conduct so much, and which leads us to expect mechanical requital of deeds, I wish to urge the endent fact that a body of literature may be selected for elementary and hig^ schools which shall lead the child, accord- ing to his growing strength, to appreciate and to desire more and more a progressive series of groups of social pleasures whose combined attractiveness is so great that the isolated pleasures growing out of sensuousness, selfishness and pride shall be forgotten or easily dis- carded. Such a systematic arrangement of literary matter would exhibit all the chief phases of good and evil, beginning with the simplest situ- riotendence. ] LITERATURE IN MORAL TRAINING. 395 rs in which a small group of pleasures should outweigh the im- ate satisfaction associated with a wrong action and advancing to [• and larger groups, until all the great phases of organized so- were brought in. At the bottom of such a scale I should place bJe, which emphasizes the difference between a long-sighted lort-sighted selfishness, yet does not go beyond prudential mo- Sucli maxims as, ^^Honesty is the best policy," spring from the igs of the fable. This is a purely natural or economic stand- n which retribution or reward follow as natural consequents. parad.e in a lion^s skin lest the people find out that you are an 'he f al>le of "The Sun and the Wind" shows that success comes entleness rather than with violence. If a man is prudent, self reliant, modest, unselfish, he will succeed better than lie he gives way to the opposite faults. The lesson of the fable to be that virtue will pay a larger dividend than vice. An ex- [ discussion o! this topic is found in Felix Adler's 'T^loral In- ion of Children." jxt al>ove this utilitarian stage of literature I place folk stories airy tales. They develop a much richer imagination than the and though containing much of the primitive idea of retribu- as an inevitable consequence of e\il-doing, they yet contain a 1 larger positive element, for ethical ideas are now presented a« al ends, w^hile complementary groups of pleasures tend to dis- e the temptation to wrong. As Mr. Adler points out, the chen or faiiy tale is especially adapted to bring children into close, pathetic communion with the world of nature. To the child «e body is himself and to whom motion is the sign of life, what be more natural than to regard animals as human beings m uise? If now the stoiy develops a sympathetic disposition in the i for all animals, there is much less chance for subsequent Ity and insensibility toward them. The story of Snow-white and rose, who entertain a black bear that afterward turns out to be [nee in disguise, begms the same sort of training for the disposi- that is contained in a special form in the story entitled '*Black ity." Who can tell how much this book alone has done in mak- nen mindful of the useless suffering inflicted upon this, the no^- of their friends among animals? The worthy fairy tale also ^nders sensibility toward many beautiful ideals. If allowed to - its true influence, it will often shed a sort of halo over the lest physical conditions, giving the strength to endure to many rtured little soul, like Mrs. Burnett's Sara Crewe, having the realm of the fairy tale we come to a. vast field of Native literature having a widely varying content, yet portraymg the most part the relations between people simply as individuals. Id 396 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCJATION. [Boston "Little Lord Fauntleroy" is an illustration. By rejecting selfishness, this little fellow enjoys a wide circle of pleasures from which he w ould otherwise be largely shut off. "Robinson Crusoe" develops the industrial instincts of the child, for he is as much interested in the making of pottery as he is in the foot-print on the sand. It takes my boys two or three years to pass through this stage in which they seek to do all that "Robinson" did. The "Arabian Nights" have no particular ethical content, yet they shadow forth in the oriental imagination what we may easily bring to pass. Aladdin rubbed his lamp and the genii appeared and transported him through the air to distant places. There was one Aladdin theii; now every man may be an Aladdin. We need but to reach the hand into the pocket, take out the modem lamp that we call money, rub it, and still more power- ful spirits will transport us rapidly across the continent in a palace car. The "Seven Little Sisters," by Jane Andrews, gives the child his primary lesson in cosmopolitanism. Among the books that develop the hero spirit are the Grecian classics, which show up cour- age as an individual trait, while such books as "Tom Brown at Rugby," "Tom Brown at Oxford," and Farrar's "St Winnifred" give ample opportunity for the young to come face to face with manliness in every form, and in such a way that the reader's sympathies are almost sure to be on the right side. When we come to the manifold relations in which the individual stands to the home, we have also a wide range of literature. Indian stories of the right kind show the defense of the home against the savage. In Cooi)er the hero is a white man who has learned all the skill and strategy of the savage, and who enlists the best of the Indians on the right side. In Louisa M. Alcott's "Little Women" we see how the complementary home pleasures far outweigh the satisfaction that comes from any form of selfishness, so that the wise mother helps all her daughters to master their faults, that they may live in accordance with the higher thought. In a similar way, stories of the sea picture the man braving every sort of danger for the good of the ship, the little community in which he lives. It is a primitive form of patriotism, familiarizing the boy with the idea that after all the noblest thing of all is to serve a worthy cause. Such authors as Scott form an easy transition to the highest forms of institutional literature, in which the individual enters into the most manifold relations with the social world, finding himself in home, church, state and society. Shakespeare is, of course, our greatest institutional dramatist. In his works we have a picture of all the chief relations, good and bad, in which a man can stand to his fellows in their organized capacity. As a rule, Shakespeare's treatment of the collision between individual and social or political teDdence.] HISTORY AND MORAL CULTURE. 397 I itions is ethically sound, though in the tragedies the return of 'ed upon the doer often reminds us of ancient doctrines of ition. In the comedies, however, the principle of grace has minion. capitulating, now, the doctrines of this paper, we find them to follows: The inculcation of maxims and the enforcement of authority ute but one factor in moral training, the latter having the shment of right habits as its chief function. It is of especial importance in moral education that a right e of mind or pennanent right disposilion toward moral ideals be secured, and this can be done through the presentation rete cases of conduct in such a way as to win the sympathetic t of the child for the right, causing him to pass unbiased judgments, and to conceive higher moral ideals. Literature is perhaps our most potent means of securing these ince it presents under im£.^inative forms and in ethical wholes ire range of moral situation, and is, moreover, properly adapted ■y stage of intellect and cast of mind. The negative or retributive side of literature, though granted J, is not to be emphasized so much as the jwsitive or social ince it is, in general, better for the mind to renounce evil for ke of higher ideals and the unalloyed pleasures they bring, 0 forego it from the fear of punishment. Finally, if literature is to exercise its best influence on the and hearts of children, we need to select a large amount of >sitive kind, which helps the child discard the lower, isolated ires connected with a wrong or selfish act for a higher comple- of enjoyments associated with a worthy line of conduct. In this he heart is warmed for the good rather than terrified at the ;s of the bad. le works named in this connection are to be regarded merely as and illustrations. A full course of literature of this kind is o be arranged by those who believe in the idea and who have access to the children. RISTOBY AS AN AID TO MORAL CULTURE. HAS. M. ANDREWS, PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, BRYN MA^WR COULE3GE. PENNSYLVANIA. ou have asked me to speak to you to-night on the moral impor- B of the study of history. As a subject new to general discussion, evident that no tangible result can be attained until we are 398 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston agreed on our conception of what history is and what history means. We must, first of all, lay down certain general statements in oi*der to establish our premises before we reach any definite conclusions. In so doing I shall take that conception of history which is purest and best, and shall treat that conception in terms adapted to the full man, not to the child. I shall draw my lines broadly instead of in detail, inasmuch as we are not sufficiently agreed as to whether history is of any value for moral culture to determine with too great exactness the lines of its moral influence. Indeed, the moral influ- ence of no subject can be defined with mathematical precision. First, as to our meaning of history. "History,'' says Lingard^ "is little more than a picture of the miseries inflicted upon the multitude by the passions of certain men." "It is a field of carnage,'^ said the Compte de Maistre. "It is but a convenient fable," said Bernard de Bouvier de Fontanelle. Such a view, to the student of moral development, can offer little comfort or hope for the continued promotion of historical studies. Moral culture finds little support from a subject which teaches that the world is always evil; that man is but the sport of the forces of nature, an aimless actor in an aimless world. Discouragement, pessi- mism, fatalism, will be the only reward of the student who is domi- nated by this doctrine. And this will be the inevitable result so long as history is but the record of war and diplomacy, of the rise and fall of governments, or of the political acti\ities of single men. I'rofessor Seeley is certainly wrong in limiting history to the growth of political governments and in narrowing its field to the i)olitical life of man. Schopenhauer's difficulty lay deei)er. To him history was but an interesting narrative, with no underlying meaning, no bearing upon the present life of man. He objected to a philosophy of history, and his conception of art and poetry led him to place these far ahead of history as moral teachers. He saw no good save in the ideals; in art, which was the embodiment of the ideal ; in poetry, which seemed the voice of the nobler inner life. There was no comfort for him in the biography of humanity, and from his standpoint he was incapa- ble of a broader view. The facts of history, the mere events of the day, the year or the century, taken in isolation, whether treated as story or colored to attract attention, are hardly a factor in the moral life of man. The moral influence of a subject can be sought for only when that subject is treated as a whole; it cannot be found in any one of its parts taken as a type. The details taken in isolation too often exist apart from one age; they furnish few analogies according to which we can regulate our moral activities. They have been treated as unreal, a treatment to which Niebuhr so strongly objected, »ndence.J HISTORY AND MORAL CULTURE. 399 ushing only an occasional likeness, poor at best, of profit to «ent man. Tims, the value of history has been depreciated, ned, perverted, even by those who have not denied its impor- The world, which has been too long content to condemn his- needless for the political and ethical struggles of to-day, will ) realize what the few have seen and have said with too little y, that no books, no philosophical schemes, no ideal Utopias, read with more profit to the present generation than that the ages w^hich contains the experiences of man. iie mind of the student of to-day the thought of history carries two fundamental truths, without which history cannot be ?d; two objects for which all are searching. One is the imme- utii, the accurately observed fact, which is the object and f all historical investigation, without which we can build no ►hical structure, the absence of which in the sjstems of ad Conoipte has vitiated so many of their conclusions. As Bis- s: "False premises must lead to false conclusions. Imaginary jst lead to false philosophy, and false philosophy must lead ovemment and to bad morality, public and private." A first ►n of our study is, that the history whose influence we are ng be true. a this foundation of true fact we build the second. the_ final rhich is the philosophy of history, the logic of the immediate, 3 the ultimate truth. We cannot sx>eak of the rationale of his- romance. The historical novel offers little basis for moral [ion. The philosophy, of history can be built out of no other l1 than the facts, exact as the most rigid search can make Here lies the first and broadest distinction which can be between the infiuence of history and literature. In history we ling with realities, with the actual relations and struggles of th man and nation with nation. We are studying life in its nse, not as it might have been, not as it ought to have been, it has been. We discard fiction on the one side; we avoid n on the other. A fiction may have an influence, but it is luence and not the fiction which is the historical fact. An lay be the best product of an age, but it cannot be treated ory. In these ideals we see the influence of literature in g higher conceptions of man's place and work. History does agonize this; it supplements it, makes it more germane to the ons under which we live, because we of to-day are a part of ity, are living in the midst of a new historical era. Each era, lase of humanity's life, speaks to us through the best thoughts Essays on mstorlcal Truth," p. 40. 400 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston which it has had, but it also speaks to us with equal power, if with less conscious purpose, through the activities in which it has been engaged — the form, however molded, which these activities have taken and the relation of these activities to the past, present and future. History, in this sense, is the study of the growth and develop- ment of humanity, considered not merely in its relation to the indi- vidual life but as an organic whole, made up of nations, races, socie- ties and families, the interrelation of whose actions form a constant struggle to promote the happiness of all, to further the political, economic and spiritual good of each of its members, to enlarge man's faculties and his capacity for using them, to bring him into a truer conception of his place in government, his duty to God and his fellow- men, to make more equable the social organization of which he is a part and to make moi^e harmonious the international activities which result from its relations of state with state and people with people. The thoughts and principles of to-day are the heritage of that past in which man with all his rudeness, wickedness and bigotry has been building somewhat for the benefit of those who were to follow. The heritage bequeathed to us is the sum of the best which the centuries have produced. It is a commentary- upon the growing importance of the study of history that in matters of law and government, in economics, in finances, and in other phases of our present order, students and practical men are examining the records of the past in order to discover what such can tell of failure and success. TMien practical men turn to history we may be sure that it is for practical reasons, and much modem experimenting is based upon historical investiga- tion. If this be true in more material matters, equally true is it with the moral and ethical life, and the application of the historical method to the subject of ethics and morality leads to some definite conclusions of value hero. It has been well said that history is the telescope and microscope of social man, in that it opens new worlds for comparison with the present life, stationary as that life seems to be to one who looks no further than his eye can see. With this inception of that large and true thought of the relation of humanity to all the influences which have made it human, our view regarding a changeless moral standard has undergone a trans- formation. Men of past days cannot be judged because they failed to attain to our present conception of moral duty or failed to conform to our present standard of moral law. We might as well condemn them for failure to grasp and apply the principles of liberty, representation or constitutional government Judgment, interpreta- tion, exegesis, have all been perverted by the vicious application of a changeless code of morality, a conception which is inherited from Intendence ] HISTORY AND MORAL CULTURE. 401 ^atic Stage of historical study. Our own knowledge of our moral tbical duties is in part the result of our historical growth, and udr of history alone can teach this. To understand even yet pleteJj the slow progress of man toward a higher moral and life is a first step in the comprehension of that life and its ions. It is a definite advantage of history as an aid to moral . To understand where we are relative to the moral life of ' t is itself a moral gain. Literature cannot teach it; the ideals ge aro not the realities of an age. The moral standards of e appear not so much in their thoughts as in their acts, ] ?d or retarded as they too often are by their selfish interest, lie history of slavery, of serfdom, of charity and philanthrophy, war, and it will be seen that never was the dignity of man , never the scope of our moral duty more wide than it is The existence of present e\\\ is not a negation of this; does it show that we are more conscious of our defects and [dying them with more attention. It may also show that we Qctioning many social and industrial eWls as grievous to the it life as was serfdom to the mediaeval. Morally we of to-day ;eper, farther and truer, taking society as a w hole, than before rench Keyolution, or even before the Civil War. [lis will be of further moral value. It will react upon our own ?ption of the past; it will enable us to judge more leniently, more J and dispassionately of those characters and movements, over- eciated as well as over-condemned, which have had a part in anizing our lives. It will liberalize our thoughts; it will enable ) judge men in the light of their own age, under the influence social order and of moral ideas which are the result of a mental ery different in many ways from ours. No man in the past can [dged by an absolute standard. We must study fairly the cir- jtances; we must estimate justly the relation of what they did e influences bearing upon them. Thus the study of historj^ will ? the large man less combative in maintaining positive opinions, iogmatic in asserting them. If he interprets the deeds of men last age with moi-e charity, so will he judge those of the pi-esent ration with cautiousness, realizing that it is given to no single to determine all the influences which must be taken into account. a result must be a moral gain. urthermore, in an age when thoughtful men are concerned with future of humanity, it is fundamental to safe and conservative i-ess that our moral standard be a practical one; a standai^d ys in advance of the fulfillment of its conditions, yet capable pplication to the problems which the workings of the social tiinery are constantly showing to us. The moral convictions of 26 il 402 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boaton an age are, fortunately, not easily. altered. They are held back by the weight of years, bound by the tenacious adherence of an inherited set of moral ideas. Sometimes such inheritance is hostile to progress, though we may not spealt lightly of a worn-out moral standard, unless it is, by virtue of its limitations, manifestly hostile to healthy moral life. On the other hand, we may find an equal danger in attempting to obey an ideal standard, based on no considerations of practical life. In either case, there is danger to a sound moral order in a system which cannot adapt itself to the practical needs of society, history checks a narrow morality, and teaches us to be cautious in an enforced application of one that is too ideal. It enables us to take a long look into the moral life of the past. It teaches us not ideals, but the practicability of ideals; the living up to the highest standards of which man is at the moment capable. Morally speaking, man should always be pressing hard against the limitations of the life which surround him. But the moral lesson deducible from this is not complete unless we study man, not merely as an individual in active life, or as the mouthpiece of the best thoughts of an age, but also as a member of society; that is, man in the mass. This may mean mass organized, society; mass disorganized, the crowd. "He who has not observed man acting in a crowd," says Lavallee,* "does not know the whole man. Here under the influence of enthusiasm or terror, infatuation or prejudice, strange traits and qualities fippear.'^ The revolutions of Europe show the tnith of Lavallee^s remark. It is a strange type of man, but no less man, who stood behind the barricades of Paris, fought in the streets of Palermo or shot down the hostages at the Cemetery Pere la Chaise. But man in the mass is also man as a member of society. The social organism is made up of resi)onsible individuals, and the morality of the social group will be the resultant of the moral purposes of its members. The moral spirit of a nation has become since the Renaissance a growing factor in history; the larger the group the more deflnitely can we determine the law which governs its moral actions. Literature tells us of the voices of single men, speaking often in isolation, neglected thoughts, thrice-laureled to-day. The statute books show us too often the attempts of single men or bodies of men to lead and give the stamp to public opinion. History says that it has been the slow-growing determination of the people, not in isolation, but in wholes, stimulated it may be by single men, which has finally wrought ont their destiny. It says that those who most disdain the moral standards are bound to take eventual account of the moral sentiments of a people, and that continued attack along moral lines will succeed in the end. As Seward said ♦•'Morallte dans 1' Hlstoire," Paris, 1802. tendenoe.] HISTORY AND MORAL CULTURE. 403 }: '^as any government ever succeeded in changing the moral tions of its people by force?" Although I recognize fuUy the of the personal in history, nevertheless the individual, who is pported by the spirit of the age which called him into exist- vill do little that is immediate and practical to stimulate the 3e of human progress. This sense of the power of a common purpose gives encouragement to a life which, in isolation, seems as Job says, "of few days and full of trouble." To act upon Qowledge of our relation to society would be to cultivate shness, a spirit of altruism, a sense of duty necessary for the je of such common moral purpose, which, when formed, as ' shows, becomes a real, a tangible factor in practical life. : there is a further encouragement to the cultivation of higher ideas in the individual and an unselfish co-operation in the g up of a higher moral standard. History teaches that in the >urse of man's development the good has survived. E\il has place and has done its work, but while the immediate force ', great its results have not accumulated. The good — that is, elements serviceable for the development of man's higher na- survives and lives; the evil burns itself away. The heritage has come down to us is a goodly heritage, because its elements re, refined, artistic and inspiring. While this is true of the work viduals, even more remarkably is it true of the eventual results it historical struggles. Confused though the periods of such le may be; dominated though they are by the worst elements ch they have given birth; and always in the immediate results butors of evil rather than good to humanity; nevertheless no I or thoughtful student can fail to see that the good in the end iumphed; that the moral sense has become keener, the humani- lore active, the capacities enlarged. Whether we study the des, the Renaissance and Reformation, or the French Rovolu- he same result is clear. Each movement has been a fiery ordeal which has come only good to humanity. The disturbance has ^reat, but the experience has made men morally better, ch considerations encourage the moral life of to day. They rage in the single individual a truer conception of his place and [)rk. They lead to the belief that even his single efforts will a moral weight as part of a combined movement, which in its ise becomes a dominant factor in a political and material world, ith individuals, so with nations. History shows that no nation evelop in isolation. Moral co-operation must be international II as social. at such efforts, unless conditioned by further laws which history s to light, will be misapplied and wasted. If history announces 1 404 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Boston that the result of earnest moral effort is successful in the end, so does it declare that the object sought for should be reasonable, practicable and necessary, and that the means employed to attain such ends should be justifiable as the end is justifiable. Nowhere is the futility of misapplied effort better seen than in the matter of experiments in political and social life. Our statute books are full of dead legislative material. History i« full of futile experiments, futile because they were either reactionary or too ideal; full of po- litical philosophies, — Utopian schemes; some erratic, some noble, some wretched vaporings of diseased minds. The imperial schemes of Napoleon have vanished from sight; the constitution of Locke lived a weary life of thirty years; that of Grorges died at birth. The philosophy of Mazzini, noble as much of it was and influential as were some of the principles which it set forth, existed only as a philosopher's scheme, while the promoter failed to grasp the truth that a plan of government must have its roots deep-planted in the past history of the people to whom it is given. Fourier and Proudhon were historically mad if they thought to reconstruct the social organism upon a collection of phalanxes or on a basis of anarchism. But why multiply instances, ^^^len will theorists and idealists learn that the organization of society cannot be remodeled according to the views of any one man or body of men. If the end must be practicable, so must the means. History makes it clear that when the energies are immorally directed, when deceit, subterfuge and force are employed, that results are produced more dangerous and destructive to a healthy moral purx)ose than could the end have been for good. There are undoubted exceptions to this, but it is a universal truth that an immoral act cannot be for the good of humanity — cannot further the cause of right and justice. If these are lessons which history teaches, surely we may ascribe to its study a high place as an aid to moral culture. Much of this literature cannot accomplish, because it does not treat of realities and has not the range of views which history possesses. History studies man not only in his every activity, but it studies these activi ties through the whole period of man's career. It studies the begin- ning and the end, the cause and the result, the immediate and the general. The study of the complications of a single age, of a single life often leads to the belief in the victory of evil over good, of pas- sions over peace, of injustice over justice. It is the broader view, not of single men and single nations, but of all men and all nations, that confirms our faith that practice and morality do triumph in the end; that all attempts to suppress the free exercise by man of all his faculties, within the limits of a just and necessary law, have failed. Civilization is conquering barbarism, nature and the physical [)eiinteDdence. ] HISTORY AND MORAL CULTURE. 40B •ces hare given way before the intellectual forces, peace and justice ? growing stronger in the struggle with war and violence, while ?rty of thought, of speech, of equality before God and the law, ^e won their victory over the spirit of repression, ^'ever was there a time when the careful and sympathetic study iistory was more needed than now. We are living in a material ; in an age when the exact sciences are gaining a deserved Minence because of their utility for the health and wealth of man. re is a growing danger that the mere interest in material good absorb the mind and attention of those who make up society, study of history shows that it has not been the material interests "h have ruled the world; that wealth cannot teach us of the moral lopment of nations or the ideas of right and wrong. It may, on )ther hand, do much to weaken both. With the economic growth le country, with the satisfaction of so many of our political and il demands there has not come, as had been hoped, that subordina of the baser side of humanity to the high political aspirations !h sought the regeneration of mankind. The history of this ury shows that material prosx)erity and political freedom cannot e give true happiness and moral probity. At a time when the ?rial and the intellectual are threatening to dominate there is [ of rousing to an equal, even greater, activity the religious, moral ethical as well. The men of to-day accumulating wealth and ensiug it bountifully must not merely distribute it for society, their aims must be high, purposive and moral. The single indi- lal seeking the happiness, the hopefulness, of all must stimulate moral and religious nature, must enlarge his sympathies, stifle [)assions and seek out practically and definitely the moral needs is fellow-men. And society has a soul and spirit as well. "The mpt to give a moral direction to the social body," says Professor d,* "is miserable quackery unless refined historical and philo- deal insight has guided the pen in making out the prescription.'* periods of history which show the supremacy of intellect without als, of material interests without religion, are among the saddest 3h the historian has to contemplate. The defects of the Renais- ;e can but impress the thoughtful mind. Its intellectual bril- cy, relieved by no moral enlightenment, was destructive to the I of its origin. The work of the humanists has long ceased to lence the world. Rome and Athens in their decadence were cities VG religion and morality were djing. The Reign of Terror marks dominance of passion, a period of political chaos, without order, ^ous or moral. •'•Morals In Hletory," "International Journal of Ethics.*' Vol. L, P- 223. 406 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Boston The under currents and tendencies of every age lie deeply hidden. Some, it is true, can be foreseen by thoughtful minds at once, others time alone can bnng to the discernment of all. In the present age, with its manifold complexity of interests, its selfish concern in affairs, immediate and material, its mind clogged with the entap||Je- ments of every day life, it is necessary that we have for our guide that study which tells us of what has been. History alone can furnish that perspective, those points of comparison, which are so needed in judging what w^e have done and where we now are. It gives a meaning to our present perplexities; it gives proportions to the afiCairs of to-day; it makes it possible to determine the character and direc- tion of our present: progress. In two other respects may we see a distinct moral gain from the right study of history. A people which has faith in a conservative view of human progress will, in the first place, be more instinct with a spirit of optimism. Not a shallow and thoughtless optimism, but an optimism courageous and hopeful. To hold the theory of chance in history is evidence of a mental disease; the inability to see a development in human affairs is evidence of a mental blindness, which can but lead to pessimism and indifference. Optimism makes us brave for the struggle of life. Can pessimism be a source of moral strength to humanity, can indifference be a motive power to the per- formance of better things, or can the world profit from a theory which relegates all things to the hazard of a series of loose, discon- tinuous and independent events? Optimism is bred of a higher con- ception of history than that of the influence of physical forces, and progress looks to a higher guidance than that of humanity alone. While optimism is a moral gain to society, humility, moderation , and patience are all equally beneficial, and each in a measure is an outcome of a thoughtful and sympathetic reading of history. Humil- ity is the absence of vain-glorying and self-conceit, in recognizing the imi)ortance of other nationalities, in realizing how much each la indebted to the others through a better comprehension of the influ- ences by which each has risen to eminence. Jingoism does not thrive on a thoughtful study of history, however much it may flourish on one that is superficial. Modei-ation i*esults from our endeavor to avoid extremes, to hesitate before passing judgment, to avoid the attitude of an alarmist on the one side or of an indifferentist on the other. Patience comes from a willingness to wait hopefully, never! seized with despair, which history forbids, knowing that, as that which is best in the past has survived, so that which is best in the present will gain the day the sooner, if, instead of isolating ourselves from society and our fellow-men, we co-operate intelligently accord- ing to the standard which is the best that the age has produced. Saperinteodence.] HISTORY AND MORAL CULTURE, 407 In yet another way does the study of history teach humility. The static conception of history often leads to the inference that a social order can be changed at will to an exaggerated view of man's free action in molding the future as he wills. The dynamic concep- tion teaches that free will in society, similar to though weaker than in man, is limited by the impetus of past forces, by the inertia of social and economic tendencies, which we may almost call the laws of social progress. Of these, man in the past has been far more unconscious than in the present, for the social organism then exist- ing was not introspective. Even now we find it difficult to determine what are the forces which are urging humanity forward, still more to doi,n..u,„-.Hl that „„ ^^.t^/' of the department "' '""""^ "' ''"■■"•"''^' """ *" <>-- "f tb" -n""L';-cS:gteP°' '''■■ T' ^- ''■"■'''■•^- "' ^'--^"""^ t^- -ad icniarlv to nrim^ f '" '^ Elem<.n...r.v Schooin," the fortnor J^f^ 'y to pnmary grades, the latter to fir„„,n,„r s.-ndca. Di^cC^i^^ 414 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond of these papers was opened by William B. Powell of Washington, D. C, folio weii by Henry A. Wise of Baltimore, W. H. Maxwell of Brooklyn, N. Y., Miss Reveley, Mr. Muckley and A. S. Draper of Cleveland. The department then adjourned. AFTERNOON SESSION. The session of the afternoon was called to order by President Kiehle at 2:30 o'clock. Francis W. Parker, Principal Normal School, Englewood, 111., read a paper upon *'The Improvement of Teachers Now in the Schools." The discussion was opened by Richard G. Boone, Principal State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich., and was continued by Supt. J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.; State Supt W. W. Pendergast of Minnesota; Supt. J. A. Reinhart, Paterson, N. J.; Supt. O. T. Bright, Chicago; Supt. F. A. Fitzpatrick, Omaha, Neb.; Zalmon Richards, Washington; Prof. C. A. McMurry, Normal, 111.; Supt. A. B. Blodgett, Syracuse, N. Y.; Supt. A. G. Lane, Chicago; Supt. C. W. Cole, Albany, N. Y.; Supt. H. P. Emerson, Buffalo; Miss Corinne Harrison, Norfolk, Va.; and James L. Hughes, Inspector of Schools, Toronto. Session adjourned. EVENING SESSION. The evening session was called to order at 8 o'clock. Papers were read by Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler of Columbia College, N. Y., and Prof. Richard Jones of Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania. Discussion of papers was opened by Dr. W. T. Harris, who was followed in conclusion by Col. F. W. Parker. SECOND DAY.— Wednesday, Feb. 21, 1894. MORNING SESSION. The session of the morning was called to order by President Kiehle at 11 A. M. to which hour the adjournment had been made. On account of unavoidable absence by. reason of sickness of Melvil Dewey. Secretary of the University of the State of New York, his paper upon "The Li- brary and the Public Schools" was omitted. After prayer had been oflFered by the Rev. Dr. W. W. Landrum, the paper of the morning was read by James L. Hughes, Inspector of the Public Schools of Toronto, upon "The Kindergarten in Its Re- lation to the Public School System." Discussion of Mr. Hughes' paper was par- ticipated in by Principal J. A. Green of the New Jersey State Normal School; A. J. Rankin, Superintendent of Schools, Superior City, Wis.; Supt. Wm. L. Bar- ringer, Newark, N. J.; Supt. P. P. Claxton, Goldsboro, N. C; Supt. J. M. Green- wood, Kansas City, Mo.; Supt. S. T. Dutton, Brookline, Mass.; Miss Coriune Har- rison, Norfolk, Va.; N. C. Schiieffer, State Superintendent, Harrisburgh, Pa.; Dr. James Macalister, President Drexel Institute, Philadelphia; and State Supt. W. N. Sheats, Tallahassee, Fla. The session then adjourned. AFTERNOON SESSION. The meeting was called to order by the President at 2:30 o'clock. On motion, it was agreed to proceed to the consideration of the place of the next meeting. Su- perintendent Maxwell moved the selection of Cleveland. After an invitation from aperintendence.] MINUre^ ^^ ^^OCEEDINGS. 415 tr. W. E. Robinson, Superintendei*^^^ public Schools, to go to Detroit, the de- irtinent, without dissent, voted for Cleveland. I>r. W. T. Harris then read bi^ paper upon "The Curriculum for Secondary Aools/* Discussion of this paper ^^^ Participated in by W. H. Maxwell of E^oklyn; A. B. Nightingale of Chica^^*» Charles De Garmo of Swarthmore College, ^nnsylvania; J. M. Greenwood of Missouri; and Dr. W. T. Harris. During the scussion Hon. J. M. L. Curry of Richmond, tlie agent of the Peabody and Slater mds, was introduced to the department. The session then adjourned. E\'BNINO SESSION. ^'pon the opening of the evening session. President Kiehle reported that the >ecial committee, to which had been referred the matter of the publication of the roceedings, had conferred with the Executive Committee and the Board of Trus- es of the National Association. He stated that the matter of publication was holly a financial one; but that, if the members of the department would now iy in their membership fees, instead of waiting until July, the same would be used >r the publication of the report. r>r. John Eaton, ex-United States Commissioner of Education, and President imes Macalister of Philadelphia, then read papers upon "Education at the Col- mbian Exposition," the former upon the special theme, **The Educational Contri- Lition of the Exhibit," and the latter upon "The Educational Contribution of the itemational Congress of Education." After a brief discussion of these papers r Supt. Albert G. Lane of Chicago, the department adjourned, to accept the ivitatiou that had been extended in behalf of the Board of Education of the city f Richmond and State Board of Education of Virginia to a banquet given in the [asonic Temple. THIRD DAY.— Thursday, Feb. 22, 1894. MORNING SESSION. Xhe department convened at 10 o'clock. Hon. John E. Massey invoked the di- ce blessing. Dr. Massey then announced that the Governor of Virginia, having ►en too ill to be in attendance upon any of the meetings, extended to the members the department an invitation to call upon him in his office in the capitol at I'.i^O -lock. . ^ ^ , Hon. John Eaton offered resolutions, expressing the appreciation of the ae- rtment upon the reappointment of the Hon. W. T. Harris to the office of Com- Lssioner of Education and Dr. W. N. Hailmann to the Superintendency of Indian •hools, which were referred to the Committee on Resolutions. ' ivir S. S. Parr, Superintendent of City Schools, St. Cloud, Minn., then read a ,^r upon **The Improvement of Teachers in Rural Schools." This paper wa« sussed by Dr. John E. Massey of Virginia and J. R- Preston, State Superm^ ,w1#>nt of Education of Mississippi. Mr Edwin P. Seaver, Sui>erintendent of Public Schools of Boston, read a pa- . «ixin -The Care of Truants and Incorrigibles." The discussion was oi>eoed by '^ t W- ^' Robinson of Detroit, followed by Supt. R- E. Denfeld of Dulutli. ^ j^^epartment then adjourned. 416 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond AFTERNOON SESSION. Upon the oi)ening of this session Supt. O. T. Bright of Cook Co., Illinois, offered the following resolutions: Sesolvcfl (1) That in the preparation of the next program of this department not more than one paper shall be allowed on any one topic. (2) That no paper shall exceed thirty minutes in length, and that said thirty minutes shall include all di- gressions of the reader. (3) That no person shall be designated to discuss the paper. (4) That no person shall occupy more than six minutes in discussion unless by unanimous consent, and in no case shall be allowed more than ten minutes. In behalf of these resolutions Mr. Bright offered some pertinent remarks, and was followed by President Kiehle, Dr. Massey, Mr. Rickoff and Dr. Macalister. The resolutions were adopted. Mr. Sheats of Florida then presented an invitation to the department to hold the next meeting, or some future meeting, in his State. The invitation was sup- ported by a plea that all winter sessions should be held in the South, in which the special attractions of Florida were set forth. The Committee on Nominations presented the following names as officers of the department for the ensuing year. Presidfiu — Wm. H. Maxwell, Superintendent of Schools, Brooklyn, N. Y. Firftt Vice Presideid- O. T. Corson, State Commissioner of Common Schools, Columbus, Ohio. Second Vice Preaidenf- -Wm. L. Fox, Superintendent of Public Schools, Rich- mond, Ya. Secretary^ J ennes M. Carlisle, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Aus- tin, Tex. Report adopted. Dr. Wm. R. Harper, President of the Chicago University, being unable to be present. President Charles De Garmo addressed the department upon the announced theme, **The University in Its Relation to the Teaching Profession." This address was discussed by Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, Professor of Pedagogy, Columbia College, N. Y.; F. Treudley, Superintendent of Schools, Youngstown, Ohio; Ed- ward R. Shaw, Professor of Pedagogy in the University of the City of New York; C. A. McMurry, Professor of Pedagogy, Normal, 111.; Dr. W. T. Harris, Dr. N. C. Schaeffer, Supt. W. M. Maxwell and Supt. J. M. Greenwood. After the report of the Committee on Resolutions by the Chairman, Dr. Schaef- fer, the department adjourned. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS. Whereas. The Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association has been holding another of its series of annual sessions, showing much progress in the science and art of pedagogy; therefore be it Eeaolvfd, That, inasmuch as education depends primarily upon the play of mind upon mind and soul upon soul, we urge more extensive and careful prepara- tion of those intending to teach, as well as the improvement of the teachers now in the schools, as the first condition of enriching the courses of study in all grades of the schools. BeM/vefi, That, in the opinion of this department, the kindergarten as a part of the public school system would shorten and enrich the entire course of instruc- tion in elementary and secondary schools, and tend to broaden and deepen the character of the future citizen; and that we recommend the establishment of kin- dergartens in localities where public opinion favors their introduction and properly prepared kindergartners can be obtained; and that we further recommend to the the individual States the enactment of laws permitting the school authorities to introduce the kindergarten as a part of the public school system, and to the normal schools the establishment of kindergarten classes in connection with their work. '**^<»1 MINUTES OF PBOCEEDWGS. »Bchooloffieial8o"ttelanZ'"' '^'^ "'^'^ '*« <=««^»' "t^^^ by all tte ^e^L^I^ £^«I??.yS^,:^\->«^„^^^^^^^^ the effort, o, universities to tton «l«'.^'".to«la7e"S?rte;c&°t„' '.?'?"' "* ""^ ^<»^'"J''' Columbian E.- !r that'SiVp^ble2:i'Tre^he^f r"^°"'' T^'^^'' '- «"«>Pe -bows r^eS"^ P"«=ti<* they Save had Kr^^STlLr^ "'""? '^«''''' "^ ^J^catioTa^ ^n" fa**' *«2"«tot ourselves wiKeiXofatBH?*'*!^''** ^^'^ ^«' «°^ '' ^f«|?'"K8 and discussions of the depart- boo,^anl*SL%?alt^'^„„«/^.!olf.^^^^^^^^^ "o tfiP n;« ^ ^"" reports of th |fcirsrH„Tei.d\w'reh*^c^^^^^^^ «>i^ Of Vlr^nit and rfierish^nr/h '"J"'""/.*.'"'* '^^ ^*'« been upon the ^^i during^es; sessions of the department ^^'' """^ *««<>c«tions'^hich Nathaw C. Scrabffsb, Hknby Raab, C. A. MoMUBBY, E. A. STXimB, BYBNING SBSSIO.V. final meeting of the department was called to order by President Klehle te%^upe^rSdero?!.'f '°* °' ^""""'^ "^ ^°«««t*' «»- »"blems° D*e„^„^''"*=»*';» »' Texas, read paper, upon "The South 'f Schools of B,rmTn°h»r^ "^^"^"'^^'^ '° "y J. H. Phillips, Snperin- 3 Snpt. J. p. So"^"""- ^'«- Col. K W. Parker. Supt J. M. Green- the Sartm!nti>r?--,' ^rf- °J "'""''* having been extended to the of- •*°'^t»inedie. ' *'^*°* ^^'^b'*' «"«"• a few fitting remarks, adjourned F. Tbbudlby, f Secretary, 418 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Richmond PAPERS AND DISOUSSIOK ENRICHING TEE COURSE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS —FIRST TO FOURTH GRADES. BY Mies ELLEN G. lilBVBLBY, CLBVBLiANl>, OHIO. In the discussion of this theme let us look backward to the re- forms urged by Comenius and Ix)cke. Throe hundred years ago Comenius recommended a course of study for children from six to twelve years of age. Learning the mother tongue well, he considered most important. Composition and memorizing hymns and texts were to be given special attention. Besides ciphering, pupils were to learn to measure and w^eigh. The study of the geography of their native land was emphasized. Ideas of astronomy were to be gained by observing the motions of the stars. Physics was to be taught to impart a notion of the forces of nature. General history was to make the children acquainted with the world of social and political action. Music was to be practiced first in popular airs and afterwards as an art. A general knowledge of arts and handicrafts was advocated. Moral lessons based on illustrations were commended. Locke recommended that a correct use of English be attained by reading interesting story books. He proposed that children, even at an early age, should often tell stories of something they know, and that older pupils write on familiar topics without notes. He favored drawing, and suggested a manual trade, but more for pleasure than for practical life. When we compare these ideas of the sixteenth century with nine- teenth century courses of study, may we not exdaim, with Paul: "Not as though I had already attained, either were already perfect, but I follow after." Without attempting to trace the progress of educational thought to the present, we cannot forbear to speak of three great changes which have been wrought: 1. That girls now have the same advantage as boys in our schools. 2. That attendance at school is compulsory in many common- wealths. 3. That there is a widespread and increasing interest in the subject of enriching the courses of our common schools. >riiit6ndence.] THE COURSE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, 419 rhe appointment of the committee on secondary school studies the exhaustive report made is a proof of the growing interest. rident of universities, school superintendents and supervisors of lary instruction are alike actively interested in the enrichment of •ses of study. ^or is the subject confined to the schools. Women who are fore t in the promotion of temperance, mothers who are studying their iren from a scientific point of view, psychologists who are mak the mind of the child an objective study; indeed, most persons rested in social and economic progress are awake to the tremen- 3 influence of early education. Not long ago an article on educa- could hardly gain an entrance to the leading magazines of the ; now it is rare that a month's issue of even the foremost does not ain a paper on some phase of educational thought. For instance, "Popular Science Monthly" for November has two articles, the mm" for December contains two, the "Arena" for January has ^11 thoughtful persons are asking: Are the schools doing the gs they should do as they ought? All intelligent citizens are ing for the results of school education, as manifested in the lent condition of community. xreat forces at work in the world's progress have prepared the for enriching the course of study in the schools. Science has ^ded the mysteries of nature at a rapid rate, while the schools 3 plodded on in the formalities of arithmetic and the technicali- of English grammar. Science has presented nature in new and t interesting aspects and revealed hidden ' powers which control universe. No sooner has a natural force been discovered than ntion and capital have combined to apply it as an economic fac in civilization. And wide-awake men and women are asking: y did I not know earlier the nature of these forces? Why shall children of to-day not become acquainted with the activities of ire as revealed in natural science? Scientific ^txxdy of the child mind is another impelling power to ride an enriched course of study. Studies must be fitted to the ital activities of children. Scientific study of children is the e that will control education in the future, and he who neglects acquaintance will be numbered with relics. What a powder the teachers of our country might become were y all students of nature, both in its material and its physical lects! What hope would there not be for our schools were teachers le to apply such knowledge in the art of teaching. The power of ?am or of electricity as applied in the material world is as noth- I compared with the power of such teaching applied to mind. 420 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond Growing interest in the history of our country is another force that urges us to enrich the course. One great cause for this interest in the schools is the belief that to inculcate early lessons of patriot- ism is to preserve the form and integrity of our republican institu- tions. It is claimed that to teach history to the young is to make them, as Milton says, "steadfast pillars of the State." The cheapness of books makes it possible to use choice litera- ture in our schools as reading matter. Testimony from Howells concerning the early influence of the writings of Goldsmith and Irving on his after-life is recent and conclusive. He says: '*The reading that does one good, and lasting good, is the reading that one does for pleasure, and simply and unselfishly, as children do." It iB said that the early training of Miss Peabody gave her a passion for reading and an inextinguishable appetite for knowledge. This was gained mainly by reading the English classics and by studies in English composition. A great reform in the kind of reading of children has been effected in the last decade, and this reform has been brought about by the schools, aided by public libraries. It is a pleasure to be able to say that there is no greater educational power for good in the city of Cleveland than our public library. A few well established principles will serve as guides in enrich- ing a course of study. 1. Science has developed the idea that the schools must be able to awaken a desire for first-hand knowledge. The thing itself must be first studied, and not books about the thing. 2. That such things shall be studied as are of natural interest to children. The author of "The Scientific Method with Children" says: "School superintendents are gradually feeling their way down to where the children are." 3. That the results of observation be expressed in language both spoken and written. 4. That the work of enrichment must begin with the first hour of school life. 5. That the subjects begun in the first year be given ample opportunity for free growth as the pupils progress from year to year. 6. In making a course of study we must consider the pupils who will leave school early. The schools should be able to create a taste for study and power to continue to be life-long students. The plan of the primary course of study in the Cleveland schools embraces: 1. Cultivation of the senses, in order to quicken perception and awaken power to observe. Jrintendence.] THE COURSE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 421 I. Nature studies: (a) Observation of Nature leading to physics and astronomy. (b) Observation of plants leading to botany. (c) Studies in natural history leading to zoology. (d) Studies of the human body leading to anatomy, physiology and hygiene. >. Studies of the physical features of the earth's exterior, climate, life, etc., ng to geography. :. Commemoration days and narration of historical events, leading to history. . Studies of choice selections from literature both in prose and poetry, i. Exercises in written language, leading to composition. . Practice in reading, including the powers of the letters, w Practice in spelling, capitalization and syllabication carefully applied in ;en exercises in all studies. L The fundamental processes of number, and every application of arithmetical mutation in its elements. 0. Practice in drawing, with a view of developing the spontaneous power of liild in the expression of thought. jote.— The four aims of drawing are laid down in the assignment as follows: (1) Comprehension of the radical difference between relative real and relative picture position. (2) Development of the imaginative faculties. (3) Understanding of three-dimension drawing. (4) Eye and hand training. 1. Studies in form, including modeling, stick laying, designing, sewing and xuction. 2. Practice in penmanship, aiming at legibility and rapidity. 3. Cultivation of musical power of expression. This is accomplished by imi- n exercises and by personal study and execution. 4. Moral lessons, developing ideas of right relations between man and ammal md between man and man. FIRST YEAB ASSIGNMENT. [JSE OF THE Senses.— Objective development of ideas about what earn by sight, by touch, etc. S'ATURE.— Observations of forms of water— snow, ice, hail, etc. Observations of seed-sowing; germination; the simple parts of its and their uses. Observations of the characteristics of domestic animals— the cat tbe dog. Observations of the human body; its general structure, so far as dren can observe parts and their functions; use and care of the 1, etc. Geography.— The weather, sunshiny days, rainy days; spring aiad sights; winter and its storms; familiar occupations of mankind. History.— Thanksgiving Day; Washington's birthday; the flag of p coimtry, its colors and pattern. Literature.— Stories of Hiawatha's childhood, and of Eva, iu ittle People of the Snow." 422 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond Eeading. — ^Thought exercises based on observation lessons, two first readers, phonic, word and sentence methods. Written Beoordb of Observations. — Introducing spelling and capitals. ITuMBER. — Objective, pictured, abstracted and memorized. Stud- ies through ten. Parts of numbers, as halves, fourths, thirds^ sixths. Dimensions — ^the linear, square and cubic inch applied in measuring and associated with form lessons. Quantity — ^the pint, the quart. Value — ^the cent, the nickel, the dime. Time — the day, the week, names of days of the week. In the best schools this work is conducted with as little formality as possible. A kindergarten school in the practice department of the normal training school has been the means of introducing kinder- garten games and songs into some of the first grade schools. Except natural history and plant lessons, nothing in this first year gives more pleasure than the stories from literature already mentioned. These are frequently illustrated. The little ones are shown pictures of the dear faces of Longfellow and Bryant, and the children often speak their names with love. It may not be out of place to state, that in at least four centers of our city teachers of the first grade have organized "story teller's clubs," to gain greater power by practice in telling original stories to their pupils. Great latitude is given first grade teachers in adapting methods to conditions of schools. Through the course of study as explained all formal discipline has disappeared, and no pupils are more really self-directing than these little people of the first year. SECOND YEAR ASSIGNMENT. Nature. — Continued observation of water, formation of vapor- clouds and cloudy days. Observance of roots, their shapes and uses; stems, leaf buds and leaves; parts of a flower and functions of each; how plants grow. Characteristics of insects; study of the bee and its products. Domestic animals — ^the cow, the horse. Children relate stories about animals. Selections read to pupils from "Black Beauty.'^ Picture of Rosa Bonheur's "Horse Fair." Human Body Lessons — ^Location and function of the most im- portant internal organs and their relation to our life emphasized. Geography.— **8even Little Sisters'' read by teacher; stimulation of imagination about this 'Wonderful Ball." Familiar occupations of mankind. History.— Commemoration of historical events. Stories of the settlement of Plymouth, preparatory to Thanksgiving. Literature.— Story of Eva re-read, then parts reproduced. Poems learned relating to historical days. erintendcnce.] THE COURSE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 423 Reading. — Phonics and use of diacritical marks emphasized; two ders. Spblling. — Written and oral; words spelled always used in sen^ ces; dictation, applications of punctuation, syllabication, etc. Wbitten Language. — Eecords of observation of nature; original tences relating to any object studied; reproduction. KuMBER. — Combinations making basis of arithmetical tables; ob- ive use of fractional parts; continued application of measures limension and of quantity; learning to tell time by the clock; pie reductions familiar in the experience of children; names of iths and seasons. PoKM Lessons. — Paper folding, cutting, designing, pasting, sewing construction illustrative of geometrical forms. Moral Lessons.— Deduced from the story of Eva, "Seven Little ers." Christmas opportunities to make others happy. fVt the close of the second year in the school the child has aired freer and more correct habits of observation. He is more iliar with the meaning of the forms of nature about him; he has led power to see the parts and uses of plant, leaf, flower and t ; he has learned the characteristics of the domestic animals and ws reasons why he should treat them kindly; he has childish aaintance with his own body; he has gained some notions of ?r countries and the customs of their inhabitants in "Seven Little ers;" he knows something about Washington, the Puritans, and meaning of Memorial Day; he is familiar with some of the Lcest productions of Longfellow and Bryant. He can write legibly his ow^n thoughts; he can read fluently; ^an sing simple songs written in musical notation; he is able to ure from the object and from his own imagination; he is familiar ti all the combinations that will afterward enter into computation trithmetic, and has a fundamental idea of several arithmetical messes. rhe chUd having acquired freer and better habits of observation, power of drawing correct inferences from recorded observations been increased, if the method of study has been scientific and teacher's aim in directing that study has been right. THIRD YEAR ASSIGNMENT. Nature.— The sun shining; where the sun appears to rise and set; parent course of the sun across the sky. Observations of plants to develop clear ideas of the growth from ed to fruit; the order, system and plan. Study of a few familiar birds, their eg^a and nests. 424 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond Human Body Lessons. — First use of anatomical charts; ideas of system developed. Geography. — ^Use of globe; causes of day and night; rotation of the earth. Use of sand pans to illustrate ideas of the brook, the river, the lake, the hill, the mountain. Position of the larger land and water masses, as shovjrn on globe and on map of hemispheres. Location of Lake Erie, Ohio and North America noted. History. — ^Narratives concerning the discovery of America; In- dian life; colonial life in Virginia, Massachusetts, New York and Pennsylvania; incidents of the battles of Lexington and Concord; Bunker Hill; the Declaration of Independence; liberty bell; Wash- ington at Valley Forge. Literature. — Mrs. Heman's 'landing of the Pilgrims;'' **Paul Revere's Ride;'' selections from Eliza Cook's "Washington;" sketch of the life of Henry W. Longfellow. Selections from Dickens' "Christmas Stories;" sketch of the life of Dickens. Written Language. — Letter writing; record of nature lesson^, history and geography lessons in the form of letters; correct use of punctuation, abbreviations and syllabication applied in writing let- ters and narratives. Reading. — Two readers; continued application of the phonic system. Spelling, — Oral and written lessons; correct spelling aimed at in all written exercises. Number.— Processes systematized in tables; increased practice in reasoning; all the fundamental processes used except such as re- quire long division; work in measurement, reduction, dividing units into equal parts, etc., continued. First ideas of money paid for the use of money. Form. — Continued practice in folding, cutting, pasting, to illus- trate geometrical solids. fourth year assignment. K'ature. — Coal — Its uses; what it is; how it was made; kinds found in Ohio; characteristics of each. Cotton — What it is; where it grows; how it grows; its uses. Plants — Grasses, wheat, oats, corn, rice. What a grass is; uses; comparison of meadow grass and grains; where each grows most abundantly; climate suited to them; manner of harvesting. Fishes — Their home; structure; characteristics; varieties found in Lake Erie. Human Body Lessons — Ideas of different systems, as the digest- ive; our responsibility for the proper care and growth of the body in choosing proper food and drink, exercise, etc. •J THE COURSE IN^ ^^^>fBNTAr,.. — "*-^Rr Schools. prominent; i^^'^ J^^Z'^T^~^""^'^'^^ yicinitrT^^^T^, states. ' ^ "** ^***^ developed; Btu6y of Ohio; studio? VntS* 'tones of tlie Civil War. "" P'Ogress and iurention; » Rare as a I>ay in Junf'" ^^'^^ ^"^"^"'^ "^l^«fc is -ic^tli^'^^^p'^-f .^^^^^^^^^^^ ^-- "^^-le TO.. Ca.i.. .„. Mis« ^ur Ow. Oo^ntrypKinlShe^nd Were^i;^"'au:^^^^^ le Stars," Hawthorne's "Tales of the White HiJIs-'iaL^rf .d fSI" si^rl^B^r^''*''^ "^^^*^ ^«*' ^-* ^^°*' ' ^-dd-'« ™" Lanoxj^b.— Constant attention given to correct use of puactua- m etc.; business letters, bills, etc.; reproduction exercises. ^^BITHMETIC-First use of a book; all fLn,damental processes; nted States money; merchant's biUs; objective work in addition, btractlon, multiplication and division of fractions; money paid r tlie use of dollars for years and fractional parts of the same; ob- :tive -work in finding area of square, of rectangle; reductions of aominate numbers. At tlie end of the fourth year of school life, pupils have "some owledgre of the order and system which prevjiils in nature;" they re begrun to comprehend something of the plan of common plants, their reproduction and growth and of the general uses and gross acture of their parts." (See Report an H'atural IlMory, of Committee Secondary /School Studies.') They have learned to observe animal life I have some tnowledge of vertebrates, as of the human body, the aestics animals, birds and fishes; they Ictiovr tlie characteristics of sets and w^orms, and types of each. The,se imiii^^^ stiulies are car- 1 on by means of observation of structup^g aB » whole. Showld not children I>e taugrbt to respect and cherisv^ ,^^^1 In geography, they have learned to ofe^^.ve ^^«/3''^^t5>'^S*e features of their environment, espe^i^^^^ ot f'f^^ .^^t pat.'k^ :ched the rising and setting of the a^*, .x^^^ \dusmes. T\xey >88 the sky. They have learned abox:^:^',jjo^^^'" " 426 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond have passed from the study of the district in which they live to the study of the State. By means of maps and modeling in relief, they have gained a knowledge of its surface, watershed, rivers, etc. From Ohio they have advanced to the study of the United States as a whole. They have been taught to read from the map its great phys- ical features, the trend of mountain ranges, and the direction and extent of river systems. From the products of vegetation in the markets, they have been taught to locate belts of vegetable life in the entire country and to associate vegetation and climate. From the coal and other minerals in their own locality, as well as those brought to our city for manufacture, as copper and iron, they have learned to locate the chief minerals found in the United States. They have learned the location of groups of States, as North Atlantic, South Atlantic, etc., but they know only the surroundings, or boundary of their own State. They have taken journeys across- the continent by rail and down the great rivers. Beside^ maps and globes, each school building is supplied with a sufficient number of molding pans and sand, so that every child who studies geography may make his own relief maps. All illustrate their lessons by map drawing. Our teachers testify that the study of geography is a delight to their pupils. But the study of history is no less pleasurable. At the close of the fourth year the pupils know the outlines of our country's- history, the discovery by Columbus, stories of the settlement of Vir- ginia and Massachusetts as typical colonies, and stories of the Revolu- tionary War. They have learned about the formation of the Union^ the admission of Ohio and the growth of the nation; they are acquainted with incidents of the last war, and are familiar with the names of Grant, Sheridan and "Stonewall" Jackson. No study reaches a certain class of boys as does history. It seems to establish sympathetic relations between them and the teacher. It is difficult for a foreign-born child to leave the fourth grade of our schools with- out being naturalized by this study. Neither historical text-books, nor reading books are used by the pupils; narration, pictures selected, and maps and pictures drawn by the teacher are the means she employs to teach history. Literature. — In the third and fourth years pupils memorize Mrs. Heman's "Landing of the Pilgrims," selections from Eliza Cook'a "Washington," patriotic sentiments from Patrick Henry, Webster^ Lincoln, etc.; the preamble of the Constitution, and the Columbian year sentiment, "I pledge allegiance to my flag." They also learn one poem by Alice or Phoebe Gary, and reproduce parts of *'Paul Eevere's Ride." The teacher reads selections from "Uncle Tom's Cabin" and Miss Alcott*s 'hospital Sketches." Thus, literature work illustratea erintendence. 3 'THJE COU^^ ^ — -^^ ^^^BNTARY SCHOOLS- 427 1 streiiKtlxens 1:lxe MstoiO^^^g ^^^ learn about the life ot Whittler sveD, Miss Oary and ^^ ^, ^leott. Before Christmas, l>irk<>iis' iristmas Si:ories" are re^ to them, and thev theix I^arn nbout jkens. To fnrtUer CTiltivate the ^^^te and enrich the nature work, ijuota- as concemlng flowers, l>4^d8, etc., from standard authors, are morized. Beai^ing-. Tlie fourth grade is the first in which s^ipplementary ding, in tlxe Iform of stories, is placed in the hands of pupilg. \\r^ jh it migli^t: l3e used a year sooner. In this grade the child jin of h scliool r-ea^i the following authors: Burroughs, Miss Edge jrth, Hla^v*^t:li.orxie, Holmes and Scudder. Miss Giberne's "Anions . Stkrs/' I>urx ton's "Our Own Country" and King's "The Laod We e In^^ siai>plement the astronomj^ and geography ^ork. One tool reader is used. AbitSM::e:tio. — During four years tlie pupils have learned the ineau* ana. a,l>I>li<^*^^° ^^ ^^® four fundamental rules; the additioD >traetioii, multiplication and division of equal parts of a unit iirht ol>jec*^^^^^' simple reductions; use and application of United tes money, and of money paid for tlie use of money, it i^ the * -tlxe course to familiarize them with all the processes com- ^ 1^ Tsed iii ordinary life. But the reasoning required is siujple ►nly tz ^^^^^i-s used are comparatively- smalL ^ ^^^ wxi^o-" — F^^^^P^ ^o subject has developed greater power diir- ^^.^ foTir years' course than drawing-. By this means they *^ 6 this I ^^ -i-ion of form and relation. They have become ab ined P^^^j-aphical features and historical incidents. By this cture g^^» ^ - - - - - I-' . foTir years' course than drawing-. By this means they have 5 this I __^^tlon of form and relation. They have become abk^ to )rical incidents. By this ^^_ s of their imagination are ainii^S ^ *^^Tlie work is often crude, but it represents power to do. anif^sted. ^^^nt aohnn) vear opened evprv ohUd of thp Raann ;^ i^ tlie hand and eye, the products of their imagination are ,. the present school year opened every child of the 30,OOo in Siu.ce gclxoolB has been engaged in the work of manual tiMiu- ir P""****^ excellent results are manifest, and much is hoped f j om continuous c ^^ ^^^ primary course would be imperfect were A. delineai ^^^ enrichment began in the superintendency of not sa;**' ; ^ ^.hose influence in our schools wiU never be lost. .ndrew J. kicki/ ' .^ jionoi-ing the discovery of our country The American n y^rixo would attempt to predict the influ". ave a great o^i^^.^\.YAt up*''^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ <>"'' *^™e? Whit nee of the Columbian ^^"rT .^gs of teachers for the best education odTistry and energy ana stn ^ ^^^ Columbian exhibit! The spirit ,f tlie children were shown » ^^ jj.oin hanje^, town and city, it ,f tbe American age spoke ^ for every boy and girl be aflford«-d laimed that a liberal educati 428 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Ricshmond in our common schools by means of an enriched course. Is not the time propitious for the leaders of educational thought to propose and present a suggestive enriched course for elementary schools? Such a report, together with the able one already issued for second- ary schools, would make a harmonious whole. ENRICHING THE COURSE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS —FIFTH TO EIGHTH GRADES. BY HENRY 0. MUOKLBY, Ca:iBVBLAND, OHIO. Without any preliminary remarks I shall try to set forth in this brief paper: (1) What additions our course of study have received which may properly be called an enrichment of it. (2) The method pursued in the presentation of these new things. (3) At what cost in the way of equipment and supplies. (4) Whether these additions form a close and organic union with the rest of the course, or whether they are foreign to it. (5) What has been done to help our teachers in this work. May I be permitted, however, before taking up this formal part of my paper to illustrate the general purpose of this whole enrich- ment. We had the pleasure the other day of securing for our schools fifty microscopes. Eighteen of these will be placed in our high schools, where the pupils will make individual use of them in study- ing zoology and botany. One will be placed in every building con- taining an eighth grade school The teachers of every grade are to be free to use these instruments, as an occasional exercise to aid in the work in insect life or in plant study, sometimes as a mere divert sion; some things which enter as a higher kind of play into the school may be wonderfully productive of good. 'T!t is not the inten- tion of sportive instruction," says Jean Paul, "that the child be spared effort or delivered from it, but that thereby a passion should be awakened in him which should both necessitate and facilitate the strongest exertion." The children will thus receive glimpses of the things of which they could otherwise know but little. They will not at present have any ready mounted objects to look at, but will examine such common things as hairs of various animals, blood discs drawn from their own fingers, scales from the wing of a butterfly, and other parts of insects; parts of flowers, as pollen grains, anthers, pis- tils, and sections of stems and roots; the interesting life from the ponds; crystals of various salts, raw fibers and fabrics of cotton and 8,peri.t«.dence.] THE COVR^S j,r ELEMENTARY 8CB00L8. 429 silkjflberB of muscular tissue and the circulation of blood in the foot of the frog; Buch things as are not too far away from the chUd itself. I "*^L« 7.^^ microscopes we hare widened the visual angle of our 40,000 scliool children 140 diameters. To widen for our pupUs their field of vision in all directions, not merely as regards the small things revealed by the microscope, but as regards, also, the things which lie around and above and within them; to place them in ngb* relation to the whole world of matter, energy and life, ever growing more and more complex, seems to me the scope and purpose of enrich- ing our courses of study. Before dismissing what I have thus to say mcidentaUy about the microscopes, I will say that we have secured Instruments of good quality, with a one-half inch objective, divisible for lower powers, a one-inch eye-piece, some needful accessories, as tweezers, scissors, etc., for less than sixteen dollars apiece. Our microscopes, then, are at the same time a part of our meW work and a type ot it. I sbaU now take up the mam points of my subject and in order that tbere may not be too abrupt a break from the i>kper to which we have jnst listened, will begin with the fifth and sixth ffpadea Into tbese grades we have first of all extended our suDDlempn+«.n^ reading matter. Many of the excellent books known ^ S Tb- ^ side Literature Series" had been in use for some time i Iviver- and eigrlitli grades. About one year ago, through the sseJ^^' seventh Dr. Paul E. ILauer, then supervisor of English in our aci, ^^ **® ^^te of supplementary reading books was greatly enlarge^] ' *""" ^t to the four upper grades. At the beginning of the pre^ adapted further addition was made, and our fourth grade supplied • ' ^®*^ * We have now a coUection comprising 200 sets of bookT^*^ ^^oo^a, twenty to forty-five in a set, and representing about fifty auth**' ^'*°' Among these books are to be found works on fiction poet^*' tory, biography, geography, science, mythology, humor' and Xa^'f whUe fairy stories and fables have not been forgotten. We have tv' a to touch every side of child life; to furnish books which would shnt place ourselves in her way. No idea of a hiU developed in a school-room by means of sand can take the place of what a boy knows .about a. htU who has climbed one. Our formal study of geography ends -with the sixth year. Through the seventh and eighth grades it is connected with history. Manual training work, which now extends in unbroken contmnity -from the lowest primary through the high scliools, is represented in r. ir.wer grammar grades by sewing for the girls and knife work for *^ bovs These are taught in the rooms by the regular teachers. i^i-Jd. and directed by the supervisors of these departments. * What seems marvelous to me is the readiness and ease with i,-!?H teachers have adapted themselves to these new things. Sew- ^ ^^« supposed to be within the range of accomplishments of most "*f - Z Indit is not surprising that they should show themselves able ladies, an ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^.^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^d the cutting and to "\^^^^f simple garments; but that ladies should almost immedi- ^^^^f^^elov into skilled teachers in the use of rule, square, gauge, iitely iiev pencil and knife seems almost as great a miracle as the compass, ^ 3^4^^^^^ fully grown from the brow of Jupiter. springing ^^ ^^^ original equipment for the knife work was ?200; Tlie <^ a merely nominal amount I must say, however, that for the »^J:* %ork has not been introduced throughout our entire thus far l^J ^ only six of our main buildings. It is the purpose system, ^^T.g to every fifth and sixth grade in the city just as soon to extendi ^^^^^^^^ as financially *- ^ig^ias the two lower grammar grades. I am well I shall nj^gpe is much in the enrichment of work in these two aware **»«-* "mdes expression. The increase in the power of the grades that e^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^j^^^^ .^ ^^^ ^opk, notably in history, teacher, Uv ^ 432 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Richmond animals, industries and plants, she must develop the subject and lead her pupils without the immediate use of the text-book, and the closer relations of sympathy thus brought about between teacher and pupils are incidental, though by no means insignificant, features of this work. I should say, perhaps, that our work in arithmetic in all the grammar grades has been enriched by taking away what seemed a wasteful and ridiculous excess; as the addition, subtraction, multi- plication and division of compound numbers, stocks and bonds, pres- ent worth, marine and life insurance, three cases in interest, annual and compound interest, compound proportion, bankruptcy, general average and partnership with time. Our supervisor of arithmetic has recently compiled problems suitable for all grades from the third up. The problems for each grade, numbering between three and four hundred, form a separate pamphlet. Enough of these pamphlets have been printed to furnish one to every child. The problems themselves were furnished by the teachers of the different grades at the request of the supervisor, whose work consisted in selecting and compiling such as would best meet the requirements. In this way our teachers have been relieved of the drudgery of writing daily lists of problems upon the blackboard, and our pupils have the problems in the more natural form of the printed page and where they can adapt them to their own eyesight. Mental arithmetic receives the recognition which its importance demands. In short, the work in arithmetic is more consistent and more in harmony with the other subjects in our course. In our seventh and eighth grades, we have simply carried forward the lines of work laid down in previous grades; new names have been given to things and some modification in methods of presentation. But no one thing can be found in our eighth grade the promise of which is not found in our first. Our first year's course is like a wide- angled lens, bringing the broad field of nature to a clear focus upon the child's mind. Our eighth grade course is no wider in its angle; it simply has a deeper penetration. I may first speak of physiology. This subject, which in previous grades is taught mainly with reference to the child's own bodily well-being, is in all the grammar grades more or less, but especially in the two upper ones, studied for the knowledge and discipline which it brings. Simple dissections are made of muscles of front leg of the sheep, showing their origin and insertion, the tendons, connective tissue, ligaments and joints. The microscope furnishes means for the closer inspection of muscular fiber. Dissections are also made of the heart of the beef or sheep^ demonstrating the valves, cavities and walls. Each pupil finds his own pulse in at least five different places. In brief, the pupil is Soperintendence.] THE COURSE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, 433 directed to his own body and to the bodies of animals having tissues like his own. This work is entirely practical; teachers do it willingly and well, and I may safely say that there is nothing in the way of charts OP manikins which can take the place of this simple work in dissec- tion. ]No \ivi9ecti0n is allow ed, though children may carefully fasten a frog upon a board and watch the charming sight of the circula- tion. This can be done without any serious inconvenience to the ii-og. In a number of our schools teachers have tested in a rough way 1he strength of tendons and bones. Supplementing the work in the sixth grade in physical geog- raphy, we have introduced into the seventh and eighth grades observational astronomy. In our assignment of work we have marked out some simple observations extending through the months of September, October and November. The pupils were required to make a series of twenty observations, one every four days, at exactly noon, in order to find w^hether the altitude of the sun changes. They ^ere directed just how to do this by means of the shadow pole set Tip in the school yard, or by obsendng the shadow of the window sUl upon the school-room floor, in cases where the room was upon the south side of the building. They were, also, by setting up two stakes ^Mch should be in line with a certain star in the south at exactly dp. M., to find, by twenty observations, one every four days, at exactly the same time, whether the stars are farther east or west on subsequent evenings. They were to find out whether the stars main- tain the same relative position to one another. They were to begin on a certain evening, being new moon, and watch our satellite for twenty-nine consecutive evenings. They were encouraged to get up in the morning in time for that magnificent astronomical display, the sunrise, and to describe in writing the appearance of the heavens and the earth on that occasion. They traced the constellations, learned the more conspicuous groups, the location of the North star and those stars which mark the place in the heavens of the equator jind ecliptic. They met on pleasant evenings with their teachers, in many instances with a telescope rented for the occasion, through which they could view the more interesting telescopic objects. I am of the opinion that it is entirely practicable for a city like Cleve- land to have in connection with her public schools at least ten tele- scox>es of about three and one-half inch object glass, equatorially mounted and provided with the most modern improvements. These telescopes would not cost more than two hundred dollars apiece. They could be so distributed that any one building could have the use of one for a period of six weeks during the course of the year. 28 434 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Richmond Teachers could readily learn bow to use them, and not only the school children but their parents as well could be delighted and instructed. It would be a means of strengthening the sympathy between the home and the school; it would be an uplift to the entire city. Even without these telescopes our work in astronomy this year served to awaken considerable interest in the home. Children would talk about things, and parents in many instances would accompany their children to their place of meeting in the evening and enjoy with them the study of the stars. That the interest taken in this was not that of a mere passing fancy is attested by the fact, that although we are not at this time of the year doing any systematic work in this subject, the children are of themselves doing, in many instances, as much as during the previous months. 'What bright star is that just over head at six O'clock in the morning?" asked a boy not long ago in a school which I was visiting. There was a discreet silence maintained by the teacher, while I had to confess that for many consecutive mornings I had been at that hour oblivious even to the existence of such a star. The special value which we attach to our observation work is to be found in the length of time covered by it. Eighty days bring about a great change in the declination of the sun and the general aspect of the heavens at any particular time of night, and the fact that the observations come four days apart, except in the case of the moon, makes it possible for the young observer to see some marked change. The rude method of observation has value in show- ing that much may be learned without the use of expensive appara- tus. The familiarity which is thus acquired with the daily and nightly phenomena of the heavens will be of incalculable advantage when the pupils take up the more formal study of astronomy in the high school. There are many things brought into our elementary work in astronomy which cannot be immediately observed: the solar system, gravitation, meteors, comets, eclipses and transits, telescopes, old notions of the solar system. The great names in the history of astronomy: Ptolemy, Galileo, Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, La Place, and Kirchoff and the Herschels, are some of the things the teachers and pupils are to talk about. It is arranged to have oui seventh grade astronomy come in the fall and the eighth in the spring, thus completing as nearly us possible the entire circuit of the heavens. Two periods a week are allowed regularly for this work. Written lessons based upon obser- vations, but in which the imagination shall have full liberty, are fre- 436 * ^ • , *^*tri a neat hardwood case aiV f^^* »,«^i, ^ "'"^ ™«r mam feet wide and sixteen inches de^p to LrH ^ ' ^"""^ ^"^ one-hal*- be used by the teacher and rnJ^fn th,-« f«°^« needful things to PoJS:°i.:^e\^X^ruro^„--^^^^^^^^^ .ling. t.. acid, two oxincornitrL acid tr ''T""*^' *^" ^""'^'^^ ««lphurie small wido-xr^outhed bottle, one ^eo^Z^:rT::'^Ts^ulZ one mortar and pestle (glass), one glass funnel '^^ ' From tne hardware store: two bar magnets, one forty-foot tape measure, one three-cornered file, one square foot asbestos paper, two sprmg baJances, one magnetic compass, one tin pan, one bar iron (eight mclies long) for conduction experiment; one bar copper (eight mches long), for conduction experiment; one single pulley, two double pulleys, thirty feet cotton cord for puUeys, one brass rod with plate on top for electroscope, one piece wire gauze, one piece cotton wick for spirit lamps, one piece glass rod for electrical experiment. From cliina store: one large glass dish, one small tumbler. From the optician: one magnifying glass. From a dealer in artists' supplies: one book gold leaf for electro- scope. From the wholesale jeweler: one bundle of elder pith. From glass dealers: two pieces plate glass, two glass mirrors. From vai'iety store: five wooden balls, flve glass marbles. The manual training schools have also made for us a large frame, six feet hig-h by three and one-half feet wide, g'W)ved wooden bars and levers. With this apparatus very many of th^ prioC^P^*'* o* elemeatan physics can be illustrated. The properties^ ^{ »^a*^*''^■^^^'^'^^\olvtv- af matter; forc^— attraction and repulsl^^ g^'^'^'^ouSv^ta, euorRy, accelerated, retarded and uniform; moti^ ^^l^e v ^^^4 pre8«\ive-, simple machines; the air— its compositj^^ v-e^S^ 436 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [RichmoDd ^ater — ^its composition, weight and buoyant power, and specific gravity; also, experiments in sound, heat, magnetism and frictional electricity. In the presentation of this subject the teacher is expected to be- gin where the children are, and lead them to the understanding of general principles. Such experiments as will aid in this are made by the teacher with the help of her pupils. Blank books are kept by the pupils in which are recorded the lessons given, together with neat drawings of the apparatus used. Experiments made at home are brought to school and time given for their reproduction and explana- tion. Without this apparatus our work in this line would be a com- parative failure. If, as King John said, "the right of means to do ill d^eds makes iU deeds done," it must be equally true that the presence of means in a school-room to do good deeds wiU be equally productive of this accomplishment. The apparatus may be used by any teacher in any grade to illus- trate what may come up in the reading of literature. If, e. g. the "Fairy Land of Science" falls to a certain teacher in the sixth grade, it will add greatly to the interest in the book if the tt^acher can bring such apparatus as will make clear what is there read. The cost of our apparatus per set, including the case, was about twenty-five dollars. This does not seem a great expenditure, and we have reason to believe that it has been a very wise one. Teachers who never before made a single experiment for themselves, to say nothing of manipu- lating apparatus before their pupils, have set to work with a willing- ness and energy that augurs success for this feature of our new work. We believe, also, that this elementary science work will hold our boys in the grammar schools and send more of them to the high schools. As our astronomy work sent the children to look directly at the objects of their study, so our botany work sends them to plants and flowers. Some little idea is to be given of classification, but the great thing is that our children shall know where the wild flowers grow and shall learn to love them. The rose family will be taken up in the seventh grade and pretty thoroughly studied. Collections of woods will be encouraged. Already, in some rooms, over forty varie- ties have been collected. Leaves will be compared and collected, some microscopic plants examined — all of which things, are they not written in the books of our assignment of work? Our seventh grade botany will be taken in the spring months and the eighth grade in the faU, thus enabling us to follow up the grand procession of the plants throughout the entire year. Our manual training in the seventh and eighth grades consists of cooking for the girls and shop-work for the boys. These schools. Superintendence. 3 TBE C0VB8E TlT ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 437 Which at presort a±eect only about one^third of otir system, are located attwocentera -to which pupUs from adjacent districts mnsno The cost for tlie original equipment for the two coofeing schools was «400; for the t^'o slxops, f 620. The cost for supplies for the cooking schools is twenty cents a year for each pupil ; for the shop work, about ten cents. We "believe heartily in this work. Our cooking schools teach habits of neatness, exactness and economy, not only to the girls but indirectly to many mothers. This whole work of manual training has come to stay- At as early a date as our finances make practicable it will be extended so as to include every boy and girl in our entire city. I no-w come to speak of whether this new work has any vital re- lation i^T-itlx otber parts of our course. A few words, only, need be said. Not only does it sustain such a relation to the rest of tbe subjects, but, also, to tbe pupils of our schools. When our children ask us for breaeneve, ^y ^ - ^^^^ ^,^1 ,,^^^^ ^, ,tudymg t^^ P^-^, ying the fertili^ii^^^ ^^^'^^ , l^elieve the schoolmasters of America -;« do^. weighing it in tbe bala"^^ ^^ eheering to know that this process is goms weiguing it: iw •,**— kind of work ta-^^^ 440 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond I do not believe, I cannot believe, that without some study of the philosophic growth of mind; the lopping off of a few subjects in arithmetic and the in- troduction of a littie geometry and a little algebra will necessarily enrich a course of mathematics. The study of mathematics may be enriched with the present book and with the present course, with all the applications and all the processes retained, if we employ the proper process in the beginning of the teachine of the child. I fear, too, that the addition of more reading matter to our courses of instruc- tion will not necessarily enrich the learning. We have had experience enough, in the past twenty-five years, with the experiment of putting in supplementary read- ing matter without getting results. I think that this may be said to be true' all over the United States. It will not follow that because we introduce history from reading books in the lower grades we shall enrich the course of study; it wUl not necessarily follow that, because we introduce a modern language below the high school, we shall therefore enrich the course of study or the learning of the child. It does not follow because we introduce Guyot, or Agassiz, or other noted scientists, for our children to read, that we therefore enrich the learning in geography. Enriching must come primarily from other sources, must come by other processes, if it is to come at all. With the light of the report of the Committee of Ten before me, which report is the crystallization of the advanced thought of the day, what would I do to enrich the course of instruction? I would look about the school, from place to place, up and down the whole course of instruction, including the high school and the lowest primary school, to know how first ideas are given to the children, to know whether by the giving of first ideas their minds are made to readily receive information and to eageriy seek for more information, or whether those processes are suph as to make the children's minds dull and wooden. I would seek to know whether first ideas throughout all the grades are taught from things and processes and from personal experiences, and not didactically. I would seek next to see whether the processes and tho things and the minds of the children are so related as to make a primary course of instruction consistently related in all its parts. In the absence of those conditions, I, as superintendent of schools, would seek to supply them. In the primary schools the work in the beginnings of all subjects should be with things and with processes. It should be the same in intermediate schools and grammar schools and in high schools. It is impossible to overload a child in a well taught school; no well taught school is overcrowded with work. When beginnings are thus made you may throw a great bulk of reading material upon the grades of the school and the children will enrich themselves. You cannot enrich the learning of a child; he must enrich it himself. The great dei)ository of human knowledge, books, can only be understood through the chan- nels of things and processes. We need to turn our means of teaching right-about- face in seeking the great libraries and the grand books of the world, and approach them through things and processes. We do not need to teach reading'; the children will teach themselves. We spend too much time in teaching our children to read. I remember reading, when I was a boy, a lesson in one of the primary readers entitled, "Read, and you will know." A mother, asked by her child certain questions, re- plied to each: "Read, my son, and you will know." Oh, how that sentiment has affected the teaching of the generations in the wrong direction. If the teacher had said to himself: "Let me lead my children to know, by investigation of original sources, then shall I be sure that they will read," he would have done better teach- ing all these years. One of the first things to be considered in the contemplation of this question by the superintendent is the point of view of his teacher. One of his main efforts— that which he should pursue early and late, in season and out of season, Superintendence.] DI8CUSSI0K 44I by all the powers of his persuasion— should be to cause the teacher to view the coarse of study as one inter-related community of subjects, the correct teachingr of one point of which involves the teaching of some points of all the rest of it. Th^n will he be able to have teaching done that will enrich. When he shall have accom- piished this thing he will be able to teach his children so that the work laid do^'n by the Committee of Ten can be done by the children in the schools under fais charge. I bope I will not be understood as saying anything against the introduction e>f the ri^bt kind of literature in the proper place. But this is the point: Suppose [ faaire one set of reading books in schools. What would I prefer to do? Get motber set with which to enrich it, or seek to provide the means for teachers of be sebools by which they could teach that first set of reading books properly? Vby, oertainly the latter. We should introduce those things and those processes y wbicb the first reading may be taught properly. It is not enough that things and processes be provided. It is not enough that le teacber's point of view be changed. These will help. But the teacher must ? ti-a.ixie tbe gravies below the secondary school, that modern languages may be intro- ed flLnd understood by the child, but that the great broad field of natural sciences r be understood, and mastered to some extent. I am satisfied that we shall make our courses burdensome and heavy by doing this, but I am satisfied that •n a scliool is thus taught in the proper way, in properly ventilated and clean yol'TO€>Trk0, tbat all such education will be an actual source of bodily health to ^b'lld and tbat we shall make the school the proper place for him to attend >Iy far tlie sake of obtaining bodily or physical health. Thus will school life oubly enricbed. r, ^^ A ^ISB, Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore.-Speaking generally^ 1 « Jd tbat the course of study of the primary and grammar schools ir^ ^^ .^t/™rs for its completion. It embraces arithmetic, grammar, geograpU;5r^ 'VlJllZuistary. reading, physiology, elementary science, drawing and mnai^^ :ed S^^^^^^^siderable portion of the work no^ done in arithmetic, gramm.^^ Iroppin^^^ ^ introducing in its place instruct:ion in algebra, geometry, P^;sr:^_ geogrrapliX, «^ ^^^^^^^ language, preferably Latin, a better course could 1^ geo^r^^pby ^^^^.^^i^Hne and knowledge, whieU would advance the educatxo^ aged, botb Jfor a ^^^ ^ ^^^^^^ coi^related course in ma hem^t.^. Br of tbe P"?;'^^etic, algebra, geometry and di^awing would not only grox^,^ isting of ax-xtbmeti^^^g^ g^^^ practicall:^, in the subject of arithr^^^^ r^»r>;i y^^i-t^r. 00 1.*^ •' , , _ ^i- xu^ ... _ K^^^fn mentioned w\-» =a p„pil better, l>o" ^.^ ^ knowledge of the other subjects menfoned wl^ it would nlso S^J^ the y^e ^o,, required for him to graduate from coll^ d materialJy «»»«»'J^ tin for instance, were introduced into the grammar sofa. lother Ian«rua«e» ■!-«* , . , ^y.. ^nirliah ^ «niar now taught, the e»x; lother laugrua««' ^ ^f niuch of the English grammar now ^ to take the P^f;*"*! etter knowledge of his own language and lie Ume d acquire a muc-b " ^^^^^ be considerably shortened. The pnn, red to finish the C'^^tTd effort must be rigidly obserred in the arrangemen ntinuity of purpose » ^^^^ reason that we must proceed from the kno'sv' irse of study, f***" * 442 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond the unknown in teaching. Consequently the disjected, unrelated matter found in many programs of the schools, after omitting what is useless and adding what is desirable, should be arranged into a logical, symmetrical, thoroughly correlated course of instruction. One of the most important things to do in enriching and shortening the primary and grammar school course is to properly correlate the sub- jects taught, that time may be economized and a logically connected course through- out may be secured. "A little, but well," is a wise maxim when observed within proper limits, but the eight years* course now pursued in the primary and grammar schools is too meager, and conduces to mental debility on account of insufficiency of nourishment. The course of study recommended would require well qualified teachers— teachers much better prepared both in academic training and in the art of teaching, than most of those are who hold places in the schools at this tiiiu\ The teachers in the schools of France and Geripany teach in six years about as much as those in the American schools do in eight, and this difference in their favor is due to the fact that the teachers in those countries are required to be well prepared for their work, not only in academic training, but also in the art of teaching. Before the course referred to can be successfully undertaken, much must be done in the way of more thoroughly preparing the teachers for their work. The normal schools of the country must insist that their matriculates have acquired a good high school education, or better, the degree of B. A. from a good college, before they engage in the work of learning to teach. The question of better teach- ers is involved in the consideration of any plan proposed for the improvement of the schools. When we have advanced to the point of providing good teachers for the schools, it will be possible to enrich the course and greatly increase the effective- ness and usefulness of the schools. THU REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN— ITS USE FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS NOW AT WORK IN THE SCHOOLS. BY COL. FRANCIS W. PARKER. COOK COUNTY NORMAL SCHOOL, BNGLBWOOD. ILL. The purpose of this paper is not to review or criticise the report, but to make a few suggestions in regard to its use as a basis of study for teachers now at work. The report is fully worthy of care- ful, prolonged investigation, thought and discussion. In fact, I know of no book upon pedagogics that can be studied so profitably as this concensus of opinion of ninety of the picked schoolmen from all parts of the country, together with the lucid exposition of the Committee of Ten. The subjects of discussion cover, with some few exceptions, the main questions in the line of educational progress. The most en- couraging fact, which is strongly brought out in the report, is the substantial agreement, in regard to the pressing needs of all schools, on the part of the nine committees, indorsed by the Committee of Saperintendenee.] IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOLS^ ^^ Ten. It was found that the university and high school had precisely ttte same needs as the primary scbool. The whole report is a complete recognition, in fact, of the immediate wants of education and the necessity of renewed study and more thoughtful application of the truth found. What the 400,000 teachers now at ^'O^k in the com- mon schools of America require, is a profound feel^^fi^ that there i something much better for the children than is gf^eraUy aPP"^^ at the present time; and that something better maj be ^^""^^^^.^^ close and persistent study. We have fully arrived at a perio^ ^^^ our conamon school history when this necessity on ^ P make a teachers is strikingly apparent. I propose, ^^^^^5^^^report on the few sug-grestions in regard to the study of this valuahie P" part af all teachers in this country. report. It First, I would suggest two modes of circulating ^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ should be very carefully indexed, and a complete syl ^^^f^^.^^^^ made for the whole report; and, also, a syllabus for ea report. The syllabuses should include questions upon tne most prej,- nant subjects, and the correlations of the same ideas in the different conference reports. These should be made ready for the teachers, bound as a whole and in separate numbers, in handy forms for study. Reports in both forms should be made available at a small cost to superintendents, boards of education, teacliers, and the public gen- erally. I might add that to each report of each committee could be added a. list of the best books bearing upon the topics of the reports. The time is fully come when teachers' meetings, institutes and associations should be made far more effective. All teachers' in- stitutes should be preceded by careful stindy of the subjects pre- sented. The teachers should come to the meetings fully prepared to hear discussions and take part in them. For instance, each re- Dort of the committees should be in the hands of the teachers for preliminary study. The teachers should come to such meetings with their heads full of questions and their hearts full of experience. In the discussion of a complete report of one of the committees, a mem- ber of the committee, or some expert, if possible, should be selected loiirl the discussion. For instance, a superintendent may distribute the report upon 1 history among all his teachers, with the announcement that natural ^^ ^^ .^ ^^ ^^ discussed under the leadership of some ex in one mo ^^^jject. One-half of the time of the meeting should pert «P^^ general discussion, under the skillful direction of a com- be talten ^^^^^^r^ who has the skill and tact to call out the best/rom petent mo ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ pointed questions, such as the following- every teacn , opinion of this proposition? (2) What have you (1) What IS y^^ 444 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Richmond against it? (3) What do you know about its actual application in school? One of the most striking features of the report is the demand for the introduction of new studies in the primary and grammar grades. The following paragraphs, taken from different reports, may be made the basis of a very profitable discussion. The confer- ence upon physics, chemistry and astronomy recommends: 1. That the study of simple natural phenomena be introduced into the ele- mentary schools, and that this study, so far as practicable, be pursued by means of experiments carried on by the pupil; also, that in connection therewith, in tlie upper grades of these schools, practice be given in the use of simple instruments for making physical measurements. The conference upon the study of natural history passed the fol- lowing resolution unanimously: Resolvedy That the study of natural history in both the elementary school and the high school should be by direct observational study, with the specimens in the hands of each pupil, and that in the work below the high school no text-book should be used. The report of this conference is full of suggestions in regard to the teaching of natural history, paragraphs 4 and 5 on page 143 being especially valuable. Geography, although not in name a new study, is in reality new as it is presented by the conference upon geography. The whole description of the subject-matter of geography, beginning on page 211, is most excellent. It will be noticed that observation, in all the subjects of study in which that mental process can be applied, is repeatedly urged. The Committee of Ten makes a very important suggestion in regard to field study on page 50, paragraph 2. My suggestion, then, is that the passages above qjaoted and re- ferred to, be printed as a syllabus, including questions such as these: (1) Should the natural sciences, including botany, zoology, chem- istry, physics and physiography, be introduced into the primary schools? (2) Is not the curriculum at present so full that the in- troduction of new studies would be an imposition upon both teach- ers and pupils? (3) What is the probable effect of the introduction of these sciences upon pupils? (4) What relation have these sciences to the teaching of reading? (5) What to writing? (6) What to number? (7) What means, apparatus, etc., are necessary for the teaching of these subjects in primary schools? (8) What means are generally at hand, near and around most schoolhouses? (9) What is the chief difficulty in the way of introducing these subjects? (10) If tfie elementary sciences are properly taught, related to reading, writing and arithmetic, will not the "three R's" be far better learned Snperintendonce.] IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOLS- 445 thsui by teaching them in the old isolated way? (11) If all these sub- jects should not be introduced at once, in what order shonld they be introduced? (12) What subjects should be adnaitted in the first, second and third grades? (13) Discuss methods t>f teaching ele- mentary science. (14) Should one topic be exhausted before an other is taken up? (15) Is the plan of Mr, Jackman, in his "A^ature Study," a proper one? (16) In what schools are thes* subjects now taught? (17) What means shall be taken to instrac* the teacher in the new subjects? /i t dv Then Zict another topic be the great importance of flel** s u y. ask such questions as these: morning (1) Is the suggestion of President Eliot, that ®**"^^^ children shonld be taken for this purpose, a good one? (2) *^^^ j^ ^^ learn more under good direction in the field than ^®' ^^^^ ^^^ school-room? (3) Would it not be a good plan to ^^^f .. .. .. day in a week for field study? (4) How should ^^Id s^J^y °« °^ rected? (5) 'What have you in your vicinity for such 8ia«y- W Have you studied carefully the three reports upon the introductioii of physics, chemistry and astronomy? (7) Upon natural history? (8) ITpon geography? (9) What suggestions made in these reports are you now applying in school? History may be taken up in the same -way, selecting a few ex- cerpts from the report, such as page 170, paragraph 6; page 167, paragraph 2; page 192, paragraph 30. It -will be noticed that the conference upon history did not advise the introduction of this subject in the first four grades. In the fifth crade they recommend the elementary studies of biography and mythology- Therefore, make the following a subject of study and discussion: . « , (1) Is there any good reason why mythology should not be intro- duced into the first grade, and into the kindergarten? (2) What relation has mythology to history? (3) What is the educative efl'ect of fairy stories? (4) What history can be taught the pupils of the first four grades? (5) What relation has mythology to science? (6) What subjects lie nearest mythology? (7) Should not the history or brief account of the savage and barbarous tribes be introduced in the orimary grades; for instance, of the Indians and Eskimos? /Q^ WTi^t relation has the study of history to reading and writiuRi W '*" . ^T,^ /innjrer of the exclusive nap nf n tPTet.hn«i.«> /,"! (») Can "^"%^'what relation has the study of history to geography and tory.' (^^^ , sciences? (12) What is the relation of historv to in the orimary grades; for instance, of the Indians and Eskimos? VTi^t relation has the study of history to reading and writiuRV Vhat is the danger of the exclusive use of a text-book? (lo) rttle children be made intensely interested in the study of his- tVhat relation has the study of history to geography and ral sciences? (12) What is the relation of historv to to the ns*^" g^ Cannot all literature be profitably taught in direct literature . K ^tudv of history? d*) How can a great interest be relation to the ^ .^ 446 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Richmond developed in children in the direction of reading histories and biographies? (15) Have you read the report of the conference upon history? (16) What are the best things that you find in it? (17) To what do you object? (18) What is meant by a "dry and lifeless system of instruction in text-books"? (19) Describe a "rational kind of work" in history. (20) Can a teacher who does not love the study of history teach it? (21) What improvements are you making in your own teaching of this subject? No school topic has been more discussed during the last quarter of a century than the teaching of technical grammar. The confer- ence upon English has presented us with a clear exposition of the principles and methods of teaching English. I would suggest as a basis for discussion in this direction paragraph 2, page 86, and para- graph 1, page 87. An important suggestion comes from the conference upon the study of Latin that is pertinent to the teaching of English. It will be found on page 65. Other important paragraphs are those dealing with the influence of the teacher of English (page 94), and the time and method of teach- ing formal grammar (page 88). Using the passages in question, propound these queries: (1) What changes would you make if these principles and meth- ods were applied in your school? (2) Do you believe the statement ''that a student may be taught to speak and write good English with- out receiving any special instruction in formal grammar"? (3) Please state in detail the benefit to your pupils of teaching technical grammar. (4) Are you sure that their speech and writing are im- proved thereby? (5) Could the time employed in teaching technical grammar be more profitably employed in teaching other studies? (6) What relation has the teaching of language to all other studies? (7) Which is the more important to children, the study of the elementary sciences, or the study of technical grammar? (8) Resolved, that we accept the conclusions of the conference upon English, and will in future comply with the directions therein given. Fully one-third of the time in the common schools is given up to the study of arithmetic. Therefore, there ought to be great interest in the conference report on mathematics. I would choose the para- graphs on subjects and methods (page 105), on teaching geometry page 23), and on wasted energy (page 18), and would have fully de- bated the main points that they raise, such as: (1) The omission of unnecessary topics. (2) "The method of teaching should be through- out objective." (3) The waste of time and energy in mathematical teaching. (4) The early introduction of concrete geometry. (5V Is it Snperinteiideiice.] IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOLS- 447 not possible to teach both arithmetic and geometry in direct relation ta the sciences, geography and history. One sug^g^estion of the conference upon modem languages has a direct bearing upon primary education, and furnislies an excellent topic for a teachers' meeting. (See paragraph 2, pag"^ ^^0 Ask every teacher to consider these questions: W The courses at study now being overcrowded, what could be done in grammar schiools with a modern language? (2) Is not the ^^overcrowding'' due to the "quantity" ideal? (3) When the ideal ol '^a^^Iity" is tu^^ applied, will not there be plenty of time for the new subjects, mc ingr one modern language? ts is a very Tlie most remarkable showing in nearly all the repor . marl£:ed tendency toward the modem doctrine of uni*^^^ ordination of studies. Truly, the conferences were asaemDlages ^^ prophets, inasmuch as the future of all education is wrapp P the evolution of this science of education. "Enriching the course of study^' to *^qiiantity" teachers means heaping on burdens too great to be borne. Think of botany, zoology, physics, chemistry, geography, meteorology, m^^thology, history and art in the primary schools! Add the "tliree R's'' and confusion is confounded. There is only one refuge, and that is "quality" teaching; that teaching which makes the soul tlie focus of light, in which all the rays are hlended. It means a richness and fullness of action for the all-sided development of body, mind and soul. Some of the principal sug^gestions tending toward the theory of concentration are presentetixi>ose of preparing boys and girls for colleges. Only an insigniacant percent- e ot tike crraduates of these schools go to colleges or scientific schools. Their lin function is to prepare for the duties of life that small proportion of all the ildren in the country— a proportion small in number, but very important to the ifare of tlie nation— who show themselves able to profit by an education pro- gred to tlie eighteenth year, and whose parents are able to support them while y remAin so long at school. X lie^ax-ci, the other day, one of the most progressive State super- endents of the West deliver an excellent lecture upon "Reforms in lool Wovls./' in which he earnestly advised enriching courses of Ay witli elementary science and historj. A gentleman stepped m tlie platform after the lecture to thank him, and at the same e said: ^•That is all well enough for the children of the rich, it i^on^t Ao for the poor." I would not repeat this remark, if it xio± express a rapidly growing sentiment in our large cities. The lencj^ is ^o reduce the common schools to charity schools, to give poor a cnimb when justice demands a full loaf. Or, put it upon ver* plane if you will — ^policy demands the very best that the Stat^ •ds. Tliree-fourths of the pupils in large cities leave school before nning" tlie Afth year; the cry is that yv^ must adapt the course lis sad condition. The mass of children do not leave school orx unt of poverty; they leave because the street, the shop, and tlx^ uf actory are more attractive than the school. If chUdren lov^^ ol worfe m<>®* parents would work their fingers to the bone tic:^ ^u^m tiiere. One hundred educators have firmly declared tlxs^.^^ preferred classes, no rich and n© poor, not one educatio '^^^^ °onVi another for business. Education opens freely for £» ollege an ^^^^^ ^^^ noblest manhood, and highest womanhoo A-ay to t^^ ^jjy ^^g ^jjjl^ gljouid stvidy Latin and another "• e IS »o J^^,^, „^e B's." I respectfully recommend the discussi* ed to the rn ^^^^^^^^, ^^eetings in the land, to school boar «3 is decision to ^^* .^pTjtions. to popular cpn V .^ ^^^ lines-in fact, the entire report is sa t etween the li^^^%^- educated, cultured, trained teachers. An x: I with a detnana ^" 29 450 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond perative demand for intelligent study on the part of teachers would raise the average teaching ability immeasurably. Boards of education, supervisors, and the majority of the people, in general, do not require an application of the science of education, or the highest skill in the art of teaching. "What is the use to prepare for work which I shall not be allowed to do?" is a very suggestive question, often heard. It is the solemn truth that the best ability is, too often, suppressed, instead of being encouraged. A vigorous, determined, prolonged demand for efficient teachers would bring the desired result. The present weakness of our schools is owing to the fact that there is very little substantial recognition of the science of education. Teaching is generally looked upon as a business, a trade equal to the skill of artisans only. A change for the better must be brought about in schools themselves, and with teachers now at work, before normal schools and colleges will gird themselves to meet new and imperative demands. The report under consideration has pointed out clearly the way toward the much desired end. Courses of study, examinations, inspections, the basis of promotion, should be, in themselves, the conditions for better teaching; they should indeed demand constant and steady improvement in the highest of arts. The school supervisor should have in mind an ideal of the best, and bravely work toward it. Method should never be prescribed; each teacher should have freedom of choice, to work independently, aided by tactful suggestions and directions. The supervisor should demand educative work or nothing. Under this plan, the vexed question of methods would settle itself. Under this plan, every teacher would make some important contribution, either positive or negative, for the common treasury. Under this plan, too, an intense desire to study on the part of many teachers would be aroused. Here is the supervisor's opportunity. The principal function, and at the same time most potent influence, of a superintendent, is as a teacher of teachers, and for this supreme work he should be indefatigable in preparation. A competent teacher is one who incites his pupils to "work out their own salvation." The same can be said, in a wider sense, of the supervisor who is a teacher of teachers. The fundamental idea of teachers' meetings is to get each and every teacher to contribute his or her best thought and experience for the good of the whole. This can be done if they are encouraged to answer: (1) Give the details of your work in reading. (2) What are the principles underlying the method you use? (3) What are the results? (4) How do you propose to improve your work? (5) Where have you found the best work in teaching reading? (6) What is your motive SaperintendcDce.] DISCUSSION, 451 in teaching reading? (7) Should there really be two motives in teaching any subject? Thousands of teachers who now keep silence in teachers' meet- ings could be easily made efficient teachers of teachers by being drawn out on such questions. The main difficulty with most teachers IS, not failure in the use of natural methods, but ignorance of the subjects taught. Ignorance of the subjects taught proves, in turn, that such teachers were not taught by the best methods. The outcome of this epoch-making report is, that we, as super- visors and teachers of teachers, must give those under our charge the best possible opportunities for study and practice, that we must study courageously and persistently the science of education. Above all, we must believe that unrealized possibilities of human growth con- stitute the infinite line of progress. DISCUSSION. RiCHABD G. Boone, Principal State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich.— There seem to me to be two thoroughly distinct questions in the discussion before us. First, with reference to how teachers who are now in the city schools can be im- proTed; and, secondly, how those teachers who are now teaching in the country schools may be improved. I do not at all mean, in making such a distinction, to say that what is good for the one is not also good for the other; but I mean to simply emphasize the fact that the conditions which prevail with the one class are very unlike those with the other. The superintendent in the city has it in his power to meet frequently with his teachers, and so, coming in contact with them, can determine the lines of study to better advantage than is possible in the country districts. I shall, therefore, ask you chiefly to consider what may be done for t]ie improvement of the rurkl teacher. I do not know that you are all personally in- terested in this. It seems to me, however, to be the great problem of to-day. Our normal schools are sending out hundreds or thousands of teachers every year who have taken more or less fully completed courses of study, and nine-tenths of these go into the city or village or town schools. In the city there are better opportuni- ties, because there is better equipment for instruction and the improvement of the teachers. But, in the country schools, the county commissioners, superintendent* and township directors, etc., are for the most part poorly equipped for doing the work that ought to be done in the way of improving the teaching body. The teachers who are qualified, whether they come from the normal schools, from the colleges, from the pedagogical departments, or from whatever other source of preparation, should be so distributed that in every township in the county there shall be one or two or three out of the eight or ten teachers who can leave their mfluence, in the associations, in the institutes and in the conferences of various sorts, on those who have not had such equipment If you will excuse me for a personal reference. I may sav, that from twenty-five years of experience with the schools of Indiana, where I know some thousands of teachers, 1 know of no smgle 452 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond influence that has been promotive of more good than this coming in contact of the better teachers with the poorer. It gives the latter a larger view, a better insight and a broader horizon by coming in contact with those who stand on a little higher plane, and who have read more, studied more, traveled more and visited more. If our administration of the schools could be so centralized that the county superin- tendent or the commissioner or the county boards of education or the supervisors would have the power to distribute their teachers, as do the city superintendents, where they are most needed, a large service might be done. Another thing which I think is needed to improve these teachers is, that for county commissioners, etc., we must have better men. The teachers are poorly qualified; but the superintendents, as their leaders ofScially, are not in any sense their leaders professionally. It seems unfortunate, and I am sorry it must be said, but in all of these States about us it seems to me that for the most part in the country schools the teachers stand about as high professionally, and possibly ab- solutely, as do the county commissioners and superintendents. There needs to be some regulation through the State authorities whereby the qualifications of the supervisory officers shall be so prescribed and insisted upon as to make them really fitted to assist in the direction of the improvement of these teachers. But, after all that has been said, it remains that a great deal may be done with these teachers through State and local authority in determining their lines of study. Every teacher should be required during a probationary period (and that may be fixed by you or by others), to carry on some line of continuous study and investigation. There are some cities I know, and some countries as well, where it is provided that every teacher coming into the schools as a new teacher shall be required, for one or two or three years, to carry on, under the direction of the authorities, some line of study, and at the close of each year give in some way indication of what the study has done for her. One teacher, perhaps, entering a village school does not have enough knowledge of physical science to carry on her work. It is possible that she could not do a better thing for herself than to give her whole year to the study of science, and to the ways in which science may be presented to the chil- dren, and the conditions under which it is to be given and worked out in the course of study and teaching; so that, at the end of the year, whether the work shall have been the best that may have been done by others or not, it perhaps is the best which she could do. She will, at least, have been broadened because of it. It is possible that she is unable to do the work in literature; she has not read enough. Let her spend her spare time for the year in reading, carefully and under direction; and it has been done, I assure you, with very great advantage. It is just as true with reference to other subjects. Take the teacher who has not had that geographical knowledge which makes it possible for her to tench geography up to the present state of the science; she has studied the old geography, and she has memorized names and places, seas and gulfs, and bays, and mountains, and capitals, etc., but she does not see the other side. Into her hand may be put any of th*; necessary books on geography, something that will give her this better view of geographical fact and geographical conditions, and so lead to the cultivation of the geographical sense, so that, when she teaches geography, she will teach it in the light of this better thought. It equally applies to history. I do not know whether it is true that the teacher acquires a better fitness for giving instruction in United States history by simply studying United States history. History has to do with human conduct It has to do with conduct in associated relations as they have been worked down into and been made organic in what we call institutional life. Any study of history that gives a teacher better insight into social affairs or a better understanding of what we mean by the personality of men who have built up institutions will make* Snperintendence.] DISCUSSION, 453 her a better teacher of United States history. I do not know that I should say tiiat it is a hindrance to a teacher to have to prepare for examinations under a system for getting licenses to teach. Anything that makes a teacher think better -w-ill also fit her the better to pass an examination of any ordinary commissioner or examiner for our State or local licenses. It seems to me that what we want in this better improvement of teachers, is to let them do some work, any worthy work, as systematically as possible with some sort of oyersight by those in charge. Then they will acquire better habits of thinking, they will take a broader view of other subjects, and will be more generous in their recognition of what is knowledge. In that way I should say that in teach- ers' meetings let there be made an assignment for every teacher, and let her be expected to do her work for the year in as systematic a way as if she were still in school. I hope to have it true of those students going out from the normal school of Michigan, that they shall still be required to carry on some sort of work under the direction of the faculty of the normal school, so that when they come back to take an added year, they shall do it on top of those five years of continuous study after graduation. It is done in other lines of work; every clergyman knows how that is. After he has left the seminary and goes out to preach, he is not only encouraged to carry on this work but it is actually forced on him by the policy of the institution. It is true of other professions, and great good, I am anr^ ««^«- from it. ' *^™®® It was said by the last speaker on the floor that the subjects for teach rs* meetings resolved themselves into three; the study of methods, the study of ^he principles of teaching, and the study of the subject-matter. 1 should like to add another one which was suggested in the last sentences of the pai)er; aud that is the theory or science of education, which seems to me to be, after all, the essential one. It is of far less importance that the teacher should be given a series of lessons in the art of teaching than that she shall have been taught to see what education ia in the large sense of the term. He who goes into a school with a right opinion of what education is, without any reference to the school, without any reference to the teacher and text-books and courses of study and rules and regulations, if he have no instruction in the method and in the art of teaching, will yet go in better prepared to do the work. He does whatever he does in the light of this thought: that education is the process of developing, of maturing; and he will not do and cannot do the mechanical sort of work that frequently goes along with a very great and comprehensive knowledge of what we call the art of teaching. SuPT. J. M. Gbeenwood, Kansas City.— I cannot understand why it is that in our primary work the little children in the first grade are taught the sphere, the cylinder, the cone, the cube, in putty and mud, and then the more solid and substantial forms are handled till the little folks have learned all about their sur- faces, edges, comers, and other properties, and yet the mathematical committee recommends that our boys and girls must not learn how to find the edge of the cube till they study algebra. Behold the sage recommendation on duodecimals! Not taught anywhere except m some colleges and academies, and has not been taught in any public schools for nearly a quarter of a century in our part of the country! Then, again, we are advised to throw out compound proportion. Every teacher who has had experience knows, except the committee that framed that report, that it takes only one week to teach children compound proportion, and yet that is to be dropped out. Time saved! Indeed! How, when, where? Have we not proportion in algebra and in geometry, and have we not proportion running through the physical sciences. They say the pupils cannot understand business. Why? Out in the State wnere 454 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond I live, the newspapers each morning print the market reports of the world, and the price of money and the rate at which that money is borrowed and lent in the market, and what the people pay for the use of it. These children hear business talked every day, and they know something about it because it reaches every home. • To the Committee of Ten, and to the Committee of Ninety, I will say, that the- only way a boy can learn arithmetic is to study arithmetic and not to mix it up with other things. It cannot be had in any other way. To the Committee on English, I will say that a boy who has learned English grammar is the one that i» able to study language. I know what the children are doing, and the committees do not, or they had a very poor way of telling it. That is the difference. I have read the report— every page. I have looked over the immense array of names and the positions of those that have made these reports, and I agree with one state- ment made by Colonel Parker, that the report is a unique thing. In behalf of the city teachers, who constitute the silent majority in this report,. I will say that in New York, in Richmond, in San Francisco, in Boston, in Cleve- land, in Toronto, in St. Louis, in Chicago, or in any of the best schools of the country, the teachers are doing excellent work that these men say they are not doing; better than the gentlemen themselves can^o, and yet they are prescribing for us, as they claim, and not for themselves. Let them take their own medicine first. SUPT. W. W. Pendebgast of Minnesota.— It seems to me that the first con- dition required is that teachers shall be able to look over the whole course and see the end from the beginning. Then, with the goal full in view, they can strike out boldly to reach it, instead of frittering away valuable time in vain attempts to imitate others whom they take as models. The first great question for a teacher to solve is: "What ought to be done with these boys and girls? What is the real object in viewV What would I make out of them if I could have everything my own way?" When this question shall have been decided, the straight road to success lies open before him, and every step taken will bring him so much nearer its attainment. Teachers must have a landmark toward which every movement should be directed. The devious wanderings, the hesitating and uncertain steps, the loiterings by the way, the dawdling and general lifelessness that characterize our schools to-day, will then become things of the past. I am surprised at the amount, variety and thoroughness of work claimed to be done in the Cleveland schools, and incline to think the claim is a just one. They have learned to utilize their time and make the minutes that are usually wasted count something towards the final result. Horace Mann said fifty years ago that the schools of Massachusetts were not doing one-tenth of the work that might and ought to be done. That glorious old commonwealth was shocked, but the words were well weighed nevertheless. Now these Cleveland schools are learning to use the other nine-tenths of the time, which are still for the most part thrown away in the older and more conservative parts of the country. SuPT. J. A. Reinhabt, Paterson, N. J.— It is not possible to depreciate the importance of this question— the "improvement of the teachers now in service in our city schools." I am not prepared to reply in detail to the inquiries that have here been made, but I certainly can contribute something by way of expres- sion of interest in the matter. I do not believe that there is a more important question to come before the department than the one now before us. Colonel Parker very properly tells us how^ to use tlie report of the Committee of Ten to the profit of our teachers. He suggests very wisely that we take this report and bring it in detail before our teachers, and have the more important special passages Snperintendence.] DISCUSSION, 455 in it fully discussed in relation to the work being done in our schools. In answer to the question which has been handed to me, I would say, that in Faterson we are trying to do something practical for the improvement of our teachers. We are endeavoring to interest them in the study of the subjects which they have to teach. I think Colonel Parker is right when he says here to-day, what he has elsewhere said, that the greatest obstacle in the way of intelligent teaching is the ignorance of the subjects taught. One thing we are trying to do in Paterson is to open up to our teachers the vital content and the comprehensive character of such subjects as geography, history and English literature. We are endeavoring to have them understand what wonderful subjects these are, how they modify and express the life of our people, and how literature can take hold of the life of young people and mold it anew. We hold many teachers' meetings, not necessarily under charge of the superintendent, for our teachers are associated in grades and in clubs for the study of special subjects. These clubs have for their leaders the teachers in certain departments, who have a certain outline of subjects which they study and discuss among themselves. In ever>' way we are trying to work out, not only methods of instruction, but larger conceptions of subject-matter. We believe that it is possible to do much for our teachers in recognizing the healthful influence of obtaining fresh knowledge. We believe that there is no single teacher who cannot be benefited by this study of methods and subject-matter. Our teachers believe that it is more important that they should themselves understand what they teach; that they should have a comprehension of the relation of the various subjects they teach, than that they should understand the importance of using a spelling book. My contribu- tion to this discussion must be this, that the improvement of the teachers now in service is a very important matter. SUPT. O. T. Bright, Chicago.— I do not know whether I am improving my teachers or not, but I am trying to. I should seek to have every teacher defend the work that he or she is trjing to do. That implies not only the method which is employed in teaching, but also what she is teaching. I w^ould have my teachers, if they are using the spelling book, demonstrate that the spelling book is the most essential thing in teaching children how to spell. If I find a teacher teaching com- pound proportion, I say: '*What are you doing that for? What is it to do for the child? Where is he going to apply itV If you are going to make money out of it, it is all right; but how? Is it mental growth that you are getting out of it? If so, how?" Teachers' meetings can be productive of much good, and I would have the teachers' meetings held where classes are under instruction. I like to bring the teachers together in a forenoon, where a class is being taught, under the daily program, for two or three hours; then, in the afternoon, have a discussion of the program from beginning to end. and everything that the teacher did must come under criticism. Was the recitation well conducted? Why? What was its object? Was the matter good to teach to the children? Yes, I think it was. Why? Nine times out of ten the "why" brings out the answer, or you get at it in some way or other. The method used and the subject-matter are the method and subject-matter of tradition. The teacher has got to know why she does a certain thing for the children who are right before her, and the traditions of her father or her grand- father have nothing to do with it. SuPT. F. A. FiTZPATRiCK, Omaha.— The poor teacher usually is poor because she has never seen any good teaching, and would not appreciate it if she had seen it Great fogs have to be rolled away, by careful individual and professional con- sideration, in the school-room alongside the t^achtr. That can be done by callmg^ the attention of the teacher to the one worst thing in her teaching, taking up one 4oG NATIOSAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond thing at a time and showing her how to remedy it, and then going away and letting her think it over. Miss Brackett hfis said that a good teacher is she to whom everything that a child does is a sign. If a man wants to know whether he is going to make a teacher or not he can find out very readily. He needs only to ask himself the question whether this suggestion that he has heard from somebody else suggests anything to him in a different direction or upon a different topic. If it does not, he never will make a teacher. He may read the report of the Com- mittee of Ten until doomsday, masterly as it is; that report will never make any- body a better teacher of itself. It will lay the foundation for making better teach- ers, but, as I consider it, it is merely the foundation. Zalmon Richabds, Secretary of Trustees, National Educational Association.— I have two thoughts to which I want to give utterance. There are two points which I have always tried to keep in view as a teacher. First, that it was impor- tant for the child to learn how to use the English language; and, secondly, to learn how to speak it. In other words, that language culture lies at the foundation of all success in teaching. I do not mean language lessons as they are usually taught or spoken of in these days, but language culture, so that when a child grows up and takes up his courses of lessons he will be able to know what the meaning of the language in his text-book is. Nine-tenths of the time now spent in schools in studying text-books is lost; and this time is lost in consequence of the child's not comprehending the language of the teacher. Then I wish to speak of voice-culture. There is no branch of training in our elementary schools more defective than voice-culture, the effects of which are seen in our teachers, in very many of our public speakers, in the pulpit, at the bar, and almost everywhere. In our public schools generally throughout the country, it is a rare case to find either teachers or pupils who enunciate the elementary sounds well, or who articulate them as they should do, or who even pronounce well. There are very many people in every section of our country who, for various reasons, have defective hearing, and find it often very difficult to understand public speakers simply because they do not speak distinctly; but there is a very much larger portion of the public speakers, whose utterance is sadly defective simply because of de- fective early training. Here is work for better training in our elementary schools, and a field where the course of studies greatly needs enriching. Prof. C. A. MgMubbt, Normal, 111.— How many superintendents in our city schools who are dealing with teachers would be willing to give an illustrat*^ lesson to the principals of their city? I believe that the focus where the successful work of teaching is found is in the class-room and in the school-room. I am in- clined to think that a majority of our superintendents are so much occupied with a good many other things that they themselves have not the time to show to the persons with whom they come in direct contact what insight they have into correct principles of teaching and to illustrate it to them. If we could suppose a case of a superintendent of a city of 100,000 people, who himself is a first-class teacher in some one subject, and that he could go before twenty of his principals and give a first-class illustration, or give several in the course of a year, of right teaching, and then that he could call upon those principals to go before their subordinate prin- cipals and give evidence of insight into the principles of teaching, I think it would be possible, then, for the superintendent who is a real educator to make his impres- sion on the teachers of his city. I do not see why that should not be done in this country more than it is. I believe that every man and every woman who lays claim to be a supervisor of teachers ought to hold himself responsible for a true insight into the subject. German superintendents hold a more practical relation to their teachers. I remember on one occasion going into a class which Dr. Fricke Saperintendence.] DISCUSSION. 457 of Halle himself taught, a class of forty children eight years old, in the gymnasiam, in the presence of a dozen masters of schools, besides a class of young normal teachers. He gave them a model lesson, and when it was finished he took those young people and discussed his purpose in teaching that lesson, and explained also the points in which he thought he had failed or where he might have done better. I do not see why the superintendents should not qualify themselves in the best way. The ability to sift out of an ordinary lesson its good points and its defects, and to set these things clearly before the minds of young teachers is a difficult thing. Those who supervise the work of teachers should cultivate this difficult art 8UPT. A. B. Blodgktt, Syracuse, N. Y.— I am not quite so modest as Super- intendent Bright or Superintendent Fitzpatrick, who said that they had tried to improve thoir teachers, but could not say whether they had done so or not. I have tried it and it has been done. It has been done first of all by simple, frank, honest, kindly, hearty criticisms and suggestions; and again by the holding of general teachers' meetings in which i^eneral matters are discussed. You can hardly touch upon any phase of school management, or any mistakes you observe in the school- room, in a general teachers* meeting, which will not hit a great many teachers. 1 have visited the rooms after such a meeting, and teachers would say, "I did not know that you observed what I was doing the other day in my room till you spoke of it at the meeting." There are two classes of teachers in our schools: those who are professionally trained, and those who, we might say, are professionally untrained. Many pro- fessionally untrained teachers have, through experience, learned to present topics psychologically and methodically. They are good teachers, and any attempt to change their methods would result in injury to their work. I would let such teach- ers alone. The superintendent should be honest and he should give kindly criticisms, but his criticism should not be overwhelming. He should not crowd upon a teacher an unlimited amount of criticism, but when he finds her wrong in one thing he should give her just help enough to lift her up. Some years ago I had a young teacher who had gone through the best training that we could give her at that time, but I feared for her work. As I went into her class-room I noticed that she went about her work with a flushed face and an excited manner. She would ask a question and not know that it was answered as it should be, or whether it was answered at all. She went from one thing to another excitedly, and there was very poor work being done. 1 said to her, "Now. Miss D., won't you please give the class some busy work and sit down here with me?" I said, "The first thing is to stand before your class till you get the full attention of every child. Then give your direction and have it carried out. See that it is carried out by every child. Work right along in that line, and do not give a second direction till you see the first one complied with. Be animated, be interested, but, above all, be quiet and self-contained, and give attention if you expect to get attention." She has improved one hundred per cent. It is a pleasure for me to visit her room to-day, and I know it is pleasant for her to have me come; because she knows that if I see a thing that could be improved I will help her. A. G. Lank Superintendent of Schools, Chicago.-It is important to secure on the part of the teachers that spirit which will make them anxious to investigate educational questions and to seek for the underiying principles. Then can be pre- sented better plans and better methods, with the expectation of getting satisfactory results. The educational papers of the present time are giving a great many valu- able outlines, plans of work and discussions of educational principles, threat gooa has been accomplished by what is called the "round table meeting' in the scnooi. 458 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Richmond The principal and assistant teachers (frequently the assistants without the prin- cipal) take some of these outlines and make them the topic of an hour's discussion at noontime or after school. Many teachers then make a practical application and test of the methods suggested. Superintendents should encourage this effort on the part of the teachers, especially in the large cities, where it is impossible for him to personally supervise the educational work. The suggestions of Colonel Parker cover a great many things that are vital to our school work. They are all questions worthy of consideration and discussion by the teachers all over this country. There will be all kinds of experiments tried to fit in the recommendations of that committee to our courses of study, and the out- lines of the questions presented in Colonel Parker's paper will open up vital points that should be carefully considered before any change is made. Chables W. Cole, Superintendent of Schools, Albany, N. Y.— I think all will agree that the teachers* meeting is one of the most important tools we have to use for this purpose, and I think, also, that the teachers' meeting may be made, not only ordinarily profitable, but also a means of teaching the philosophy of our pro- fession in a very much easier way than some imagine. We have a very homely way in our meetings of superintendents in the State of New York of confining our discussions entirely to practical matters, and by this sign you will be very apt to know us. When a New Yorker says anything, he goes into details. He does not discuss many questions broadly. Not that he cannot generalize, but because our meetings are held to determine the application of principles rather than for their discovery. I have been urging a particular kind of teachers' meeting upon principals and teachers, and they have been raising the usual objections, saying: "It is impossible for us to study psychology in a teachers' meeting," and I have been saying in answer: "Yes, you can; but you must do it in a different way from the way you would study it in a school." After a conversation with one of our principals, he acted upon my suggestion. For instance, he said to his teachers one day: "We are going to have a meeting day after to-morrow on the subject of *Attention.' I should like to have you observe in the school-room what degree of attention you get from your pupils and what obstacles seem to stand in the way, and think about the difficulties you have had and how you would overcome them." In short, each teacher was to make an observation of her own class. The result was to be brought in in writing. Each teacher brought in what she observed. The whole was then put together by the principal without adding anything of bis own. 1 happened to see the paper, and must say that it was about as complete a discussion of the subject of attention as I have met; and the result of their study ui>on those teachers in their after work was certainly admirable. I remember last year listening to Superintendent Greenwood's paper read in Boston on a similar subject, wherein he spoke of one class of teachers with which* I think, all of jou are familiar. It is not that they lack culture, it is not that they lack subject-matter; but in spite of these essentials, they are conspicuous failures in their several positions. I have a notion that in many cases it is a case of the round peg in the square hole. I have had principals come to me and say: "What shall I do with that boy? He has been in that class two years and I think he will have to stay there another year. He is a dull boy, and he cannot get along." I have said: "There is only one thing to do with that boy. Put him ahead two, or even three, grades." I have never yet found this remedy to fail. That boy wanted to be put way ahead to get out of the rut and to have his ambition aroused. It is so with a great many teachers. They are in the wrong place. Their temperament is such that they cannot teach the particular line which they are at work on. My Superintendence] DISCUSSION. 459 idea is to seek the kind of work each can do best. If a teacher is a failure in a high grade, put her in a lower grade, and rice versa. James L. Hughes. Inspector of Schools, Toronto, Canada.— My first point i» to get the teachers to believe that they don't know everything; that there is some- thing to learn just as long as they live, and that progress is joy as well as duty. Second, I get them to free themselves from conventionalities and from all prejudices as far as I can. Third, we hold meetings almost exactly on the line of Mr. Bright's. We meet frequently, by grades and by parts of grades. Then we see the good teaching— the best teaching in each grade — and we analyze and discuss the work, and see ^^hy it is right or why it is wrong. In addition to that, we take some of the work on the academic side. If I get a real good book on geometry, or algebra, or any otier subject, I give it to some specialist in that subject and ask him to analyze tile book and get the very best points, and then we have a meeting and he gives Us the best features of the work. In reading, we take up specific work. We are reading four books this year in ^tmdying childhood. I prepare questions to be given after we have read certain <^liapters, and we discuss them. The four books are as follows: "First Three Y^ars of Childhood" by Perez; Preyer*s "Infant Mind," G. Stanley Hall's "Con- tents of Children's Minds," and Tracy's "Psychology of Childhood." I know my teachers have improved and I know that I have helped them to im- I>«-ove. I would resign my position if I did not feel that this was so. I try to have **ij teachers recognize not their weakness, but their strongest iwwers. If a teacher sliows originality in any department of her work, even in one little corner of it, and I reveal my recognition of her effort to her, she becomes a higher type of "^Voman. Consciousness of individual power is the secret of true growth. I have »een a transformation of character revealed in the face of a teacher when, at a i&eeting of her grade, I have spoken approvingly of some method or process which X had previously given her credit for and noted as something new to me. Such a. teacher has a new power from that moment; she has a new light in her soul that ^vill never go out. We can all start such lights to shine by simply saying: "That ia adnairable, and I never saw it before." There are very few teachers to whom we cannot honestly say this in regard to something. I ask one question of each new teacher: "What is your greatest power?" I liave found few teachers who at first believed they had any special power. Whe» I convince a teacher that she has original power she improves quickly. I have i>een able to do my teachers most good in this way, and my chief joy in my work is to hear my teachers when they come to tell me of the new discoveries they think tbey have made. So far as their growth is concerned, it does not make any dif- ference if the same discovery was made 4,000 years ago, and every century since tbat time. M1S8 Habbison, Norfolk, Va.— We have heard from all sections of the country .very nearly, and, if you will allow me, I should like to tell you of the work of a Virginian who is not present to speak for himself. His name is Mr. Jenkins. He lives in Portsmouth, Va., and is one of the most prominent educators of Virginia, He is principal of a grammar school and of a high school. He found these schools not m the line of progress. His work with his teachers has been practical, very practical. He first took the subject of geography, called his teachers together and taught them himself. He read with them the essential chapters and para- graphs from books on modern methods in geography. He gave them outlines for definite work. He secured for them all the materials necessary for the application 460 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond of the latest methods. He went with them into the fields, and at his suggestion during the summer nearly erery one of his teachers went to a summer school that they might learn more of geography, as well as of other subjects. When he finds a school which he believes to be good, he visits that school and inspects its methods. Then he either brings or sends his teachers, that they, too, may see what is done there. I recall one school in which he saw some of the much maligned **mud*' being made into spheres and cylinders. He went back to his primary teacher, put a bucket of "mud" before her, told her what he had seen done, and told her "to go to work." She did "go to work," and soon, for several days, she was at work with the teacher whom her principal had seen give such an excellent lesson in clay molding. It seems to me that those who would improve the teachers must understand the practice as well as the theory of teaching. Then a superintendent can do much for his teachers by going himself and seeing what is good, then taking or sending the teachers to see for themselves and afterward discussing the work seen in the weekly teachers' meeting. This is the course constantly pursued in the city of Portsmouth, Va., and the teachers there are only too willing to stay after school to work with this wide-awake man in the State of Virginia. 80MJE FSASm OF PRESENT EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS IN EUROPE. BY DR. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, COLUAIBLA COLLEGE, NEW YORK. "I hold it for an incontestable maxim," says Rousseau, in con- cluding his "Emile," "that whoever has seen but one people, instead of knowing men, knows only those with whom he has lived." This is still a sufficient answer to those who profess to view with indif- ference the civilizations of other nations than their own. Time and man's modern conquest of nature have knit the nations of the earth together with many bonds and close ones, and to-day none is too proud to learn from its neighbor. Matthew Arnold, in one of his many chaiming chapters on education, reminds us that "it was said, and truly said, of one of the most unwearied and successful strivers after human perfection that ever lived — Wilhelm von Humboldt — that it was a joy to him to feel himself modified by the operation of a foreign influence. And," continues Mr. Arnold, "this may well be a jo3' to a man whose center of character and whose moral force are once securely established. Through this he makes growth in perfection. Through this he enlarges his being and fills up gaps in it; he unlearns old prejudices and learns new excellences; he makes advance towards inward light and freedom. Societies may use this means of perfection as well as individuals, and it is a characteristic (perhaps the best characteristic) of our age, that they are using it Superintendence.] EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS IN EUROPE. 461 more and more." Philosophy, literature, science, long ago over- leaped the boundaries of speech and custom and made themselves nnivepsal. Problems of government, of administration, of national development, are now passing through the same process. Twenty years ago educated Englishmen were in total ignorance of the pro- visions of the Constitution of iJo.e United States. A few months since I heard these provisions quoted with accuracy daily in the House of Commons during the debate on the Government of Ireland BUI. International expositions and congresses of education and foreign travel have familiarized many Americans with the educational prob- lems and the educational systems of Europe. It has been made plain to us that these problems and those systems liave much in common with our own, and that they are worthy of our careful study. But their suggestiveness is inexhaustible, and it is not my purpose, in the brief time at my disposal this evening, to present to you a digest of official reports or to state in catalogue form all of the interesting and important movements in education that are taking place in Europe. I wish rather to select from the recent experiences of Germany, France and Great Britain a few prominent tendencies of thought and action, and to interpret them as best I can by comparing them briefly with similar movements among ourselves. In point both of interest and importance, what is passing in Great Britain claims our attention first. Few things in the entire history of education are more striking than the change that has come over the attitude of the English people toward education in two generations— for it was in 1832 that the State made the first grant in aid of elementary schools. No less an authority than the London "Times'' itself recently said: "Nothing in our history is more amazing than the total absence, which prevailed until about 1830, either of an ideal of public education or of a public conscience in everything that related to schools. The ideal was supplied, the con- science called into existence by Dr. Arnold of Rugby." Arnold died in 1842, and the movement that he did so much to form has con- tinued to gain force ever since. The grants in aid of schools sup- ported by religious corporations or societies were made more effect- ive by the Revised Code of 1860-1861, issued by Mr. Robert Lowe. Public schools, in the American sense of the term, were added by Mr. Forster's great act in 1870, and compulsory education resulted from enactments made in 1876 and 1880. Finally, in 1891, school fees were abolished almost entirely, and elementary education was made free throughout almost the whole of England and Wales. I>espite these points of contact with American experience, the English elementary school system is verj- different from our own. 1 462 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond Its problems are regarded as essentially social or political, and not as primarily educational. The rigidity of class distinctions is sucH that elementary schools, whether controlled by religious societies or by elected school boards, are looked upon as one phase of philan- thropic effort; they are a provision made by the church or the tax- payers for the so-called lower classes. The extension of the suffrage has reconciled the average Englishman to the support of elementary schools much in the spirit of Mr. Lowe's "Now, we must educate our masters." This point of view is totally different from our own, and forces a complete breach between elementary and higher educa- tion. In consequence, the English son of poor parents has a very small chance of obtaining a secondary education, much less of reach- ing the universities. English educationists, however, have attacked this problem and have begun its solution, and I shall return in a moment, when speaking of secondary education, to the proposals that they expect to make to parliament on the subject. The existence of a strongly intrenched State church, which insists upon its rights to control elementary schools for the purposes of instructing the children in its catechism and formularies, is one of the most important factors in the present situation in England. Of the 20,000 elementar}^ schools, about 15,000 are so-caUed voluntary schools, under the control of religious societies or private corpora- tions. About 12,000 of this 15,000 belong to the Church of England. Something less than 5,000 schools are a charge upon the local rates and under the control of elected school boards. Yet these 5,000 board or public schools do a tremendous work; for, while there are about three times as many voluntary' schools as board schools, the latter have provision for two-thirds as many pupils as the former. In the board schools no catechism or religious formulary distinctive of any particular denomination may be used. The impression pre- vails, whether rightly or wrongly, that the board schools are more progressive and efficient than the voluntary schools. Notwithstanding the fact that the vast majority of Englishmen are undoubtedly satisfied with the present plan, by which voluntary schools receive State aid on subjecting themselves to State inspec- tion and board schools are provided where voluntary schools fail entirely or are insufficient to provide for the school population, the status quo is not allowed to remain undisturbed. The maujigers of voluntary schools continually complain that the regulations of the Education Department, as to efficiency of instruction and the pro- vision of proper school accommodations, bear hardly ujwn them; while, on the other hand, a large section of the Radical party would like to see board schools displace voluntary schools entirely. In not a few instances — ^in London, for example — the supporters of volun- rinteDdence.] EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS IN EUROPE. 463 7 schools have been successful in electing a large number of •esentatives on the school board, and thus they have forestalled opix)sition and prevented an aggressive policy from being entered Elementary education in England having been naade substantially pulsory and free, it remains to improve its character by raising standard for admission to the teaching body and by providing )le apparatus for instruction, and to come to some permanent lement of the question of religious teaching. It is perfectly lent that the Church of England will not willingly surrender any ts present prerogatives and privileges. What it loses must be ibly taken from it by legislation. It may be that the existing mgement, or some modification of it, best suits the genius of English people, and that it will prove to be pennanent The ication Department holds an even hand between the board and voluntary schools, and demands from both proper accommoda- 8 and eflflciency, both of which it tests through its staff of inspect- [t will not have escaped observation that the English arrange- its as to religious teaching in elementary schools is substantially t which is sometimes urged upon us for adoption in the United tes, namely, the division of the State school fund between public private parochial schools. There is, however, this great differ- B between the two countries: in England, the State's relation lementary education began by subventions to existing denomina- lal or private schools; in the United States, on the contrary, the te began by making independent provision of its own. Viewing the experience of the most enlightened and progressive ions as a whole, however, it is apparent that something remains be done before the question of religious instruction in public ication can be said to be satisfactorily settled. Since the laici- lon of the French schools there has been an enormous increase the attendance on private schools in France where religious truction is given. It is only three years since Prussia was thrown [) a ferment by the introduction into the Landtag, with the king's )roval, of a bill that would have enforced religious teaching in public schools. One clause of the bill read : "In the organization elementary schools sectarian considerations are to be regarded far as possible. As a general rule every child shall be taught by eacher of his own sect." The proposition gave to the clergy the perintendence of religious instruction and seats in the local boards school directors. The storm of opposition that the bill aroused ^d political considerations compelled its withdrawal, but its pro- sions revealed clearly the tendency of the governing ofQcials. 464 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond Summing up the evidence on this question, Mr. Fitch pointed out to the British Education Department in 1891 that the system of free education "has a tendency, though not a necessary or invariable ten- dency, to become a purely secular system. Gratuitous instruction may be, as in France and the United States, exclusively secular, but it may, as in Canada and Belgium, include religious teaching, and be given by the State in co-operation with religious bodies/^ Also, that "where the State system absolutely excludes religious instruction from its purview there grows up side by side with it, as in France, the United States, and till recently in Belgium, a rival system outside of the public school organization, and in part hostUe to it, administered by religious bodies, maintained at their own cost and that of the parents, and receiving neither aid nor supervision from public authorities. Experience seems to prove that in such circumstances the number of voluntary and denominational schools tends to increase, and the separation in feeling and interest between such schools and the common schools to become more marked, while the area of the State's influence over public education becomes pro tanto restricted. A secular system pure and simple, it would appear, is incapable of becoming a truly national system." To these conclusions of Mr. Fitch I am compelled to assent. Abandoning theories and confining ourselves to the facts as they are presented to us in Europe and Amenca, I do not see how they can be gain- said. Here in the United States it has been usual to settle the question by vigorous denunciation of those who are dissatisfied with the State system of secular schools, or by repeating the irrele- vant formula, that "Church and State must be w holly separate," or by appealing to what is known as the "American spirit" or the "American idea." But the subject is too far-reaching and too impor- tant to be settled in any such off-hand manner. Patience, tolerance and careful study of the educational conditions throughout the civil- ized world will alone enable us to meet this difficult problem worthily, and solve it satisfactorily and permanently. If the problem of religious instruction in public schools is common to England, France, Germany and the United States, the same is true of the problems connected with secondary education. In Ger- many the Gymnasium and in France the Lyc^e have long been in existence, and have contributed in a large measure to the national culture. Nevertheless, their reform and improvement are constantly demanded. In England the whole apparatus of secondary education on anything approaching a national scale, remains to be created, while in the United States the proper organization and administra- tion of what exists is the most pressing aspect of the question. Running through the manifestations of educated opinion in all of DtendeDce.] EDUCATIONAL PBOBLEMS IN EUROPE. 465 countries is a common thread of conviction that elementary lecondary instruction must be brought into closer relations; he opportunities for secondary education and what follows it be made as general as possible; and, finally, that the traditional iulum of secondary schools must be so modified as to admit what nown as the modern subjects and to train the students, not for the universities but for life. The disctil^on that led up d followed the Berlin School Coufer(;;ice of 1890. the recent on of the program of the Lyc^es in France, the cry for the lishmeut of secondarj^ or high schools in England, and the of cur own Committee of Ten, all illustrate this facv. I far as Germany is concerned, I am convinced that the efforts ? School Conference of 1800 have proved abortive. It was a IS blunder to ask for the suppression of the Real Gymnasium — pcondary school which in(»ludes Latin but not Greek in its lulum. That type of school is destined to play a still more •tant part in education than it has in the past, and no reorgani- i can be peiinanent that does not take it into consideration. 8 respect Professor Paulsen, the greatest educational authority rmany, was right, and those who outvoted him in the confer- fvere wrong. It is not easy to see, either, how the overpressure w^as complained of has been relieved. To be sure, the time is profitably occupied, for additional work in German and his- ire to be found where the dismal Greek and Latin composition to be. But the gymnasial student still has twenty-eight to ' hours of school work per week. The American Committee of bought that twenty periods of forty-five minutes each were all ►ught to be in the program, and the last revision of the Lyc^e am in France calls for an average of twenty hours per week le various types of secondary schools in Germany have their advocates, who arc continually disputing as to the respective s of the classical gymnasium — the gymnasium with Latin but mt Greek — and the school that offers no instruction in the cs. Conservative opinion and long established usage combine 'e great prestige to the classical g;yTunasium and its graduates, rtheless, the official statistics show that none of the secondary ►Is hold a satisfactory proportion of their students for the entire le. In 1889-1890 there were 135,337 pupils in secondary schools i sorts, and of this number 20,038, or nearly 15 per cent, left )1 during the year. Of those leaving, 4,105, or 25 per cent uated with the Zeugniss der Reife; 8,051, or 40.2 per cent ed long enough to gain the privilege of serving but a single year ae armv; and 7,882, or 39.3 per cent did not stay long enough 30 466 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Richmond to do even that. In other words, only 20.5 per cent of the students who pass out of the secondary schools in a year really obtain the training that these schools are organized to give. So that we can understand what Yon Stall wurk means, when he says, that the com- plaints against the secondary schools of Germany are all summed up in one comprehensive charge: "The higher school system is no longer adapted to the tlr,eB." This is a complaint not unfamiliar to Ameri- can ears, and it will probably be heard as long as the process of evolu- tion lasts. But continuous existence, whether of an individual or an institution, means continuous adaptation, and to this law there is no exception in the case of school systems. England has no system of secondary education. The great, so- called, public schools train the sons of the aristocracy, but very meager provision is made for anyone else. It is now projwsed to remedy this deficiency, and to provide such links between the several types of institutions as will enable students who have the ability and the disposition to obtain both a secondary and a higher educa- tion. Mr. Acland, the present head of the Education Department, has already framed and laid before parliament a bill to empower municipalities to establish secondary schools when needed and to support them by taxation. This is precisely our city high school, as yet unknown in England. Whether Oxford and Cambridge will take any part in the new order of things is as yet uncertain. But an institution very like the American college and scientific school has sprung into existence at Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, and one or two other large centers, that will provide an excellent collegiate training for high school graduates. These provincial colleges, as they are called, have developed without attracting much attention outside of the sphere of their immediate influence. They have drawn to them large numbers of students and have in their service some of the most promising of English scholars. They are an important element to be reckoned with in any scheme of organization for the higher education, and the foundation of a large number of public secondary schools would immensely increase their importance and extend their constituency. In connection with the present movement in England for the development of secondary education, there is one feature of peculiar interest that relates to the qualifications of the teaching force. It is proposed, and bills have been drawn dealing with the matter, to create a council, some of whose members are to be nominated by the crown and others elected to represent the several universities and the leading teachers' organizations, whose duty it shall be to prepare and maintain a register of duly trained and qualified teach- iperintendence.] EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS IN EUROPE, 467 PS. For three years after the passing of the act any person who lall have been engaged in teaching for not less than two years lall be entitled to be placed upon the register. After that time, >wever, only those persons shall be qualified to be registered who, dng twenty -one years of age, hold either (1) a certificate by examina- 3n in the theory and practice of education, from the council to be eated by the act, or (2) a certificate, by examination, issued under le authority of the Education Department for England, Ireland id Scotland, or (3) the teaching diploma of the University of Cam- idge, or (4) the teaching diploma of the University of London, (5) the teaching diploma of any other university or public body the United Kingdom hereafter approved by the council, or (6) e fellowship or licentiateship of the College of Preceptors. In the Be of teachers of si)ecial subjects, the council is to be satisfied of leir ability to teach those subjects before their names can be placed )on the register. Others wish to extend the list of alternative lalifications for registration above given, by -adding to them a ause admitting to the register any graduate by examination of ly university in the United Kingdom, or of any foreign or colonial liversity approved by the council. It is hoped in this way to exclude incompetent and untrained lachers from the schools, and to build up a genuine profession of lucated and qualified school masters and mistresses. The proposal far more comprehensive and drastic than anythins: that has yet jen done in the United States. Once or twice leading education- ts have pointed out that our secondary education could not be the ?st possible until unfit teachers were excluded from the schools, )tli public and private, by law. The attainment of any such ideal , however, far in the future, and Americans will watch with pecu ar interest what is done in England. The plan is a practicable one, Qd is strongly indorsed, though it runs counter to many English rejudices and must certainly provoke extended controversy before ; finds a place upon the statute-book. It is not probable that either f the proposed bills on the subject that have been drawn will be ctively pushed until a report has been received from the royal ommission on secondary education that has been asked for and that Ir. Gladstone has promised to create. Passing to the universities, three things are apparent: (1) a con- inual effort is making to improve the organization and administra- ion of universities; (2J more is being done each year for the system- vtic study of education and the training of teachers; and (3) the privileges of women are being rapidly extended. The two most important instances of the first tendency are the attempt to reorganize the universities of France and the project to establish a teaching university in Tx)ndon. I ^ 468 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [RlchmoDd The twenty-two universities of France, many of them as full of abuses as of years, perished in the Revolution. Even the University of Paris, the example after which the universities of Germany and of England were copied, lost its historical identity. In the place of the old universities, with their traditions and their privileges, there came into existence a single University of France, which is a great administrative organization, supervising and controlling all public education, whether elementary, secondary or higher, but which is not a teaching body. The University of the State of New York is a corporation very similar in character to the existing University of France. As a result of this action, higher education in France is in the hands of faculties of letters, science, law and medicine, estab- lished in different cities throughout the country. Of faculties of letters and of science there are fifteen each, together with thirteen of law and seven of medicine. While these faculties have developed rapidly of late years and are in many respects extremely efficient, yet they suffer frohi the effects of their isolation and the resulting increasingly technical character of their work. It is true that, since 1885, the various faculties in an academy, or administrative district of the university, have worked more in harmony with each other, but the advantages are still lacking that would follow organizing groups of faculties into autonomous universities, similar to those of Ger- many, England and the United States. Therefore, in 1890, the gov- ernment, M. Burgeois being minister of public instruction at the time, introduced a bill for the constitution of seven universities — one each at Paris, Lyons, Bordeaux, Montpellier, Toulouse, Lille and Nancy. The bill was carefully drawn and accompanied with an elaborate explanation and argument in its favor. But objection was promptly made, that if universities were to be established in the seven cities mentioned, other cities having two or more faculties should be similarly favored. Others opposed the plan because it seemed to them to tend toward decentralization. In March, 1892, an important debate on the bill took place in the French senate, with the result that the carrying out of the government's plan is post- poned. The final outcome ought not to be uncertain, for organized universities have long since passed beyond the experimental stage, and France cannot afford to be permanently without them. The project to establish a teaching university in London is inter- esting to Americans, because it shows that the tendency to develop universities at the great centers of population — a tendency very marked and very successful in this country — is not"* peculiar to us. For 300 years the establishment of a university in London has bern discussed, but nothing has come of it all except the foundation of two colleges — University College and King's CoUege — and a corpora- 469 Superintendence.] EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS IN EUROPE. UnTveTi'it^ oTS^^^ '"/ degree-conferring powers I.nown as the >f the 7^o« of Cofr* ^ .. r ^""^^^^^^^°«' and in the law schools losoftiT ^^ Court and the famous medical schools attached to the o weld ;J ^f -rials e^ist for a great teaching university But ^o weld them all ogether appears to he a task of great difflc^tv atho ^r"" ^' ^^?''' ^"'^'" '^''*'' " ^^« ^^' y-^ beefaccomplished tlthoxigH many leaders of educational thought in England are sSi tt work upon tHe problem. When it is accomplished, as I am assured ^n excellent authority that it will be before many years, Ix)ndon wS >e like Berlin, Vienna, Paris and New York, a great center of popu- ation and of intellectual activity, with a noble university to repre- ent and crown it all. The relation of the universities to the study of education itself nd to tlie preparation of teachers for the higher schools is a subject n whieli a volume might be written. Neglected far too long, the listory, principles and practice of education have recently sprung Qto imi>ortance as subjects for university research and university caching. I^aulsen, at Berlin, carries from four to five hundred nthusiastic students with him every year as he expounds in system- tic foma tlie theory of education. Rein, at Jena, works with a evoted l>an is made for the subject at Aberdeen and St adrews in Scotland, and the faculties of Bordeaux, Lyons and Tou- ise in France, and at Bonn, Breslau, Giessen, Halle, Heidelberg, ipzig, Strassburg and Tubingen in Germany. Satisfactory as this state of affairs is, I can honestly say, that i have even better reason to be gratified with what has taken ice at our a^vn universities. Fifteen years ago the study of educa- n was unknow^n at any of them, and propositions to establish irses in tlie siil>j^ct were received with astonishment and usuaUy led forth SL sneer. To-day Columbia, Michigan, Clark, Harvard, rnell Stanf'ora and California have strong and well-equipped )artments of oaucation, while lectures on the subject are given 470, NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond at a dozen other institutions. It is as necessary as it ever was to go abroad to extend one's academic acquaintance, and to gain an accurate knowledge of foreign methods of research and the stimulus that follows such knowledge; but it may be said with truth, that education in all its phases may be studied to-day as well in the United States as anywhere in the world. This fact has a deep significance for our future development. The systematic study of child-life, the careful tracing out of the educational results of the teachings of experimental and physiological psychology, the com- parative study of educational systems and statistics, the weighing of educational values, and the relative eflQciency of various types of school — all of which are being done in this country on a large scale — ^will give us a body of definite knowledge that will serve as the foundation for numberless practical reforms and improvements. The gradual increase of the privileges allowed to women by the universities is one of the most striking events of the last few years. The newspapers chronicle some new intellectual triumph of woman almost weekly. Goettingen and Heidelberg have recently been added to the list (which already includes Zurich^ Paris, Oxford, Cambridge, Edinburgh and St. Andrews) of those universities that offer women privileges of instruction and examination, either directly or indirectly. The movement to admit women to the universities began as a siege; it is ending as a rout. To prophesy is notoriously dangerous, but the signs of the times are very misleading if they do not point to the fact that within a decade or two this question will have passed into history. From the consideration of facts such as I have cited, and from the survey of the world's position as to education at this moment, I think we cannot help seeing that substantially the same forces are at work everywhere. The environments are different, and therefore the results of the action of these forces assume somewhat different forms. But comparison quickly brings the common traits into view. It is noteworthy, too, that alike in Germany, France, Great Britain and America the difficult and disputed questions of education are being settled after study and discussion by those best informed and most interested, and not by edict, or by what Mr. Lowell calls "push of pike." Progress is based upon principle, and principles are drawn from facts. To collect these facts patiently and to interpret them wisely is the duty of him who would be a student of education. ^erintendence.] O^MAN METHODS 471 GBBMAN METHODS OF USING THE MOTHER TONGUE. BY RIOSARD JONBS, Pii. D.. PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITHB^TURB, SWARTHMORE3 OOLLBGB2. PENNSYLVANIA. One of tbe striking facts of these closing years of the nineteenth otury is the extraordinary pre-eminence of Germany in the world learning. In nearly every branch of knowledge the world's acknowl- ged autbority is some German scholar. To a remarkable extent, 3 reason of which is not difficult to apprehend when one under- inds the conditions of success in German scholastic life, German lolars write the world's l)Ook8; they write the books which are rarded as authorities throughout the civilized world, or upon which ler books are based. Professor Bryce of Oxford has written of ^rmany as **the central country of Europe; the State which domi- tes continental politics; the nation which does the largest part the intellectual work of the world." This is the nation of whose llosophy Gladstone of late said, that it "has in recent times largely ►minated tlie thought of the world." This is tbe reputation which German scholars have won, and hich maizes their contributions to the worid's treasure-store of eas wortliy of study, and (after modifications to suit the different >aditions of our American life) worthy, it may be, of adoption. But have German scholars attacked this prol}lem of the proper se and function of the mother tongue, the language and the litera- are, as an instrument in education? Yes, there has been, and there I now, great activity along this line of thought The interest in the abject Was heightened by the famous School Conference at Berlin a December 1890, when the Emperor gave expression to the follow- ig sentiments- "The foundation of our Gymnasien must be German. t is our ^vity to educate young men to become young Germans, and ot young Greeks and Romans. We must relinquish the basis which as been the rule for centuries, the old monastic education of the liddle ag^g These are no longer our standard. We must make hermau ^j^^' \y2i%\B, and German composition must be made the 3nter aroxind which everything else revolves." ^,. a, t a ^^ ^e^ncies for carrying on the discussion,* with which I have ecome to some extent familiar, are: (1) books; (2) magazines or peri- *^^al8, >^i^i^^^ g^re the recognized "organs^' of the teachers of German ;"i 472 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Richmond literature; (3) the programs of the Gymnasien, which are our annual school report, or college catalogue, with the addition of a more or less scholarly contribution to some phase of educational thought by some member of the faculty of the Gymnasium. Of the books, I need add nothing further, except a remark as to their number and general excellence. They are, as a rule, written by men who have the German love for thoroughness, and who have been trained to know what thorough work is. Educational buncombe is usually appreciated at its real value by German schoolmen. The standard of the German periodicals devoted to the subject of instruction in German is creditably high. It is as though the "Edu- cational Review," edited by the scholar to whose admirable address we have just listened, were devoted entirely to the subject of instruc- tion in English. One of the best of these German publications is the magazine "Zum Deutschen Unterricht," published in Leipsic, and edited by Dr. Otto Lyon of Dresden, whom I had the pleasure of hear- ing on this subject of instruction in German, before an association of the schoolmen of Saxony. The breadth of thought and grasp of his subject manifested by the speaker gave me the highest respect for a body of schoolmen which could provide from its membership a speaker able to dignify and exalt his theme. I had the courage to ask this specialist — to whom I was first referred by the well- known Prussian School Commissioner, Dr. Miinch, and of whose gen- eral recognition in Germany as one of the great authorities on this subject I was assured by the Minister of Education of the kingdom of Saxony — I had the courage to ask Dr. Lyon to prepare for some American magazine an article embodying his views as to the function of literature in education, which article I offered to translate into English, and I am happy to say that he kindly consented to do so. This article will doubtless embody his ripened thought as to charac- ter-building through literature, patriotism as cultivated by literature, the imagination and the mental faculties in general as developed by literature; and, for the upper classes, the proper limits of discussion in the class-room and the proper methods of presentation of such themes as the poet's view of God and of his relation to his creatures, the poet^s view of Nature and of our relation to her, the poet's view of freedom and of fate — whether, indeed, "Man is man, and master of his fate," or ^1t is the stars, the stars above that govern our condi- tions;" in short, what sort of literature we shall choose for the various periods in education, and how shall we treat the literature chosen and what mental discipline may be derived therefrom. Another publication is especially worthy of mention here, though not devoted exclusively to instruction in German, the "Annual Report on Higher Education," edited by Prof. Conrad Rethwisch of the perintencleiice. ] GERMAN METHODS. 473 >enigl. W^ilhelm Gymnasium of Berlin. This report gi^-es a sum- 11^, written bj a specialist, of the latest trend of thought in each bject of education, as Latin, Greek, mathematics, history, German, 3., witli a list of the books and other publications which have peared during the year. This annual report is a large volume of tne 800 pages, and is in itself an eloquent testimonial to German terest in educational matters. Tlie tliird agency of discussion mentioned is the program, or annual dialogue. I have said that, included with the statistics of the ymnasium there is a more or less scholarly discussion of some Lucational theme. It is not to be presumed that each one of the mdreds of programs which appear yearly contains a valuable mtribution to the literature of education. And yet the existence ' this opportunity for making known the results of scholarly work, ►gether with the security of the tenure of oflSce and the determining ifluenee of a reputation for exact scholarship in securing promotion, •e a unique stimulus to investigation. The scholarly German must vestigate, and must publish his results, or he must perish. Did me allow me to enlarge upon this theme, I could illustrate the jcesity, under which the worthily ambitious German scholar lives, r discovering new truth, for leading the new thought of the orld; ^whereas, the success of English and American teachers pends, to a larger extent, upon personal qualities and social gifts, K)n i>o\ver in expounding and making attractive time-tried truths, e accumulated wisdom of the past. Hence the activity of the printing press in Germany. Ever}' man influence is an author. When I had been in Germany but a short Qe and bad not yet grasped the situation, I asked a young German ofessor whether he had as yet published any books. His reply was, Taturlich^'*^ i. 6., *'To be sure.'^ He would not have been made pro- isor otherwise. In a country where so many of the ablest men are, e tlie Athenians, continually prospecting for new truth, there is ely to be occasional discoveries of real ore. Here is a volume (Klussmann — "Systematisches Verzeichnis der abandlungen,'' etc.) giving the titles of the publications of the hoolmen during the five years, from 1886 to 1890, inclusive. Here e given the titles of several thousand programs, on all sorts of Lbjects connected with education; on pedagogy and method, on lUology, literature, history, mathematics, the sciences, philosophy, hies, tbeology, art, etc. Under literature and language are men- oned dissertations on English, French, German, Greek, Latin, Hin- ►o, Celtic, Hebrew, Italian, Provenzal, Eiitoromanisch, Lettoslav- che, the various dialects of each, their history, and the like diver- ons of the German teacher's leisure hours. Yet, notwithstanding ■ 474 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond this mass of pedagogical material, one writer expresses the hope that his book on methods "will prove a life-preserver to the many young teachers who are thrown into the educational stream with the friendly advice: 'Now, swim!'" One can but wonder how much instruction in the art of swimming the thorough-going German would consider adequate prior to the young teacher's plunge into the stream of experience! A similar catalogue is issued of the publications of the university men. Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, nor hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive of the subject not therein set down, and thus made more difficult than ever to master, because some German university professor has been extending the known field of man-s conquest into, what Carlyle called, "the circumambient realm of Nothingness and Night." Of the programs of the schoolmen, here is one to which attaches a romantic sort of interest, inasmuch as it comes from Bingen on the Rhine: A soldier of the legion lay dying in Algiers, There was lack of woman's nursing, there was dearth of woman's tears; But a comrade stood beside him, while his life-blood ebb*d away. And bent, with pitying glances, to hear what he might say. "Take a message and a token to some distant friends of mine, For I was born at Bingen,— at Bingen on the Rhine." ************* * "I dream'd I stood with her and saw the yellow sunlight shine On the vine-clad hills of Bingen,— fair Bingen on the Rhine." At Bingen, in the Bhine, just beneath the magnificent national monument erected by the nation to celebrate the realization, in 1871, of that dream of ages (so long but a beautiful dream), national unity, stands the stone tower where, according to tradition, the deeds of the wicked Bishop Hatto returned upon the doer, as described in Southey's poem, "God's Judgment on a Wicked Bishop." After an unfruitful summer. Bishop Hatto invited the poor to his barn, filled with last year's store, and "burnt them all," women and children, old and young. But the rats in thousands attack him in his tower. They have whetted their teeth against the stones, And now they pick the bishop's bones; They gnawed the flesh from every limb; For they were sent to do judgment on him! In this program we have this legend discussed in its historical, literary-historical and mythical aspects, with quotations from old Latin tomes (including what Tacitus has to say of Bingen on the Rhine), and a mass of footnotes substantiating the positions taken, ^perintendence.] GERMAN METHODS. 475 nd an attempt made to give a local habitation and a name to that 'liicli some may have looked upon as a mere play of the poet's fancy. A, clear Spelling, including syllabication, the use of capital let- r etc. V2) Orammar, the parts of speech, declensions and conju- I'ons in connection with Latin, and the simplest rules of syntax lonnection ^vith I.atin. (3) Punctuation. (4) Reading. Here are ^'n the naro^s of twelve poems to be committed to memory during year Five of these are by Uhland, one by Schiller. Also, twen- wo other poems to be read and thoroughly understood during the t vear Tli^i*^ is here a recommendation that some of these also committeci "to memory. There are also selections in prose to be d in ronneetion with the other studies pursued: two selections in nection witli history— the 'Worship of the Gods by the Early .,, and ^'Orestes and Pylades/' five selections in connection with 1 sons- five selections in connection with geography; and .en'se^ections to be read in connection with botany. W.ZT1± once the great advantage of a well-arranged plan for ®f Ttie course of study is thoroughly articulated. The reading. l^^zard and unconnected. With the history lessons dmg IS nor j^^^i^^s from literature which elucidate the history 476 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond and are elucidated by the history; and the exact title of these selec- tions and the page in the reader where they are to be found is given in the course of study. This reading is for ten-year-old boys. The German method of reading literature, according to a well- digested plan and in articulation with other subjects, may well serve as a model to us. I remember a severe arraignment of the colleg^es of New England, for their requirements in English, by a contributor to the "Educational Review," who said, in substance: "It may seem an extreme statement, biit I believe that if English literature is well taught in any preparatory school it is likely to be in spite of, rather than because of, the college requirements. Those requirements encourage the total neglect of the historical development of litera- ture. They foster disconnected reading. The selections have no nec- essary connection with each other. The lists prepared by tlie com- mittee of the commission of New England colleges have no sequence or congruity." This charge is certainly important, if true. As to its justiCcation, I offer no opinion. But its publication in a magazine of such stand- ing is a consideration that must at least give us pause. At the annual meeting of the realschule men of Saxony last October, I heard the report of a committee appointed to prepare a course of reading in English literature for the English courses in the realschule. After the report was read, the chairman asked for the plan on which the selections were made, remarking that he was unable to see on what principle these particular selections were chosen. To German schoolmen, accustomed to a plan in the reading matter and an articulation of studies, it was not a satisfactory answer to say that all the selections suggested were masterpieces of English literature. There is a choice even between masterpieces, lor their value in elucidating other subjects of the curriculum, and there is a choice in the order in which masterpieces may be read. The report was not adopted. But returning to the course in German in the Cassel school, we find in quinta (the second year of the course; average age of pupils, eleven and fivetwelfths years) eleven poems to be committed to memory, twenty others to be thoroughly studied, five prose selections illustrating Greek mythology and two illustrating Roman mythology to be read in connection with history, and twenty-one other selections to be read in connection with other subjects of the curriculum. In obertertia (fifth year of the course; average age, fifteen and one- half years) eight of the ten selections to be committed to memory are by Schiller, one by Uhland and one by Goethe. The Goethe selection is the "Erl Koenig." .rintendence. ] GERMAN METHODS. 477 At the close of obertertia, or in five years from the time the pupil ^red, he lias committed to memory 59 poems, has read thoroughly others poems and 115 prose selections. Of these prose selections, le are by the great historians Mommsen, Ranke and Curtins. ers are by Freytag, Schiller, Goethe, and other writers of estab- ed reputation. And the reading has not been fragmentary and onnected, but arranged according to a well-digested plan. For cnple, a portion of the prose reading in history in quarta (third r students; average age, twelve and three-fourths years) is the ttle of Marathon," "Tlie Athenian Assembly," "The Building of Acropolis at Athens," "An Athenian Gymnasium," etc. :n oherseknnda (the third year before graduation; average age, ?nteen and one-half years) several of Goethe's poems are corn- ed to menaory, as well as some portions of his dramas which are I. The rea.ding for this year is: Goethe's "Hermann and Doro u" "Goetz von Berlichingen" and "Egmont;" Herder's "Der Cid" Schiller's "Maid of Orleans." rhere still remain two years of the course. In the first of these years, portions of the early German literature are read: selec- s from tbe "Niebelungenlied," "Gudrun," "Parzival," some songs .Valter von der Vogelweide, selections from Luther, Hans Sachs, cbart, Opitz, Fleming, Haller, Klopstock ("Odes" and a portion of ^Olessias''), Lessing's "Minna von Barnhelm," and a portion of *'L,aokooii'^ and the "Hamburg Dramaturgic,'' Schiller's "Bride Messina'' and "Wallen stein.'' The portions of the above to be amitted to memory are indicated. I>nring th^ last year, Goethe and SchiUer are read and the history G^erman literature is studied, especial emphasis being placed upon > great names. I cannot ^ow enter upon the large field of discussion among Ger- lh schoolxiien, as to how Goethe and Schiller and literature in aeral shoxji^j be read, and to what extent the teacher of literature 3uld be ^|g^ ^ teacher of philosophy. I have heard in German ss-room^ elaborate expositions of philosophical systems, given by >fessors ^^ literature on the ground that certain philosophical con- >tions ai-^ fundamental to a proper understanding of great litera- '^' ^^ ^U^se expositions of philosophical themes are fairly under- ^^ ^y t\x^ pupils, there can be no doubt that literature is richer content: ^^ ^^^^^ in consequence thereof. And even if not fully aP^'^hexi^^^ by young men from nineteen to twenty years of age, 'se outlij^^g of philosophical thought, these glimpses into the J ^^ ^x-eat ideas, must prove suggestive and stimulating. J^ ^'^^ ^specially interested in a recitation conducted by Dr. H. t>e8cli^l^ ^^ ^1^^ annenrealschule of Dresden, whose book "Beitrag 478 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond zur Behandlung der Drainatisclien Lektiire'' C*A Contribution to the Treatment of Dramatic Literature") obtained for him the degree of doctor of philosophy from the University of Leipsic without an examination, an honor as welt deserved as it is rare. The recitation in question, an excellent one in every respect, was particularly valu- able because, in addition to the admirable presentation of new subject-matter by the instructor, there was enough of recitation by the pupils to enable the visitor to judge to what extent they had assimilated the previous instruction given them as to the structure of the drama, its laws and its nature. There is thus given in many schools, in connection with the literature in the latter part of the course, an intix)duction to philoso- phy to give the student some idea of the philosophical conceptions necessary for the understanding of great poetry. Other schools begin in untersekunda (or four years before graduation) a course of (1) a general view of the history of German literature, (2) chrono- logical readings of great poems in translation, beginning with the 'Iliad" and the "Odyssey" and closing with the masterpieces of modem literature. But the course I have given fi'om the Cassel curriculum may be regarded as a fair average course. Surely the course here outlined ought to give a boy a fair intro- duction to German literature. The course is well planned to include portions of all the great writers of Germany, and a fair amount is read. And the work is not optional. This is the course in German of a school which devotes seventy-seven periods to Latin for every twenty-one to German. It gives forty periods to Greek, thirty-four to mathametics, twenty-eight to history and geography combined, and twenty-one to French. Latin, Greek, mathematics, history and geography, each fill more periods during the nine year's course than does German. If the work done in every department is in propor- tion to the periods given to it, recalling the great amount of work accomplished in the twenty-one periods given to German, we may well believe the cry of "overpressure" abundantly justified. But how- ever that may be, the important fact is that these masterpieces are read, and read according to a plan, the fundamental principle of which is concentration and articulation; and, furthermore, that in Germany it is an educational axiom that every recitation in every subject is a recitation in German. The directions in connection with the course of study suggest that, in spelling, ten new words each day is sufficient, and that five to ten minutes will suffice for the recitation. The purpose of instruction in grammar is, to quicken the language sense of the pupil so that he will unconsciously choose the right form of expression, and yet he must not be satisfied with a mere mechanical distinction of true from perintendeiiGe.3 GERMAN METHODS. 479 Ise, but must know the reason why. This instruction in German ammar begins in the lowest class; but less stress is laid upon rules sexta and cjuinta, the two lowest classes. In quanta and tertia 'erage age from twelve and three-fourths to fifteen and one-half a^rs) synta.x in its essentials is systematically taught, but though Jtruction in grammar proper closes with tertia (average age fifteen d one-balf years), yet, as opportunity offers in the reaiiing, refer- ees are made to peculiarities of grammatical construction. An important part of the instruction in the use of tbe mother igue is composition work and essay writing. The purpose of the lay is to e^ncate the pupils in a well-ordered, correct, clear, appro- late exposition of worthy thoughts lying within the field of their ellectual vision and the circle of their experience. The principle v^erns, tbien, in every grade, that the subject-matter of the essay all be drxLTvn from the subject-matter of instruction given in that ade. Tills principle determines for every grade the choice of Bme. eTiast as articulation of studies and concentration — tbe key- te of tbe Oerman curriculum — determines the choice of reading itter for every grade, so they determine also the subject of the tnposition Tvork for that grade. In the lo^w^er grades there is much writing from dictation, to give e pupil pi-actice in punctuation, the use of capital letters, and in ?lling. Or tbe pupil writes from memory matter that he has read, tbe lower grades, accuracy of expression is the chief end in view; tbe higber grades, logical arrangement and rhetorical excellencies ^ emphasized. It is recognized that there cannot be clear writing thout clear tbinking, and that just as every instructor in every bject is an instructor in German, so every instructor deserves his ire of praise or blame for excellency or deficiency in the compo- Lon class. ^^n essay is required of every pupil, the period varying different scliools from once a week to once a month. Subjects for essays are often suggested in the course of study. , emes conneeteUege, Oxford, is credited with making recently the unanswerable gument : ^'I^iterature cannot be taught I know, because I have led it!'^ In a conversation with the distinguished historian, Iward J^. r'reeman, shortly before his death, he said to me: "Appre- ition of literature is a matter of taste, and taste cannot be taught" :; was, tlieref ore, strongly opposed to the establishment of a chair Englisli literature at Oxford, an opposition which at the time IS successful, though within a few months a proposition to estab- h a school of literature in the University of Oxford has been rried tliroiig-li one of the stages necessary. But in Germany other ws prevail. Groethe said: X>enii bie den alten Jieben Todteu Braucht man Erklaerung, will man Noten; X>ie I^euen glaubt man blank zu verstehen, I>och ohne Dolmetsch wird's auch nicht gehen. The view of Ooethe as to the necessity of interpreting the thought modern masters, as well as that of the 'Trieben Todten,'' is epted in Grermany, and we find in German universities lectures on poetry of Tennyson and the prose of Carlyle, and a different con- tion in general of the function of literature. There is in Germany sartier acceptance of literature as a teacher of righteousness, a ie to condlxict. Hence we find patriotism taught by means of try, and love fpr fatherland expressly stated as the goal of ruction in the mother tongue. In a course of study for the kingdom Jaxony, we fiiiNEL Pabkeb, Principal Cook County Normal School.— I was glad to hear , gentleman speak to-night in regard to the German method of teaching the mother ongue, but I want to say just two or three things. They give us the best psychology, the test pedagogics, the best plans. We get the science of education >etter from Germany than from any other country in the world, but there are ome tilings we do not get. We do not get common schcols from Germany. We [o not get co-education from Germany, and there is no education possible for free len without co-education; and we do not s^t the recognition of women equal to len as >ve must have in the progress of this country. We do not get another thing. 1o ebilci in Germany is taught to believe that he can find eternal truth himself, or the way is barred by an aristocratic government, and the form of their govem- lent goes into the German schools. They have tetter schools in discipline and ^cfaiins than we have to-day, but their system is not so gocd. The conimon !hool was born of democracy, cultured and supported by democracy, and all its iture is founded upon the growth of democracy. irE RELATION OF THE KINDEEGABTEN TO THE FUBLIG SCHOOL SYSTEM. liY JAMBS L. HUGHES, INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS, TORONTO, ONTARIO. Aly chief object in suggesting this subject for discussion was to ,rire that we should not continue to use the words "kindergarten'' nd "schoor- as if they referred to distinct, or distantly related, ^ atitutions In its broadest, truest sense, the public school should ^Mnde whatever is best for the fullest development of the desirable Jements of human power and character. The State l^^^/o ng^t to .aaume tbe dutv of giving an education unless it provides the best r^Hi^ triinini^ and culture for its children. It is unjust to parents ^^tc^lZT^^^^ -^ ^t is contrary to the Wghest interest, of 484 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Richmond the State itself. It is not fair that some children should receive better treatment from the State than others. If the kindergarten be truly the most stimulating educational process at a certain period of a child's development, then all children are entitled to its ad- vantages. The kindergarten should not be an appendage to the public school system for a favored part of the school population. It should be a part of the school system; its foundation; its initial stage, in which all children should remain for a period, the length of which shpuld be decided in each individual case by the heredity,, the history, the temperament, the mental activity and the nervous, system of each individual child. Children whose physical and men- tal conditions are normal do not require to stay in the kindergarten as long as those whose health is delicate, or whose mental organi- zations are too dull or too active. The slow boy should remain longer than the average term in the kindergarten, that his senses, may be quickened and his reflective powers stimulated by the con- scious expression of his own thought in the arrangement or the- transformation of material things into new and definitely related forms. The abnormally bright child should have a prolonged kin- dergarten experience in order that its over-activity may be restrained, its nervous system soothed, and its physical organization raised to the standard of its mental energy by the happy spirit, the interested, applied activity, the satisfying productiveness, and the healthful games of the kindergarten. There are few who now doubt that the processes of learning reading, writing, spelling, number^ etc., by set lessons, weaken interest and prevent full and general cerebral growth, when forced on children too soon. Even the formal study of nature, in its most attractive phases, as conducted by the best "object systems," fails to promote cerebral growth satisfactorily^ when knowledge of the object studied is the aim of the lesson and when the work of the pupil is confined to receptivity and reflection in response to the teacher's suggestion. The child, before it goes to- school, does not study things that it may learn about them; it uses^ things that it may accomplish its own purposes with them. It learns very rapidly, but its learning results from the attempts it makes to execute its individual plans, as it aims to represent its mental conceptions with material things. The true sequence in intellectual growth is, reception, reflection and execution. The flrst two are of little use without the third, and the third is the only sure means for the fullest culture of the others. Educators have been slow to reach the highest step in this complete sequence. In the evolution of the true ideal, children have been taught and trained according to six educational standards. There have been two stages — a passive and active stage — in each step in «opeTioieDdence.J THE KINDERGARTEN AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 485 the sequence of receptivity, reflection and execution, making, in all, ^ix stages in the upward movement of educational thought. Those wliose memories go back thirty years can recall these six stages. Passive receptivity received knowledge from the teacher; in active ^•eceptivity, the pupils were trained to be investigative. Passive reflection allowed the pupils to obtain thought from the teacher; active reflection trained pupils to think independently. There is a vital distinction between thinking and "allowing the thoughts of otliers to run through our minds;" between thinking, and thinking we are thinking. There is even more difference, however, between the active and passive stages in the highest step in this educational sequence than in the preceding steps. The higher the educational process, the weaker does passivity become when compared with ^ctijrity. Self-activity does not mean merely physical activity on the part of the pupil, stimulated by the teacher's mind acting throu^li the pupil's mind. The pupiPs mind cannot reach its best » or command of another person. The kindergarten 5 the only educational system that fully recognizes this fact, and tie equallj^^ important related fact, that the child should perform this Dmplete edueational process from the beginning of its educational [)urse. Tbe kindergarten rejects passivity, but recognizes uncon- nous gra^v^tb of the mind, as it does unconscious growth of the ody. Th€? kindergarten is based on active receptivity, active reflec- iou, and acti^^ execution by the child; and, most important of all, itellectuaJly^ ^^ makes active or independent execution of original urposes lo>y "tlie child the foundation of the definite growth of its jceptive and reflective powera It is especially important, there- ire that dnringr ^^^ period of greatest possible brain enlargement le child slionld use material things, not as mere objects of study, ^en by indep^^^dent investigation, but as agencies for defining by iried related sense-experiences the multitude of indefinite percep- ons of iTxf^^^y^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ visible representation of its clearer •nceptions i^ response to its own motor impulses. It is only when motor iinp«^^^^ ^^^ executed that complete cerebral growth kes plare an^ ^ ^^^'''^ «^ practical value is developed. It is Intel- 486 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond ligent, independent, conscious effort, following the somewhat iustinc- , tive efforts of infancy, that enlarges the cerebral centers, defines their powers, and prepares them for ready and effective work in future years. If the whole of the brain is to be developed, the oppor- tunities for activity must be as varied as are the powers of the mind. This intelligent, independent, conscious gelf-activity, in response to self -guiding motives, in properly differentiated lines of work, is stimu- lated in the kindergarten by providing material adapted to the manifold operations suggested to the minds of varied types of chil- dren by their artistic, representative, reproductive and constructive talents, and by many appropriate games which call into vigorous^ exercise the child's receptive, reflective and executive powers and develop its social relationships. No other school process yet discovered accomplishes these pur- poses so naturally and so thoroughly as the kindergarten. No other system so effectively bridges over the chasm between' the home and the school, by a union of the conscious concentratioD of the schdol with the freedom of the home. No other system lays so broad and tru^e a basis for independent or assisted growth. No other system promotes the physical health of children so fully, by providing attractive material and interesting plans for happy self-activity and soul satisfying self-expression. No other system enlarges the wonder-power of childhood, which Gradgrind's ideal schoolmaster, McChoakumchild, promised to destroy so effectively, but which should develop in every child, day by day, a more aggressive spirit of investigation ; first, into the mys- teries of the material world, and ultimately into the realms of intel- lect and spirit. No other system preserves the spontaneity of childhood and defines individuality so completely; no other system cultivates tlie social instincts so thoroughly and widens individuality into organ- ized co-operation so effectively as the kindergarten. Therefore every child is entitled to its advantages. Both justice and wisdom demand that the public schools shall include the kinder- garten as one of the agencies in the education of the whole people, so long as kindergarten processes are the best known means for increasing the power and accuracy of sense impressions, for defining and enlarging the reflective powers, for revealing individual respon- sibility and social relationships, for making the child creatively pro- ductive and for helping it to be self-educative, self-expressive, self- repressive, self-progressive, self-directing and self-executive. Every child has an inalienable right to the best in education. Free kinder- gartens Ib poor districts are not enough. Public school kindergar- ►erintendence.] THE KINDERGARTEN AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 487 18 in poor districts are not sufficient. The same power in the adergarten training that, in the poorer districts of a city, helps to 'ercome the evils of poverty, the lack of home training, bad heredity id evil example, and transforms the little Arab into m good citi- n, self-respecting and co-operative, will lift the child of any ass higher and help it to become a greater power for good. Chu- en are usually quite as much neglected in the homes of the ealthy as in the homes of the poor. Too often the child of the ch is robbed of the greatest agency in human development, mother re, far more than the child of the alley. If the kindergarten sup- ies the proper means for the natural growth of body, mind and irit power, every child needs its culture. Defective children ould remain in the kindergarten department for years, but all ildren should have a kindergarten training; especially those who ve spent their infancy in cities or towns, and who have never had - physical, mental and moral growth that comes from free contact th the manifold forms of life and beauty in God's great school of tare. Airs. Browning, the greatest of women, typified, in "Aurora igh,'^ her "grandest ideal of art and life." In revealing the pro- 'ses of soul growth by which Aurora Leigh became conscious of ^vidual power and responsibility, she makes one of the most [>ortant of all her educational influences the life she led in early ^'•s, '^shut up with God among his mountains," with the father f> loved her so tenderly that he scarcely dared to stroke her curls he might destroy their golden light. This was the source of her 8ht into higher, noble things. This gave her a love of liberty that ^ned into a consciousness of individual freedom, and a sense of y so strong that she refused to marry Romney Leigh, pure and ^ and cultured though she knew him to be, and filled with lofty poses though he was, because he assumed that woman's individ- ^^ must be sacrificed in marriage, and subordinated to her hus- ^d's ideal. It did more. It gave her a clear insight into her atest power— and that is the mightiest element in the uplifting Oilman character. She was clear and true, and dared to "live her 1 straight out;" and so God spoke to her through every leaf and ver, and stone and bird, and by the rolling sea, and the golden iset. God speaks little to those who do not hear; or hearing, fail do. How much the child learns straight from God in early years! >w rapidly it gains in mind and soul and power, if it lives a loving emid nature's myriad delights I How it learns! How the scliool LS continued to reverse nature's processes! In nature's school, the lild finds its own problems, and solves most of them unaided. it ^es a life of productive self-expression. When it goes to school, le teacher finds all its problems,^and brings them to it, or dri\-^g \ 488 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Richmond it to them. Its self-'expression ceases, and it is forced to try to express and execute the idea of the teacher. Thus the power of problem recognition, that should have grown to be its greatest mental and spiritual power, becomes dwarfed through inactivity, and the child's intense interest in fresh knowledge is lost, because it is not allowed to seek it independently, and because the teacher's problems are suggested by an adult mind, and are, therefore, inevi- tably unsuited to the mind of the child. The kindergarten was designed by Froebel to continue the sauLe involuntary attention and to develop the same indi\iduality in problem-recognition and the same self-expression which the child enjoyed in nature's school, where it was happy and developed rapidly and definitely. The kindergarten is, therefore, an essential basis for the school, because it continues the productive, self-developing processes of natural growth, and is not merely an agency for mind- storing, but for strengthening the aspiring powers of humanity. It may be objected, that school boards are too ignorant regarding the true ideals of education to be trusted with the management of the kindergarten. It is unfortunately true that very few members of school boards yet understand kindergarten aims or methods; but granting this, I still maintain that school boards can do most to propagate kindergarten principles. They have control of money, and can, therefore, provide the best kindergartners, and the finest kindergarten rooms, equipped with the most convenient appliances and supplied with all necessary materials for the work of the chil- dren. They have, or should have, the wisest and best trained men and women as superintendents and principals and directresses, and the training of the race should be guided by the ablest men and women in any department of the teaching profession. It is gratify- ing to know, that most superintendents have now grown wise enough to know that they should not at once set to work to modify the kindergarten to their own notions. We must not intrust the kindergarten to private enterprise alone. The supervision in private kindergartens is weaker than in public schools, with very few exceptions. There will always be plenty of room for private enterprise before the school age has been reached. There is a great field for individual effort in the reformation of the processes of training and growth before children go to school. All such effort will be of benefit to the school. It is a hopeful sign that wealthy people are becoming wise enough to try to obtain trained kindergartners for governesses. They will soon learn that the social natures of children need culture under improved conditions, and small groups of families will engage kindergartners to direct the growth of their children during their most susceptible period, a time aperintendence.] THE KINDERGARTEN AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 489 k'hen they are now usually neglected or subjected to conditions that warf or misdirect their energies. It has been said that no organic union is possible between the ublic school and the kindergarten, because the school is not ready )r the union, '^ou cannot weld two pieces of iron so long as one f them is cold," is the objection. The public school may be cold nd formal ; too often it is so. The remedy is to make the school as arm as the kindergarten. Unity of purpose will soon bring unity of Ian, and revelation of truth in process. What a revolution has been [fected during the last ten years in the ideals and methods of the ?hools through the better comprehension of kindergarten prin- ples! In order to make the organic union perfect, primary teachers lould be trained in kindergarten principles and processes at the ormal schools. School men and women have learned more than ley are conscious of from the kindergarten. At first they learned L many cases resistingly, now they are nearly all sympathetic, hey have learned to study the child — a very modern study; to ispect the child's individuality, and recognize spontaneity without irrendering control; to know that enlarging and defining power I the best work of the* school ; and that the amount of remembered nowledge cannot be a true test of human growth in mental power; Qd to value play as an agency of great educative influence, physic lly, intellectually and morally. Some teachers even yet think that ae advocates of play as a valuable means of education mean that lay should become a substitute for work; while others fear that the hild who has been trained to play will never like to work. Both lasses are wrong. Richter gave the philosophical answer to such bjections when he said: "To teach by play is not to spare the child xertion or to relieve him of it, but to awaken in him a passion which )rces on him and renders easy the strongest effort." Play is the ork of childhood. It is the greatest agent in co-ordinating the dif- irent energies of the brain. It develops a tendency to work, and iiltivates in the energetic player the physical force and the charac- jristic aggressive spirit that enjoys work and accomplishes mighty eeds. But perhaps the best lessons the schools have learned from the indergartens are those connected with the discipline and manage- lent of children; that love is the strongest stimulus and the great- Jt controlling force in the world ; that coercive and autocratic disci- line necessarily dwarfs character; that obedience should not involve ibserviency; that all discipline is evil that checks spontaneity and pevents the freest development of the spirit of individual liberty 3 the foundation of personal responsibility and responsive co-opera- on. 490 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Richmond DISCUSSION. Principal J. M. Greek, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.— I have been very much pleased with certain expressions in the paper, to the effect that the kindergarten should not be thought of as separate from the public school system. In our section of the country there has been the notion that the kindergarten was something entirely distinct from the public school system, known as such; and we have had persons who wished to become kindergarten teachers who sought a short course (one which did not prepare for any broad conception of education, but sim- ply trained to go through certain mechanical forms, which were termed kinder- garten); and we have had schools for the preparation of kindergartners, which schools did not teach psychology, or any study of child life, or the principles of teaching, other than a mere incidental explanation of the use of certain gift^^ games, etc., which, unrelated to the subsequent phases of education, practically meant nothing. I have thought that it was unfortunate that we discussed "kinder- garten." I would very much prefer the subject **Education in Its Early Stages." We would then be more likely to keep the plan secondary and subject to constant adaption to the child, rather than letting the plan become primary and sacrificing the child to it. I would like, also, to have brought into the discussion the question: What means might be taken to extend the kindergarten idea without additional cost? For instance: we have now the conception that in the* kindergarten we must have freedom of movement, aided by chairs and tables and liberal opportunities for work. But at the end of the year we must have every desk screwed to the floor, and every chair screwed to the floor by the side of it, and the pupils seated in stereo- typed forms. The entire modus operandi of conducting the school is changed when a child passes from the age of five to the age of six, or from the kindergarten to the primary. This should not be. I can conceive of no corresponding change in the child. It seems to me that the idea must be one of continuous development the one stage passing into the other as one year passes into another, with no other sign, perhaps, than the celebration of a birthday. It seems to me that if kinder- gartners would not lay so much stress on the form, and show us how the principle is to be developed in the modes of instruction in all departments, it would give greater impetus to this idea. I like the notion of a continuous development in education. Sdpt. a. W. Rankin. West Superior, Wis.— I have the good fortune to live in a city which has no precedents to trouble its school system. The school build- ings from the beginning have been provided with kindergarten rooms. The sun- niest rooms in the buildings have been set apart for the little ones. The develop- ment of kindergartens as a part of our school system has thus kept pace with other departments, and the expense of creating a department wholly new has not been felt. Wisconsin, too, by law, allows children to enter school at four years of age. I consider this a very important point. Where States do not allow pupils to be admitted legally to school until the age of six it would be quite impossible to over- come the prejudices of the people, because of the extra expense. The first step to be taken by those of us who believe in kindergartens is to secure laws making the school age of children begin at four. A common objection to kindergartens is that the pupils are not kept in school more than three hours per day. Parents who wish their children looked after, and pcrintendence.] DISCUSSION. 49I K>ple who believe the longer the hours the more the advancement, object to thift lorteued period. A better understanding of child-culture will do away with this ejection. Another objection is based upon the fact that only a small number of pupiU '* in be taken in charge by one kindergartner. The greatest good to our schooT i^l j rstem is going to come because we can establish the fact that no man or womajv I able to instruct in kindergarten work over twenty or twenty-five pupils, and we fin by the same reasoning demonstrate that our primar>' rooms are overcrowded. Another question is in regard to the transition between kindergartens auii rimary schools. The difficulty of such transition exists largely in the imagination, 'here is no abruptness necessary in this transition. The primary room is right cross the hall from the kindergarten, and the teachers in the two depari- lents study each other's work. The primary teacher knows what has been jne in the kindergarten, and is able to carry on the work in her own way. The laterial, or apparatus, of instruction differs. The methods of instruction, th(^ mdamental principles of teaching, remain the same. I do not believe it advisable • modify kindergartens by the adoption of primary material. I believe in getting le very best that can be gotten out of the kindergarten for two years, and have a good, straight, orthodox kindergarten, and then let the transition be made by le adaptation from the primary side to the kindergarten. The time will soon come hen kindei^gartens will be a part of the school system. When primary schools ere first started they were not considered a part of the public school system, hilanthropists had to provide primary instruction, and it was not considered the ity of the State to do it. Now we must reach down to take the children at four, hildren from cultured homes will be helped by naingling with their fellows in the jblic kindergartens. The morality of the school will be helped, the discipline ill be improved, and the spirit of the whole school system made better. SUPT. William L. Barrtngkr. Newark, N. J.— I have listened with very great itisfaction to this very able paper and to the remarks made by the gentlemen id pening this discussion. I am not at all alarmed as to whether the desks are ?rewed fast to the floor or whether we use tables or chairs to conduct our work* 'he only question I wish to note is this: *'Is this kindergarten method of work ight?" I think that it is. If it be right, then it is the method that should be dopted. Desks and tables and chairs may be put where they are needed. I be- eve the revolution we are seeking in our whole educational economy must and will >me through the kindergarten work. I believe the true place to begin our refor- mation is, not at the top, but at the foundation. I have, however, a great concern )r the children. I believe that the salvation of the world, the salvation of educa- on, the salvation of all this onward and upward progress that we are now seekinfjr, ill come through the children, and I believe that the kindergarten method is the •ue method. I have been very much troubled to understand why it is that the iboratory method, which is a kindergarten method, should have such a call-down hen we enter into the primary and through the grammar and secondary schools II we reach the university, where we go back again into the laboratory. Th« Uld begins in the laboratory, and touches nature and gets his ideas for himself. want to see that method of teaching go on through the primary grades, and so a through the full course. I do not believe it worth while to make so many divisions. We have so many epartments, so many grades, so many standards, that the child does not know inch of the time where he is. The education of humanity is a unit with me. 1 ie the child; I look at him as a growing product with the powders and forces that fOd put in him, and he must be educated along those lines. When we find that I 41 492 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond our desks are in the way we will remove them and make everything right aud ready for the child in the midst of his child nature, his child powers, his God-given mission here in this world. We will give him a chance to grow up into that kind of a man or w^oman that I believe God intended that he or she should grow into, And which I believe the present effort along the line of kindergarten work will bring about. SuPT. J M. Greenwood, Kansas City.— It is remarkable that in this country we have pushed the kindergarten work beyond the conception entertained in Ger- many at present. The fruitful seeds there sown have bloomed upon this continent. When we look at the kindergarten work, from the time it was started in St Louis by Dr. Harris twenty or twenty-five years ago, and have watched its development, as it has gone east and west and north and south, it presents to those engaged in educational work a phenomenon that is exceedingly interesting. The wave started in one locality continues to extend and to spread itself and then return again. Kindergarten work is especially adapted to all children, in my opinion, but it is particularly adapted to those children where the mothers have to go out from home and cannot take care of them, as we find it in some of our large cities. Again, there are families who have become suddenly rich, persons of strong will power, but not all of them with a great deal of intellectual culture, and rather in- clined to let servants take care of their children. The children who have descended from these parents are children of strong impulses. Many of them in the cities, when put into private schools, are ruined, and when put into public schools they are the most troublesome members. If we can take those headstrong, self-willed children and put them into the kindergarten, they will be saved in most cases. Education must save at the top, as well as at the bottom. SuPBRiNTENDBNT DuTTON. Brookline, Mass.— I am sorry that those of us from New England cannot report kindergartens established in a large number of places, but it is worth noticing that in the few places in New England where the kinder- garten has been started successfully, it has been done, not in the first instance by school boards, but by the enterprise and interest of the intelligent women; the mothers, as a rule. In the two places where I have labored. New Haven, Conn., and Brookline, this is true. The same good woman, Mrs. Shaw, started the kindergartens at Boston and in Brookline. Kindergartens in New Haven were started in a modest way at a meeting held at the residence of the late President Woolsey, by a few women who felt the need of this work. I wish to suggest to many, who I know are anxious to begin in their own communities, that the natural course is, not to try to reach the school board, but simply to let the intelligent mothers open a kindergarten, and make it an example and an object lesson to the entire com- munity. I think I may say that in every instance in New England the kinder- gartens have been started in this way. In regard to what has just been said, it does not seem to me that we need to be afraid that the children are to lose anything by being taken an hour from their mothers. Mr. Greenwood did not hear the suggestion by Mr. Hughes that the chil- dren are often very much neglected in the wealthy homes, as well as in the homes of the poor. The fact is that the kindergarten is coming to be the means of teach- ing the mothers how to take care of their children. The kindergarten will co- ordinate the home and the school. Mr. Hailmann made it thoroughly clear last week in Boston that one function of the kindergarten is to unite the home and the State in an ideal way. I think it is through the kindergarten that mothers are to be educated to the true idea of what child culture is. When the mother and the teacher sit down together and study the child, and work for the child, and follow Iiim step by step, then we shall have, it seems to me, the ideal school. S«»perintendence.] DISCUSSION. 495 I cannot add to what has been said about the kindergarten. I agree with it *"^- There is one supreme fact, however, that I have not heard mentioned, and ^^t IB this: when the child passes from a good kindergarten iiito the primary 1 J^*»ooI, he carries with him something that he never will get in any other way, so *'■ as I know. He is a different child from what he would have been without ' *t training. He will be a different pupil, a different student all through his ^^1 life. I believe he will be a different man. He carries with him an atmos- . ^^^\ That atmosphere is felt by the teacher, though she may never have beeu by \ ^^^^S&^ten. The kind of power which the kindergarten gives is recognized teachers all the way through the school. It is through the kindergarten that f f** ^ing to be able to appreciate and reach those high standards that are set ^ ^"* hy the Committee of Ten. ^.. ^^CLAXTONof North Carolina.— There is in the child^a germ of divinity^ beat '^ *^ *^^ business of education to develop. Because the kindergarten is the gy^. exponent of this idea it should everywhere be the beginning of the school j^^ em, and its spirit should be about the child through its entire school life. Tht? nto • ^^ cliild is an organic whole, and teachers may not arbitrarily divide it 0 d '^*^®^^'*^®"* a°d unrelated sections. Each stage of education must be allowed L^^ . °P» naturally and gradually, out of the preceding stage, and to draw from oem Its Ufe and vigor. siieville, N. C, with whose public schools 1 was connected for five years, in tne few Southern cities having a system of kindergartens. A year ago thert? -•^w children in these kindergartens, about one-seventh as many as were in ^^J'®^*'' scliools. I have watched with interest the growth of these schools. At ' hr\^^ ^^^ ^^^^ *^^^® interest shown by the people. Many refused to send leir c Udren, though there was no charge for tuition. The kindergarten is a place ^ d Y' ^^^ ^^^^* ^^ ^^^y wished their children to work. They could not under- an ow any school work other than recitations from books could be valuable, was soon seen that the kindergarten is a place for play, but of a kind far differ- it rom auy piay known to those unfamiliar with its methods. This play has a irpose, and is in the highest degree educative. Three years after the first school as opened, a training school had been established, and nine trained teachers were ^ ^ T K ^^ ^^ ^^^^ kindergartens of the city. The whole was controlled and sup- ^^^ ^ ^ kindergarten association, which, besides other property, owned a model indergarten building of three rooms, built and furnished by a public spirited citi- en, and, together with the lot on which it stands, presented by him to the asso* ^*^Th .^*^®®® people now believe in the kindergarten. ® influence on the public schools was marked. Our pnmary teachers studied ^lie work of the kindergartens. The superintendent of the kindergartens gave in- ^^^fh ^^* ^^ ^^^ teachers at their regular meetings. The result was greater lif Eive their children cared for. I feel that I would not do justice to a noble woman I our State unless I mentioned her work. I indorse the sentiments expressed by ie gentleman on my left. He told us how we might establish kindergartens in ay section of the country. I think he suggests the right method of procedure, &» as been demonstrated in my State. About three months ago, Mrs. Olive E. S'^estoii of Chicago came to Jacksonville to establish a kindergarten. She meets large number of the mothers of that town in lectures once a week. A large amber of the public school teachers are members of her training class, as well i young ladies from different parts of the State. She has also a large kinder- irten school in operation. When she first came to the State I am informed that e conferred with the school board, with a view to securing assistance in the tablishment of a kindergarten department to the city public schools. But, as is ual in such cases, she met with but little substantial encouragement. Since at time the mothers of the city have taken the matter in hand, and are creating; sentiment that will likely cause the board to reconsider the matter. We expect fore another year to see a kindergarten department in the Jacksonville public lools, and I expect to see it spread out through the State. I really believe in ee or four years more the ^tate legislature will adopt a measure providing for i establishment of such departments in all our city schools. Thus, if some one 1 go ahead and organize the good mothers and popularize the movement, we 1 have no trouble in providing for kindergarten schools as a part of our public icational system. State Supt. Nathan C. Schaeffer, Pennsylvania.— It seems to me the day I passed for us to discuss whether the kindergarten is a good thing or not. The r has probably come for us to see clearly that there are kindergartens and dcrgartens; that play, which is one of the chief characteristics of the kinder- tens, may be helpful and that it may also be hurtful. Not every kind of play lelpful. Is there not a difference between play and work? When I was a boy the farm 1 had no diflSculty in telling when we were playing and when we were rking; but in these discussions about the kindergarten I have frequently had •y great difficulty in seeing when the speaker was talking of play and when the laker was talking of work. If the play of the kindergarten is to be carried rough all grades up to our highest institutions of learning, then, I suppose, thf* fical consequence is that baseball and football are the chief functions of the liege, and that fighting with the sword is the chief function of the German iversity. It strikes me that the day has come for us. who believe in the kinder- rten, to define clearly in our thinking what is the difference between play and irk; to define clearly in our minds what kinds of play are hurtful; and, further, decide in our schools a question that concerns us in our State legislation— the estion what kind of work is beneficial in the development and growth of child- ad. Ill my State, about four-fifths of the population live in the larger cities and vns. Two hundred thousand persons are engaged in and around the coal mines, J our legislature has been obliged to pass statute after statute to protect the Idren from the deteriorating influences of working in the mines and in the 'tories. I am afraid that there is a great deal of work at school, as well as a jat deal of play, that is just as hurtful as the play and the work around the coal aker or in some of the factories. The point I would like to emphasize is, that the school the teacher must look towards earnest work, and fit the child for ,t, whereas, in the kindergarten, the ruling idea of Froebel and Froebel's suc- sors is not work, but it is piny as a means of growth and development. The 496 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond time, I think, has come fur us to define more clearly some of these maxims we are accepting, so that we may not have spurious kindergartens and injure a good cause by failures from the abuse of that cause. Db. Jambs Macalibteb. President Drexel Institute, Philadelphia.— As I under- stand the kindergarten, it is not based solely upon play. Froebel recognizes the spontaneity of the child, the necessity of play, and he lays hold of that spontaneity which is the very nature of the child and organizes it into education. He makes- no distinction between w^ork and play. The gentleman from the South, who spoke a little while ago, seemed to me to clear this up when he said that the difficulty to-day is, that there is no joy in our work because of the distinction between work and play. Those beautiful things which are treasured in museums all over the world were the product of artisans, and the reason why they are so beautiful is chiefly because the w^orkman found joy in his work, because his heart as well a& his head entered into it. The object of Froebel in organizing the kindergarten was- to co-ordinate the two; to lay hold of this playful tendency of the child and to organize it into education. I do not understand that Froebel insists that play munt run all the way through education. There comes a time when play is transformed into work, work that is animated with joy and feeling, and the transition from the one to the other is the natural growth of the child from childhood into youth, from youth into manhood. The very idea of the kindergarten is that all work shall be delightful and that all play shall ultimate in work. SuPBBiNTENnENTScHAEFFEB: Do I understand the learned gentleman from my own native State to say that there is no distinction between ploy and work? Db. Macalistbb: There are tw^o lines of training in the kindergarten; in the one play predominates, in the other work predominates. FroebeKs object was to destroy the distinction between the two. SUPEBINTENDENT ScH AEFFEB : Do I understand the gentleman to say that the work of the school is minus the element of joy which he thinks belongs to the activities of the kindergarten? Dr. Macalister: No, my impression was that the gentleman was arguing for the predominance of work minus play in the school. Superintendent Schaeffeb: There is joy in legitimate school work just as there is joy in play. But why have two words, play and work, in the language if there is no difference? THU CVEEICULUM FOR SECOND ABY SCHOOLS. BY Vr. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. I am to present some considerations on the course of study in secondary schools, with especial reference to the "Report of the Committee of Ten" recently published. What I shall say will be, partly in the way of comment on that important report and partly in the way of presenting my own solutions of some of the problems to which it is addressed. endence. ] CUBRICUL UM FOB SECOND AR Y SCHOOLS. 497 1 the first place, I would venture to remark that the report ommittee must generally be a compromise. The individual of the several members of the committee have been advanced iscussed. In the end they have been so modified that a major- 1 approve them. It naturally follows that each person signing port accepts it as the nearest approximation to his view that is practicable. It often happens that, in the process of elimi- i, all that is salient and suggestive gets omitted and only the evel of commonplace ideas is retained. Generally, it is best serve the differences of opinion that remain after all of the sions in the committee, in the form of minority reports or it reservations over the signature of the dissenting members, iissent helps the outsider to enter into the spirit of the dis- a and to understand grounds. re educational authority, as such, is harmful, unless it brings t its grounds, which may be studied and mastered, adopted or 1, by the teacher who reads the conclusions set forth, the report of the Committee of Ten, there is an admirable to preserve individual differences and points of view. There ^^ reports of special conferences, each conference being con- ^y a sub-committee of ten persons, experts in the topic ?d them, and representing widely separate parts of the country, letting each group of experts sit by itself and formulate its ^s on the time of the program of the secondary school, we ^ely to get the utmost diversity possible as regards points from which secondary studies could be considered, h branch of study would claim what time the members of its ^ce thought desirable for its thorough treatment, rather e time possible to allow it after adjusting its claims in view ^^ rest of the program. 8.ble presentation of the scope and significance of the nine ^8 of secondary study by the several conferences affords rich ^ for study to all interested in school work. But it furnishes Qient of the problem and sets forth the difficulties of making factory program rather than suggests a solution. »vas for the Committee of Ten to digest the results and har- ' the differences of the nine sub-committees. e first part of the report recites the history of the organiza- ^nd work of the committees, and then brings together, in 3 I. and IL, the recommendations of the several conferences, ut undertaking any change. Such a program, as might be ted, shows very strongly one thing, namely, the necessity of 'ying the demands of some or all of the sub-committees for ake of adjustment. It is a reductio ad dbmrdum. It tells us 32 498 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond that, if the experts in each of the nine branches were to get what they ask, we should have twenty-two recitations per week in the first year of the high school, thirty-seven and one-half per week in the second year, thirty-five in the third year, thirty-seven and one- half in the fourth year. That is to say, the pupils would have a daily average of four and two-fifths recitations in the first year, seven and one-half the second year, seven the third, and seven and one-half the fourth. If each lesson required fifty minutes (taking time for change of classes) the second and fourth years would require the pupil to recite continu- ously from nine in the morning to half-past four in the afternoon, providing for a single intermission of an hour and a quarter for lunch in the middle of the day. All the lessons, seven in number, would have to be prepared out of school. Such a strain on pupils would very soon destroy all elasticity, and the reaction essential to individuality would cease. Of course, the members of the sub-committees would never for a moment approve such a program. Each set of experts supposed that the demands of the other conferences would be modified, and adjusted in such a way as to make a reasonable program after allowing their special topic the time required. The report of the Committee of Ten proceeds next to show, in Table in., that the demands of the sub-committees cannot be made reasonable, even by cutting them down uniformly twenty per. cent and allowing four recitations or lessons a week where five lessons are asked for. Even this program, in Table HE., would demand, for the second and fourth years, an average of six and three-fifths hours of lessons per day. Up to this point, therefore, the results of the report are negative as far as making a program is concerned. It is with Table IV. that the Committee of Ten first offers a program that it considers prac- ticable. In order to reach this, it was necessary to drop the guid- ance of the sub-committees, and commence in earnest the study of the comparative educational values of the general branches; and, secondly, the necessary order of evolution of said branches, and their adaptation to the several stages of maturity that the pupil reaches in the secondary school. I would call special attention here to the fact, that the Com- mittee of Ten considered, first, the normal standard for the pro- gram, and resolved unanimously that in no case should there be more than twenty recitation periods or lessons a week, and only fifteen of these (or three per day) should be such as require previous prepa- ration on the part of the pupil. This fact makes unreasonable all those attacks on the report which condemn it for requiring too much aperintendence.] CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 499 iork of the pupil in the secondary school. The recommendations of he Committee of Ten do not err in this respect, for they fall safely p-ithin the hygienic limits prescribed in the most cautious and con ervative schools. Turning to Table IV., which contains this model program— not ompiled from the results of the sub-conferences but formed in view f the conflicting necessities of hygiene, of preparation for college r the technical school, and of comparative educational values— arning to this table we find four programs, a purely classical, a •atin-scientific, a modern language program and an English pro- ram. I may be believed when I say, that the formation of the clas leal program consumed nearly all the time devoted by the Com littee of Ten to discussions. It was easy, after making the classical rogram, to omit Greek and substitute more science and modern Lnguage to form the Latin-scientific program, and in the third or lodern language program to substitute more modern language for atin. The so-called English program was formed by increasing the me devoted to English language and literature and reducing the umber of foreign languages studied to one, which might be an acient or modern language. The chief result of the committee's report, so far as a practical ^commendation is concerned, therefore, is to be found in the classical :'ogram of Table IV. This gives Latin five hours per week during le first and second years, and four hours the third and fourth years, reek has five hours per week in the third and fourth years, and >es not appear at all in the first and second. This arrangement akes the separation of the pupils who are fitting for college from lose who are taking the scientific or modern language or English rogram, take place at the beginning of the third year, and offers le desirable opportunity for change of mind on the part of the sec- [idary pupil, after he has completed his second year and begins to ^ what education means. He may defer the question of college ntil the commencement of the third year. The mathematical stud- « are algebra, four hours a week in first year and two 'hours a week )r half of the third year; geometry, three hours a week the second ?ar and two hours a week half of the third year; trigonometry and Igher algebra (elective), in the fourth year for three hours a week ; nglish language and literature, rhetoric, composition, and the like udies, require four hours a week the first year, two hours a week le second year, three hours the third year and two hours the fourth jar. The natural sciences are represented by physical geography ree hours a week the first year. This branch includes an elemen- ry view of the organic aspects of nature, such as botany, zoology, hnology, meteorology, geology and astronomy. The other aspect nature is physics, molar or molecular, called "natural philosophy" ifj 500 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Richmond and chemistry. Natural philosophy is assigned three hours a week the second year; chemistry, three hours a week the fourth year. General history has four hours a week the first year, three hours a week the second year, and is elective with trigonometry for three hours the fourth year. Finally, a modem language (French or Ger- man) takes four hours a week the second and third years and three hours a week the fourth year. This result seemed to the committee a pretty rich program after all, for it was reached only after harmonizing apparently irreconcil- able conflicts. It provides for Latin, Greek, mathematics, natural science, history, English literature and modern languages. From this hasty survey of the report of the Committee of Ten, let me now turn your attention for a moment to the fundamental ques- tions that concern the course of study, and to the reasons that have made the course of study in secondary schools the weakest part of our school system, although it must be confessed that the teachers in the secondary schools are, on the whole, more skillful, so far as command of methods is concerned, than the teachers in the ele- mentary schools or the professors in colleges. Let us glance, first, at the central idea of the elementary schools. We can deduce the course of study quite easily from the idea of the school as an instrumentality designed to connect the child, as the new individual, with his race, and enable him to participate in civilization. By education we add to the child's experience the experience of the human race. His own experience is necessarily one-sided and shallow; that of the race is thousands of years deep, and it is rounded to fullness. Such deep and rounded experience is what we call wisdom. To prevent the child from making costly mistakes, we give him the benefit of seeing the lives of others. The successes and failures of our fellow men instruct each of us far more than our own experi- ments. The elementary school attempts to give this wisdom in a system- atic manner. It uses the essential means for its work in the shape of text-books, in which the experience of the race is digested and stated in a clear and summary manner, in its several departments, so that a child may understand it. He has a teacher to direct his studies, and instruct him in the proper methods of getting out of books the wisdom recorded in them. He is taught, first, in the primary school how to spell out the words and how to write them himself. Above all, he is taught to understand the meaning of the words. All first use of words reaches only a few of their many sig- nifications. Each word has many meanings and uses, but the child gets at only one meaning, and that the simplest and vaguest, when SaperinteDdence.] CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 501 i4 be begins. His school work is to train him into accuracy and preci- sion in the interpretation of language. He learns gradually to fill each word of the printed page with its proper meaning. He learns to criticise the statements he reads, and to test them in his own ex- perience and by comparison with other records of experience. In other words, the child at school is set to work to enlarge his ^wn puny life by the addition of the best results of other lives. There is no other process so well adapted to insure a growth in self- ^^spect as the mastery of the thought of the thinkers who have stored and systematized the experience of mankind. This is the clue to the hopes founded on education. The patriotic Citizen sees that a government managed by illiterate people is a gov- ^I'nment of one-sided and shallow experience, and that a government ^y the educated classes insures the benefits of a much wider knowl- ^ower to know and power to do. Webster calls the free public chools **a wise and liberal system of police by which property and he peace of society are secured." He explained the effect of the chool as exciting "a feeling of responsibility and a sense of char- cter.'' This, he saw, is the legitimate effect. For, as the school causes ts pupils to put on the forms of thought given them by the teacher nd by the books they use; causes them to control their personal napulses and to act according to rules and regulations; causes them o behave so as to combine with others and get help from all, while hey, in turn, give help: as the school causes the pupil to put off his selfish promptings and to prefer the forms of action based on the consideration of the interests of others, it is seen that the entire discipline of the school is ethical. Each youth educated in the school has been submitted to a training in the habit of self-control and of obedience to social order. He has become to some extent conscious of two selves; the one, his immediate animal impulse, and the second, his moral sense of conformity to the order necessary for the harmonious action of all. Curious scholars have explored and recorded the methods of edu- cation of all peoples; for each people has some way of initiating its youth into the manners and customs and intellectual beliefs which constitute the warp and the woof of its civilization. The bulk of all education is performed by the family in all ages. The lessons in the care for the person; the conventional forms of eating and drinking; behavior towards strangers and towards one's relations; i 502 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond the mother tongue; the stock of beliefs, and such habits of scientific observation as may exist in the community; the ideals of life; the duties of a citizen; the consciousness of nationality, and the senti- ment of patriotism that depends on it; the elementary arts and trades, such as exist within the home; all these things are learned within the family. But letters and science are usually taught, if taught at all, by a teacher set apart for the work, and his department is called the school. The school is the auxiliary institution founded for the purpose of reinforcing the education of the four fundamental institutions of civilization. These are the Family, Civil Society (devoted to pro- viding for the wants of food, clothing and shelter), the State, the Church. The characteristic of the school is, that it deals with the means necessary for the acquirement, preservation and communica- tion of intelligence, the mastery of letters and mathematical sym- bols, of the technical terms used in geography and grammar and the sciences, the conventional meaning of the lines used on maps to indicate water, mountains, towns, latitude, longitude, and the like. The school devotes itself to instructing the pupil in these dry de- tails of arts that are used to record systematic knowledge. These conventionalities once learned, the youth has acquired the art of intellectual self-help; he can of his own effort open the door and enter the treasure-house of literature and science. Whatever his fellow men have done and recorded, he can now learn by sufficient diligence of his own. The difference between the part of education acquired within the family and that acquired in the school is immense, incalculable. The family arts and trades, manners and customs, habits and beliefs, have formed a sort of close-fitting spiritual vesture, a garment of the soul always worn and expressive of the native character; not so much of the individual as of his tribe or family or community. He, the individual, had from birth been shaped into these things as by a mold; all his thinking and willing and feeling has been molded into the form or type of humanity looked upon as the ideal by his parents and acquaintances. This close-fitting garment of habit has given him direction, but not self-direction or freedom. He does what he does blindly, from the habit of following custom and doing as others do. But the school gives a different sort of training; its discipline is for the freedom of the individual. The education of the family is in use and wont, and it. trains rather than instructs. Its result is unconscious habit and ungrounded prejudice or inclination. Its likes and dislikes are not grounded in reason, but are unconscious results of early training. But the school lays all its stress on pro- ducing a consciousness of the grounds and reasons for things. I perintendence. ] CUBBICUL UM IN SECOND A R Y SCHOOLS, 503 lould not say all its stress; for the school does, in fact, lay much :ress on what is called discipline — on habits of alert and critical ttention, on regularity and punctuality, on self-control and polite- Bss. But the bare mention of these elements of discipline shows lat they, too, are of a higher order than the habits of the family, iasmuch as they all require the exertion of both will and intellect onsciously in order to attain them. The discipline of the school >rni8 a sort of conscious superstructure to the unconscious basis f habits which have been acquired in the family. School instruction, on the other hand, is given to the acquirement f techniques— the technique of reading and writing, of mathematics, f grammar, geography, history, literature and science in general. One is astonished when he reflects upon it, at first, to see how inch is meant by this word "technique." All products of human eflection are defined and preserved by words used in a technical ense. The words are taken out of their colloquial sense, which is loose one, except when employed as slang. For slang is a spontane- us effort in popular speech to form technical terms. The technical, or conventional use of signs and symbols enables s to write words and to record mathematical calculations; the ?chnieal use of words enables us to express clearly and definitely le ideas and relations of all science. Outside of technique all is ague hearsay. The fancy pours into the words it hears such mean- tgs as its feelings prompt Instead of science there is superstition. The school deals with technique in this broad sense of the word, ^e mastery of this technique of reading, writing, arithmetic, geog- Phy and history lifts the pupil onto a plane of freedom and self- ^P hitherto not known to him. He can now by his own effort ^ster for himself the wisdom of the race. ^y the aid of such instruments as the family education has given «!' he cannot master the wisdom of the race, but only pick up a few its results, such as the customs of his community preserve. By ^e process of hearsay and oral inquiry, it w^ould take the individual lifetime to acquire what he can get in six months by aid of the ^struments which the school places in his hands. For the school i^es the youth the tools of thought. Looking for the application of this technique, we see tw^o worlds -nature and men. Nature contains, first, abstract or inorganic ►hjects, matter and motion, to which arithmetic, algebra and higher mathematics relate; then, secondly, it contains organic objfcts, like t>lants, animals and men. This phase of nature, including v(^l?etable and animal growth and the requisite conditions of climate, land and water and air, are treated in geography. ^ • 1 4. - Hence, the child has two studies that give him an insight x\xto nature as the support of his life, and as the instrument for hirrx to 504 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond conquer and use in the shape of machinery, motive powers, food, clothing and shelter. With his first lesson in arithmetic, he learns something funda- mental about the conditions of existence in time and space. Matter and force not merely happen to obey mathematical laws, but they have to do so as a primordial necessity of their nature. Every lesson in geography, from the first, is of practical use in giving the child command over organic nature. Taking the other side of school instruction, we find a happy se- lection of what reveals man to himself. Man, as an object, is body and soul. The body is a physiological object, like animals and plants. The soul is intellect, will and feeling. The child does not study psychology as such, but something better for him than psychology. For he studies the products of man's intellect and will and feeling. He studies the structure of language in grammar, and this reveals the structure of intellect. He studies in literature the revelation of the human heart — its feelings, emotions and inspirations, good and bad. Literature portrays the rise of feelings, and their conversion into action and ideas by the will and intellect; finally, it shows the collisions of evil feelings with good. History, again, shows the human will in its distinctive province. For the will of man is manifest, not so much in individual adventures as in the formation of states, and religious movements and social changes. This is collective will, the will of the nation or people, and it is manifest in wars or in great social movements, such as colonization, the building of cities, internal improvements, commerce, productive industry, etc. History reveals man to himself by showing him his deeds. Liter- ature reveals man to himself by showing him his character in its process of formation — the ultimate springs of action as they well up from the unconscious depths of the soul. Grammar, philology and language-studies reveal the essential structure of the soul — its logical constitution as a self activity or self-consciousness. There are no other phases of nature and man than these five, which we see are contemplated by the five chief branches of study in the district schools. Secondary education must go on in the same direction, opening windows of the soul in five directions, so that the pupil gets a better insight into these cardinal provinces of nature and man. Therefore, the secondary pupil will continue his study of mathe- matics, taking up algebra and geometry; of language, studying the ancient languages, from which civilization has been transmitted, and modern languages. He will continue the view of organic nature,- given in geography, by studying the outlines and methods of such natural sciences as geology, astronomy, physiology, zoology and botany; continue history, by adding to the special study of the United Superintendence. ] CUBBICUL UM IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 505 States, begun in the elementary school, the study of general history ; continue the study of literature, begun in the school readers, by sys tematic study of the greatest writers, like Shakespeare, Milton, and others, in selected complete works of art, together with a history of literature. Mathematics are reinforced by physics (called natural philosophy), treating of the mathematical laws of solids and fluids. To these branches, which the ideal course should contain, there ^e certain incidental studies of a useful character — such as vocal ^usic, book-keeping, calisthenics, short-hand writing, cookery, wood- work, etc., which are added, some of them, to the high school courses 0/ study throughout the country. The modern languages taught *fe usually German and French. The ancient languages are Latin ^0(/ Greek. It must be noticed in studying the secondary education of the nit^il States, that it stands between two other self-regulated sys- Qis of schools — the elementary, whose course is determined by e scJtiool committees, and the higher whose course is determined college faculties and boards of trustees. These two independent ecti^^e powers do not act in perfect harmony. Hence the second r scl3.ool has a two-fold course of study to provide for — that indi- ed l>y the elementary school and that required by the college for mission. But: the public high schools are under the control of the school mmi"ttees elected by the people. This causes them to lay more reas on a continuation of the five-fold course of the elementary ihools than on the studies required for admission to college. On the other hand, the private secondary schools lay the most tress OB preparation for college. Here is one of the greatest defects a our system — or lack of system. The ideal course of study demandB Yiat five windows of the soul be kept open. The old preparatory school laid stress on Latin, Greek and mathematics, neglecting all else. These three branches opened only two or three "windows" (to keep up our symbolism); mathematics gave the key to inorganic nature; Latin and Greek answered to grammar and literature, chief- ly to grammar or the logical side of the soul, with a little touch of history and literature on the sides of the will and sensibility. Nature was left out of sight, except as mathematics gave the general condi- tions of all nature — the structure of time and space. The private secondary school, therefore, in the last generation^ slighted history, modern literature, natural science and sociology. The public high school undertook to develop these important side^ of a rounded education, and succeeded in a measure. But it wa» obliged to adopt another course of study for its pupils fitting for colleges. Hence there arose a general, or English, course, and a classical course. 506 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Richmond I have compared the classical course of study to a palm-tree, which first builds a tall stem and tlien suddenly expands into foliage at the top. So the preparatory school and the college required six years (four in the preparatory and two in college) to be devoted al- most exclusively to Latin, Greek and mathematics, and then in the last two years of the college made a hasty survey of nature and mod- ern literature and history, as a sort of finishing touch. There is no doubt that the high school course, laid out by the school committees, is more rational than the secondary course of the private preparatory schools, prescribed for them by the colleges; and yet the college course was the conscious product of the highest educated minds of the community. The unconscious evolution by ''natural selection" in the minds of school committees elected by the people was wiser on the whole. Individual members of city school boards are always found who oppose classic study altogether. But the pressure of popular demand always prevails to secure, in the Dublic schools, what is needed. The difficulty in this case is, that the high school pupil, taking up all the five branches — mathematics, natural science, history, mod- ern literature, Latin and Greek — in his four years, is not so far ad- vanced in the classical languages as the special preparatory school, and does not compete with it on an equal footing. Special classical courses in the public high school are a costly experiment wherever carried on. This produces what we may call a national disaster in our educa- tion, namely, the discouragement of pupils in high schools from tak- ing up higher education. The public high schools, in proportion to their enrollment, send comparatively few to the colleges. The disadvantages of this to the nation are great. For higher education, even with a "palm-tree" course of study, educates the ma- jority of the real leaders of society. It might be supposed that those best versed in natural science would have the prestige, and doubtless natural science counts for much. But the classically educated man has advantages over all others. That this should be so, may be seen by a brief consideration of the rationale of its course of study. We have seen that there are needed five windows in the soul to see the five classes of objects in nature and humanity. Natural science relates chiefiy to the organic and inorganic phases of nature, but gives but little insight into human nature. On the other hand language-study, and especially literature, leads directly towards this knowledge of man that is essential to large directive power. As to the dead languages, Latin and Greek, they are the tongues spoken by the two peoples w^ho invented the two threads united in our modern civilization. The study of Greek puts one into the atmos- ■I ,p«rint«ndei.ce.J CassiCfrzuif IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 507 here of art literature and science in which the people oil^, ved This IS the effect of Greek literature; it i« also the effect oftho ere language m its idioms and in its grammatical structure The study of Latin puts one similarly into the stern, self-sacrifin ig, political atmosphere of Rome. The Romans invented laws for te protection of life and private property, and also the forms of imbination into corporations and local governments To t A itin makes the pupil more attentive to. and conscious of the^sM^ his civilization that deals with combinations of men into social firanizations. No other ancient or modern language gives us anything of equal lue for gaining an insight into tbe institutions under which we e, except the study of the Bible. The Hebrew thread of our civili- tion is still more important, because, while the Roman secures ' \ vil freedom and the Greek intellectual freedom and artistic taste ^ 1 le Hebrew oracles give us the revelation of the personality of Qod' * le fountain of all freedom. For unless the Absolute is a free ' ersonality, man's freedom must be all a temporary and abnormal i [fair; the iron fate which pantheism sees as the "first principle" ' ill get the advantage after all. AVe may see that the colleges ought to continue to lay chief stress ' ' n I^tin, Greek and mathematics, as the studies that foster directive \ ower, but they ought to add also the three moderns, natural science I lodern literature and history, incorporating them into the course » iroughout, so that the oak rather than the palm-tree becomes the i rmbol of the education. f •! By "directive power" is meant the influence that molds the ac- tl ons of men. This may be done by the lone scholar who publishes •eat discoveries to the world; by the editors of periodicals* by th •ators, preachers and teachers; and especially by the poets and liter ry men. There has been a process of adjustment going on in higher educa- on in several directions, especially since 1870. First, an elevation I the standard of admission took place, chiefly brought about by th [jtion of Harvard College. Secondly, an extension of the scope of ective studies, as a consequence of the raised standard, which now pought the freshman class nearly up to where the junior class had een. Thirdly, the requirements for admission began to be more aried, and to require something of English literature and a modern m^Tuage, with some natural science and history, but much more atin and Greek. Had the Latin and Greek requirements remained the same the ew standard of admission would have fitted the course of study f the higher school, and the problem would have been solved. As 508 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [RichmoDd it is now, the situation of the high school as a feeder for the college is worse than before 1870. Then, the classical requirements for graduation at the high school would admit the student to college, while the collateral branches of history, science and English litera- ture, that he had begun in the high school, gave him greater apper- ceptive power or greater ability to grasp the practical application of what he had learned. Is it not a mistake that higher education has made, in trying to lengthen the school life of youth by increasing the length of the secondary school course? Is it not far better to take the student into college at sixteen or eighteen years of age, and after the course of study that leads him to see the unity of human learning, take him into a post-graduate course that teaches him how to specialize and pursue lines of original investigation in the laboratory or semi- nary? This radical question is now in a fair way to be answered ration- ally; for this report of the Committee of Ten w^ill lead to such investigations of the educational value of secondary branches and methods of instruction as will put us in possession of accurate knowledge in regard to the nature and limits of elementary, second- ary and higher euucation. We shall learn the fitting age of each, and not as heretofore esteem it an advantage to hold back the pupil as long as possible in the elementary and secondary courses under plea of securing greater thoroughness. We shall understand that the elementary methods are of necessity too mechanical to be used to advantage beyond the fourteenth year, while the secondary methods consist too much of copying styles and classic forms, in aping modes of work and habits of thinking, to be continued to advantage beyond the eighteenth year. We shall know better than we do now what is fitting for each age. With this we shall enter on a new and more scientific epoch of educational theory and practice. DISCUSSION. SuPT. W. H. Maxwell, Brooklyu.— This I regard by aU odds the most im- portant subject that comes before the department at its present meeting. From his deep philosophic insight, of which we have just had a magnificent example in the paper we have heard read, Dr. Harris is pt feel as strongly as does Mr. Greenwood the importance and necessity of tho :udy of grammar at all stages of the work in English. What we did mean, how- irer, was this: that studying the technicalities of grammar might be confined to a. omparatively short period, say one year, and that, after that period, grammar honld be correlated, on the one side with literature and on the other side witli omposition. Grammar would then be used as a means of elucidating obscure or nvolved sentences in literature, and as a vehicle for criticism in connection with romposition. In regard to Colonel Parker's attack, I read this sentence from the report: 'Reading books should be of a literary character, and should not attempt to teaib latural history or physical science." Then Colonel Parker asks what would litera- ure be if nature were taken out of it. I think that Colonel Parker, when he dis- K)8ed of that prox>osition in that very summary manner, must have forgotten for I moment— I can imagine that it was only for a moment— that there are two grent ivisions in literature, to which De Quincey has given the names, tie literature of ower and the literature of knowledge. The literature of knowledge treats nature from an objective, or scientific, point f view. The literature of power treats nature from a subjective point of view. n the literature of knowledge, the plant, the animal, the mineral, becomes, for the ime being, the center of the universe. In the literature of power, the human lind is the center of the universe, and the plant, the animal, the mineral, is seen ransfigured by the mind's own radiance. To the scientist, the primrose may \tt^ othing but a primrose. His knowledge of it may differ in degree, but not in kind, fom the knowledge possessed by Peter Bell. To the poet, the primrose becomes type of beauty, a symphony in color, a symbol of virtue, or a type of truth. 11 i this literature of power to which the conference thought the reading hour ought > be devoted. Against the teaching of science, as science, they had not one worrl > utter. Against the reading of scientific books, they had no argument to urge. 'Ut against reading science and calling it literature, they had strong and well- >nnded objections. If Colonel Parker has still any doubts about the distinction between the twt> inds of literature, I have only to remind him that Charles Darwin, who had nidied nature more thoroughly than any other man of this century, was forced tr* )nfess, that, to his very great distress, he had lost entirely, during the last half f his life, the power of appreciating poetry or the higher flights of prose. Through icessant study of the objective side of nature, the power even to see the subjective ftd atrophied. He could observe phenomena; he could classify facts; he could lake vast generalizations; but he could neither see nor feel the "light that nevei' as on sea or land, the inspiration and the poet's dream." We want our pupjle 3 see the light and to feel the inspiration. Let the reading hour, then, be devoted ) the literature of power; not to the literature of knowledge. I have tried to gather up into four or five propositions the leading or funda- leiital thoughts contained in the report of the Committee of Ten. The first of these fundamental thoughts has been stated thus by Dr. Eliot: Every subject which is taught at all in a secondary school should be taught Ju he same way and to the same extent to every pupil so long as he pursues it, ^rhether he goes to college or not, no matter what the probable destination of the ►upil may be, or at what point his education is to censo.'* And here I want to aise a query with regard to a theory propounded by Dr. Harris, and incidentally :o defend tne committee's report against an attack tacitly made upon it by the 510 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond same high authority. The committee submit one course of study which does not contain either Latin or Greek. If I understood him aright, Dr. Harris would not have any course in the high school that does not contain both Latin and Greek. Now, I want to raise the question, whether, if a boy is going no further than the high school, it is worth his while to spend three-fifths of his time on two dead languages. Dr. Harris defends his theory by telling us that all our ideas of law and order have their origin in Roman law, and that all our ideas of taste and beauty may be traced back to the literature of Greece. If, he continues, we want to study any subject scientifically, we must study its embryology; and, as the em- bryology of law and order, of taste and beauty, are to be found in the literatures of Greece and Rome, it follows that all should study these literatures. For the sake of argument, I am ready to admit that to one who has so mastered the Latin and Greek languages that he can read their literatures as literature, and not as lessons in grammar and translation, all the results which Dr. Harris describes may accrue. But do these results come to one who has not achieved a real mastery over the languages? There are no high school boys and few college graduates who have attained such a mastery. Where there is no possibility of attaining such a mastery, what is the necessity or the value of spending so much time on the pre- liminary steps? The Latin declensions do not admit us to the temples of Roman justice, nor the Greek conjugations to the holy of holies of Greek art. When school education must cease with the high school course, the student will know far more of Roman law and Greek art by reading English translations— or, better, interpretations— of the great things in Latin and Greek literature, than by puzading out the meaning of Caesar's "Commentaries" or committing to memory the inter- minable tense forms of the Greek verb. And I am strongly supported in this view by two analogies which every one will at once call to mind. The ethical strain in our civilization. Dr. Harris tells us, is derived from the literature of the Hebrew nation. Yet no one now claims that it is necessary to study Hebrew in order to appreciate the lessons of Hebraic ethics. We are content to get our knowledge of what Hebraic literature has to teach from a translation— the grandest translation ever made— the English Bible. Again, in this democratic community, a knowledge of our political institutions is all important. But the promise and potency of all our political institutions are to be found in the ancient customs which our Anglo- Saxon forefathers brought with them to England from the forests of Germany. Yet who will say that it is necessary to know the Teutonic languages in order to study the embryology of civil institutions? The world will always have need of men profoundly versed in the lore of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, and the spiritual writings of the Hebrews; but the boy whose time and means will not permit him to get beyond the "beggarly elements" of these languages, will gain infinitely more by studying translations. He will at least get something of the reality of knowledge. The second great thought of this report is, that every subject studied at all should be studied so thoroughly and so consecutively that it shall provide a sub- stantial training. This I regard as of fundamental importance. I suppose there are people who will tell me that this is what we are now doing. It is not so long ago that the majority of high schools gave courses of ten weeks in botany, and ten weeks in zoology, and ten weeks in chemistry, and ten weeks in physics. I think the number of such schools is less now than it was five years ago. Yet I have in my possession a tabulated statement of the courses of study in many of the large cities of America, which shows that at this very day there still remain many of these scrappy and fragmentary courses. I know from my personal ex- perience with the graduates and pupils of such schools, that they do not understand the subjects taught in these short courses. I know, that so far as their knowledge SnperintendeDce. ] DISCUSSION. 611 of these subjects is concerned, they simply misunderstand them. Not all of Colonel barker's eloquence, when it is urged against "completing" subjects, against "going *^ngh" the subject, and against examinations, can ever convince me that it is a *>«d thing for any pupil, boy or girl, to understand thoroughly whatever he takes ^P' I believe it is a fundamental principle of teaching, that whatever you take ^P. be it much or little, it is well to teach it thoroughly. With regard to our elementary schools. I want to raise the same question as he Committee of Ten has brought before us with regard to the secondary schools. **ow faj. ig j|. ^,jgg iQ ^j^jjg ^p^ jjj y^y^ observation lessons, for instance, all those "event things that we heard yesterday they are taking up in Cleveland? How ^ is it wise to do just a little of each? This same principle, that has been af- '^ed so strongly and so repeatedly with regard to secondary schools, that a J'<>i€ct studied at all should be studied so thoroughly and consecutively as to pro- vide a substantial mental training, also holds good, it seems to me, with regard to ^e^nentary schools. *he third point made by this committee is, that the elementary course should ^" Tritli the sixth year in school and the secondary course should begin with the ^^nth. There was one part of Dr. Harris* paper that I confess I did not quite dergtaiid, and I hasten to say at once that my failure to understand it must be o^etlieir my own fault. I understood him to say that there is a distinct difference ^een elementary school subjects and secondary school subjects. He would ^gate algebra and geometry, for instance, to the high schools. I cannot see, ?ever, why in the world the simple space relations of geometry may not be ght a, great deal earlier than they are at present. I know children can take m ai>- I cannot understand why, if a child can solve an arithmetical problem algel>irci, he should not be allowed to do so. As Dr. Eliot asked this department Brooklyn, why increase the diflSculties of a child's life? He has to meet diffi- ties eri-ough. Why not let him do his work in the easiest and pleasantest way? Just: liere I want to correct a wrong impression. I have, I confess, advocated i$X bsLs come to be known as departmental teaching in grammar schools, and 1 iderstand that an impression has got abroad that when one advocates that system J is supposed to advocate the specializing of the teacher's work throughout the jtire elementary school. I want to say that I never advocated anything of that ind. "What I have advocated is, that the last two years of the eight-year course yjould be taught upon the departmental plan. I believe the arguments in favor yf this scheme are very strong; and I find that, if there is one thing more than another dwelt upon in this report, it is the necessity of having each of the subjects mentioned taught from the beginning by a trained specialist That cannot possibly be accomplished while one teacher, in the last two years of the grammar course, has to teach all the subjects of a grade. Dr. Harris, last night, in his most de- lightful and charming remarks upon the two papers we listened to, referred to this matter and spoke of it as a re-introduction into this country of the Lancastrian plan. I cannot imagine where Dr. Harris got that idea. I do not know of any one who is advocating the Lancastrian plan. The extinct Lancastrian plan has nothing in common with the departmental system as it is now understood. What many of us believe is, that during the last two years of the grammar school course the experiment of allowing one teacher to teach one subject, or one related group of subjects throughout all the grades, is well worth a trial. The fourth fundamental proposition of the report is, that all subjects of study shall be properly correlated. Here I am inclined to make a criticism on the report of the Committee of Ten. They insist over and over again, they lend all the em- phasis to the subject that repetition can give it, that all the subjects shall be properly correlated, but (perhaps the time is not ripe yet) neither the committee in 512 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Richmond itfl report nor the conferences in their reports have given us any principle of co- ordination. I shall not dwell on this further, because at its last meeting this department appointed a Committee of Fifteen to consider various subjects, one of which was the correlation of studies, and I shall simply read you four questions that the committee are considering, and upon which they propose to report at the next meeting of this department: 1. What shall be the purpose of attempting a close correlation of studies? (a) To previ-nt duplication, eliminate non-essentials and save time and effort; (b) to develop an apperceiving power of the mind; (c) to develop character? A purely- ethical purpose? 2. Is it possible on any basis to correlate or unify all the studies of the ele- mentary school? 3. If not, may they be divided into two or more groups, those of each group being correlated? 4. Is there any way of correlating the results of work in all the groups? You will see that this committee has a suflScient amount of work laid out for it. If the superintendents will unite in their efforts to put into execution the propositions set forth by the Committee of Ten, they will take a long step forward in the reform of elementary as well as of secondary education. This report may not unfitly be regarded as the cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night that is ito lead us into the promised land. This report will be the superintendents' armor, offensive and defensive. Clothed with this authority, he need not fear to resist attacks or to demolish abuses. It is the noblest monument of their work ever erected by the teachers of America through their National Educational Associatiou. Chablbs DrGabmo, President of Swarthmore College.— I arise simply to ask a question for my own satisfaction. I was in hopes that Dr. Harris would answer it. I have beeti wondering all the afternoon, as I have been before to-day, whether this report, which seemed to me to cover only one phase of secondary education, is meant to be all of it; but I am almost compelled by the paper of Dr. Harris this afternoon to assume that we are to understand that this report covers all of second- ary education. If this is so, I think we need more explanations. It appears to me that the report is simply for one grade, one department, one line of education, viz., our literary high schools. There has not a word been said here of any eco- nomic phase in education. We have not been led to believe that there is any great economic world; that people are doing anything in this world for a living; that we have a vast social organization, a vast industrial organization, which the old world and the old curriculum knew nothing about. I must dissent from that view, if that is intended. There is the line of the humanities, which has always been important, and is important to-day. There is the important line of the sciences, which is a matter almost of present creation. Many men in this room remember when not only the public high schools gave no attention to the sciences, but when the colleges gave none. We have progressed so far, but we have not yet covered the field. Are you not having, alongside of your literary high schools where these programs are in order, another set of high schools where a different program is in order? Have you not manual training high schools in your large cities? Does this rei>ort touch them in any degree, except so far as they lap over on to the old curriculum? There is a great education growing up in the old coun- try along the commercial lines. The whole scheme of education has been based on the principle that higher education is for a single class, viz., the professional class. It has been broadened within the last few years to include another class, viz., those who take the sciences for the basis of their life work. It must still farther be broadened to take in all classes. Education cannot remain a caste. It '^Perintendence.] DISCUSSION, 513 ill . ^®^ ^** with higher education; it is largely so to-day. The reason the public ^^^**'^^^^^* ^^^^ ^^^ ^"^ ^^^ college is just because the college was a caste in- ixia^h '• ^* ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^'^^® ^®^°^ ^"^ *^® professions, into politics, it ^aa ^^^^ medicine or law, and, sometimes, into education itself. The college oai^ ^^^ broadened much, and it has broadened so vastly that the public schools i^exto^"^ ^° *^^^^ curricula along the lines of their instincts and yet give every ^*-e b -^ ?^ ^^®® ^^^^ schools a chance to go on with his higher education. We X^atin'^^^^^^^ * ladder into the universities, not only for the boys of Greek and tli^ * ^°* we are building a ladder for the science boys, for the boys who take ^^^H^^^^'^'^ ^°^"®®' ^® *^® building a ladder into technological courses, as men- of ^^ ^y Mr. Nightingale. 1 would ask Dr. Harris, if the program given us heie» i«i |.» ^ ^^® windows of the soul, is intended in this narrow sense, or is it intended *riti^^ broader sense. Is not there a vast economic and social world to which we ^>^^l ^*y some attention? It seems to me, that in the kindergarten itself should "•^iie ^ . co-ordination of these two lines of study, these two lines of endeavor— X>li^^^'^'>tific on the one side, the humanitarian on the other— into the economic "^ *^iiit* ^^^ when we recognize that set of facts all the way through our schools, t*iias^ tbere will be a chance for a report of the Committee of Ten on some other of secondary education besides those mentioned in the report. ^^ tiie^''- ^* '^' H-^^^is. — I would ask Mr. De Garmo, what of manual training ^^^ti s^ ''^ *^^ mature training school that is not to be called elementary rather ^Oui-^^ ^coiKiary? in my opinion, wood- work and metal-work, contained in the *o uq^ study of our manual training schools, is all elementary work. Learning ^^ilo\^.g „^ P',^^®» hammer and saw is elementary; so is the use of the blacksmith's ^i" X>}xysi^ ***^ anvil; also, the file and the turning-lathe. But natural philosophy ^^Ooart of "therefore, that the program of secondary education does provide for Xxx an ^'*^^-*^iial training instruction that is secondary. a new sv t ^^ ^* ^^' Maxwell's question, why the Teutonic people did not invent Daodern c' -T-*^ ^^ '^^ ^^^ therefore stand beside the Romans as contributing to usages th t^^*^*^^^» ^ would reply, that we know very well what legal forms and described f ^^^ "tonic people developed before the contact with the Romans. Tacitus in tliat st ^^ ^^^ ^^ German tribes, and we see by his description that they were form f ■ •'^ ^^"^ civilization known as the tribal and the village community. This Tartarv ^^^^^^-"tion is found in Siberia, and among the rural populations of Russia, dia.TiB- wh -^^indoostan to this day. It is like that of the North American In- * . ^**^s, the Romans developed law through the tribal stage and the village 1^1* "to the urban form, and finally to the imperial form. No real free- rp . ***^1^ in those lower forms, but only in the urban and imperial forms. , . ,, ,^ that the German tribes were '^Secvri adversm deos^ seeuri adverus om ^ X'lx^y had not deep respect either for gods or for men. But they had , . -u ^^ Jf ^^art-hunger for personal recognition; and it is this heart-hunger f their ci -m^^^ received from them. It is a very great thing, too; but the form "R mans a ^ '^^tion, when they came to have a civilization, was borrowed from the t*ed so to^ Oreeks. In their village community and tribal life, the men were for them \«-k ^^'^^ ^^ "apron strings." The head man of the community decided . ^^Xi they should work together in the common field and when they could - ^Q . ^tli^j. occupations. Such a civilization cannot earn more than from unities ^ ^^nts a day for each man, woman and child in the best village com- rban civi^ ^tiow about at the present time. But as soon as the nation develops * * Nation the productivity increases to two, three and five times that 514 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond amount. Tho tribal form and the village community cannot produce such things as Roman law, or anything remotely resembling it. The settlements in Germany that grew to be cities adopted the Roman form of government and its legal pro- cedures, and when they overran the Western nations, being driven by the Tartaric hordes from Asia, the first thing they learned was to borrow the forms of Roman law from the cities of the countries which they conquered. When the Christian missionaries came to these Teutonic peoples and proposed to teach them the Gospel of Christ, the chiefs told them they had heard much of the mythologies of Greece and Rome and preferred their own mythology of Odin and Thor; but they were willing to let these missionaries state their beliefs. They then heard the story of an Absolute Being, who made all that is in time and space, and who created man in his own image, and had so much' regard for the creature he had made that he died for him. This kind of recognition on the port of the Divine Being satisfied the heart-hunger of the barbarian chiefs. It was like nothing they had ever heard of before. "This is the religion," they said, "that we have been waiting to hear for many thousands of years. It is the recognition of our personality in an infinite form." This heart-hunger of the Teutonic peoples crops out every now and then, even in our own most advanced civilization. Put an Englishman, a Scotchman or a Massachusetts man out on the borderland as a "cowboy," and he will grow as careless of life and as hungry for recognition as the Norseman or Anglo-Saxon of the time of Julius Ceesar. He will approach a settlement and dare the whole vil- lage to come out and fight him, being perfectly willing, however, to compromise by inviting all the people to the bar to take a drink. He values recognition more highly than life. To the question of Colonel Parker, as to what contribution the Anglo-Saxons have made to history, I would say, therefore, they have contributed this heart- hunger for personal recognition. They have furnished the people for whom the Roman law and the Greek art and science and the Hebrew revelation of a personal God have a higher significance and a more intelligent adoption than these things ever found among the old Graeco-Italic stocks of Southern Europe. SuPT. J. M. Grbbnwood. Kansas City.— This question should be kept in mind in the discussion of the report of the conferences, that there is to-day, and has been for some little time in the United States, a wide diversity of opinion in regard to what should be taught in our elementary schools. There are those who hold, and hold honestly, that the natural science work should be the axis around which all the lower grade work in the school should revolve; the language work, the drawing, the literature, largely the mechanical work, whatever is done there, and the train- ing not only of the hand but of the heart as well, must all be subordinated to this idea. There are others, again, that believe the schools are overcrowded with sub- jects, and they are attempting to do too much, and, in consequence of this, we do not get so substantial results as w© would secure if our work was concentrated on fewer subjects. Some schools are now over-balanced with what is called the scien- tific work. Others, perhaps, have adhered a little too closely to reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, geography. United States history, English grammar, drawing and music, the branches that are usually pursued, and that every child should study. Of course, there have been attempts made in different parts of our country to solve these questions, some after one plan and some after another. The chief objection that I have to the report is, that these men, being special- ists, have put in so much of their subjects, not only into the high school but into the lower schools, that the weight is too heavy for the children to carry. The specialists lacked loading sense. They did not take the time to consider all the subjects closely and carefully. They had not the opportunity. Some of them in SuperinteDdence. ] THE COLUMBIAN EXHIBIT. 516 curred heavy expenses in going to these meetings, and many of them were un- acquainted with each other. However, it is an excellent report in the way of suggestion, but what the conferences have asked independently is an over-loading of the children in almost every particular. The scheme, as it is, is unworkable. I do not agree with the position advocated by some this afternoon, that we should inject Latin into the elementary schools, or that we should inject modern languages, unless as it is done in a few cities where it is taught part of each day. The conferences were largely influenced, doubtless, by the courses of study in European countries. There should be the very largest liberty in this matter. Those that want to study Latin and Greek should have an opportunity to do so in the high school, and ^t they want to study French and German they should also have an opportunity ^ the high school. It is better for a pupil to acquire a fair mastery over the PfiDted page, that he has a tolerably good, vigorous English at his command, so ^at he can write a letter and punctuate it properly, or tell what he has to say ^ a straightforward, direct manner, than to have picked up a little smattering of One or two languages. It is admitted that a pupil may get hold of a very little science by reading the "Wayside Series" and the "Bedside Series" and the "Seaside Series,** but that he will get any real gems of literature I deny. -A.S a deliberate conviction, it is my opinion that the central thought in our edaca-tional system should be that of litera,ture which touches the child's feelings most deeply and solidifies these into character rather than cluster around a fen- facts of science. TjFTI] exhibit of education at the COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. BY I>R. JOHN BATON. BX-UNITBD STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Educators, so largely occupied with eternal verities, may become too much absorbed in what the past is supposed to have fixed, and thus fail to meet current demands, or, as the phrase has it, to keep up with the times. They well recall that no body in the stellar world, coursing through its orbit according to immutable laws, fails to respond to the influence of the most capricious comet that crosses its course. Nor should educators be less ready to gain all passible benefits from the events which cross their path. They cannot afford to ignore the epoch-making Columbian fair. For the teacher it has, not only the lessons it offers to all ; it has also, the great studies in his special duties. In speaking with this emphasis, do not let me be understood as implying that he will experience no disappointments. If we expect it to be ideally perfect, our disappointments will be many. If we expect all nations to be oflficially present, or those which participate to exhibit all their attainments proportionally, we will carry away with us a very diflCerent idea. While we hear, in connection with it, so much of progress, we must not forget that motives of gain, of selfishness, will be present, as in all human affairs. 516 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond It will cost money, and money must be made. But we shall be able to see, more than ever before, what man has accomplished in his various spheres of activity. We might take a trip around the world and fail of opportunities to study great human conditions offered here. We may see specimens of minerals, soils, plants, animals, wild and domestic, races of men, their dress, their houses, something of their family life and avocations, the products of their industries, their modes of travel, their science and art. Where shall we find the exhibit of the vocation of education, in which so large numbers are engaged all over the world in every civilized land, in whose hands are not the materials or machinery of mineral, agricultural or manufactured products, but the children, the real, veritable children, being taught throughout the world, and through whose hands, as clay in the hands of the potter, all those have been taught whose acquirements are now triumphant in the exhibits of enterprise, patience, skill and art installed around us? Where shall we find the exhibit of this, the teachers' vocation — the conditions, appliances, results of this vocation, so central and causa- tive to all other human callings and activities! Already we have found our way through the administration building. Before us is the grand plaza, the court of nations, the statue of Columbus and of the Republic, the marvelous fountains — beautiful, wonderful! But there are no educational exhibits here. Looking to the left, to the entrance of that great building, we see a statue of a man of marked intelligence and aspirations. Perhaps he was a schoolmaster. But we see a kite in his hand, and know it is Franklin. He is just calling lightning from heaven, and around him are other names pointing to the scientific i-esults of education. This great building is devoted to electricity. What a story it tells of the progress of half a generation! What have the teachers of electricity accom- plished? But there is no room for them here. We must hunt their place. They wUl be given at least a comer, or a tent, or a tree, as were teachers with their contrabands. If there is any teaching actually on exhibition; if there are any live illustrations, we are ready to hunt them. We call a Columbian guard, who knows and will tell wliere everything is. Yes, we will find a kindergarten in operation in the Illinois building and in the children's building, and there, too, we may studv the creche, or day nursery, and Miss Hunt- ington's kitchen garden in full operation; also, the instruction in sloyd, aided by Mrs. Shaw; and in another room that triumph of patience and pedagogical skill, Miss McGowan's school for teaching deaf mutes to speak in infancy, or that of Miss Garret of Philadel- phia, now supported by the State of Pennsylvania. Yes, here, too, lively boys are practicing in a gymnasium. Then, tramping down Superintendence. ] THE COLUMBIAN EXHIBIT. 517 near Krupp'S guns, we may inspect a swimming school, and over the way in a government building, an Indian school in actual operation. After another long tramp, we find, near the Swedish pavilion, the Ling system of physical culture. We want healthy bodies for our P^ple, and yet we can hardly delay to hear that in this system the Movements in their nature and their number are founded on the ^uman organism's natural means of exercise, and the possibility of its perfect development to health and capability of work. Gynmas- ^ics can also preserve a development already gained. The aim of these gymnastics -is to obtain as perfect health as possible; that is, 3 iarmony between the different organs and between their functions. StiZ/fulness — that is, lifting a given weight, or the like — has but a secondary place, but it is obvious that the human body will best eceive the harmonious development for which it is fitted when the r^anism itself is used in its own perfection in relation to physio- gical laws. On this principle, the exercises are grouped and classi- d. Xing believed that he could discriminate 11,000 separate mus- lar movements. He believed that health was promoted by their ercise, and said if the person is too feeble or the will is unable to •ec-fc the exercise, then the production of that exercise or motion an^other person or by machinery will promote health, or perhaps evoxit disease— and hence comes the massage. We cannot pause irtlier on the several systems of physical culture that challenge our ttention. Perhaps, now, we will take a turn in Midway. Here in he Irish village and in Donegal Castle we may examine the much leeded application of instruction to the improvement of Irish in- aiistries. In the school in the streets of Cairo the pupils, after the oriental fashion, are seated on the floor and studying aloud. If we choose, before leaving Midway, we may compare the influence of training upon wild animals, such as the lion and the ostrich. Per- haps this is the hour to cross the grounds and witness the trainmg in the life-saving service; or under the war department, th^ instruc- tion in making fire-arms, or in signaling by the use of the balloon, or the sunlight that flashes its message to the distance of a hundred miles. Kow, it may be the hour for lunch, and we will hasten to the Rumford kitchen, and take a lesson in Mrs. Richard's scientific cook- ery, and before leaving this section, we will listen to the attempt to establish instruction in road-building, and witness Professor Hazen's efforts to train engineers in the destruction of sewage or the waste of cities, which is so consummately conducted for the benefit of the health of all visitors at the fair. Already we have notes of numerous instructive lectures bv eminent experts on manifold industries and arts represented, but we can only give them attention when we wish to take an hour for rest. I 518 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, \_Riw:bniOod To-day we will examine the military school at West Point, a® presented by the cadets now in camp. Later we shall have an opp<>'*' tunity to see the living illustration of the work done by Captain Pratt at the Carlisle Indian school, represented by their band of music and 500 of the students; besides, we must find an hour to ex- amine the work done in American business colleges, as repres^xitea by banking and exchange in actual operation. We turn from all th^se live exhibits disappointed that tb^^^ ^® so little of what could be well exhibited, but thankful that th^'*"^ ^* so much, though it is so widely scattered. We must seize a moment to examine training in fish cultu:^^'^ ^^ the agricultural department, or instruction in bacteriology in ^^ laboratory of the marine hospital service, or the surgeon-gen^^^^l'® oflSce of the war department, and when we are ready for a tram^^ W6 will go to the anthropological building, and witness experinientr:::=^s in the psychological laboratory. Let us now try for the still exhibits. Here there is greater dis- appointment; space is wanting, and system and unity are in a m^neas- ure destroyed. Nations are omitted, and subjects are only part^SaJij exhibited. Only about three-fourths of our American States ejcl^mihit their public school systems — some of these only partially, and i^one completely. But, with all our disappointment, we have never i^ad a better opportunity to study education. Anyone at any time ^nay examine its statistics, history and literature in the United Strifes Bureau of Education as nowhere else in the world. But here are illustrations of buildings, specimens of appliances, and collections of students' work, and a variety of data never before offered for exami- nation. Altogether, it suggests forcibly what adequate space and generous treatment of education might have accomplished. We shall have no lack of tramping. We must go to the anthropological buUd- ing for reformatory education and tnstiniction in sanitation, tl:xeii> to the building of the French colonies for their school work. ]^ar apart in the agricultural building we shall find the school exhibit; ^^ Uruguay, and w^hat there is from Liberia, and that remarkable exhi "^^t from the greatest of English experimental farms and from onr o^wn colleges of agriculture. In the Swedish pavilion we can take ncPte of the Lundin system of sloyd for girls — the measuring, cutting a ^d making of garments in Sweden — and in another hall or alcove, f 1^^ work of the Xaas school. Here, there is a most instructive study of the abnormal positions of workers in wood and metal, contrast-^ed with those positions w^hich, after careful investigation, are found to be best adapted to health. We shall want to take time for the. exhibit of the Bureau of Education in the United States government building. Here a J'oucrag SnperiDtendence. ] THE COLUMBIAN EXHIBIT, 519 gentleman and lady will make ample explanations, but the limited space is packed. Here are statistics, history, literature, and articles illustrative of conditions of education that can only be mastered in time. In the woman's building we have a considerable space given to the representation of the institutions devoted to woman's education, academic, professional and industrial ; and in the educational section a rare collective exhibit of schools for nurses. From Germany, some specially successful girl's industrial schools send specimens and ^^ndies in the development of woman's industrial work, going back to the middle ages. From Spain come the work of schools for the defect- '^e classes, under the patronage of women. Before leaving this OQiidiug, we must not fail to take into account woman's work in '^oraries, in literature and science, as well as instruction in art H'hen not too weary, we can take a run to the State buildings of ^^astiington, California and Illinois, and learn the story of their educi^tion from their school exhibits. Kansas and California we shall find divided between their State buildings and the educational section of tlx^- liberal arts building. HCere wie are at last with a great body of educational exhibits before us, and yet here the Argentine Republic is crowded into a distaxit alcove and only partly unpacked, and that fi-om Japan must k foTind in three widely separate localities. France can only set up i>art of its exhibit, and yet a portion of that, illustrating indus- trial work in Paris, must go to its pavilion. Germany with its rich display, to treat it with any justice, must erect another story over tlie floor space assigned it. Whatever course of inspection we pursue, we must never part with the historic and comparative method, two most essential con- ditions of the best results, alike for teacher, pupils and investigator. Before us are myriads of pictures, acres of drawings, tons of written work and car loads of specimens of manual training. We can only hint at possibilities. The devices used are many and helpful. Here, a State tells its statistics on a rotating cylinder. Graphics are extensively used both in foreign and American exhibits, especially maps, notably by New York, Michigan and Massachusetts. Raised maps are numerous and effective. Denver sends a shorthand report of actual daily work in the school-room. New Jersey has a special device for packing and showing pictures. In several instances the phonograph repeats the actual work of classes in reading and music, or the lessons of the teacher, and the cunning of the instantaneous photograph is beyond measure. Fortunately, there is a generous amount of explanatory literature, which is freely distributed. For many exhibits gentlemen 520 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond. and ladies are present, ready to answer any questions. Did you ever go to the Catholic exhibit without finding either Brother Manre- lian or some of his numerous assistants? In New York, you can have explanations in French. In the exhibit of deaf mute instructioiij many find added interest in the fact that the attendant is the gradu- ate of the deaf mute college, and is such a master of articulation that he can communicate with you with ease. Connected with Carlisle and Hampton, you will meet the Indians they have trained. In Massachusetts, you are sure at any time to find four, if not five, in attendance; for the Institute of Technology, an alumnus; for Harvard, Professor Cummings and his wife will speak in any language you desire, and for the public schools, Miss McDonald and Professor Gay will be acknowledged models of tireless courtesy and patience. We are fortunate if we study the French exhibit during the visit of M. B. Buisson, and have the benefit of his explicit explanation. In mastering the large and effective German exhibit, we may have the historical and philosophical explanations of the eminent Dr. Stephen Waetzoldt, professor of the University of Berlin and chief commissioner of the Prussian Ministry for Education. Those who are familiar with the indebtedness of American education to Prussia, the eminent masters furnished to our schools and the valuable information we have derived from the system — principles and meth- ods from the reports of Stowe, Mann, Bache and Barnard on Prus- sian education — will examine the Prussian exhibit with peculiar interest. Furniture and text-books, so easily exhibited, are not so fully represented as might be expected, either from our own or from other countries. If the German are admitted to bear more marks of sys- tematic and patient labor, and the French of a severer logic and a more exquisite aesthetic taate, American text books clearly have no superiors in the matter of print, pictorial illustrations, and other characteristics of mechanical execution. In the German exhibition, there is an ingenious combination, in a teacher's desk. It has the usual conveniences for the teacher's eye and the material for his use, but it has also an arrangement connected with its back by which he may present to the eye of the class, letters, words, figures, sentences or other illustrations which he wishes to use in his lessons. Educational journalism, both American and foreign, is present only in limited numbers. Of the exhibition generally, it may be said, that representations are limited almost entirely to present conditions; grounds, architec- ture, appliances as they now are, the work of students, at a single sitting or on a given day, or completed specimens. Colorado, how- ever, offers the model of the first district schoolhouse; Princeton, a Buperintendence. ] THE COLUMBIA if EXHIBIT. 621 picture of the log college, a model of the grounds and Nassau Hall and other characteristics. Dr. Harris, in the exhibit of the Bureau of Education, presents, in miniature models, instructive studies in the development of desks and seats. Illinois shows a process of pro- ducing stereotyped plates for the blind, reducing the cost per page ^om seventy-five cents to fifteen cents. France shows with effect the progress of a pupil through a series of years. Nearly forty years ago, a plan was attempted in Toledo, Ohio, for carrying out the com- parison of one year's result with another during the attendance of pupils and classes. Progress in text-books may be studied in the ^oJJeetion exhibited by Prof. Jerome Allen, or that of Mr. Plympton. & the latter we may find specimens in arithmetic, algebra, in Eng- Wsii, French, German, Latin and Greek, going back to and including ^ie ^€w England primer and the horn book, now so rare to find and So diflficult to secure. In the literature and statistics of education there is more oppor- tunity for historic comparison. Sets of the '^New England Journal of Education" recall the fact, to the credit of Dr. Bicknell, that, in Its estiablishment, he led the way for educational journalism out of subjection to subsidies and limitation to State or specially local circulation into effective independence and national circulation and the constant draft upon information of the progress of education the ^vv-orld over. If we seek best known data on education, from the learliest time to the present, we shall find it in great abundance in the f iiU series of volumes (found both in the exhibit of Mr. Bardeen anA the State of Ck)nnecticut) of the "American Journal of Educa- tion," on which Dr. Henry Barnard has expended his fortune and th^ eiaiiient services of his long and useful life. Further historic studies may be made in series of reports presented here and there, notably those from Connecticut, Boston, the State of Massachusetts and the Bureau of Education; and those most effective graphic statistics of Harvard, in which you may trace the descent of education by families, or the increase of its funds, or its attendance, or the influence of a single gift to its library, or a fund for establishing a separate profes- sorship; or in the exhibit by Princeton, of the rude apparatus used by Henry in establishing the laws of electrical action ; or in the New York collection, the apparatus used by Draper in his work in photog- raphy. The organization of education is a study in itself. In the exhibit, the demarcations are easily recognizable. In foreign countries, such as Japan, Russia, Austria, Sweden, France, the authority proceeds from a national source. So for England, Scotland, Wales and Ire- land; but for the colonies it is colonial. For our country and Ger- many there is not a national system, but education is a function of the respective States. 622 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Ricbmond The Catholic exhibit is divided into archdioceses, dioceses, the schools and colleges under the respective orders, brotherhoods and sisterhoods, in which each teacher obeys the command of the superior with the fldelitj' of a soldier. Among our American States, while to a casual observer there may seem to be exact similarity, there is really great diversity. From colonial times there has been legislation with regard to education; but the growth of supervision by civil authority above that of the local civil unit, such as the tow^n in Massachusetts, is of recent date. Knowledge of the condition of the education of children or the intel- ligence of its people was not what the State concerned itself about. The importance of this item of information slowly dawned upon the minds of statesmen. They cared most to know how many fighting men there were, and then about property as a basis of revenue. After a time, one of the earlier States after another began to require reports of the children of school age, of school revenues and school attendance. New York first required supervision, then abolished it, then returned to it; and in the exhibition there is disclosed a bifur- cated system of State administration of education, one under the board of regents, through its secretary, and the other under the State superintendent of public instruction. The State University, under the board of regents, is an old organization. All institutions of education desiring a charter apply to it and report to it. The State library and museum, university extension and university exam- inations are under its direction. Under the State superintendent of public instruction are the public schools of the State, the normal schools and teachers' institutes. All appeals from local administra- tion under the law go to him. Under him there is a system of local supervision by commissioners. Cities have a self-directed adminis- tration and supervision, in accordance with the general and specific laws enacted by the State to which they are subject. For a knowl- edge of the education in tlie State we need the reports of cities and those of the board of regents and of the State superintendent. In Massachusetts the State administration of education is committed to a non-partisiin board nominated by the Governqr, confirmed by the council, whose secretary is their executive officer. The great revival of education in 1837, under Horace Mann, may be said to have been begun when he became secretary of this board. In the report of the secretary or the State report of education, you find nothing about the colleges or the universities. It confines itself to the public schools and certain academies and schools for the blind, deaf and feeble-minded. The authority of the board is extremely limited. Associated with the secretary and co-operating with him is a group of expert lecturers, who, together with him, address meetings, ^isit Sapeiintendence. ] THE COLOMBIAN EXHIBIT. 523 schools and hold conferences with teachers and school oflBcers. Towhb and cities, as provided by the statutes of the State, levy their school taxes and administer their school affairs. Boston early elected as its first superintendent Nathan Bishop, who soon retired, when John D. Philbrick was chosen as his successor, under whom the Boston schools rose to their supreme efficiency as regarded by the educators of the world at that date. In Pennsylvania, the authority is centralized in a State superin tendent of public instruction. Local supervision is by cities and counties. Yet there is no State University, the nearest approach to it being the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. The organization in Ohio corresponds with neither of the States already described. This also appears distinctly in its exhibit, which is made by the cities of Cincinnati, Cleveland and Columbus, and several of the counties by their own action respectively. The College of Agriculture is becoming a State University, and there is lack of county supervision and no State Normal School. In Michigan, the exhibit discloses the lack of executive power in the State school office, as in Ohio, but reveals a closer relation of tlw* several parts of the system. Here is a great State University, which was the first in the Union to bring high schools into close relation with it. In Minnesota, the exhibit shows the close relation of all parts of the public school system, from the elementary to the sec- ondary or high schools, and these to the university and the normal schools. If we take up method and attempt investigation, we shall, per- haps, begin with the mother tongue. Here we find it in the songs and common language of the kindergarten. Nowhere do we hear the old "a-b, ab," and "b-a, ba" of other days. Everywhere there are improved methods. Great emphasis is placed on language lesson** in the most efficient systems, whether foreign or American. Selec- tions are furnished from the best authors, sometimes committed to memory, sometimes copied from dictation. Original compositions are required. In the last twenty years instruction in English in different parts of the United States has been entirely revolutionized. The different methods are made manifest in the varied exhibits. The diversity is hardly less marked in the methods of teachinj: writing. Some begin at once with both pen and pencil, like Kan^ sas City; others begin with the pencil and later introduce the pen. as in Boston. Some contend for the upright lines, like England and Canada and different schools in the United States, and others for slant lines, like Germany and many of our own cities and schools for writing. Here, too, is every method for teaching arithmetic and geography. Generally speaking, in all subjects, from the lowest to I 624 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Riclimoiid the highest, there is manifest improvement. Even text-books from Turkey are modeled on the best from America. Schools of Egypt, exhibiting the Koran as the book for sacred reading, show M^ork in manual training and letters in accord with the methods preva- lent in Europe and America. Behind the exhibit from Germany there are the same well-known enforced attendance of pupils and universal training of teachers for their profession, more dependence upon the teacher and less dependence upon the text-books. Gen- erally the work in Germany and France is characterized by system- atic illustration in the lower grades. In the United States, there is abundant evidence that in these grades the abstract method is giv- ing way to the concrete. This is especially true in teaching language. The improvements in teaching English are most marked. In the lack of authoritative co-relation of parts, or grades of educational work, in the United States, it is gratifying to see each grade, by its own intelligent action, seeking to come into appropriate, sympathetic, co-operative relations with every other. In our individualism, in which there is such untold advantage in our standing apart from each other, it is well to remember that we sometimes stand more than erect. We may lean backwards. The colleges have too long been responsible for the lack of improved methods in teaching, especially for abstract methods in our primary schools. Movements like that of Cambridge, in which Harvard University seeks to elevate, render philosophical and more nicely adapted to age and environment the instruction in elementary subjects, is full of promise. The several exhibits furnish a rich opportunity to study the facts behind the great piece of work done by the distinguished Committee of T*en. Everywhere in the American exhibit there is gratifying evidence of increasing thoughtfulness; especially of increased accentuation of the importance of improving the qualification of teachers. Examima- tions in knowledge of methods are more careful. The normal schools are yielding up, more and more, the work done in academic instruc- tion, and increasing their efforts in pedagogical training. Colleges are adding chairs, with one designation and another, in the theory, history and practice of education. The sui generis exhibit of the Cook County Normal f^chool was much studied in the children's building. The Oswego Normal School, that has done so much to bring the principles and methods of Pestalozzi to America, manifestly took the lead among the normal school exhibits of New York. But individual exhibits must be left to personal examination, nor will time permit any estimate of the schools of encrineerine: or technology. It has been remarked that the exhibition of the Boston Institute of Technology is so complete and typical, that, were that institution destroyed, its main features could be reproduced from the suggestions THE COLUMBIAN EXHIBIT. - ^ ^^^ ~ " — ^>^l!?^ ^tr-***** ^^''^' **^' ^® ^^^ "'*'<^*'^* ^"t solid work of the 5t^^^ h!^' *'°^ ^^""^ ^"^ 1*26, pointing to the Ferris whe< i^. t*iertt * ^*' *°** "*^^'" ^'^"^P*'^ o' its graduates, as the eyi :^ ■^**»;*, * INor can we panse to linger nrnnnH tho r>nii<^r-^^> ^h« ^^^*^^^' ^^^^ specially took in, in connection wit ^^^:^^^^"^* who visited us was very large. We shall find m*l>i-ise at ^^ :»^^ ^^ instruct us. Already Compayre has express€ ao^win^nt ^^-^1^:3!^!^^ ^^P^^ growth of our universities and their ric pax-t of thXj^^ ^^^^::^ private sources, and Jules Steeg has declared t: W^aetzoldt x:-,^^ Portion of our exhibit seemed to him childish. olomontarv- ^^^^^Orts favorably upon our improvements in metho( TaJiing tlj^^^ ^tn*nctioh, especially in teaching language. of ±loLG ^"^P^^^^^^^ exhibit of education in connection with other por o:f ^dxicatio^j;^ ^^on, one cannot fail to be impressed with the p cond^^^^^® ^::^:»^ "*^ saving nations from disorder and imparting to 1 de»c^ tlia-t ^^^ :»:iational progress. Here we may catch hints of ixxd^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^•^ gland avoided a foreshadowed revolution by al etxti^^^y ^^:i>C^^ technical education and establishing a system oj V^-iTti^^ ^^^^X:--*^^^^®' ^^^* France in recent years, by an almost si ^ gtf^^^y ^^^^a ^^ advancing education among the people, has avc ^^ ed^'^^^^^^^Tt^ Confirmed an orderly republic; that Japan, by a wis< ^^ ^^ot^S" "Vx^^ Sprung from her seclusion to her front rank amon^ ^^^ ^ ^^'^^XWi. ^ ^^^ made to feel the power and unity of educatioi ^^^^^8 8^1\i^ ^^ o^ ^^^^ rac^' °^ matter what his characteristics t3<>^ ^t. ot ti>^^ *^r the lowest and the highest of every type an enh t^^^ ^v^'^X- ^^ boundaries of knowledge, a training of all the facu ^^ con^^^ ^ ^o improved activities, quickening the reason, confiri ^^.^ ^^^^^ *^ce and aligning the decision of every one more and i ^\xOol p^^^^ ^^^ right. In the provision for reading beyond ^^^s ot ^^^^» ^^ ®^^ evidence that France, in its recent efforts, ^^ f^d- :^c^^ United States, have outstripped other portions of ^^^e\s ^I ^ community of similar territory, with equal populai ^^ inteli'^^^^^^"®^^*® ^° ^^^® important means of assuring prog ading ^^^Bce among the people. Her libraries bring a suppl; r^ ^ntter within the reach of over ninety-seven per cent of 626 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond people. In the exhibit of the Bureau of Education, by the co-opera- tion of the American Library Association, we may see a model library and its administration, learn about schools for librarians, and look up the library question in all its bearings. There is general surprise expressed at the great progress of kinder- garten and manual training in the last twenty years in the United States. Whether our stay with the exhibit of education is Jonger or shorter, we shall leave with the opinion that it was well to maJve it, well for schools to prepare for it, well to furnish opportunities to study its principles, methods and results. For myself, it will be remembered by some, when, by invitation, we discussed the method of preparation for the exhibit, that my experience pointed to the best results in the United States by moving under the auspices of the National Bureau. This is our national agency, equally available for all States, localities, institutions and interests. And now, at the close of the exhibition, you will allow me to say that these opinions are most fully confirmed. What the disseminating power of the fair is to be, no one can fully foresee. It is clear, however, that it will be determined largely by yourselves, and those like you, who are appointed to extend their influence into the future by educative processes, whether by the arts, or trades, or by speech or by the press, or the more formal processes of direct instruction of youthful minds. How 4nuch of this great responsibility falls to you was incidentally pointed out in the poetic language of the "Autocrat of the Breakfast Table" at your last meet- ing: Teacher of teachers! Yours the task Noblest that noble minds can ask, High up Tenia's murmurous mount, To watch, to guard the sacred fount That fills the stream below; To guide the hurrying flood that fills A thousand silvery rippling rills In ever-widening flow. Any visitor to the fair will often think of Victor Hugo's declara- tion, that the nineteenth century is woman's century, and then he will confess, too, that it is the workingman's century, and then that it is the child's century; that its great movement is towards a clearer definition and realization of man's essentials and of his relation, as child, as man, as woman, to his Creator, and that thus it is promoting the removal of artificial burdens and obstructions, and making the course clearer for man's mastery over nature, and for his triumphant progress in the destiny divinely offered him. SaperiDtendeoce.] IMPROVEMENT OF RURAL TEACHERS. 527 DISCUSSION. Albrbt G. Lane. Superintendent of Schools, Chicago.— Having watched the development and growth of the whole exhibit at Chicago, I often deliberated and questioned as to what were its contributions to education. 1 find that the educational papers and gatherings throughout the country are disposed to turn away from the national exhibit, which was presented there with so much pride, and to say, that was a very i>oor, ineffective representation of the great work of education; that if there was to be any presentation of what the educational system of this country has accomplished, it would be found in the lives and characters and in the noble sentiments and in the broad thoughts for future manhood which were presented in the congresses, and which were the outgrowth of the instruction of the masses of the people of our country through the common school. There are some things which will result from the material exhibits which were presented there. We are apt to think that because a few representative schools in great cities like Boston, New York, Brooklyn, Cleveland and Chicago can present a manual training school, with its perfect outfit, and because a few of tht m have introduced kindergartens, that manual training and kindergarten instruction have ^>«come a part of the elementary school system. Because, in the secondary schools, we have introduced something of the laboratory methods employed in the best colleges, we may think that they are being developed in all the advanced grades; and that the whole country has already taken this high stand, and is in the front rank of progress as compared with the countries of the world. This is not true; for when you strdy these exhibits, you will find the written examination, which was the reproduction of the text-book, showing simply the pressure uiion the memory and the taxing of mind to comprehend the thoughts of an author. As a result of these conditions, which indicate unprepared and professionally untrained teachers, we have a right to demand, in every part of our country, that the work of teaching shall be exalted, and that those who are to be placed in charge of the training of human minds shall be prepared for that work. We, who are superin- tendents and teachers, should demand this in all the cities, counties and States of this country. The colleges are showing that they appreciate this demand, because they are beginning to throw open their doors to teachers and are establishing de- partments for pedagogical training. Although this exhibit shows many examples of weakness, it at the same time reveals the possibilities that are before us in the education and training of children. But until we can raise the st indard of teach- ing, both in our rural schools and in our great cities, we cjinnot expect great advancement. THE IMPROVEMENT OF RURAL TEACHERS. l^Y S. S. PARR, SXT^ERINTEXDENT OF SCHOOLS. ST. CLOUD. MIXX. This paper rests on a few assumptions, which will not now be argued, but accepted as true: 1- That much of current education rests on State socialism, one of the forms of collectivist action now in general use. Its antipode is individualism. Between these extreme points there has always been, and will continue to be, constant oscillation. 528 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Rlclimoxia 2. Any form of school is but one of a circle of educative agencies- It niay not safely assume the functions of other members of tlie series. 3. The central condition in bettering any class of schools is improvement of their instructors. 4. Professional knowledge has been carried out of proportion to its foundation of academic intelligence. The tide of State socialism, which began to rise in this conntrj- early in the century, soon entered upon the policy of taking educa- tion out of the hands of the Church and the individual, and putting- it into the keeping of the State. The first step was to remove wliat- ever of support depended on the old-time rate-bills and subscription lists and found it upon the tax chest. This is asserted to be par excellence the American idea. In so far as the instrumentality of the State is necessary to secure training for purposes of equality and liberty, this is the American idea. But to the extent that thi s policy took training, which he could better do for himself, away from the individual, it is old-world paternalism^ except that it substitutes political majorities and irresponsible legislative bodies for the Church and the Nobility of the Old World. To realize State education there must be officials whose business it is to cultivate a supply of teachers; there must be nurseries of skill for germinating improved modes of teaching, and there must be annual showers of inspiration and information to build up and en- courage the workers. Out of these conditions arose th^ county superintendent, the State normal school and the county irxBiritute. The county superintendent was to furnish that expert supems/on which should turn crudity into skill, callowness into experience, and the shreds from school textbooks into scholarship. The new provi- dence of supervision was heralded to fill the long-felt want and would bring to the "ragged beggar sunning," the benefits that towns and cities secure for themselves by expert direction of their teach- ers. How well this ideal has been realized is best answered by noting the swiftly moving stream of incumbents whose average of tenure is too short to free them from the dust of their political race and to permit any sort of experienced skill. How well the hig-li hopes of advent have become ripened fruit may not inaptly be guessed by looking in upon the swearing, drinking, smoking, always trading, erstwhile fighting, conventions whose currency for traffic and barter the county superintendeucy generally is. Of the long list of educa- tional panaceas and patent instrumentalities, this office has perhaps descended to a lower level of failure than any other. It has done nothing claimed for it, but instead has let loose a Pandora box of ills begotten in the ooze of trading politics upon the country schools. ^^dooco- J IMPROVEMENT OF BUBAL TEACHEB8. 52£ *^ ^^e ^^SLrrTj, or quite, forty years of trial, whiat praise or blain£ ^^*^ ^o»?^® normal school for its influence on the class of schools we ^**^^ :^*^^®^*dering? Has its effect been to raise or lower the quality o1 i"^ ^l scliool instructor? ^^^f^€t^ . 8ujTv-<3y intended to measure the effect of reformatory an( ;^^^^ ^^ iJa.^^^sures, the method must be a broadly comparative one ^^^iat ^w. ^® xio-fc necessarily progress. That this country has mad< ^^os^j^ ^*idefi^ in wealth, material power and intelligence cannot b ^^^t:i^^^^^^ ^aine may doubtless be asserted of city intelligence tout t*^^ dev^^''^^ of cities have more nearly ridden the rising tide ol ^et^^^ t Bcb. ^^^S>xnent than have their country counterparts. If botl \r\ttA^ ietv^^'*^^ liave felt the impulse of growing enlightenment lesi ^ ^ 0^^^ nsV^^*^ S'^neral, country schools have been markedly the mosi i^^^rj^l^e ^^^^^"tixr^ schools have led a merry reel of change from school ^e^ ^^ ^^^^'^^^ol mistress, through "individual instruction" and n( tX^^^^O^^^^ ^^^ ^ight grades and a full-fledged course of study, witl c^^^^-0.i^ i^T^^^'^, summer schools, institutes and expert supervision r^^\^ t^ ^"^**^ti j^^ij^t in the circle from which they started, and the] Xy^^^^o^ ^^^^^-r-ently ready to ask, What next? Some of this move ^V^ ^ yy^^ ^^^Xx progress, but much of it certainly has bad no upwarc ^O^^-^U*^ ''^'^U.t: effect upon the changes in question has the norma ^0^ bad V j^ cannot be separated from the week-long institute ^^y> 0\y^^^^ ^School, the teachers' reading circle, and like agencies ^t>^ ^e ^^*^**^itXentalities have a common quality. They all put stress t^^>^^ 0<^-^^lIea professional knowledge. Their war-cry is "method; 630 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond and everything is looked at from the angle of specific modes of im- parting instruction. If they attempt academic training, that ele- ment is always a subordinate one. In branches of academic knowl- edge their pupils are assumed to be relatively educated. Their con- cern is, as soon as possible, to get at the business of teaching how to teach. They are thus the a])otheo8is of individualized plan ! Policies are always larger than particular forms of action. Let us examine somewhat carefully the policy which underlies the work of these institutions. They are all engaged in doing substantially the same thing, viz., letting those who are relatively untrained into the business of teaching, with the hope that somehow they will prepare themselves after they are in it. This is particularly true with ref- erence to their influence upon the rural schools. Graduates of nor- mal schools rarely stay in them a day beyond the probationary period necessary to insure their election in a town or city. The best products of institutes and summer schools foUow the same road. Only undergraduates and persons of smaller attainnLents remain behind. But, were State normal schools to put a graduate into every rural schoolhouse, it would still be true that their business is that of placing persons who are academically below a standard of sufficient scholar- ship in the teacher's chair upon the supposition that the>' will remedy their deficiencies and acquire the missing knowledge. Of course, in a sense, the college or high school graduate who enters teaching is deficient in scholarship. However, his deficiencies are not so vital as those of his professionally trained brother, and, what is equally to the point, he is not tempted to obscure the value of knowledge by overestimation of method. Whatever ability to command better trained pupils may, in the future, do to redeem the present condition of normal school training, its valuation of specific modes of instruc- tion is excessive, and tends t(; lower the tone of all classes of common school teachers, but particularly those of the country. Institute and summer school training has taken its cue from the work of State normal schools. It goes at the task of teaching meth- ods to persons who are niere tyros in the subjects themselves. Teach- ers who cannot perform the commonest processes of fractions or per- centage without reference to a book for rules, are taught "methods in arithmetic," and those whose tidal mark of historical lore is confined to a few commonplaces of fact and date, learn "methods in history." And so it goes! Nineteen out of every twenty, outside of a few fa- vored localities, are persons of such level of attainments. Grad- ually the element of method has grown until in some States so-called professional work has entirely taken possession of the program of instruction. Specialties in psychology, method, child study and the history of education are taught to persons who have no foundation of SaperintendeDce. ] IMPROVEMENT OF BUBAL TEACHERS. 531 pre\iou8 general acquaintance with them. This is a complete inver- sion of the correct order, for which the normal school is almost entirely responsible. We have said that policies are larger than the particular deeds which arise under their guidance. The policies of normal school, summer school, institute and reading circle are one. They subordi- nate scholarship to method, and tend to fill positions with persons who must get the /essentials of scholarship after they enter the busi- ness of teaching. The effect of this wrong action is to depress the i)deiice. 3 DISCUSSION. ^:>i^^^^^^5i ^i*^'^^ coianteract the decadence of urban centers— is the rural populati o:»r ^^^^ti ^^^ ^^ educated to meet the demands of a straining and fast-strid ^^^^.^^^^ ^^^* ancl \>e cultured to a degree far above that which they have attai] '^^^^int^"^^^ *"^ ^^ ^"^^^ schools of to-day, the Republic will grow weak at f »i t:^?^^^ ^l»ex-e it needs to reinforce its vital power. Xj:^ *>»^ ^o ^^'^ :Jx»st read presents a dolorous view of the condition of rural 8ch< i"i^^jr Qf tfc.^^^^ '•^cation of the youth of the whole land. I am not discussing y^^'-'^OOO tor e-ca ^*^*^ions, but I do say that the American people must expend $5( *® "tbe f undatfcfc. — 3^ "^^^^tion before they demonstrate real earnestness in the cause. TJ money into a. ^_^ ^•^'*al principle of all progress and improvement. Get people to ] and i>orsisteii-t; ^^^iness, and they will follow their investment with eager attent effect its liifirJ:^.^^, ^'^l, and will give it all individual and corporate support needed for the defee-^^^ ^^^ purposes. The gentleman from Virginia proposes, as a rem«= two years or :^.^;^^ -^-^^x our rural schools, to take an A. M. of the university, give h •pre i» xiot sa-tr^ ^^ ^^ ^ ^ears of training in a normal school and thus equip him to tea ^qui£>I>ed ^oc*x> ^^, ^^ ^^ with a graduate of either kind of school. He wants a super jyg^y^ ^^ yox:^ ^^:^ teachers. I say, amen! but must ask: What do you offer Y tc>r"ty <^^^l^:^>^^^^X>ect to get such talent for twenty-five dollars, or thirty dolla - jj^ xii^d^'^^^ix:^^^ ^ month, for four, or at best eight, months a year? The vital qu ^^cft' "^i:*.^^ ^^\ir whole civilization must be answered by the public schools ^^^A&^^' ^^ti ^ XiN^rpetuity of the Republic depends upon the education of 1 *^^oT*^ the ^:i>^ ^ c^st what it may, the American people, as they stand amc ^^ ^ -this 'V-j^^ ^^"*^^=^X>ioi^s of human liberty and free government, must get in earn a-l^^ -ot^Uzc^ ^^ Question, must put more money into the education of the mass Xti.'*^^ jj^tioa. ^^ij- very highest and best talent to teach and train the comi tio^s ffc^^^^ ^>f the paper regrets the fact, that under present system of ^ ^j3CX^^ ^e \[i^ ^?^i^ 'teacher of maturity and experience was crowded out of the wo .^^c^ g^ ^X:»C^^^ riot have time to prepare himself and the inclination to keep Xff^^^ it^at^^^J^'^ of development. I dissent from that view entirely. That is a gc .^t^S^^^^rS ^^ ^^^ a bad one. All nature is pruning continually. The teaching co: ^^ ^ ^Q ye^_^^^^ in this Union needs pruning— thorough, continuous pruning— fr ^e**-^ <\nteTx^ * X proclaimed that doctrine when I first went into the office of Sti ^ W^ ^'lie instrumentality of State uniform examinations, this pruning v ^a^^' ftud ^^^«iblished uniform examinations in 1886. They are divested of sei ^^e^^ cann^^^ ^uJl o^ business from bottom to top, and the teacher without schol ^\P oURli^^ l^cnestly pass. If uniform examinations are made and executed ^^ey . ^ "to |jg^ they will eliminate most of these inaccurate and superficial tea< e^ \ am ^^ ^ow %eit positions in country schools. \jg. ^ ^*»in advocate of examinations — thorough, straight and strict exami: ^o**^^'^ ^'^ O.^ v\'in test the scholarship of ^ teacher. The State not only has - 536 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond right to examine and see that its teachers are qualified before they go into the schools, but it ought to exercise that right with such vigor as will save the children from all incompetents. After judicious pruning, the next thing to do is to stimulate the growth of what is left How can we best do thatV First, we must provide for an influx of well- prepared material into the teaching corps. The normal school is the surest agency to equip this constant increment In passing, I will say that, while the State of Mississippi has done nothing for its white teachers on this line, it has, from the beginning of its educational system, maintained a normal school for the education of colored teachers. Last year we established in our university a chair of peda- gogy. The serious problem after all is to promote and sustain growth in the corps of teachers in actual service. The meager stipend they receive will not make the service attractive to graduates of Johns Hopkins. Effective agencies to stimulate this growth will be found in the summer normal district institute, in professional libraries, and in the county institute. The district institutes should continue not less than one month and should have a course of instruction extending through three years. They constitute nor- mal school extension and should give instruction in the subject-matter of the text- books, in method, in pedagogics. They will serve to refresh and extend scholar- ship, to engender professional pride, to create a desire to know what and how to teach. The county institutes of one week's duration can be made little more than meetings of revival and inspiration. They may deal serviceably with questions of discipline, and such matters as affect local environments. The conductors should be instructed from year to year, by the most eminent educationists, who can set before them the highest ideals of what it is to teach. Carefully selected conductors, thus trained, and sent into the counties, will create among the teachers professional spirit, enthusiasm, love of teaching, serious devotion to duty— a positive uplift for the years to come. These two kinds of institutes lead up logically to the professional library, which, in my judgment, is the strongest agency for permanent improvement Such libra- ries constitute an instrument for the improvement of teachers, and furnish opi)or- tunities for development which nothing else will give. Get the contents of one good pedagogical book into a young teacher's mind; have one book mastered at the proper time in life, and you have opened the avenue to all true future progress; and, what is better, a stimulant is applied which cannot fail to make growth in all directions. Besides these agencies, I believe, that, in the administration of rural schools, we need for every ten schools a strong supervising principal, whose duty shall be to develop the teachers while engaged in their actual work and see that the teach- ing is properly done. THE CARE OF TBUANT8 AND INC0ERIGIBLE8. BY BDWIN P. SBAVBR, SUPBRINTBINDENT OF SCHOOLS, BOSTON. MASS. Boys who will not go to school when they ought and boys who are so ill-behaved when they do go that teachers have good reasons to wish they had stayed away — these are the truants and incorrigibles who must be taken care of, if education in this country is to become tiuperlntendenoe. ] TRUANTS AND INCORBIGIBLES, 537 universal in fact as well as in purpose, and so do its full work in training to good citizenship and in preventing crime. Little matters it whether the boy is out of school from his own waywardness, his parents' neglect or the willingness of teachers to be rid of a trouble- some pupil; in any case, he stands for a failure in education and is a source of danger to the commonwealth. How to care for such boys (and girls, too; for there are such girls); how to keep them in a school where they must work steadily, behave well and learn to cherish some worthy purpose in life — this we may call our truancy problem. Primarily, the truancy problem is an educational problem for school authorities to deal with, not a matter of municipal regulation for police magistrates to manage. Not until truancy, neglected and unchecked, has led to positive crime, ought the truant to be handed over to the criminal jurisdiction. Not until education has exhausted all means of prevention and reformation, should the truant be sur- rendered to the police magistrates for punishment. The distinction here implied is of the greatest moment, though often overlooked or ignored. Let it be properly emphasized. Truancy is not in itself a crime; but it is the dangerous way that leads many a boy into crime. The boy who has broken away from the restraints of home and school is not, by that act, a criminal, though he is giving rein to tendencies that will soon make him one. He is in grave danger, but timely care may save him. Now, if the truant is not a criminal, it is an injurious mistake to treat him as if he were. It is worse; it is a crime against society. Restraint he certainly needs; but the restraint of confinement in a prison, or even in a reformatory, with criminal companionship, de- stroys at once the best chance there is of saving him from crime. For that best chance depends on keeping his self-respect unimpaired, which cannot be done if he becomes an inmate of a penal institution. Every inmate of such an institution well knows, whatever the cause of his commitment and however correct a life he may lead after re- lease, he must ever afterward bear a certain stigma for having served a sentence in a place set apart for the detention of criminals. A hard and unjust fate this may be, but there is no help for it It is the way the world has of looking at such things, and the boy knows this just as well as we do. Therefore does the hope of saving the truant from a criminal career depend on his being kept, as long as as possible, out of the criminal jurisdiction. His self-respect must be guarded and cher- ished as the very germ of that better life that is to be awakened and strengthened in him. The place set apart for his detention, in- struction and discipline ought not to be the jail, the workhouse or the reformatory; but it should be a separate establishment, wholly 638 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. LRichmond distinct and apart from penal institutions, and managed by the edu- cational authorities of the city, county or State, not by the penal authorities. These remarks, and the conclusion drawn from them, seem fairly to sum up the teachings of experience in the administration of com- pulsory school attendance laws in those parts of the country where such laws are enforced. A brief review of this experience may therefore be interesting. When really earnest efforts began to be made in Massachusetts to enforce the school attendance laws, it became necessary for towna and cities to provide places for the detention of truants. The places selected were generally unsuitable; in some cases extremely so. The prevailing idea among the officials seemed to be that the truant was a sort of malefactor, for whom any place of imprisonment was good enough. He was to be punished — that was the main thing — by being detained in a disagreeable place and compelled to do hard and disagreeable tasks, until he should be glad to pay for his liberty by going to school regularly; and his disagreeable experience should be a w^arning to other boys. Vindictive justice, not reformatory training, seemed to be the guiding principle. Accordingly, truants were sent to the town almshouses, or to houses of correction, or to reform schools, or to any place where they could be kept from run- ning away, and forced to work. But, in time, there grew up among thoughtful people the opinion, that such treatment of truants was not only ineffectual for the pur- pose intended, but positively injurious. The evil, which should have been cured, was only intensified. The remedy was worse than the disease. Frequent cases were cited which tended to prove that ill- managed truant schools — that is, truant prisons — ^were only primary schools of vice and crime. The late Henry F. Harrington, for many years the able superin- tendent of schools in New Bedford, eloquently protested, in his of- ficial reports, against the city almshouse being assigned as a place for the detention of truants in that city, and against the sort of care and training they received in that place. He declared with emphasis, that by no official act of his would he become responsible for sending a single truant to that place. Not that the officers in charge were cruel or unfaithful; but they were much better fitted for their ordinary duties than they were for the delicate and diflScult task of reforming wayward boys. But, perhaps the most conspicuous example of this bad system of caring for truants was to be found in the so-called truant school at Boston. Happily, this school is soon to be abolished, and in place of it a new school, to be organized and managed on a far better theory, is nearly ready to start. This will be known as the "Parental Supeiintendence. ] TRUANTS AND INCORRIQIBLES, 539 School," and some notice will be taken of it in a later part of this paper. There is a large and once pleasant island in Boston harbor, whose name, Deer Island, has acquired in recent years an unpleasant no- toriety; for it has become in the popular mind a synonym for city prison. A broad expanse of water separates this island from other land in all directions save one, and here the tide runs through a deep channel with such force that attempts to escape by swimming are quite likely to end fatally. The great natural advantages of such an island as a site for the House of Correction, the House of In- dustry, and other such institutions, were readily enough perceived by the city authorities. The impassable gulf of waters served the purpose and saved the cost of high prison walls. Here, too, naturall}'. enough, under the influence of ideas current forty years ago, was placed the House of Reformation for Juvenile Offenders, commonly known as the Reform School. This is the in- stitution which has received all boys convicted of truancy in Boston down to the present time. For convenience of classification, there has been maintained within the institution a certain distinction be- tween the truants and the other boys, the former being called the "truant school" and the latter the "reform school." But both "schools" are to all intents and purposes one and the same. The so-called truant school of Boston, therefore, has no real and separate existence; it is merely a department in the House of Reformation for Juvenile Offenders, maintained for convenience of administration. All this, however, is soon to be changed. The truants are to be cared for in some school wholly separate from the House of Reformation, and situated at a distance from it and all similar institutions. The selection of Deer Island as a place for the detention of tru- ants and juvenile offenders was, as has been said, natural enough forty years ago. Little account was then taken of the effect of the criminal associations of the place upon the minds of the young can- didates for reformation. The one thing certain was that the boys could not possibly escape from the island, as boys were constantly doing from other reform schools, giving the officers infinite trouble in recapturing them. In those days, the lesson had not been learned that right treatment of boys, even if they are "tough characters" and doers of criminal deeds, is more powerful to hold them in place than are bolts and bars and high walls. The reform school was formerly understood to be and practically was nothing more nor less than a boy's prison. The only advantages it possessed over the common jail were these two: (1) The boys were instructed in school studies a part of every day, and (2) they were not exposed to the society of older and harder criminals. 540 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Richmond But modern experience has proved beyond a doubt that bolts and bars and high walls and prison-like discipline are wholly out of place and injurious in juvenile reformatories; and the same ought to be even more true of truant schools. The practical success of such reform schools as that at Plainfield in Indiana, or that at Waukesha in Wisconsin, or that at Lansing in Michigan, or that near Providence in Rhode Island, or that at Westborough in Massachusetts (since its reorganization and removal to open premises) leaves no open ques- tion on this subject We now know by practical demonstration that the best way to keep boys in a reform school is to place no barriers in their way. Let them run away if they wish, (sometimes they will run away, though not so frequently as under close confinement), but rely on right methods of treatment and discipline to hold them; not soft methods, nor sentimental methods, but strong, kind and right methods. The unsuitableness of the House of Reformation on Deer Island as a place for the detention of truants has been strongly felt in Bos- ton for many years. One manifestation of this is seen in the in- creasing unwillingness on the part of magistrates to send boys who are merely truants "down to the Island." There has been a growing practice of putting complaints for truancy on file, in the hope the truant might see his danger and mend his ways. But often the truancy complained of has been accompanied by criminal acts which make the case really more serious. In such cases the boy is usually ^'sent down," the complaint for truancy being resorted to merely as a means of giving him a shorter term in the House of Reformation than he would get under a criminal complaint. So it has come to pass that the so-called truant school on Deer Island is hardly a tru- ant school at all, but only a primary reform school. The conse- quence has been that truants have been allowed to ripen into juvenile criminals before they were taken hold of in real earnest Measures to cure truancy in its early stages have been delayed until a worse disorder has made its appearance. Another strong reason for hesitating about sending a mere tru- ant or comparatively innocent juvenile offender down to the Island has been the stigma thereby entailed, and the consequent lasting in- jury to the boy's self-respect Self-respect, as already pointed out, must be the main thing to rely upon in the work of reform. This stigma is all the more serious from the fact that the reputation of having "been down to the Island" may mean that one has served time, not merely in the "truant school," or in the "reform school," but in the House of Correction or in the House of Industry. People do not stop to make distinctions. To show how cruelly this stigma may be used, let us take a case the like of which has happened more than once. A truant boy is ^Perixitendence.] TRUANTS AND INCOEBJOIBLES. 641 .^^ ^^own to the Island for a short term, we will suppose, and after- j^ ®' having repented his waywardness, has grown up to be an and ^^' steady man. One day he is called into court as a witness, ^ *^^ gives his testimony. He is cross-examined, but is unshaken, Vo^^^^^ ^^ ^^® ^^^^ *^^ truth. In conclusion, he is asked: "Have r^. '^^ver been convicted of crime?" "No, sir." "Ever served time ^ -Deer Island?" "Yes." "That will do; you may step down." It -. ^* ^o use for him to explain that he was at the Island a short rp, ^ '^vhen a boy for truancy. The poisoned arrow has hit the mark. ^ J ui'y's mind has been prejudiced, and our grown-up truant boy ^els "that his early fault will never be forgotten. So it too often is. -Realizing the evils growing out of the system that had been prac- ced in Boston for many years, the friends of a better system made +^^^^^^^ applications to the city government, and, failing there, to ^ State legislature for a complete separation of the so-called truant scriool from its connections and surroundings, by the removal of it irora Deer Island to some suitable place on the mainland. After some years of continued opposition from those who did not wish to iiave tlie existing system disturbed, a law was passed requiring the <^^ty of Boston to do, without further delay, what had so long and so greatly needed to be done. Here is the first section of the law : Tbe city of Boston shall forthwith, upon being requested thereto by the school committee of said city, establish on the mainland, at some place removed from mstitutions occupied by criminals or vicious persons, a parental school for the con- finexnent, discipline and instruction of minor children convicted (of truancy, etc.)- This law was passed in 1880, but for nearly five years compliance ^w^ith it was delayed, and annual attempts were made before the legis- lature to amend it in a manner to deprive it of its original intent, so obstinate was the opposition of those who desired to save the old order of things unchanged. A review of the long contro^iersy would sliow how gradually the right principles of dealing with truants and with juvenile offenders became clearly established in the public inind. It was a long "campaign of education." Meanwhile, outside of Boston, in the State of Massachusetts, the movement for better care and discipline of truants and incorrigiblea bad made itself felt- Some good county truant schools have been established lately, among the best being that for Worcester county^ To Hon. John W. Dickinson, Secretary of the Massachusetts Boarblem. Evidence is abundant Two short quotatiotx^ 542 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond The first is from the report of a special committee to the city council of Cleveland, Ohio, 1891. It gives the conclusions of the committee, drawn from the facts and opinions submitted by many eminent and well informed citizens: In the judgment of the committee, there is an imperative necessity of proriding «ome house, refuge or asylum for the reception of the city's waifs and youthful offenders, who are not yet confirmed criminals. It seems equally clear that the needed institution ought to be wholly separated from the city workhoXise, or any other penal institution. A careful investigation on the ground and collected in- formation bearing on the subject clearly show that the State Industrial School at Lancaster is not well adapted to the necessities of the case, and it is incumbent on the city to make suitable provision for such necessities. • • ♦ Boys positively criminal should be sent to the State school at Lancaster, and not associated with the unfortunate, or simply wayward, boys, who should be cared for directly by the city. This matter of wholly separating criminals and non-criminals has re- ceived much study of late years, and the unequivocal, and almost unanimous, verdict of the ablest penologists of this land and other lands is, that such separa- tion be rigidly maintained. The "segregate" or "cottage" system, in which families of forty or fifty live by themselves in separate buildings, seems preferable to the "congregate" system, in which hundreds are housed together. It enables the clas- sification of inmates to be made, and makes easier the work of reformation in many ways. The second quotation is from a report to the Humane Society in Rochester, N. Y., 1891: The re-establishment of a truant-house in Rochester is urgently needed. There are many children who refuse to go to school, and over whom their parents have not sutficient control. Such children ought to be brought up under kind but strict discipline. But there is no place for them. They have committed no crime, and ought not to be placed in a penal institution. Then, there are children whose parents serve a term in the penitentiary. The children have done no wrong, but they have been surrounded by vice and have lived under the most corrupting in- fluences, so that they ought not to be brought into contact with other • children until after a period of probation. For such as these, a truant-house would be a great blessing. Neither this, however, nor the temporary shelter of the Humane Society, would receive children for whom a place is now provided elsewhere. For further evidence we may turn to England. The truancy problem has received much attention of late in that country. There, as here, it has become evident that education, to become universal and fully eflQcient, must be both free and compulsory, and that the compulsory school attendance laws must be faithfully executed. Hence the need of truant schools. While the plans for the new parental school were under considera- tion by the school committee of Boston, a member of that body vis- iting England,* inspected some of the truant schools there, and gathered valuable documentary information, which supports some of the views already expressed and which was of use in shaping some features of the parental school in Boston. ♦ Mr. Samuel B. Capen, lately president of the school committee. Superintendence.] TRUANTS AND INCORKIGIBLES. 543 Truant schools in England are regarded as wholly distinct in purpose from reformatories and from industrial schools. This dis- tinction has been recognized and acted upon since the year 1878, when the first truant school was established. Her majesty's in- spector, in his report for the year 1889, says: TUere were ten truant schools in the large towns of England. At the same time tbere were, in Great Britain, 56 reformatory schools, including 3 reformatory scbool ships; 142 industrial schools, including 7 industrial school ships, and 18 day industrial schools. -^Vll the reformatories and most of the industrial schools owe tlieir existence to voluntary and independent efforts. School boards liave the management of all the truant schools, of all the day in- clustrial schools (save one in Liverpool) and of eight of the industrial schools. The industrial school ship "Shaftsbury" is managed by the school board for London; and this board has also established two truant schools. Formerly the practice was to commit truants, if bad enough, to the industrial school or the industrial school ship. The present tru- ant schools, however, seem to answer the purpose of an earlier and more reasonable treatment of truants than the industrial schools could afford; for the inspector says: Sliould the new act stop the commitment of truant children to industrial schools, a diminution in the number of the latter may be followed by an increase of truant schools. Something of the character and purpose of the English truant schools may be gathered from the following language of the in- spector : To these schools are sent children who, after repeated warnings, have faile ^ ^^*^ool was being rebuilt, is as follows: 1S80. 1881.. 188:^.. 1883.. .88.80 per cent .84.07 per cent .91.73 per cent .90.97 per cent .90.96 per cent 1885 95.19 per cent 18«c; 94.27 per cent 1887 91.01 per cent 1888 88.94 per cent 1889 91.60 per cent Thefou^^.^^ is the time table at Upton House: 6.00 T.OO 8.00 8.40 9.00 Bf. 12.00 I». M. 12. 50 l.OO X SO 2.00 5.0O 5.30 G.OO 6.30 T 30 e.oo ^oys 1-ige^ fold bedding, aud wash . eaix touse and school f,;^^^Ufast I^.^i'ibution for school and work; one 5^>^vision in school, remainder indus- ^'•iul work ^*-in r.**^p€ire for dinner g^;5^H' dinner n^^i'eation. ,-. ^^ti>ibution for school and work . ^^ill c5,^^I>are for supper j^'^^^strial work ^3-^ to bed . . Talking not allowed. Quiet conversation allowed. Talking not allowed. Necessary conversation. Talking not allowed. Quiet conversation allowed. Talking not allowed. Necessarj' conversation. Talking not allowed. Quiet conversation allowed. Talking not allowed. Necessary conversation. Talking not allowed. 546 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Richmond In conclusion shall be given, briefly stated, the points that were considered essential in the organization and management of the pro- posed parental school in Boston. They are all implied in the idea suggested by its name. In a legal sense, the school is to stand in loco parentis to the boy up to the age of fourteen, and give to him, as far as possible, under the circumstances, a ^ood home. 1. The boys should be grouped in families of moderate size, age and moral condition being considered in the grouping. 2. These families should dwell in separate cottages designed to accommodate twenty-five, or at most, thirty boys each.* 3. The family life in these cottages should be, in all its incidents, as complete and homelike as possible. Meals should be taken in the cottage dining-rooms, not in one large dining hall, even if that be the more economical plan. The civilizing process, which most of these boys greatly need, canndt go on in the large hall, but it can go on in the small cottage dining-room. This is another point upon which considerations of economy will be apt to outweigh moral and social reasons in the minds of average municipal legislators. 4. Each cottage should be under the care of a house master and house matron — preferably a man and his wife — who should be to the boys as father and mother. A third adult, as a teacher or other officer of the school, should be lodged in each cottage and assigned some of the domestic cares. In emergencies, the help of this third adult might be invaluable. 5. All house-work should be done by the boys, under competent direction. 6. There should be school instruction three hours a day. 7. There should be moral and religious instructions on Sunday — a general service in one part of the day, morning or afternoon, and in the other part such separate denominational instruction as might be desirable. In a, sense, moral instruction would be going on all the time, the whole discipline of the school being, in fact, directed to that end; but the Sunday instruction in morality would be of the kind usually associated with religious instruction. It would be the theory, of which week-day experiences would furnish the practical illustrations. 8. There should be some good manual training; although, in view of the rather short periods of detention and of the insufficient age and strength of many of the boys, such training could not be ex- pected to reach very far into the learning of trades. What has be- come known by the name of "sloyd" is probably the best form of manual training for such boys as would come into the parental •The writer regrets to say. that In the new buildings constructed for the parental school, this limit has been raised to fifty boys. This is believed to be a serious en*or, not to be excused by considerations of economy. ^^^tendenc©.] TRUANTS AND INCORRIQIBLES. 517 ^tud-^*' ^any a boy is a truant from sheer inability to grasp book st^ ^^®' On the minds of such boys manual -training often takes a ''^^^g hold. isijQ ' ^' there be land fit for the purpose, instruction in gardening ^ort ^^ given. This does not mean that boys should be kept at t:at ^^^ing beans, weeding onions, picking berries or digging po- ^i'e^t^' ^^rely to realize an income for the school. Such things they t:li^ ^^^0, of course; but they are to be taught, at the same time, ^j»^ Principles and the art of gardening as if they were to become tro \»|f^^^^ gardeners. It has been found difficult and well nigh useless ^fl^^ ^I'est city boys in country life and in farming. Nearly always, -eojix ^i** release from reformatories or industrial schools, back they tliou K^ *^^ ^^^^' Therefore, gardening is the utmost that it is ®olio 1 ^ ^^^^ ^^ attempt in this direction in the Boston parental ^fforrt ' ^nd the thirty acres of land this school is to occupy will m ^^^^ opportunities for horticultural instruction. ®liouJrt ^^'^^stic service and instruction in other forms of labor ^ a fiij four hours a day. ^xx^SLls Study of lessons, the reading of books, the play, the ^^ in M^^ ^^' other employments of the day which admit of it, should C^ee^at* ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ family life in the cottages. Segregation, not con- * -,^ ^^^' ^iiould be the ruling principle in all arrangements for ns^uction a,>d emploj-ment ^ , • ., . ^ fcuildings considered necessary are these: (1) A cen- a buildirfc^ ^^^. ^^^ offices, superintendent's apartments, kitchen, aundry, balc^^^ and store-rooms. (2) A schoolhouse and chapel, the lass-rooma l:>^iug on the first floor and the chapel, large enough to Lold the eutlx^e school, on the second floor. (3) Cottages, neat and ubstantial |^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ costly, three or four to begin with, suppos- ng the iiunxit>ep of boys not likely to exceed a hundred for the first wo or thre^ ™„ra -|o rpv^ years. xo. J. He g-rounds should be inclosed with a fence or a wall of no nore than tlxe ordinary height No provision against escapes is de- sirable. 14. Tlxji^l- ^^^ chiefly important thing in the whole business is to secure th^ appointment of a superintendent well qualified for the very P^^^listr and exacting duties of the position, hardly needs to be said. ^^^^ y^^^ the greatest danger of failure lies just at this point. Qix-ujgg^ men can be found; but appointing boards are not *^^^K^ ^^^lifled to find them, or appreciate them when found. ' ^Tit the p^reatest evil of all, and one to be guarded against at all Poixi^g with the utmost care, is the abuse of the pardoning ?^^?^' , ^Oi^ewhere, of course, must be lodged the power of releas- ing e bo^ from further detention, either conditionally or absolutely. 548 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Richmond The danger that this power may be placed where it will be wrongly used cannot but be obvious to all who are familiar with the char- acter and workings of municipal governments in this country. The principle should be this: Release from the school always to be earned by good conduct, industry and learning on the part of the boy while in the school, never by influence acting from outside. The im- portance of this principle can hardly be overestimated; and yet, to secure a wise and steady course of action in accordance with it may become, under unfavorable conditions, an impossibility. 16. What is known in penology as the indeterminate sentence, should be applied to all reformatories and truant schools, provided this can be done under conditions that will secure the right working of that principle. The indeterminate sentence is a sentence which the convict may make as short as he chooses, by reforming himself and proving that he has reformed himself by pursuing a steady course of right conduct for a sufficient length of time; in other words, by repenting and bringing forth fruits meet for repentance. This principle would work admirably in a truant school, provided always, it were rightly applied and not interfered with by irrelevant outside influences. Let the truant be brought into court at the earliest stage of the truancy habit. Let it not be a criminal court, but, if possible, the probate court, or some court not ordinarily ex- ercising criminal jurisdiction. Let the decree of this court place the truant school in loco parentis over the truant until he reaches the upper limit of age for compulsory school attendance, say, four- teen years. Such a boy might be ten, nine, or even eight years old at commitment; but the period of detention would depend on the boy, and might be shortened to a few months, by industry and good conduct on the boy's part. His first release should usually be con- ditional, so that the truant school could resume personal custody of him at any time if he failed to deserve his license. The chiefly important condition of his license would, of course, be regular at- tendance at some designated day school. A weekly report of his attendance should be sent to his guardians at the truant school. The condition of the boy's home and the disposition of his parents as to taking proper care of him are also important circumstances to take into consideration. Absolute release from the truant school would come in two ways: First, by the boy's having deserved it through good conduct while in the truant school and while out on license, and, secondly, by his reaching the age of fourteen years. The release, coming in this lat- ter way by limitation, might or might not be deserved. If not, the boy would probably soon behave in a way to deserve commitment to a reformatory for older boys on a complaint before a criminal court Still, it would be true that the truant school had done all that was ^^Perintendence.] DISCUSSION. 549 undeV ^J^^.^^.^^^f ^^^ ^™- The younger the boy when first brou^lit cure 1 out t] Ob^^ ^^*^ juwnile cnminality, and later into adult criminality. ' ^^s<^ipline for truancy the greater the chances of a complete tl ^ '^ t^e age of fourteen. The great and crving evil througli- »"" w-fv.^^"'^*^^ today is, that for want of proper means for deab *=» itli truancy in its earlier stages, it is neglected and allowed to J?^incij)iis, DISCUSSION. jj ' **• HoBiNSON, Superintendeut of Schools, Detroit, Mii li.^Kvt^iy eomm unity prosrr ^ ^^^^^ts and incorrigibles, and one of the most sign ifj cant signs of the ess a.nd advancement of our present civilization is the rapid growth ami di*- pinent of that humanitarian spirit, which sends men into the higliwnys and ways of life to seek out those who are ignorantly weak, moralJy crippled and pirittially blind, and lead them into right living. ^ the evolution of the race through the survival of the fittest, eelf-protet'tion ^.. ®^^^~«-a of society. The greater interest among educators, in truants and iDcorriffibleu, ia only one pliase of a larger movement. This unsolved problem appeals to us forcibly. The school has an important part to play in the reduction of the friminsf dasaea. Education must wage war against, and conquer, ignorance and crime. True educa- tion must produce right conduct. Mere intellectualism is no longer worshiped: the making of right lives is the function of education; the building of good character is its suiireQie and ultiniiite aim. Every child has in him the germ of all that is good, and it is the purpose of education to nourish and foster this growth. Education is a putiitivu proceas. It starves and crushes out evil tendencies and possibilities by the nbsorpti<>n of the life-giving elements in the production of that which is good. Kducation Is not only the generation of power in an individual, but its right diroi'tirm aud use. The I>ower generated, when applied to the mechanism of a human life, should produce strength and beauty of character. In dealing with this question, it will be considered under two headsi. First, what can be done to prevent children from becoming truants and incorrij^bles; second, how to deal with those who have already reached thin state. The first is by far the more important phase of the question, but after all posKible precautioni! have been taken, there will still be some of this class amonj^ out chill rcn. Many elements combine to make truants and incorrigibles. Hererlity. home influertces and outside associations are potent factors, as well as poor teachers and a lack of sufficient wisdom to create in our schools the best conditions for moral growth. 550 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Richmond 1. The best way to prevent a child from playing truant is to make the school- room more attractive to him than the street. That a boy should want to play truant, is a sad reflection on his teacher and the work given him to do. These two elements, the curriculum and the teacher, combine to make school life attractive or otherwise. If the boy is to like school, he must be interested in the work, he must be taught those things which interest him. This interest is the key-note to teaching; it not only makes learning possible, but it is the raw material out of which a love for the subject and a desire to know more about it are created. We interest, not that we may teach, but teach, rather, that we may interest The teaching which develops in a boy strong centers of interest in different lines of thought, thus making him an observer, an investigator, a reader and a thinker, is of a kind calculated to keep him in school. It is the thought in which the child is interested that arouses his feelings, and, through them, influences his actions. What the boy thinks, largely determines what he will do. What is taught in our schools is a question of vast importance. The experiences of the last few years have been freighted with valuable sug- gestions along this line, since history, literature and science have become a part of the daily food of the pupils in all grades. There has been an increased interest in the work, and the school-room- has proved more attractive than before. Many a child, through the stories of Agoonack and Hiawatha, or Fulton and Morse, has found new pleasures in school work, and, filled with thoughts of these historical stories, has found reading a pleasure, and even composition writing or telling, not a burden, because of the strong desire to express that with which his mind is filled. History is a source of great interest to children of all ages, from the little six-year-old, who can only take it in the form of the oral story, to the child of older growth, reading his "Miles Standish" or "Life of Abraham Lincoln." These history stories not only interest children, but are rich in ideas of conduct and fur- nish an inexhaustible supply of materials and opportunities for filling the child's mind with concepts of right conduct. History is a potent element in character building, and deserves a conspicuous place in our course of study. Childhood is the age of poetry and song. Many a child who has never loved arithmetic or spelling will revel in the pleasures of a poem or a song. In many of the lower grades the happiest time of the whole school day is the period de- voted to the study of some choice selection of poetry. To fill the child's mind with such thoughts as found birth in a Longfellow or an Alice Carey, must influence his conduct and quicken his moral susceptibilities. The beautiful is in itself power- ful; education should furnish the conditions for the development of truth, and the conception of its beauty in the child mind — ^these thoughts, when once implanted there, must find expression in right conduct and good living. When, through science teaching, nuts, fruits and flowers, birds, beasts and insects, clouds and brooks and crystals, are brought into the school-room and rendered even more attractive through their intelligent study, then may it be possible to center in the school-room sufficient attraction to prevent truancy. The enriching of the course in our elementary schools is a great step forward. Not only is it making the teaching of reading, writing and arithmetic easier and productive of better results, but this greater richness in thought studies is vitalizing and broadening and unify- ing and strengthening the whole work. What are the prominent characteristics of the teacher who can reduce truants and incorrigibles to the minimum? A strong teacher has many virtues, but two marked qualities seem to dominate the one who can reach and help children having wrong tendencies and having bad habits. First, she must value childhood. Until in her soul there has beon born and nurtured that love and reverence for a child laperintendeBce. ] DISCUSSION, 651 irhich comes only through a deep conviction of the immense value of any human oul; until, to her, as with Emerson, "There are no common men," she has not rithin her that broad conception of the teacher's work which makes her strong nough in purpose and large enough in heart to do for this class of children. Not ntil the teacher looks beneath bodily uncleanliness and personal unattractiveness, nd the unpleasing garb of rude behavior, and even immoral habits, and sees in :s nakedness a human soul, with its great possibilities and tremendous inherent alue; not until she loves a child because he is a child, and values him because of irhat he may become, rather than for what he is. can this problem be rightly olved. She must see in every child the possible ideal capable of growth and de- elopment, and, through her faith in this ideal, possess that indefatigable zeal, elf -denying spirit and healthy enthusiasm which characterizes every true teacher. rhe study of history, psychology and the science of education do much toward pving clear conceptions and high ideals in the work of teaching; professional raining is doing much in the way of supplying teachers with correct ideals and •ight motives. A teacher with an insight into the true meaning of life and one's •elation to his fellow beings will cultivate that large unselfishness and great love that enables one to see good in every child, and create around him that atmosphere jf trustful and loving sympathy in which alone his better nature can be evolved. Sympathy is ethical power, love is the life-giving force; and these very incor- rigibles and truants, more than any others, need to be nourished and fostered in m atmosphere of kindness and faith in childhood. Give them the best teachers, Qind, in such an environment, let them be subject to the impulses which truth 5ives. Evil tendencies must be eradicated, not suppressed; and the best method is to furnish the most favorable conditions for the strong and healthy growth of the child's best nature. The second characteristic which such a teacher must possess is that of force. Teachers must be strong, physically. They must deem it their duty to themselves and their work, to keep themselves in a good physical condition. Many a child has been led into disobedience and dishonesty, and even driven from school, by a peevish, nervous, impatient teacher, who, because of her unhealthy physical con- dition, provokes disorderly conduct and bad behavior. If every teacher of this kind could be removed from and kept out of our schools to-day, much would be done toward the prevention of truancy and incorrigibility. Teachers must possess intellectual force. They must have that mental power which will enable them to hold a child to his best efforts. Misconduct is often simply misdirected energy. The teacher has not force enough to direct this energy into the proper chanel of close application to legitimate work, and so it develops, abnormally, into misbehavior. If every teacher had broad scholarship and an understanding of child nature, and kept herself alive and growing— a vital force in close contact with living truth— there would be fewer truants and incorrigibles. Everything which stimulates teachers to be students is an aid in the solution of this problem. It goes without saying that the teacher must possess moral force of character. The most powerful moral teaching the world has ever known has been th&t which has come from the inspiring influences of grand and noble men and women. Force of character in a teacher reacts powerfully on those under her charge, and unconsciously and continually makes for good conduct and right behavior in the pupils. "AH mental and moral force is positive good; it goes out from you whether you will or not." 2. How shall those who have become truants and incorrigibles be cared for? An act passed by the Michigan State Legislature, in 1883, to provide for the com- 552 NATIONAL^EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond pulsory education of children, in certain cases, authorized cities and villages, having a population of more than 5,000, to establish one or more ungraded schools for the instruction of children between the ages of eight and sixteen years, who are habitual truants; also, those who, while attending public schools, are incorrigible, vicious or immoral; also, those found wandering about the streets, not enrolled in any school, and having no business or occupation, shall be deemed juvenile dis- orderly persons and subject to this act. In all cities having a duly organized police force, it shall be the duty of the superintendent of police to detail, upon the request of the school authorities, one or more members of said force to assist in the enforcement of this act. Where no regular police force exists, it shall be the duty of the board of education or school district officers to designate some constable to act in this capacity. The duty of such officers is to stop all persons between the ages of eight and sixteen years, found wandering on the streets during school hours, and require an explanation of .their absence from school. If the explanation is not satisfactory, such persons may be arrested, under this act, as juvenile disorderly persons, be taken to the ungraded school, and a written notice to this effect shall be served upon the parent or guardian. It shall, also, be the duty of thi* truant officers to investigate all cases reported by school authorities. It shall be the duty of the parent or guardian having charge of such children, to cause them to attend the ungraded school. In case of refusal or neglect on the part of the parent or guard- ian to cause the child to attend this school, it shall be the duty of the officer to make complaint against the parent or guardian, before the proper tribunal. In case of conviction, a fine shall be imposed, or sufficient bond with sureties may be required, that the child shall attend the ungraded school within five days, and remain in said school during the remainder of the term. In case the parent or guardian is unable to cause the child to attend this school, then the truant ofiScer shall make complaint that the child is a juvenile disorderly person, and the court shall determine whether this child belongs to this class, and, if so, send him to a reform school. Any child who is a member of the public schools wiiose conduct is vicious or immoral, or who refuses to obey reasonable rules of government, may be compelled to attend the ungraded school. If no improvement is made, he may be proceeded against as a juvenile disorderly person. Under this provision an ungraded school was organized in our city in the fall • of 1883. For six years this school occupied rented quarters not adapted to its needs. At the beginning of the seventh year it was moved to a building built especially for this purpose; this building is well equipped, having plunge baths, lavatories and all the conveniences needed in such a school. The increased com- forts of many who attend this school, the admission of girls, the additional number of truant officers and the better facilities for conducting a school of this kind, per- ceptibly increased the enrollment this year and the following one. Since then the increase has been about what could be expected with the yearly growth of our city. Several factors affect this enrollment. On account of the central location of the school and its having only one session each day, many of the newsboys, not truants or incorrigibles, attend here in preference to another school. These boys are permitted to attend this school because of the home circumstances which render necessary their work in soiling papers. This gives them an opportunity to sell both morning and evening editions, the sf^hool session being from nine until two. The true success of a school of this kind is not in increasing its enrollment, but rather in keeping its enrollment at the lowest possible number, as the effect of such a school should be to keep this class of children in the r*Mrular s<-hf»ols. Superiute] mdence.] DISCUSSION. 553 Enroll- Av. No. -Tj,- ment. Belonging f^^st year 158 51 Second year 230 73 f^Wrd year 372 100 *;ourtb year 301 G8 * ifth year 221 67 ^ixth year 251 67 iZl^ ^^^' ^'^ ^ -ri^!? ^^^^ Cboys, 342; girls, 32) 376 123 Tenth year (boys, 370; girls, 30) 400 116 ■c-ieventh year, so far 290 128 -^* the beginning of the fifth year, increased attention to this subject on the part of the principals of the different schools decreased the enrollment in the un- raaed^ scbool. At this time the superintendent required principals to report daily, ^ ''^^•il, to his office all transfers and those received by transfer, thus preventing ^ ^Pl>ortunity for truancy in case of change of residence. Each principal is also ^quired to send in, at the end of each month, what is termed, a "left" report, fiTiviii^ account of all pupils who have left during the month, the cause of their aving^, and their present location. This prevents possible opportunities that pupils migfht have to deceive parents or school authorities. Of the pupils enrolled after the first year about forty-five per cent are from other schools in the city, thirty per cent had been previously enrolled in the ua- ^aded^ school, and the remaining twenty-five per cent are taken from the streets. J. he disx>osltion of these during the year was as follows: Twenty per cent were sent hack into the schools, having become obedient to authority and studious in their habits; twenty per cent left to go to work, five per cent were sent to the reform schools, fifteen per cent removed frpm the city, and the remaining forty per cent were in regular attendance at the school. The regular work is followed as closely as possible in this school, the pupils being classified here as in other schools. The truant officers report for duty daily to the principal of the school, and this, together with the reports made by the principals of other buildings, enables him to look after this class of children quite closely and with some considerable degree of success. We still need, however, another school. These children may be divided into tvro classes, those who are truants from school and not given to any other vice, and those who are truants from both school and home and given to many other vices. For the second class we should have a separate institution, called a school of detention, or a parental school, in which they might be kept day and night. away from any evil influences and under the most favorable conditions for ref- ormation. In connection with such school I would suggest an industrial de- partment, in order that these children might be kept constantly employed and be trained to work. By thus separating this class of children, their evil influences on others would be prevented, and, at the same time, many of them might be redeemed from vice and crime and become useful citizens. 554 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [RichmoDd TRJE UNIVERSITY IN ITS RELATION TO THE TEACHING PROFESSION. BY CHAKLES DB GABMO. PRESIDENT SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, PENNSYLVANIA. There are two important phases to this question: First, what the university can do out of its own native resources toward the development of teachers for the schools; second, what it can do by virtue of its position, its influence, its power, toward influencing outside organizations, the chief of which, as it seems to me, is the normal school. It has been with me for some time a very earnest concern about what the true relation should be between the university and the normal school, and, with your permission, I will devote myself mainly to that phase of the subject to-day, hoping that those who follow me may take up, perhaps, the equally important phases that I do not touch. If I did not want to convince you of something and in- duce you to do something, I might not take the course that I am going to take; but, that being the case, I shall have to remind you of some things which you know perfectly well, but which, perhaps, you may not have thought of in this connection. We sometimes question, in this country, what the difference is between a college and a university. Of course, it depends upon what your definition of a college is; but I think the current no- tion is, that a university is a college plus graduate work. You must very greatly broaden your definition of the college if that is to remain true. The university, as compared with the small college as it has been, is totally a different institution in every respect. It is an institution of such modern growth, such recent development, that, unless we stop to think about it, we really do not know what it is, and how world-wide different it is from the old college — the college which most of you attended — the classical college, the col- lege which taup:ht the Greek and Latin and mathematics, with, per- haps, a very small smattering of natural science and history thrown in to fill up the chinks. The modern university is very different from all that. It includes all that, but vastly more. The old college edu- cation was humanitarian almost solely. In addition to those branches that were formerly taught among the humanities, w^e may include modern history. Not a little general smattering from the text-book, but a thorough investigation from original sources, often of all the gi'eat epochs in the history of the world. In addition to that, we may count in the history of politics, political history, the history of political institutions. We live under a democratic era in the world. Superintendence.] THE UNIVERSITY AND THE TEJLCHEB, 555 Tlie liistory of Greece and Rome no longer explains our modern in- stitutions. We are under democratic forms; we are under forms suctk as the ancient world never dreamed of. We are investigating and studying those forms in the university to-day. We have, there- fore, greatly enriched in the universities the old college curriculum along that line; along its own specific lines. Even in our little col- lege at Swarthmore, our mathematics is going away beyond what ttie old college ever dreamed of. It seems as if mathematics itself Ixad liad a new birth in these modern times and we are talking about non-Euclidian geometry. We have enthusiastic classes working along these new lines; thus transcending the old- But, then, that is only a very small part of the modern university. You could al- most cut it out and not know that it was gone, if you measured it by tlie students that it would take away. We have introduced all tlie great natural sciences. We teach chemistry for from four to six years. We do the same with biology, with physics, with physical geography, with geology, with astronomy. Not only is the univer- sity curriculum enriched by these subjects, but it has taken up an- otlier group of modern subjects which is increasing in usefulness and importance— those phases of civilization that pertain to the great industrial world of to-day, not only the making of money, not only the production and distribution and consumption of wealth, bnt all the myriad social questions that go along with them. A. gentleman came down from New York the other day to lecture on what the duty of society is to the unemployed. He finds that tliere are half a million people in New York City alone whose bread is taken away from them because society has nothing for them to do. Out of such conditions there arises a large set of problems in- teresting to every human mind. In addition to this group of sub- jects, we have what we call our technological instruction. All the important engineering problems of the world are wrought out in the universities to-day. Everything that underlies modern industry is taught there. Is not that a very different thing from the old col- lege curriculum? Is it not pretty sure that any mind that has the capacity to learn will find an ample field in any of our great uni- versities? And vet, what have we done, ladies and gentleinen . vv e have allowed the bars to be built up between the minds that want to learn and the sources from which they can learn, -^^^^^^g ^^ too precious to put before the common people. We must hedge it off in a petty medieval spirit. We have not got out of our old shackles from the medieval times. We have a sort of ^ monastic svstem that we are bringing out. Harvard College has taken the lead? the large universities of the West have all followed in her train. There L not a great university in the United States o-day that has not broken down those old limitations in many respects, out 556 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond they have not taken away the bars which shut out whole classes of people who are willing, who are anxious, who are able, to partake of the higher education. That is the thing I am here to-day to protest against; and the class of teachers, when it touches our question, is the great class that comes out of the normal school, the great body of teachers in this country; the people who have some professional training; whose lives have been inspired with an idea of making teaching a life calling. I say, in very many, in nearly all, of our insti- tutions of higher learning we have built up a wall between those people who would study and the place where they could study. What is the condition of the normal school graduate? In nine cases out of ten he is a person more than twenty years of age. I cannot speak positively as to how many of them have received a common high school education. I am gathering data upon that subject now, but from the reports that I get, and from my own knowledge of the Illi- nois State Normal School at Normal, and other schools, I should say from thirty to fifty per cent of the students in our normal schools to-day have gone through the public high schools; not always those of the highest class; not always the best high schools, but still high schools. They have put in the time working to prepare themselves for their life work. Another large per cent have had an equivalent education before they ever entered the normal schools. They go there and study for three years — sometimes four, sometimes two. I apprehend, however, that the great majority of the normal schools have three-year courses. They work there with an intensity of in- terest and fixity of purpose such as the freshmen in the college rarely know. I have lived in both. Three years of experience in a college and ten or a dozen in a normal school have shown me both sides. I know that there is an intensity of effort, a fixity of purpose and high aspiration to do the best that is in one that takes hold of the normal school student more than it does the freshman in the col- lege who comes fresh from the high school. After they have taken these three years' courses they receive no credit at the university. And why? Simply because of this old classical limitation. They are debarred, not because of mathematics, not because of science, not because of economics, because those subjects are usually mostly begun in the university; but because they do not know the classics. They are sent back and told to go to the preparatory school, where they would otherwise have gone, perhaps at the age of fourteen, and travel over their teens again. They will not do it. They ought not to be required to do it. It is a mistake. It is a false assumption, growing out of an old aristocracy which no longer has any validity in this country — which is rapidly losing its validity in all countries. The normal school graduate can pursue every one of these great Saperintendence.] THE UNIVERSITY AND THE TEACHER, 557 lines of investigation that I have indicated in a universitj with profit to himself, with credit to the school he came from, with vast l>enefit to the schools of the country. What does he lack when he gets through the normal school? He has had an elementary train- ^^^g for the most part. He knows as much, or more, mathematics than the ordinary freshman. He knows very little language. He knows his own. He knows the elements of the natural science. He knows considerable about psychology. Any young man who has ^one through Rosencranz' "Philosophy of Education," edited by Dr. Harris, and has done it intelligently, has mind enough and prepara- tion enough to follow out any of the great lines in a university, ex- <^^pt in the languages; and the case there is not so bad as it seems. I^ language is so valuable; if it is absolutely essential to human culture and welfare and usefulness in the world, he can get a fair equivalent for these ancient languages through the modern lan- guages. The question was touched here yesterday as to the value of the German from the same standpoint. It is a linguistic train- ing; it is a grammatical training; it is an important thought train- ii^g- Dr. Harris himself tells us that the Germans united the three threads of ancient civilization in the highest form. If that is so, tUat is reason enough for studying the German. If culture is so necessary, let me remind you that we have the greatest mine of that, almost unused in our country, I am sorry to say, that any nation was ever blessed with. Dr. Harris again tells how the Greeks first grew on Homer. They did not grow on foreign languages, because tbey would not learn them. They did not grow on natural science, be- canse they had none. They did not grow on economics and history, because the world had not awaked to the economic age. They grew on literature — their literature arising from their own mythology and. what little they could pick up from the Egyptians and the Persians around them. We copy their ideals of culture to this very day. We have borrowed them all from a people who developed their culture out of their own language. No nation has ever, since the sun shone, been blessed with a literature so rich, so varied, so abounding in everything that stands for human culture as the English. Shall we then make that pitiful plea, that because, forsooth, they have not pursued the classical languages they shall be excluded from all that makes life worth something to them and makes them worth some- thing to the country? I say, it is a mysterious proposition, and one that cannot stand when men begin to think about it. The normal school student has, however, very great deficiencies. He lacks, for one thing, a broad outlook. He has been involved too much with the little technicalities— the technique— of education to eet a broad outlook. He has studied the elements of everything. He has gone very much beyond ^vhat Dr. Harris calls the secondary 558 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Richmond stage in education — that stage in which we begin to study subjects so that we can look back reflectively on those that have gone before. He lacks, moreover, a knowledge of some specialty. He knows something about almost everything. He has studied all the sciences, but he has just had a smattering of them. He knows very little of biology. He ought to know a great deal of it. He ought to master the principles of evolution— 4he things that have made science what it is to-day — these tremendous underlying forces which have giyen it its development. He must have this broader and deeper knowl- edge of his own tongue — of literature. He must have an opportunity, it may be, to develop himself along the lines of the modern lan- guages, of history, of economics ; whatever it may be, it matters not very much. You can see the world from any hill you happen to climb. There are many of those hills in the university. I say, give the boj^s and girls a chance to climb them. The results will not be merely individual, and I should not plead so earnestly for a chance for the normal school graduate if the whole thing ended with him. It does not. He has now a noble, fertilized mind, and I believe any teacher whose hair is turning gray will say that life does not generate out of mechanism. It generates out of life. It is a broad outlook, it is a deep insight, that fertilizes the mind of youth. That is the great- est thing. I used to think that knowing just how to conduct a recita- tion, how to arrange my questions, how to have the topics — order and everything — was the great thing in education, and that when I had mastered that technique I was, forsooth, a teacher. I found out that that is not so. The persons whom I have benefited, whose lives I have touched, are those that came under my influence, not when I was a graduate from the normal school, but since I have had a broader out- look and a deeper insight into at least a few things. This will affect the teaching of the community in another way. It will bridge the chasm which exists now in many places between the university and the normal school. If you shut off any class of society — ostracize them from the rest — they will build up a little social circle within themselves. They will have an aristocracy of their own. That has been, I fear, the case — the tendency, at least — in the normal schools. The private normal schools have been shut off by what the State nor- mal schools call the legitimate schools. They have been made out- casts. They are called wild cat normal schools, and they make little coteries of their own. They have an aristocracy of their own. They publish papers which scoff at the State normal schools and still harder at the colleges and universities. There used to be some in Ohio. In the same way the State normal schools, being shut off in a certain way from the universities, form their own little circle. I sat for three years under the influence of one of the most inspir- ing men that I ever met in my life, a man whom many of you know — Superintendence.] DISCUSSION, 559 Richard Edwards, of honored fame — a man who has touched more lives than I ever hope to get in sight of; and yet, in that normal school, actuated as it was, led as it was, I never, from the time I en- tered until the time I left, heard a discussion from the public plat- form of that school on the value of the college or university educa- tion. It is not so now, and we are growing out of it rapidly. We ought to grow out of it, and if you will accredit your normal scliools ^or what they can do at the university, for what they know, rather, ^iicL allow them to pursue what they can do, you will bridge this chasm which has existed— which, perhaps, still exists to a considera- ble extent. The colleges and universities will begin to reach down into the normal schools. There won't be the prejudice that now ex- ists against putting university men in there. Men who have this capacity of fertilizing minds, even if it takes them a little time to learn the technique of teaching, will go in there as teachers. The ladder will be constructed between the normal schools and the uni- versities, just as the Committee of Ten are trying to construct it be- tween the public high school system and the universities. What sort of an idea is it for us in this country to say that there is any aristoe- raey in education that there shall be circles from which others shall l>e excluded circles where they can work with profit? It is not Ajoaerican. We must not do it. It is not right It does not do the best thing for education. It retards it and keeps it in the back- ground. If we could get such men as^. Stanley Hall to go into the normal schools and lend the wonderful might of their influence to the work there, think you not that we should help to solve these prob- lems? Give the boys and girls a chance. Now, my plea is simply this : That every superintendent here who has the ear of the university authority shall use his influence to bring about this end. The Na- tional Association has a committee appointed which is now at work to investigate this subject, and report the actual facts in the case next summer wherever we meet. That work will be done, but to-day is a good time to make a beginning. DISCUSSION. n« Nicholas MUBBAY BUTLER, Columbia College.-Although it has been my . .tune V^^oe I thYnk, within five years, to speak on some phase of this subject wirthTs dVartment, yet I am convinced that he would be a poor university ^'^h^rtdee^^^^^^ eoild not respond to the chairman's invitation with in erest ^^TlX It!^^^^^^ interesting to me, in trying to remember what I said Tt tarTL to recall the progress that we have made in the intervening years T^eZZn of this very important Question, and I should add It to that cata- 560 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Richmond logue of advance which Dr. Macalister sketched for us last eyemng; going back to 1876 and coming to the exposition of Chicago, or going back to 1885, or 1887, or 1890, or 1892, or 1893 even, we find we have made great advance in the process of welding the broken link between the universities and the teaching profession. When the first universities were founded, you will remember that they prepared students for the first and original university degree, the Baccalaureus Artium, which has become the familiar baccalaureate degree in arts in England and Amer- ica. But this was a work of mere cadetship, and in the cadetship was an oppor- tunity for a man to enter temporarily upon the teaching profession; but the goal which he had before him was the Magister Artium, or the Doctor of Philosophioe, which was his full license to teach. So the principal business of the early uni- versities was to train teachers. But, as the universities grew in number and influence, and sent out, year after year, thousands of graduates in excess of the demand for teachers in the secondary schools of Europe, there was a falling off in the interest that the universities took in the teaching profession, till, finally, they came to devote themselves solely to broader scholarship and the higher learn- ing. There was a divorce, first in Europe, and, then, as a result, in America, between the higher institutions and common schools, and that divorce we have been trying earnestly to set aside ever since associations of this sort began to exist. We have had a large measure of success. It is an interesting fact, perhaps un- known to some of you, that at least three universities in the United States have, for years past, sent accredited delegates to the meetings of the National Educa- tional Association, and at least two universities have accredited delegates in this room this afternoon, to participate in the meeting of this department and to show by voice and presence their interest in this specific discussion. There has developed in all the complexity of modern learning a great field of study that is new. It is not, strictly speaking, philosophy; it is not, strictly speak- ing, economics; it is not, strictly speaking, natural or applied science. It does not stand in important relation to mathematics; nor is it law or medicine. That great field of learning, that touches all others, but is identical with none, is the subject of education, the process by which civilization transmits itself through instructing the rising generation in the several great social institutions— the State, the Family, the Church and the School. That subject has a history. The universities have seized upon it and put it beside the history of mathematics, the history of philology, of physical, legal and medical science. That subject has a philosophy; and the universities have seized upon it and placed it beside the metaphysics of the Ger- mans, the philosophy of France and the philosophy of England; and to-day it is side by side with those subjects in the programs in the departments of philosophy from Cambridge to California. That subject involves an art; it is connected with the rules of application based upon the broad experience of men and women who are represented in this association, and particularly in this department, and thou- sands like them. Out of all that experience facts have been collected; from those facts principles have been deduced; and those principles are to-day being elaborated systematically and carefully by students and scholars in at least fifteen endowed institutions throughout this country, both institutions endowed by State funds and those endowed from private resources. The study of the subject of education itself is, of course, going to have a direct, and, also, an indirect, relation to the teaching profession, and a direct and an indirect influence upon it. The direct relation and the direct influence consist in furnishing material, in furnishing acquired and systematic knowledge in furnishing raw material, if you please, but still material, to be worked over and applied by those who are engaged in the actual work of the school— primary, secondary and higher. The indirect influence i^ found i" superintendence.] DISCUSSION, 562 ■fusing and stimulating an interest in education, not only among those of us who a.re primarily engaged in it, but among the people of these United States, the ^Itivated and intelligent people of Europe, and of the world. They are coming ®^e its importance, because there is something known about it, something that c^n be reduced to principle and applied in practice; and that, I say, is both a direct ^ an indirect service that the university renders to the teaching profession. There is another and extremely important influeuce which is just beginning to perate. It is no longer considered respectable for a university to hold itself, its ®ii. its students, its laboratories and its libraries, aloof from the community in ^v-liich it is situated. Within two years Harvard University has appointed a com- mittee of its faculty, of which the president of that institution is chairman, which eonanaittee will, on invitation, inspect, and make an expert report upon, any second- a^ry or fitting school, public or private. That report is the private property of the :?omiiiittee and the principal and directors of the school inspected. The result of that process is this: You take into the secondary school, that is beginning a little laboratory in physics, that is struggling to see whether there is anything to be oaade out of the inductive method of approaching Latin and Greek, that is en- aeavoring to seize upon new methods of teaching English composition, even trying to see ^what light can be thrown upon the teaching of the old subjects of algebra and geometry by this new and developing branch of university work— you take into the school a group of experts and thoroughly posted scholars, who know all aoovit these things. They sit down in the secondary school, and watch the opera- tions of the teacher and the progress of the pupils, and then they say: "This is onr opinion; this is being done well, this could be done better; you need such and snch apparatus and illustrative material." The school may follow this advice or not, as it pleases, but it is an enormous advantage and privilege to have this exi)ert advice to call upon. While Harvard University is doing this, many other universities are doing it on a somewhat smaller scale; sometimes by the intelligent and well directed energy of individual professors. I see sitting in this room my friend from the University of the City of New York, Professor Shaw, whose work in the city, in visiting, ^d vising^ and inspecting many bodies of teachers and schools, and bringing to them the very best results of university work and university research, is well known. We are beginning, also, to put some systematic educational knowledge into the traininig of those graduates who are going out to teach. It is not going to be possible much longer, I think, for a secondary school teacher to be appointed unless lie can give evidence that he has taken advantage, at Harvard, Yale, Columbia, <^ornell, Princeton, Chicago, Michigan, Madison, Stanford, or wherever it may be, of the philosophical training in education therein provided, and unless he shall have acquired something of an insight into and grasp upon the principles of that subject to which he proposes to devote his life. That, I am sure, is of immense service .and an immense step forward, and an immense gain for the universities, as well as for the teaching profession and for the country at large. The university stands distinctly, if it stands for anything, for scholarship, and scholarship means love of truth and continual search for truth by scientific methods. I have listened in this hall during the last two or three days, and in other im- portant meetings of this department, to statements so astounding in their reckless- ness and prodigious in their falsity as to make me wonder how men dared to make them before a public audience. I have read statements of that sort in the press and plsewhere. I am accustomed to see them in the educational press. The thing that we -want in onr profession at this moment more than anything else, is accurate knowledge and scholarship, to save us from the humiliation of these awful blunders. 36 662 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond For that scholarship the university stands, and unless you get it from the uni- yersity you won't get it at all. University teachers are on the borderland between the known and unknown. Almost weekly from the field of the unknown they add to the store of human knowledge. It won't do to base one's public assertions on books written forty years ago. Another thing the university stands for, in addition to scholarship, is intellectual tolerance. It remembers that knowledge grows; that the human mind develops; that mankind passes from a stage of civilization to a higher stage. It looks upon man as in motion, and is, therefore, always willing to listen to the other side. The university, I repeat, stands for scholarship; it stands for tolerance. Are there any two things that the teaching profession of this country needs more of at this moment? I think not. It stands for something else. It stands for accurate, definite, scientific method. When Plato wrote over the door of the Academy, "Let no one unacquainted with geometry enter here," he may have meant many things, but I have always thou^rht that one thing he meant was: "Unless you are accurate in observation, logical in deduction, just and truthful in application— lessons which mathematics so often teach us— you need not hope to enter on the larger field of philosophy." I believe that it is by bearing testimony to that principle, that it is by making a contribu- tion of that sort to our stock of knowledge, that the university is defining at this moment for us our very highest interests. In the university we come to the high- est point of learning. There we get beyond the narrow, the bigoted, tiie intolerant Philistinism of the half-educated man. We come to see that there are things more important than facts, namely, the relations . between facts; that there are more important things than effects, namely, their causes; that there is a more important thing than death, namely, life; that there is a more important thing than matter, namely, mind; and from the pinnacle of the university — I care not, as Dr. De Garmo said, on which of its many peaks you climb — you are bound to get an out- look into the promised land which brings with it scholarship, which brings with it tolerance and accurate scientific method. This, combined with the study of education and combined with the continual training of secondary teachers for our schools and colleges, is the profound, service that the universities of America, of Germany and some of those of France and England are rendering to the teaching profession; and there could be no higher. Rkcy F. TBKTTni.BY. Superintendent of Schools, Yonngstown, Ohio.— When 1 remember that vivid chapter by John Fiske in which he contrasts the Athenian life with the life of our modern days, and dwells upon that culture and insight that came to the Athenians from commingling with men who had been trained in the things that make for life and power, I often think of that ancient capital as a great university for the training of men, a university whose chairs were held by Pericles, Demosthenes, Plato, Socrates, Thucydides, and the ancient world as the background against which these activities were displayed. I remember, further, that he went on to speak of tbc great advantages offered by such an institution as Harvard, with its varied and abounding life, to one who really desires to em- brace the opportunities there offered. Therefore, I was very deeply interested in what was said by President De Garmo and by Dr. Butler with respect to this theme. The universities of this country ought to be able to exert an immense in- fluence uix>n the work of education, even through its common schools. More and more thoroughly do I believe, that, if the teaching profession of this country is to be lifted up, it must be by a power that reaches down from above. These forces that make for righteousness and peace are the forces that spring from those who know, and who, because they know, enjoy; and it is* apparent to me, that so far Superintendence.] DISCUSSION. 563 Tile work in our common schools is concerned, whether in onr cities or in our ^^"^1 districts, it cannot be sufficiently improved alone by those who are toiling '^ ^^ese problems in the midst of darkness. Help must come in part from those wbo have ascended into this higher and broader life of the intellect, have felt its Po^ver, tasted of its joys and have come to understand the truth that makes men ^ree; for Who hath trod Olympus, from bis eye Fades not that broader outlook of the gods. -^nd further, these men and women should be willing to bring to their fellow ^^ ^^ the substance of their knowledge, and the breadth and the richness of their reeaom, that others, seeing the truth, may likewise be inspired and elevated. I remember the words of the Master: "If I be lifted up I will draw all men unto ^- ^Men must be lifted up themselves; must be above those whom they would »rmg into the larger and the better life. And when I see such men as President © Oarmo and others coming into these associations in active fellowship, I would toat men from every university in this land and from all the colleges would likewise oring something of their enjoyment to those who need it. I remember once talking '^ith I>r. Angell. I said: "President Angell, you must enjoy very much this life ^^_ yours in the university." "Yes," he replied. "You must enjoy these associations 'vvitli men who fertilize and strengthen the mind." "Yes, Matthew Arnold dined 'witli ine a few days ago." How much satisfaction there is in these opportunities, and Iio^w much some of those who live and toil in a solitary way covet them. The literal truth is, as has been said, that facts find their chief value in their relation - sWps- Knowledge of effects may be valuable enough, but knowledge of causes is more valuable. You may recall the motto which Sir William Hamilton is said to have placed above his study table, "On earth, there's nothing great but maH; in man, there's nothing great but mind." One is a teacher only so far as he has knowl- edge of truth, for the truth alone carries with it its own sustaining power. Hence, there is ^reat wisdom in teaching young men that it is their sole business to grow with an unwearied, constant growth. And it is true that there are multitudes of yonng people who come to our institutions of learning with very little training of any sort. More and more clearly do I think I see the vital connection between onr higher institutions of learning and our subordinate institutions, and the neces- sity of bringing to bear upon the education of the country, through the common schools, both in city and in country, every element of light and power and strength that can possibly be obtained, that this work may be upbuilt. And I do indeed rejoice at the progress being made in this country and in the older countries of the world. There is a quickening of life and a steady growth of all these blessed influences that are making for freedom, and which, in making for freedom, make for power. PitOF. Edwabd R. SHAWfOf the University of the City of New York.— There is a large body of knowledge searched out by investigation in different realms, printed in the reports of the various societies, and laid aside, which becomes lost for want of application; for the want of some middleman, so to speak, to put it in order, to point out its direct application, so that teachers may make use of it. Our normal school graduates are.iu such a position that they are unable to take advantage of these investigations. We need, therefore, a middleman. The uni- versity should supply this— should fulfill this office-should gather up all that is discovered in the different realms, order it as a body of pedagogical doctrine, so that those going into the professior of teaching can have all that has been dis- covered put at their command for use. One example will illustrate my point, and this example lies well back. Dr. Bowditch of Harvard University, measured, thir- teen years ago, 25.000 school children of Boston. Among several other thmgs, 564 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond those investigations plainly showed that the desks and seats commonly used in schools were not adapted to the size of the pupils. The inference was, that bodily deformities had resulted, and would continue to result, from the use of the ordinary desks and seats. Yet those investigations remained for years before they were draw^n upon for the data for the construction of adjustable hygienic desks and seats. The great profession of medicine has, for years, made many investigations that bear strictly on pedagogy. Indeed, some of the most important contributions come from that field. At the meeting of the Pan-American Medical Congress in Wash- ingrton last September, considerable material was offered most valuable to the science of pedagogics. Hidden away in the archives and in the transactions and reports of medical societies of this country there is a vast amount of material that ought to be applied immediately to pedagogy. There is also a contribution from ethics, from philosophy, from history, from aesthetics, from the practice of teaching, as exhibited in different systems of education, and in different countries, and im- portant contributions from physiological and experimental psychology. One of the offices of the university is to prepare some means of gathering together, from all the branches of knowledge, everything that has even the slightest bearing upon teaching, co-ordinating it and putting it before teachers, so that they can use and apply it. C. A. McMcTRBY, Professor of Pedagogy, Normal, 111.— I would like to call attention to the fact, that, at the two extremes of our educational system, the university and primary school, we have a body of teachers on the one side who are seeking light and a body of teachers on the other side, in the form of our university professors, and, more particularly, all those who are teaching pedagogy in uni- versities, who stand closely related to each other. The professors of our universi- ties, who are making this effort to solve the problem of education by arriving at a fundamental theory for child growth and child development, have a profound and difficult problem upon their hands. We all realize this and the difficulties of the problem, but we are not so skeptical as a few years ago. We are disposed to be- lieve that there is a foundation upon which teachers of pedagogy, as well as others, may base the whole labor of education. If we had in this country a first-class adequate school of pedagogy, where the very best results that the world has thus far obtained could be furnished to stu- dents, the halls of that school would be overcrowded with earnest and intelligent teachers— people who have had the benefit of much experience as teachers, but who are seeking for greater life and enthusiasm and for an avenue of higher de- velopment. I wish to emphasize the fact, that there is growing upon us in the universities, and from among the teachers themselves, the hungry teachers — ^a body of persons who are eager for the best. Therefore, I think it behooves us to give them all the aid within our r^ach, and to put our shoulders to the wheel at every opportunity to push on this noble work of influencing pedagogical chairs in our universities to strengthen their walls and to build up the best that they can give us. Nathan O. Schawffer. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Pennsyl- vania.— I am a thorough believer in a difference between elementary and secondary education, in a difference between the high school and the college, and a thorough believer in the university as something essenially different from all these. And yet I feel like standing up for the policy that my friend, Dr. De Garmo, outlined, of making it possible for the teacher and a graduate of the normal school to get into the atmosphere of that highest kind of school that we call the university. Not very long ago, the president of one of the famous universities of this land had in his office two applicants for admission into that institution. The one was a ^o^^^""^^"^^^^" -* DISCUSSION. 565 sotaewV^«:ire along the age of twelve or fourteen; the other was a young man ^^o ^^^ ^!t"^ \ , ^r""^ """^ ^^^ ^ad charge, as superintendent, of a system of cliools. Tt^^ scnolarship of the superintendent was not equal to the scholarship ^^ ti^c yovn^^^xnan, but the president of that institution turned to the young man j^^a »^^^- **^^^^" «^ *o some preparatory school, we cannot admit you. You study X^o.ti«^ *^^ .^^^^^t^ ^^^ several years, then come here to study." To the superintend- ^xxt^ ^^ *^^^ ^ ^^ ^'^'' *^™^* y^" '°*o the university and let you get out of our life and mstr-uctlon whatever you can." It was a wise policy. I know whereof I gtffir'^' '^^^^. -"■ f*y *^** J* is easier for an American to get into the University of :3erliii or L.«ii>sic than it is to get into Harvard or Columbia or the Universitv of I>eii»syWattia. There is one man who has done as much to stimulate education throughout tliese United States as any man we have. I used to sit beside him on the benches o:f tbe university, and if the American rule and requirements had been applied "to tlia-t TXian he never could have entered the doors of that university. Did the uni- versity do rigrht? No one can dispute it. Light and life come from above. Ttie problem that confronts the Keystone State is this: There are 25,0(K> tea-cliers in tlie schools of the State of Pennsylvania. We have in our Bastertk inetropolis a university that counts its buildings by tens, its instructors by hun- dreonndaries. The normal school is not a secondary school exactly. One word about the difference between the normal and the high school. The high school, as we understand it, takes up secondary education; takes up the reflective stage that Dr. T>G Garmo spoke of. For example, we have the attention turned from dead results in space, such as arithmetic offers us, to geometry, in which we see the formative principles of bodies in space. So with regard to language. A person comes up to a. liigl^^^ grade of thinking when he leaves elementary and takes up secondary work. He turns his attention to the form now, whereas before he had given his attention' merely to contents. He turns his attention to the processes, whereas he had noticed only the results before. Secondary education deals with this reflective stage, which contemplates forms and processes all the way through. After secondary studies comes the higher instruction, which looks to the unity of all human knowledge. The secondary school does not attempt to do that; that is the function of higher education. Not university education, but the college education; something that we ^o not want to have lost by commencing university work (or specialization) directly after the secondary school. We need college education, with its three or four years' course of study, to teach the relation of each branch to all the others. There is nothing so important in the whole range of education as this unity for our various lines of reflection. We have literature, we have mathematics, we have science, history and the various branches, studied in the secondary school, but in an isolated manner. The college teaches each branch in the light of all the others. That is the philosophical stage of education. This is not post-graduate work of the university. Post-graduate work shoul^j be specializing work, but a person 566 NATIONAL EDUCA TIONAL A8S0CIA TION. [ Richmond cannot specialize to good advantage till he has this unital view of things, the seeing of everything in the light of all others. Science is defined as the placing of every fact in relation to all the other facts within its sphere, so that each particular fact throws light on the others, and the other facts throw light on each fact within its province. Philosophy proposes to relate each sphere of facts to other spheres. When you see one thing in all and all in one thing you have a perfect philosophical system. I think my friend, Dr. De Garmo, went a little too far when he said, let ele- mentary and secondary students go into the college; and that we should not keep them out of this good thing. If the college takes elementary pupils, it reduces itself to an elementary school. Let the elementary pupil go to the college and let the college come down to him, and higher education has given place to elementary education. Let it throw overboard its high studies, its seeiug everything in the light of all other things, and let it teach things isolatedly, and, no matter what the institution is called, it is doing only elementary work. The person who learns the branches of the secondary school, learns thom not with a view of teaching those branches; for example, he wishes to ^^t algebra so that he can arrive at arithmetical results in a better way. When Cyrus Peirce had charge of the normal school at Lexington (the first in this nation, afterwards re- moved to Framingham in Massachusetts), he saw at the outset, with wonderful clearness, that the proper course of training for the teacher is to take him through these elementary branches in such a way as to enable him to deduce tht*m from the higher branches, or at least to see their bearing to more general studies of the same kind. The high school does not do that kind of work satisfactorily. It gives you the material from which these branches can be deduced, but does not point out the connections. I have seen almost all the different kinds of normal schools in the United States, and I have noticed that they everywhere follow, more or less strictly, the same principle: To take the pupils over the elementary work, and tt» make the pupil understand the structure of the elementary branches and be able to deduce exposition given in the text-books, and it certainly is a wonderfully strong discipline for normal school pupils, if they are sufficiently mature persons, say eighteen years of age and upwards. It gives them so nearly a higher education, that I have always insisted, that when you count up tlie higher educational institu- tions you should count in the normal schools, because they give that thorough training in deducing the lower studies by means of the higher. Normal school work is, therefore, not equivalent to that of the secondary school for just the reason I here mention. I should always say that the normal school furnishes a more thoroughly trained mind than the secondary school, and I wish to be understood as admitting that the graduates of normal schools can profitably take up college work if they are twenty years old and upwards. What are higher studies? You cannot keep a person studying arithmetic twelve years. There is not enough in arithmetic to make a secondary study of it. There is not enough in it to make a higher study of it. There is not enough in geography to make a higher study of it. That which underlies our civilization is the subject of higher education. That which underlies nature, as time or space and as mathe- matics, is also a fitting topic for higher education. We get the first mentioned element from the Latin and Greek, and not from the French and German, for they rest like English on the Latin and Greek because we derived our civilization from them. I left Yale College in my junior year because I disbelieved in Latin and Greek as the staples of higher education. I believed that it was a piece of effrontery to force them on young men. I went off to the West and began to study philosophy. I found there a fellow student in philosophy who didn't know Latin and Greek. Saperi°*®**^®nce.] THE SOUTH AND ITS PROBLEMS, 567 0e was obliged to use much time in lookiner through a dictionary for the definitions •yi the terms. I soon found that there was one good reason why a man should know r>atin an^ Greek, namely, to leam the vocabulary of words in our language used :o express fine shades of thought. Science has taught us to study all things in :heir geixosis. If a man wants to understand the turtle, he studies embryonic life n the egS' U you are going to study any subject in the world of science, you must take up tl^e embryology of it, and trace it through, and then you get some insight ^nto it. It is impossible for any man to see our civilization in its true meaning without some knowledge of Latin and Greek, because its embryology is found in Greece and Rome. X think the first six months of the study of Latin is worth more than any subsequent six months. If we put into a new country, out on the border- land, fifty boys who have studied Latin six months, and fifty boys who have not studied Xiatin at all. the fifty boys who liave studied Latin will be the ones to understand legal and social forms and they will do most to organize the com- munity. They will be in the long run the persons that constitute the city councils and the justices of the peace and the legislatures, and have to do with the organiza- tion of States in preference to those who have not studied Latin. The pebble if dropped into a stream on one side of a hill goes to the Pacific, and if dropped on the other side goes to the Gulf of Mexico: ao a little study of the Latin language in youth makes it the line of least resistance to think along the lines of law-making and the government of man. SUPT. J. M. Greknwood, Kiuisas City, Mo.— The American people are an inventive people. The universities of the country, as well as the colleges, are accumulating and have accumulated a vast number of facts, and are co-ordinating those facts touching upon the work of the elementary and of the secondary schools. Those of us interested in the study of education, in its theoretical as well as in its practical aspect, would be greatly benefited if we could get the university men and others, engaged in this study, to work together for the purpose of establishing at the universities, or else in other localities, schools that I would denominate * 'experimental schools." If we could have schools representing, as we have in this Association, different phases of educational thought, and if we could put men and women in charge of the children for the purpose of carrying into practical effect the ideas that we believe to be correct, and go at this work in a fair manner and note the results, in a few years we could gather from these experimental schools, just as the farmers are gathering from the agricultural colleges throughout the country, the very best results, and then have reports on these methods. I have been thinking over this subject for several years. I do not know that we could establish such schools unless the university men and the city superintendents, the State superintendents and those engaged in original work, would pull together, and annually compare and publish results. At present the universities, I believe, set this movement on foot better than any other class of institutions that we have in this country. THU SOUTH AI^D ITS PROBLEMS. BY LAW'TOX B. EVAXS. STTrERIXTBNDBXT OF SCHOOLS. AUGUSTA. GA. The condition of any people is consequent upon their history. The problems of the South arise from the condition of the Southern peo- ple. This condition has arisen from their environment and their 568 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmoncl traditions; in other words, their history. The solutions of these prob- lems anticipate the improvement of the people and the prevention of evil. Let us see what God and nature have done for the South. South- ern countries, where the physical environment was most attractive,, have ever been the seat of greatest empires. Egypt, 'with its pyra- mids and temples; Greece, with its arts and learning; Rome, witb it« armies and wealth; Assyria. Persia, Phoein^cia and India, have been the homes of great people, and nature has aided in their greatness. The physical condition of the Southern country affords every ad- vantage. Bordering on the Atlantic, it lies open to the commerce of Europe and South America, and is in the line of the great routes of traffic that will ultimately pass over the isthmus of Panama, con- necting all foreign and northern ports with the great West and the greater East. The soil of the South produces the raw material that clothes the world, and offers to agriculture any kind of product upon which man may wish to exert his skill. God has piled up mountains and filled them with coal and iron, saying to the world: "Here is the place for the mechanic and artisan." He has made the moun- tains pour down their streams, affording enough water to manufacture every pound of cotton, and grind every grain of wheat and corn in the United States. He has covered the surface with splendid woods of every variety for use and ornament He has hollowed out deep harbors to float the earth's navies or the earth's merchantmen, and, better than all, he has made a climate so genial that men can work in the open air the year round. Yet, with nature so inviting and conditions so favorable, the North and West excel the South in wealth and population. A most pertinent inquiry is, to ascertain the reason why this is so. Wliy have the great cities and States of the North and West grown larger and stronger and wealthier, while those of the South have grown but little? Why have the people of this country chosen to stay on the storm-swept coast of New England, or carve their fortunes out of the blizzard-swept West, instead of seeking for homes in the South? Why have the countries of the old world poured their hard working masses into the crowded quarters of the Northern cities, or sent them to work in the fruitful prairies of the West, instead of directing them to the South? The answer is not hard to find. The conditions that were pre- sented by the South for over fifty years did not invite immigration nor encourage development. I believe that the institution of slavery^ when it settled finally upon the South, fixed a curse upon its people. Slavery may have been a great misfortune to the poor African, but it was a greater misfortune to his master. From the very beginning Bnperintiendeoce.] THE SOUTH AND ITS PROBLEMS. 569 it ^^CLH most hurtful to the material and educational development of our Southern States. If the will of God was manifest in thus making Oa,Ti£La.ii to serve his brethren, he inflicted upon a goodly land and a not>le people a misfortune that has greatly hindered them in the race for national greatness. I-iO"t me recount these evils. Slavery condemned the South to an uneducated and wasteful labor. It was the essence of slavery that the victims should be kept in ipniorance. It was an offense against the system to educate the slaves. The result was that mere brute force wrested from the soil its great harvest of cotton. The abundance of those harvests was ane to the abundance of the force and to the cheapness of its main- tenanee. This ignorance of labor brought waste. But where land ^vv^as plentiful, soUs were generous, climate was genial and labor cbeap, what mattered the ruin of land, the waste of substance or tlxe dissipation of force? The Somth did not need to conserve ita enei-^y , t>ut spent it upon its soil and its society with true prodigality^ I tell you what you already know when I say that the best evi- dexxoe of modern progress is found in the belief that the labor of a conntry should be inteUigent and skilled. Technical and scientific sebools of all kinds have sprung up to teach all people how to work: pror>ei-ly, economically, successfully and happily. This was not pos- sible in a slave-holding country. The South was, and is, burdened by a great weight of ignorant and unskilled labor. Tben the skiUed artisans of other countries and other States refused to come to or abide in a land where labor was the occupa- tion of a slave. Immigration was discouraged, except to those who liad wealth and leisure. The mechanics and artisans of Europe found liomes in the North and West, and spent their talent and substance in building up the industries and commerce of those sections. They did not find in the South congenial environment nor cordial invitation, and turned their faces to where hard labor was more respectable though nature was less kindly. TUe result was that the industry of the South was confined to ooTiculture,*and that took almost the exclusive form of cotton. The r^n and coal were left to sleep undisturbed side by side in their irfity heds The rivers were left to sing their solos, unattended ?^ «ie diapason of the factory. The forests and swamps were guilt- less of the woodman's ax. The world was going elsewhere for its iron and coal, its manufactured goods and its beautiful woods of r^ikewise did slavery affect the popular estimate of labor. TUe ♦fllents of the young ran toward the professions and not toward Se industries A civilization of rich and cultured gentlemen, of 570 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond princely hospitality, of profound learning, of entrancing oratory, of superb qualities of leadership in camp and court and council, flour- ished under this patriarchal system of labor. The habits of thought, the very traditions of the people, their prejudices and pride ran counter to labor. That was the work of slares. Intellectual pur- suits only were proper for gentlemen. Thus, in an age when labor was the greatest necessity and the greatest blessing, the South was perpetuating a system that made labor despicable, and incapacitated its youth for industry. Surely the South was in bondage, and in bondage to slavery. The chosen people of Gk)d were again in captivity to Egypt, and the dusky Paraoh was imposing the impossible task of building national temples out of brick that contained no straw. The Prometheus of Southern enterprise was chained to the rock of slavery, and the vultures fed upon its vitals. Emancipation meant much for the slave, but it meant more, for the master. He indeed was freed from his superstitions and tradi- tions, and while the awakening came in the rude shock of battle, yet out of the fierce furnace of war were turned those conditions of freedom and necessity that rightly adjudged and improved shall be the implements with which he will builfi a loftier tower of strength and a more beautiful temple of glory. With the coming of war also came disaster. Reflect for a mo- ment that in four years there went up in flame and was drunk by the sword, three billions of the property of the South. Since that time the tax-gatherer has exacted a yearly tribute of thirty millions, altogether seven hundred and fifty millions of dollars, out of the very ashes of the Southern poverty, as pensions for Northern soldiers. The marvel is that the South has survived at all. In addition to this utter and complete pro.stration, this entailment of poverty, there was combined a difficulty of adaptation to the new environ- ment. There was perpetuated the old pride, and the old princeliness. And saddest of all, there was begotten by demagogues on both sides of the Potomac a prejudice that was born in misrepresentation, bred in misunderstanding, and fostered into bitterness and hate. I thank God that this diflQculty is being relieved, that this prejudice and passion are passing away, and only an occasional editor or demagogue vents his gall upori his sister section. The war brought new conditions to the people of the South. TJie labor was now free labor, and had to be paid for. It was likewise unskilled labor, and had to be trained. It was to a great extent insubordinate labor, and had to be controlled. It was alto- gether an ignorant labor, and had to be educated. One of the most serious conditions met on the outpost of our new civilization was the Superintendence. ] THE SOUTH AND ITS PROBLEMS. 571 lack of an orderly and intelligent peasantry to care for the agricul- ture and industry of the South. Another lesson was brought to use in the rude tuition of war. We learned, that while cotton was great, it was not all-powerful. Alone it could not and did not hold the tower. It needed the vas- salage of other crops and of other industries to do homage to its white banner, and strike swords with its own in defense of their fields. Cotton, indeed, was king, but it was a deserted king. I do not know whether the able Pennsylvanian who wrote a book on *'Coal, Iron and Oil" was right or wrong when he said: "If the South- ern States had kept pace with the Northern in developing their physical resources there would have occurred no rebellion; but if it liad occurred it w^ould have been utterly impossible to subdue that people." I do not know whether this be true or not. I cannot say. I thank God that the problems of the South are not isolated, but to be solved inside the American Union. The war brought calamity, but it did not bring separation. War was Ood's mysteri- ous way of ridding the South of her burden and stripping her for the race of progress. She, a Bartimeus, blind but not a beggar, had sat by the wayside while the procession moved by her. But God's voice came to her in the din and conflict of battle. She arose and cast away her sable entanglement, and now, with her eyes opened, she goes leaping and praising God. Out of these new conditions there sprung new necessities. We can no longer practice the habit of the past Its beautiful cus- toms and its princely ways are folded forever in the flag that was lowered at Appomattox. We have nothing in the past to be ashamed of or to apologize for. We had a right to defend our institutions from invasion. That issue has met stern settlement, and so we look around us, take inventory of what is left, and begin to build anew. The old civilization ran counter to the prejudices of the world. The world avoided and antagonized us. That brought isolation. The war changed this. We were forced into coincidence with modern thought. The true problem before us, then, is how quickest to get rid of the old ideas, old habits, old customs, and how best to adapt ourselves to the new conditions and the new necessities that environ us. This is one of the issues for which the educators of the South should feel most concern. God has called unto this Abram, in his idolatry, to: "Get thee out of thy superstitions, and from thy traditions, and from thy fathers' prejudices and passions, and wander awhile in the wilder- ness beset by the Canaanites, so that I may make out of thee a great nation." And his promise endures, that "I will bless thee and make thy name great." 572 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Kichmond Having studied the conditions, let us address ourselves to the remedies. The South needs the development of her industries and of her resources. The cotton factory ought to stand as a neighbor to the cotton field. The iron foundry ought to look down the shaft of the iron mine. The furnace should stand by the bedside of the coaJ. The South cannot now do these things. It has the spirit and the enterprise; it lacks the capital. Its people are still too poor to build factories, to dig mines, to cut down forests, to build railroads. The clutch of the foreign manipulator is upon the throat of the Southern farmer, choking his cotton to six cents per pound and mak- ing him too poor to even send his children to school. We need gold to flow into the arteries of Southern industries; foreign gold. North- em gold. Talk not to me of compulsory education, of sending boys and girls to school, when the larder at home is empty. The South is stiQ too poor to solve some of its problems. We need more people in the South. We need a class of indus- trious and intelligent laborers and skilled artisans, who will abide in our fields to redeem their waste, who will take hold of our small industries and keep us from buying so many things away from home, whom we can trust to do an honest job or an honest day's work at an honest price. There is too much .land, too much water, too much wood going to waste. We want people with capacity and enterprise to come among us. They will conserve our forces. We need a bold yeomanry. It will guarantee our safety. The spirit of human liberty has already deserted the throne and now sits by the hearthstone of the people. We need more homes in the South. And we stand with gracious and kindly invitation upon our borders and say to the world: "Come in, gentlemen, and welcome. Bring your families and abide with us. Let this be an Alabama to your wanderings and an Ebenezer to your hopes." Then, our own sons need to be equipped for the future. Our people must be brought to appreciate the value of training schools in the arts and sciences. We need technical schools, polytechnical schools in every State and for every purpose of development in the South. We have already some of these, and the people are open- ing their eyes to see their value. But we need more. Schools of engineering, schools of mining, schools of design, should spring up around the university, and culture should be extended into the industries. We have a few normal schools for training teachers, but we need more. We do not meet the demand for skilled teachers except in some localities, and much of the teaching force runs to waste. We have talent and capacity, willingness and enterprise, in the men and women of the South. God has made no better country, Superintendence.] THE SOUTH AND ITS PROBLEMS, 573 oo nobler people. We need to have our energies directed, our sons ajid daughters trained. -Ajiother thing we need, on both sides, is a more kindly spirit «-iid a better understanding one of another. Politicians and dema- l^o^rues have kept up the war long after brave men said it should cease. The great mass of the people, North and South, have already laid aside the bitterness of the struggle. They are willing to forget tlie past. Beyond the Potomac they have honored their leaders witli office, and secured their soldiers with pensions. It was just. j\, preserved Union owed it to them in gratitude. In the South Mre 'wrill do the same in our way. We will do it in reverence and in love, and yet in patriotism. I do not deem that honors paid to heroes constitute treason to the flag. In the city of Atlanta we are getting ready for two things. We are preparing to run a Con- federate general for the office of Governor of the State, and we are preparing to receive as guests the members of the Grand Army of tlie Kepublic. The two go well together. And we propose to show these latter heroes, that out of the ashes they left us in 1864 there has risen in thirty years a great and beautiful city. But let them know, also, that we have not laid one stone in bitterness nor builded aught in malice. We need to know each other, trust each other and help each otfier. Educators have this duty before them. TV^e invite you to come and look upon the cotton fields, upon every staLk: of which there hangs a white flag of truce. Liook upon our wheat fields, that have made golden crowns out of the garnered sun- shixie. CJome, sit down beneath our trees and by the side of our waters. Let ue tell you that the great American heart beats as warm in our bosoms as in yours. We yet have Washingtons and Taylors and Jacksons ready to die for the old flag. We can solve our problems if we are given the sunlight of Anglo-Saxon help and sympathy everywhere. We want an alliance in good faith between Northern people and Southern people; between Western capital and Southern fields; between Eastern enterprise and Southern oppor- tunity. We of the South want a united people, as w^ell as a reunited country. tiastly, we come to the grave problem of the ultimate fate of the negro. I have labored with him, and studied about him, and stood by him, and at length will unhesitatingly declare my belief that, for our sake and for his, the South and the negro will separate. Not now, mayhap, but in God's good time. The race problem deepens and darkens with the years. W^hile we are confronted with the grave problem of how to educate the negro and what to do with him now, there is reserved for our chil- dren's children a problem still more grave ancl portentous. They 574 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Bichmona will be confronted by the educated negro, and will be called upon to answer the question what to do with him then. Suppose oujr educational schemes succeed; suppose we elevate him as a race untril he has the instincts and desires of a white man. What will be the condition then, as logical consequence of what we are doing noiv ? The negro, having been taught what are his social and political and intellectual rights, will naturally demand their recognition. Being trained for oftice, he will demand office. Being trained f or luxury, he will demand luxury. Being taught as a negro child tlie same things and in the same way as the white child, when he be- comes a negro man he will want the same things and demand them in the same way as a white man. We will then see two vigorous and persistent races, bom and reared upon the same soil, yet entirely different and antagonistic in blood and disposition, each struggling- for the mastery. Then a war of the races will be upon us. In this struggle there can be but one result. The Anglo-Saxon blood, which took possession of the British Isles and made Eng- land what it is to-day; which crossed the Atlantic and wrested this country from its discoverers and pushed the Spaniards into the gulf, the Frenchman beyond the lakes and drove the Indian into the setting sun, will again assert its supremacy and persistence, and will dominate this soil first, last and all the time. Is Canaan to serve his brother forever? If so, we shall need to change our laws giving him equality and to tilter our practices Kiting him enlightenment. For as such, as results follow causes, we are preparing for separation or rushing into conflict. Equalization is impossible. No two races have ever lived with equal powers and equal rights peaceably on the same soil. History declares they cannot and common sense confirms it. One will absorb or else rise up and smite the other. The blood of the Anglo- Saxon brooks no rival; assuredly not in a nation whose traditions are debasing and whose inheritance is tainted with slavery. There are then left but three possible things to do. 1. Amalgamation — which is the revolting proposition that the blood of the negroes and of the whites shall run together in the formation of a new race. I tell you bravely that this will not be. The blood of the Saxon is jealous of its purity and will never run with the blood of the African, save in lust. The result would be national debasement. Neither does the negro wish absorption. It would be the destruction of his identity as a race. Nay, fear not. the voice of Rome shall call for her Antonies and save them from their wanton with the dusky queens of the Nile. 2. Extermination — which means that, if the worst should come upon us and internecine war be the result, the negro race could not ^Tii«a.^ »»«€.] THE SOUTH AND ITS PB0BLEM8. 675 ^pe wiiJ-^ ^•i^ white man. It would be cut down in a bloody harvest ^ ^ ^ar. This is too inhuman and cruel to contemplate. It sliall ^ e^et 1>^- Ky that time the world will have passed beyond ^-ar. ^^raia -«v^ill be ready to ^y unto Lot: "Let there be no strife be- ^^^e^n lOL^ and thee; for we be brethren. Is not the whole land be- fore thee- ? Separate thyself, I pray thee, from me.'' 3. Colonization — which means that the negro race will, of its o^^ accord, by the operation of natural laws of development, sepa.- ^trsX^ from, the whites into one or more communities of their o^wn. I aJn franLfe to maintain that the negro race is not now ready for ^^lonlza.tion. It is an infant, and needs the nurture and traixi- lug ^^ ^^^ stronger race. To colonize them now would be to run thi^ riBfc ^^ lia^ng them lapse into barbarism. They would not kno^w- lio^ve to rule, nor how to work for, nor how to trade with, nor how to t^Siol^ each other. They are not yet ready to be set apart. Hoxv- loi^S before this will be, only he knows in whose hands are gathere^^ ^jj ttxe ends of these tangled threads. Tbe wbite man of the South will need to bear patiently tti^f*- "Hxijrd^ii of the negro training. He will need to train him in morals^ to train hiim in manners, to train him in letters, to train him ir^. lal>or, to train him in citizenship, and the South ought and is willin j*;:- to l>ear the burden. She will divide the crust with the hungry play — j^^-tes of other years. She will not soon forget the unswervinij;- ^^^lity of the black hands that stood guard over the homes and. ^yjed ber fields while her sons were at the front. There was a ten— ^^^xiess between master and slave, that exists even yet, that none* bnt tbey can ever understand. For many years to come the negro race will develop slowly in character, will grow in capacity for self-government, in independ- ence of thought, and in power of self-protection. Infinite patience ^xx^ faith are needed to adjust the burden to the shoulders of tbe Sontli. But, at last, being capable of self-government, having passed tlxe danger point by process of growth and education, they can bt- trusted to walk alon«. Realizing that scattered they have no chance to l>^ ^ nation, they will willingly coalesce into States and communi- ties, a^^ start out for themselves. When this time comes, it will t>e done slowly and without jar or hurt to the South or to the ne^ro. XJltimately but a few scattered remnants wull go back and fortli among the whites, whom once they all served as masters. GJod's hand is moving in all these matters, and he may intend tliat the negro race shall serve its apprenticeship here and go back to its parent home and redeem the dark continent from its savagery and heathenism. Then, indeed, is the prophecy fulfilled that "Ethio- pia shall lift up her hands unto Qod.'' It matters not where they 576 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Riclimond go. Some may go to Mexico, some to South America, some to West- ern Territories. Amid all the mysteries that surround this problem we still confidently believe that education is a good thing for the neg^ro race; that he is being prepared for citizenship and self -govemnLent ; that he is being lifted out of barbarism into civilization. And axs soon as he is able to take care of himself and to carry out the lessons of his youth, the hand of Orod will reach down and gather bim together and put him somewhere on the face of the earth where he can work out his own destiny in his own way. The scattered molecules of the negro race will gather into one or more masses to form a negro nation. They then shall have their own laws, their own rules and their own opportunities for develop- ment. Now, I have shown that slavery is largely responsible for the condition of the South to-day; that it was a powerful narcotic infused into the blood of the South, bringing sweet dreams and disaster; that we are even yet feeling its after effects of languor; that we still need to apply the tonic and restorative of immigrant capital and skilled labor, and to still further exert ourselves to throw off the lethargy of the old habits. And in this work of regeneration and reform all good schoolmen bear their part. We have tardy communities to arouse and stimu- late, unwilling legislatures to influence; in fact, a whole people to teach and to guide. Then, the coming race belongs to the teachers. We are rearing a generation of industrious, God-serving and neigh- bor-loving men and women, who shall be educated out of their prejudices and incapacity, who shall know no section, but love this as a common and a united country, no longer divided, but one great America. And the teacher is the ^neas that shall lead the young Ascanius of the South out from the broken walls and ruined temples of the old Troy to build upon the banks of many Tibers a civilization that shall confound the Greeks and place the world under tribute. THE SOUTH AND ITS PB0BLEM8.— TEACHING PATRIOTISM IN SOUTHERN SCHOOLS. BY HON. J. M. CAKLI8LB, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. TEXAS. In discussing this subject it is desired to notice briefly: First, the nature of patriotism ; second, difficulties in teaching patriotism in Southern schools; third, the necessity of teaching patriotism; and, fourth, the means of teaching patriotism. TO the ^-.\«i^a.«^:«:m«*?- ] THE SOUTH AND ITS PROBLEMS 57? lV^^^ THE NATURE OF PATUIOTISM. ^iitrio^lsn^ — the love of country— is a rational emotion. By eoiii- ^ conse'xxt, we all regard as unnatural the man who is indifferent ^^^^^Yie xnotlier that bore him and the father that supported lii ^/V^^tiS iri^-^^cv and youth, to the home that sheltered him, to tl ^-lls tipoTx -which in boyhood he siK)rted, to the old schoolhouse en- 1 *nt*^^ ^^ ts ii:s origin. Beginning with the birthplace, our love of the oil ^'ieforo existed. Without abating our devotion to home and f -rrnily? we learn to r€^gard, also, our immediate neighbors and b(?gia to f-^^1 that, in many things, we should yield something of our wishes j^^ interests to the wishes and interests of our neighbora. Then we c-onie to yield something of our neighborhood interests out of regard foi' tli^ interests of the larger territory, the county, and so on, until lj^ tlii^ expansion of our views and sentiments we reach the State, tlie coiiiitry- Tli^ country — the country that we love — is something more than territory and population. It includes a community of language; a ^^^^^i^unity of laws; ii commonv/ealth of ti^adition, history and litera- \XkVG ; a common government, a common flag and a common name. Tli^®> patriotism, in its broader sense, is a very complex sentiment, -X sexitim^^^ embracing many narrower forms of patriotism; a patriot- ism of tbe home, of the neighborhood, of the village or town; of the coxkXLty9 ^^ t^^^ Stxite, of the union of States. ,,^P«, x>TFTT[Ctrr.TrRS of teaching patriotism in the i^CHOOLS OF THK '^^^ SOUTH. Xt is i^lways best to be candid. You, fellow teachers from fJie ^oi'tlx- are upon Southern soil, the guests of a Southern city. .Vs o citizen of the South, I hail you as visitors to my own household, ns frien^®' as brethren. Hence, I mean to speak only in the utmost -j^l^uiiTiess. But the fact that your president has asked me to discuss soxrie phase of the question, "The South and Its Problems," convinces j^e ttiat yon are prepared to consider with us these problems, and tliat 3'Oii ask nothing more nor less than a fair, candid treatment of ttiein- It is not my purpose to open old wounds or revive unpleasant in^taories. IJut you are interested in these pi-obleras. You are will- 37 578 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond ing to help solve them. It is prox)er, therefore, to state, that, in the teaching of patriotism, Southern teachers encounter obstacles that are not in your way. We have no trouble in establishing patriotic sentiments towards our counties, cities and States. But in the larger field of patriotism towards the union of States you are not prepared to believe, nor am I prepared to state, that we have no peculiar diffi- culties to meet. It must be remembered that patriotism is a rational sentiment, and its health and growth require a diet upon which the reason can feed. A true patriotism cannot be established in the sensibilities alone. It must also be borne in mind that "country" includes the government and laws, as well as the soil and the people. Through the fostering care of the Federal Government the North and East have gi-own enormously rich and pi-osperous. The people of those sections of our country find, upon every hand, great object lessons upon the benefits of the Federal Government. Not so with us. The most patriotic among us is compelled to reflect, that while the blood of our fathers was freely shed, and the resources of our country^ were freely given in the great struggle that made the Union possible; that while Southern chivalry carried to success, over much opposition in other sections, the second war of independence, the war of 1812; that while it was principally a Southern soldiery that carried the American flag over the burning plains and up the rugged moun- tains of Mexico, and unfurled it in triumph above the ancient capital of the Montezumas, conquering a nation without the loss of a single battle, and adding millions of acres to the! public domain; that while Southern heroes and statesmen have contributed immeasurably to the glory of the American name and the greatness of the American government; yet, almost from the beginning, the policies of the gov- ernment have not been conducive to tlie interests of the South. With the progress of years and the strengthening of these policies the unfavorable effects upon our interests became clearer and more pro- nounced. Some thii*ty-three years ago the attitude of the Federal administration towards our institutions became so unfriendly and threatening that the South sought protection in an effort to withdraw from the Union in a peaceable manner, as it believed it had a rigbt to do. This right was disputed, and an army was sent to convince us of our mistake. We resisted invasion and war followed. Our fathers fought for what they believed to be an essential principle of the Federal Union, antedating the Constitution and forming the basis upon which it rested. It is not this war alone that interposes obstructions to the teach- ing of patriotism; we disxwse of it as the result of an honest differ- ence among brave men, settled as becomes brave men. But the course of the government since the war presents more serious difficul- ties. The war was fought upon the issue of secession, for the avowed THE SOUTH AND ITS PROBLEMS. 570 ^^ae oC^ X>r^serving the Union. When it was over and the victoire ^^^to €i-X3L:i.c?nd the Constitution, what amendments were adopteeexx 1^^^ aside and there had been no effort to resume them. This ^^udment was adopted during the days of reconstruction. It is ^^ess to say that no part of this country would have slavery re- . ^j.^d, but the people of the South did not see the justice of this rrieiidinent, giving to an illiterate race the responsible and higk rivil^S^ ^^ suffrage. They looked upon it as an act to humiliate and *V^ j.^ss them, long after they had turned from war to the pursuits ^T>eac^> ^y placing them under the dominion of the lately liberated \^^^&y who possessed absolutely no qualification for the exercise of tliis liigti and responsible duty of sovereignty. Giving them the l3allot at that time has ever been regarded at the South as more than. xxi-istak^; it has been regarded as the crime of partisans, a crime i.ffainst the freedman himself, unprepared to rule, as he was, and a. deoT>^^ crime against free institutions, a blot upon American honor, sta.!^ upon Sa^on blood. rptieii came the civil rights bill, the demand for equal social recog- nition for the colored people (a thing altogether impracticable), and . jj^^i;- an wise and unfriendly legislation. rpjiose acts have caused more or less irritation and alarm. In the rneaxitime the Federal revenue laws have borne heavily upon our r>eopl^ to the advantage of other sections of our common country. ^WTlie^^^^ we look to the past, or the present, the benefits of the Fecieral Government to our people, though they have been great, YxskTve 'O.ot been immediate and apparent, while the burdens imposed liave l>een direct and distinct Another difficulty in our way is found in the books on history and literature available for our use. These books are in most cases writ- ten l>y ^^° ^^^ h^iye been so biased that they have not been able, it tieems, ^o omit opinions and selections specially obnoxious to our section of the country. This complaint holds against much of the so-c«^^^ patriotic literature published for the schools. We cannot lase thi« literature. The pupils in our schools are the children, the crrnndchildren and the great-grandchildren of the soldiers of the 580 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [RicIimQiid South. We could not, if we would, teach them that Robert E. Liee and "Stonewall" Jackson were rebels or traitors. Their fathers and grandfathers followed Lee and Jackson to the downfall of a cause — the embodiment of a principle which they cherished with an abiding devotion as one of the foundation stones of free institutions. THE NBCESSriY OK TEACHLNG PATRIOTISM. Patriotism is the sentiment that binds us to our country, and secures willing obedience to its laws, begets respect for the people's magistrates, supports the government in time of peace, maintains her armies in times of war and nerves a soldier to say, when necessary, " 'Tis sweet and noble to die for one's country." Never has there been a greater need for the cultivation of a patriotic sentiment among all the people. It is true the government has prescribed penalties and punishments for the violation of its laws, and for compelling sub- mission to its authority; but the government that relies solely upon its system of pains and penalties must lead a precarious and perilous existence. Such a government is like a school in which the teacher relies upon the fear of punishment to secure order and industry, with- out attempting to build up any sentiment impelling order and in- dustry as the rightful contribution of each pupil to the good of all — the success of the school. It is possible to maintain order and in- dustry through fear and force, and it is sometimes necessary to resort to these means; but when they become the only reliance of the teacher the school becomes a failure. So may a government for a time enforce obedience to its laws and a formal compliance with the requirements placed upon the citizens, but a government controlled by no higher sentiment is a failure even during its existence, and this is necessarily limited and uncertain. To the consent of the governed we must come at last for stability and perpetuity of government. For centuries the unmis- takable tendencies of the civilized world have been towards democ- racy. But in human institutions! there is no good unmixed with evil ; with liberty comes license; with democracy comes demagogy. Ours is an age of nihilism, socialism, communism and anarchy. Only a few days ago an anarchist in France, condemned to death for explod- ing a bomb in the chamber of deputies, inquired what the sentence was, and, without waiting for reply, exclaimed: ^*It is death! I thank you." Our own country is being made the refuge of the propagandists of all the "isms" of all other countries, when they could live else- where no longer. Hence, we have a mixture of all tie e\ils that have threatened the several governments of Europe. We have also incorporated into our citizenship a vast body of for- eign-bom populfTtlon, speaking different languages, holding to different Superintendence.] THE SQOTE AND ITS PSOBLEm^^ ... «.nt ftf our institutions, traditions, fixed in diiferent habits of life, ^g""'*''^*" " -ers; isolated unacquainted with our history, laws, customs ana m^^^^^^^ ^^ in their sympathies, tastes and prejudices, jne^ ^^^ j^^^^. incongruous elements, we have undertaken to assimi ^^ icanize. Our success in this effort has ^^?^"^J^^'^,Vour citizen- plete; and the verj- fact that we have ^^^*^^°/^^%;7j;timents and ship large numbers of people not -^^:^^^'l,Z.^ r^ a measure, duties of American citizens has react^ T^v,r;nts weakened our cherished sentiments and attechme^^^^ ^ ^^ Can we not. my feUow-citizens <>* f ^^.^^^^l^^^^ east aside tbe the East and of the We«t in view of ^is ^nd^^^^ j. thought of sectionalism, put ^^J^e^ ^^J^"'^*^ ,^tform of rescuing sanship in every form, and unite ^P«°J^^^ ? J^ ^^^ ^ost salu- froru danger those institutions ^-J^^^^^^SoTus as educators, tax:^ the world has ever seen? JJ^^'^^^^tt^^. ^ patAotism limited above all men, the purest and lof tiejc P« tkat has one country, by no State lines, by no -^^^^^Tn: ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^' ^"^' rnda?d rjrrr^dre^-udaid of womanhood. •rHB MKAN-S OF TEACHING PATRIOTISM. The means of teaching patriotism are readUy deduced from the nature of patriotism. sentiment. There must be reasons 1. ratriotism is a '^at^^^^^/^^^^X^^ the contemplation of the for it. These reasons are ^^J''^^^^^^ readily appear from the ben^^ftts of the go-™--Si:^^\li' us a difficulty which I have al- study of civics. Hence, ^"| "" . . ^^^ Federal Government have ready noted, that the general polici^ of ttte *e ^^^ ^^^ u^Vtvorably affected our i^d"stne^ ^f^^^^Znt to help its citi- dren that it is -ott^^^^ t^^^i'^^o protect them in the ^ \r\ tlieir private interesLs, lu , .. ^^ ^^i the busmess "'^"^^-ment of life, liberty and P^^P^'^J' ' ^.^^l^ '' Ji^en can ask is se- o^'t^e government to bestow ^-ff ^^^^^i^.^a^^^^^^^ a fair show SuvftyW invasion of h^^^^^^^^^^^ 7 +v«e race of hfe; that in oraer w » wisdom of the i?iJ^Secessary for the minority to submit to ^^^^^ disadvantage. We \^3ority, alt^-g^J\ t^.rS Zl Ser, man must defend him- S^uld point out, that, in «• ^fJ^^wroAgs and protect his own prop- SS lg£°«t i^j"-^' ^^!^^' .^itrthegoXment defends him against ^^liUe in a civUized country the gove ^.^ ^^y f „,. SSel. redresses ^^ -^^^ei-o^^^^^^^^^ ^^^'^Tor ther point to the general e^';^"^^^ to the highest positions of honor Sit the ^^^^^t^\^^::C!rSTi^-^ abje?t pove"^ and utter ob- a.na inflnence; that men ua 582 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Richmond scurity to the first honors of the land ; that, as a matter of fact, the first among all classes of men, whether in public or private life, have come from the farms and workshops rather than from the homes of plenty and luxury; that we have made presidents of tailor lads, rail splitters and canal-mule drivers; that newsboys have become senators and millionaires; that honesty and industry are titles of nobility and the fact of citizenship the ensign of sovereignty; that under the benign influences of our government no man can fail to attain usefulness, which is the chief good, and happiness, its natural reward, without fault of his own. These thoughts are trite and commonplace, it is true ; and for this very reason I fear we do not sufficiently appreciate them, and, conse- quently, do not sufficiently impress them upon the young. Again, ours is the landi of liberty. Men have suffered death for a rash word; have been thrust into prison or banished from their native land for speaking and writing their honest opinions; have been put to torture and to death for worshiping God according to the dictates of their own consciences. Through years of bloodshed and centuries of struggle, mankind has at last arrived at the proposition, first fully recognized in the organization of our own government, that every man is entitled to the fullest individual liberty consistent with the rights of others. Here, too, obtains the fullest recognition of local self-government — the right of districts to regulate the affairs of dis- tricts, of counties to regulate county affairs, of cities to regulate mu- nicipal affairs, of States to regulate State affairs. The grand proposi- tion is, that the government of the citizen must be left as near his own door and as completely within his own influence as is compatible with the security and safety of society. Still further, in our country the citizen is king — the ruler, yet a servant. It is within the power of our citizenship to correct every abuse, to reform every evil tendency, to abolish every oppression, to right every wrong. Not only do public officials hold jwsition by the free choice of the people, but at the bidding of the citizen laws are changed, constitu- tions are amended, and the government itself is altered; "Public of- flce is a public trust," and governments exist for man, not man for government. 2. History is also a fountain from which patriotic emotions flow. From general history, the child will learn to take an interest in other men; to feel his heart warm and his pulse quicken as he reads or hears the story of the struggles, sufferings and triumphs of genera- tions long since dead. But, more particularly, from the history and traditions of our own country he will learn how our forefathers ex- posed themselves to all the privations, dangers and sufferings of pioneer life; far from home and friends and native land; deprived of Superintendence.] THE SOUTH AND ITS PROBLEMS, 583 the luxuries of life; subject to tlte severities of an unfamiliar climate 3iid the stealthy attacks of a savage foe, to establish on the wild shores of the Atlantic the first feeble beginnings of the greatest country of history and of the world. Here may be traced how, from these small beginnings, made after a hundred years of explorations and adventures, and then vacillating for years between hope and tlespair, the present great Union of States has grow n in less than three centuries. Here the pupil will also learn with what stubborn determination those early heroes, notwithstanding the dangers sur- rounding them, clung to their rights, and how a mere handful of hardy backwoodsmen, scattered from Maine to Florida, dared tbe hazard of a rebellion against the first of nations rather than abate a jot or tittle of their just demands; with what courage and under what discouragements, at what cost and what sacrifices, with what splendid patriotism, they maintained the conflict, carried it to suc- cess and achieved the independence of the States. Here, also, the pupil will learn with what profound philosophy and statesmanship, with what consummate wisdom and art, with what surpassing mod- eration and conservatism, the foundations of the government were laid ; and so on, throughout all the glorious past till the beginning of sectionalism. 3. Patriotic literature is another means of cultivating patriotic sentiment. A true example of patriotism, in whatever age or coun- try it may have occurred, and a truly patriotic thought, in whatever language spoken, to whatever country applied, has power to kindle the patriotic flame. We should insist upon having our readers and other school literature filled with patriotic gems which can be used by all the children of the land. 4. Patriotism may be taught by means of patriotic songs and emblems. The flag of the Union and the flag of the State should be the property of every school. They should be so often unfurled in the presence of the children that their silent but certain lessons of patriotism cannot faU to be taught Every child should every day of his school life sing a bit of patriotic song or meet with some pa- triotic sentiment On all holiday occasions and in all public enter- tainments patriotic recitations, songs and emblems should be dis- tinctly prominent. Thus, by surrounding our schools with an atmosphere of patri- otism, by cultivating broad sentiments, by expunging sectionalism from our books and literature, we may, without any violence to our past, build up a strong, patriotic manhood, upon which the future greatness and glory of the country may safely and surely rest. We meet to-day upon the sacred soil of Virginia, in the famous city of Richmond.^ Here were enacted the last ^scenes of the South- ern Confederacy. Around Richmond fought Lee and Jackson, twin 584 NA TIONAL EDUCAriONAL ASSOCIA TION, [ Richmond idols of the Southern soldier's heart. Around Richmond fought Grant and Sheridan, no less the idols of the Northern soldier's heart. Let us, each and all, do honor to these great soldiers; but let iis for- get the many sad scenes that were enacted in those dark days. Here rest the ashes of eTefferson Davis, the chivalrous chieftain of the "Lost Cause." Let the citizens of the whole country honor him for his many virtues and every year cover his grave with fresh flowers of peace. In a distant city rests the ashes of Abraham I^in- coin, the patriotic and generous chieftain of the conquering govern- ment, who was not allowed to finish the great mission of his life, as he saw it — the complete and happy restoration of the Union of the States. Let the citizens of the whole country annually cover his grave with the fresh flowers of peace. This is Virginia, the mother of States and statesmen. Here flows the James, on whose banks was established the first perma- ment English settlement in America. Here lived Patrick Henry, whose flaming soul and burning speech first lit the fire of revolutionary patriotism. Here lived and here sleeps Thomas Jefferson, the states- man of a thousand years, whose brain and heart conceiv(?d and whose hand wrote the immortal Declaration of Independence. Here is the home of Madison, co-laborer with Hamilton in urging the adop- tion of the Constitution. Here is Yorktowu, where the last engage- ment of the Revolution was fought. Here is the home of Washing- ton, and this is the anniversary of his birth. Here, my fellow coun- trymen, upon the sacred soil of Virginia, ujwn the birthday of Wash- ington, the father of his country in deed and in truth, whose memory will live while patriotism has a home in the breast of man, let us resolve to go back to the older memories common to all the country. Here is a rich and inexhaustible fountain of pure patriotism. Here is no poison of sectional hate. Here let us drink. Here let us pledge each other to banish sectionalism from the land, from our books, from our literature, from our lives, from our schools, from our homes, and from our hearts. Let the great thoughts and greater sentiments of that older day once more fill the continent and unite all our people in sympathy and affection, as we are united and must remain united in srovernment and duty. DISCUSSION, J. H. Phtlltps. City Superintendent, Birmingham, Ala.— In the first place. I wish to emphasize the fact that patriotism is not altogether a question of geography. It is not limited by State boundaries, nor restricted by sectional lines. It is a question that comprehends something more, something hicrher and deeper: it is a question of humanity and brotherhood, and comprehends our entire country. ^^P^tendena^Ji DISCUSSION. 585 I^apei^'t* ^^ f""* fathers. The problems that have been so ably set forth in the ^^■^ditiaz^ ^hich we have listened this evening evolve from the past conditions and ^r^at tliG ^^ ^"^ country in general and of the South in particular, and now con- »t:aiidj>oint 7* people. These questions, viewed in the light of, and from the mrtthleinm ' ti? ' ^** broad and comprehensive patriotism, are no longer Southern XMitiietic CQ ^^ ^^^ American problems, requiring the intelligent, patriotic and sym- It ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^"^^^ ^^^^'^cf^^ citizen. «o^^o, ajid^ superfluous to state that, while the South has many questions to ^^At a.2-e fbx^d^-^ obstacles to her material development and educational progress *>« tra.ce««^* ^®^^ *® *^® ultimate removal of the difficulties that now obstruct In tile progress. iOlc^ Xmx>ortent'°f '^^'^'^ ^^ ^^^ problems, the South has not been indifferent or iin^lort&JcerL and * ? preliminary to their final solution have already been bravely nrtdeirt&kGwx tHe J^^f^^^^^ accomplished. In every Southern State the people have tlie t 7 "^ ««-^.viupiiBueu. xn every soutnem State tne people nave Uie ne^jro rnee- in* °^ Providing for the elementary education of the children of Ets tliG limltrecl mean^^^ Southern State to-day this work is carried on as efficiently ^nstazioes, «. most ^ ** ^^^" command will permit This is a serious, and, in many nncli self-saoriflce ^^Jf^^"® burden. In many States it involves much self-denial, 3]-o^il«€>c>ls whil^ ^ ^^^^^^ ^"^^ '* devoted entirely to the maintenance of col- itJ^^^^l'^Zn.^ *^^ ^^"^""'^ ^^ '^"^ ^^**^« ^^ «^o«^ communities are educated '- ^ when we r ^^^ self-sacrifice involved in this will be more fully appre- Mateo, w ^inember that the negro necessarily contributes little or nothing n tlie form oi lax^^ for the maintenance of the schools. The South, I Vfc^iieve, appreciates to the fullest extent the beneficent aid that tlie philanxliroPy ^^^ benevolence of the North and East have extended toward tlie solution ^\:^*^ question. Schools for the secondary and higher education of tlie ne«ro, ^tabh^jj^^ l,y means of these benefactions, are, to-day, accomplishing great good oy ediieatingr teachers and preachers for the negro race. Let me em- phasize one prmcij>ie, that, in my judgment, must sooner or later be recognized; naiiieiy» -that the education and development of the negro race must come from* -within, and not from without. We must assist him to work out his own salvation. The negi^o himself, whenever it is possible, demands that his children shall be tanght; hy negro teachers. This principle is quite generally recognized throughout the Sonth- it is hardly necessary here to attempt an argument in justification of this proposition. That negro teachers are better adapted for the work of teaching chii^*^*^ of their own race, may be better appreciated if we consider the relations that; m.nst necessarily exist between teacher and pupil. The negro may learn much Vjy 3.hsorption and observation, and will accomplish much by imitation, but the ^^xxx^^^ development of the race must come from within the body of the people, ^y^^gli the instrumentality and activity of the race itself, if j^^ progress is to be gennine and permanent. ^^^ain, the burden undertaken by the South will be mor^ f^\\y appreciated, «ehen '^^ '^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ *^**» ^^®°^ ^^® ^^^ nature of the oi^^j^mBtances, it be- ooxnes necessary to maintain a dual system of schools. Wher^ ^i.^ negro is found . such large masses, the reasons for this are obvious; the eri^^ «© of race preju- 686 NATIONAL EDVCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [RicfamoDd dices and the instinct of race identity are potent reasons for separate schools for the races. But the strongest reason, in my judgment, is found in the inherent differences in the capacities of the two races, and the differences in their life con- ditions and environment. These differences involve the necessity for adaptation; they involve the necessity for separate and distinct curricula— separate and distinct methods of instruction for the two races. From an experience of twelve years in the supervision of negro schools, as a part of a municipal system, I have become convinced that it is an injustice to the negro child to require him to pass through the same course of study as the white child, and to require him to complete that course in the same time and under the same conditions. As compared with the white race, the negro is an infant. To employ the same curriculum and the same methods in the instruction of this '*child race" that are employed in the education of a race now in the zenith of its development and maturity, is as unjust as it is unnatural and illogical. The adaptation of courses of study and methods of in- struction to the wants of negro schools is to-day one of the South's most pressing: educational problems. With regard to the ultimate solution of the negro question, I have but little to offer. The magazines and periodicals have presented abundance of theoretical solutions, and you are at liberty to take your choice. The South, however, let it be understood, is now fully committed to the tenet of universal education, and especially to the education of the negro, whether it leads ultimately to colonization, or simply to the gradual dispersion of the race, until, like the Jew, it shall become a factor in every community throughout our country instead of being an incubus upon any one section of our land, as it is to-day. I prefer to contemplate dispersion as the ultimate solution of this great question, because it seems to be the natural and logical result of processes now in operation. We all know that the ignorant and superstitious are attached to the soil; they are permanent appendages of the land like the helots of Sparta and the serfs of Russia. The dullard never emigrates. As the negro becomes enlightened, and is lifted above the dead plane of ignorance, he manifests the tendency, which characterizes all enlightened races, to free him- self from slavery to the soil and to improve his condition by emigration. As a demonstration of this fact, we find negroes to-day in our Rocky Mountain and Pacific States, in New England, in Canada, and even on the continent of Europe. But these negroes are far superior to the average Southern negro; they are intelli- gent, thrifty, and able to cope with their surroundings. Most of them are Southern negroes who have been educated up to the point of emigration. When the 7,000,000 of negroes in this country are distributed among all the States— among a population of 70,000,000— the negro question will have found a proximate, if not a final, solu- tion. Education is the key to this solution. The process is fairly begun, but time, patience and money are necessary to its completion. Col. Francis W. Parker, Principal Cook County Normal School, Engle- wood. 111.— I am glad to be here, in the heart of old Virginia; glad to be surrounded by the men and women who have in trust the highest interest of society, that of education. I have the greatest horror of war in all its forms. I had no desire whatever to go to war in 1860. "The greatest civil war that ever darkened the earth," filled my soul with the deep horror of the untold miseries of murderous strife. I remem- ber that on the march, in the battle, in the siege, I dreamed and thought and planned how humanity could be saved from the barbarism of fratricidal war. How could the people be educated in such a way as to keep them from slaying each other? War is barbarism; it is barbarism in any way you may put it. The only way to save a people from war is to educate that people, to educate the children of that people; to educate them into true freedom in the common Superintendence.] DISCUSSION. 587 seiiools. I was a teacher before the war, and I resolved here, upon the battlefields ot the Sonth, that I would continue to be a teacher My purpose in being a teacher is to aid in perpetuating the Republic, the hope of the world. It lias given me great pleasure to listen to the masterly handling of the sub- Jeots of the condition and progress of the South by the distinguished gentlemen to wttaax we have listened. In most things I heartily agree with them. But there is -a strain of distress, of despair, in regard to a condition of things that may be ovei-oome. If we are told that, under our feet, deep down in the earth, there was -a- I>reoious mine of priceless gold, we would dig and dig until we found it. If we '^ero told that costly diamonds were scattrred over the prairies and fields, we "^YOiiId search and search. If we had acres of rich, productive land, we would sow -and reap. But, my brethren, there is a mine more precious than all the gold in -tlie iworld; there are diamonds brighter, better and more costly than were ever fouxii>reciate the divinity born in every human being; when we apply the con- ^oi>^^» and make them useful, important factors in society? I have only on.^ aosTver to this problem, and that is, education into work. '^^^ friends of the colored people in the North have made a great mistake about; their education, i believe that the erstwhile curse of man, •*By the sweat of tbjr face slialt thou earn thy bread," is his greatest blessing, and I would train everjr -cliild in the schools of the colored people to work. I would have a shop for hand- 'WOT'MS^ m every schoolhouse. I would have a small farm or garden surround! ns^ ^^^^y scboolhouse. I should* train these children into a love of work, ability to '^o^^* and into the honesty which is developed by honest labor. And then, from. out tlie ashes of ^^e past will rise the glorious phoenix, liberty and freedom. I oringr to you, then, a profound faith, that in a right education all these grea^ I>rol>lem8, which bring despair to-day, may be solved. I am thankful to feel at this hour that I neve^:. fired a rifle, I never stood guard through the dark night, I ne\rer marcbed a step j^^ ^jj the long war, with one particle of hate in my soul. I wa» "^'***^^ ^^^ * Principle, as you were, and when the great war was over— yea, during the 'wo.ir I was willing, and more than willing, to renew or to make new bonds of friendship betw^^^ the North and South. I nvieh to sa^^ ^g a New Bnglander, that we were just as much responsible for slavery as the ot'tizens of Virginia. Let the dead past bury its dead. We come toKeth.er to stud^ the situation. How can we make things better? The only thing: I naire to <^ritiQj^^ -jj the admirable speeches of our brethren this evening is, that: "^^^"^^ *® *^o ^Uoh a flavor of discouragement in them. There can be no despair- when the ™a^i^.g^^jj^ resources of this country abound in life and strength and rich.es. TSThat ^^^ need, as I have said before, is, to study earnestly and persistently the means foir ^^^^ development of our race, and all races. Never despise any oao, no matter ho^v i^^ j^^ jg in the stage of development. God has given us every child in this world ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ the one work of all mankind is salvation. Nothing will 588 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Richmond bind U8 together, heal up the old wounds, bring new life into our whole land, more than this matter of a higher education, of better education for all, for every child bom under our flag. I wish to say that the dogmatic teaching of history is unpedagogical and wrong. I belieye the teacher who brings dogmatism to the child brings partisanship, limi- tations, both mental and moral. Let me tell you how history is taught in the Oook County Normal School. We have on our shelves the works of Stephens, Jefferson Davis, Pollard and Johnston, and we say to the children: **Find out for yourselves; here are the subjects to learn. We do not say that the North was right, or that the South was right; but, here is the history; here are the means; make up your minds for yourselves." Such teaching is the only teaching worthy of democracy. If they study the life of Lee, the greatest general that America ever had, and if they learn to love him, then thank God for it. True patriotism em- braces the whole world. True patriotism is not partisan or secular. True patriot- ism is as broad as Christianity, as sweet and pure as God's love. SUPT. J. M. Gbbenwood, Kansas City, Mo.— The State in which I live had the ''Southern Question" to face in a small way. A State with only 160,000 voting population in 1860, from 1861 to 1865 put 109,000 men into the Union army and from 75,000 to 100,000 into the Southern army. We used to wonder "What will be the result of this terrible conflict?" When it was over, our soldiers came home; those that had lived as friends and neighbors, sometimes as brothers; those that had worshiped around the same altar; that had prayed to the same Creator; those that engaged in the pursuits of life side by side before the war, and then re-engaged as partners after the war. Then it was that the negro question came up before us as a practical issue to be settled by our people. Men in whose arteries flowed the blood from the South and the blood from the North, from the East and from the West, had to meet and solve this problem. We bad the negroes among us, without property, ignorant, kind, dependent— 120,000 or 130,000 men, women and children. In conversation with one of the most talented men in our State, the Hon. James S. Rollins, I said: "Major, here is a question before us that we must solve. What is our duty as Christian men? We have jails and penitentiaries. We have places in which men, women and children may be incarcerated, and what is our duty?" We look over the whole field; other noble men and women, too, doing the same thing. But, I stood, as a boy, looking up, as it were, into the face and eyes of this master. To educate these people was the only thing that we could do. It is cheaper, we argued, to build schoolhouses; it is cheaper to erect churches; it is cheaper to teach these people to be industrious, intelligent, virtuous and enter- prising citizens, than it is to put them in the jails and penitentiary. We went to work. We touched upon the subject easily and almost silently, until all our people agreed with us. It was reason against prejudice at first What is the result? The 160,000 colored men and women of our State to-day possess between $40,000,000 and $50,000,000 worth of property. They have more than 500 churches with more than 250 parsonages, and the colored teachers are the teachers of the colored children. We found that a white man or a white woman who went into the colored schools to teach lost caste with the negroes as well as with the whites. We went to work at this question as Christian men and Christian women. It made no differ- ence what our prejudices were. Here was a great question; a question over- shadowing all others of this country. We knew the characteristics of the Anglo- Saxon race, the virtue and the resources that lie in the American people them- selves, to solve, when they set their minds to it, any question that may be proposed in the practical affairs of life. The faith that I have in the people of this country, and in all sections of it, is sufficient to justify me in saying that we will get out 3 ai>erm tendence. ] DISCUSSION. 589 o:f this wilderness of doubt, safe home and without any trouble whatever. It will ^ a long jonmey, but we will make it dry-shod. X«ast summer, I went into the State of Mississippi, where out of every twelve X^^'^^^K * ^^'^^n are colored. I found the educators there solving the colored question. otlier Southern States, the good sense of our people is bringing this matter to ^^^^^'^^^^^^ termination. The very best blood of the South is at work in the b^ ♦H* - " ^oble and respected families, of culture and refinement, are represented jr ^eir sons and daughters as teachers in the public schools. intended to practice law, but when I saw the condition of our country after our- years of misery and woe, moved as was Colonel Parker, I said to myself in ^\^- *** *»onrs of the night, "that my work is in the schoolroom with the children o ^is country, because with them is the hope of the country." It may have been «. c^ildisli feeling. Thank heaven, I believe it was a manly and patriotic one! i?vorild not take from the children of this country one cherished memory. It 18 only natural that they should revere the names of the distinguished soldiers under vt^liom trlmeir fathers fought. That wavy line of blood that marked more than a ^JbousaiKl battlefields, was made by our own people, as brave and true as ever lived. W^xieii I liear the boys and girls of these same fathers discussing the war in the sclkockl-T-t^Gm, debating it without any acrimony, but simply as intelligent boys and ^irls, I see no feeling of hate there. I heard a boy whose father draws a pension ^^y ' **^ believe tljat the South was right on this point," and I heard a Southern ^=^oy ^^ our city, ^vliose father is one of the best men I ever knew, and who followed *^^ "Jliost: Cause* » down to Mexico, say: "I believe my papa was on the wrong »ii-^d io our bones ^ W'e are one people, one language, one literature, and every feel- Ixxg 'tlia-'t springs x»p from the true emotions of the heart, whether men served under -^^^ ••stars and stiripes" or under the "stars and bars," is a patriotic feeling. It 'wa.s x>^^^^^^°^ ^lad love of country, as our people saw it and understood it, that made t:li«i*^ bar^ their breasts to leaden and iron hail, and brought sorrow and jj^^^rning to naof^ than 600,000 hearthstones, as the very best blood of our nation ovi't- 'We ha^e gone through the terrible ordeal. We were not responsible for 5 'X'lie seeds were sown away back yonder. It culminated in our generation. * ^^^ Ood, I see the light beyond! It is in the 400,000 school teachers, north, ,^1^ east and ^west. Our destiny as a nation is with those who have buckled on *?^ aJruxor and are going forward to train the 15,000,000 boys and girls in our ^^^ ^^y. xiV ^o '^^ honest manhood and a virtuous and true womanhood. This army, coxixi^^^^ ^^ ^^ large as Napoleon led from Paris to Moscow, is one which will not ^^^^ a-w^a-y* ^^* ^t will continue to grow and increase and spread its influence every- **^^ ^ 1^ this broad land of ours. Not in the statesmen is the hope of our country, "^^^T -ti^e true men and true women. Those that are doing the work at home and ^^"^"^^^ schools, will bring to bear every influence to lift our people to a higher plane *^ ^vit:y, usefulness and charity. ^* "VV^e stand, as I believe, in a united country, an American people with American ^ in our veins, and actuated by the purest and holiest principles that ever V^^^^yed any nation onward and upward in the history of the World. BtJ:P«R^N'«'KNDKNT Pbeston of Mi8sissippi.-In answer to Go\ouel Parker's state- ^^± tliat the white race may be able to stand arithmetic, geo^^.p^y and grammar, ^ ^^tliat the negro cannot acquire higher education, I wish to s^^ ib** ''' ^^^ ^^^^ ""* 690 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Ricbmond MissiBsippi under our strict and difficult uniform examinations, we have 595 eolored teachers who are able to take first grade licenses, and they are well qualified to teach and competent in scholarship. I want to state further, that we have aboot 1,200 negroes pursuing collegiate studies in our normal school, supported \>y the State, «.nd in three other colleges and universities which are supported by char- itable societies from the North. Negroes constitute the larger portion of our laboring class, and make a latrge^ part of the products out of which the taxes are paid, and therefore the race is justly entitled to a fair share of the immunities, privileges and advantages of the government of Mississippi. I use this argument with our white people to sho^w the justice of continuing our policy of educating the negroes, and to strengrthen public sentiment on this very delicate question. I can discern no good for either race in the illiteracy of the negro. If there i» to be any improvement of conditions, it must come through training and educating him, and I do not believe in limiting his education to manual and industrial train- ing, thereby forcing him everlastingly to become a laborer. Open the avenues for intellectual training, and let the race rise as high as their mental capacities will allow. This is the doctrine I preach in Mississippi. For one, I am not afraid to take my chances with the educated negro; but I shudder for the future if the race is to remain wholly steeped in the darkness of illiteracy and consequent criminality. The author of the first paper made one statement from w*hich I wish to enter a vigorous dissent. He said we needed, as immigrants, those who would form a middle class of society. I preach the gospel of universal education because its fundamental doctrine is universal equality. We want no classes in this republican country. Make the highways of learning free to all; strike down the banners of caste and class; let each rise to the height of his God-given powers of intellect. The author of the paper says further that we are too poor in the South to educate our children. I cite him to New England, with bleak olimate and barren soil. She early discovered that she was too poor not to educate her people. In native intelligence, she could compete with tlie world on equal terms. The South to-day is too poor not to educate; for, through education must come the solution of all her problems— the restoration of prosperity and ultimate glory to land and people. OoL. F, W. Pabkbr: I did not mean to confine their training to manual training. I would give the better education of manual training first, because, as I say, I think they need it more. CLOSING REMARKS OF PRESIDENT ID. L. KIERLE. You, as educators, are committed to the principle and practice of laboratory experience. During the year since you met in Boston you have been in the laboratory of the school-room. You have reassembled at this place and have exchanged experiences, which show an entire year of profit and advancement in the work of your profession. You have had, not only exercise, but you have made progress. The themes may be old, but you have passed to a higher Superintendence.] CLOSING REMARKS OF PRESIDENT KIEHLE. 591 P^ane, and the discussions of this meeting have shown that your horizon has heen broadened. You are nearer the solution of many problems than you were a year ago. I desire to thank you for the cordial support which has been given me in the responsibility of arranging the program and con- ducting the execution of it at this time. I felt proud when I was offered this position. I am prouder in the reflection that I repre- sent in this official position the first body of educators in America, which means those who are in the front ranks of the world. And now, to the good people of Richmond, I wish to express th^ special gratification which we all feel in the fulfillment of all that has been promised us. Many of us came here as strangers. We could hardly tell what queer expressions our peculiar Northern prejudices might prompt us to. It was somewhat difficult to make the little opening address which was required of me, for, never hav- ing been in Virginia, never having even tried to get here before, I was not certain of my whereabouts. But we soon found that we sound the same shibboleth; that we are brethren together. TlLe topic of this evening was appointed for the benefit of the educators from the North. We felt that we ought again to have presented to us and reviewed these problems which are discussed from time to time, that we might get fresh and authentic informa- tion as to the real status of these serious problems. We shall go home assured in our. hearts that the civilization of these Southern States is in the keeping of the Christian characters and noble spirits which have been represented here to-night. To be regardless of the problems which oppress you would be indifference, and we feel now that to urge upon you our peculiar or our personal and individual advice would be intrusive. We desire to assure you that we shall never be indifferent to the questions which are oppressing you. We sympathize with the thought, that has already been expressed, that this is a national problem. We all owe something to it, and years ago it would have pleased us at the North heartily if it had seemed best for the general government to have made generous contribution for the support and the encouragement of education in these South- ern States. And now, as we leave you, we wish to feel, with you, that, for the history of the nation, in all of its bright future; for the cementing ot the hearts of the people in a spirit of true patriotism; for genuine respect to the brave souls that fought on either side in the fearful conflict through which we have passed, we are indebted, as we shall be in the future, to the Christian educational public, it is because the schoolmaster is abroad in the land that we have faith for the future And now, as we leave von to go to Cleveland next 692 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Ricbmond year, we ask you to meet us there. I am quite certain, that, instead of discussing the topic, "The South and its Problems," we sliall be prepared to discuss for your benefit "The North and Its Problems," for we have quite plenty of them. Now, we bid you good nii^lit aDd a grateful farewell. National Council of Education;. CONSTITUTION. PEEAMBL.E. ■1 «f Pducation shall have for its object the coosideraUon a.od aiscussion of ^^"'^f »"'! '"^^^ ,epo4, of the substance of the di.eu«.ious, and the presentation, througn pn ^^ .^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^j^ ^^^^ disseminate and tl»e conclusions formulated " ^^^ this purpose, it shall be the ^rrect thinking °^ .^^'^^^^'"'^^^..^ssion., to define and state with accuracy ai«. of the CouncU. '•';°f "ri's on the subject under consideration, and, ..condly, the different riews and theories o _^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ . ^ ^^^^ to discover and represent i^'"J\ «>gsible. the genesis of opinion on the subject. 80 far as t\»''7'»%X Council .^pursuance of this object, to encour«Ee from It sball be the duty of the Co"°«'. « » differences in opinion, together with all its members the most careful ^^f^^^''^^^^^^^ It shall further require from tue completest statement "^ f^^'T f„i preservation and presentation of the tt»e chairmen of its <=°"?'"***^„'' *„J* ^er grounds have been furnished for the individual differences »\ "P'"'"". .r^^ j^ ^haU invite the freest discuasioB of the ^«e by members of their <^'"°'^*;*'„^'; ^^^ ,^^^ are not so amended as to reports of its committees. »°°' J' ^^^j, discussion, any member mttkiug embody the new ""K^^f °°' ^7out in writing his view and the grounds therofor. ,ocU --<^<^^'>^---^'>''^^fZTiJ^tZ^0TxL records of the Ck>uncil. It .hall and furnish the same t".*^^/" ^^ ^id of the Chairmen of the several eom- prepare. through its ^'^^ ,^ iJNational Association, setting forth the questions mittees. an annual 'epor* «° j„„g year, and placing before the Asso- coiisidered by the Council dur ^g^^ accomplished. It shall embody in this report ciation. in succinct form, m ^^^^^ ^^^ ^o call for any action oti the part a survey of those educationa i ^ pojnt, out of its own number, committees of the Association. The Coun^^'^^^^^ ^^ education, and thereby facilitate the ex- representing the several dep ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^eh special topics as demand ilip utteu- change of opinion among -ts » ^.^ tion of the profession or oi •■ ' ^ 594 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [National ARTICLE I.— MEMBERSHIP. 1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected out of the membership of the National Educational Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council, and after the first election such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter provided. 2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members— four members for six years, two for four years, and two for two years; and the Council shall elect eight members— five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years; and annually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five mem- bers and the Council five members, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided for (section 5), to serve six years, or until his successor is elected. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with the annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any reason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by the Council. 4. The term of service of the several members of the Council, chosen at the first election, shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council. 5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Coun- cil shall fill vacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, aa well as vacancies caused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged to the Council shall, on the expiration of their member- ship, become honorary members, with the privilege of attending its regular sessions, and participating in its discussions. No state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members. ARTICLE II.— FEES. There shall be no fee for membership in the Council of Education, but each member of it shall secure a membership in the National Educational Association by becoming a life member of the same, or by paying to the Treasurer of the Association the annual membership fee of two dollars. ARTICLE III.— MEETINGS. There shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place as the meeting of the National Association, and at least two days previous to this meeting. There may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the Executive Committee, but the attendance at these meetings shall be entirely volun- tary. The regular meeting of the committees shall take place on the days provided for the annual meeting of the Council. Meetings of committees may be called at any time by the chairmen of the respective committees, but attendance at such special meetings shall be entirely voluntary. A majority of the Council shall con- stitute a quorum for the transaction of business at any meeting, whether regular or called; but any less number, exceeding eight members, may constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as defined in this article. ARTICLE IV.-COMMITTEES. The general management of the affairs of the Council shall be vested in an Executive Committee, composed of the President, Vice President and Secretary of the Council, and four other members, all of whom are to be elected by the Oouncil.] CONSTITUTION. 595 OoiMcil at its annual meeting. There shall be twelve standing committees, each consisting of five members. They shall be appointed by the Executive Committee, o.zka be named as follows: 1. Committee on State School Systems. 2- Committee on City School Systems. 8. Committee on Higher Education. 4. Committee on Secondary Education. S- Committee on Elementary Education. ®- Committee on Normal Education. 'T'. Committee on Technological Education. S- Committee on Pedagogics. ^« Committee on Moral Education. O. Committee on School Sanitation, Hygiene and Physical Training. -l^" ^'^iniittee on Psychological Inquiry. a.2. Committee on Educational Reports and Statistics. ARTICLE v.— DUTIES OF STANDIN«; COMMITTEES. roDoz-^ *^®***n[iittees of the Council shall consider the topics assigned to them, and ^I>o ^ on the same; they may select for their deliberations such other questions ^^^1%^^ ^ ***eir departments as they deem proper to discuss. ^- ^^ enei^^ called upon, the committees shall continue the deliberative work of ~^^- ***^^i* ** ^^ topics assigned to them, or prepare questions to be submitted "to xlictc oody. . ^ * ^^ the duty of the standing committees to observe the new educational experiments ^^^ original investigations within the scope of their assigned topics, ^^^ report tl»^ g^me from time to time to the President of the Council. .A-HTICt^:^ VL—DUTIES OF MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEES, Tlae meiui>erg Qf the Council shall render active service and assistance in the "wrorlc of the c^^mmittee to which they have been assigned, and further the general -worlt of the C^ouncil as much as is in their power. They shall give their attention t:o "tlie Questiojig submitted to them, and communicate their conclusions in writing t;o t:lxe Chairocian of the Committee. H^Ieeting of Committees for Special Work.— A half day at each annual session sliall "b© set cipart for "round table" discussions, and each standing committee may cond''^^ i^ Own meeting separately, inviting, at its pleasure, experts, original in- ^^stagators, oir other persons, to present their experience or theoretical views before j^ for discussion. ARTICLE VII.— DUTIES OF THE CHAIRMEN OF COMMITTEES. The Chairman of each committee shall communicate the questions which are ♦o 1^® discussed to each of the members of his committee, and send them such other ^Qjxixnnnications as may assist them in their work. He shall arrange a suitable ^3^jj^ for an exchange of opinion, and embody the conclusions arrived at in a brief ^^.port. He shall, from time to time, inform the Secretary of the Council of the oro&ress made by his committee. He shall, with the consent of the other members of Ws committee, arrange special meetings at a convenient time and place. He sliall see that the communications, sent in turn to each m^^iber of his committee, 3^e promptly forwarded. He shall state distinctly (in the form of questions, when tcAB'Me) the topics on which he desires to have a brief exjjress^o'^ ^^ opinion from .|^e members of his committee, and embody the siibstau^^ f their answers in his report. 596 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [National ARTICLE VIII.—THE WORK OF THE COMMITTEES. The work of the committees of the Council shall be carried on in the reffular meetings provided for above, and in such special meetings as can be arranged from time to time, according to the pleasure of the committee, and principally in "writiDg, by an exchange of briefly-expressed opinions. It shall be the duty of eacli Chair- man to devise a plan for the latter. Each member may be required to report on a part of the subject; or the whole topic may be submitted to each member, together with the opinion of the other members that have considered the topic before. ARTICLE IX.— DUTIES OF THE COUNCIL. It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Asso- ciation, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general. The Council shall assign work to each committee, and receive a report on the same; it shall cause to be published such reports of committees, or part of the same, as in its judgment should be brought to general notice; it shall present, through the President of the Council, an annual report of its work to the National Educational Association. Arrangement of Annual Program.— The President, in making up the annual program of exercises, may select any of the twelve standing committees which will, in his opinion, prepare work for the Council of the most timely and vital character, and he shall not be limited in his choice by considerations of routine. The committee thus reporting may introduce before the Council such specialists, experts, original investigators or inventors of new methods as they may de^m essential to present effectively their subject-matter before the Council for dis- cussion. ARTICLE X.-AMENDMENTS. This Constitution may be altered or amended, at a regular meeting of the Council, by a two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provision may be waived at any regular meeting, by unanimous consent. By-laws, not in violation of this Constitution, may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of the Council. BY-LAWS. 1. Each active member of the Council shall pay annually two dollars, to defray the expenses of the Council. 2. The Secretary shall act as Treasurer of the Council. CSoancU.] OFFICERS AND MEMBERS. 697 OFFICERS FOR 1893-94. Pretident—^. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohla Vice PretiderU—T. A. Fltzpatrlck, Omaha, Neb. Secretary and Treasurer— ChBxleA De Garmo, Swarthmore, Pa. Executive Committee— The President, Vice President, Secretary ; E. E. White, Columbus, Ohio; D. Li. Klehle, MlnneaiK>llB, Minn. ; Nicholas Murray Butler, Paterson, N. J. ; J. Bald- 'rln, Austin, Tex. OFFICERS FOR 1894-95. President— C. C. Rotmds, Plymouth, N. H. Vice President— is:. Oram Lyte, MlUersvlUe, Pa. Secretary and Treasurer— ii. C. Dougherty, Peolra, III. .Bxeeutive Committee-The President, Vice President. Secretary; E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio; Charles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass. ; B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich. ; James H. Can- Held, IL«lncoln, Neb. MEMBERS. NoTK.-The letter -A" followlngia name denotes that the member Is of the class elected by ttie Association; the letter "C," by the Council. Term Expires. R. G. Boone, YpsHantl. Mich A 1»8 F. Louis Soldan, St. Ix>uls, Mo A 1W8 N. A. Calkins. New York aty A 1^ Joseph Baldwin, HuntSTlUe, Tex -^ i^ Jas. H. Canfleld, Lincoln, Neb A 1^ A. S. Dieper. Champaign. 111. • • • • • • -^ 1^ Wm. H. Maxwell. Brooklyn. N. Y ... .O 1^ Emerson B. White. Columbus. Ohio. .O 1^ B. A. Hinsdale. Ann Arbor, Mich....O 1^8 N. O. Dougherty, Peoria. Ill O 1S>» W. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky..A 1^ Frank A. Fltapatrlck. Omaha, Neb. .A 1W9 Henry Sabin. Des Moines. Iowa A 1^ B. Oram Lyte. MlUersvllle. Pa....... A 1^ J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. .A 1899 Wm. A. Mowry, Salem, Mass O 1^ Sellm H. Peabody. Chicago. Ill C 1^ Nathan O. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa. .C 1^ David L. Klehle, St. Paul. Minn... .O 1899 Mary B. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.O 1899 O. O. Rounds. Plymouth, N. H A 1900 H. S. Jones. Lincoln. Neb A 1900 Z. Richards. Washington, D. O A 1900 James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo A 1900 John T. Prince, Boston Mass A 1900 Aaron Gove, Denver. Colo^ C 1900 ^m B3. Sheldon, Boston. Mass ^ JS2? Irwin Shepard. Winona, Minn O 1900 Li7ola Stidtney. Cincinnati, Ohio C1900 ^ H Key. Cedar Palls. Iowa....O 1900 Term Expires. James M. Green. Trenton. N. J A 1805 Henry M. Lelpziger. New York City. .A 1895 A R. Taylor, Bmporia, Kan A 189 J W. R. Garrett, Nashville. Tenn A 1P85 J. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss A 1805 Geo. P. Brown, Bloomington, 111 O 1895 BetUe A. Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio C 1895 Henry M, James, Tacoma, Wash C 1895 Delia L. Williams^ Delaware, Ohlc.O 1895 Wm. F. King, Mt. Vernon. Iowa C 1805 Edwin C. Hewett, Normal. Ill A 1806 Andrew J. Rickoflf, New York City... A 1896 Buler B. Smith, La Grange. Ga A 1896 Charles McMurry, Normal, III A 18J)6 H. K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Neb A 1896 John W. Dickinson, Boston, Mass-.-.C 1896 H. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I C 1896 B. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio O 1896 BUa C. Sabin, Fox Lake, Wis O 1896 John W. Cook. Normal, 111 C 1896 Wm. T. Harris. Washington, D. C. . . A 1897 0. B. Gilbert, St. Paul. Minn A 1897 J. B. Bradley, Jacksonville, 111 A 1807 Darl Barnes, Menlo Park, Cal A 1897 Ohas. W. Bllot, Cambridge, Mass A 1897 Charles DeGarmo, Swarthmore, Pa. .O 1897 L. H. Jones. Cleveland, Ohio C 1897 0. M. Woodward, St. Ixxuls, Mo O 189/ 8. G. Williams, Ithaca, N. Y C 1897 Nicholas Murray Butler, Pater8on,N. J.O 1897 S98 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [NatioiMl HONORARY MEMBERS. Henry Barnard, Hartford, Oonn. William N, Barrlnger, Newark, N. J. Newton Bateman, Galesburg, 111. D. Bemis, Spokane, Wash. Thomas W. BIcknell, Providence, K.,I. Albert 0. Boyden, Brldgewater, Mass. Anna a Bnackett, New York City. Edward Brooks, Phlladelplhia, Pa. Matthew H. Bnckham, Burlington, Yt. DaTid M. Oamp, New Britain, Conn. Aaron L. Ohaoin, Beloit, Wis. Olara Ck>nwa7, Memphis, Tenn. Miatilda 3. Cooper, Nyack, N. T. William J. Corthell, Gorham, Me. J. Li. M. Curry, Richmond, Va. N. R. H. Dawson, Selma, Ala. V. C. Dibble, Charleston, S. O. Larkin Dunton, Boston, Mass. John Baton, Washlngrton, D. C. Geo. T. Falrchlld, Manhattan, Kan. William W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Mirnn. Daniel C. Oilman, Baltimore, Md. James C. Greenough, Westfleld, Mass. John M. Gregory, Washington, D. C. Daniel B. Hagar, iSaleni, Mass. W. N. Hailman, Washington, D. C. O. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass. Ira G. Hoitt, Sacramento, Cal. J. George Hodglns, Toronto, Canada. James H. Hoose, Pasadena, Cal. George W. Howlson, San Francisco, Cal. James L. Hughes, Toronto, Canada. Thomas Hunter, New York City. Ellen Hyde, Framlngham, Mass. John S. Irwin, Fort Wayne, Ind. B. J. James, Philadelphia, Pa. H. S. Jones, Lincoln, Neb. £. S. Jo3me6, Knoxville, Tenn. Thomas Klrkland, Toronto, Ccui. James MacAlister, Philadelphia, Fa. Albert P. Marble, Omaha, Neb. I^rancis A. March, Easton, Pa. I^lUie J. Martin, San Francisco, Cal. Thos. J. Morgan, Washington, D. C. . Lemuel Moss, Minneapolis, Minn. Blrdseye G. Northrop, Clinton, Conn. John M. Ordway, New Orleans, La. Francis W. Parker, Chicago, 111. Warren D. Parker, River Falls, Wla. S. S. Parr, St. Cloud, Minn. W. H. Payne, Nashville, Tenn. John B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, Ohio. William F. Phelps, St. Paul, Minn. Joseph L. Plckard, Iowa City, Iowa. John T. Prince, Boston, Mass. William H. Ruffner, Lexington, Va. H. E. Shepard, Charleston, S. C. Edgar A, Singer, Philadelphia, Pa. James H. Smart, LajCayette, Ind. Homer B. Sprague Cal. J. W. Stearns, Madison, Wis. Thomafl B. Stockwell, Providence, R. L Grace Bibb Sndborough, Omaha, Neb. John Swett, San Francisco, Cal. H. S. Thompson, Columbia, S. C. L. S. Thompson, New Wilmington, Pa. Julia S. Tutweller, Livingstone, Ala. J. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C. W. R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga. DECEASED MEMBERS. Roberf ADyn 1894 M. A. Newell 1883 Israel W. Andrews 1888 Elward Olney 1886 Samuel S. Greene 1883 Gustavus J. Orr 1888 John Hanco. t 'nmpnlsory Education (1891). 6. Tenure of Office of Teachers (1887). 7 Supplying the Schools with Text Books. 8. StcUe, County, City and District Supervi- sion (1892). Henry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa, Chairman. Xathan C. Shaeflfer, Harrisburg, Pa. James H. Canfield, Lincoln, Neb. J. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss. John W. Dickinson, Newtonville, Mass. II. — On Olty Sohool Systeme— Stjb-Topiob: 1. Organization. 2. Supervision (1884. 1890). 3. Superintendency. 4. Qualification of Teachers. 5. Classification of Pupils (1886). «. Ungraded Schools. 7. Business Side of City School Systems (1888, 1889, 1890). 8. Promotions and Examinations. 9. Evening Schools. 10. Enriching the Course of Study be- low the High School. N. C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111., Chair- man. Aaron Gove. Denver, Colo. L. H. Jones, Cleveland, Ohio. Ella C. Sabin, Fox Lake, Wis. Oscar H. Cooper, Galveston, Tex. m.— On Higrher Bklucation— Sub- Topics: 1. Higher Institutions Required (1885). 2. Harmonizing of Higher, Secondary and Elementary Schools (1882). 3. Admission to College (1884). 4. Elective System (1888). 5. College Government. 0. What Should Precede the Univer- sity? 7. The Seminary Method of Instruc- tion. 8. Professional and Technical Instruction in the UniversUy (1894). J. E. Bradley, Jacksonville, 111., Chairman. Wm. F. King, Mount Vernon, Iowa. James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo. A. S. Draper, Champaign, 111. S. G. Williams, Ithaca, N. Y. IV. — On Secondary Education— Sub-Topics: 1. High Schools {1^2). 2. Academies (1885). 3. Preparation for College (1884). 4. Relation of High Schools to Colleges (1887). 6. OpportunUies of the Rural Pop^Uatioii for Secondary Education (1889). (>. Schools by Correspondence. 7. Uniformity in Requirements for Admission to CoUege (1891). 8 Difference between College Methods of Instruction and High School Methods. H. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I., Chairman. W. H. Bnrtholomew, Louisville, Ky. F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo. H. H. Seerley. Cedar Falls. Iowa. Delia L. WilUams, Delaware, Ohio. 600 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [ITational v.— On Elexnen)»xy Bduoation— Sub- Topics: 1. Course of Study {19SQ), 2. Oral Teaching {19^), '6. Text- Books (1886). 4. Waste in Elementary Education (1888). 5 Kindergarten. 6 Language Lessons in Elementary Schools. 7. Science Teaching in Lower Grades. 8. Essentials in Elementary Education (1890). 9. The Uses of Literature in Elementary Education (1892). Bettie Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio, CiMirman. Wm. E. Sheldon, Boston, Mass. George P. Brown, Bloomington, 111. Zalmon Richards, Washington, D. C. J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala. VI.— On Normal Education— Sub- Topics: 1. Kind of Normal Schools Required. 2. Academical and Professional Training (1883. 1889). 3. Practice Departments (1885). 4. CUy NorTnal Schools {ISdi). 6. Teachers' Institutes (1887). 6. The ReUttion of the Normal School to Other Institutions of Learning (1892). 7. Normal School Extension. John W. Cook, Normal, III., Chaimvan. R. G. Boone, Ypsilanti, Mich. W. R. Garrett, Nashville, Tenn. Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn. James M. Green, Trenton, N. J. VII. — OnTeohnolOffloal Education- Sub- Topics: 1. Technical Training in Public Schools (1881). 2. Preparation for Institutes of Tech- nology. 3. Pedagogical Value of the School Work- shop (1886). 4. Agricultural Colleges (1888). 5 Summer Schools of Science. 6. Relation of Technological to Liberal Edu- cation (1894). C. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo., Chairman, H. M. James, Tacoma, Wash. Selim H. Peabody, Chicago, 111. Euler B. Smith, La Grange, Ga. Vin.— On Pedagogics — Sub-Topics: 1. Chair of Pedagogy in Colleges (1882). 2. Pedagogy (w a Science (1884). 3 Pedagogical Inquiry. 4. Function of Public Schools (1886, 1887). 5. Educational Value of MiznttcU TV-aining (1889). 6. Moral Education. 7. Pedagogical Terminolo^^. 8. The Education of the Will {liSOl). 9. Distinguishing Ideas in tbe lELerbar- tian System of Pedagogy. 10. Scope and Character of I*edagogioai Work in Universities (1892). B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich., Chaimtan, David L. Kiehle, Minneapolis, Minn. Nicholas Murray Butler, Neiv York City. A. R. Taylor, Emporia, Ivan. Oharles McMurry, Normal, lii. IX.— On Moral Education — [Changed from— * 'On the Education of Oirls," 1891.] Sub- Topics: 1. Coeducation (1683. 1890). 2. Technical Training for Girls (1886). 3. What Education is Best (1888). 4. The Education of Girls (1891). 5. Practical Culture of the Moral Virtues (1892). 6. Direct and Indirect Moral Teach- ing. Emerson E. White, Columbus, Ohio, Chairman. Charles De Garmo, Swarthmore, Pa. Lucia Stickney, Cincinnati, Ohio. H. M. Leipzigcr, New York City. Charles C. Rounds, Plymouth, N. H. X.~On School Sanitation, Hygiene and Physical Training— [Changed from-— *' On Hygiene in M^kxl' tion," 1891.] Sub- Topics: 1. Sanitary Exercises and Appliances in Pub- lic Schools (1883). 2. Recesses (1884. 1885). 3. Relatioii of Mental Labor to Physical Health (1887). 4. Harmonious Development (1889). 6. Physical Education (1891). Ooaoeil- 3 /y MEMOBIAM. 601 Wm. A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass., Mary B. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind- Jaseph Baldwin, Austin, Tex. Fr&nk A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass. C. B- Gilbert, St. Paul, Minn. XI.— On Psycholofirioal Inquiry— [GhaniSed from — "O/i Educational Litera- SiTB- Topics: 1. School Reports (1885). 2. Booka on Pedagogy {\SSS>). 3. Use of General Libraries (1887). 4. Educational Literature (1890). 5. Relation of Mnemonic Systems to the Cul- tivation of the Powers of Thought (1802). 6. The Psychology of tlut Imitative Functions in Childhood (l8tW). B. O. Lyte, Millersville, Pa., Chair- man. Wm. T. Harris, Washington, D. C. N. A. Calkins, New York City Bdwin O. Hewett, Normal, 111. Earl Barnes, Palo Alto, Cal. XII.— On Educational Reports and Statistics— [Ohanged from — "^« Educational Statis- tics, 1891.] Sub- Topics: 1. Reforms in Statistics (1885, 1887). 2. What Statistics Should be Collected (1889, 1891). Wm. H. Maxwell, Brooklyn, N. Y., Chairman J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio. A. J. Rickofif, New York City. H. K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Neb. IN MEMOBIAM. GEORGE ROWLAND, BY JOHN W. UOOK. ROBERT WALLACE STEVENSON, BY EMERSON E. WHITB. ROBERT ALLYN, BY Edwin C. Hewbtt. rThe above named papers, read in the Council, will be found in the Report of the Committee on Necrology of the General Association.] Zd 602 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. . [National SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST DAY— OPENING SESSION. ASBUBY Pabk,N. J., July 6, 1894. The Council was called to order at 9:30 a. h., with President Coy in the chair, m the Jblrst Presbyterian church. After an opening prayer by J. B. Bradley, the report of the Committee on Technical Education was read by the Chairman, C. M. Woodward, upon **The Re- lation of Technical to Liberal Education.'* The discussion of the report was opened by Dr. Harris. Report received and ordered printed. AFTERNOON SESSION. The session opened at 2:30 p. 31 , with a paper by Nicholas Murray Bntler» Chairman of the Committee on lUgher Education. Subject: * 'Professional and Technical Instruction in the University." The discussion was opened by Mr. Sheldon, and reported by Mr. Rounds. Report received and ordered printed. SECOND DAY. —July 7th. MORNING SESSION. The Council met at 9:30 a. m. Prayer by B. A. Hinsdale. A tribute to the memory of George Howland was read by John W. Cook. The memorial addresses upon Robert Wallace Stevenson and Robert Allyn were post- poned until Monday morning. A paper was then presented by B. A. Hinsdale upon **The Dogma of Formal Mental Discipline." The discussion was reported by Wm. E. Sheldon. At the close of the session the following committees were appointed: CommiUee on Ntto Membery—W. T. Harris, Nicholas Murray Butler, C. C. Rounds. J. H. Canfield, W. H. Bartholomew. Committee on Nominations— N. A. Calkins, N. C. Schaeffer, D. L. Kiehle. Auditing CommitUe—B, C. Hewett, J. E. Bradley, H. S. Tarbell. AFTDRNOON &BSSION. Dr. Wm. T. Harris, Chairman of the Committee on Psychological Inquiry, made a report on "The Psychology of the Imitative Function as Related to the Process of Learning." The report was discussed by Messrs. Hinsdale, Hall, White and others. The discussion was reported by W. H. Bartholomew. Report received and ordered printed. Oouncil.;! SECBETAByS MIXUTES, 60S . THIRD DAY.-^TJLY 9th. iKmNENG ^BSSION. •Gounoil opened at 9:30 a, m. Eel-win C. Aewott read a laibute to the memory of Robert Allyn, and B. B, \^hite read one to that of Robert Wall«ce Stevenson. Memoriale q:^eceiyed and ed prJjtted. President Bliot's letter of tranamiasion for the report of the Committee of Ten vwasre&d and «4»rdered printed. • .i^A=i» -»■•'•• ^ '. bjbshmkt by pb!bsii>ent eliot. ■' Chairman of Committee of Ten. Harvard University, July 4, 1894. Sir: I beg to present to tbe National Council of Education, through you, a statement «n behalf of the Ooounjttee of Ten, which was appointed at the Saratoga meii'iing of July, 1892. In February, 1893, I teamed from you, by a letter written in answer to an inquiry from me and dated February 15th, that there would be no regular meeting of the Council in the summer of 1893. On the -Slst of the following May, perceiving that the committee's report wouly the addition of an index and a table of contents, has been prepared by Mr. N. A- Calkins, Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and published by the American Book Company. Mr. Calkins, as Chairman of the Trustees, had charge of all money appro- priated or contributed for the purposes of the committee, and will present to the Council a statement of his receipts and expenditures. The report itself, which has now been in the hands of every member of the Council for six months, gives a full accotint of the proceedings of the committee, AQd of their results and recommendations. It only remains for the committee to request, as I now do on their behalf, that they be discharged. I remain, with great respect, your obedient servant, Charles W. Eliot, Chairman of the CommUUe of Ten. Mr. B. W. Coy, President of the National Council of Education. James H. Baker then read a paper upon this report. The discussion was reported by John W. Cook. AFTBRNOON SESSION. Council opened at 2;30 p. m. The discussion of the report of the Committee of Ten was continued. 604 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [National FOURTH DAY.— July 10th. ^ MORNING SESSION. Council called to order at 9:30 a. m. B. E. White read a paper on "The Country School Problem." Report widely discussed. Discussion not reported. Council then went into executive sesalon. The following reports were read and adopted: REPORT OP THE COMMITTEE ON NOMINATION OF OFFICERS OP THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION FOR 1894 AND 1896. Your Committee on the Nomination of Officers of the National Council of £2dii- cation submit the following report: President -C C. Itouuus, Plymouth, N. H. Vice FreaiderU -1^. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa. Secretary and Treamrer—S. C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111. Members of the Executive Oomwittcc— E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio; Charles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.; B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich.; James H. Can- field, Lincoln, Neb. N. A. Calkins, Nathan C. Schakffkb, D. L. KiSHLE, Committee. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON NEW MEMBERS. 7b the Council of Education: The undersigned Committee on New Members beg leave to offer the following /report: They recommend that Messrs. W. A. Mowry, Selim H. Peabody, N. C. Schaef- fer, D. L. Ejehle and Miss Mary E. Nicholson, whose terms of membership expired with 1893, be re-elected for the term of five years, the same to expire in 1809. They recommend that Messrs. Aaron Gove, W. B. Sheldon and H. H. Seerley, whose terms of membership expire with the close of the present session, be re- elected for the term of six years, the same to expire in the year 1900. They recommend that Irwin Shepard and Lucia Stickuey be elected for a term of six years, the same to end in the year 1900. They further recommend that James M. Green be elected to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Mr. R. W. Stevenson, his term to expire in 1895; and that Charles A. McMurry be elected to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death of Mr. George Howland, his term to end in 1896. They further recommend that Messrs. H. M. Leipsiger and J. R. Preston be •elected to fill vacancies occasioned by the absence for two meetings of John Eaton and J. L. Hughes, and that Messrs. H. K. Wolfe, C. B. Gilbert, Earl Barnes and S. G. Williams be elected to fill the vacancies occasioned by the absence for two consecutive meetings of J. S. Irwin 1896, D. Beamiss 1897, G. T. Pairchild 1897, W. N. Hailmann 1897, respectively, in the order here named. Respectfully submitted, W. T. Habbis, Nicholas Mubbat Buti*eb, W. H. Babtholombw, James H. Canfield, C. C. Rounds, Commiiiee. It was then moved by Mr. King that separate lists of living and deceased honorary members be made. Motion carried. CoaDcil J SECRETARY'S MINUTES. 605 The Treasurer's report, as follows, was then audited, received and adopted: CK€grU% De Oarmo, Treasurer, in Account with National Council of Education. Receipts. 1892— Dr. Or. July 11— Beceived from N. C. Schaeffer, former treasurer $104.05 1802-5— Dues received from July 9, 1891, to July 27, 1893 50.00 1894— I>\ie8 received from July 6-10, 1894 60.00 1892. Jwly ^^^ — Paid Jas. H. Baker, expenses of council $71.50 July 12 — Paid Saratogian (abstracts) 2.50 July 12 — Paid Saratogian (abstracts) 7]00 July 12 — Paid C. C. Rounds (abstracts) 2.00 July 12 — Paid W. T. Harris (abstracts) 5.00 DISBURSKME^T.S. 189a. Oct 12— Paid J. J. Little & Co, (Proceedings) 06.05 1894. July 10— Paid J. J. Little & Co. (balance on Proceedings). . . 37.20 July 10— Paid E. W. Coy (expenses of Council) 12.00 July 10— Paid C. M. Woodward (abstracts) 6.85 July 10— Paid B. A. Hinsdale (abstracts) 1.25 Balance transferred to N. C. Dougherty 2.70 $214.05 $214.05 A motion, that a Special Committee of Ten be appointed by the Ck)uncil to take into consideration the subject of elementary instruction, was lost Mr. Hinsdale moved that President Coy, Dr. Harris and Judge Draper be appointed a Committee on the Financial Relations of the Council to the National Educational Association, with power to act. Carried. A motion was made and carried, that the outgoing President and Secretary be authorized to prepare the matter of the Council Proceedings for publication. It was moved and carried, that the report of the Committee of Ten be re- ceived, and the committee discharged. The following resolution was unanimously adopted: Resolved, That the Council desires, in discharging the Committee of Ten, to express its high appreciation of the spirit with which they and their conferences entered upon their work, the devotion that marked their long labors, and tlie great value of their report to the cause of education. The coancil then adjourned. E W. Coy. President. Chables De Gabmo, Secretary, REPORT OF ATTENDANCE. The following were present at one or more of the sessions of 1894: Baker, Baldwin, Bartholomew, Boone, Bradley, Butler, Calkins, Canfield, Cook, Coy, De Garmo, Dougherty, Draper, Dutton, Fitzpatrick, Harris, Hewett, Hinsdale, Kiehle, King, Lyte, Maxwell, Mowry, Peabody, Richards, RickofP, Rounds, Sabin, Schaeffer, Seerley, Sheldon, Tarbell, White, Woodward. 660 NATIONAL EDVCATIONJLJL, jLSSOCl PAPERS AKD DISOtJSS BEPOBT OF COMMITTEE ON TEGHNOLOGIi — THE RELATION OF TEGENIGAL TO CATION. BY DR. C. M. WOODWARD, WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY. This discussion encounters two serious difficuJi First, the definition of technical education ; second, liberal education. I. Etymologically, "technical" ought to include posed to ail sciences. But we all know% that, bejon suggestions, etymology is a very poor guide to exact d The Greek word techne suggests too much on tli too little on the other. In the first place, we must on arts. Then, the trades are not "technical," as the t this report. Iron-workers, wood-workers, cloth-wor] ters, leather-workers, glass-workers, and the like, are people. "Technical" education always involves the appli exact sciences to the arts of life, and every technica the use of the higher mathematics, the principles oi mechanics and the aid of exact drawings. Thus, techn: belongs to the higher education. However, the fine art and sculpture are not usually included in technical educ. they lie very close to it, since they make careful study its representation, under the general heads of orthogra ric and perspective drawing. While technical educat organic and inorganic chemistry, it does not include the of drugs. It includes the general theories of ventilation tion, but does not include the arts of nursing and healing of war on land and sea are highly technical, but in the Ui these arts are taught by the general government exci A nnapolis and West Point, so that they may be omitted discussion. None of us thinks of a naval or a military sc ''technical" education is mentioned. It thus appears that technical education is lunited t( tiaJly the following arts: 1. Civil engineering, which deals with the construction streets and bridges; with geodesy, i, e.^ the measurement of the making of maps; the construction of canals; the impi CoaDdl. J TECHNICAL AND LIBERAL EDUCATION. G07 of rivers and harbors; the building of dams^ waterworks, reservoirs, sewers, dikes, etc. This range is so vast and comprehensive thixt it has been subdivided many times, and one bears of hydrauJic engineering, sanitary engineering, bridge engineering, geodetic en- gineering and of railroad engineering. The content of engineering is constantly increasing, as the exact methods of science replace the wasteful and clumsy methods of tradition. 2. Mechanical engineering, which deals with the construction and erection of prime movers, such as water wheels of all kind^; i steam, air and gas engines and windmills. Next, the immediate connections of these, such as pumps, fly wheels, shafting, saw-millg^ ftour mills, rolling mills, elevators, hoists, furnaces, machines, and tools of all kinds, sizes and uses. It is evident that the scope of mechanical engineering has widened rapidly ever since it adopted scientific methods and took on the dignity of a profession. People generally have a very inad- equate notion of the functions of a mechanical engineer. To be sure» he knows the theory and uses of tools and the properties of materials, just as the graduate at West Point knows by actual practice how tc( handle a musket, how to pitch a tent, how to load a field piece and how to keep a camp clean; but when he is in the practice of his pro fession it is his function, as it is the function of an army officer, to plan and calculate, and lo direct men. When the civil engineer. Monsieur Eifel, built his famous tower, does any one suppose that: he put his hand to a single bar of steel as it entered into that elegant structure, which was as exactly calculated as are the motions of the moon? When Engineer Ferris erected his monster wheel, does any one suppose that ho struck a single blow or lifted a single ounce of it with his own hand? Please do not suppose that I am saying this for the purpose of showing how genteel a profession engineering is. I am concerned only with a correct definition. A mechanical engineer is not an engine driver nor a machinist any more than a city superintendent 18 a class-room teacher. An engineer, if properly trained could "run*^ the engine, or handle a tool, as the superintendent could conduct a recitation, and do it extremely well, too, if there should be occa- *^ion, but that is not his business. I hardly need add that there are many excellent workmen who ^re anxious to be considered engineers, in the sense in which I use the term, as a product of technical engineering education, but who lack the broad training which is strictly essential to such consid- eration, j 3. Electrical engineering, which includes the theory, science and art of construction, erection and maintenance of all the devices 608 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A^SOCJLOlI of dynamic electricity — ^generators, motors and 1 trical transmission. This is the youngest of all fessions, and yet it is one of the most difficuJ involved are among the most profound and intrica ing only with one form of energy, it already co field, and its boundary is receding rapidly on aH sic know, there is an army of electrical workers, bui thoroughly trained electrical engineers is small, are 500 in the United States. The need of them h a great deal of our electrical work is very wasteful. 4. Architecture, which includes the design and e ings for all sorts of uses and of all sorts of mat the oldest of the technical professions, but its m ments make it almost new. So long as stone was t\ie used in buildings, and only churches and palaces wej have any architecture, the problems of the architect masonry and surface ornament; it was a question of tals, entablatures and arches. Modern architecture qo steel pillars, steel girders, steel trusses, and though si tion (often of the most illogical sort) is introduced, the designer is largely spent on the details, plumbing, tilating, lighting and grouping. We insist to-day on havi private citizens of Athens and Rome never had, homes o\ fort and convenience. The introduction of steel and gJas ing machinery demands new styles, new orders. The gi architecture to-day is freedom. It must be liberated, sei the slavery of styles which were appropriate only to ston the effects of this bondage in such incongruities as iron j pretend to be blocks of stone, and a rigid frame of st< veneering of bricK. The coming architect of steel must be near at hand. recently gave an honorary degree to the man who desi Masonic Temple of Chicago. 5. Chemical engineering, which includes the depart] metallurgy, gas, the occurrence and the treatment of ores, and clays, and the production of valuable compounds. It is that the chemical engineer is a factor of growing importance highly developed community. The energy, which appears ui two closely related forms of light and heat, is the specii which the chemical engineer employs, as the alchemist of old have used the philosopher's stone, to transmute dross to gold. these magic wands he unlocks the secret stores of nature a creases the riches of the commonwealth. It is evident that these various branches of engineering lap each other at many points; for they form, not isolated area OoiiJicil-3 TECHNICAL AND LIBERAL EDUCATION 609 that continuous and ever enlar^ng circle which bounds the domain of science and marks the conquest of human intelligence over the arcann. of the material world — ^the victory of the known over the nnkno'VB^ii, Tliere are other arts, like those of agriculture and horticulture, whicli, while embraced under the general term of biology, rest more or less upon the exact sciences, and hence admit of system- atic presentation. They belong to the ground common to mechanical and cliemical engineering. Farming is getting to be largely a matter of macliinery, and the problems of soil, climate and plant culture are those of chemistry. The agricultural engineer has not yet been born. Farming is not yet a profession. It is rather a trade, with a max- imum of art and labor and a minimum of science. A.gain, usage puts into technical education far more than mere art, for every technical profession, properly so-called, is both a science and an art. Hence, all pure science is tributary to technical education, though, of course, not equally to all branches. A tech- nical school is, first, scientific; and, secondly, professional. The relation of applied science to pure science may be illustrated by the relation of Greek and Latin literature to the study of Greek and Latin grammars. The eminent values of one is that it leads to the other. The Roman soldier was trained in the use of the spear, the shield and the short sword because he was expected to use them; the modern soldier expects to use repeating rifles and gatling guns, and he is trained accordingly. Technical education is equally logical. Finally, a "technical" course of study includes a great deal that is not technical at all, but which nevertheless must be taken into account when speaking of technical education. Take, for instance, the technical courses in the School of Engi- neering in Washington University. They are invariably four years ^oag, with a possible fifth, or graduate, year. Freshmen enter with a knowledge of algebra, plane and solid geometry, the elements of drawing, elementary physics or chemistry, American and English (or ancient) history, two or three years' work in Latin, German or French, and a passable knowledge of English. The curricula are very similar to corresponding curricula in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Cornell University. From sixty to seventy per cent of all such courses is found in the courses for bachelor's degree of all first-class colleges, and in some, the proportion is still greater. This common, non-technical material consists of modern lan- guages, mathematics, mechanics, rhetoric, literature, physics, chem- ^^try, geology, mineralogy, political economy, astronomy and elocu- tion. 610 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL u±SSOC. When a college is able to offer a large variet more often taken from technical courses, thoi themselves, such as descriptive geometry, surve mechanics, theories of structures, electricity, an An examination of the last catalogue of Hi course of instruction offered to the candidates f contains eighty-seven and one-half per cent o engineering, seventy-five per cent of our course i four per cent of our course in electrical engineer per cent of our course in chemistry. In like rui course includes nearly all of our technical brand n. Thus far I have considered the limitati great extensions of technical curricula. 1 have character, meaning and content of ^^iberal educat it is a very loose term, and no two of us would definition. Originally, a liberal education was t ing which was befitting a freeman and a gentle with a slave's education to labor. The aim, to ( "amusement, curiosity, intellectual improvemen necessity of subsistence." So long as direct util was not liberal. Education began to be liberal ai yond the idea of immediate use. Hence, Lowell is g a university as a "place where nothing useful is ta I do not know in what connection Lowell utteixi he must have meant "directly and immediately us living, and limited to such use," otherwise the stat( ridiculous as it is extravagant. Is there anything^ in history or in literature, which, when thorougli has not a probable or a possible use? There are u mary, secondary and ultimate uses; higher uses an mediate and remote. The phrase "thoroughly com saving grace. It makes things useful which otherv The most useless things in the whole world of edu< imperfectly learned; things taken up, then not m aside. Do we not tolerate too many of these useless pressed am I with the utter worthlessness of mu( ^liberal" that I would define a true university as a "p ing useless is taught." The word "liberal" in modern education refers, no subject studied, as to the method of studying it. Thi is broad, deep, generous, comprehensive. It is not J immediate use. It recognizes use only as the great less, but it is not limited to it. That thorough mast( which makes it available for all possible uses, necessar OooBcil. ] TECHNICAL AND LIBERAL EDUCATION. 611 near &m well as the remote. The liberal method aims at the artist ' rather than the artisan; the engineer rather than the craftsman; the head rather than the hands. Liberal culture deals with fundamental principles, typical phenomena; with general results, not special appU- catians. It is liberal to study, under the head of political economy, the la^ws of manufacture, trade, commerce, finance, supply, and de- mand ; it is not liberal to learn merely the conditions of a successful . buBiness in a given community at a given time. Tlie list of liberal branches is ever increasing. When I was at Harvard I was compelled to give one-sixth of my time to Greek and one-fourth to Latin. I studied political economy for a single term. I never entered a laboratory except to sit down and listen. I did not do a stroke of drawing. I did not even know that there was a science as well as an art of drawing, and that its name was descriptive geom- etry— a sadly neglected study, which affords more mental discipline in a given time than any other study I know. 1 am glad to be able to testify that now, not only at Harvard, but at Washington Uni- versity, and at scores of others, West and East, one may study Latin and Greek or not, as he chooses, and that everything in all sciences, arts and literatures admitting of systematic treatment, is offered freely to all who may chose, as a liberal course. People now «tudy Greek and Anglo-Saxon, not because they are compelled to, but because they wish to, just as they may study mechanics or de- scriptive geometry or electricity, or thermodynamics. And they do not — or, at least, they should not — study them in any mean, super- ficial, perfunctory way, but broadly, comprehensively, with relish and enthusiasm. With such opportunities and by such methods all uni- versity work should be liberal, and all liberal work should be in the university. Do any suppose that our students are less liberally trained than formerly? The material of which college curricula are made has increased manyfold since most of us took our degrees. The adoption of these ideas has lifted, and is lifting, all the work to a new dignity. The college of letters is no longer a narrow school for the training of professional men. Remembering the fact, that, up to 1850, the purpose of our Ameri- can colleges was to prepare men for the four professions of theology, law, medicine and teaching, we can see on what utilitarian lines the course of study was formed. The clerfryman must rc^ad the New Tes- tament in the original; the lawyer must read Cicero, Quintilian, and the "Institutes" of Justinian ; the physician must read Galen, the professor must take Latin, Greek and mathematics. The plan was simple and reasonable. Suddenly, a group of new professions appeared and struggled for recognition. The age demanded them, and it demanded, too. the in- 612 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSod troduction of new elements in education, just at touching life, society and progress, just as hum in reference to the new demands as the old ele^ erence to the old demands. A professional degree is a stamp placed iipc graduate, declaring him worthy the confidence Oi the service of a doctor, or an engineer, or a la^ worthily receive such a stamp, he must be in p a trained and vigorous mind, familiar with ge large fund of exact information, much of which i place. Every technical course has more or less of i terial, and just to that extent it differs from liberal education. These facts of time and c prices, statistics, etc., — which to-day have value ancient history, should ever be minimized in the j ing principles, general theories and inexorable la It thus appears, that when we take into a meaning and the scope of technical education and of liberal education, we find that nearly all of the and even when the branches of study are diffei method are much tbe same. I have had unusual opportunities to know what grade technical course of training. I know ho^ treated historically, empirically, experimentally Take the subject of bridges, and you will find th; the modern most finished types involves a history f as profound and a variety as great as in the dev of government or of religious belief. From stone arches, circular, segmental, elliptic tubular bridges, to truss bridges of many kinds, arches, to suspension bridges, and to the modern spans 1,700 feet, is a very long story full of int daring. In the presence of such a history and exp matters that men make much of in the records c ment, pale into insignificance. Before that histoi telligently, the laws that obtain in all operation motion, energy, mathematics and mechanics, must b they are not a "memory and a forgetting," but ai tools ready for use in a high analysis. He who rea tory of the great steel arch built over the Mississipj B. Eads at St. Louis, reads the history of a thonsai one of the most highly cultivated men I have ever Is the full history of such work is a liberal education." Cooncil.] TECHNICAL AND LIBERAL EDUCATION. 613 I liave mentioned but a single subject in the technical courses, and yet you see how far reaching it is, how closely it is connected with tlie development of our civilization, with the gradual mastery of mind over matter. When I first read Browning's pathetic little poein, **The Grammarian's Funeral," I could not avoid the feeling that it was satirical. It was impossible for me to believe that he coulcl sincerely admire one who had devoted so much of his life to the ^^business" of two Greek words of three letters each. A.C customed as I was to an intellectual atmosphere where author- ity was at a minimum and where the conclusions of a sound logic w ere supreme, I could not bring myself to see either heroism or genius in an endless conning of texts and a grouping of passages. A better acquaintance with Browning, however, convinced me that the poem 18 the tribute of a sincere respect and admiration. I shall not quarrel with Browning. De gustibvs, etc. I quarrel only with those who do not see the intellectual character, the dignity and the culture of the accomplished engineer; a man who has so thoroughly mastered the laws which govern the forces of nature that he is able to make them subservient to the needs, the comfort, the luxury, the refinement of our race. It is very easy to see the sources of a wide-spread prejudice against technical training. The history of civilization has been the history of masters and slaves, of caste, of contempt for all labor and for all useful arts. No wonder that Plato held that the useful arts were degrading, for they brought one into the companionship of slaves, for even in Athens every freeman lived in luxury on the labor of several slaves. Caste prejudices were equally strong in Milton's time in England, so that Milton places Memnon, the chief engineer and architect of the hosts of heaven, among the fallen angiels. In spite of his enginery, his knowledge of ores and their treatment, and his marvelous skill in construction, He was headlong hurled With his industrious crew to build in hell. The technical professions are aU less than one hundred years old. They are all evolutions from trades. The first mechanical engineers built their own engines, and the first electrical engineer built his own dynamo. There is, therefore, an odor of the shop about the names, and a reminiscence of men who were heretics as regards theory, but firm believers in practice. We all know the intense squeamishness of the average college professor at anything which savors of use. "Thank God, that de- partment can never be made useful," said an eminent professor, speaking of a newly established chair in a state university. A similar spirit would seem to have prompted Professor Patten, in an article on the "Educational Values of Studies" (see Ed. Rev., 614 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [i Feb., 1891) to say that a study loses its educational value in i tion as its economic value increases. Hence, mathematics an tricity have less educational value than formerly, when they of less utility. This statement is so incredible that I give his words: ''With the increase in their utility they will be of less va educating men. Whatever makes them more fitted for utility ies, makes them less fitted for general culture." Again, he "Shall a subject be taught with a view of making the stu( master of it, and thus enable him to obtain a utility (sic) fr( or shall it be taught with the purpose of producing the gi effect upon the mind and culture of the pupil?" Professor would have no objection to making a student a master of a s provided he were sure that the mastery could be of no use to h then he would be educating a man as man, and the result be general culture. But let it be discovered that that mast ables one to solve a practical problem, to earn a loaf of breac make two blades of grass grow where one grew before, and 1 man is less a man, the mental effort becomes narrow and undei and what he fondly hoped was culture turns out to be mere *' ness" and "adroitness." We have all met with similar arguments and prejudices, I rarely comes across such a frank expression of them. Fallacies have come to be hundreds of years old die hard, and to some species of educational blasphemy to call them in question. I this reason that the majority of readers probably accepted Pr Patten's statements as gospel truth. But such a statement cannot be quietly passed in this disc The relation of technical to liberal is far more intimate and than is commonly supposed. I assert with confidence, that wl a mastery becomes technical through use it is still liberal an nobly liberal, and that a study is useless in proportion as it mastery. The introduction of technical subjects into elective usually called liberal, so well begun at Harvard and promp lowed in a dozen universities, has met with opposition on the that there is something in technical study, or in the atmosph< technical school, unsuited — or at least, less suited — ^to a prop< pline of the mind and less favorable to the growth of chi Says Dr. Wm. M. Bryant ("American Journal of Education," ary, 1891) : "The professional school necessarily directs the at of the student mainly to success in its outward aspects. It ir college proper, where studies are suited to discipline and de man as a man, that the conditions are most favorable for the of character." Council. ] TECHNICAL AND LIBERAL EDUCATION. 615 The assertion that in technical study the attentionis mainly ^irecte^ to success in its outward aspects, is based on a misconcep- tion. Much is made of useful applications because they serve as aiustrations of general principles. But the only "success" the stu- dent is conscious of is the success of his effort to thoroughly under- stand ttie science involved and how it is applied. That conscious- ness *teeps his mind alert, expectant and enthusiastic." The zeal of the technical student is akin to the zeal of the student engaged in research in the laboratory, and you know well what that is. It is as far as possible removed from the thought of "success in its out- ward aspects." Tbe belief shown by Messrs. Patten and Bryant is widespread, particularly among those who have had no direct contact with technical work. I have seen both kinds of training intimately. I have seen them in separate institutions, and I have seen them side by side in the same institution. So far as relates to vigor of intel- lect and high character, the influence of technical studies is in no respect inferior to that of the traditional untechnical curriculum. On the contrary (and I am not alone in this opinion), there is a wide- spread and uniform degree of earnestness and zeal among technical students, rarely equaled in colleges which do not admit technical branches. The sense of responsibility, which accompanies the study of subjects which cannot be slighted without leaving a defective foundation on which to build later, is helpful to serious and steady work. On the other hand, I remember, that, in my own college days, it was difficult to look upon much of the college work with any considerable degree of earnestness. It seemed to be irrelevant. The idea of thoroughly mastering a subject so that one could base something else upon it rarely entered the head of the average stu- dent. I recently met a college classmate as an officer in a technical school. We fell into conversation as regards the influence of tech- nical study on the development of character. Said he: "The ear- nestness and manliness of these students has been a revelation to me. There was nothing like this when we were at Harvard." I shall be very glad to hear what the effect of the introduction of technical studies has been at Harvard. What proportion of the senior elections are what are called technical? and what influence have they had on the character and scholarship of the seniors elect- ing them? The character and attitude of the educated engineer towards classical learning has much to do with the estimation in which he is held by scholarly men. The engineer is by nature an iconoclast. He has small respect for the traditions. He snaps his fingers in scorn at all whose chief pride and glory lies in their submission to the "tyranny of the 616 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [1 ancients." He cares less for what has been than for what n His triumphs, his masterpieces, his heroes, his golde n age, i in the future. He walks forward, with his face to «he fror backwards, with his face to the past When Captain IKads pr to build a steel arch over the turbulent Mississippi with a span of 520 feet, the timid worshipers of the past held uji hands in protest that there was no precedent for an arch o\ great length. To this unworthy opposition it was sa^id proi reply: "The engineer makes precedents; other men foJiow th There is another aspect of the effects of our modern iiberi nical training which is somewhat new. In that graceful liber ! ure, which we all so much prize and which we more or less : scion sly set up as a standard for others, we learned how the in tive Greeks made gods and demi-gods to account for wo\i things. Beings with superhuman strength and skill turni course of rivers, built impregnable walls, bore message s f aatii the wind, and subdued monsters, drained marshes anri wai'i disease. Not to know these things is now held to be wanting; very elements of a liberal education. In these modern da;5' have done all these things and more, in fact and not in fancy, i to know these modern heroes — men, accomplished, but in no perhuman — who have dethroned the gods and put demi-godsi blush, is held to be not only not. liberal, but such knowledge i one to the suspicion of being too familiar with swarthy f ellc handle machinery and despise the ancients. Men are now dead by artificial lightning, while the thunderbolts of J< turned harmlessly into the earth by a Franklin, and the en which thunderbolts are made is harnessed to a car or a nail Adams or a Hopkinson or an Edison, and made to serve tlie i ends of commerce and industry. The dreadful energy of a gun or a dynamite cannon is far more destructive than the t\' of Apollo's silver bow and his whole quiver of arrows. Tlxe an Eads, which turns the current of the mighty Mississiij forces it to maintain a new deep channel into the sea, dw-;; labors of a Hercules into insignificance. The ingenuity of .•; and a Field sends messages to the antipodes in less time thi cury needed for binding on his sandals. The roar of Mar be heard by whole armies; now the whisper of a Brush is ; thousand miles. It is now the engineer who turns away the destroying y redeems the waste places, brings health, peace and securit - there was pestilence and death. Shall not an accurate kuow the exploits and rational methods of these modern times a.ii<; be held to be an essential part of a liberal as well as of a, t education? Coancil.] DISCUSSION, 617 la not the educational army changing front? Is not our new leader an engineer, rather than a philologist or an antiquary? We all believe in culture. .The word is much abused (perhaps I have helpe of the intellect is revealed in language; it shows the machinery of thoui ject and predicate and adjective and adverbial modifiers. Logic and belong, also, to this fifth window of the soul. Only this total survey o of human learning makes a complete liberal course of study. The t school gives one, and only one, of the five essential branches. Mb. De Gabmo: There is a practical difficulty about giving all i suing the higher education a four years* formal discipline before s ; begins. This old type of training arose when a limited class of perso paring for a restricted line of professional activity, and for whom t was more practical than formal. All who go into introspective calU i and theology, find that their education in classics and mathematics is I of education to fit them for their actual life duties. But when, ii small class, we undertake to educate the leaders of all classes, we mv i knowledge most needed for future use— for the mental training so future success. All great universities and progressive colleges a: this fact, to such an extent as to preclude the possibility of realiKini sical dream of a universal type of education for all types of mind. Mb. Bbadley: I am happy to indorse almost everything in B paper. "Liberal education" has been greatly liberalized during tUe No education would now be considered liberal which includes no ki processes of modern times. Referring to the Minneapolis schools, i pre-eminence, it springs from the incorporation into their work, idea. Out of it grew the animal lessons, the plant lessons, an< drawing for purposes of illustration to almost every branch of sti of experiments in elementary science or language lessons. The p<: nical training threatens to prove its destruction. It has led to t: of low grade institutions, which require so little for admission :i training, except in the work-shop, that they turn out mechanics n ally educated men. Mb. Rounds: The narrowness of the old-style liberal eil^i tended to close the mind against thoughts lying outside its limi : specialization which has sometimes taken its place has resnlls < : fortunate. These results are apparent in the work of teacli*' i centrated their attention upon the exhaustive study of a, narrow to acquire sufficient knowledge of related subjects. In the toa : children, they require an equipment of compound microscopes. where God began in the w^ork of creation, and limitations of ti vent their reaching the point where God presents his completed and beauty of nature. There is great need of a now j;<»:ieral t i in our colleges, which, by giving duly proportioned attentio elements of modern culture, with carefully guarded and limited i better meet the wants of the majority of students, and Biippli I the greater number of our schools. I Council.! HIQHEB EDUCATION. 619 Mb. Woodward closing the debate, said: I heartily indorse what Dr. Bradley said in disapproval of low standards of technical training. We do a positive wrong to a young man when we lead him to believe that he is getting real technical train- ing when he is only doing preparatory work. As a rule, the ngricultural and mechanical colleges are scarcely above the grade of a manual training school, and when such is the case, they could not claim to teach engineering. Dr. Harris suggests that I may have been nettled by "dudes," and that I have gone too far in discrediting the classics. I did not intend to discrtdit tl em, but to deny ihem the right to monopolize liberal training. I only claim for technical subjects the right to stand with them in an elective course. I claim for all the privilege of election, Greek, as well as engineering. 1 taught Greek for seven years, and I know the pleasure of having an enthusiastic student. Professor Goodwin favored putting Greek among the electives, so that then he would have students who loved it, and no pack horses who disliked it. Dr. Harris a.sked for two years of the college course before specialization takes place, I agree with that. The student is then nineteen or twenty years of age. and it is time that he should study towards his life work. Then he should mix with his culture studies a technical study to give point and quality to his work. Dr. Bradley spoke of the quickening effect of manual training in the high schools. The same result follows technical work in a college and university. If you doubt this, compare the student of a high grade technical school with ordinary college students. Find out what occupies them, their sports, their recreations, their hours of study, their student life, and you will see which are building up character, which are earnest. I tell you, our liberal students need the technical elements which shall put them in touch with life work. Combine with their speculations some of the realities. In my paper, I siwke of a large amount of literary and general work we do, yet something must be omitted. The extent of knowledge is so vast that no one can take everything. Subjects press in upon the student from all sides, and choice is necessary. What I plead for is, that liberal technical subjects shall have equal chance, with full dignity and equal favor. We are planning for a greatly increased number of students. The people, more and more, need higher education, and they need both the tech- nical and the liberal. Let us keep all the windows open and let in the light from all sides. As to Professor I'atten, I shall be glad to know that I have read him incorrectly, as President De Garmo thinks. I have no clue to his thought except his words, and I interpreted them as best I could. I shall be more than pleased to find that his views and mine are in accord. REPORT FROM COMMITTEE ON HIGHER EDUCATION—PRO- SESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNIVERSITY. BY DK. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER. The question to which it is my purpose to direct the attention of the Council is a new one. Some of us have foreseen that the time would come when it would be pressing and of great importance to the P^ple of this country, and it has therefore been sometimes referred to or discussed in general terms. But with the advent of a half- 520 NATIONAL EDUCAIIONAL ASSOCIATION. dozeu American universities whose standards, efificiency a are recognized the world over, together with the stionj tendency toward a practical, or technical, as distinguishe liberal education, the question takes on a specific and defr What is the duty of the university in respect to technical a sional education? I use the word university in its proper sense, not cc it with a large college of the arts and sciences nor w Ith separate technical or professional schools, but meanii where students, adequately trained by previous study to advanced work, are led into special fields of learning ai by teachers of high excellence and originality; a pUve( the agency of libraries, laboratories, museums and i knowledge is both conserved, advanced and disseminate the United States can to-day boast perhaps six, while as are struggling toward the goal. Yet, so unsettled is p> on this point, and so free is every individual to carry whims, that the commissioner of education in his last a (1890-91, pp. 1398-1413) enumerates no fewer than 1 universities, so-called, and this despite the fact that oi doubted universities still retain the name college and pear on the list. Of the 134, Illinois furnishes seven new University of Chicago does not appear), Kansii fourteen, Tennessee nine (of which Nashville alone conl Texas eight, and the city of New Orleans four. It is ] necessary to add that it is not a "university" of this m\ that is referred to in this paper. In the same year there were in this country 133 b cine, 27 schools of dentistry, 30 schools of pharmacy theology, 54 schools of law, 26 colleges of agricultv chanic arts, and 21 scientific schools and schools of this grand total of 434 technical and professional i merest fraction are connected, even loosely or in< college or university. Most of them are independ^ stitutions, conducted often for gain, and admitting most shamefully deficient preparatory training. In order to account fully for this state of affaii be recognized, that, both as to our higher and our cation, we are, in the United States, in a transition inauguration of President Eliot of Harvard in 18r»« ent strongly marked university movement dates spi of the Johns Hopkins University under President and the earlier of those dates is only a quarter o past. The same thing is true of the scientific and Almost all of them have been founded and develo ; Jouncil.] HIQHEB EDUCATION. 621 nd not a. few owe their existence directly to the Morrill Act of 1862. ?he vast industrial expansion of the past thirty years, the rapid iiccession of new applications of science to art and industry, have lid ne>v demands upon these schools, and the struggle has been to row ro.i>idly enough to meet them. Under the pressure of this ttvironixient, the tendency has been for these schools to become ad rexxiain purely technical. Their curriculum is usually of the arrow-est sort. From it all study of literature, philosophy and jlitical science is excluded, or reduced to so low a minimum that e ettec5t> is nil. There are a few noteworthy exceptions, Imt this is 16 rul^. The consequence is, that, year by year, our professional en an are these conditions with those prevailing in Europe, and )9erv& ln^ow carefully the European nations train their professional en. Xxx almost every European country an adequate and broad pelimixiSLry education is demanded of all intending students of law, ^ediciri.^, theology or technology. This preliminary training is avefully tested by examination before the professional course is be- un. Tlix^re is no reason known to me why so intelligent a people as XXV owx^ should not insist on the highest type of professional service, ndeed, tiliey cannot afford to submit to the incompetent quackery hat so often presses itself upon them. It is manifestly impossible to improve the existing condition at once, ox* l>y law. The true solution is to be found, I believe, in build- ing up «t strong public sentiment against professional and technical men wlio are not educated men as ,well. To lead in this matter is both tlie duty and the privilege of the universities. To accom- plish tills the universities should build up about them strong, well- equipped professional schools of all sorts. They should insist first upon a liigh school training, and then, raising the standard as swiftly as possible, upon a college education, as a necessary pre-requisite to a professional degree. The school of medicine at the Johns Hop- kins is the only professional school in the country that occupies the plane that a university professional school ought to occupy. The law school of Harvard University is approaching the same standard, but at Columbia, Cornell, Michigan and elsewhere, despite recent improvements, the standard is still far too low. Students who could not begin to enter the freshman class of a college are welcomed to the professional schools of these universities. Recently a professor in a large school of appHt^d science, connected with an undoubted university, stated that many of the students in that school were practically illiterate. Of course, he did not mean that they were 622 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. \ actually unable to read and write, but that they had no a command of the power of written expression in EngUfth. knowledge of literature and its intellectual and spiritual i It is this pitiable deficiency in respect to the elements ot education on the part of students in professional and ^ schools that I deplore, and I insist that no true university tate to wage war upon it. At Harvard and Columbia, U largest of American universities, and the two whose pr< schools, take them all in all, have probably the highest stai pi*oportion of college-trained men who are pursuing course to a career in law, medicine and technology is still small, the proportion of college graduates in the Harvard law s fifty-seven and four-tenths per cent, while in the medica was only twenty-three per cent. At Columbia, in the i the proportions were, in the law school thirty-eight per < medical school thirty-eight per cent, and in the school science (school of mines) sixteen per cent. Low as mc percentages are, they are probably higher than at any o can institution. It is undoubtedly true that public sentiment in thv not ready to demand a college education as a pre-reqi trance upon the practice of a profession; and perhaps be. But it is the function of a university to lead, not i The professions for which I would have the universl preliminary collegiate training are law, medicine, tlii ing and the higher forms of technology. For tlie lo technical work and for agriculture, a preliminary coll though highly beneficial, need not be insisted upon riculum of schools of agriculture and the like slioul for English literature, a foreign language, logic, p political science. The State of New York, by its system of regents and laws based thereon, has thrown certain admirj? about the entrance to the practice of law and medicii might well be imitated in other States; but it only the average public opinion will follow. Tlie \ini\ more, and more is expected of them. A university t admit students to study law, medicine and tlieoloj^y tion than is required for admission to the freslimari lege department is falling short both of its duty and My propositions, therefore, are these: 1. The genuine universities owe it to tliems* country to offer the broadest possible training foT This training must be based upon a preparatory i such as a college course aifords. CoiincU.l DISCUSSION. 623 2. All professional and technical schools, not connected with universities and not requiring a college education for admission, should make a place in their curriculum for a representation of lib- eral studies. DISCUSSION. (rtKPORTED BY C C. ROUNDS 1 Mb. 8HKT.DOI7: The elimiuation of meu unfitted for professional life is a duty of the university. Many professional men are spoiled farmers or mechanics. From those who aspire to lead public thought should be exacted a guarantee that they are naturally fitted for the work. Mr Htksdalb: Will Mr. Sheldon show how the university can make this elimination? Mr Sheldon: It can be made, in part, at least, by some such examination as we had to pass for admission to college. Mr. Canfield: It seems to me there is another side to this statement which has just been made. Unquestionably it is true that many good farmers have been spoiled by giving them opportunities to become poor attorneys. On the other hand, if these opportunities had not been offered very freely in this country during our past history, a good many excellent attorneys would have remained farmers; would have remained men out of touch with the vast interests and the highest advance- ment of the affairs of this nation. We are not as yet a leisure class; we are not as yet a wealthy class as a whole; and we have hardly, as it seems to me, reached the time when there is a very numerous class in this country with sufficient time and means at command to do the work proposed by Dr. Butler. I fully agree with the spirit of the paper, but I hardly believe we have reached the time when we can safely say that we will take away the flexibility which has heretofore prevailed in the approach to the profession. We have comparatively few men who have risen to high rank in this country, in any profession, who have come from families where they were sustained by ample means. We try to de- mand in the university which I have the honor to represent a fair high school training as a condition for admission to the college of law. I sent out circulars this year to about 300 of the best attorneys in the State, asking how much they would be willing to have us add to that of the coming year. I suggested certain things I would like to see added. Two or three of the best attorneys in the State, men who stand very high, not only in legal ability, but in general ability and power, answered: *'Your proposition is excellent; but don't make it retroactive, because it will cut out all the attorneys in the State." There is, I think, a little feeling on the part of the profession which we repre- sent here that we can determine what course in life a pupil should follow. I think that many students have made a great mistake in connection with elective courses, and r think parents have made great blunders, in their direction of their children, in undertaking to place them in definite lines of work; but I suspect that both parents and children have not made as many mistakes as teachers would make if the teachers were permitted to assume absolute control in the selection of the life- 624 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. work for every child. I take it, that one of the marvelous things system of education is, that, like a magic wand, it is waved over A and the best comes to the surface. I doubt very much whether we should uudertake to detenu realize that we cannot build broadly, except upon a broad foundat too many who, at forty or forty-five, have reached just as far n sibly go. Yet, after all, what shall we, west of the Alleghanies, do 7 qualifications with regard to the profession, we simply seud men i with even less qualifications than they would have had, had they come to us. We must keep American education in touch with America never wisely rise above that. In my judgment, although it must rise very much beyond the average American life. S. R. Thompson: If there has been an increase in the iii quired for a degree in the medical schools in this country, what the change? Mr. Woodwakd: I can, in part, answer Professor Thomps< universities have been compelled by self-respect to raise their st ton University in St. Louis has but recently established a medit has been urged to do this for twenty years, but would not adopt schools unless their standard were raiited. Mb. Hinsdale: The legislation of European countries on this is much more drastic than our own. The most eminent r United States would not be allowed to practice in Germany. A that this is a democratic country, and that the government ni in touch with public opinion and general feeling. Is there au} between democratic government and a low state of profossioui pert opinion passes for much less in the United States than in ( In this movement for higher standard the stronger institution the East this can be done more easily than in the West. In s schools turn their pupils aside from callings for which they i yet wo have no remedy, and. on tl.e whole, more good than hari Mb. Habbis: The longest average time for school attend] is in Massachusetts, and is not quite seven yearB. The* avt» States is one-half of this. We should not try to establish a hi ing elementary schools secondary schools. In elementary s( natural science is only a superstition, because the pupil can between various branches. It is very desirable that all shi-clination of muscles and nerves, the pow tlie ^r?^^,^^.^rtion will be available. In other words, ^ieterniir.*^^ *=^;y the congruity or the incongruity of tue SIS;^^^^ contribution that any defined exertion e«3neral sto- :■^-e^ of one's bodily energy is important. ^^ ^^^ f^cts S ^ xmot prove that a reservoir can be accun^ o«« k^nd <^ -^«ort that can be used indifferently for aj l>os^«. tS^ :-r-^ is no such thing as a formal Phy««^*^^ ^»-ey creat^^-^ fc^y activity flowing in one pha^uel c« ^«vill into a.K=». -»^ other channel. A boxer is not peii I>«gilist in -fcV-.a-iiiing does not train promiscuously, ^ certain stri asis; tha.t -*--■-> .1=^ saints all have bodies-is admitted; connections ..z^^r^ body and soul have never been reduce The prudenfc -■— ^ ,.-». «ke'8 maxim. "Men^ «ana in sano corpore, admired. r-*r , r«^ o doubt, expresses a truth i«<"-e «; !««« J a beautiful -^^ ..^. ^cational ideal. Still, we cannot deny "lany mhids -fc:»=iat have dwelt in unsound bodies, or Houndness z^«zz^ :m:^ all men having sound bodies. Many lia-T^e lived i:.^ -^^ ^or bodies, while many persons with goc l>^cii farfx-«...^^S^^«aint8 Not even the wildest materia he- sliould fc..*rz*^ ,^-^^ that the brain secretes thought as would pret<-a-^ ,«z^B_ that physical activity and strength and ity and stre-:^!^ ;^::^i— «- h can be put in an equation. ID. Di«:t»=z»_::^_ -==8in- these more or less analogous fj directly to -«r :»^fc_ -.^T mfud itself. Our general question i c-on^-ertibili-tjv^ -^^^^f the different kinds of mental activity There is «^_ -^--onstant relation between ths three ph action. Co^:^^ ^5^ -«-- ion feeling and will are not names of < of consciou^:.;:^ ,^^^^__ '^^^ names of different aspects of sciousness. -HMZT* =»--,eV cannot be separated except in thou( oJements mxa=». .^^b=--»^ in the full stream of mental activit; ,xi<>nt that -t*^,^;^^ stream begins to flow. The annihilv tlxe annihil£«.^^.^__^ strediii S^j^^ ^J^^ =*=^-^^ain limits, these elements seem to o«t«xde of -ti^ ^,_^^ ^e Hmit« they tend to inverse variat known, for :i:,_^ ^^ ^^ance, that a glow of equable feeling i 628 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOC mosphere of the school-room; also, that violJ ance is as destructive of the proper ends of t\i as a cyclone is to a tillage or forest. Mr. Da charming frankness, and in words borderinj own exclusive absorption in scientific stud\' h ings of wonder, admiration and devotion wh; religious experience, and also robbed him of had once received from poetry and art. Late the grandest scenes had become powerless to and feeling to rise in his mind that there is u mere breath of his body; — scenes, which had when, a young man, he stood in the grandeur He speaks of his mind as having become *'a k grinding general laws out of large collections cannot conceive "why this should have caus^Ml part of the brain alone on which the higher U\ and Letters," vol. i., pp. 281-282.) Shakespeare what modern psychology explains, that the nat becomes sicklied o*er with a pale cast of thoi prises of great pith and moment are thereli lose the name of action. Hamlet had thought king; and many a man of the closet, many a spe undergone a like disintegration of practical ch may have had no purpose to commit a similar fore, perfectly obvious that there is no such thi discipline in the broadest sense of the language. IV. Narrowing the field again, we come to our question is, the mutual convertibility of th intellectual activity. 1. These forms are much more closely eon psychologists thought. They indeed taught knowledge is conditioned upon presentation, a conditioned upon both presentation and repre did not teach how deeply the processes sumra "thought*' enter into perception. There is perh nitive activity that is pure and simple. These need to be argued. At the same time, the cogni vary together. Perception, memory, imaginatio vertible terms; neither is any one of these fac case, the measure of any other. We find the strj of intellectual power in real life. How strong tb nessof sense! how weak in speculative reflection deservedly emphasized the value of sense percc teaching in education; but they have not emplu the particular and concrete mark an early and ConndV] THE DOGMA OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE. 629 ! r •'I mental advancement; that there is no greater clog upon mental progress than the habit of thinking it, and that a man's thinking capacity is gauged by his power to think general and abstract thoughts. Children, savages, all immature minds, live in their senses; cultivated men grow out of them. That is a significant anecdote which Dr. Fitch relates, of the teacher, who was testifying before Lord Taunton's commission as to the extraordinary interest which his pupils took in physical science. Asked what department of science most interested his scholars, he replied: "The chemistry of the explosive substances." ("Lectures on Teaching," No. 14.) 2. "Habits of observation" and "men of observation" are phrases f often heard. We may well inquire how far such language is true. It is well known that some persons notice faces, others actions, others attire, some manners, some language, etc. Also, that some persons are observant of several classes of phenomena. There is, however, no formal power of observation. The Indian's boasted faculty is limited to his native environment; introduced into Cheap- side or the Strand, he sees nothing compared with Sam Weller or one of Fagin's pupils. Nor can any exercises be prescribed that will cultivate an all-around observation. The inductive logicians lay down their rules for conducting observations and exj)eriments, as, that they must be precise, that the phenomena be isolated, etc. ; and very good rules they are. But they do not constitute a proper organon of observation. The words of Dr. Sully remain true: "There are no good rules of observation which will enable one to teach it as an art. More will depend" he says, "upon daily companionship with an acute observer than upon systematic training." ("Outlines of Psychology," p. 214.) Still, in such case, the senses of the pupil will take the direction of the senses of the acute observer. 3. Next come the faculties of representation. Unusual powers of memory are so far from implying unusual understanding that the opinion has prevailed, which some writers have thought it necessary to refute, that the two are irreconcilable. We need not canvass the question here, farther than to remark that a good understanding is more frequently accompanied by good memory than a good mem- ory by good understanding. Still further, memory exercises are quite as limited in their effects as exercises in obsenation. One person has memory for names, a second for places, a third for faces, a fourth for dates and statistics, a fifth for ideas, a sixth for lan- guage, etc.; some combine two or more of these gifts, but there is no memory that takes up everything indifferently. What has been said of the memory is equally true of the other great representative faculty. There is the imagination of the phi- losopher, of the artist, and of the man of affairs, w ith their several sobdivisions. 630 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCl Finally, we come to the logical faculty, ^ be the very seat and shrine of formal discip are not different from those already presente formal logic is not ability to handle real logic, a very plain. Deduction is not induction. Ma of difference, sometimes called "the chemica! equip one for investigating the affairs of huri other hand, it is sometimes said, and with p^ei stant use of the more rigorous methods of scien< for dealing with human questions. No curioi to notice how practical ability to judge and run in special channels. The tendency is mosi / ization. Eminence in microscopy, in sanitary sci in philology, in pedagogy, in a thousand specia guarantee of ability in other matters, or even ( common affairs of life. The only astrologist wh pened to know personally was an eminent civil et Every person who has attempted to make uj) lectures by drawing upon the professional tah knows how hard it is to draw the profession fach. The lawyer's unwillinguess to appear in often due to his consciousness of his own lim lawyer is especially fitted for the work of legislat knowledge of the law is a common fallacy. His the law as it is, and he naturally shrinks froiB necessitate new adjustments of his ideas and of ] remarking that it is hard for a modern reader t men who reasoned upon their data with the foi the schoolmen could ever have accepted such da proceeds as follows: It is the same with some eminent lawyers. Their legu lectual prodigies, abounding with the happiest analogies distinctions. The principles of their arbitrary science beii statute book and the reports being once assumed as the i ing, these men must be allowed to be perfect masters of tion arises as to the postulates on which their whole syst called upon to vindicate the fundamental maxims of tha have passed their lives in studying, these very men often savages or of children. Those who have listened to a ma own court, and who have witnessed the skill with which he a vast mass of evidence, or reconciles a crowd of precedent seem contradictory, scarcely know him again when, a few \\ him speaking on the other side of Westminster Hall in his < They can scarcely believe that the paltry quirks which are i a storm of coughing, and which do not impose on the plaincs can proceed from the same sharp and vigorous intellect whi admiration under the same roof and on the same day. (P>ssn Johnson.") Council.] THE DOGMA OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE. 631 It is well known that Lord Erskine, th^e peerlesa advocate at the l)ar, proved a disappointment in the House of Commons. Thus we see, that, no matter what kind of mental activities we consider, they conform to the causes that excite them. Like the dyer's hand, the mental faculties are subdued to what they work in, There is no such thing as activity in vacuo. An incisive writer has said The circumstantial evidence with which lawyers— g?/// lawyers— are familiar under our system of jurisprudence, is an artificial thing created by legislation or custom, with the object of preventing the minds of the jury, presumably a body of untrained and unlearned men, from being confused or led astray. Moreover, they are only familiar with its use in one very narrow field — human conduct under one set of social conditions. For example, a lawyer might be a very good judge of circumstantial evidence in America, and a very poor one in India or China; might have a keen eye for the probable or improbable in a New England village, and none at all in a Prussian barrack. • ♦ ♦ A wild Indian will, owing to prolonged observation and great acuteness of the senses, tell, by a simple inspection of grass or leaf-covered ground, on which a scholar will perceive nothing unusual whatever, that a man has recently passed over it. He will tell whether he was walking or running, whether he carried a burden, whether he was young or old, and how long ago and at what hour of the day he went by. He reaches all his conclusions by circumstantial evidence of precisely the same character as that used by the geologist, though he knows nothing about formal logic or the process of induction. Now, what Dr. would have us believe is, that we can come he — 7^ in. / iVl-/ out of his study and pass judgment on the Indian's reasoning without being able to see one of the "known facts** on which the reasoning rests, or appreciate in the slightest degree which of them is material to the conclusion and which is not, or even to conjecture whether, taken together, they exclude the hypothesis that it was not a man, but a cow or dog, which passed over the ground, and not to-day, but yesterday, that the marks were made. ("The Nation,** Nov. 16, 1876.) Perhaps it will be objected to the line of argument followed that it assumes the truth of an obsolete psychology. "As classification in the provinces of zodlogy and botany," says Hoffding, '*led to the notion of eternal and unchangeable species, so that it now costs a hard struggle to furnish proof that these species are the fruits of a natural course of evolution, so psychological research for a long time thought its end had been attained when it reduced the various inner phenomena to various ^faculties' of the mind, a procedure which conflicted strangely with the strictly spiritualistic conception of the unity of the mind. At the same time, these 'faculties' were regarded as causes of the phenomena concerned, and thus the need of a casual explanation was satisfied in a very convenient, though quitei illusory, manner. In particular, it was overlooked that in classification atten- tion is given only to a prominent characteristic; that it is not there- fore actual concrete states themselves which are classified, but the elements out of which a closer examination shows them to be formed. There is scarcely a single conscious state (as will be shown later in detail) which is onlv idea, onlv feeling, or only will." ("Psychology,'' p. 19.) 632 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSi I am not about to attempt the rehabil rided "facultj-" psychology. It cannot be d defects, this psychology did furnish a conver ' mental phenomena. But, no matter what p phenomena of the individual mind cannot I far as appears, on the theory of the correlat V. We come now to some remarks and 1. What has been said of physical activi psychical activities. They present to our i generic phase. Any defined intellectual ex< sides generating power that is subject to dr. tends to energize the intellect, and to a d< This overflow of power — this mobilization of call it — ^is an important factor in psychic dogma of formal discipline its only support, port is, we cannot say in quantitive terms, but suflftcient to uphold the dogma as commonly 2. These last remarks suggest the hari congruity or incongruity — of mental activities, to the psychologist; but a related one, which 1 importance, belongs to the pedagogist. Reft congruity as a principle to be employed ii studies. The first question is: What studies incongruous? And the second one: How fa of congruity be followed in the choice of studic ment year by year, month by month, day by d of congruous mental activity and of congru fuller investigation than they have ever recei 3. Even this cursory survey would be ina tion being made of two topics that receive 1 hands of teachers and educational writers. C ago called liberal (artes Itberaies)^ because tl liberalize the mind; that is, set it free from ness, prejudice. This claim was well founded, liberal education came to be understood as a contradistinction to one that is special. The the idea of extent rather than quality of studj be the present acceptation. But it is almost n( liberal study, and particularly as pursued in ties, is possible only in a relative sense. The limitation of the field if we are to secure thoroi Men cannot now take all knowledge for their ] not all. Good specialization must also attain j Greek scholar must study Latin; an English physicist, mathematics; a pedagogist, psycholof Council.] THE DOGMA OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE. 633 specialization, like too wide general study, defeats itself. The ad- justing of the two factors, extension and intention, is a problem as difficult as it is important. At one stage they vary directly; at anothor stage, inversely. Liberal culture is but a broader speciali- zation; specialization but a narrower liberal culture. 4. The only practical reason for discussing formal discipline in this place is, that it involves studies and courses of study. The first question relative to the educational value of any subject is: What kind of mental activity does it stimulate? This question reaches much farther than is commonly supposed. If the subject is said to develop the faculties of observation, then we must ask: Observa- tion in what direction? In the direction of nature, or of man? And, if of nature, then of what department of nature? The same analy- sis must be made in respect to memory, imagination, comparison, judgment and thought. But this is not all. Because a subject de- velops the kind of activity that is desired, we are not therefore at once to assign it a place in the curriculum. The quantitative ques- tion is equally fundamental, viz.: How much activity does the sub- ject stimulate? Even the most worthless subjects have some educa- tional value; and we cannot assign any subject its place until we have compared it with others in respect to the measure of the effect that it produces. 5. Applying these criteria to leading studies, we have no diffi- culty in seeing that their ardent cultivators often claim too much for them. The partisans of scientific education claim that the sciences stimulate strongly all the intellectual faculties. We must admit the claim. This, however, does not cut us off from asking what channel the observation, comparison, analysis and thinking run in. Mr. Todhunter repels the claim that the natural sciences "are emi- nently and specially salutary as a means of developing the powers of observation." He argues that "the study of any subject tends to make men observant of the special matter of that subject; the study of botany doubtless trains the habit of observing botanical phe- nomena; the study of chemistry doubtless trains the habit of ob- serving chemical phenomena. But I have never noticed that the de- votion to any specific branch of natural history or natural philosophy lias any potent influence in rendering the student specially alive to phenomena unconnected with the specific pursuit. J could give some striking examples to the contrary." ("The Conflict of Studies," p. 28.) Unfortunately, Mr. Todhunter did not generalize the prin- ciple that underlies his very just remarks. It is the principle of specific and generic products of mental activity. It is the principle to which Rein goes counter, when he says, in words that are some- what over-strong: ^'There exist simply as many kinds of formal 41 634 NATIONAL EDUCATIOJ^j±L ^SSOC^ < education as there are essentially different sj employment." Still more unfortunately, !Mr. claims for mathematics that are quite as absi repels in the case of natural science. In tlieir matical sciences are invaluable, both as disciplii no field is more closely limited or more definitely All in all, language is the greatest educatic possess. It is the content or substance of thoug receive the accumulated cultivation of our race, tool for the expresson of our own thoug'fit, whicJ other discipline that we are capable of receivii] come scholars, we study language as the form < grammar, and here we deal with some of the hi abstract relations that ever receive our attentioi peals to us under its historical aspect, under its coi and, finally, as one of the noblest, if not Indeed tl the arts. But great as is its educational value, j quately educate a child by teaching him language. VL We may now sum up the principal ideas advanced in the course of this paper. 1. The power generated by any kind of mentaJ be studied under two aspects, one special and one gej 2. The degree to which such power is general the extent to which it energizes the mind, and pa extent to which it overflows into congruent channels. 3. Such power is far more special than general; a limited sense that we can be said to have a store of m tal power. In a sense, men have perceptions, memories . tions, rather than perception, memory and imagination. 4. While liberal study and specialization look to so f erent ends, they are, in fact, only parts, and necessary j same thing. 5. No one kind of mental exercise— no few kinds— c tlje whole mind. That end can be gained onlj through varied activities. 6. No study — no single group of studies— contains wi the possibilities of a whole education. That balance of de which we should call a liberal education can be gained onij a measurably expanded curriculum. A few words in relation to the genesis and permanenc doctrine of formal discipline will fitly close this paper. T trine is a survival from the days of scholasticism. Those d/3 the halcyon period of formal studies. Formalism, which res the machine tendency of the human mind, then gained a hk four centuries of real studies have not sufficed to throw i f^^t:, in ^ classical classical ^^^^ justly^ fee* on. T^^^inL scholastici^ classics li. fe^ca.iise, a, e^ted to a ^e^rtain bo.a Or-e^k and oclucatioaa : tt^al disciplm luimanistic DISCUSSION, ^3.o^vIlfall of scholasticism was due, primaril crm.^ way, perpetuated its power. Humanism Xie:lf to the minds of men, long starved upon -tXi^t it became the badge of a new servitud literatures took possession of cultivate! a^^ition was established, and it soon bee -ticational tradition that the world has evei inures were not vernacular cultures, tJ:i< ■made engines for teaching foreign lan^i^a^ m^^^y the classical chapter in the history cannot deny that there grew up a cia^ il:y less tyrannous than the old schola.si^*^'^ -the new regime came to be challengea, >i- means of defense. Unconsciously ^^" ^G formal idea, they poured into it ^^^ ^p exclusive, or an almost exclusive, edi] Ll^ged, they alone furnish that liberal or j i?-^ly speaking, must form the basis of cc ^^ge, content, substance, mental nut rime — --rondarv place. It became the business . Inds, Which, indeed, is well enough if ^^E^ -mi- 2?^tood. This tendency went so far thf ^F3^ s had little to do with fixing a man's plac L «^ . "^ The supreme question was whether ■^s^ ^^_ This exaggerated claim has at last -tin have been relegated to their own pi ^wers; but, most unfortunately, the con. which was the joint product of the scho zmds, still remains somewhat to vex our jy-EL. E. E_ use^ut: ttiat speci^r^x c>f croDaparison. T71:ioy must b& ^ -^CLMrio^^s things. DI8GU88T0K [RBPOBTBD BY WILLIAM E. SHELDON.] HITB of Ohio asked in how wide a sense is tt itatement as contrasted with "special?" . In the ordinary sense. of Pennsylvania recognized the fact that lestions require special thinking. Thinking, he e cannot create concepts with special reference nite and specific in character, replied, that general study would fit one to 636 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL u±SSOCl Dr. Schaeffee said we need to understand clearly » cipline. There are various kinds of discipline — military, f . i Mb. De Gabmo thought a wide range of knowledg-e eti In a given subject, the pupil acquires a store of ideas beti;! to see relations, as in the study of a language. OTbis acq iiij validity in related realms of knowledge, but it will not enai relations of ideas it does not possess or of those tbat are no sition. Dr. Harris talks of the five windows of the sou J, representative of the will. But contemplation of will activit history', is not more important than participation in them. trained through instruction, so that every great group of iJl.^^.^ I neither affirm nor deny anything on this point; I simply call atten* tion to tiia. .^ fact. Qiie*-«-t i <^)n8 and suggestions were made by Z. Richards, Dr. I)e Ciarmo and oibt^rs.. OF COMMITTEE ON PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY— PSYCHOLOGY OF THE IMITATIVE FVNCTIOKS: Ijsr ZLDHOOB AS BELATED TO THE PROCESS OF LEAI^JV^ BY WM. T. HARRIS, CHAIRMAN. Tb-ti^ -^.zindersigned Committee on Psychological Inquiry beg It^tive herewl-tzl :•_ to present their report, calling attention to a new and piom- ising c:>]5.:^^ning for educational psychology, which has been mado tbtovig'^l::^- a study of the imitative functions in childhood with a vit-w to expliji.in mental development and the process of learning. Tll^2^ :f"elicity of this st^lection of imitation as the opening study \n tUe x> ^ J'cholog}^ of education will appear upon consideration. For ^0>itatl<3m, in its purest and simplest form, that of mechanical repeti- tion o^ t:lie actions of another person, is, by common consent, placed ^^ i^^e l.>ottom of spiritual achievements. A monkey or a parrot ciin ^ituic 5\otions or speech, and to call the action of a human bi^hiii: pg^rvot-like repetition or a process of aping is to express reproach ^^d caxitempt for it. What teacher is there that does not dt^spi^*' ere verbal repetition in his pupils? Can there be a greater pamdr»x ^^ educational psychology than the theory, which sets out witli the ^^nction of imitation, and attempts to show that all forms of intel- lectual and moral activity are only varieties of this despised uiode ^f action? j^ ^|^ere is an attractive method of bringing psycliolojry to tb^^^^^^n t ion of teachers, surely it has now been found. The nhrer ^uda<^'^>' of ^1^^ theory, that places the stone which the teachers lisul 638 NATIONAL EDUCATIONA.L j^SSOCJ rejected for the head of the corner, will fix tlie a I primary school mistress and the professor in coi But there is a consideration connected \vi which makes it the most fruitful approacli to pg plains the mode in which the individual man uni men to form a social whole. It introduces us tt institutions, the family, civil community, the St those greater selves which reinforce the little sol dividuals. For the study of imitation leads to th* modes by which the individual man repeats for I ing and doing and feeling of his fellows, and thus • life by adding to it the lives of others. Thus, fiis « • vicarious for others, and he participates vicarious . society. What are manners and customs but imitated j- that preserve the results of successful experience ji nature or in co-operating with one's fellows? Wbat :; its apparently capricious changes, but the method o ' individuals from the tyranny of old customs and usay, on minute punctilios in matters that are unimportf: symbols of our membership in the social whole? Thui imitation supplants another as more progressive. Th the semi-civilized and savage people last without change tion to generation — and, indeed, it is likely for hundred for thousands, of years — because the savage intellect c attain the strength to discriminate between moral am actions. The savage has only two kinds of deeds, lac moral; while the civilized man has three kinds, moral, I'l unmoral. Thus, that form of imitation which we all mere fashion, has significance as the means of emancipati .that heavy yoke of ceremonial that once prescribed th( our indifferent actions as though they were of moral oi import. Imitation develops, on the one hand, into habits, or cus morals, and this is the will-side of human mind; and on oii it develops into perception, memory, ideas and insights, tJ the intellectual side of mind. It is evident that the peda\ terest in psychology is the evolution of the higher facultie, the lower. It is all important for us to understand this proj step by which free moral action develops in the place of m conscious use and wont. We must discover how mere e memory of borrowed ideas gives place to insight. It is nee first of all, to discover the most elementary forms of imitatic this research the students of psychical phenomena have ^reatlj The discovery of the fact that a small per cent of people are s Council. 3 PSYCHOLOGY OF IMITATIVE FUNCTIONS. 639 sitive ^o title mental influences about them that they can, without the int^^maediation of words, read the thoughts of others, has been naade ^x^d verified in numerous instances. The study of hypnotism has ta.:i^^ii up this fact into a class of related facts belonging, not only tc:^ -tlie intellect, but to the will and the emotions as well. The pliras& ^^liy pnotic suggestion'' has come to play a great role in eluci- datiag" -tlie rudimentary facts of imitation. The hypnotizer suggests an ide^fc-, wliich the hypnotic subject takes up and carries out in feei- ng or motion. The rapid progress of scientific investigation in this lield o^ i>sychic research promises to throw light on all social thought, feelinS" ^Lnd action. It will help us to understand much that has heen c>l>scure in the rise and spread of popular beliefs, the genesis of social tornadoes, like the Crusades, the French Revolution, the Tartai-x<3 invasions of Europe, or even such local affairs as strikes and iii.ol>s. ^^ must not lose sight of the essential fact that shows itself ^ven irx "tlie most rudimentary of the phenomena of imitation. There can "be no imitation whatever except on the part of self -active be- ings; In other words, only souls can imitate. ^Imitation," says Oompayr^, **i8 the reproduction of what one has seen another do.'' It 18, 1:'tLere:f ore, always to some extent an act of assimilation. Even \i v?e exten.d the meaning of imitation so as to include unconscious mimicry an.d all phenomena akin to hypnotic suggestion, still it is ^!-act:ivity that does the imitating. What is beheld as an act of anotlier is converted by adoption into an act of self. The pride and pleasure that the infant exhibits on the occasion of his first con- scious imitation has its root in this, that he has made something Ixis own — has proved himself equal to imitating a movement in him- self l>y Ms -will — he has revealed his selfhood to some extent. This is tlie significance of play, which is chiefly imitation, that the un- developed human being is learning to know himself by seeing what lie can do. He is revealing himself to others and to himself, and getting strength in his individuality. Thus, we see that there is an element of originality in the most tnechanical phase of imitation. The self is active and assimilative. It sees an external deed which it proceeds to make its own deed by imitation. It proves itself to possess a human nature identical with the one vrhom it imitates. Originality grows by progressive deepening of the insight into causes and motives of the thing imitated. The lowest stage of imita- tion superstitiously imitates all the details, because it has no insight into the grounds and purposes of the action imitated and but little comprehension of the means employed. When it understands the means and the motives, it strikes out for itself and makes new 640 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOI^. adaptations. It modifies its imitation to suit differen crc? stances. Originality grows with this ascending compreliensio and purposes. There comes a time when the imitati^^cj prehends the principle as well as does the master wli tates, and then he is emancipated from all imitation ixi his education. If he keeps on and comprehends tlie goi principle from deeper principles, he emancipates himse^lf the 'Tiypnotic suggestion" of the principle itself, and a authority has become inward freedom. M. Tarde, who published his great book on the *^T/Slw tion" in 1890, speaks of self-imitation, as in the case of 1 83), which he defines as a sort of "unconscious imitatio self by one's self." Here, in the stages of originality, person has learned to comprehend what he once iniita1:eii and contrast with the problem of dramatic art, — ^how to jjjjjce a«=^ Victor. The individual sees ideals above him, and imper- sonates -fcixem ; loves them, and imitates them ; wears them as a player acts Us x>^^^rt. Gradually he acquires as a second nature his ideals, and lan^-t: keep growing on into new and higher ideals. The mere ^^tor (h-^ sliows) must be able to assume quickly all characters, and yet possess no character himself; he must be a sort of professional ^ig blool^ to hold, one after another, all kinds of wigs, but to have not eveii. SL scalp of its own. Goethe's favorite characters were those ^lio rea,ot: ag-ainst their environments by internal development. They {viways x>^^ss beyond imitation toward the indwelling principle of that wldlcli is imitated, and thus attain freedom. Prof. Mark BaJd- ^rin, no^^v of Princeton University, was one of the first to take up and develop this function of imitation as the key to educational psychology. His articles in "Science," in 1891 and 1892, and more j-ecent articles in ^^lind," 1894, and finally his work on "Mental Evo- lution in tlie Child and the Race," form a large and valuable con- tril^^^^^^ to this study. Prof. Josiah Royoe of Harvard has taken up the same theme, stud, 'witli ttie extensive resources at his command, has presented it in xnc>re suggestive and more popular forms than had been done l3ef ore. Tliose who have read his charming article in the May num- l3er of tlie "Century" on "The Imitative Functions and Their Place in HviBa^i^. INTature," need not be told so much as this. Your committee in this, their report, have not attempted to illus- trate the application of this important category of imitation to the sul)]^^^ of the process of learning in childhood, but have preferred -to leave this illustration for the round table discussion of Monday evening, in which Professor Royce has consented to assist and give "liis own presentations of one of the phases of this theme. Respectfully submitted b^^ W. T. Harris, Chairman^ E. C. Hewett, John W. Cook, E. Oram: Ijyte, K. A. Calkins, Committee on Psychological Inquiry. 642 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. DISCUSSION, 1 Reported by W. H. Bartholomew. ] D&. S. S. La wSf Columbia, S. C, being introduced to the Council and i discuss the report, said: Having profited by the discussions of others on previous subjects, I am not unwilling as an honorary member, in reHpon* courteous request, to try to contribute something in return. 1. My first remark is this: That this topic of "imitation** appears be only a special phase of the broader subject of assimilation, as it is n co-action. Draw the bow on a violin near a piano and its sympathetic sti pick up the notes and vibrate in harmony. A band of instruments by beiii together gradually assimilate and rectify discordances.* The same is true c of human voices. These instances in music illustrate a law of the mater; whose operation is strikingly exhibited in the experiments of co-yibratio physical laboratory. 2. In the next place, it is to be noticed that this reciprocity is condit what is possessed in common by the related objects. The more points in the more extended the field of responsive action. Hence any human beii wider range of imitation of other human beings than of any lower animal lower objects. There are only two modes in which our living selves themselves to and through the sense; one is by word and the other is b; We readily recognize our limitations in these respects. But we have states associated with these sensuous manifestations which are just and, in fact, are more strictly constitutive than they are of. the perso Now, it is on this inner self that the die leaves its impress so as to affect powers, its character and its destiny. A mere glance at what childhood possesses in common with all huma must suffice. If there is any one thing that the history of the human rac it is that every child born into this world has identically the same powers other child, irrespective of nationality, race, condition or color. We do i any innate ideas, but we do have innate powers. All our knowledge is i but none of our fundamental powers are or can be acquired. It does no however, that these powers are, in all persons, equal in degree. To illustrate one of our bodies has identically the same seven anatomical systems c( united in functioning our organisms. Each of us has the same number of and these muscles have the same origin and insertions, and perform t functions. If the fibers are placed under a microscope, the same muscL human beings are seen to have the same innate structure. Yet we are vei in size, weight and strength. What a disparity between any one of us a giant athlete, and we feel in no manner disparaged to be told that we bodily equal to even the vulgar hero of the prize-ring, a Sullivan or a Corbt 3. As to the number of these fundamental and innate powers of mind endeavored to satisfy myself and also to serve others in grouping them, felt constrained to dissent from the current threefold classification into feeling and will, which is very serviceable as far as it goes, though certaii inadequate. I have not satisfied my own mind with another classificat substitute for this tricliotomy, but I have entirely satisfied my own m there are ten, and only ten, of these primary, innate fundamental pow yet, I arrange them in Indian file, and treat each in its order and rela assure yon. Mr. Chairman, that I am not about to inflict that abstract Council. pencil.] DISCUSSION, 643 ^low :m3cxc5 -to explain, however, that I have here used the word *'power" as a generic te:x-jaci. -under which faculty and capacity are species. I ajfree with those Lbo hold -•Jii.a.'t -we have as many faculties as outgoing activities and* as many opacities ^^&- incoming receptivities. For example: Sensation proper is a capacity, for the re«3B. ^on tiliat it is a receptivity; whereas perception proper is a faculty, being n activit^?^ ^oing out to its object, whether that object be a subject-object or an hiect-sut* J o^^^t;. As the soul itself is simple and invisible, so these faculties and pjicities «tire but positive and negative poles of the same magnet. 4. No'^^, imitation being in its very nature a response to something abstract, *t prima^^**^^ oalls into requisition the receptivities and capacities of the soul. This .^^ence ^^-^ms to settle in the bosom of causality and suflScient reason, and tends produc^s^ CLnd reproduce a progeny like itself. As our receptivity is the action of o YoluQta:Mr3r a^ent, the reaction consequent m&nifests itself in an outgoing activity jjg^logoua, oxi OTir part, to that of the object that has impressed us. It is a trans- ^eBt ini]^'C:sLke to suppose this reaction is merely bodily and sensuous. It may be, ^^ in nro^-t; cases is, pre-eminently spiritual — ^religious. It is not the dress, nor the 'Voi^®» xxor tbe walk, nor the manners, but the personal qualities of the teacher ^liich moia-t: impress the child in its growth. The same holds true of all its other ggociatioxxs. It takes on their beliefs and their disbeliefs, their piety and impiety «nd prof a-xxi-ty, and even imbibes their false philosophy; it may be without dreaming of the vii>ers tbat may be hatched from the eggs. It takes on their emotions, and ^eeps witli til em that weep, and rejoices with them that rejoice, and curses and gghts tboir enenciies as its enemies. By like inspirations, we may rise on wings as ^jigels or l3ecome the pigs of Circe. 5. 1- see no limit, Mr. Chairman, that can be fairly placed on this process of -potation or resi)onsive co-action short of the complete assimilation of the objects l>rotight into generic correlation. It is only in a state of stable equilibrium that -tj-ans^^^^^^^^ii^K action and reaction can cease. The process of learning, or of any rising k^nowled^e, is a process of assimilation. The truth itself is the proper and lij^gbest end aad aim of learning and it is the touchstone and corrective of false- liood. Rnt tbe truth speculatively may be defined as the conformity of our con- victioiis to tbe reality of things, and, practically, as the conformity of our ex- presaions by word and acts to our convictions. Hence, the perfect harmony of ^e outer and inner self and the perfect harmony of the entire self with all man's rela-tions and environments presents a goal of rational, legitimate aspirations, from .^e patbivay to which the limitations of time fall away and which places tinder rea***^*^^^^^ the possibilities of immortality — ^individual personal immortality — and ^o Bucb an immortality I presume all in this presence would assent. 6. It occurs to me, in closing these remarks, to refer to the view that our ^Igber powers are evolved out of, or derived from, our lower powers. If it be true tbat all our fundamental powers are innate, then each of one of us has them all 3.8 a dowry from nature, and no one of them is derived from the others. All of t^bem grow up, in and from childhood, together; and the teacher has to do with them, all and severally, in the concrete at every stage of education. Moreover, f rota the oneness and simplicity of the very nature of the soul, of which these several powers are but specialized functions, it is the province of a solid and sound ^ucation to develop them all symmetrically, taking due account of the fact of growth from the stage of sensuous spontaneity to that of rational and accountable individuality. Db. E. E. Whitk: I am pleased to learn that an association of specialists is investigating the subject of imitation, but I do not see that this should arrest oil discussion of the subject. This is not a new subject, though now receiving special attention. New observations will undoubtedly throw some light upon the « called imitation only symbolically. But such extension of meaning is yerv sag^l^^s^ve, because there is real continuity of function underlying the two phases. On the other hand, the moral repetition — or rather, conformity— is pure ggjf.acti'vi'ty elevated entirely above outside influence. There is, of course, much action "tlia-t: goes under the name of "moral" which is mere conformity to custom Qi> to tlxe social ideal. But a strictly moral act is felt to be something supremely one's o^vxiy a, responsibility not shared with anyone else, but a pure self -determina- tion affecting solely one*s being and not one's having. For the moral law is tran- scendent, oommanding obedience at the sacrifice of all external consideration, and ill direot ooutravention of all authority vested in other persons. Antigone and Socrates furnish examples of moral actions. But the Christian history of its martyrs is full of transcendent moral action. Moral action is a conformity, of course. It may be called a repetition or realization of what one sees as an ideal; and, symbolically, it is^an imitation in this sense. But, rightly considered, moral action is simply the conformity of the particular wiU to ttie consistent will of the Absolute Person. It is self-activity that does not contradict itself. "Do not let your self -activity contradict itself" is the sum of all moral la.^w when stated in the language of psychology. That this is true may be seen in the fact that righteousness and goodness (loving kindness) are known as infallible criteria of God himself. A religion that should describe God as violating the ideals of goodness and righteousness would be seen at once to be a false re- ligion. I*liilo8ophy would repudiate such an idea of God as impossible, for the reason tlia.t an absolute self-activity which was not both righteous and gracious would be self -annulling. Personality is essentially self-determination. It is that which abides the same even in its differences and distinctions. It is self-repeating, but such repetition is only symbolicallv called an act of imitation, or "self-imita- tion." EEVJJEJW OF THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN. BY DR. JAjMBS H. BAKHR, BOUI^DEJR, COLO. HISTORY. In a report on "Requirements for Admission to College," made to the National Council of Education in 1891, the following recommenda- tion appeared: "That a committee be appointed by this Council to select a dozen universities and colleges and a dozen high and pre- paratory schools, to be represented in a convention, to consider the problems of secondary and higher education." In accordance with the recommendation, the committee making the report, of which the writer was chairman, was authorized to call a meeting of representatives of leading educational institutions at Saratoga in 1892. Invitations were issued and some thirty delegates responded. After a three days' session, a plan was formulated, which was adopted by the National Council. The Committee of 646 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. . t Ten, thus appointed and charged with t*e duty of investigation of th« secondary school stuc&es, held its in New York City in November, 1893. Tl^ cominitte* nine sub-committees or conferences, each t/) consider a ject of high school courses, and submitted!/ to them def Each conference was composed of prominfent instructc ticular subject assigned. The inquiries covered such p of beginning the study, time to be giver^ selection of bility of difference in treatment for pu]fils going to c those who finish with the high school; methods, etc. of these conferences, in printed form, /together with ; the recommendations, were in the hatds of the Com at their second meeting in New York, November, 1892 of the Committee of Ten, including the conference rej the good offices of the commissioner of education, was the government, and it has now been before the com months. GENERAL OO^OIBNTS. The manner of investigation took a somewhat differ what was anticipated when the original report, whi( undertaking, was made, but I do not doubt the wisdoi finally adopted. The committee is confident that it m cult to find groups of men in America better fitted tt hers of the conferences to discuss the specific subjects ai and their recommendations as to choice of matter, the place in the curriculum, and the best methods consi valuable contribution to the educational literature of tb the main, they represent the best thought of practical It is not my purpose to enter into a discussion of t these conference reports. Each report, and in many in part of the report, is, in itself, a large theme. The results and the recommendations of the Committee of cupy the time allotted me. It was expected that the report as a whole would discussion and invite extensive criticism; and if no ot attained than the sharpening of wits in controversy, i of the report has sufficient warrant. It is impossible to say of any opinions that they a of any methods that they are best. Some hold that verities are to be discovered in the consciousness of the 1 and that obtaining a consensus of opinion is not the ^ wise conclusions. If we are Hegelian in our philosoph we shall hold to the law of development, shall believ stage of thought is a necessary one, that the best li;(h^ by the historic method, and that the highest evolution ^^*»^ci'.J REVIEW OF COMMITTEE'S REPORT. 647 w to be :f oxind in the belief and practice of the advanced representa- tives of &.TXJ line of investigation. The work of the conference was to correl^.-te the parts of each subject by the method of applying reason tro laistory; it was the work of the committee proper to corre- late thes^ results by the same method. ^Whether the committee was argearKi varied enough to represent all sides is to be decided by the cliscnssiox^a of those best fitted to form opinions. SUMMAKY OP KBS00MM!HN3>ATIONS. ^ careful review of the work of our committee, I venture I- formal list of opinions presented, most of which, I think, heartily indorsed, reserving till later the discussion of a ^m. at work in many secondary school studies should be begun at each subject should be made to help the others; as, for history should contribute to the study of English, and istory should be correlated with language, drawing, litera- geography. at every subject should be taught in the same way, whether ation. for college or as part of a finishing course, at more highly trained teachers are needed, especially for that are receiving increased attention, as the various sel- ect history. IMiat in all scientific subjects, laboratory work should be and improved. at for some studies special instructors should be employed to gui^^ -t:he work of teachers in elementary and secondary schools. • 7- IfTbat all pupils should pursue a given subject in the same way ^1^ <^ to the same extent, as long as they study it at all. 8. rx?lhat every study should be made a serious subject of instruc- tion, ar^^l should cultivate the pupiPs powers of observation, memory, ^^prea^xon and reasoning. ^- ^ Tliat the choice between the classical course and the Latin- gtci^^^^^^<5 course should be postponed as long as possible, until the .^ste a.rx private tutors, children cover in a very brief time the studies of the g-x*^mmar school. All have noted, under favoring conditions, ^ gtirpri^ixag- development at an early age in understanding of histjory, literatur*^ 2i,iif the period of elementary education. We understand that ultrimately those best prepared to judge must determine the i0odifics>-"tioiis, if any are needed, of the elementary courses. Some say ^^ courses are already overcrowded; it is impossible to add ^0ythiiXK. It: is not true, however, that by placing less stress upon g^ few t:lxiiigs, by arousing mental activity througli the stimulus of Ijie Bciexitiflc method, and by improving the skill of the teachers, tbe work suggested by these conferences may be easily accomplished. ^1 th^se experiments are already old in many schools in the country. Consid.er "the logical order of studies. Each child, almost from tlie da^wn of consciousness, recognizes relations of number and space, obsetv^s pbexiomena and draws crude inferences, records in his mind tbe daily d^eeds of his associates, and employs language to express \x\B thongbt, often with large use of imagination. Already has begun tbe spontaneous development in mathematics, science, history and literature. Nature points the way and we should follow the direc- tion- Tliese subjects in their various forms should be pursued from tlie first. Hill's "True Order of Studies" shows that there are some fire parallel, upward-running lines representing the divisions of knowledge, and that development may be compared to the encircling oti^ard movement of a spiral, which at each turn, cuts off a portion ^f all the lines. If we accept this view, we must grant that geometry OB its concrete side belongs to the earliest period of education; that tlie observation of natural phenomena with simple inferences will ^e a most attractive study to the child; that the importance of obser- vation of objects of natural history is foreshadowed by the spontane- otis interest taken in them before the school period; that tales of ancient heroes, and the pleasing myths of antiquity, together with the striking characters and incidents of Greek and Roman history, belong to the early period of historic knowledge: that the whole 42 650 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A880CIATIO world of substance and phenomena that constitutes should be the subject of study under the head of physical geography; that the thoughts of literat imaginative, appeal readily to the child's mind. V the tastes of children may be early cultivated, am which the child discovers in naturae makes possible the religious sentiment The reason for beginning a early is somewhat independent, but all agree that ear ing language is desirable. Should we not reconsider our analysis of the elen Superintendents and teachers will find the necess; impossible but easy. The sum of all that is recon elementary schools by the conferences is' not so form appears. IDBNTrTT OF INSTRUCTION? The relation of the mind to a study is determine of the mind and the nature of the study, and there reason in psychology why a college preparatory su taught differently to one fitting for the duties of life economy to make identical the work of different co possible. There was perfect unanimity in the opinio: studies should be pursued by all in the same way as ft BBTTSat TElACHiBJRiS. Everyone knows that many teachers are unskilled I he elementary schools the beginnings of geometry, sci literature, and that the failures in this work are due to efforts of those who have had no higher or special demands of present methods are imperative for impi instruction. Science is well taught in but a few school within a few months, a school which taught biology without specimen, microscope or illustrations. It waj confession of the committee that the classical course the reason that it is difficult to find enough instruci to teach modern subjects by modern methods. rOSTPOXlNG CHOICE OF CX)URSBS. A very important principle, recognized by the con advantage of postponing the necessity of maldng a courses as long as possible. In this country we have ditions of rank, and the poor man's son has the sam^ the sons of position and wealth. Hence, the station determined bv the differentiation in courses at an earlv PonndlO BEVIEW OF COMMITTEE'S REPORT, 651 ^w parents decide upon the final character of the chUdren's instruc- tion mucli before the beginning of the college period. ^^^^ ^tilxeae reasons, I would not agree with the conference rec>om- mendation to begin Latin at an earlier period. It would not be econom^p-. There is enough else that belongs to the elementary stage of wucatx«.n, and I would not recommend a plan that is founded upon the fore-x^n view of caste and fixed condition in life. UNIFOHMirr. Inif ^i>.xmity in requirements for admission to college was the sub- ^^^} ^f * ^fcie report that finally led to this investigation. Although unifonnx x -^-y jg ^^^ prominently urged in the report of the Committee or Ten, Ita_ think that the logical outcome of the latter report will be a teiid^zH:!^ <;y toward uniformity. There is a vigorous conflict of opin- ion to-c^ ^EE^. jr as to nationalism and individualism, with a strong tend- encj, esa ;it::^ ecially in education, toward individualism. In my judgment there e^j^^i :S.sts a harmful slavery of the high and preparatory schools toilnQ ^^:Kr--x'atic and varied demands of different colleges; and, also, a slavery "d^.^) ignorance and caprice in some schools themselves, which would t> ^^^ removed by a general agreement to uniformity. Men are Qot enaX^^^^ved, but are emancipated by organization, and freedom of the indi^^^^ :3dual is found in the good order of society and government, [n a fa. <~ tm ■ (iimii criticism of the committee's report, by a man with «vhoni m have had paany a friendly tilt, I read the following (the writer X^^ arguing for extreme individualism in choice of studies): i^pleas^- ^€r^^ll us if you and your colleagues on the conference considered any iaei-tXLDi.ods for the encouragement of cranks." No; for the encour- agemeT3i.-t , neither of cranks nor of crankiness; but for the encourage- j^eBt o^ -the best kind of rational education. While there are a few ^ise, ixn^^aependent investigators who need no enforced uniformity, and wiXl. not be bound by the recommendations of others, nine-tenths ^l t\ie »dxools are largely imitators; or worse, are working independ- ently v^'itrh limited insight. And this nine-tenths would be vastly imP^^"^^^^ by adopting courses and methods growing from a consensus ^l tJie lo^st opinions of the country. The lowest would thereby tend ^^ rise t:o the high^est, and from that plane a new advance could be ^gtAe. M:eantime, the original thinkers would be free to push for- ^rsifd toward higher results, to be generally adopted later. Through ^^^tact of Various ideas some principles are settled, and the world is ^fec to move on toward fresh discovery. The selection of studies is to be determined largely by the nature ^f the mind ^nd the universal character of natural and civil environ- ments, Rna this fact points toward the possibility of uniformity, rflit; period of secondary education is not the period for specializing. 652 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, and, even if it is, there should be some uniformity in diffen^i In the United States there is a general uniformity of trad government, of civilization, and the educated youth of San F bears about the same relation to the world as the educated ; Boston. Hence, so far as elementary and secondary educ pursued, there is no reason why it should not be substant: same in various schools — not in details belonging to the ir teacher, but in paper requirements and important features ods. This is an argument for the general adoption of sue mended courses as shall be the final outcome, after free di of the investigations of these conferences and of the commi OON^'T>CTION BUrrWIWfclV high SOHOOIiS AJSB OOLLiEXJES. Nothing in the whole report is more important than the closer connection between high schools and colleges, and this and forcibly urged. Whatever course of study properly b a secondary school is also a good preparation for higher € else either secondary or higher education is seriously Whenever a youth decides to take a college com'se, he st himself on the road towards it No one can doubt that in tl years pupils from properly arranged high school courses admitted to corresponding courses in higher education. Tli ment between higher education and all lower grade work, c classical, has been a fatal defect in the past. The entire education should be a practical interest of college profei there should be a hearty co-operation betwcnm them and scl intendents and principals in considering all educational pi STANDARD OF PROFBSSIONAIL SOHOOIIS. It is a fact of significance that a committee on which ing institutions are represented, urges the professional soli country to place their standard of admission as high as t colleges; and we hope that aid will thus be given the i endeavoring to raise the prevailing low requirements of la and divinity schools. The reports of most of the conferences asked for cont adequate work for each subject, that it might become a so cipline and of valuable insight. No doubt part of the wc schools is too brief and fragmentary to gain from it the b and I regret that the committee report did not more clea this defect In fact, I believe the aim should be to reduce I of courses, the number of subjects, and the number of t< ' a subject It is not necessary that the entire landscape in all its parts and details, if a thorough knowledge of the i nent features is gained. ^^'■^ __ REVIEW OF OOUUITTEE'S BEPOBT. 653 CHOIOB OF SUBJECTS. ineff **5.^ important point I was constrained to differ from the read- Which l^oeXns werff I" "'""^' ^*^«"^^ *^« expre^LT^ the writes of rL ''^'^%*^i«° ^^"-^ 'Joe rather to the standpoint of refer ^VL ^^^ '^P^'"* **^^" *»»« resolutions of the committee I i ^°ce, j>xiJi-ir;°!^ r^^"^' ""."^ ^ ^ '"^"^^ °f comparative indiffler- This^e.^ ^!t ^ T^'^f '" '*^**''°^ '"*'" *^« «"»'J«<=t8 chosen, content ^^^'^^"'''*'°° formal, without giving due regard to the ture, ivji^-^ .!'^ ^""^ ^^'^ '^**'"*<* «' ""t""^ a°d tlie world of mind. Na- in its v«TJ^ '*' meaning is realized, has the same meaning for all, and hiHtor/^ *^°^ ^^^r. ^^'^^ ^" '° «°b8tantially the same way The has the « i^ '^''''^'f i"/*" ^''"■'«°« '^i"^^ a^d degrees of development teristica .S!?,?'' ""■ ^"- ^^^ °^*"''^ "^ "^^^ i° g«°«ric chara(> "•e the ^^Zll^^ T'Z^\ ^r^^^l *^^* ''^^^"^ *« *^« «P»"t"a» ^orld tVealJ 1=^:^ /^^- 5'°*^ has the same powers in all human beings, ■etain irl^ ^T' ^^ ""'"' "^'^ P^"^°' «*=*»°'''« trough attention: issodatri,-^'''"'""^ under the same conditions, obey the same laws of rom mo-tT^™' '■^'*°' '"^ ^Y ^, "^^"y- ^^'^ ^^e same principles; act hat wil -■ V^° "*^ ^^ '^^^^'^ "^^^^'y according to the motives etaiir^^i ^^^'f* *** *^^"- ^^^"'^ ^^^'■^ a''^ »°fi°»te variations in iPth(Hi2 T^'' ^ '^^^'^''^' '"^ P^'''^'' ^^ ^^«^^^*' ^^^"^^ «^ development, InripS "^T acquisition, predominant motives, in interests and ten- Tpn e r "^ ^""Tl '"^ ^^^^' ^'^^^^ ^^^>^ ^^^ 1^^« ^^ l^^^^an nature, lence j^ ^^ rgue that a science of education is possible; that it is pos- ibie to ^.«3lect studies with a view to their universal use in the prii nary a^-v-^lopment of the powers and with the assurance of superior, ralne a» :K*evealing to man his entire environment and the nature ofi lis Deiim.^5". ' :Mer& r^orm, mere power, without content, means nothing. Power LS powei- ^lirough knowledge. The verv world in which we are to use our p^"^^^ is the world which we must first understand in order to ufi^e ^^. •X'tie present is understood, not by the power to read history, l3ut oy "«^l:iat history contains. The laws of nature and deductions tbereiroxxx are not made available by mere power, but by the power ^^'\x ^^^^^® ^'*^°^ ^^^ knowledge of them. Hence, the education ^l^ico^ cloos not include something of all views of the world and of -tue tmivkini^' subjelt is lacking in data for the wise and effective use of P^""^^- ANALrYSIS OF STUDIES. In riew of this position, I would regard it the duty of the com- j^ittee o analyze carefully the nature and importance of each leading ^^^''•^e co^^^^^^^^^^ ^ ^^^* ^^ *^ ^^^^ ^^ knowledge, to the end that a ^'^^ ^^^ation of the work of the conferences might be made. 654 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [NaUontl The study of number in its concrete form and in its abstract rela- tions, the study of space relations as founded upon axiomatic truths, are necessary as the basis of many kinds of knowledge, as represent- ing an essential view of the world, as a foundation for the possibili- ties of commerce and structures and as furnishing important training in exact reasoning. Science includes many things; but chemistry and physics, which explain the manifestations of force in the material world, biology, which reveals important laws of plant and animal life, and physiography, which acquaints us with our entire environ- ment as to location, phenomena and partial explanation — these are connected with the practical side of civilization and the welfare of humanity, and are a guard against superstition and error. They are indispensable for practice in induction, and they should be well rei>re- sented in a course of study. History, in which man discovers the meaning of the present and gains wisdom for the future, which is a potent source of ethical thought, must not be omitted. English language, as the means of accurate, vigorous and beautiful expression, and English literatune, which is the treasury of much of the world's best thought, are not subjects to leave to the election of the pupiL In addition to the training in observation, memory, expression and inductive reasoning which most studies offer, we must consider the development of imagination, right emotion and right wilL In other words, SBSthetic and ethical training is most essential. Secondary schools need not employ formal courses of study to this end, but vari- ous means may be employed incidentally. There are a hundred ways in which taste may be cultivated, and literature is one of the best means for developing the art idea. Moral character is developed by right habit, by the right use of the powers in the process of education, by growth in knowledge of ethical principles, by growth of the spirit of reverence and by the ethical code of religion. All of these means, except the formal use of the last, may be employed by the schools. And the ethical element is inherent in the very nature of right educa- tion. To educate rightly is to educate ethically. History, biography and literature make direct contributions to ethical knowledge. We now reach the study of foreign classical tongues. If there is nothing more than formal training, for instance, in Latin, the sooner we abandon its study the better. But we find in it, also, a valuable content. In the process of development some phases of human possibility seem to have been almost fully realized, while the world has continued to develop along other lines. In such cases, we must go back and fill our minds with the concepts that belong to the remote period. The insight into the character of the peoples and their institutions, the concepts of their civilizations, the beauty of their literatures, the practical contribution to the knowledge of our Council. 1 BE VIE IV OF COMMITTEE'S REPORT. 6.15 own Jangxiage, form an important content to be realized by the studv of the Greek and Latin classics. From the foreign modern tongues, German may be chosen because of its valuable literature, its contri butions to science, its dignity and its relation to the Anglo-Saxon glemeat: o:f our own language. We l^a^e endeavored to show that the choice of studies is not a matter of indifference, that mathematics, science, history, the English langtia-S^ ^^^ literature, foreign language and art and ethics all be- long ^^ t^l^e period of secondary education, and we have tried to suy: gest tUe inference that all should be employed. The relative impor tance o^ oach cannot be exactly measured, but experience and reason must gnicle us. ORGANIZATION OF COURSES. Granting that these are the subjects to be used in making second- ary 8ch.ool programs, we must consider the time element, the most difiBcult problem of all. But we must grapple with it calmly and firnaly, as did each of the conferences in their recommendations, and correlate, in the light of history and reason, the data given by the conferences. We must grant the possibility of certain differentia tions at some points in the high school courses. For instance, pupUa choosing the classical course must depart in a measure from the nor- mal modern program. I have placed at the end of this discussion, for comparison, tables which group subjects under the four heads named in the analysis mathematics, science, history and English, and foreign language. TABLE OF SUBJECTS AS ASSIGNED BY THE COMMITTEE. The first table shows, classified, the nine divisions of subjects as assigned to the nine conferences, respectively. The second table shows the recommendations of the conferences classified in the same way as above. Since the conferences worked separately, this table shows at almost every point need of adjustment For the first year an aggregate of twenty-two periods per week is recommended; for the second thirty-seven and one-half; for the third tliirty-five; for the fourth thirty-seven and one-half. The program- maker must either choose a few subjects, omitting other essential ones, or must adjust the time and order relations of the table. The latter appears to be the preferable alternative. I would base the whole subject of program-making upon the re- lations of the child to the world of knowledge; would make mathe- matics, science, history and literature the foundation, and provide ^tol^gfei^lgn languages by additions or by modifications and sub- tptild adopt the present standard for mathematics; and 656 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. V- would limit the number of sciences recommended by the confe Arranging for convenience the studies in four parallel lines the head of mathematics, science, history and English, and languages, I would give to history and English the time of the four divisions. English is the native tongue and is i familiar, and Englisih literature will be read voluntarily throi: ; if the taste for it and the power to understand it are acquired schools. History, if the right method of study be imparted ; interest be cultivated, will also be pursued voluntarily. ^' allow for Latin about the usual time, and, in the classical coi may substitute Greek for some of the science and mathemal case an additional foreign language is taken, it must be an ( the time of each line of work must be shortened, or further \ tions must be made as wisely as possible. The table, showing the proposed arrangement of cour-se worked out in detail. It suggests that, approximately, or of the time be given to each column; that in other courses i classical, if a second foreign language be taken, it should be i as an extra, if possible; that Greek, if taken, be substitutes! science of the last two years and the mathematics of the li This combines simplicity of plan, identity of instruction in subject for all courses, and continuous and adequate work necessary differentiation. In view of this discussion, I would offer the following « of the four model courses presented by tlu? committee. 1. While there is much to be said in favor of the course stand, I think they lack more or less in simplicity of arini in proper classification, in proportion, in continuity and ade of time for some of the subjects, in economy to a slight degi failure to properly limit the number of studies. 2. Taking eighty as the aggregate number for each o courses, the proportionate number of each group is as folic Mathe- Sciences. 5?i inatlcs. Ku| Classical 14 O Latin-Scientific 14 18 Modern Language 14 18 English 14 18 Except in the English coui*se, foreign language ax>pes more than its just proportion, and history and Englisli cl large share in the courae with one foreign language. 3. It is doubtful whether higher algebra belongs to jv course, although it is inserted in my ow^n scheme. Council. J RE VIE W OF COMMITTEE 8 REPOR T. 667 4. Tlie scheme for science violates the principle, so strongly urged, o:f adequate time for each subject. Too many science subjects are insor*ted. It is better to pursue four sciences, each one year, than to talco t^^'ice the number, with half a year for each. If we select as the most:, important high school sciences, for instance, physical geog- raphiy, I>bysics, chemistry and biology, we shall see that the com- mitte^e li.ave added (1) botany or zoology, (2) astronomy, (3) meteorol- ogy, C^) geology or physiography, (5) physiology. In the second and fourtlx years two sciences are presented side by side. Moreover pl;xysios, the generic science, is gix'en only three hours, no more than is given botany or zoology. 5. In two of the courses besides the' classical no history appears in tb.e second and fourth years, except as an option in the fourth. <>- Since in small high schools pupils in all courses should be lauglit the same subject in one class, there appears to be a mistake in that, in a few instances, divisio^is are made necessary. FINAT. STATEMENT. The criticisms of the report of the Committee of Ten which I wouM emphasize most are these: The lack of a bold and clear analy- sis of the value of subjects before correlating the recommendations of the conferences; the implications that the committee favored an ex- treme theory of equivalence of study; practical details in the or- gani^iixtion of the model courses. ' I do not know how far other members of the committee may agree with me in any of these adverae views, nor what stand may be taken by the CJouncil, and I feel a diffidence in taking exceptions to any parts of results, the most of which can but be heartily approved. If the committee consent, and the Council wish it, it would seem very desirable that these points be given further consideration. It would be easy to obtain by correspondence the views of a few of the most intelligrent program -makers in the country, and the committee could hold another meeting at some convenient time. We must remember that a large percentage of the schools will look chiefly at the practical and formal results of the investigation ; hence, the importance to be attached to the model courses. May I add that the recommenda- tions of the conferences to introduce certain subjects in the elemen tary school period are worthy of the most careful anl extended con- sideration at no remote date by a competent committee. In closing, I wish to express my most hearty appreciation of the work done by the other members of the committee, and especially by the chairman, who took the greater share of the burden, as well as faith in the general results, which should be but the beginning of a much needed work in this country. 658 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. COMPARATIVE TABLE OF STUDIES BECOMMENDED BT THE CONFEBBNCE8. Proposed Divisions. MATHEMATICS. Science. HISTORY AN I English. Subjects as assigned by THE COM- MITTEE—Nine IN Number. 5. Mathematics. 6. Physics, As- tronomy. Chem- istry. 7. Natural History (Biolo- gy, including Botany, Zoology and Physiology). 9. Geography (Physical Geog- raphy, Geology and Meteorolo- gy>. 6. History. Civil Govern- ment and Poll ical Economy. 3. English. First Year. Periods 22. A'gebra 5. History 3. English £ Second Year. Periods 37 Vi- Algebra and Geometry 5. Astronomy (12 weeks) 5. Botany or Zoology 6. History 3. English S Third Year. Periods 85. Geometry 5. Chemistry 5. History 3. English {j Fourth Year. Periods 874- Higher Algebra and Trigonometry 2. 17 Physics 5. Physiology ( f Geology or' Physiogra- •{pby (Hyr.) Meteorol- logy c/iyr.)] 3. History 3. English C 22 32 PROPOSED ARRANGEMENT OF COURSES. (Networked out in detnil; Intended to be merely suggestivi Aq average of four periods per week to be given to each Year. Mathemat- ics Science. HlSTOBY AND English. FouEKi: GUAC First Year. Periods 16 or 20. Algebra. Physical Geography.' History. English. Lat Second Year. Periods 16 or 20. Algebra and Geometry. Physics. History. English. Latin. Gen Third Year. Periods 16 i^r 20. Alf^ebra and Geometry. Chemistry. History. EDgiish. Latin Gen Gr Fourth Year. Periods 16 or 20. Higher Alge- bra and Trig- onometry. Biology. History. English. Latlu. Gen Gr 16 16 16 1 * German, if t«ken. to be an extra, nivinK the pupil 20 hour& instead of IC. -f Greek, If taken, to be substituted for Science for last two years and Matheni Council, 2 REVIEW OF COMMITTEE'S REPORT. 659 COURSES AS ARRANGED BY THE CX)MMITTEE OF TEN. (Studies classified for comparison.) CLASSICAL. '^T'RJ^'R. First. "Vear. Mathematics. Science. Second Year. Tkilr-a Year. Fourth Year. Algebra 4. Geometry 3. Algebra and Ge- ometry 4. Physical Ge- ogrraphy 3. History and Foreign English. Languages History 4. English 4. Latin 5. Physics 3. Trigonometry and Higher Algebra 3. Historv 3. English 2. English 3. Chemistry 3. English 2. Latin 5. German 4. Latin 4. German 4. Greek 5. Latin 4. German 3. Greek 5. COURSES AS ARRANGED BY THE COMMITTEE OF TEN. (Studies classified for comparison.) LATIN-SCIENTIFIC. Vear. First Year. Second Year. Third Year. Fourth Year. Mathematics. Algebra 4. Science. Geometry 3- Algebra and Ge- ometry 4. Trigonometry and Higher Algebra 3. 14 Physical Ge- ography 3. Physics 3. Botany or Zoology 3. Astronomy and Meteorology 3. History and English. History 4. English 4. English 2. Chemistry 3. Geology or Phys- iography, Physiology 3. History 2. English 3. English 4. 19 Foreign Languages. Latin 5. Latin 5. German 4. Latin 4. German 4. Latin 4. German 3. 29 650 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, world of substance and phenomena that constitutes our envi should be the subject of study under the head of physiog physical geography; that the thoughts of literature, ett imaginative, appeal readily to the child's mind. We may the tastes of children may be early cultivated, and that which the child discovers in nature makes possible the art the religious sentiment. The reason for beginning a foreign early is somewhat independent, but all agree that early stud ing language is desirable. Should we not reconsider our analysis of the elementar Superintendents and teachers will find the necessary ct impossible but easy. The sum of all that is recommend elementary schools by the conferences is* not so formidabh appears. rDBNTmr of INSTRUOnON* The relation of the mind to a study is determined by of the mind and the nature of the study, and there seei reason in psychology why a college preparatory subjec taught differently to one fitting for the duties of life. 1 economy to make identical the work of different cours possible. There was perfect unanimity in the opinion tl studies should be pursued by all in the same way as far j BBTTER TlElACHiBIRS. Everyone knows that many teachers are unskilled the elementary schools the beginnings of geometry, scie literature, and that the failures in this work are due to efforts of those who ha\^ had no higher or special demands of present methods are imperative for impi instruction. Science is well taught in but a few sclioo within a few months, a school which taught biology without specimen, microscope or illustrations. It \v| confession of the committee that the classical course the reason that it is difficult to find enougli instrv^ to teach modern subjects by modern methods. rOSrPONING OHOICB OF OOXJItSBS. I A very important principle, recognized by tlie advantage of postponing the necessity of making: courses as long as possible. In this country we Ij ditions of rank, and the poor man's son lias tlie s the sons of position and wealth. Hence, tlie stai determined bv the differentiation in courses at an e Comicii. J REVIEW OF COMMITTEES REPORT. 651 few parents decide upon the final character of the children's instruc- tion muclx before the beginning of the college period. For these reasons, I would not agree with the conference rec^om- taendation to begin Latin at an earlier period. It would not be economy. There is enough else that belongs to the elementary stage of education, and I would not recommend a plan that is founded upon the for-eign view of caste and fixed condition in life. UNIFOBQimr. 1'o.if ormity in requirements for admission to college was the sub- ject oif. tlie report that finally led to this investigation. Although uniformity is not prominently urged in the report of the Committee of Ten, I think that the logical outcome of the latter report will be a tendency toward uniformity. There is a vigorous conflict of opin- ion to-day as to nationalism and individualism, with a strong tend- ency, especially in education, toward individualism. In my judgment there exists a harmful slavery of the high and preparatory schools to the erratic and varied demands of different colleges; and, also a slavery to ignorance and caprice in some schools themselves, which would be removed by a general agreement to uniformity. Men are not enslaved, but are emancipated by organization, and freedom of the individual is found in the good order of society and government. In a facetious criticism of the committee's report, by a man with whom I have had ;many a friendly tilt, I read the following (the writer is arguing for extreme individualism in choice of studies): **Please tell us if you and your colleagues on the conference considered any metbods for the encouragement of cranks." No; for the encour- agement, neither of cranks nor of crankiness; but for the encourage- ment of the best kind of rational education. While there are a few -wise, independent investigators who need no enforced uniformity, and will not be bound by the recommendations of others, nine-tenths of the schools are largely imitators; or worse, are working independ- ently with limited insight And this nine-tenths would be vastly improved by adopting courses and methods growing from a consensus of the best opinions of the country. The lowest would thereby tend to rise to the highest, and from that plane a new advance could be made. Meantime, the original thinkers would be free to push for- i^-ard toward higher results, to be generally adopted later. Through contact of various ideas some principles are settled, and the world is free to move on toward fresh discovery. The selection of studies is to be determined largely by the nature of the mind and the universal character of natural and civil environ- ments, and this fact points toward the possibility of uniformity. Tlie period of secondary education is not the period for specializing, 652 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [ and, even if it is, there should be some uniformity in differen In the United States there is a general unifonnity of trad government, of civilization, and the educated youth of San Fi bears about the same relation to the world as the educated ] Boston. Hence, so far as elementary and secondary educ pursued, there is no reason why it should not be substant same in various schools — not in details belonging to the ii teacher, but in paper requirements and important features ods. This is an argument for the general adoption of su( mended courses as shall be the final outcome, after free d of the investigations of these conferences and of the comn C»NKECTION BBTWIBSEN HIGH SOHOOIiS AND 00LIiEX>E{ Nothing in the whole report is more important than th closer connection between high schools and colleges, and th. and forcibly urged. Whatever course of study properly a secondary school is also a good preparation for highei else either secondary or higher education is serious! Whenever a youth decides to take a college course, he himself on the road towards it No one can doubt that ir years pupils from properly arranged high school court admitted to corresponding courses in higher education, ment between higher education and all lower grade wor : classical, has been a fatal defect in the past. The ent education should be a practical interest of college pr there should be a hearty co-operation between theni anil intendents and principals in considering all educations: STANDARD OF PROFDSSIONAIL. QOHOOLS. It is a fact of significance that a committee on wb ing institutions are represented, urges the professional country to place their standard of admission as Wgli colleges; and we hope that aid will thus be given t endeavoring to raise the prevailing low requirements and divinity schools. The reports of most of the conferences aslced. for adequate work for each subject, that it might become cipline and of valuable insight. No doubt part of t schools is too brief and fragmentary to gain from it and I regret that the committee report did not mor this defect In fact, I believe the aim should be to re I of courses, the number of subjects, and the numbe ' a subject It is not necessary that the entire lane in all its parts and details, if a thorough knowledge « nent features is gained. ConnaLJ BE VIEW OF CO:iHIIITTEE'S REPORT. 653 CHOIOB OF 'SUBJiBXTrS. In one important point I was constrained to differ from the read- jug of the report, as finally submitted, although the expressions to ^vhich oxoeptions were taken were due rather to the standpoint of the writ;er of the report than the resolutions of the committee. I \ refer to -those paragraphs in which it is implied that the choice of l studies ixi secondary schools may be a matter of comparative indiffler- i ence, l^rovided good training is obtained from the subjects chosen. ! rpiis VT.e^v makes education formal, without giving due regard to the conteat. Here are the world of nature and the world of mind. Na- ture, when its meaning is realized, has the same meaning for all and in its ^irarious phases affects all in substantially the same way. The history of mankind in its various kinds and degrees of development has the same content for all. The nature of mind in generic charac- teristics and the universal truths that belong to the spiritual world are the same for all. Mind has the same powers in all human beings. We all know, feel and will; all persons acquire through attention- retain in memory under the same conditions, obey the same laws of association; reason, so far as rightly, from the same principles; act from naotives. Men may be classed crudely according to the motives that will appeal to them. While there are infinite variations in details of men's natures, in power of insight, degree of development, methods of acquisition, predominant motives, in interests and ten- dencies, all persons in their growth obey the laws of human nature. Hence I argue that a science of education is possible; that it is pos- sible to select studies with a view to their universal use in the pri-i niary development of the powers and with the assurance of superior value as revealing to man his entire environment and the nature ofj his being-. Mere form, mere power, without content, means nothing. Power is power through knowledge. The very world in which we are to use our power is the world which we must first understand in order to ixse it The present is understood, not by the power to read history, but by what history contains. The laws of nature and deductions ilierefrom are not made available by mere power, but by the power w^hich comes from the knowledge of them. Hence, the education ^which does not include something of all views of the world and of tlie thinking subjelt is lacking in data for the wise and effective use of power. ANAlfYSIS OF STUDIEJS. In view of this position, I would regard it the duty of the com- mittee to analyze carefully the. nature and importance of each leading subject representing a part of the field of knowledge, to the end that a wise correlation of the work of the conferences might be made. 654 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION The study of number in its concrete form and in it tions, the study of space relations as founded upon a are necessary as the basis of many kinds of knowled) ing an essential view of the world, as a foundation 1 ties of commerce and structures and as furnishing im] in exact reasoning. Science includes many things; and physics, which explain the manifestations of force world, biology, which reveals important laws of ph life, and physiography, which acquaints us with our ment as to location, phenomena and partial explana connected with the practical side of civilization and humanity, and are a guard against superstition and e indispensable for practice in induction, and they shoul sented in a course of study. History, in which ma meaning of the present and gains wisdom for the f u1 potent source of ethical thought, must not be on language, as the means of accurate, vigorous and beau and English literature, which is the treasury of mucl best thought, are not subjects to leave to the election In addition to the training in observation, memon , inductive reasoning which most studies oflPer, we mu development of imagination, right emotion and right words, SBSthetic and ethical training is most essent schools need not employ formal courses of study to thi ous means may be employed incidentally. There are j in which taste may be cultivated, and literature is < means for developing the art idea. Moral character right habit, by the right use of the powers in the proce by growth in knowledge of ethical principles, by grov of reverence and by the ethical code of religion. All except the formal use of the last, may be employed And the ethical element is inherent in the very nature tion. To educate rightly is to educate ethically. His and literature make direct contributions to ethical kr We now reach the study of foreign classical ton is nothing more than formal training, for instance, sooner we abandon its study the better. But we fii valuable content. In .the process of development s human possibility seem to have been almost fully real world has continued to develop along other lines. In must go back and fill our minds with the concepts tha remote period. The insight into the character of tl their institutions, the concepts of their civilizations, their literatures, the practical contribution to the kn CoaDciJ. J BE VIE W OF COMMITTEE'S REPORT. 655 own Jangxiage, form an important content to be realized by the study of the Gr-oek and Latin classics. From the foreign modern tongues, German may be chosen because of its valuable literature, its contri- butions 1:o science, its dignity and its relation to the Anglo-Saxon element: o:f our own language. We Ixfii^e endeavored to show that the choice of studies is not a matter of indifference, that mathematics, science, history, the English lang^^S^ and literature, foreign language and art and ethics all be- long ^^ t^lokG period of secondary education, and we have tried to sug- gest ttie inference that all should be employed. The relative impor- tance of oach cannot be exactly measured, but experience and reason ^ust gni% the other branch of physics, dealing with mole- cules as the former dealt with masses of matter. With these three studies, the child has gained a general view of the sciences of nature. In the other courses of study, preparing for scientific schools, or business, the science is increased by picking out certain special parts of the course that has been treated comi>endiously in physical geography or in natural philosophy, and devoting a half year or more to such branches as botany, astronomy, hygiene and biology. Biology, of course, is the essential part of the sciences of botany and zoology. This special work on these parts of natural science gives an opportunity to teach the pupil something of the methods of investigation that prevail in the biological and also in the mathematical sciences of nature. A more effective handling of the scientific part of the program it would be diflicult to suggest, pro- vided the classical program had admitted botany in the third year, as a sort of re-enforcement of the study of physical geography given in the first year. I notice most of the criticisms made against this report are directed to one or more of the nine subsidiary reports, and not to any of the suggestions of the Committee of Ten. It was, of course, all-important to obtain and to offer to the public the well digested recommendations of representative committees of specialists, each com- mittee declaring its desires in the way of matter and method, and amount of time. But how unreasonable it is to suppose that these nine partial reports devoted to special branches could be expected to be so moderate in their claims for their favorite studies and so considerate of the claims of all other branches that their respective claims could be added together without omissions or reductions. The first part of the rei>ort of the Committee of Ten shows, in the tabular Tiews numbered 1 and 2 respectively, the absurdity of attempting to include all that is asked. Those tables are a redudio ad dbwrdum. The Committee of Ten had no choice but to reduce and co-ordinate the claims of the several branches. This was the serious business of the committee, and it took nearly all the time of its sessions. The results of that discussion are contained chiefly in the classical curriculum, which is the first of those given in tabular view No. 4. I wish to emphasize again, in closing, the point that the programs in that table, No. 4, are the recommendations which should be carefully investigated and con- demned or approved. Wm. H. Smiley (by invitation): It gives me pleasure to accept the invitation of your president, and I wish to return thanks for this courtesy so kindly extended by the Council to members of the conferences to participate in your deliberations. As I have listened to the discussion to-day, I have been a little surprised at the 668 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. tendency which seems to exist to regard the utterances of the ci final word upon the topics treated rather than as tentative debat Now, as regards the Greek conference, to which I chanced to be I shall give true expression to the sentiment of its members in e was a feeling that our three days of discussion of the questions la insufficient to formulate adequately much that we had in mind, know, that, in our report, certain points were stated with delib the hope and expectation that they would provoke criticism, but seen exception taken to them. There has been an inclination in some quarters to charge mei ferences with a meddlesome desire to discuss the problems o school, though lacking, by association with other work, the qualiti such problems with just and fruitful knowledge of their needs our conference was the one of which such criticism would be t be true. Yet I am sure I am right in saying that a majority of at some time been connected as teachers with elementary work, the elementary school was touched in our discussions, but in no c of unkind criticism; rather in most charitable sympathy for all ing out the solution of this difficult problem. I am in heartiest accord with this proposition to appoint a s which I trust will approach this other subject in the same earj that actuated, I know, the members of the conference. I hope secondary schools may be appointed to its membership. We hig as keenly interested in the character of the training that mold come to us, as we are in settling the problem of what can best I material as it comes. I wish, also, to say how keenly I feel the force of Mr. Woi those pupils who stop below the high school, because they do not developing with tbat delight which is nature's spur to self-activi ought to keep them in school, but we do not keep them there. For question that deserves our most careful consideration. It may some to hear that this year sees the opening of a manual train! Denver, and that there is every probability that the number o the first year of the high school next September will be greatly who have watched the beginning lessons in laboratory work in the shocking lack of training of the senses that our pupils show, earnest testimony to the awakening power such work has upc intellectual activity. Mb. Barer: Upon the question of considering the work of Ten as ended, I wish to make some further suggestions, although accept whatever decision may be reached by the Council. I have made three criticisms of that report as follows: Thi and clear analysis of the value of studies before correlating the of the conferences; that it contains by implication the doctrine studies, which is rejected by a majority of educators, and wai down by the Committee of Ten itself; and that the model course violations of important principles favored in the report. This means more than a mere individual opinion. I have ! criticisms of this report in California, New York, and in o the most important ones can be summed up under the three as gi\ I believe that we cannot afford to omit a rational examinath for the selection and arrangement of studies; that an extreme thee of studies, appearing, as it does, to have the sanction of the co a large amount of harm, and is reprobated by nearly every membi and that the model courses, with their imperfections, will be bl THE COUNTRY SCHOOL PROBLEM. t:lxt^^' ^cliool^ "^^'hich look only to formal and definite results. At the sat ^^^iij fa.iX ^^••^ adoption in many States where uniform conrsea are desira ,^- ^ese j^o^^*^^*-**^ ^ consider as of very high imxK>rtance, and I question ^ ^^^^hy of *3.^ s^charging the committee until they have given further consi f^^ter SL ^fi-i^^^^ssion of the propriety of continuing the committee, a n: ^oo^i^^ the x-^^-X^^*^^^^* ^^^ discharge the committee was unanimously adopted. THE COUNTRY SCHOOL FROBLEM. BY EMBRSOX B. WHITE. LL.D., COLUMBUS, OHIO. It is iKZ^"*:^ ^3my purpose to deny or obscure the real difficult! vol^^^^ ^^ ^^?v^ :»::■. ^t is called "The Country School Problem." This i clueBtioii*. ^i>:f nomenclature, but a problem of school organiz ander spe^^c^^^^ conditions. Tt*-^ P^^^^^*--^^^"^ ™^y thus be stated: ^iven S3fc. ^<:;hool of twenty to forty pupils from five and six to, . ^^n ye>£B. ar^is of age, accommodated in one room and taught bj ^^^ ^p^ fin^l -ttie best possible organization and administration ^oBd.itl..c?<3[iial ability and attainments, and those who, at a ( 0^^ ^ are xxe^^E^rly equal in attainment, make unequal and vai XX^^ Jr^^ > C2> that the pupils need instruction and training adc "p^^.^^^^ a->3ilit:y and needs each successive term, and hence th <^ -i>^^^^^ xniAst have sequence, thus permitting progress; an 0^^ -t ^^ ^^altli and physical endurance of teacher and pupils <^^ d^^^y seliool session to about six hours. It is also to be X^ ^\\^^ tlxat: the problem involves the providing of the best pog i^ ^^.r^^^^^y^ axia training, not in one branch, not merely in the " ^^•^^-' ^^^ ^^ all the essential elementary branches. I.— NON-OLASSIFIOATION SOLUTION. fj]\\e ftrst solution proposed makes no provision for the clas^ - o^ ^^ ^^^ Pupils, but each pupil is taught by himself in all bra, ^^^ aX^^y- It is seen that this plan gives as a minimum as many ^ te teachinj^ exercises as there are pupils in the school, pro ^ ^c^ P^pil has only one daily lesson. If only the "three R'^ ^^.tJg^^' ^^^ ^ach separately, there will be three times as many ^ -t^g exercises as there are pupils, and, if the three exercises fox* \wV^^ ^^^ combined in one, the length of time devoted to e^c 670 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION ercise must be increased. But the modern program of tion includes from five to seven school arts, and, in en advanced pupils, several additional branches of study English grammar, history and physiology. It is unnecessary to take time to show that it is i\ one teacher to instruct twenty or more pupils, each the essential elementary branches. The number of required reduces the length gf each to so short a time t instruction is possible; and hence the non-classifli proposed for the country school may be dismissed as The plan of individual instruction is only feasible in posed of very few pupils. We sometimes hear of the old-time country school were no classes, each pupil being taught by himself, i but I am satisfied that this school exists in the imagii in history. If it ever had an existence, it certainly p ganization of the common school, if it did not precede ; posed of more than ten pupils. Even ten pupils und necessitate some classification to permit anv efficient drill. My father was a pupil in one of the early common England, and I was a pupil in a still more primitiv then backwoods of Ohio, but neither my father nor n the wholly unclassified country school of which the tion of teachers is hearing. In at least two of the branches — L e., branches common to all — the pupils school were classified. It is true that little attempt was made in teaching the a-b-c's or the a-b-abs, but i an early classification in both reading and spelling- true, but necessary and helpful. I now see in my mii of big boys and girls that sat on the back seats an< in the old English reader, and I also see the rows of who constituted the successive classes in spelling, s floor and "toeing the mark." No attempt was made in the first schools wliicl classification in arithmetic, and later the attempt wj to the multiplication table, which few pupils perf and so common drills were feasible. Asa rule, each ] by himself, at his own gait, going to the teacher or assistance, when needed. The fact that most of tl reached fractions and fewer ever acquired much processes, is evidence of the weakness of individual w* a study as arithmetic. A few clever pupils who needed only opportunity good progress without instruction, sometimes remai THE COUNTRY SCHOOL FBOBLEM. jg , . ^^'s w£L^ -KJOt only true in arithmetic, but also in geograph J ^^isJi gr^i^nrB-^Bniar when these branches were reached. TUe li ^^sifleatiox^ ^^ these studies was doubtless an advantage to OTV' ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^-^1 pupiig^ l3^^ no one who actually knows the ol oounti*jr gcl:i-<=^^^^^^-*' ^^11 commend the progress made by nine- ten Its JPupijg j:^-^ is not too much to claim that its helpfulness i S^^^t inajax*5^ "^^^^^ ^^ its pupils was increased by improved and classifleatiox:^ — I well remember the first introduction of clas tion ixi firit:\M-^Mrm.:m.et\c in the rural schools of my native State. J see t:lie littJ^^^ blackboard that was first nailed to the wall of primitive s<3^fc»- "^^^^^^^^^se, for though scarcely in my teens, I W£ sta.lled as t^^3«^^^==^^^r ^^ *b^ first class formed in arithmetic. TV^lien I x=^ ^3»- assed from the dignity of a pupil-teacher to the h( of a. teachear, ^mr^^j best work for the country school was in the i dnetion of i:«=Kr»^ :^:^roved classification — not only in reading and spel l>ut i» a^^ t::fc»^^^^ branches taught. Nearly all of the pupils fell I or C5^^3»^^^s^ with positive advantage. Those who could v aUead S ^ ^vvitli - i TMTM. <:3idental assistance were permitted and encouragei do s<>- H.—TIIB GRAI>BI> SCHOOL SOLUTION. V Txother ^^z>lution proposed is the adoption of a graded cours< ^ v/Hl^ -fc^i-m sections — ^the annual school session being divi B^'* ^^gL^, -t^^?v' tiorms — ^the plan of grading adopted in most cities. itxto? ^ords, -tlxe solution proposed is the grading of country sch C^ti^^ ^t^e toa.dxor on the plan of the graded schools in cities. ^^^^^ \^ se^-xi. -tl^at this organization divides an elementary cours ^ into sL-t: least sixteen sections, each including sections of 0X^^r,0,\ bra^xxolixes, and it separates the pupils into sixteen or n 0e^^^0po^^'^^ec grades, if there be a term interval between i^o^^^^B* T^tL^ fact that the pupils in each grade study sev ^tr^ ^l>es ^^cessitates as many class exercises as there are bran< Xy^^^xxAy- ^t: is thus seen that an average of three class exerc iyt 0,c1^ g^a.d.e gives at least forty-eigrlit daily exercises. \t^ ^t ^® ^^*^^ tliat in practice there may be no pupils in severji ^e ^^^^^ g^'a.des, but the reduction in the number of classes i XP^^ 0.0^^^^^ will be fully offset by the fact that the pupils in sev o^^^t^e ^PPep grades study more than three branches, and thus a^ .^e ^^^^ than three class exercises to each grade. It seems '^^^^ ^i^' B— Th© term * 'grades" la "s«d in tills paper to denote those formal dlvisA^*^^ of | »/.t> correspona to the more permanent divisions In the course of study, which are sei^f, vr^ Vir*^^^^'^^^^ *>r Promotion lines. Tbe pupils in a given grade may be tanght in o»« o^ xi^ l^e*^^ , ® ^^-anches, or tbey may be taught in one class in some branches, aM ^ c\^\ cl»s»®* ^^ ^^^^T branches: and these classes may be changed froiu time to tltj^, e^.rsP'^^ reference to grade divisions or Intervals. It is thus seen that the terms "gradatlo^ ^ V^^^*" " ^""^ ^""^ ^«^^^ *« synonymous. 672 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [ necessary to add that such a classification of the oije-teacher is wholly impracticable. I know of no successful attempt tc the country school with a term interval between the grades. The more common mode of j?rading the country school nominal adoption of the year or session interval between the When this plan of grading is strictly adhered to, and there art in all the grades, there are as many separate class exercise* a are year sections in the course of study multiplied by th^? i number of branches therein. This gives from thirty « to fori exercises — too many for satisfactory class instruction and dril in a school of thirty to forty pupils there are necessarily v( pupils in the upper grades, and none in some grades.* These are occasioned by the attendance of pupils only a part of the session, by the failure of pupils to do the work assigned th< other causes. It thus often happens that country schools n at any one time actually contain more than "five •or six gr pupils, even when they are following a graded course of stu eight or nine year sections; but the redaction in the nui class exercises thus occasioned does not make a strict adhei this city plan of grading feasible. Hence, in ^practice, varioii fications are made; and some of these are easily made if tli^ be not dominated by, and sacrificed to, the fetich called the * system." Several of these feasible modifications may be w< consideration. 1. Since the several classes are all taught by the same it is feasible to permit pupils to recite in different grades, str ing being sacrificed to the best possible classification in eacli Thus, a pupil may recite in the fifth grade in arithmetic, th in geography, and so on. This modification of the grade^d system is practicable o limited extent in cities, since the- several grades of pupils oe a rule, separate rooms and are taught by different teach they are thus required to keep a common step in all the 1 of the course. 2. Since the upper classes in a country school often coi more than two or three pupils, it is feasible for a bright work ahead of his-class while he continues to recite in it. pupil may be studying decimal fractions or denominate while reciting with advantage in common fractions; for wl daily reviews in common fractions may give him little ne edge, they will increase his skill in fractional processes — an numerical process is the chief end of elementary training metic. Indeed, skill of some sort is the chief end of more of the exercises in the elementary school, and this requires action. Experience shows that it is entirely feasible foi Oo„. *»cn THtl COUNTRY SCHOOL PROBLEM. to An o^ *^ ^ :«*k ahead of their classes in such studies as arith history, etc., and that this is often successfully which elementalnPKpuplls pass a—jthey advanc 3ad the wise teacher can r^jadily so | to the common needs of ^the puj"~" zi^^ afford to all valuable practice. — - y country schools. _ | t>llity of these and other modiflc i <:>! in many instances from the-*"^ I CE characterized the graded s^ I of the difference between tlr ]ipt class inst In each phas -is is successf J have saved istean evils 1 r cities. A cl Masses of sch< mistake in assuming that t^'^^'^J^ts of the gra c^i^i^^s necessarily inhere in the r X0tY^ 1.X1L one-teacher schools in the "" ^ ^et^ls^^*-^\\^^^^^\ "the TiOTi-^4^^^^"^^ V ^^V^M^ going c^^l ^V^^^^cts^n^w ^hat liToiD SdMl *^^'^ctr^^^ ^etfween the"' \t^Vj^atiWe with a flexi ^^^etx^^ ^^^^ *^ serious sacri ve seen many ^of the class wer- third, and yet tl e yeaTpimd then the only m he lower third pupils, thus ne entire year's work. Thouj^h The pregnant fact is, that the ^^ elementary schools in cities i^ fication of pupils. It ig everywi of time and opportunity. ^ tjj the one-teacher school, the evils of the graded system ma^ e^vhat lessened, but, after all feasible modifications have ifc «o ae, the system, with even a nominal year intei-vai between / 674 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. grades, is not the best possible organization it f^ouiitr The modifications permitted relate^ chiefly to'w^(^^^H*^^\\s vanceraent of the pupils, but the course of stfSy mV.r;^ The essential thing in the graded system is ' the gr^ii-iri study. To abandon the prescribed sequence ^nd c6 ordi^ntJ topics and exercises in the course of 8tij^,,is to gi^ r as such. But experience shows, tba^ ' ' is not pracf scribe an "invariable order" of topiof* school. The limitations and coDd'': variations from the pre8rrib<'(1 ^•<\ / > as well as the g^ding of pupN?*. \\\\^m 1 must often be 1 LJ. nSiicii a 89 , ht n€e thy !i*.*xiMe. / crificed th ihe^ eed8'n|)il8 have ei is, s, luid the C The three-gi ferred, the thretl ^ -^ transitions whic?^^^^^^'^^ ^. The first of t>rmitpu]'. the lower prima H to theL.^^jsix years of age. Thf recite in t* .,tie pupils have two more in which primary? so on. ^^^® ^^^'^ ^°^ more stuc in reading, writiiP^n ^^ *^® ^ra«p prepare and 'dirc»ct largely by imitaCTi^^®^ since the-^^ted by the teacher pupils. rooms and are wi-oted to the B g:ra< This is followedWi'^d to keep a coi*„pijg ^ju pp^^i^.; tional or middle p. • vie, two class*- pupils pass increasii>^r cla^n^s '^^ ^ couus^,^^ classes ii eralizations; from prdtfoises t<^s, it is feqs, ^f pupjij^ / related unknown by either imag^^ contmues.j^ ^ade i# several school arts is increased b> fractions c^ than iX ingly under ideals. The only text- common fi^ time d. metic (first book), and later, geogr;?^^ may g^Vntaif^;^ \ri in matter and method, should be intv^ J^^^tJPf adapted to conditions and needs of young pupils. This is pre-emiii and skill period of elementary training. The next three or four years constitute what mnx advanced or grammar period. The pupils have now Council.] THE COUNTRY SCHOOL PROBLEM. ^11 in interpreting vrj|en or printed language, and 8u.^r may not see power to ^i%'^\ wltn proper instruction, a complete difficulty has school g^^ipby, and later (seventh and eighth sch glish grammar, UnHed States history, physiology, an ' • natural science. _ _ 'It Is seen *hat the gi-jdlng of the elementary psyeluciil ba>* '■* jibout Xh^ satne as that secureADVANCED (A) ee d u»uuts whea .thfe number of pupil, tee, ' Ts — on '^•'»! I hfi|lo\ver or primary oondc, r lAiddle* cir^ 4«, and a third * pils. ' 8 a tier. TViC^istii^tic " *'n; I1"J york of th— 1 10:45 10:55 11:15 r"36 tr:_ IWOO -4e— 4ate fern lO Ulster'^ ♦tween^ .11 ih^lOl natmvi and Anv^e/^'Wug for a c TW'^histiTVstic ^ ;'n; ^ ' york of th- J sufficl*nVjv ».»»/k»*o:.N:A,^, ,it a det ie inete Spelling krawiBg,^ Siogiig,' or lonl j Dntiog,^ SiogiDg ^or loni IntnictioD^ iDslnittioD^ licsoed fros School SpelliDg Arithmetic D. S. History or PhysiolocT. DrtiriDg.^ ^iogiDg,^ or lonl lostmclioD^ Spelling Spelling J . may be provided for by the teacher. S^Udr, aii#TES.— The small figures at right indicate the number of lessons a week. J, Ited States history may be taught the first half of the session, and physiology the sec- Ihe f »lf ; or each branch may have two lessons a week. I. Friday the last twenty-flve minutes raaj' be devote. I to instruction in hygiene, temper- W OompI physics, natural history, etc. nils WJllopyright, 1893, by American Book Company. 674 N^ yr^TION^I^ EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. \ grades, is not the ^ The modificalionsaier time, it will allow that flexibility of clan vaneeraent of thee li»es which is essential in a one-teacher sch The essential thiieaxxt that pupils shall be stopped at the line 1 study. To abando es vii^til they have reached the standard in al 1 topics and exercise-adt-^ ^® ^^ generally required when a school as such. But exptvrtm^^^**' ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^ separate teacher a j scribe an "invariabUpoi^a. In a one-teacher school pupils may i school. The limitati p^iss a grade line in any branch when tl^ variations from the p »^ork of the next higher grade. In p^ac i as well as the gkiding ^^t pnpils can with advantage cross th( must often be Icrifict tt^^ ®^^^ ^™^» ^ut this result should n( t tions of the teal» teacher school J-ear^ati justable classif. This leads tc before us, and THREE-GRADE PROGRAM. jrades e t^ch of ' Jollier ^Tad<^ program of cla»^ exeve '^^ ^^4tlemrable. veJy A^^.^ted such a program hus . iHit A Wh^ in a one-teacher sc grfiims]deratMh f^^^^, gtT) with n b] de; av iw* <^-ilI^^4,ot tmly the class by, ^1 M.. 4- r^^HMblAex^^^^^^^^s beii al of til .J^Sm^k by common ids of tw entj-^ - —^u in the t\^^^«dos i er'stimr, ^^quitat' A gra^^ de pupils lAVe two ils have one the niore The three-gri f erred, the threu transitions whicJ . . i mu n J. £ J, %ermii jmii ■ The first of tl , ^ \ ^ • 4.1 1 . ted to \\w ; the lower prima \ ., . \: fi mi_fJ recite in years of age. Thfx • I,- v. . Id so on. m which primary r. ^ ,, ,. ^ ...kion of the m reading, writijl ... . ^, , 1 1 u • .. Jcities, since the largelv by imitatl , ., • Irooms and are «^ x i . —_ _ pupils. V • 1x1 ^oted to the P ites^c-i^ *"ired to keep a co' ., ^^ ^ gra^^^^^u^ ^ipils will proti^lthe \ tional or middle iV , ^ . vJe. two /i ^ iVv^„ -^"' - -- - coun^^ ' , clas»c-.4 ted by the teachir o oe pupils pass increasii^r^^m eraliza tions; from prcRIGBses related unknown by either imag several school arts is incr ingly under ideals. The only text-^ common fn .^ m a >, it i8 fe^r ;J«««es , , ..^„^V continue\.j' P"Pil« eased bV*^«^« Vtha" ' nlytext><>™monfnt;|;^° ', metic (first book), and later, geogrj?^ ™ay S'^tfi, Or. - in matter and method, should be int?^""^*^f|."f adapj-^j '^^ conditions and needs of young pupils. ' "This is pre-etn. in^^^*^ ^ and skill period of elementary training. **tl_v The next three or four years constitute what ma v advanced or grammar period. The pupils hare no^-' ^ <^o } Oo «»«»Cii.j THE COUNTBY SCHOOL PROBLEH. ^^me period. The inexperienced teacher may no "be successfully done, but the apparent diffl<^^^lt,\ ^o/ved m^«^^ hundreds of schools. THREEGRADE PROGRAM.* Primary (C) Seat Work f Number Oo alawor with objfleta dbuber Form Work ^rSilent BeoAliug Geogtaphj Grammar fieadin^ and Sptlling Form Work . Map dravlnr. mnd moldlas, 'to Grammar J:r?:2:3s:eosed frtn School Beading ; Gnminar Seoondaky (B) Advakc-ED ( OPENING EXERCISES RECESS NOON INTERMISSION JPorm ^Work BBAdeliaff. paper cntti,nc> cio. Bddiog Seat Work f I Animal or Plant I Study f rfting^ ^ Ungoagc^ Eeading ReadiDg U. S. History Physiology^ Writiog^ or Langnai^f RECESS Spelling Drawing, 2 SingiDg ^or Ion) los^rncfion SpellJDg U. S. History or Physiology. Arithmetic Dr»wiDg,2SiDgiiif5,^orl Instrnction^ Sp^liDg__ Spelling ^*^^ ''\L>^^-^«'*»^MXyafrySriSSIcate the number or les,o„« a weeU ,_^ « 1893, by American Book Company. ^*^^^ 678 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National The most hopeful improvement of the country school lies in the adoption of a simpler grading than that of the city school, a more flexible classification, with opportunity for individual study and progress, and a workable daily program. It needs system, but not rigidity — an elastic system, adapted to its conditions and linaitations. The danger is that the rural school may be sacrificed to rigid grad- ing, as has been true in so many cities. What the country school needs is not a procrustean system of grading and promotions, but such an organization as will permit its single-handed teacher and diverse pupils to make the best possible use of time and strength. It is idle to talk of abandoning all attempts to improve the classi- fication of country schools. Attempts at classification in reading and spelling are as old as the school itself, and classification in other branches has attended, if it has not made possible, most improve- ments that have been made. The disappointments have usually been due to unwise attempts to introduce into rural schools the rigid graded system as developed in the cities. Such attempts ignore conditions and limitations. It seems wise to add here that the one-teacher school will not permit a perfect organization. It has necessary limitations and, after the best possible has been done, it will still have its imper- fections. It is, however, my belief that the teacher of a country school, if competent, has some advantage over the teacher of the "highly organized" city school. It is certainly possible to make the one-teacher school a most valuable agency for the elementary edu- cation of children. HZNDERGAETEN DEPARTMENT. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. ^JRST ^ _»=-^^SION.— AsBURY Pabk, N. J., Wkdnesday, July 11. 1894. Tile dep&]r±::m:=M=M. ^^-nt met in Educational Hall, Wednesday, July 11, at 3 p. M. In the al>i&^^:»=^'^® of^ the Secretary, Miss Anna Stovall of San Francisco, ( JkCiss ^Mio^ry L. :Kl-^*=^-^er of Philadelphia was appointed Secretary pro tern. The ineeti:K:^.aec- :j^as called to order by the Vice President and Acting Preeid Miss Coiistatt«=--^3» 3fackeuzie of Philadelphia, who expressed deep regret that IPreaiaent, Mis^ ^usan E. Blow of Avon, N. Y., found it impossible to be pres« ^iBS Blow ha.«fl ^e5nt a letter of greeting: to the assembly, which was read by M In 1»«^ caK>«»^ verity as Acting President, Miss Mackenzie delivered the openi ^^ ^liss Carom izKZfc^ M. C. Hart, Director of the training class of the Baltimo S,&T&^^^^ -^^^^^^^<^^^^on,' 'was prevented from attending the meeting by the ra J^^^ ^i^ri^es. ZSE^^^i- paper on "The Psychology' of FroebeP' was not read, but w ro»^^ ^lie 8ul>5<^<^"«: of a running: commentary and discussion by Dr. W. T. Harr ta^^^jgdio^®*" ^=^^^ ^Education, TVashington, D. C. Co^^^0. ^^- "^^ :iSr^wcomb, Inspector of Kindergartens, Hamilton, Ont., then f< ^% ^y^\^ X>«.l>^r upon "The Related Development of Morality and Intelligen liy^^^^ -j^iiider«^a,rt:^ii Idea." it^ ^^r^y^ *?^^^?3- ^^^^ discussed by Mr. Henry W. Blake of Springfield, Mas ^ ^f. ^^ -^'^»»AY, July 13, 1894. >i^^*i^^"^I*^^^^ Mackenzie occupied the chair. rf^^ V^^i^eiat read the following report of the Nominating Committee. «t*1>^ ^i^^Ji!^*^^ **» Nominations respectfully submit the fnii^^,- ^«iin,>*. V^S^Mf ''^ ^^ the National Educational Association for m«to''. ^i"*- 630 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kii Mr. Sheldon then moved that the report of the Nominating Comi adopted as read, and the Secretary be instructed to cast the ballot for tl ment. This motion was carried; the ballot was so cast, and the nomii dt?clared duly elected. The first subject presented was **Es8ential Principles of the Kind* by Miss Angeline Brooks, Director of the Kindergarten Training O Teachers, New York City. This theme was discussed by Mr. A. W. Rankin, Superintendent o West Superior,. Wis. The President regretfully reported the absence, due to the difficulty during the railroad strikes, of Miss Mary 0. McCulloch, Superintendent Kindergartens, St. Louis, Mo., and Miss Anna Laws of Cincinnati, Ohio, Miss Lucy Wheelock, Principal of the Ohauncey Hall Kindergarten School, Boston, Mass., was then introduced in her double capacity as a i the day and President-elect for the ensuing year. After a few graceful words of acceptance Miss Wheelock delivered i on *'The Ideal Relation Between the Kindergarten and the Primary Scl Mr. Wm. Sheldon of Boston opened the discussion on this subject followed by Mr. B. 0. Gregory, Superintendent of Schools, Trenton, N. J F, Hinckley of Northampton, Mass. Mr. Sheldon introduced Superintefadcnt Gilbert of St. Paul," who discussion. The meeting was then adjourned. Mary L. Lodi Secretary I>epartment.] LETTER OF GBEETINO. 681 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS. XjBTTBB of greeting to KINDERGAETNEm ASSEMBLED - AT A8BURY PARK. BY MISS SUSAN E. BLOW, PKBSIDiBN'r OF DlESPARTMBNT. [Read by Miss Constance Mackenzie, Acting President.] It iB a great disappointment to me that I am unable to meet you at Asbnry Park, and give you by word of mouth my cordial and affec- tionate greetings and my congratulations upon the happy auspices under wliich you assemble this summer. Th-e rapid expansion of the kindergarten within the past few years and the generous recognition it has received from the leading representatives of our public school system, open a future of rich possibilities. To avail ourselves of the opportunities offered us we need clear insight, tireless energy and unfailing devotion. If we throw a^way this opportunity, we shall deserve the reproach justly meted l>y the poet to the cowards who make great refusals. It h£ts been weU said that the decisive battles of the world are fought in the intellect To know exactly what we wish to do is the first condition of finding out how to do it. Nothing is more evident to anyone who reads Froebelian literature than that its ideals are vague a^nd ill-defined. No one can observe the work done in kinder- gartens ^without realizing that it is too often both formal and vacilla- ting. It: seems to me, therefore, of the highest importance that the repre8ent:atives of the system assembled at Asbury Park should care- fully consider, thoroughly discuss and clearly define the kindergarten ideal. Is tlie object of the kindergarten to administer sugar-coated pills of usefxxl information? to give the rudiments of manual training? to teacb. the Pestalozzian elements of number, form and language? to leave the child, as some of Froebel's so-called disciples claim, to the "uninfiuenced development" of his own individuality? Or did Froebel ^rite the "Mother-Play" and found the kindergarten in order to point out the ways and means of fostering the child's activity, nurturing his sympathies and inflaming his imagination with rational ideals? Upon the answers given to these questions will depend the valid- ity and efficiency of the work done in our kindergartens, and, there- fore, the permanency of the kindergarten as an educational appliance and an integral part of our public school system. 44 682 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOC J ATI PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. BY MISS CONSTANCE MACKENZIE, PHHiADELPHIA, PA., It Is a matter of deep regret that to-day's kii must begin and end without the presence upon tX honored president, Miss Susan E. Blow. It were e end of an eventful year, that the woman who star American representative of the kindergarten syste subtle and philosophical exponent should to-day g\ fruits of that year begun last summer in Chicago. It is to her we turn for the earliest evidence : the kindergarten as a public educator, and, a qu£ after the planting of the seed in St. Louis, it is to 1 for our most profound and original treatise on th< which the St. Louis work was builded; the philo» Froebel's "Mutter und Kose Lieder." The rare book, with its remarkable insight and its grasp of j with the simplicity of its practical application oi "Symbolic Education" a handbook henceforth ne kindergarten training school. Nor can any gradual afford hereafter to regard it other than as one of i trio of book-mentors. Now, of all times, we are desperately in need of si literature upon early education. We went to the World's Fair with a hunger for through experience we might know. We were scl objective and subjective. We attended the remarl Through them many of us began a process of develoj and many-sided, by way of open-minded attention t of thought We found ourselves illuminated by the i] thoughts hitherto considered familiar. We became mental and moral vigor bom of personal contact. and inalienable relationship of each to all pressed u compulsion of a new truth. Impressions crowded, i plied, possibilities accumulated. The sturdy pui^pose to be more, stirred impetuously in the thousands upon saw more in the great fair than an assembly of thinf strange. This was a year ago. We saw things then at cl< now, at this distance, the mass of impressions begins like assorts with like; classes form; these break u classes, until finally the material reduces itself to on I>ei>artmeiit.] PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 683 decide how we may best use it as a working factor in the progress of formulated education. In the Department of the Kindergarten it seems not unfitting, in our first national meeting since last year's prolific summer, to ask: What has the World's Fair done for us? It has created an interest in the kindergarten movement that has resulted in making at least the name familiar where before it was scarcely known. This is no small thing, when regarded as an indication. I well remember, in the early days of the free kinder- gartens in Philadelphia, with what explanatory care invitations to the children to attend kindergartens were presented to the parents. It was rare for a mother to know what a kindergarten was, even in name. I don't mean to say that the World's Fair has done it alL Before 1893 there was, of course, a far more extensive knowledge of the movement than in those earlier years; but we owe it to Chicago that tlie name has at last penetrated backwoods and villages, carry- ing with it an interest sufficient to excite question as to its meaning. This partially satisfied curiosity of the meaning of the nanie is abundant capital to the kindergarten movement. Early child-train- ing being theoretically recognized as a desirable thing, it is entirely in keeping with the human constitution that it should at once be practically demanded. The i-esult is that here, there and everywhere, boards and individuals, public and private, are bending their ener- gies to the establishment of kindergartens to a degree unprecedented. In these two conditions of wider-spread information and of ever- increasing kindergartens we grasp the elements of success — a success contingent, however, upon the use to which we put it. The material philosopher may say that "nothing succeeds like success." But there is in that specious proverb a deeper untruth than the superficial truth it offers. What is to count with us as success? Surely not mere numbers of kindergartens! not unintelligent popular favor! And, taking it for granted that the success we labor for lies upon a plane higher than material prosperity, by what shall we estimate its ac- complishment? It is to the children we must look for the gauge of our success or failure. It is the extent of their weU-being that meas- ures the extent of our well-doing. A child's well-being demands, first, that through wisely provided and wisely eliminated conditions his hopeful tendencies, which are threefold, shall be encouraged, and those that are unhopeful shall find no scope for exercise. It demands, furthermore, through chan- nels individual and social, that his affection for what is good in things and persons shall be actively educated. Moreover, it requires that he shall learn through his educated affection and intelligence his place and resi)onsibility as server and ser\'^d. It insists, also, that 684 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL jLSSOCIJL he shall be pennitted to live himself out in tlie f r€ ing, under law, as his nature urges; thinking, u thoughts; being, under law, the ethical,, moral a that the divinity within and without intended bin When thousands of children from hundreds of ] with them in their beginnings sturdy bodies; a among their little knowledges; unprejudiced, \oa aspirations for the good as it comes within the comj then, indeed, shall we have a right to feel that o from failure. How is it with us now? Is it reasonable for i results from an impulsive popular demand for the attended by an intelligent comprehension of what cative? It may be worth our while to consider that ques further. Many of the people upon whom is urged the kindergarten — school managers, who themselves its superficial aspect — introduce kindergarten gifts as a system of busy work, for a class of children, pi a teacher untrained in kindergarten philosophy, and hear that "the public school board of such-and-such a duced the kindergarten into its primary grades!" ' will observe, is not unfamiliar. In that community conception of the kindergarten is so far falsified th a manipulation of material, valueless in itself — for s( All that makes for true development, all purpose and \ philosophical and psychological is eliminated. As long as such false standards are tolerated, a ^ital misconception remains rooted, as long as the 1 solely a place associated with the mental image of se weaving mats, building-blocks and square-ruled tables, a true estimate of the kindergarten, as a system foui versal principles, impossible. And to the extent that v estimate to remain impossible will the "success'^ of ihi opportunities prove utter failure. The rapid extension of this work makes it impor source shall be pure; therefore, let us look to the tra If there be one condition that may be confidently ecu the concomitant of an increase in the number of kin is that of a prompt supply to meet the demand. If th only for what is genuine, if no kindergartner be accept not fulfill the highest requirements as a trainer of childr( of course, be no temptation to uncultivated women to atte a field in which they will find no opening. But if the ■I>opartment.] PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 685 many places be such as I have outlined, can we doubt that so-called '^trainers" will promptly establish themselves in so lucrative a busi- iiess, and turn out, at so much a head, as many "graduates" as offer themselves with enough money to pay for their course? "Will you please tell me how to open a kindergarten training school and what books to use?" is the tenor of half-a-dozen letters a year, as all of us can attest, I doubt not, whose work leads us into the public places of kindergarten effort. Witli such dangerous possibilities staring us in the face as a conse- quence of mismanaged opportunity, we may well begin gravely to con- sider tlie work of kindergarten extension. The kindergartners of to- epartment.] THE KINDERGARTEN IDEA. 687 lect, organized knowledge is a potent factor in the fonnation of character. Character, good or bad, is the outcome of action which is cus- tomary or habitual; and, it is often said, moral character is "a bundle of habits" — of human duties, as obedience, industry, justice, courtesy, etc. It is also significant that the words "ethical" and "moral" both have a common origin in words signifying customs or habits, and while recognizing their importance as referring to an established disposition in the right directions, we must, at the same time, ac- knowledge that habitual and mechanical pursuance of duties, with- out subordination to a supreme end or ideal that includes the de- termination of choice, shows no perfection of character. Choice is the selection of a certain end of action and the identi- fication of self with it, and is, what Herbart calls, "apperception practically directed." We are told "apperceiving in will is bringing to bear the organized centers of ability and desire upon the presented impulses, and is connected with the acquired results of past expe- rience ;'' hence, it follows that the relation of character to choice is not only reciprocal, but choice becomes the expression of character. One can do much for another, but the act of choice belongs to oneself, and the kindergarten constantly affords opportunities for making a choice in conformity to a general law, that pervades every influenoe about the child, and is present in everything with which he comes in contact. He soon comes to see all things in reference to law, ana regulates his desires accordingly, which develops self-control that m.^ans freedom in its highest sense. The psychical constitution of the child being the seat of his de- sires, all that is soul-inspiring helps his sense of moral obligation ; and the appeal to act in and through an abiding interest settles character, which In turn finally decides the emotional bent of the mdividu^ along pleasurable lines that produce satisfaction in right domg, which acts as a reserve force against temptations to wrong doing. In the kindergarten, the child never receives abstract or didactic moral teaching. He is rather shown by example within the scope of his own experiences what is right; and this experience is connected with his social relations, as weU as with his love of nature m its animate as well as inanimate phases. Sympathy and love, social and natural, are much more effective in securing right conduct than fear, regard for authority, or reverence for law. The solution of the problem rests in the cultivation of these right feelings, which may be relied upon to impel right action. i. 4. +1,0 We find in the kindergari:en idea not only the purpose, but the execution which is as necessary to complete volition aB the ^ o^^ation of the purpose, and Froebel's whole system, when nghtly understood, 688 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Kindergart«tt is a process of realizing this purpose. His purpose is to develop what is instinctive activity; not a formation or creation of new and arti- ficial ones^ He supplies ends which call out the fullest manifesta- tions of these instincts, as well as the regular and constant means and appliances in his methods of working towards these ends. In the ex- ternal arrangement of FroebeFs appliances he surrounds the child with a mulitiplicity of special materials and influences that reinforce his natural instincts and insure an expression of them. These sur- roundings become aids for development, not only in organization, but in administration, and consequently are good servants but very bad masters. The mechanical appliances, such as gifts and occupations, are tributary to the child's expression of an inward thought or feeling, and all mechanism is only instrumental as a means to an end which is best described as "renunciation,'' or "the a)^andonment of the ex- ternal as a condition for attaining the highest development." In the songs, games and stories of the kindergarten we have the phases that make a direct appeal to the emotional nature of the child. All knowledge is dependent on feeling. The mind may know what does not arouse emotion, but it is superficial knowledge unless trans- formed into interests and personal feeling. The growth of imagina- tion inspires the sesthetic feelings, and the love manifested by the children for songs and stories of the good, the true and the beauti- ful in nature and in art, suggested the songs, stories and games that Froebel bequeaths to the children as food for mental and spiritual power, more than for the acquisition of a certain number of facts. The administrative ability of the kindergarten in this phase of the work becomes a potent factor in the develoiraient of the moral and intelligent nature of the child, in so far as she herself realizes the importance of its psychological bearing. The games of the kindergarten are grounded on the social feeling of which sympathy is the highest form. Love rises out of this sym- pathy, and what began in purely a natural instinct of sympathy — merely on a physical side, in bodily movement in co-ordinative activity — reaches out to an ethical sympathy which is the source of all moral groups or communities. For instance, the family life, depicted in the favorite games of bird and animal life, as weU as the more sub- tile life of the plants and flowers, made up of distinct personalities, yet with a common good and common purpose underlying each group, symbolize a need that is felt in every member of those large commu- nities of institutional life, such as society, church and state, which are historically and philosophically the expansion and continuation of the family. Apartment] THE KINDEBQABTEN IDEA. In the stories of the kindergarten, the child's imagination is fllnmined and his desires strengthened by the presentation of images ^or the mind to dwell upon, which in turn excite the wish to make them real in his own life, and impel him to produce corresponding '^alities in his own activities. Socrates said : "Beauty in the inward sonl makes the outward and the inner man one;" again: "The deeds attained by great souls become the ideals towards which lesser souls strive," and may draw the sympathies in the direction of inspiration at least for higher and heroic living. By these means, the child learns to know what are the types of character which elevate the race, and lift the standard of ideals to a measure at least of earnest endeavor on the part of the human soul. This may be termed one of the indirect phases of kindergarten training, as imagination is grounded in feeling and grows, not by the conscious following of methods or by formal study, but by unconscious steps. This activity of the mind is higher than memory, because not only are images recalled but new combinations are made of these images; or the mind creates them altogether, and invests what is common and famUiar with a new light of truth and beauty, so that the world produces its master-minds of creative power in a Rapha^el, a Phidias or a Dante. The little embryo artist in the kindergarten repeats the process on his own plane, and Froebel's watchword is "Create! Create!" In tiie "talks" and "conversations" with the children, Proebel would clevelop that greatest of all powers of expression — language, without which there could not have been any advance in the intel- lectual life of man. Dr. Harris says: "To know words and their meaning's is an activity of divine significance.. It denotes the forma- tion of n.niversals in the mind — the ascent above the 'here' and 'now' of the senses, and above the representation of mere images, to the activity -which grasps together the general conception of objects, and thus reaches beyond what is transient and variable." We see the importance of the point in method that requires the telling of what has been done, or of putting into words the action of the mind and hand in all the exercises of the day, besides the oppor- tunity afforded in the "morning talks" of the kindergarten. If language is "the criterion of immortal individuality," how important a factor it becomes in education, and the right use of it cannot be commenced too early. In the conversations the mother holds with her child in the*"Mother Play-Book," Proebel epitomizes the philoso- phy of all talks with young children in the home and kindergarten, and f ormnlates the principles which should govern the use of "talks" with little folks. The kindergarten, dealing as it does, or should do, with that period of the child's life between infancy and childhood, which is, 690 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [KindeigarteQ by its very nature, a wide gulf extending from the mother's knee to school life, solves the problem for all time of the best means for developing the moral feeling which is to link itself to intelligent thought. Being an extension of home influence, it becomes a factor in the growth of the childish sense of duty that flnds an atmosphere consistently and uniformly impelling it to action. It is a great thing for the child to be in an environment of permanent and unalterable law that spurs him on to action, till he himself becomes that law by internalizing it. Th« kindergarten vitalizes and reflects this law in a living perso»- ality, capable of guiding the little ones and enlisting their sympathies in one whom they come to regard as the embodiment of truth, love and right action. O'er wayward children wouldst thou hold firm rule, And sun thee in the light of happy faces, Love, Hope and Patience, these must be thy graces, And in thine own heart let them first keep school. The training of the moral faculty includes the habitual exercise of the sympathies, together with the intellectual powers that stimulate the child's mind and soul to activity, through work, play and example, in the diffen^nt phases of the kindergarten system. This community of love with law should "pour on him soft influences, sunny hues, fair forms and breathing sweets in melodies of words and winds and waters, till he relent, and can no more be a jarring and a dissonant thing amid this general dance and minstrelsy." niSCUSSTOK Me. Henry Blake of Springfield, Mass. -Anything which helps in the de velopment of character tends to morality, religion, holiness. In general, we cannot hope to reach the soul and move it to right action without first quickening the intellect. Therefore, we who stand for the kindergarten and work in the kinder- garten cannot place it on too high a plane or claim too much for it. , We do not assert that it will prove a panacea for alJ the ills that flesh is heir to* but we do assert that it is a very potent force in the development of character. It accom- plishes this development, first, by taking the child out of himself, which is a very important matter for him, whether he \he on Nobility Hill or in Slumville. And when the kindergarten has borrowem. We need the kind<6rgarten in this country to-day more than ever before. Of course^ we cannot expect that an exposition on the seventh gift will quell the mobs that are now menacing Chicago and the whole land. But, so far as the future is con- cerned, if we can have the opportunity of making the kindergarten universal, we feel safe in g^uaranteeing that such riots as these will be unknown to the coming generations. WHAT CAN THE KINDERGARTEN BO FOR HISTORY AND LITERATURE IN THE HIGHER GRADES? BY MISS SAHA B. WILTSE, BOSTON, MASS. A little child thr^e years of age looked out upon one of our most beautiful snow storms last winter and said to me: "See what a beautiful world God is making for us to-day!" la order to lay the foundations for future intei*est in history and literature, the child must be trained to just that attitude of thought concerning the prt s ent time. No one, let us hope, looks to the teaching of dates and rhetoric in the kindergarten, but there may be, and there should be, cultivated that unvarying trend of feeling toward life in all that touches the child heart which shall make his thought spring as a fountain to its highest level in some such perception of the processes of God's activities in the world as that child felt when he exclaim^^il: ''See what a beautiful world God is making for us to-day!" Children too often approach the study of history with minds en- tirely paralyzed concerning its connection with the present time. Heroes lived; great events took place; 1492 and 1776 are dates to be set in memory like 9x2 and 7x6. Kindergartners are often called unpractical idealists. No attempt will be made to enumerate all the nanies we have been called, but sentimentalists and worshipers of a "gi^ft ^nd occupation" fetich make us wince most — not indeed from a sense of guilt, but from that sickness of heart caused by a naisunderstanding shared alike by a small number of our superiors and our inferiors. The topic of this paper will cause a little thrill of surprise in some minds, if not an open exclamation of doubt as to whether the Mndergartner's province extends so far beyond straws and papers, blocks and tablets. We hate above all things to seem to claim too much of ourselves, or to masquerade as Jack Horner; but since the question embodied i,i the subject of this paper was assigned to me I 692 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Kindeigaiten for answer, I must, for the hour, stand for the whole body of kinder- gartners as a teacher of history and literature. I will even venture to change the wording of the subject from 'What can the kinder- garten do?" to ''What is it doing in these directions?" The kindergarten has the same legal holidays as the public school, with one great day added, that of Froebel's birthday. First in the calendar of the school year comes Thanksgiving Day. Long before the day arrives the kindergarten becomes primitive New England. The story of the festival is not only told, but often drama- tized, and not content with past and present — allow me to speak with local pride — our representative idealist. Miss Pingres, has added to the literature of Thanksgiving a story which keeps alive the best expression of a thankful heart; so that I doubt if a Boston grammar school clyld, having had kindergarten training, will ever come to the study of the early American struggle with the elements with his heart quite dead to the deepest meaning of this our national holiday. Of the Christmas festival it is quite needless to speak. Coming to the February holiday all the kindergarten thought is centered about Washington. Here let us pause long enough to massacre (figuratively, of course) that blas^ abomination among edu- cators, who is moved to scornful smiles when we tell the ever new and delightful story of the hatchet and the cherry tree. Ignoring his scoffs, we will continue to introduce the father of his country to the children as the lovable little boy, with heart aflame with truth and virtue, at which their own heavenly fire is rekindled. We do not have the boy like a bit of statuary grasping the scroll, which bears the memorable words '1 cannot tell a lie," for the children to put away like a mummy with their clay modeled hatchets and stick laid cherry trees. Far from it The child grows before their eyes. They have entered into his life from its center, and brave deeds and heroic manhood must become its circumference. They make flags and fold paper boats and soldiers' hats. That painted ring which you see in every kindergarten is the Delaware river in February, and the little boats laden with heroes cross and recross it day after day. Unwarranted suggestion of bloodshed and battle do yon say? No! to the little child these are naught, for the deeper meaning has him in its grasp and his prophetic heart beats — feeling, though not consciously knowing, that out of humanity's great throng Qod is now and evermore calling upon his heroes to stand forth. For the sake of the relation between birthday festivities we will pass to the kindergarten celebration of Froebel's natal day. Here we have our great opportunity for unifying our elements. Does anyone in this room know the scorching sense of unpopularity and bitter loneliness of the child that feels itself a foreigner in speech and dress — ^in thought? Can you coax the little child who has mastered the X>eX>artmeiit. j THE KINDERGARTEN AND LITERATURE, ggo ^^^ocKl morning" of the majority to say "guten tag'' to you even in a ^whisper? I had a reticent little pupil struggling with EngUsh who Tvoiild not speak a word of German to me even from his father's kjttoe- The native tongue was seldom untied in my kindergarten Once, indeed, when a new arrival from Switzerland swallowed his needle instead of stringing straws with it, there arose a cry of "Stuck xxadel ! Stuck: nadel!" from every German infant in the room, except t:lro one upon whom I was performing a surgical operation which ciOTzld not be delayed for a lesson in language. But so great was mv ^€-ligtit witli this sudden speech that I contemplated encouraeinff sxLolx episodes. ^ ^ 33iit the birthday of our German hero gives us the great oppor trtxnity- :Now we may bring our foreign flags and twine them with the stistrs and stripes about our kindergarten father. Now we may coax o-uir timid child from foreign shores to sing some national air, and D.OTV we may weld the countries and times so that when the children ^iiell tbe story of the day to older brothers and sisters, they shall feel the l>X'otlierhood of mankind, and the movement in history by which God ia xnaking for us and with us a beautiful world. Is literature forgotten? It is a hundredfold simpler in its appeal "t^o children than history. In fact we must present history by the litierary method, making of it a poem or a story. The kindergarten like the Avorld, is not yet made; it is in process of growth. What _^li^a.ll the literature of the kindergarten be? My own convictions are stl? f ^'•ong for any weak feeling upon this subject. As to historical ,^^rieB We are agreed. But there is a realm of chUd nature which ^^^^^«e Jt so seldom needs cultivation, is too often deserted without i^jj^^^^t at training. There are children, however, with so little i^^^^tion that it takes great care and patience to stimulate them ^^^ -^^"^i^age mental activity. In the same kindergarten with these im^ r^^^cJles of quivering, floating— jres, even flying— ideality and b^^^^^trion, which, unless turned into some deep channel with high t^^J^^> 0:r» set some boundary of mountain peak or blue sky, will de- l>Os^ ^^^ ^ery deepest purposes of the Giver of our best intellectual j^^ssxcr^xi o^^ imaginative faculty. it ca ^ xifc^aterial for mental food is not lacking. Heaven be praised! *^^fi ^^^> t be exhausted, for if every book and page of myth, fairylore l>lj^^t^X^ were burned to-day, out of the hearts of the chUdren the ^^^X: ^^^5-ould rise to mourn. Ixii^^^ *^ ^m.-* this stage of the child's development that we must foster ^o ^^^^Xx^5"S with reverent care. Do not ignore the sense of mystery; t^ ^^t: s^^sume to understand the whole creation and attempt to "^vit ^ t:lx^ child think it is not worth puzzling over. Has he not ,|^^uui Yx^^xtLBelf that gift of transformation whepeby he may pass ^^^glx fc^jhoies, touch the stars or walk at will beneath the deep 694 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Kindeigarten seas? Dr. Hale tells a prett>' story of his two year-old child oflfering to move the piano — a very common instance of the superiority of mind and will over the tiny body in which it is housed; but would yon dare to thrust upon the child your conviction or fear that the soul would be forever hampered by the machinery of the body? The main obstacle in the way of the teacher of literature in the higher grades is in the crippled imagination of the pupils and in the dry heart of the teachers. We are falling into short-hand methods, and if dry rot has not touched literature itself it has attacked some teachers and is being communicated to the children. Let us go back to the life-giving myths, though some of us will need to bathe seventy times in that Jordan before we will be fit to touch the hand of a little child. We are, however, divided in opinion about the selection of myths, and we disagree upon the method of presenting them. As we must resort to the literary method of teaching history, so must we use the historical method in teaching literature. We should not only say "Once upon a time," but *'Once upon a time people believed," or **Some people still believe." We should also take care not to use in kinder- garten what properly belongs in the primary and grammar schools. There is enough mythology connected with the sun, moon, stars, and kindred subjects, which is not run into the Istter and grosser mold of the murderous wolf, or devouring sea monster, or any other tragic form, for an entire course in nature myths which should cover the kindergarten period. I have been making some searching inquiries into the minds of grammar school children of late, and when I find one who has no more poetic notion of the starry heavens than that afforded by a piece of blue calico with white polka dots, I feel that, in one instance, at least, kindergartner, primary and grammar school teachers have alike missed an opportunity for the highest good that can be con- ferred upon the child. Let us rebel against routine, if routine is to blame; against our own apathy, if that is responsible; but let us not impute it to the child. We build our blocks over her head in kinder- garten, befuddle her brain with our books in school, rob her of her birthright • Our other girFs mind must be outlined in one of its phases. She is fourteen years old, and when asked what she believed about thun- der, asked with charming frankness if she should tell what she really thought or what her teacher told her? She still believes, as in ear- liest childhood, that it is the moving of sky furniture. We may continue our pouring of verified facts upon these imma- ture minds with frequent results of that kind. Would it not be better to give them time to assimilate instruction, letting them roam the world of myths and fables until m^-th and fable shall have done X>ei»artaiexit.j THE KINDERGARTEN AND LITERATURE. ^^g -th^ir appointed work? Many will object to the historical method bui: Tve must face our dangers. Science, with its inexorable laws, its fascinating presentation o:f eternal truths, has almost throttled our legends and for a time toenunabed onr poetic instincts. There are great literary works rightly ealled roots. To these we must go with the child. Miss Harrison bsts sliown ns how we may give the very pith of Dante's great poem ±o -tlie children; Miss Burt brings Plato and other great philosophers "bacls: from tlxe icy heights to which they have been banished by un- i^^-Edpathetic and would-be miserly souls. It is a sbame to reserve Isomer and the "Odyssey" entirely for later reading. Tell the children some of these classic stories, and see how eagerly they take them D.ot;^withstanding the disordered mental stomach which is already rejecting the namby-pamby stuff served up under the head of juvenile l.xt.eratiire. Stories from "Hiawatha" are absorbed and assimilated in some "kAiidlergartens, and it is from these that the higher grades will be axipplied with pupils whose demands will exceed the supply of any -te^acber who depends merely upon notes and abstracts. There are many teachers and parents who refuse to tell a story ^la.a.t is not as they suppose absolutely true. They say— and with Kr-eat force — "1 was told that Santa Glaus filled my stockings at ^^liristmas, that fairies tended the flowers and Jack Frost drew the X>ictures on the window panes. When these were revealed to me as ^^ truths, my whole soul was thrown into a tumult of doubts and fears ^^>out other things which I had been told were true. What about •^^ S^eat primal laws of right and wrong? Were they, also, fables? Tz^ Mother told me about Santa Glaus with a manner as truthful as ^^t H^it:ii which she taught me that lying was an offense to God." ^ ^e ^r^ not unacquainted with these doubts which beset boys 1^ /'^iirl^^ and even men and women, at critical periods in their de- ^» ;^P^ii^;ji't. 1)0 we want them to approach history and literature in to ^-^ ^i^S'^it of doubt? How may we prevent it? I believe by the his- it ^^^* :»:nethod. The child will enjoy his story none the less because -ha ^^ ®"^^^K=fciething once believed. We need not trouble ourselves to tK ^'^^^^-^ this into his head any more than we do about hammering j^ ^ ^^^^■^'^^.1 into his heart. Such noise of the workman's tools are an te^^^ "td^ the child, no less than to the Being to whom we dedicate our J ^Pl^-j^_ We must respect the proportions if we would not rouse ^^Sxx^-,-^^ Qr stubborn opposition on the part of the child. ^ 'J^o :»-^view briefly: In history, we would foster hero worship, ^^'^t\ot:i^x» and international fraternity. In literature, we would go ^ ^^aL^^i<»^] sources, giving the child stories which were developed ^^^ elx^rislied by the race in its childhood; not, however, making the ^^1 xrxiistake of treating him as if he had no advantage over the 696 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [KiDdergartei ancient Greek, but recognizing his position in the nineteenth century as in advance of the greatest among these. From the ancient poets, philosophers and myth-makers we may select enough which is of imperishable value to furnish the kinder- garten pupil with a substratum of living interest in literature, which will abide with him even when he has passed beyond the gates of the university, giving him an unvitiated taste in manhood, so that he will return again and again to the purest fountains, having come to understand, what in childhood he but dimly felt, that in all expression of ourselves, whether in history or in literature, we are working to- gether with God in making this a beautiful world. DLSCIjSSJOX. William E. Sheldon of Boston, editor of the "American Teacher," spoke briefly, by invitation.— I congratulate the department that such 9, meeting, with such able papers setting forth so sound a philosophy, is possible in the present 6poch of education,— a combination which would have been impossible a few years ago. A philosophy like this sets every fiber of my being on fire. In view of the present opportunities for doing good along the line of childhood's literature, who shall dare to present a depraved thought to the mind of a child? And yet it needs great wisdom, exceeding grace, and intimate knowledge of the child's soul to know how to administer these things. We must first have the sound philosophy, and, second, we must so live as to personally apply that philosophy. Each kindergartuer must say to herself: "I live to train the children of America along the line of spiritual development." USSEXTIAL PRINCIPLES OF THE KIXDERG A RTEN SYSTEM. BY MISS ANGEL.INE BROOKS. Nearly seventy years ago there was published in Germany a book entitled "The Education of Man," of which, until about ten yeara ago, there was no English translation. This book, written by Fried- rich Froebel, contained statements of general educational principles which, about fifteen years after the publication of the work, took definite form in the kindergarten system. The first chapter, entitled "Groundwork of the Whole," opens with expressions "grand and solemn as a confession of faith." These are the words: 'T^n all things there lives and reigns an eternal law. « « « jpj^ig all-controlling law is necessarily based on an all-per- I>ei>nrtinez>«»-^ ESSENTIAL KINDEROABTEN PRINCIPLES. (597 vao<^ abounds in practical suggestions regarding the appli- e^ttion of -t J^is law here traced to its source. In one place Froebel «a.ys ' ":^a^«-|^er forget this: it is not by teaching and imparting a mere vm-i^^y ^™^ ninltitude of facts that a school becomes a school, in the trixc^ sense ^ but only by emphasizing the living unity that is in all irtxirx&s. TT^ says: "The aim of instruction is to give the pupil an i»sl^^^^ ^^*^. ^^^ """'^'^ ^^ ^" t^i'^fi^s; l^ow they live, move and have tlxc-i^ ^^em-- m God, for the puri)ose of applying this insight to prac- txoal li^e ancl work." Again, he defines the schoolmaster as one who i« \rx sx position to demonstrate the unity of things. ^proebel declared that he had, in the kindergarten, given to the w-ox-1^ a system of education, and that it was the application of the \^-^ -tla^s announced which made his system a system; and, therefore, in loolsiing for the essential principles of the kinder^ajrten we have only *^ consider what is involved in such application. a?lxe first thought is that of the relation of aU things to the Divine X^oln^' ^^^ center of the universe. Without this thought all other tJxo^S^^^ ^^^ necessarily disconnected and unrelated. it was to be exi>^<^^^^ ^^^t a scheme of education worthy of this new age would 13C? l:>ased upon this centralizing idea. Nothing grander is possible. >ro±li^»^ less than this would meet the demands of our times. Above ^v^rytbmg else and including every other thought is tliat of man's x-olation to Ood. All other educational ends find their place and true meaning when considered with reference to this central idea. Seen in tlie ]iglit of this thought, this material earth becomes a school- grcpoTXi of preparation for the immortal life that is to follow. Xt will be seen that Froebel at once lifts education to the highest j>lo.xxe. He says he sees in every child a possible angel, and he, there- Tor.^, ignores class distinctions and mere temporary expediences, and MX^t'^^^y repudiates the dwarfing system that fits the human being m^i'^^y ^^ earn a living within some given calling or profession. He d^^^l^-"^® *tat each human being is a distinct thought of the divine zxxxTxd,^^^^ that he has an inherent right to conditions that will insure Imis inches t possible development — a development whose ultimate M-^^li^^^on y^ijj i,^ union with the Divine One. FroebePs own words ^SLtr^ ^ ^*e object and end of all education is the union of the indi- viciii^^ «o«i ^if2^ Ood,'' and the value of his system will never be ^^^^^^^ec^^^^^ ^Zi/^ thought, expressed and reiterated in all his writ- ijx^e^p ^^^^^es cenrr^l in all educational work. Creeds and dogmas 698 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [KindergarteD are not involved in his grand educational system. He was too great a man to limit and prescribe in the narrow ways of the theologians. Froebel was a Christian evolutionist. He saw that God works on every plane, whether of mind or of matter, in orderly unfoldings, that which is first in purpose being always the last in fulfillment He saw in the works of God everything progressing by regular sti^ps toward an ever fuller and more complete expression of the divine mind, until, in the ascent, man appears, the cmwning work of crea tion, "but little lower than God," as the new version has it. With such grand conceptions of the possibilities of each human being, be necessarily rejected the old ideas of education as consisting in mere instruction, and based all his methods on the idea of development. He said: "I separate instruction from development very sharply, and it is a discrimination of the greatest importance. The instructed mind may be compared to a river which flows round the cliffs and impedim;ents, narrows and widens according to necessity, crooks and bends, and skillfully and smoothly creeps to the ocean. Such a stream, hedged in by cliffs and impeded by ix)cks, is not adapted to comm/?rce; it loses its idea, its aim — for the aim of the living fiood is to be the means of culture*. The developed man is like a stream whose powerful rush demolishes the rocks, levels the hills, pulses like a great vein through the earth, drawing thousands of cities to its brink, and tracing out tlu* highway of commerce and culture." From within outw^ard is the law of all growth, and the kindergart- ner rejects the idea of mere external limitations and instructions, and seeks to produce those inner conditions from which the healthy fruitage of a good life will follow in orderly sequence. Too miieh stress cannot be laid upon this idea of development, for, with the most correct theory, we are all in danger of remaining in Iwnduge to the time-honored methods of instruction. In insisting upon ohe dience to the law of development, Froebel is following the central thought stated at the outset as the groundwork of the whole. The Creator works like himself on every plane. "First the blade, then the ear, after that the full corn in the ear," is the law of the divine order whether in the realm of spirit or of mattei'. Froebel constantly uses the expression ''mirror of nature," and always insists upon the idea that the natural w^orld is the embodi- ment of spiritual truth in material form. These are his words: "All natural phenomena are the signs of spiritual truth to which they give expression : thus they may be called symbols.'' Again he siiys: **It is quite a different thing whetlu^r we look upon concrete things and facts as merely material,— the things and facts serving this and that outward purpose, — or contemplate them as the outward forms of spiritual contents, as the intermedia of higher truths and higher knowledge." I>eparfciiieiit j ESSENTIAL KINDERGARTEN PRINCIPLES. 699 Tlie symbolism of material thinj^s must be recognized by edu- cjitor-s before the true meaning and use of the study of nature can be a i>i> i-e liended. ^Vl>oiit twenty years after the iniblication of "The Education of M:£in/' Froebel produced that remarkable book, **The ^lother-Play and INxirsoi"^- Son^s,'' and declared, that whoever should understand it AvoTxldl xmderstimd what he was aiming at. Two thoughts furnish the Icoy i:o the book, each of which involves the idea of unity, or relation. Tlxoso thougbts are, the importance of infancy— the geim-stage of c^x:lst^c>Tice — and the symbolishi of all material things. This book is ixxt^oxided for the ukc of mothers as a guide in the training of the -v^?x-V youngest children. Froebel constantly uses the term "iife- ol>.axiii!" and declares that the first link of that chain— babyhood— sti.o'iild. be made strong- enough to bear the strain of after life, empha- »l3^ir\ j]^ the idea that each human being is, at any period of his life, the X^x-^cxivTct of all his past. Evidently the new education will not have lt^« fullest development until all who have relations with children, ^[ixxx-ing and following their earliest infancy, practically apply Froebers X>x-xxicii>les. Kindergartners know only too well that the characters of ^tt^lile children are already well established before they enter the ^^^Siinized kind(»rgarten, tendencies and habits of thought and feeling ^^ixig already largely formed. Kecognizing thus the unity of the individual life, let us turn to *^<^ «eeond of the thoughts referred to as furnishing the key to *'The ^^ ^^^*<*i*-Play and Nursery Songs,'* a thought which I have already Y^^j y^'f^^d upon, namely, the symbolism of material things and the sym- ^.j^^J^^" of iiuman relationships. For the mothrr, there is prefixed to tli^ ^ ^^ tlie plays contained in this book a motto, which embraces ev^^^^^^^^'^il thought of the play as Froebel conceived it. In nearly i;sr #^, *^'^'^*^<-* the use of materinl things as symbols of spiritual truth's i/j/\j ^'^^"-fc^c-l said: '*If we wish to foreshadow fundamental truths to ^evL^^ ^"^^xnds, ^ve must present them in symboHc forms, and also f>^o^^.^ ^^-^i^xie means for enabling the child to give them symbolic ex- &ar|. '^^i,"*^ and, uhimating this thought, he has given us the "Kinder- ^•^ri^^ Gi8-i:^^g and Occupations" as types or symbols of the entire ma- *Pl^^ ,^^^ * ^-erse. Th(\se are embodied in three forms, namely, the ^tl^ ^^'» ^l^^* cube and the cylinder, spoken of technically as the "sec- H ^w ^^t:.''> In bis use of the word "gift," in this connection, Froebel ^^^o^ .^^^ ^*^ application of the law which we are considering. He by Y?^^^^^^ xevcrently that the whole world is a school-room equipped tV^ *^^ O-x-^^^t Teacher with loving gifts of objects suited to aid in 1\^ ^^VoTc>i>ro^H^ ^^ the human rac(^ — the pupils i^i the school of \V^' T^tic^ gratuitous furnishings of the great scUool-room of the t Y^ ^*^^> Vio epitomizes in the three foi-ms just referred to, and calls ^nx ^'Icina^i'^'i^ten gifts.'' The obj.ect of these gifts is to furnish 700 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Kindei^arten the child the key to the manifoldness of things. They are all based upon geometry, as the material universe is based upon geometry, and in their development they epitomize the industries and activities of human life, thus relating each kindergarten child to the race o! which he is a unit. Involved in this idea of the unity of the race is the social idea, the duty of the recognition of which is one of the essential principles of the kindergarten, and included in the idea of social training is t\\e education of the heart which Froebel alw^ays places before the train ing of the intellect. To train the child to love the right is an in expressibly greater work than to train him merely to know the right. As one has said: "If I know the right I may do it, or I may not do it; but if I love the right I must do it." All the theories we have been considering are reduced to praclke by means' of the activity of play in the songs, the games, and the industries of the kindergarten, the prescription of the details o! which, in forms adapted to the very youngest children, being the highest proof of FroebeFs genius. In conclusion, the essential principles of the kindergarten, as here presented, may be thus summarized: These principles are a\\ based upon the application of Froebel's educational law. Obedience to this law involves the religious idea — the recognition of the Diviive Being as the center of the spiritual univ(n'se — and this thought, brought down to the plane of matjerial things, requires us to ke^v the sun at the center as the starting point for all true natural science. Nature is regarded as a mirror in which spiritual tniths are re fleeted, and the law of development, or evolution, which is nnivers;\\ in the lower kingdoms, is accepted as the law of the grow th of mind. All material things are symbols of spiritual truths, and the g\t^^ and occupations are selected symbols — a key to the manifoldness of things, which in their use epitomize the industries and activities o^ the world. Human life is a continuous whole from earliest infancy onward, and the first period of it — the germ-stage — is a period of vital im- portance. Humanity is an organism, and the individual develops as the race has developed. The members of the body of humanity ?VY<^ vitally related to one another, and social education is necessarily involved. The human being is a unit, th^ head, heart and hand are g^ven each their due consideration. The activity necessary for the carrying out of th^se theories is that of play — the natural activity of childhood and the heaven-ordnlwv^^ means for its development. I>6partment. ] DISCUSSION. ?01 FroebeFs motto, "Come, let us live with our children," furnishes the one thought essential for all who would be true kindergartners. A jMJssible translation of the sentiment of this motto, and one which indicates the spirit of Froebel, the apostle of childhood, is, "Come, let us live, children." DTSCUSSrOK [Reported by Miss May Murhay.J Mr. a. W. Rankin, Superintendeut of Schools, \Ve»t Superior, Wis., said that Froebel's system of education is difficult of introduction in public schools for various reasons; one of them being that teachers who are candidates for such places are not always fitted for their position. There is also a difficulty in the matter of religious teaching. We need to be reverent to carry out the kindergarten principles. Take that of unity, for instance. To teach the idea of God to a little child is a delicate matter, and there is great need of development in this direction on the part of kind«ergajrtners, because the problem of trnining the child in accord- ance with the principles of the system is a difficult one. Teachers should endeavor to secure such legislation as will enable the State to take charge of the child's ediicatioii at four years of age, rather than at six. which is the agt? prescribed by law in many of the States, as from three to five is a distinct period of the child's life to which the kindergarten, with its occupations and materials, is especially adapted. It is a mistake that the average teacher, in trying to give instruction in the principles of geometry and other branches, is t(X) much uiclined to the scientific method which she learned through her secondary education, rather than to the symbolic methods which are chielly used in the kindergarten system. Teachers rely too much upon the gifts, and to a certain extent they are abused in kinder- gartens, as, in introducing the kindergarten material, the symbolic character is not always properly recognized. While the theory is right, the material is not always assimilated— a fact which makes all vague to the child. He said he would like to See what a kindergartner would do without the gifts, and what w^ould happen if sii^ should undertake to teach the child out of doors and in the woods with all the materials which are ordinarily so carefully provided thrown one side. In the social relation the teacher should consider the need of communities in connection with her work. She has a great opportunity to enlist general interest in that work by organizing mothers' classes, and in various ways arousing their enthusiasm for the welfare of the children.- Thus, by interesting the community in the chila life, and the child life in the community, a very important part of her mission is accomplished. 702 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten IDEAL RELATION OF KINDERGARTEN TO PRIMARY SCHOOLS, BY MISS JjVVY WHBEIjOCK, BOSTON. [Abstract Fuknished bv the Author.] Tho law of all growth was proclaimed many years aj?o by tin* Great Teacher, who first illustrated natural methods of teachin*?. "First the blade, then the ear, then the full corn in the ear," is nature's method of develcupment. For the plant there is no abrupt transition from one stage to another. The same pi*ocess of receiving, assimilating and giving is continued from the blade to the full con! in tlie ear. The same forces are at work. The principle of life is constant and continuous. The perf(H'tion of the fruit is cks upon lu»r particular stage of school life as a i)art of a continuous process, and plans her course from the standpoint of universal principles of development. Mutual knowledge is necessary. Tlie primary teacher must recog- nize the essential principles of the kindergarten, and, on the other hand, the kindergai'tner should understand the demands to be made upon the child when he reaches the next stage of his school gi-owth. Visits among relativ(*s and family festivals serve to strengthen the feeling of relationship and the spirit of unity. Perhaps the greater knowledge and sympathy that such friendly intercourse brings might help to (establish the ideal relation between the kind«»r garten and the school. The celebration of festal days by games and songs, in which the kindergarten and prinuiry children unite, wouM certainly strengthen the bond of peace. The i>riman' teachei- who bases her work upon the universal principles of growth, as illustrated in the child garden, is certainly no stranger there. Self-activity, as the law of all life, is to govern physical, intellectual and moral development. The kindergarten games, which allow of perfect freedom of movement and of joyous expression of the inner life through the outward activity, furnish a hint to the ])rimary school of tlu? best method of physical training for the little child. Set gymnastics tend to repression, to monotony and barrenness — and do not pertain to the child at the stage when constant move- ment is a necessity and the power of motor control may not be gained without too severe a nervous tension. As regards intellcH^tual de- ^Department. ] DISCUSSION, 703 velopment, the child must still he considered from the standpoint of his activity. To know the world is his first necessity. He takes |>ossession of the world through his eyes and ears and hands. He has other faculties than memory. He has imagination and a desire to compare and to reason in simple fashion. He is still in the pri- ma ly school at the stage when Froebel would name him ' ''ein ange^'' (an eyje), so keen are the perceptive powers. "The mind is to grow, not like a vegetable, fed by a kind of etymological compost, but like sx>irit, by mysterious contact of spirit." So says the sage Leufelsdrockh. To behold, to listen, to wonder, to transform, this is the need of the growing mind. No memory drill, no imposition of facts, no "busy work," can supply these needs. Guid- ance, material, spirit, are demanded to lead the full, inflowing life outward from 'Hblade to the ear." The same principle of self-activity holds in moral training. This child is to become a moral freedman, not a slave to his own and others' caprices. He is to be led to impose his own muHt upon him- self, liiterature and history furnish ideals which are to be used to lure the child towards his higher self. The school-room, like the kindergarten, must give occasion for the daily practice of the virtues which are to be acquired like other arts, by their exercise. Hence, there must be due freedom and a development of the power of self-control. When there is a wise recognition of this principle of life in both kindergarten and school, then there can be no break and no lack of harmony between them. Life unifies everywhere. Disintegration begins only when the life principle is gone. "And life you've granted you develops within.'' Education is an unfolding. From within out, is the purpose of this unfolding. The primary school continues the culture of the kinder- garten, und both look to the complete revelation of the full corn in the ear. DISCUSSION. (Reported bv kev. F. A. mNKLEY.| A^t the close of Miss Wheelock's address, Mr. War. E. Sheltxin of Massachu- setts Baid: The ideal relation between the kindergarten and the primary school requires for its realization the ideal kinderpartner and the ideal primary teacher. There are some in both ranks who are not ideal, because they have not had proi)er training, a true kindergartner puts good training into active exercise. I want to emphasize the importance of self-examination by every one proposing to become a kindergartner. I want to say. also, that special training is as necessary for the primary teacher as for the kindergartner. Those who lack such training ought never to be allowed to get foot in a school-room. If the whole atmosphere of the 704 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Kinderuarten kindergarten and the primary school could be properly created and maintalDed. we should have true men and women in this country in the future. RiTPT. B. C. Orkoory. Trenton, N. J., described his experience in attempting to apply kindergarten principles in his school. He thought partial introduction of kindergarten work proved a failure, and he had found that abstract psychology was not popular with the teachers. They were more ready to accept principles in their applied form. He gave a very interesting account of how he interested a company of teachers in Froebel's **Education of Man," and how through that he worked up to the idea that the program for the day should take into account the individual as well as the mass. As the outcome of it all, he said, he had a class of yoting ladies who believe in the psychology of the kindergarten with all their hearts. His teachers gave up thirty Saturday forenoons to the study of the kinder- garten. It w^as his judgment that grammar as well as primary school teachers are interested in finding the significance of the kindergarten philosophy. Rkv. Frkdkrtck a Htnckt.ky of Northampton, Mass., said: The three worda most needed in the industrial w^orld, all along the line in the educational world. and concerning the way of bridging the chasm from the kindergarten to the pri- mary school are these: Unify, conciliate, co-operate. No thoughtful student can help observing the break between the kindergarten and the primary school. The time has fully come when a determined effort should be made to secure such harmony between the two as will make them homogeneous parts of one orderly system, based upon child study and sensitive to the child's needs. How are we, then, to harmonize — unify — the two systems? The first step is to cultivate the spirit of conciliation and co-operation between kinder gartners and primary school teachers, between kindergarten authorities and public school authorities. A kindergartner who assumes she can learn nothing from the primary school and a primary school teacher who assumes she can learn nothing from the kindergartner, are in an unpromising mood to begin the harmonization needing to be done. The live primary teacher of to-day has her eyes and her ears open. She has felt the broadening influence of Froebel's thought. The live kindergartner of to-day knows that it is quite possible to sacrifice the kindergarten spirit to the letter; and that Froebel did not say the last word. As a school committee-man» compelled to look both ways, I am not only sure the kindergartner can tell the primary teacher something; I am equally sure I know primary teachers who can tell kindergartners something. I think it not infrequently assumed that there is nothing to arbitrate, and so long as that is the spirit— if it ever is the spirit— so long it will be impossible for meetings of kindergartners and teachers on a mutual basis of truth-seeking and serving. I want, most of all things, to see those who represent these two branches of effort with little children, studying intelligently together each other's work, learning thus wherein that which precedes needs to be conformed to that which follows; and wherein that which follows needs to be conformed to that which pn- cedes. Were I arranging the program for this great association of teacheri«. I would provide, if I could, for an occasional joint meeting of adjacent departments to consider their relations with each other. We want right here, do we not, to have this section and the elementary school section in a common meeting for the contemplation of this problem from the two points of view. The instrument of technical education in this country is, and must be, the public school system. Ultimately the kindergarten must everywhere become an integral part of that system. That system already exists. The better work of the future is to come, not through substituting some other system, but through the constant uplifting of what we have toward the best ideals. I would sav to all concerned: Don't be too critical of each other. Study each other's ideals and you will have taken the first step toward that unification of aim, method snirit. which is one of the great and grave demands of the hour. DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST SESSION.- Thubsday, Ji i.y 12, 1804. The department was called to order by the Secretary at 3 v. »■ ^^ ^® ^^'®^ Presbyterian church. The President, Mrs. Rebecca D. Rickoflf, New York City, being absent in California, and the Vice President, Supt. Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo., being in Europe, the Secretary, Supt F. Treudley, Youngstown, Ohio, took the chair, and Supt. James McGinniss, Owensborough, Ky., was elected temporary Secretary. It was moved that a committee be named by the Chair to nominate officers for the ensuing year. On motion, Mrs. Mary H. Hunt, representing the work of Scientific Instruction in Temperance of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, was invited to address the department with regard to her work. She said that, in the light of recent events, it was more clearly seen than ever before that law and order and temperance must go hand in hand. I oome to ask you to set a good example to anarchists— that of obedience to law. She referred to a map of the United States, showing that scientific instruction in temperance was compulsory in some measure by Jaw in every State but five. These laws are on the statute books; it remains tor the teachers to execute them. She pleaded for a recognition by the National Association of this work. Superintendent Warfield, Covington, Ky., moved that this department suggost that one hour be given for a paper on this subject and discussion thereon at the °®^* f ^""al meetmg. Supt. William A. Mowry moved to amend by suggesting an additional session for the consideration of this subject. The motion as amended was carried. Supt Charles E. Gaton, Yonkers, N. Y., read a paper on "School Boards and Superintendents." Superintendent Gaton' s paper was discussed by William G. Bruce of Milwaukee. ^^® Chair announced as a nominating committee Mr. C. W. Cole, Albany, N. •» Miss Dutton of Cleveland, and Mr. Fisher of Massachusetts, to report Friday afternoon. Supt. Edveard G. Ward, Brooklyn, New York, read a paper on **A Few Changes in Elementary School Instruction." Discussion was opened by Supt. \V. C- Warfield. Covington, Ky. 70(i IfATJONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [tl^meiitary SECOND SESSION.- Friday, July 13, 1894. The department met at 3 P. M.. with Superintendent Treudley in the chair. The report of the Nominating Committee was presented and read. Tlie follow- ing were nominated and elected as officers for 18d5: l*re8ide»i — Supt. F. Treudley, Youngstown, Ohio. Vice FresidpTil— Miss N. Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind. Secreiary^Hxxpt. W. C. Warfield, Covington, Ky. Miss Emma C. Davis, Superintendent of Primary Instruction, Cleveland, Ohio. r«»ad a paper on "The Ideal Primary School Curriculum." Discussion was led by Miss Lydia A. Kirby, Philadelphia, Pa. Acting President Supt. F. Treudley, in closing the sessions of this department, quoted the following lines as the watchword of the department for the coming year: Let knowledge grow from more to more, But more of reverence in us dwell, Thjit mind and heart, aocordiug well, May make one music as before. But vaster. Adjourned. James McGinkiss, Secretary pro iem. Dapartment.] SCHOOL BOARDS. 707 SCHOOL BOARDS. BY CHARLES E. GATON, SUPBRINl^END EXT OF SCHOOLS, YONKBRS, N. Y. The administration of the affairs of public or common schtHjlg has, from the earliest history of this country, been entrusted to school trustees or boards of education. They have been the execu- tive officers chosen in different places by almost every conceivable method, and varying in numbers to-day, even in cities, from one to forty-five. Tlie mode of selection of these officers has been described as simply chaotic, and the problem, **How should a board of eduiMi- tion be chosen?'^ is still uusolvi d. The opinion of all fjood citizens is, that the cause of public x^diicn tion should be free from relijjious and sectarian alliances, as well nw from the corrupt influences which blacken the records of all great political parti«PArtment.] SCHOOL BOARDS. 70 throning inflta^^^^- ^ large board, of twelve members for instanc( will almost c^^^tainly contain members of irreproachable charactie «ine overworlcied and to fail to sustain its interest. In a large boa t^lxG work may be divided among committees so that each man w t>e assigned agreeable duties, and the working of all wUJ oe hi «xioaious, and not burdensome; for we must remember that we a «pealciiig of l>xisy, practical men, who are giving wholly gratuito service. TUe successful working of the board, whether large or small, w orates the assertion, that throughout the country the be ,^^^pped man in the board is usually its president. X do uot l>elieve there is a State in the Union where the enfor( xnt-Tit of the statutes will secure and maintain efficient schools wit -ovit strong local interest and effort. With existing social and poll oal conditions our schools can flourish only in the sunshine of popul ^^^Y>roval- Hence, each individual of a large board is another ro C5a.st in the soil of public favor, to nourish the tree and to stay it fro overt lii'ow by hostile gales. The efficiency of a board is increased by the permanency of ii rnembership. The Civil Service Reform Association, under tli l€?aclership of that pure-minded, able and eloquent citizen, the lat acitie8. Jn its legislative capacity, it considers the question of appropria tions, new buildings or improvements, rules for the government oi solioojg^ and those of kindred nature. In many States broad powen ^^ Siven scliool boards in this capacity. By the general law of l^e\ ^^or-Jc^ their- decision on the amount of money to be raised by loca ^^^tion foi- teachers' wages is final, and cannot be modified or n ^io^d 5^ fxrxy authority whatever. In many places they have equj 710 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [ElemenlaTy authority to appropriate money for new buildings and improvements; but the latter is more usually lodged with the voters of districts and the mayor and aldeniien of cities. In its executive capacity, either as a body or through committees, it transacts all ordinary business. Judicially, it h(»ars and deter- mines questions concerning its administrative officers, and teachers in their special work and in their relation to the public. The board of education ought to appoint teachers, and I do not believe the appointing power can safely be lodged elsewhere; but its appointing power should be strictly limited to names brought be- fore it and recommended by administrative officers chosen for the purpogje. In union school districts the board will, of course, select a principal, and he should be held responsible for the success of his school. But how can he be considered responsible if he has no voice in selecting a corps of teachers? He should be allowed and required to bring forward names and to recommend appointments for every subordinate position. In cities, equally large powers should be lodged with superin- tendents. Teaching is a profession, and the men and women at the head of ailairs sliould have professional knowledge, qualifying them to pass judgment on the fitness of their subordinates for their special work. Teachers were formerly licensed ahuost exclusively by local authority. The tendency now is toward examinations and licenses by the State, and so to exclude incompetency which was given posi- tion by favor. The nomination of teachers by superintendents and principals of cities and villages leads in the same direction. A school boai-d is no more qualifltHl to select teachers than I am to appoint a candidate to teach IVesbyterian theology in the place of Dr. Smith or Dr. Briggs. Yet, I say, that teachers should bx* appointed by the board. It should pass final judgment on th(^ cases brought before it, and should bear the responsibility. Beyond the utter lack of professional fitness to discriminate be- tween competence and incompetence, lies the fact, that, if t*_»acliers are selected by the board, favoritism, political and personal intiuence, and even trading one appointment for another, will be certain to enter. I assume that tlie superintendent or other pi-ofessional officer who nominates teachers will stand like a rock in the path of the incompetent, who are always pressing forward to enter. Every one who is turned back becomes in a measure his enemy^ and sooner or later may accomplish his overthrow; but, if appoint- ments are made by the board on his nominations, his position is much less perilous. He should also be protected by rules strictly defining tlLe minimum qualifications of candidates whom he may recommend. Permit me to read from a rule in force in my own city: "No person ^"^epartment] SCHOOL BOARDS. 711 sliall be employed as a teacher in any of the public schools who ^« not a normal school graduate, or, if not, has not had experience in *^^ filing equivalent to a normal school education. Whenever a teaoher is wanted to fill a vacancy in any of the schools, the superin- tendent shall examine as to the qualifications of candidates for the position, and report in writing the results of his examination to the committee on teachers. The committee, if satisfied that any candi- ^^^^? favorably reported on by the superintendent, is qualifieloj^ such person." Tbe superintendent is thus protected against the great number ^^ disqualified applicants, because he says: *'Tf you have not jjijradu- ^tG^ troTd a normal school, or some other institution gi^ing profes- sional ti*aining, or have not had some years of successful experience, tlie i-riles by which I am bound will not permit me to present your namo for appointment'' Furthermore, there is no way for a candi- date to come before the committee except by his recommendation. If SL board is composed of business and professional men of high class, they will readily adopt the view, that the members of a teach- ing force should be chosen by some one with special fitness for choice. Only tlie stupid or vicious members, filli?d with complacent conceit, or looking for loaves and fishes, will take the contrary view. Thio employes of the board are entitled to full support. They occupy" positions before tlie public, and are peculiarly liable to criti- cism and reproach. Oddly enough, everybody knows how to teach sclxool, and is prepared to give us advice. No community but has its superannuated teachers, who know how much better things were tanglit when they were in the field! No community without its edu- cational cranks, with impossible reforms and impracticable theories to urge upon us! If we are not worthy of our positions we should be displaced; if we are worthy of them, we should receive, amid all tbie criticisms of methods of discipline and instruction, steady and consistent support from the board of education. Boards of education ought to lengthen the terms of employment of tlieir teachers. Why should a superintendent of schools 5^ elected for a year or for two years? He ought to be elected, either at the pleasure of the board or for a long term. It has been found con- sistent with the best theories of government to choose judges for long terms of office. 1 cannot enter upon a discussion or the theories and doctrines which underlie the selection of the judiciary, and simply say that the leasons which point to the advisabUity of long terms for judges, appJv with equal force to the election of school superin- tendents and principals. In practice, superintendents elected at the pleasure of the board, unless unfit for their positions, hold office for lon^ periods, as the question of their election is not periodically brought forwaril bj ^ mile or law. 7 1 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A880CIATIOII. [Elementary To put an efficient superintendent on trial once in two years, to place him whore he must meet the schemes of intriguers for his po- sition, to make him or his friends fight for his place when perhaps the stronp^est argument against him is, that he is too inflexible in dealing with incompetent teachers, too exacting, too honest, too good, is a disgrace to the powers that determine the period of his election. There are a few cities where the following statement does not apply; but teachers are appointed annually almost universally. Why should this be so? Every corps of teachers contains many mem- bers of long experience and approved worth, and yet once each yeai* they are worried and excited by the question of reapx)ointment I do not believe there is any other class of professional workers — out- side of the Methodist Church — who are subjected to the same indig- nity. A large proportion of the teachers should hold their positions by pennanent engagement, subject, of course, to removal for cause. Teachei-s possessed of high intellectual and scholastic attainments should be eligible for appointment to this select body after some years of meritorious service. Its honors would be distinctive, and there would arise the highest emulation to gain its ranks. F'ixed salaries for grades ought to be abolished- A brilliant teacher in a primary grade should be paid as high a salary there as she would receive for the same quality of work elsewhere, and fine work anywhere should be suitably recognized. In a word, salaries should be based on merit, and the humdrum teacher, who never reads anything and never goes anywhere, ought not to receive the same salary as the progressive, earnest worker, who is alive to the best edu- cational movements and thoughts of the day. The board should not only leave the selection of teachers to pro- fessional discrimination, but there are also many other subjects which are better for a large measure of letting alone. The board, as a rule, has no competency to adopt text-books, pre- pare a course of study, direct the organization of si^hools, diclute methods of instruction, plan new schoolhouses or remodel old ont^. These are all matters demanding expert knowledge and experience, and should be passed on by the board only on the advice and recom- mendation of the superintendent. The board should have such con- fidential relations with him that it should know his innermost thoughts on all matters relating to the welfare of the schools, and be prepared to advise concerning his measures, as well as to support them. In planning school buildings with their special requirements of space, light, heating, ventilation, and general sanitation and con- venience, the average aichitect is no more competent than the board. The superintendent should possess the necessary knowledge and should be allowed to use it Commissioner Harris says : "The con- struction of school buildings requires at every step the advice of an Department.] DISCUSSION. 713 expert in educational methods." I am not speaking of the few cities which have distinct departments of buildings, but of the great num- ber of city and village districts where the board must pass on every case of building improvement. The board should be its own financial agent and should regulate its expenditures. It ought not to expect anybody else to incur that responsibility. If properly constituted, it will exercise judicious economy, realizing, however, that its first and highest duty is to make its schools the best possible, with the means under its control. There Is an occasional board willing to forego all else if it can publish an annual report showing that it is conducting a singularly cheap system of schools. It may be thought that the suggestions of this paper lead towards diminishing the powers of the board. I have sought only to define what seems to be the duties and limitations, which, if strictly recog- nized, would augment its influence. In one respect at least the bpard occupies higher ground than we. It is in closer touch with the people and is better fitted to judge how educational results meet the wants of our complex modem society. Hence, it follows that the inadequacy of old methods has been made apparent by those who are not of our profession. Although, perhaps, so much may not be said of the sesthetic, artistic and moral phases, some of the most vital reforms in the practical curriculum, which ought to be prepared for citizenship, have been inaugurated by boards of education. Taken all in all, the board is the teacher's best friend, and fills a most honorable position in the great onward movement of educa- tional thought and action. DISCUSSION. "Wm. G. Bbiice, Milwaukee.— -Time and usage have established certain rela- tions between the school board and superintendent which are commonly accepted. The one has certain definite functions in the management of the business routine of a school system as a legislative body, while to the other the ordinary pro- fessional duties are accorded. The common duties involved cover those which are more strictly of a business and professional character. Their co-relation is but light, hence subject to little or no friction. Where, however, the business and professional ends enter into closer relations, as they must in all well regulate*! school systems, the questions as to prerogatives of both, the influence of one over the other, the concerted action of both to accomplish the best possible results for the whole, must be clearly defined and well understood. The diflScuIties which manifest themselves from time to time arise largely from a misconception of the respective powers and iim itations, and as to their relation to one another; in other words, how and to what extent the one dovetails into the other. 46} 714 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Elementwy The superintendent concedes to the school board the right and duty to pur- chase school sites, to erect schoolhouses, provide supplies and fix salaries. On the other hand, the board concedes, as a matter of course, to the superintendent the immediate supervision of teachers, the arrangement of the courses of study, etc. These functions are recognized by each. Consequently, no clashes arise here. Ob- servation teaches that contentions arise out of actions which are not purely in the nature of business nor of a strictly professional character. For instance, the appointment of teachers, the adoption of text-books, the introduction of new de- partures, etc. The school board, if representative of a community, should and must have certain powers which touch upon the professional portion of a school system. The radical division of the two is impracticable, when it is remembered that the com- munity has a voice in the professional part as well. This voice can only speak through the board of education. The eradication of the strictly representative character of a board of education, giving thereby the superintendent more inde- pendent and arbitrary powers, would be unwise and a step towards paternalism. The average American citizen wants to be in touch with the public school, which is his pride, and he therefore abhors all tendency towards paternalism and cen- tralization of power and authority. Miniature school boards, therefore, such as have come into vogue within recent .years, or select and exclusive "upper ten" school boards, cannot be considered repre- rtentative of their respective communities, aiming, as they do, at a radical separation of the business and professional, the practical and theoretical portions of a schcwl system. Extreme notions do prevail in many portions of the country as to the relation of a superintendent to the school board, in which the former is considered a mere employe and the latter the employer. The one schemes and devises, and the other is ordered to obey. This, in all probability, has been the cause for inaugurating the other extreme. I will be frank at this time in admitting that the school boards themselves have been guilty of gross abuses, which have incurred the dis- pleasure of a community and which have in certain cities, by way of reform, clothed the superintendent with arbitrary powers. In the adoption of text-books the questions invariably arise: Should the super- intendent jrecommend and the board adopt? If the superintendent's recommenda- tion means an adoption, why should the board of education have any further authority in the matter? If, however, the board of education has the power to determine the text-books, should the superintendent's attitude be simply an advisory one? Plere the question of judgment as between the school board and the superin- tendent is brought into play. The one holds that he owes a responsibility to the school system, the other to the public. The one renders a professional opinion, the other decides the whole question, guided by that opinion together with the financial problem which is involved. It seems to me that the text-book committee or school hoard should have the final voice in determining the adoption of any book. A professional opinion of the superintendent and teachers on any book should be received with due consideration, yet the discretionary powers of a committee Rnopartment.J A FEW CHANGES IN INSTRUCTION, 715 ep«rtment.] A FEW CHANGES IN INSTRUCTION. 719 The word method does nothing of the kind. It keeps the child in absolute dependence upon some one else to tell him the new words, his own effort being confined to memorizing them, and the reading exercises in no way tending to develop in him a spirit of self-reliance. ^Vhen, after the first term or two, new words come along, as they must, at the rate of ten or fifteen to the lesson, his memory fails to keep pace with the demands made upon it, and his reading lessons ore filled with obstacles to thought-getting in the shape of unlearned or half -learned words, quite as formidable as those that existed when the old method was used. The legitimate function of the word method, as the sole means of teaching reading, ceases at the end of the second or third month. If I were compelled to choose between it and the a-b-c method to do the whole work, I think I should choose the latter. No one will dispute, I think, that the acquirement of the art of reading constitutes at least half of any education; for, after all that may be done for him by others, the main work of educating any human being must be performed by himself, and reading so multiplies one's powers for the acquisition of both knowledge and culture that to overrate its value would be imjwssible. No one, either, wiU deny the great desirability of such a method of teaching this art as will make an intelligent reader of the child within two years of his first admission to school. Nothing else so matures a child's mind as reading. Some one, I do not know who, but he must have been a philosopher, has said : "A man is as old as he feels, and a woman, as old as she looks." To this I may add, in not too grammatical phrase, but without fear of contradiction, a child is as old as he reads. Uni- versal experience, I think, will bear me out in the assertion, that a child of eight that reads well is, for all school work, more than the equal of a child of ten that does not. If, then, we woiiJd shorten by a year or two the time that children are obliged to sjxend in the ele- mentary schools, we must above all secure early proficiency in read- ing; and since it is evident that this cannot be obtained through the use of eitlier the alphabetic or the word method, something better must be employed. "^^ i3ay jxim^, it is perfectly clear that the new method must be a combination of the word and phonetic methods, with a different order of procedure in the presentation of the latter from any that has hitherto b^en generally employed. Sucli a combined method is now in use in nearly all the schools of Brooklyn, in many of which most marvelous results have been ob- tained. In the schools in which the new method has been mastered, the time formerly devoted to the acquirement of a reading vocabulary of 200 words now gives the children one of more than 2,000, while 720 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATM. [Elementaiy their reading is more spirited and in every other respect better than formerly. The following is as full a description of this method, Y?1ik\i we call the "Rational Method," as may properly be included in a pa.^^'^T of this length: The Rational Method is a peculiar combination of tbe word ?ocl^ phonetic methods. It utilizes each for that part of the work to wMc' it is especially adapted. The word method is used, first, as prmd^ because of its value in developing a habit of reading thoughtfu) and afterward as auxiliary, to remedy the shortcomings o! the '^ netic method and increase the stock of word phonograms. phonetic method, which is introduced by easy stages durm« ascendency of the word method, finally becomes itself the prin means of growth and progress. It imparts power while it sw^ the key which the word method is inadequate to give. The aims of th.e Rational Method are: 1. To make the child not only independent in his readii generally self-reliant. 2. To enable him to read a vastly greater amount tlian Vit^ in a given time, and thus acquire, not only a fuller vocabw^ greater maturity of mind. 3. To put him into possession, during the first year or y half of school life, of a complete key to the language, »c matter how soon thereafter his schooling may cease, \\\a read will be assured. The following are the leading features of tlie pbonetic work: 1. The presentation of the sounds and their symbols (i in a rational order; that is, an order in which, the easier harder. The easiest sounds to use in phonetic reading a may be indefinitely prolonged, and the blending ot wl mav therefore be most readily shown as ^vell as per< sounds, the Rational Method deals with first. ^ 2. The teaching of an initial stock of phonograi phonetic reading is done. This makes provision wher ; reading has once been commenced, it may toe carried i and with sufficient wealth and variety of material. 3. The training of the ear in the jxerception of before phonetic reading is begun. This is accoi i teacher pronouncing words sound by sound, and tb to determine, in each case, the word thus pronoun I 4. An extensive and systematic use of Tvorc i other compound phonograms. The difficulty the in determining a new word is, in general, directly number of parts he has to recognize in it. Ry th ^•^^^liartment] A FEW CHANGES IN INSTRUCTION. 721 pound phonograms, which, being taught as wholes, are no harder to rooognize than simple ones, hundreds of long and liard words are pra^otically transformed into short and easy ones. Thus the word -^iS'htning," which the child learning by this method reads, ^^-ight- n^ing/' he finds no more difficult that the short word "left," in ^hich ^Jso, lu> has to recognize and put together four separate sounds. ^- A careful grading of the phonetic words introduced. Tlxe first pnoxietic words presented contain but two phonograms each, tlie next out three, and so on. ^- The gradual introduction of phonetic words into the sentence reading. At first, but one such word is used to a sentence. This I^e\nexits the phonetic work from offering any serious impediment to ttx^ tliought-getting. As the chUd's perception of tlie blend becomes quicker and clearer, the proportion of phonetic words is constantly increased. Finally, when this perception has become automatic, or nearljr so, the reading is made almost wholly phonetic. 7. Separate daily drills in the recognition of tlie individual pho- nograms and the reading of single phonetic words. The purpose of these is to cultivate expertness. No other part of the word exceeds them in importance; for, without them, the average child would never acquire suflScient facility in sound or word recognition to make suc- cessful phonetic reading a possibility. Dixring the last ten years another change in the teaching of read- ing:, almost as radical as the introduction of the word method, has been rapidly coming about. I refer to the correlation of this subject with other branches of study. The correlation of arithmetic with bxLsineBS forms on the one hand, and with drawing and geometry on the otlxer; of geography with astronomy on the one hand, and with history and civil government on the other; of physics with chemistry, and of l)oth with the other sciences, in all the cases that have come to my notice seems to have taken proper direction aud produced happy results. But the correlation of reading with other subjects has, in my poor judgment, gone quite astray. EEer-e the attempt has been mainly to correlate with the sciences at botany and zoology; and from small beginnings, in which bits of botanical and zoological information were deftly interwoven with other matter, we have at last come to a point where children of ten- der years are put into readers (or supplementary readers) wholly botanical or zoological. These books, to children of a larger growth, seem full of interest. They are, in greneral, well written, and the matter they contain is of nndisputed value. But with little children they have proved a fail- ure; for, whiie /ailing to create a taste for science, or to any apprecia- ble degree to strengthen observation, they have had a bad effect upon the reading itself, i^ diminishing its power to interest The reason 722. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Elementary is not far to seek. It lies in a fact that many educators seem to have overlooked: that young children cannot read for information. T\ie\T capacity for attentive work in reading ceases with its power to amuse them, and the sooner this fact is generally recognized tine bet- ter for the children. The stray bits of scientific information that they formerly ab- sorbed with other matter, aroused their curiosity and whetted their appetites, and so cultivated a taste for scientific study capable oi giT- ing them a great imj)etus when the time for such study should come. But the steady scientific diet that has of late been forced upon Wm has resulted in surfeit and nausea long before the time for digestiot has arrived. That there are exceptions to what I have stated, 1 ai well aware; but the exceptions are enough to prove the rule and n more. With what, then, would I correlate reading? Why, so far stray and interesting bits of information interwoven with ot matter go, with everything that has the slightest human interesl value; but, in particular, with one study that I do not ftni in school curriculum. Now, this brings me to another oversight made by edMcatora erally that is even more strange than the one already mentiononnd. of the kind that make youthful hearts beat high for t IlepartjnentJ A FEW CHANGES IN INSTRUCTION 723 tmth, and tliese stories it is that should form the staple of our little ones* readingr- Tlius would a double purpose be attained: the stories drawing tlie child irresistibly to his reading, and the reading constantly stimu- lating the groTvth of his nobler faculties. Penmanalxip next claims my attention, less as a separate branch of study than, in its use as an auxiliary to other studies. I know not h-ow it msLy be in the rural districts, but in city schools where classes are "oxireasonably large, and where, therefore, it is ex- tremely dif&oult to keep such an oversight of individual pupils as to secure tho proper performance of their tasks, the employment of w^ritten exercises and written recitations has now reached such pro- portions as to cjonstitute at once one of the most marked changes and one of the greatest abuses in elementary instruction. During the last four or five years teachers and school officers have been appealed to, again and again, to adopt vertical writing in the schools as a romedy for many physical ills that exist to an alarming extent among the children of the present generation, but were com- paratively nnkinown among those of the last. Among these ills are Bhortsightedne-ss, astigmatism, spinal curvatures and distorted shoul- ders. All of these, the advocates of the vertical writing attribute in great degree to the oblique writing at present in use, and to the position which they assume it obliges children to take at their desks; and they add, as a clincher to their arguments, that the vertical •writing is clearer, more compact and more rapid. liCt us briefly consider these claims: First, as to the position. I do not admit that the oblique writing lias anything to do with the right and left positions so strenuoxisly (and so righteously) objected to. On the contrary, where children taJte such positions, they do so either as the result of training ba,sed on false theories, or because, through a niggardly economy of space, tb.eir desks are made so narrow that it is possible to get their books far enough from their eyes only by pushing them away sidewise. A practical accountant who takes a side position at his desk, though, he does write obliquely, is as hard to find as a needle in a haystack. Second, as to the astigmatism. This it is claimed is due to the different directions in which in oblique writing the eyes have to look a,t tlie same letter. There seems to me to be no more in this argu- ment than in the other, for in vertical as well as in oblique writing, tlie angle of vision for either eye must always be different from that of tlie other. Even where the letter is in the middle of a line and directly before the eyes, the two lines of vision form a sharp angle at tbe paper; and inclination of the writer to keep adjusting his paper, go that the work may be at all times directly before his eyes, corrects this diflScuIfcy qnifce as much in the one kind of writing as in the other. 724 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOK. [Elementary As regards the other three claims, that the yertical writing is at once more legible, more compact and more rapid tlian tlie ote, while I cannot admit the last, I freely and willingly concede the other two, the truth of which, if it has not made me an advocate ot l\as writing, has, at least, prevented me from being numbered with its opponents. If, then, it may be asked, I am not opposed to the introduction ol the vertical writing, why have I taken pains to dispute some ol \\v< leading arguments in its favor. Because, I believe, that these argi ments hav^e taken such strong hold upon the minds of teacke^^ ^^ others concerned with elementary education, that there is danj of the new writing being relied upon exclusively to cort%(it ^ physical ailments attributed, and, as I believe, improperly attribii to the present style of writing. The remedy needed is a much more sweeping one, being not less than the cutting down of the written work that cMldt^i obliged to do to perhaps one-fourth of the present quantity, children of former generations wrote the same oblique hand ^ taught to-day; yet they suffered to no niarked degree from eitl troubles or uneven shoulders or spinal curvature. These a\ then, that we all so greatly deplore among the children ot are not, in my opinion, justly to be attributed in any great d the style of writing employed, but rather to the great and u able amount required. It would not be diflficult, if tim.e p to show some directions in which this amount miglit 'be without detriment, and in some cases with absolute ben^ work; but as I have already reached the limit assigned refrain from trespassing further upon your patience. DISCUSSIOK W. C. Wabfikld, Superintendent of Schools, Covington, K.y.- that have been made in elementary instruction in "tlie IsLst few changes predominate. Some years ago the city scliools of thi afflicted with an over-plus of system. In time a wise reaction t< the present time the educators of the country are devoting a. grer : to the improving of the elementary and secondary scliool instruct The freeing of the schools from the mechanical metliods pro i ganization is now taking place. In my opinion nothing in tlie j ! as mach with the possession of an ideal system of instruction i schools as the regular grinding out of pupils, once a year only- < the next higher. I consider yearly promotions too infrequent -f struction in the elementary school. The tendency at tlie prese to promote pupils at such times as they may seem fitted for p I>epartxnent.] DISCUS8I0N. 725 cnan^e is for the better, we do not doubt. It will enable the primary and grammar school teachers to avail themselves of methods that would otherwise be impossible. liew light illuminates their pathway. A new impetus is given to the work. The inclination of a few years ago was to educate the head only. The chilc^ ^^''f^.*^ ^® taught reading, arithmetic, geography, etc., regardless of the execution or his hand or the emotions of his heart. But we now realize that the child must be taught to do, as well as to think. In fact, the head, hand and heart, must each receive attention from the careful teacher, in order to reach that ultimate aim— the preparation of the boy to be a man, the girl to be a woman. That boy who appears before us must be taught his mathematics,' his history, etc. BCe must be taught to think; but his hand may receive attention with great profit- X*erhaps it may have in it the skill of a Raphael, a Carot, or an Augelo. Then, too, the boy's body may be developed into a fine physique. Those shoul- ders may be drawn away from such close pressure upon that delicate chest and conaumption prevented. That ethics should be taught in every school in the land, of whatsoever grade, is manifest. This needs no argument. If I were asked the question: "What change in method of instruction in thc> elementary school do you consider the wisest?" I would certainly answer in favor of the revolution, for such it really is, in the method of teaching geography. How well do we remember when pupils were compelled to study a set of map questions,, and commit to memory a descriptive lesson in geography. But we have cast our- selves free from tiat, and now we find some of the best teachers making the study of greog-raphy th^ means of teaching the elementary sciences. Pupils are taught the fauna and flora of a country as well as the location of it. The map is an object before the pux>i|3^ made to take on almost real life. It is made to appear as a picture of the country it represents. The child is led to imagine himself in Japan. He 18 led objectively and inductively to know Japan. He realizes that it is a real country, peoplee taught hygiene. But why teach them anatomy and physiology? What does it a.^aii? What good does it accomplish? Is it good mental training- for the pupils? Manifestly not. Is it of practical use to them? No such claim^ are made. Most important of all, is it right to compel children of immature minds to study a subjeot which only those of mature comprehension will fully understand? 'When teacliers will cease drilling children in the endeavor to teach them the number of boti^s in the body, and the names of all the muscles therein, we will feel that a change for- the better has taken place. But let them go on in the good work of teaching the children of the land how to care for their bodies. Nothing is more important than the physical welfare of the child, excet>t the very soul itself. Suit. W, ^^. Steauss of Parkersburgh, W. Va., took exception to the state- ment in the original paper, that writing should be taught exclusively in connection with language Mrork. His experience certainly taught him that writing can only be taught by speoi^i^l instruction, and best by a special instructor. He heartily seconded the statement of the paper in what was said on supplementary reading. Principa,!^ a. C^. Meewin of Brooklyn felt that better work was done now under tlie plan suggested by the paper than by the old plan of a carefully taught fixed method of teaching: writing. He heartily commended what was said on read- 726 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [ElementMy ing in the original paper. A trial of this plan, against his former views and judg- ment, showed him that the best work he had ever seen was done by it The intensity of interest evinced by the pupils convinced him that this was the natural method. It gives the pupil the power to know words at sight, slowly at first, almost instantly and intuitively in the end. SuPT. W. I. TwiTCHELL, Hartford, Conn., said that we must distinguish be- tween phonetics and reading. Phonetics is not reading; it only leads to reading. Reading is thought getting; the other may be word getting only. In the primary grade, we should learn to read, but soon we must teach them to read tx> learn. It should be along definite lines. He favored information readers. Miss Alice A. Douglas, Brooklyn, N. Y., heartily commended what was said as to doing away with copy-books. Why should pupils learn one style of writing for the copy-books and another for every -day work? Miss Betty A. Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio, strongly urged information reading, especially along the line of botany. Pbincipal F. K. Perkins, Brooklyn, N. Y., gave it as his experience, that, when he saw the work done with information readers on botany and zoology, he tried to get rid of this sort of book as soon as possible. Miss Mabt A. Fleming, Buffalo, N. Y., was surprised that any one should want to teach little children botany or zoology out of books, when the book of nature was open to them. Such lessons should be from the flowers and familiar life and never from books. Mb. Edwabd D. Fabbell of New York stated that Superintendent Ward had, in his opinion, read the original paper of the session. He could testify that he had converted his corps of principals to his (Mr. Ward's) system of teaching reading. Mb. Wabd closed the discussion. He said that the pupils learned from 120 to 150 words; they did not learn the others, they put them together, and read them. They began sentence work the very first day and the very first hour. He stated that the one needed reform in writing was to do away with the idea of teaching pupils to draw the copies, and substitute movement exercises. He had seen boys leave his school with an execrable handwriting, then go to a business college and become in a few months excellent writers, and the secret was the movement exercises. He said that if teachers are not able to teach writing properly, they ^should become able. The trouble is they are anxious for results too soon. THE IDEAL PBIMARY SCHOOL CURBICULUM. BY MISS EMMA C. DAVIS, SUPERINTENDENT O^ I'lUMAIlY INSTRUOTION. CLBVEI.AND, OHIO. The child, the teacher, the environment, the course of studv, i\^^ methods; all these are comprehended in the school. It is their de- gree of excellence and their relative significance which constitute the ideal school. And as the ideal curriculum is most practicable and best operated in the ideal school I shall touch briefly on souie o! I>epartmexit.] PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM, 727 the principal constituents of the ideal school, more especially upon tlie ideal teacher. -A.S I make such prominent use of the word ideal, I hasten to fore- stall any misconcei>tion of my application of the word, by stating at once that by it I do not mean some vague Utopian dream of how things might be, but I do mean the best that may be, the best within the farthest stretch of our horizon of to-day; best that is practica- ble ajid. possible, that we may strive for and grow to, and, reaching, KTOw beyond. And in depicting the ideal school with its course of ®^^est equipped and most skillful teachers, and not until the teaeher herself, recognizing the importance of her mission, and re- !5ar ieiJ"^^"' ^^ moved to do for the coming generation what we uuderst-^^^.out every faculty of soul and mind and spirit to a pi^ht Ood-gi-Vea i-J^ """^ *™*' appreciation of the beauty and use of this THE CURRICULUM. tlieTdeal'*^^*^^''^^^'',^' ^^^j " \ t»^^ «'»'-«^ of study uppn w^ch even about thi^ f f,*'?, will need to depend largely as her meana to bving TVithia ^"-sicled, harmonious development of the chil<\ larly in the *i^^ memory of most of us, the course of study, particu- 46 'ower grades, has undergone a great change. -vVe stand 730 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Elementwy on greater heights and see with clearer vision. In the old days and ways we set up for ourselves with zeal and honest intent an ideal too — a very golden calf of an ideal, it is true, but still our ideal of what the child ought to learn; and we went to work with zest and earnestness to teach it to him, to drill it into him, and we did it But as for co-ordinating the studies, or relating what the children were learning in school to the interests of their every-day life and avocations, it was, except by the sages, unthought of; and to have held, that there are other and higher aims for education than the acquiring of learning, would have been deemed fanatical. But New occasions teach new duties. Time makes ancient good uncouth; They must upward still and onward Who would keep abreast of truth. And the great difference between the then and the now lies, chiefly, in our point of view, as to true aim of education. Upon this hinges the whole change from the old to what we call the "new edu cation," though, as Preyer says, "the path has been lying open for a hundred years, but has been little trodden, and, therefore, is prac- tically a new path." But yet the educational idea has not been at a standstill. It has felt strongly the influence of this marvelous age, — an age in which the sciences and mechanic arts have made giant strides; which has witnessed victories of progress in political and social flelds. . While educational progress has not been, perhaps, so notable as these others, yet there has been a steady advance. Now this past century of slow and almost hidden growth is beginning to ripen into fruitage. The last ten years have witnessed a rapid development of the educational idea, and we are on the threshold of a new era; the new education is destined to be universal. Not only are the best educational journals full of it, but all the principal normal schools — those of general scope — have taken up the subject. Men from every profession are giving it serious consideration, and from all points of view. We find statesmen, physicians, lawyers, artists. actors, as well as schoolmen, writing in the current magazines upon the various educational topics. Now, the aim of this new education, as even its opponents are fain to admit, is to base the work of the child upon his own ex- periences, to lead him to gather data for thought from his personal observation, and to inspire him to interpret these experiences and observations, independently and originally, to relate them with each other and with all previously gained knowledge, and to apply them to the interests and acts of his daily life. In order to facilitate the operation of this plan of training and accomplish its aims, it becomes the duty of the teacher or school I>epartmeiit.] PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM, 73^ Officers to provide such an arrangement of conditions and instru- Ti^Tfil ^ '^''" ^^^ *^^ ^^*'^ opportunity for this self-revela- tion tnrough self-activity, provoke and promote observation, and at the same time, stimulate and guide thought. of ^m'^ ^'^'^ebel. above all others, to whom we owe the inspiration «L I, ""^^^^l^cation. We all know the history of his life-work, th.fZ!^i ^oHowing the lead of Nature, he founded upon her laws DrflPfi^!i r^^""^^ ^^^^^"^ ""^ education, so true to nature and so d^TJJ^L. . *^^ ^^^^® ^^'^^ ^^"^ ^""^^^y ^^a<5 to SO to the kin- t^rgarten to learn wisdom; and so from him have we learned, that, irinH '^ ' ^^^<^ate the child along the lines the Great Creator has fil^^^"! '"".f/® ^^^""^^ ^'^ °^"®* discover the true correspondence of xie world without to the soul within; we must place the child in right relations to the world-the real world of facts and events-and in tne naturaJ conditions for spiritual and mental, as well as phys- icai, growth. In order to clearly perceive what are these true rela- thp \^^ • ^?^ natural conditions, we look about us, and we see that tne cnim m his usual state of freedom is encompassed by the myriad actualities and activities of life and nature, about which his active joung senses are gathering in continually, though in a haphazard 1^ ay, items of information; vague notions, mainly, for his untrained «ie^se^^° ^^siinilate but little of the food thus presented through h^h'^^I^^ ^liters school it becomes the duty of the teacher not to take Him from this natural plane and put him on the artificial plane of purely formal studies, as we were wont to do, but, taking cogni- zance of them as natural factors in his education, present these every- ^ '1/i?^^ ^^ ®^^^ guise and orderly array and sequence that the child s mind taay rightly and clearly apprehend them, may correlate them and give expression to them as definite knowledge. How may ^j^jg Y>e done? We will consider the "how'' presently, but let us first consider "what" these items of information are. We find them to "be ideas, more or less exact, of color, sound, quality, forni, dimension, size — relative and absolute — number, quantity, di rection, dista.xice, location, time, space, measurement. Ideas ot snow and ice, wind and storm, heat and cold, clouds and sunshine, day and night, and the seasons; of sun and moon, and sometimes stars. Ideas of places, of streets, or roads and lanes, hill and valley, river and brook, and sometimes ocean or lake. Ideas of stones and rocks and sand or claj, of coal or wood or iron, of gold and silver and tin. Ideas of trees, leaves and grass, and perhaps grains, of flowers, fruit, vegetables. Ideas of the vari- ous domestic animals, of birds and insects. Ideas of their own lit- tle anatomies. Ideas of trades and occupations, of buying and sell- ing; of foods aBdc/otlxing; of houses and buildings; of vehicles; ideas 732 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Elementau of family relations, home duties, etc. In fact, ideas of all that lif teaches in her daily object lessons. • If we should classify these under their technical names, we slioul assemble what would seem a formidable array of subjects for youn minds to grapple with. For, besides the reading, spelling, writing arithmetic, music and drawing, usually found in the primary schoc curriculum, we should have sociology and moral science, histor and civil government, geography, including physics and chemistry mineralogy and astronomy, botany and zoology, physiology an< hygiene and geometry; and with all this a broad field of literatun A formidable array, truly, and one at which our "forbears" migli gasp in dismay. But, after all, what are these but the things with which the chi dren are brought into daily familiar contact — the instrumentalitie which nature has placed before us for the training of these living growing minds and souls! Let us see whether this "Nature's course of study," which w claim to be essential to a full, harmonious and all-sided education, i practicable and may be put into the schools. To facilitate the classification and the putting into operation o these nature studies — using the word "nature" in its broadest sense— they may be classed under the general heading "language lessons, for which, in most schools, twenty-five or thirty minutes daily i; usually set off in the program; each subject under this general hc*ad ing to take its proportional number of lessons in the year's assign ment; and each subject to come in at its appropriate season. We will commence, if you please, with those lessons which hav^ their beginnings in the first days of the first year of the primar; school. The teacher in the ideal school will devote her earliest con versational lessons to those subjects that lie nearest to the interests of the children. She will talk to them about their names and ages, ask about birth days, get them to tell her of brothers and sisters, of the baby, of tin gi'andmother, of companions and playmates. These little confidences will lead on to the subject of kindness and consideration for brothen and sisters, for neighbors and friends; care of the weak, respect dut the aged, love for and obedience to parents, etc. From the home. In natural transition, comes the school. Little forms of politeness ap plicable to the school, and to the home as well, are taught and pnic ticed daih- ; courtesy and unselfishness on the playground and in tlu' street; recognition of and regard for the rights of others, respect for and obedience to authority; all such points as these are made topics of definite lessons on morals and manners, which broaden ont with the advancing grade of the pupil, and form the basis and stand ard of that ethical teaching which is an essential element of all in struction and training. PBIMABY SCHOOL CURBICVLUM, 73 liixU -1-^®^, ^^^^^^'sational lessons serve a manifold purpose. The ins t>^^ "^^ ^^^ ^*^^ ®^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ *^^^ *^^ children in spea m^nt: ^ ^^f_ ^^^^^'s— in public, as it were— an especially helpful el incolcaV* ^ ^'^^^ strangers of the first year. But, most of all, th i^^ ' ^ ^"^^ ^^ ^a» ^o ^^^y of man to his higher self. dr-en ^"^^^^^^^loiis, while beginning with the birthdays of the cl of ±h^ ^^aa on by natural transition to the various anniversar . ^ y^ar, bringing us to the threshold of history. These lessc y^^^ anniversaries of the nation and of the Christian wor o^fii" naturally with that of Thanksgiving Day. Its purposes a 1^1X1 az-e told by the teacher in effective story, adapted to the t ance-mc-nt of the pupil and accompanied by an appropriate poem oci learned by them. In the same way, as they occur, are treated t events of Christmas, Washington's Birthday and Memorial Dt Eaclx -becomes the center of historical associations, and each h xtrs ai>i>ropriate literature, poem or extract, which touches the hea or fii-es tlie patriotism. "^^^^^^ ^y^^ history lessons, in story and poem, lead on in ev i?%riciening circles through the four primary grades, and, beginnii "^^^^^ ttie local history of city or township, touch upon the princip events and personages of American history. -"^l^^S with the course in history, and co-ordinated, also, wi tliat of conduct and morals, may be carried a line of topics for oi lan-s^^-S^ lessons, which constitute the beginning of the study of cr government. These may begin with the name of the teacher and t I>i-incii>al of the building, etc., leading up to the names of the schc oiHcials, and what they do to carry on the schools. Then comes t city government, with its various departments and officers, and the several functions. This opens the way to the considerations of ti "^^^^^^ facts of the State and National government; and a four yeai c:oxM,ir&G wiJl h^yg ig^.^ ^ ygpy ^^.j. foundation for the intelligent stuc of civil ^orernment. ^^ s soon as the children reach the sta^e where, in experience ai ^^^^^^S^^^^^ojx, they can be carried in thought bej^ond their immedial ^^^"'^P^^^t, geography should be closely related with the history. Tnis oral geography, however, should hare its beg^inning in th fii-st ^nversation with the children about the home and school. Her ±±xGy ™ ^^^iaulate and make definite their ideas of location, pos tion, distance, etc. Here, also, are formulated their ideas in descrij ^^^^^^^^Phjr^ ^f the aspect of the surface of the earth as they se ^^ d^vlr^ -ideas of streets, roads, lanes, hill and valley, broo -t'^us^ of th*^^^*^^ and third years are begun exercises in observe t:xo , zxxe clx^^^iges of day and night, the rising and setting of th 734 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Elomentar sun, the horizon, the points of the compass, and such like topics which constitute the elements of mathematical and astronomica geography. The study of political geography has also its beginnings here, ii the study of the local geography of the city or township. By meani of a skillfully arranged series of stories about this wonderful bal on which we live, by well directed observations, by use of sand mapi and the globe, the general physical aspect of the earth and its grant divisions is learned, and the child is made ready for the more forma study of the subject in the text-book. In the realm of geography, anc co-ordinated with it, in even the primary grades, comes properh those elements of physics and chemistry of which the child sees ex amples almost daily. The freezing of water and other liquids into solids, the melting of snow, the formation of steam and vapor, the origin of rain and snow and hail; the action of the snn's heat upon water, the refraction of light by the prism, the rainbow, water seeking its level, combus- tion, and many others of the ordinary chemical and physical phe- nomena, can and should be taught by observation and by demon stration in simple experiments. Under the title of physiology and hygiene should be given from the very first a series of lessons, graded to the advancement of tLe pupils, upon the human body as a whole and as to its parts (external only, in the beginning), in which special attention is called to the beauty, the wonderfulness, the usefulness of each and all. Lessons on the organs of sense, with the uses of the senses taught objectively and trained by special exercises; lessons on the skin, with special directions for cleanliness and cautions against the ills that come to us by this road; lessons on sitting, standing and walk- ing properly, and on the acquiring of correct habits, should be cor related with and form the conscious basis of their daily physical culture exercises. Lessons should be given on food and drink, with special reference to the what, when and why which govern the regulation of diet, and consequent health and growth; also, lessons on breathing, and on pure and impure air, and the necessity for proper ventilation. It is these (»v(»ry day facts which relate to proper living which we should dwell upon in the lower grades, giving the pupils a proper respect for this earthly temple, and leaving the science to the higher grades. And let me interpose just here, that this physical training should b(3 made as much an essential part of the curriculum as the mental training and the moral training. Its educational value is co-ordinate with its hygienic value, and its application to the education of the child should be made from a scientific basis. I>©partinent.] PBIMABY SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 736 We cannot but be profoundly impressed by this week's "study of caild nature" symposium; with the intimate connection between motor ^ ability and though taction in young children, and for the necessity of a right understanding of this interdependence for the true order and right method of development, not only physically, but mentally. In botany the children can also begin at once on entering school in the jf all witli simple object lessons upon the bright autumn leaves, so easiljr attainable by even the tiniest child. Their interest, first at- tracted by their beauty of coloring, is easily drawn to their form and structure. The pressing and fixing of the leaves in various designs on blank paper :for school-room decorations also gives opportunity for the **social ^»rork,'^ the cultivation of an esprit de corps — a community of interest so much to be desired. The lessons on leaves may be followed in the winter season by lessons on fruit, nuts, and some of the vegetable roots, and these correlateii witlx the hygiene of food. In the earliest spring comes the study of tlie awakening leaf bud, and then the window gardens may be made ready and the peas and beans and morning glories and other seeds, planted by the children, who will watch with in- tensest interest to see the little green points come peeping up from under tbe mold. And laere, let me repeat, and I cannot too strongly emphasize this point, that in every case the child must be the observer, the experimenter; uq(- the teacher. It is the child who must search and discover for himself and tell. We set from nature not only our objects of study, but our methods of study. A four years' progressive course of such observation work, rightly directed, and wisely supplemented by oral lessons and by written and illustrated records, in which the plant is studied as a whole— as to the relation of part to part and as to the development and function of each part~-_cannot but result in power and knowledge. These natural history lessons include, also, of course, zoology; that is, lessons on the domestic animals and fowls which have long had a place ^g object lessons, and, in addition, study commonly known birds, insects, such as the earth worm, the ant, the caterpillar, with its wonderful transitional life, teaching the beautiful lesson of hope; the industrious bee, with its social habits. These are, or should be, studied from life. There is scarcely a schoolroom to which a cat, or a caterpillar, for instance, cannot be brought Every lesson should be accompanied by an appropriate story, told or x-ead to the children. Stories which teach some lesson of love and care for and protection of dumb animals— for all living 736 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [EHements things, stories that will touch the sympathy and arouse a feelii of responsibility towards all of God's creatures. In every one of these subjects, under the general heading of la] guage lessons, the oral and the written reproductions, are made tfc basis of language training; for in this way, and in none otlier bettei the pupils learn to use language fluently and accurately, and in th written work all such matters as capitalization, punctuation, etc are practiced and learned more readily and understanding-ly, an< with far less expenditure of time and effort than in the old way o giving rules and special exercises; in fact, it is "learning by doing. All these that I have outlined are in addition to reading, arith metic, penmanship, music and literature, which, as has been seen, has everywhere a place in the choice selections of prose and verse which accompany and supplement every branch. And, also, the manual training course, which,* though constituting a method rather than a plan, an instrumentality rather than a distinct department I will nevertheless briefly consider separately, as, in the x^resent status of education, it must, for several reasons, be treated as a separate branch. Says a thoughtful writer, speaking in behalf of the manual training expression: "The human mind is creative as well as ac- quisitive, and a scheme of education which develops the acquisitioD side only is fatally one-sided and partial." Another says: "The complete mental act begins in experience, is established in thought and bears fruit in action." Assuming then, that the creative activity should be called in to perform its share of the work of developing thought, the manual expression should, wherever and whenever pes sible, lend its aid. ITow may this be done? I can have time to illustrate but by a single instance. Suppose that — in the second year, perhaps — the teacher, in lier nature work, is giving a lesson on fish, and has for her object a min- now. After the oral object lesson, and before the written reproduc- tion takes place, suppose she gives the children clay and has them model the fish under consideration. Can you not imagine how ac- tive and acute must be the observation; how much truer an image, both as to a whole and as to detail, is formed in the mind of the child ; and how much richer and more exact will be this written ex- pression of his idea? But besides these co-ordinate uses of the manual method, there are certain subjects in which the manual expression should hare the most prominent part. Among the most evident of these are those subjects based upon form. The manual constructive method is the true method for the foun- dation study of geometi7 in all its divisions, and it has been thus demonstrated that it can be studied at a much earlier period than has ^*>«Ji?«aiaiiciitl DISCUSSION, 73 toe^on formerly thought possible; in fact, it should begin with th first weeks of the child's school life- It would be of little avail to outline a course of study in this de X>artment, and for obvious reasons. Though there is none I am mor« ^^t^T^ly interested in, I fear my enthusiasm would carry me too fai ^-^■^ ^ *oo deeply into a discussion of it. So I will stay only to say "<:li.a.t^ there are certain kindergarten occupations which, if righth ^-T^T^^^^^y form the best basis for the carrying on of this line of work ^o^ trlie application of this method. DISCUSSION. Bf 188 Lydia a. Kibby. Philadelphia, Pa.— The essentials of an ideal cur- rioiil^ina are: First, it must develop all the powers or faculties of the child in theii TiSLtnir-CLl order and according to their relative importance; second, it must be flexible ^xxoxiLsti. to adjust itself to the growth of the child, and broad enough to embrace 'tliL^ '^vi^ie difference in the environment of the pupils and teachers for whose use tt Is zx&SLde. Time curriculum for elementary schools must be sufliciently attractive to win t:li.e^ cl3iilr«Lot:icable and possible. Its first step links the school with the home, the next CL-fct^CLobes it to the world around him, and the last extends his mental horizon to ^fclzie -v^rorld that is beyond his physical grasp. The body and the soul are not I need scarcely stop to enlarge upon the value of the first of these steps. The s^^ddon transition from the familiar faces of the home circle to the strange popula- •tioix of the school, from his loved pets and toys to the more forbidding appliances of learning, has been stripped of its terrors for the timid child, because educators la a. Are studied this part of the situation more thoroughly than any other, and a radioal reform in the work of the first days of school life has already been made. T-^acliers all feel the necessity of making the child feel "at home" in the school- room. "^^e writer of the paper under discussion, taking advantage of the situation, ygv^lmcly builds upon it the first steps in sociology with the duties and responsibilities X>e3rt:a.iiiing thereto. These ethical teachings are to be defiBite in matter and in pur- pose in the mi^^j ^^ ^^^ teacher, as carefully planned as a lesson in geography or a.rit:limetic, linked in matter to that which has preceded. As in arithmetic or history -ttt^ first steps should lead by no devious route to the end of the pathway, so in morals and manners the end or aim should be direct and definite. This character 1>ulla«modicaiJy. ^^ ^.^^^ ^^ teach history, grammar or arithmetic at any informal oi>i>ortun2ty that shall present itself as teach morals in that way. Do not mistake 738 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Glementarj my meaning. Children detest sermopizing. I sympathize with the culprit wlio said to his mother. "If you are going to whip me, do it; but don't talk &l>out it and whip, too." A skillful use of the material presented in such full measure in tlxe paper you have heard, will enable the teacher to inculcate and emphasize the cardinal virtues of childhood, without giring the child the idea that he is being preaclied to or lectured. Politeness, unselfishness, regard for the rights of others, loT-e tar tlie creatures of the earth and for the earth itself, shall, in the future, grow from these small beginnings. Think of four years of such teaching falliixg: upon the starved soul of the little one, coming from a home without a mother or from one in which poverty or ignorance has driven the softer graces of love! Teachers, you can make Eden and Paradise possible to the adult age of this child tlirouirh the Jerusalem of such a school! When character-building shall receive the time and attention whiclx its vaJae demands, the public will change its estimate of the teacher's work and advance her compensation. The world is, in the long run, shrewd enough and business-like enough to know a good thing when it really gets it. The language lesson, oral and written, dealing with the incidents in the daily life of the school and the home, are already in the schools. With little trouble, you can lead the child to the deeds done by those whom he has not seen, and thas history has its beginning. Childhood is as capable of building ideals as more ad- vanced age. Many a boy of four or five has already determined that tie will be "a man just like papa!'' Give these little jones the deeds of earth's best and noblest, and having done your best, leave the rest to God, not asking that each shall be a Horatius or a Gincinnatus, but content that each shall be a better son, brother or citizen for your teaching. I have said "the second step attaches the school to the world around the child." There is a greater significance in this than you may at first accord it. The young child loves the world. Its every day facts, that have no novelty for us, have an irresistible attraction for him. Next to doing things himself, he loves to see others do them. How many times has the patient teacher, who has been urging punctual- ity upon the little ones, seen all her work nullified, for the time, by the men who were hoisting a stone upon the wall of a building or laying a railroad track ! Children generally view with delight the actions of the worm, the spider, the bee, etc., until ignorance puts enmity between the child and nature by a frequently reiterated command from the mother or nurse to *'Put down that nasty thing! It will hurt you!" It is here that cruelty to animals begins. The inanimate in nature is so novel, so wonderful, the child's curiosity is so keen at this stage, that no one can question the propriety of beginning the study of nature in the primary grades. On the other hand, the child's will-power, his moral power, his self-control, are weak. His co-operation with you must be bought, not commanded. You must win him to work as nature does and with her tools. In proportion as you bring attractive elements of the outside world into the school-room will truant-playing and absence diminish. The list of studies named in the paper sounds formidable. It bristles with "ologies" and "isms." The wayfaring man and the fool shall err therein. The unprofessional, and even some of the professional, teachers shall vote it impossible. It will be a failure in the hands of those who have not studied the child and who do not love him. It has been said by a great educator that the young child can learn a little of a great many things, but not a great deal of anything. This is, I take it, what is proposed in the paper before us. Its author, after classifying the child's acquired knowledge under the various heads of sociology, moral science, chemistry, hotany astronomj-, etc., remarks: "What are all these but the things with which the chil- T>opartaient.J DISCUSSION, 739 dren -are brousi^t into daily familiar contactV" This is the key to the understand- ing of the work : not all or even much of these as sciences; not formulated knowl- edire; not the olassification and the nomenclature adopted by each, but so much as the child oan receive through his senses, first, and through his imagination, buildincr upon liis sense perception, afterwards. In this woir^, "the little child shall lead them" (the instructors). So far as he can be induceles that the teacher fondly thinks will impress the truth upon the mind, but, as I>r. White says, "Undirected repetition produces stupidity." Here is a fine chance for getting more time for other things. I have said the new aim of education is to teach the child to live; to enjoy to the full the patrimony that was prepared for him from the days that the morning 740 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary stars sang together. He is embryo man — possible angel. Look at him on no small scale. Will you open bis eyes that he may see the wonders of his heritage? Will yon train his ears to hear the melody of the whispering breeze or the grand har- mony of the ocean waters, thus working with the angels? Is it not worth while? What will it do for us? This is working with the child, for the child will help ua. Mias Habbibt L. Kbelbb of Cleveland warmly commended the paper and discussion. This ideal school is destined soon to become the real school. Nay, in some places in our country it is the real school. It is the need of the age. What do we see to-day but the blind forces of human nature rising up against law and order? The child must be so taught as to assure the safety of society. The Goth and Vandal of our hearts is to be met in the coming struggle. Mb. J. F. Smith, Grinnell, Iowa, said that the heart of every teacher is saddened by the sight of thousands of children, going out into the world from our grammar schools, unprepared for the work of life. We must so arrange our work, and so do our work, as to bring into the mind of the child what there is in knowl- edge for them, and we shall have them push their way into higher schools. They must have at least some conception of what is in it for them. He himself dated all his love for study and teaching from the time when he discovered that in arithmetic was something more than the fact that six plus five was eleven. The same principle applies elsewhere. When an idea is once grasped it is held in his mind ever after. If a pupil saw, for instance, how the table of long measure came to be as it is, it would be indelibly impressed upon his memory. Take geometry, make it thoroughly concrete, and teach arithmetic through geometry. Db. Edwabd Bbooks of Philadelphia said that he cordially coincided with the idea of the two ladies who spoke first. The problems of elementary education lie at the foundation of all education. Primary teachers attempt the solution of one of the most important questions in all education when they discuss the course of study of elementary schools. Two elements enter into this question: First, the child himself; second, the great world about him, that correlates with the poten- tialities of the child. The child mind is not different from the mature mind, what- ever may have been said by some of the greatest leaders of educational thought during this present meeting of the National Association to the contrary. Truly, the child is father to the man. Any other notion is misleading. Child psychology is not different from adult psychology. He mentioned a child in his own home, a grandchild two and one-half years old, that has already in its infantile mind the elements of physics, of botany, and especially of zoology, mineralogy, and, in a childish way, of psychology. What are children interested in? What attracts and develops the energies of the child first? Turn to the great world of knowledge; it came from the human mind. It is a world of mind. The world of matter is also to be used in the educa- tion of the child. Between these two worlds there stands the spiritual world: feeling, intelligence, thought, the will, are to be formed and informed. What a task is this! Some claim that alone the material world is to be taught to the child. He thought differently. Not geography, not natural history, not literature alone, is to be the basis of elementary education. Not any one, but all of these, and more, should be its basis. It is heterodox to base the education of a child upon the material world. Rather base it upon the spiritual world, and all the others. Lift the child from materialism to spirituality. Mr. Emerson says that the scientist puts insects into a bottle, but let him beware lest he put himself into the bottle; and let us beware lest we put the children into a bottle and label them. SuPT. William N. Babbingbb, Newark, N. J., said that he feared that the best men of to-day thought that our redemption is to lie in a course of study. He Department.] DISCUSSION. 741 favored a good course of study; but the highest school, that which spends its time in making men and women of its pupils is best described by Garfield's oft-quoted saying, "that the truest and best university is a log with Mark Hopkins at one end for a teacher, and a student at the other end." Do not expect to evolve every- thing from the mechanical arrangements of the school. He docs not teach arithmetic for the sake of developing arithmetic or any other subject to develop it; but he teaches all subjects for the great purpose of developing the child. The rest is incidental. We must train our teachers to be what they want the children to become. Nothing can touch character but char- acter. We shall lift our schools through the coming, well-prepared teachers. He felt that it was not yet time to teach children merely how to live. They must be taught to make a living, not simply get one, for our feet still rest on mother earth. Miss Scofield of South Carolina spoke feelingly of the needs of the chil- dren of the colored people of the South. She said that there must be, in order to reach the child and properly benefit him, some interest felt and manifested in the home of the child and its surroundings there, on the part of the teacher. Mes. Maby H. Hunt said that one time, owing to a delay of two hours from a derailed train, she looked about her and saw a little schoolhouse on the hill. She entered and listened awhile to the intelligent young teacher. She seemed to know something of a new order of things, and I asked her what she was doing in the way of teaching the newly introduced scientific instruction in temperance. She answered by timidly giving a lesson on the subject for my benefit. It was a help- less way, her way of handling the subject, and she seemed to feel it. Mrs. Hunt said that she herself then showed in that school-room how to teach it; she took hold of the subject, and developed a method of bringing out the truth adapted to the development of the child. She said that the moral education of the children must be done, if ever done, in the elementary school. Db. Rickoff of New York said, that, with regard to the question at issijLe, **What may our children know?" he felt that the little child, however poorly taught, is a philosopher at heart. The germ is there; it should be cultivated, if l^^ ts to grow to the full stature of manhood. Miss Dutton of Cleveland, Ohio, bore her testimony to the abiding power of this kind of teaching. In a certain school there was one ideal teacher in tH« first primary grade, and she (Miss Dutton) could select afterwards in the seven t:ii and eighth grades the former pupils of this teacher. They were so well prepared and so richly prepared. They even then drew, in their language work, from wli«.t they got in the first year. She one day asked all the pupils of the eighth graUe to tell in writing their impressions of their first year at school. Many of thoin, imconsciously, testified to the power of her teaching. One of the brightest boys said: "That was the best year I ever saw." That one j'ear had influenced thetn more than all the others. DEPARTMENT OP SECONDARY EDUCATION. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July 11, 1804. The department met in the Methodist church, Wednesday afternoon at 3 o'clock, Dr. Amelia Earle Trant, Acting President, in the chair, and W. H. Bartholomew at the Secretary's desk. Rev. Dr. Allen, minister of the Methodist church, spoke words of hearty welcome. Dr. Trant gave an admirable inaugural address. Prof. Charles P. Lynch, Principal of the High School, Cleveland, Ohio, read a paper on the topic, "Is It True that the Most Defective Part of the Education in This Country is That of the Secondary School?" The fpllowing discussed this paper: J. T. Buchanan, Kansas City, Mo.; E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio; Charles C. Ramsay, Fall River, Mass.; W. H. Smiley, Denver, Colo. Messrs. Harris and Smith being absent, the reading of their papers Was post- poned to a future meeting. "How May a Professional Spirit be Acquired by the Teachers of the Secondary Schools of America?" was the topic treated in admirable and attractive manner by Miss Ida B. Haslop, Pueblo, Colo. This paper was discussed by J. Remsen Bishop, Cincinnati, Ohio; J. T. Buchanan, Kansas City, Mo.; L. C. Hull, Lawrenceville, N. J.; C. C. Ramsay, Fall River, Mass. Mr. W. Wilberforce Smith, New Jersey, read a paper on the topic, "Should Latin be a Required Study?" and the same was discussed by Ray Greene Huling, Cambridge, Mass.; J. Fred Smith of Grinnell, Iowa; and H. P. Emerson of Buffalo, N. Y. The following Committee on Nominations was appointed by the President: E. L. Harris, Oleverand, Ohio; Lawrence C. Hull of Lawrenceville, N. J.; J. T. Buchanan, Kansas City, Mo.; Miss Bull of New York; Miss Ida B. Haslop, Pueblo, Colo. SECOND SESSION.— Thuesday Afternoon, July 12, 1894. The President called the meeting to order at 3 o'clock. A letter was received from Principal W. T. White of Knoxville, Tenn., in which he stated that in consequence of the railroad strike he was unable to be present. Dr. Trant referred in fitting and feeling terms to the decease of President Crombie before introducing Dr. Huling, who read a paper on the life and services of President Crombie. 744 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Second "Discipline as the Result of Self-Government" was ably presented in a pa] read by A. V. Storm, and the same was discussed by W. H. Smiley, Deni Colo.; F. S. Fosdick of Buffalo, N. Y.; J. T. Buchanan of Kansas City, Mo.; O. Hovey of Newark, N. J.; E. L. Harris of Cleveland, Ohio; and Mr. Stork Montgomery, Ala. A paper on "The Relation and the Possibilities of Hig^h School Training Regard to Public Speaking" was read by Frank Sheldon Fosdick, Buffalo, N. Y "High Schools and Academies— Their Place in the State Educational Syste and the Proper Course of Study for Them" was not read; but in accordance wi established rule, it was reserved for publication. A paper was presented by Miss Eoline Clark of Fremont, Neb., entitled "T Training of High School Teachers: (a) Is the Term of Service in the Gramm School Advisable? (b) Is There a Need of Specialists?" The paper was discussed by Miss Ida B. Haslop of Pueblo, Colo.; Chas. i Ramsay, Fall River, Mass.; E. O. Hovey of Newark, N. J.; Henry F. Purd Brewster, N. Y.; C. P. Lynch of Cleveland, Ohio; and Dr. Trant of Buffalo, N. ' "The Future of the American High School, and How it May Advance Patrio ism" was treated by J. Remsen Bishop of Hughes High School, Cincinnati, Ohi The report of the Committee on Nominations was presented by the Chainna and unanimously adopted. Your Committee on Nominations would respectfully report the following officei for the Department of Secondary Education of the National Educational Associi tion for the ensuing year: President — W. H. Smiley of Colorado. Vice President— WiBB H. L. Keeler of Ohio. Secretary— Mr. C. H. Thurber of New York. Edward L. Harris, Habbibt E. Bull, Ida B. Haslop, J. T. Buchanan, L. C. Hull, Committee. Mr. Sites of Washington, D. C, moved that a vote of thanks be extended to the Acting President and the other officers for their excellent work in the prepara- tion and carrying out of the program of this department. This motion unanimously prevailed. The department then, upon motion, adjourned to meet one year from this date. W. H. Bartholomkw, Secretarif. Department] A HE SECONDARY SCHOOLS DEFECTIVE f 745 18 IT TRUE THAT THE MOST DEFECTIVE FART OF EDUCA- TION IN THIS COUNTRY IS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS? BY CHARLES P. LYNCH, HIGH SCHOOL, OLDVBLAND, OHIO. It is needless to review the history of the movement which cul- minated in the publication of what School Commissioner Harris pronounces "the most important educational document ever published in this country." In his letter of transmittal Commissioner Harris says: "It has been agreed on all hands that the most defective part of the education in this country is that of secondary schools." Our oldest institutions of learning are those of higher education. The Boston Latin School, established in 1635, Harvard the year after, and Yale in 1700, are the pioneers of a long line of colleges. From the establishment of Harvard till 1818 the only public schools were the so-called grammar schools, in reality schools of mixed grades, with a comprehensive course of elementary and secondary instruc- tion, often fitting for college, but to which children were not admitted unless they "had learned in some other school or in some other way to read the English language." The "other way" was the private school or the home, the only means of primary instruction for many years, and it is only in recent years that the primary schools have been recognized as a part of the free public school system. Of still later development— the latest, and, therefore, the youngest —is that of the high school. The academy is an older institution, but it was not a free school, and the modern high school, free to all, is the youngest child in the educational household. The college, then, has a history of two and a half centuries, the grammar schools of less than one, the primary of a little over one-half, while the free high school has not much more than a quarter of a century. If, as thus indicated, the secondary schools are of less than a half century's growth, it is not to be wondered at if they are the most defective. This charge cannot be sustained against many of the great secondary schools in the large cities. Ho^pvei^,*^ viewing the whole range of secondary education in comparison with the departments immediately above and below it, Dr. Harris is not alone in the conviction that the one latest in the line of development — ^the secondary — ^is as yet the most defective. In speaking of the defects in secondary education, they may be regarded as, first, absolute, and, second, relative — absolute, as these defects are found within the secondary schools themselves; relative, as considered in their relation to the college. Of the absolute defects the most prominent are perhaps (1) inferiority of teaching ability, and 48 746 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Secoa (2) inferiority in equipment. The inferiority of teaching ability secondary schools may be partially accounted for by the fact that subjects themselves are much more diflScult both for instructors teach and for pupils to learn, for the transition from grammar sch to high school is so sudden that it requires a long time for pupils adjust themselves to it. This work so new to the high school pu requires a high order of instruction. The great need in secondary school work is the higher educatioi qualification of its teachers. True, a large proportion of them i graduates from college, and many of them have a normal trainii but a larger proportion are not masters of the situation, and i conscious that they are not. It is true that the conditions und which teachers labor in America are peculiar when compared wi those of England, Germany or France, where teaching more near approaches a profession than with us, and if remedies are secured relieve the situation it must be by the teachers themselves. TJ mills of the legislators grind slowly, and action from this source not likely to bring immediate relief. The relief must come from o\ own resources. No one questions the truth that vastly more is required froi teachers than a mere knowledge of the work to be covered in teacl ing, and yet here is one of the grave defects in secondary school worl While there are many, there are not enough high school teachers wli( are at the same time hard students — teachers who show such master of the subjects taught as to be an inspiration to pupils to read, thinl and work outside the narrow groove of text-bx)ok study. Professo Hinsdale asks, in a paper read at Toronto in 1891 : '^Which is better much scholarship and little method, or little scholarship and miict method? The answer to this question cannot for a moment be held in doubt. Both theory and experience declare for scholarship." Fol lowing the general scholarship of this comprehensive character, there must be provided a more general professional training of teachers. Many States have established institutions for the training of teachers, but their work is so elemental^ in its character that finished scholarship has avoided them. Their courses of study are below the rank of secondary schools, and the character of training is principally for primary departments. As a result, our primary schools are fur- nished with better teaching ability than any other. It is not to be expected that the normal schools can offer sufficient training for the 400,000 teachers, or, indeed, any great proportion of them; but they can furnish training for a large proportion of the lower grades, and the colleges should offer courses in pedagogics to all graduates who contemplate entering the teaching profession. CJark, Johns Hopkins, Harvard, Cornell, Ann Arbor, and other universities, are providing courses in pedagogics, which, if generally pursued. department.] ABE SECONDARY SCHOOLS DEFECTIVE? 747 would, in a few years, together with other agencies, greatly elevate tile rank of professional work. Summer schools are doing helpful work, but it is generally too diffusive to be fully adequate to what is needed. The need for conference among teachers on their special subjects, it is hoped, will be followed ere long by some wisely ar- ranged system of conferences such as shall bring together those who are engaged in the same line of work, and the Secondary Department of the National Educational Association could accomplish much by taking steps toward inaugurating such conferences, and thus raising the standard of professional work in secondary schools. There is need of professional work and professional spirit among secondary school teachers. I will venture to say, that there is more professional spirit among lower grade teachers than among those of the higher. The greatest stress has been put upon elementary work in later years, more educational journals are published especially for primary teach- ers, who attend more associations and institutes, and, in short, are more enthusiastic and alive to the dignity of their work, than any other body of teachers. The aggressive, growing teacher cannot fail to see that a standard requiring a college training, not for a few, but for all teachers, and this followed by continuous and well directed study as educational qualification— a college training for all, I repeat, as educational qualification — a thorough course in pedagogics, or its nearest equiva- lent, as professional qualification, will be a great advance toward removing the serious defects in secondary school work. The defect of inferiority, or utter lack, of apparatus is a difficult one to remedy, and yet it is especially noticeable in secondary grades. It is a defect which can only be remedied by school committees, in- cited by enlightened public opinion. Every school should have the use of a lantern and lantern slides so varied as to meet the needs of all its departments. The classical department should have its Greek and Roman views, showing the places of interest referred to in the course of their reading — the Forum, Colosseum, Pantheon, Parthenon, Appian Way and others — at least fifty classical views which will con- stitute a permanent and valuable addition to any high school equip- ment. A collection of French and German views, especially interest- ing to students of modern languages, are obtainable at moderate (expense, and there is no need of choice ones from which to choose for use in the study of literature — portrait views, views of celebrated writers' homes, views of lakes, mountains and scenery, prominent in literature, varied and beautiful in character. Classical wall maps, dictionaries, atlases, models, casts, coins, charts, chemical, physical and biological apparatus — as many as possible made or secured by pupils — will be found in the future in the school that would do the best work in all lines. T^et the rooms be adorned with constellatious, 748 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Secoi Greek roots, Latin stems, and such other designs as are helpful instructive in character. One of the most useful, and, at the same time, most sesth< helps in the school-room is the presence of appropriate photogra — the Capitolium, the Forum, the Tiber, the palacje of the Caes Homer, Cicero, Ceesar, Faraday — each as far as possible appropria selected with reference to the work taught, will do much tow making dead things animate with life and beauty. "The way to resume is to resume," and the Tvay to get scli equipment is to begin. Pupils will grow enthusiastic, and pare will patronize the efforts made by their children in this lauda work and each class upon entering the high school may be brou; to regard it a privilege to add its contribution to the growing sup] Just at this time our attention is being directed to the defe in secondary schools in relation to the colleges. The educatim system of Germany may be likened to a structure consisting of thi apartments, each with its own foundation and having no connecti with one another. Those who enter the "Volks" school do so wil out thought of going any further in their education, since this apa ment introduces them at once into the ranks of unskilled labor. T "Burger" school and the "Gymnasium" illustrate again the inartic late system of Gennan education. Our educational system may be likened to a structure of thn stories, on the same foundation — the primary, secondary and tl college. We are looking toward the development both downwai and upward, making the kindergarten below and the university aboT a part of our free educational system. The American system, then, is one in which there is opportunit to pass from one department up to the next, and the fruition of ever educator's hopes will be to see the articulation among these depari ments so close that the embarrassments to all shall be eliminated. In iron ore there is not a trace of fiber. The prime object in tJi^ long process of the manufacture of steel is that the ore shall be » treated that it may come out with unbroken fiber. The "consum mation devoutly to be wished" among educators is, that there may b( developed, first of aU, an educational fiber, and that it may be an broken in its course from the beginning of the kindergarten through the university. The colleges for years have been adding new subjects to their requirements for admission, more rapidly than the improvements in the methods of teaching and improvements of courses in aecondaiy schools, resulting in the wider separation of these departments rf learning, a smaller percentage of high school graduates /entering college, and more entering the technical schools and such other insti tutions as require less for admission. There is no abjection to the Department.] ARE SECONDARY SCHOOLS DEFECTIVE? »Ag coUeges broadening their nequirements for admission bj a greater rangre of electives; but there is room for objection to their lengthen- ing them by absolute i^equirements out of proportion to what second- ary schools can reasonably be expected to meet President Eliot says: "The secondary schools, taken as a whole, do not exist for the purpose of preparing boys and girls for college. Their main function is to prepare for the duties of life that small / proportion of all the children in the country— a proportion small in ' number, but very important to the welfare of the nation— who show themselves able to profit by an education prolonged to the eighteenth year, and whose parents are able to support them while they remain so long at school.^' This statement is of more than usual significance, coming, as it does, from such a representative of higher education. While it is their main function to prepare for the duties of life this small and important proportion of the children of the country, it is evidently ; their function to do as much for those who do not go to college as for those who do, and to so equip all that nothing may stand in the way of their passing on to college, if, though late, it is found possible. It was, doubtless, a surprise to many that there was such perfect unanimity among the Committee of Ten and in the sub-committees in agreeing that "every subject which is taught in a secondary school shall be taught in the same way and to the same extent to every pupil so Jong as he pursues it, no matter what the probable destina- tion of the pupij may be, or at what point his education is to cease." This surely is ^ wider conception of the function and scope of educa- tion in these days, and it is a source of satisfaction that the con- servative East joins tYue aggressive West in this advance movement J It appears as if there may be brought about a co-ordination of colleges and public high schools, so that an educational fiber con- structed from kindergarten to university may be a practicable pos- sibility throughout the Union. If the same work is to be taught in the same way to those who go to college and to those who do not, there can be no sacrifice of good results in uniformity of high school programs. But if the subjects are not unifo^xn, the colleges may so broaden their requirements for admission that: the question shall not be so much what subjects, as now and witU what results were these subjects pursued. We are earning that tlxere is something in the reading of Caesar, for example, besides translating the four books of the Gallic War. It is a sad comment on trlie instruction of pupils, who, after completing four books, woula be utterly at sea if asked to read a passage from the nith at sigTat, and would be utterly unable to read easy Latin with- ^ the unnecessary additional step of putting it into spoken English. 1-he requirements should be, not that two books, or four, or six, must 7f)0 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Secoi be read, but that there has been acquired an ability to read Ca any or all of it, or anj^ other Latin of equal difficulty. This princ of quality work rather than quantity work should be the ruling in estimating the fitness of the pupil to admission to higher gra of work, and it holds good in all branches of instruction. The chief defect in the high school program is the weakness the non classical in comparison with the classical prog^ram. Thi perhaps true to a greater extent in Eastern than in W^'estern scho The linguistic element is especially strong in New England scho while the science work receives a larger share of attention in West. It would appear that those who take the classical course to be provided with an intelle(*tual menu superior to that of the n classical, and arrangements are made for the classical pupil becai he is going to college. He reads more Latin, takes Greek, has soi special work in English and mathematics. It is not to be impli that he should have less, but that the others should have more; tli the non-classical programs should be enriched and be made in thi way the peer of the classical. Enriching the course of study, "quantity" teachere, means heaping on burdens too great to be bon There is but onje refuge, and that is "quality'' teaching — "that teac ing which makes the soul the focus of light in which all the ra. are blended." There will not be unreserved support on the part of those ro nected with secondary schools in carrying out the wisely laid plai of this document so far-reaching in educational value, but the leavj^ will continue to exert its influence till it has leavened the whol^ lum] and friends of education will see that the interests of all are identic.^ and their aims are one. The work, however, is not to be monopolized by secondary schof teachers. The colleges must make many concessions before tlien can be anything like close articulation between these two depart ments of education. The elementary and secondary schools are free public institutions carried on and supported by the State. The colleges, with the ex ception of the State universities, are private institutions carried on independent of the State. The question properly arises: How far shall the private institutions of learning dictate to the public institu- tions what shall be taught in the latter for admission to the former? For example, one college requires Virgil's "Bucolics" for admission; another, *^Ovid;" one, a prescribed amount of special work in Englisli: anotlier, two languages besides English, one of which must be tier man. It is impossible for there to be close relations between the hi^Ii schools and colleges while these varied requirements are demanded. If the plans of the Committee of Ten are carried out, the colleges cannot fail to see that they must adjust themselves to the new order Department.] DISCUSSION, 751 of things, and the standard of secondary schools will be raised; those who can may pass on readily to college and to university, and the whole educational system will be greatly fortified at the weak points, and the observier of the future, as he scans the free school system from kindergarten to university, will not be able to discern that one department is weaker than another, but the slight defects of any one will be lost in the symmetry of the whole. Tbe masses, taxpayers and all, are friends of free elementary edu- cation. This can scarcely be said in reference to free secondary education. However, the free high school, though the latest arrival, has come to stay and is rapidly winning over those who heretofore have been its bitterest antagonists, and before the first century of free high school education shall have passed, larger appropriations w^ill be made for carrying oh this department of education. Better instruction and increased facilities will be demanded. The truth will be recognized that the needs of colleges, secondary and elementary schools are identical and the w isdom of the thought along educational lines in our times will be seen in the advanced ground which the secondary schools will occupy in the coming years. While as yet the most defective part of the education in this country is undoubtedly that of secondary schools, the same need that inaugurated them will also foster them; for the forces emanating from the secondary schools must be the power to uplift the elemen- tary schools, and the people will see how needful to the greatest per- fection of the elementary schools is the perpetuation and higher de- velopment of the secondary. Let the secondary schools continue to be the people's college, and let more and still better qualified and devoted men and women of noble mold of mind and heart attract the multitude of young people to these courts of learning. Let the throngs who are now passing therefrom to life's active duties or to college halls be but the pioneers of the coming host nisrussioK E W. Coy, Principal High School, Cincinnati, Ohio.— 1 have been sometimes amused and sometinu's surprised, and, I must confess, sometimes a little annoyed, ai the iteration and reiteration of the statement that the secondary schools of the country are, of all parts of all our educational system, the most defective. I was especially surprised that our worthy Commissioner of Education should catch up this unfounded assertion and repeat it in his introduction to the report of the Committee of Ten. Now, when we speak of the American high school, I submit that everybody understands pretty nearly what is meant. The high schools, m general, begin at about the same point and attempt about the same line of work. 752 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Secoi I do not mean to say that all do the work equally well. By no means. Then defects enough in the high schools of the country. I would freely ^ant that are deficient in all of the respects mentioned in the paper. But you may mul all of those deficiencies by two, or even by four, and still the assertion, so i times repeated, would not be true. I have said that the term "high school" a pretty definite meaning; but who in this audience will undertake to say wh meant by the term "college" in this country? It includes a class of institnt ranging all the way from a second rate grammar school to a university. Su if there is chaos anywhere in our educational system, it is in the field of so-ci higher education. I don't know but it would be well to let the impression go that the high schools are the ones that need reforming most of all, for if th: believed we may hope that something will be done to improve the conditioi those schools. But in the interest of truth it should be known that this staten in regard to the secondary schools of the country is utterly unfounded. SHALL LATIN BE A REQUIRED STUDY t BY W. WILBBRFORCB SMITH, BNGLBWOOD SCHOOL FOR BOYS, NEW JBRSE The schools that are called secondary have a noble ancestr, stretching back into the dusk of the middle ages. On one side < them have risen technical schools and modern universities, biisie with specialized studies and research; on the other side have riseJ primary schools, systematizing the instruction of childhood. But tb schools which have been longest fostered and watched with chie solicitude are those employing the years of transition from child hood to maturity. Then the physical, mental and moral, charactei is rapidly taking permanent form. The whole work of education- to discipline, to inform and to inspire — is then in requisition. The school receives the pupil so immature that earlier impressions maj be obliterated; it sends him forth so matured that what he is he will continue. Its course of studies should be solid and symmetrical not planned to satisfy a purely utilitarian demand, but to fulfill a moral purpose. If its work is well done, it is the making of a maD; if ill done, the evil is irreparable. The prominence of the classics in these schools to-day is perhaps more largely due to tradition and popular deference to the views of men whose business is scholarship than to clear and strong pop^ lar conviction of the usefulness of classical study. Latin in our schools is a survival from the days when it was the exclusive language of the schools, as it was, also, of law, theo/ogr and all science. But times have changed. This general use of La^^" ha8 given way to use of English. Meantime, new studies have sprung up, of fascinating interest and enthusiastically taught They Bepartment.] SHALL LATIN BE BEQUIREDf 763 seem to have obvious and direct relation to the business of modern life, while reflection discovers in them much moral significance and spiritual power. The typical man of to-day, earnest, intelligent and practical, re- members his school Latin as a laborious task. He realizes com- placently a certain respectability allowed by the world to those who have learned some Latin. He can recite some paradigms and rules, guess the meaning of an occasional quotation, is an amateur at ety- mological definitions, and retains some knowledge of the history and mythology of Rome. He attaches value to all this, and yet he ques- tions whether his children, who do not seem of a scholastic turn, will not gain more from equal time and effort upon other subjects. He readily concedes that Latin is an excellent thing for persons of certain aptitudes and for those who can, in university courses, pro- long their excursions in classic fields. He thinks the general neces sity for Latin has ceased; that its place is among electives, not among required studies; that other subjects give equivalent disci- pline and knowledge that will not fall so completely into disuse. Now, be it remembered, the judgment of this typical citizen is ulti- mately to decide whether Latin shall be a required study, and he ia not to be convinced by theoretical considerations alone. He cares chiefly for results. In contending for Latin as a required study, we admit that some old time arguments for Latin are not valid and that some long-usea methods of teaching it are unprofitable; but the capabilities of tbe language are not exhausted, and teachers grow wiser. The vener- able tongue has adaptability to the modern school, and has certain values which no substitute possesses and which are so great as to make the study of Latin indispensable to the best form of culture. We believe, also, Latin can be so taught that its benefits will be^ distinctly recognized in the after lives of its students, and its place in the school insured, not by decree of professional scholars, but by the testimony of the intelligent public to its manifest power to broaden and enrich intellectual life. How Latin should be taught and how English should be taught (for this paper has the interests of English in view) are admirably set forth in the conference reports to the Committee of Ten. From their exposition of the right purposes, means and methods, as a standpoint, the present argument proceeds. It comprises three closely related propositions. First, study of language and literature must enter largely into any course which issues in broad and true culture. Second, English is, to us, the specific language of paramount importance. It cannot be well stud- ied without the use of another language. Latin is by far the best companion study, and together they form a sufficiently complete ap- 764 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATJOIT. fSeooDdir paratus and field for the study of language. Ttiird, Latin, inde pendently of its relation to English, deserves studv, because of \t\ beauty, its literature and its historic associations. Superficial utilitarianism says: *^ care for things; not words Language furnishes wrappings for things/' The scholar knows thai words are things; that language, like an atmosphere, envelops, sua tains and puts its pressure upon, our intellectual life. Language furnishes the matrices in which fiuent thought and feeling are cast before they have form and firmness for use. It is a condition de- termining the range and manner of our thought. Indefiniteness, weakness, coarseness, are outward manifestations of qualities which reach downward into character. Culture of speech resolves very directly into mental and moral discipline. The ultimate cause of feeble and vicious language, as of poverty, is ignorance and in dolence, chargeable to the individual or his antecedents and asso- ciates. No educator can think lightly of language. It puts at our command the world's accumulated knowledge. It brings the past into our presence. Without it social order would perish. It is the currency of all intellectual commerce. Language studied merely as a natural phenomenon is of the ut most interest and importance. Man intending to write his thoughts has unconsciously written himself into it. As the expert discovers in one's handwriting traits of character and habits of life, so the student has deciphered in language history that lies back of all chronicles and laws of thought that reveal the nature of the human mind. Of all languages English is the most important to us. We re- joice that we are heirs to comfortable conditions of life made pos sible by generations of invention and mechanical labor; we boast of an inheritance of peace and liberty won by many struggles in senate and on battlefield. Likewise, we inherit a language developed by the genius and thought of many generations to wonderful com- pass, beauty and power; a language fascinating in its history and immeasurably rich in its literature. Indifference to this is incom- patible with true culture. That the faulty English of the graduates of our colleges and schools is nowadays publicly and freely condemned, is a -welcome sign. It bids the schools revise their methods and enlarge their pro- visions for English. These must be the more ample, because En glish, more than any other study, suffers from the mischievous in- fluence of bad practice and example surrounding the pupil out of school. But English cannot be well studied without use of another Ian guage. The pupil's very familiarity with the forms of speech in which he is accustomed to think, defeats his efforts to make these Departmeut.] SUALL LATIN BE HEQUlREDf 755 forms an object of study. The vigor of English idioms and the gen- eral excellence of its manner of expression is best measured by com- parison with corresponding parts of another language. Latin is the best companion study for English; first, because of its historical relation, whereby it becomes interpreter of much in English vocabulary and syntax, which otherwise lies unobserved or meaningless. Pupils begin Latin at about the age when their vocabulary is extending beyond the Anglo-Saxon words of home life into the great borderland occupied by Latin derivatives. They are of an age to begin serious study of the great English writers. These men were bred upon the classics, and, as Latin has shaped their thought and expression, it is a key to the interpretation. Latin is the best companion study for English, secondly, because these languages are so unlike and exhibit such contrast. Contrasts are suggestive; they make things conspicuous. The two ancestors of our English were, fortunately, very unlike. The Anglo-Saxon, rude, vigorous, living by word of mouth, meager, sufficient only to the simple necessities of a twilight civilization and a people who thought of little but fighting and feasting; the Latin, elaborate, -formal, accurate, a book language, with a vast literature of highly developed philosophy, poetry and law. Difference in the order and mode of studying the two languages arises from the fact that English is the pupil's mother tongue and. Latin is a subsequent acquisition. Practical and easy use of .En- glish being already acquired, the pupil is not interested in Englistk technical grammar, because he sees no use in it. It does not helj> him read or speak, and he appreciates no other purpose in grammar. He is not yet prepared for scientific and histonc study of it. Bixt: Latin grammar commends itself to juvenile common sense as mani- festly necessary and directly helpful in dealing with the Latin lan- guage. Vocabulai'v and paradigm and rule unlock the Latin sen- tence and exhibit its contents. The careful, necessary and continuous attention to the form anepartment.] SHALL LATIN BE REQUIRED? 757 foreign land and to a distant age; withal, to a people of high civiliza- tion and unequaled attainments in the very practical business of war, of engineering and of law. Though not among them bodily, he ^ains by close and long continued study acquaintance not less in- structive. Only in maps and pictures does he see their features, their dress, utensils, anus and dwellings, but he reads the ipsissima verba of the books and speeches and laws which taught and stirred and governed the Romans. This original material of history is satu- rated with Koman feeling and genius. Typical men — Caesar, the warrior and ruler; Cicero, the orator and philosopher: Virgil, the nation's laureate — tell him what Rome was. This effect cannot be p:otten from translations. We remain strangers to a people of our own day if we do not learn their speech. Nor can the same mental reaction and stimulus be had by search in contemporary fields. Only when a cloud has drifted away from the region of like electrical condition to a region differently charged will the lightning awake within it. To the argument for Latin because of its relations to English, let there be added consideration of its claims on its own merits — its intrinsic beauty and strength, its great literature and its historic associations. When Latin is wisely taught, even the average pupil will have something of the linguist's joy in knowing so capable a servant of the human soul and in recognizing the excellence which made Latin reign so long. The cultured mind delights in mere knowledge of a thing so admirable, as it delights in knowledge of the heavenly bodies which it has no thought of utilizing. Latin literature is a compendium of what has been rewritten a thousand times. If life be short and school days brief, and jBt tilie literary treasures of the world and a literary sense be worth trlie having, there is no other way to wealth both so swift and so sure as by classical study. Greek may not be the privilege of all; l>ut Latin, of the period when Rome had absorbed the philosophy and art of the East, when she held the world of learning subject, as slie did the world of politics, must be the portion of all upon whom tlie secondary school shall set its seal. Let not Latin be called a dead language. It survived the na- tion that spoke it and told their wonderful story to after ages. It reigned for centuries, the international language of Europe, tlie sacred language of the church throughout Christendom, the language of all worthy the name of law and enlightened government in all the world. It preserves for us the learning of the ancients and nursed the infancy of modern science. Now, indeed, its individu- ality is a thing of history, but its usefulness continues. If we trace our intellectual, moral and constitutional history, we soon find our- selves in the domains of the Latin and on a road that leads to Rome. 768 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [ Secondar This paper is written in no scholastic nor antiquarian spirit. The secondary school has no other just purpose than usefulness to thi present age, an age of busy activity, of swift advances, of serious diflTiculties, and with little time for indulgence of mere tastes, how ever admirable. But it is an age full of the haste that makes waste, of restlessness and discontent which mark essential failures in life, of credulity prone to foolish novelties in religion, morals and poll tics, that may bring awful consequences. The most practical, the most useful education for to-day is that which leads to wisest think ing, that gives poise, wide knowledge, wide sympathy and modera- tion; that enables one to rise above the rush and dust of business and material pursuits to larger views of life; an education that has carried thought and interests beyond the horizon of the mere present, that gives beliefs and judgments having deeper foundation than the novel and newspaper, and gives a courage not subject to winds of popular passion.. HOW MAY A FB0FES8I0NAL SPIEIT BE ACQUIRED BY THE SECONDARY TEACHERS OF AMERICA? BY MISS IDA B. HASLOP, PRINOIPAIi OF HIGH SCHOOL. PUKBL-O, COLO. Just as soon as the requirements of the teacher's vocation are raised higher, so that those only who have received a course of train- ing along scholastic and pedagogic lines may enter the ranks of the teacher, just so soon will the gate to the sacred inclosure of the three 'learned professions" be opened freely to this fourth aspirant for professional honors. But immediately the questions arise: How can we raise the standard of our vocation? How compel teachers to qualify them- selves professionally for a vocation which neither requires such train- ing nor pays any higher price when it is thrown in? How much more honor and money are given the worthy than the unworthy peda- gogue? How many really professional teachers are in the field to- day? How many are there who would refuse more lucrative opening^s in other lines of work? How many of you have entered this pro- fession with the express purpose of making it your life work? If you inquire of your pupils what business is to engage their energies in later life, how many will there be — of the boys — who mil choose the profession of teaching? I say "of the boys," for, although many of the girls expect to teach, they also expect that their pro- fessional career will be brief. The school-room is only a way-station. Department.] PROFESSIONAL SPIRIT IN TEACHERS, 759 a sort of "stop-twenty minutes-for-refreshments" place, on the road to matrimony for a great procession of girls. Do not think I blame them. Oh, never! I simply state as a fact that one of the things that prevents our vocation from becoming a profession is the number of women engaged in it who are unwilling to take a professional training, because they are constantly expecting to be otherwise engaged sooner or later. I believe, however, that the proportion of ladies among secondary teachers, who have entered upon the work equipped by both academical and professional train- ing, is as great as that of the men. The lady high school teacher is much more likely to be a permanent factor than her sister teacher of the grammar or primary grade. If I were to ask you what you consider the noblest work in which a man can engage, you would probably reply, that in which he can do the most good for mankind. On vote, I believe the work of the teacher would stand first, and yet, is this a profession which you desire your son to follow? I think not. Why is this? What is lacking? I^aJ'g^lyj to my mind, it is a matter of dollars and cents. When the profession of teaching pays as well as do the other professions, there will be more strong men attracted to it — when special proficiency receives special pecuniary compensation. There is a work to be done with the people in regard to this. They must be taught that they cannot have their work properly done, unless they are willing to pay such salaries as will secure teachers who will make teaching their vocation, and who will have prepared themselves for their work by ample pedagogical and scholastic train- ing. We must teach the people that they cannot get a good things unless they pay for it, and then we must see that we fill the require- ments of a "good thing." We must be so thoroughly imbued with a love of the profession that we cannot make a living at.anything else,, and we must co-operate to raise the standard of the profession so that we can make a living at it. Again, the lack of permanency acts greatly in preventing teaching from taking rank as a profession. This is caused, not only by the presence of so many transitory ladies, but by the more deplorable fact that the great majority of the men who enter upon the work simply do so in order to better qualify themselves for other professions. Then the tenure of office does much to exclude from the work those who would be an honor to the guild. A man must feel indeed called of Gk)d, must have a necessity laid upon him, if he undertakes as his life work a profession which has so little honor or emolument and so much uncertainty connected with it. No matter how carefully he may have prepared himself for the work, nor what excellent results may have followed his efforts he may, because of a change in the 760 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Secom political complexion of the board of education, or the personal pic of one of its members, be compelled to lose the position which he ably filled. We need a civil service reform bill especially applical to boards of education and teach-ers. Until the time comes wh merit and ability will be of as much importance in the eyes of t board of education as the teacher's political opinion, or his persor relation to them, we fear that many will turn to work in which ti prospect for earning and receiving suitable returns for their lab are more certain. Again, there needs to be engendered in the minds of the people greater respect for our vocation, and this can be accomplished by tt elevation of the profession, by making the academic and pedagogics standard so high that to simply state that a man is a secondai teacher would be equivalent to saying that he possesses a liben education. Only when the teacher stands head and shoulders above his bes pupil does his work become professional. So long as he has need o ^Ijeys" and "ponies," so long as he needs the rattan or suspensioi cards, he has no right to call his work professional from any stand point. The academic requirements of the teacher should be raised. The standard all along the line should be advanced. More thorough scholarship, broader experience and better disciplined minds should be required of those who demand certificates to teach in our second- ary schools, and, in addition to these, an unmistalcable evidence of an aptitude to instruct should be a leading requirement. If this association could awaken in the minds of the teachers present a real love of the work for its own sake, could bring down upon each one of us this holy spirit of earnest endeavor, what a re- vival there would be all over the land! Are we sure we want this power? Am I certain that I desire to be possessed of any such energetic spirit, which will pull the weakly novel from my hand and substitute a text-book on pedagogy or a Gibbon's "Decline and Fall: who will drive me off to an association of teachers, instead of a camp- ing tour; who will send regrets to a card party, and compel me to spend the evening preparing to-morrow's lessons? I can remember that I use to pray to be a Christian, when down deep in my heart I rather dreaded the coming of the reformatory period, and wondered if I would really enjoy being good. Don't pW for this professional spirit unless you honestly want it Be as can i as the little fellow in our town, who, at a time of a religious awaken- ing, being asked by a good old lady, ^WilUe, don't you want to he a Christian?" replied, "Oh, no, ma'am, I'm a Presbyterian '' Now, if vou are content with being simply a Presbyterian, don't pretend that I>epaTtTOent.] PROFESSIONAL SPIRIT IN TEACHERS. 761 you want to be a Christian, too, for it is as hard to have too much as too little. But the question may be asked as to how this renovating spirit may be infused into the already fleshless bones of some methods of secondary instruction. How can the teachers, who are so peacefully sle(*ping that they do not even dream of any change that may have come upon the spirit of education, be aw^akened? What sort of a nightmare can we persuade the god of the leaden mace to pound into their drowsy brains to rouse them suddenly from their slumbers? If vre could send a little sprite named "Position-Lost-on-Account-of-Lack- of-Professional-Spirit," the nightmare might be effectual. A ten days' prayer meeting in an upper room will only bring tongues of fire to the heads of the devout few, while the great multi- tude look on and criticise the convenience and utility of the new style of head dress. Among other things which might be helpful in bringing down the spirit to the many, we would suggest that we need more secondary literature. There are a few periodicals now which are very helpful to high school teachers, but their number is too small, and these few do not receive the enthusiastic support of secondary teachers gener- ally. We do not take advantage of their open columns to discuss the points we most need. New methods, new books, knotty points in mathematics, hidden roots of Greek i-erbs, the ever fruitful theme of Hamlet's sanity or insanity, psychological investigation of the infant mind (or lack of it), etc., open such wide fields that there is surely a little spot of sandy soil which even we weak women might dig up and irrigate till it would blossom like a dandelion and be as productive. Truly, I am in earnest on this question of secondary literature. We need another "academy'' carried on by the principals of the secondary schools of the United States. Another suggestion which I would like to make is, that we have organizations of secondary teachers apart from our State organiza- tions, where we may discuss questions helpful to us, though of no great import to superintendents or primary teachers. I wonder if we all have not attended State meetings where not a single topic was discussed which had any specific interest for us? I have come home from many such a meeting feeling decidedly snubbed, professionally and fraternally speaking, and have longed to be a kindergartner so that some i)hase of my work might receive some attention. |i Might we not have department meetings at the annual State | association? In tlie more thickly settled States there might also be j, something like district meetings, including the secondary teachers of ij several counties, for which programs could be arranged with papers or round table discussion of problems of special interest to secondary { 49 ! 762 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Second teachers. There is a great deal of inspiration in the contact of felk workmen, and, among those who are real workers, very little of t snobbery, which sometimes causes unpleasantness at conventions other organizations. If each one of us, coming as we do, from different sections of tl country, could carry home with us an enthusiasm that would not d out before school opens, and use it as a coal to kindle a little fire ; each State in the Union, we might have sufficient blaze to warm oi own finger tips, and, perhaps, spare a little brand with which 1 scorch into activity some poor old college professor, who has bee hibernating for the last decade, and who, by the way, is partly r sponsible for our dormant condition. We are told by critics that the secondary, and even higher educ( tion teachers, are not progressive; that we are worshipers of th obsolete; that we refuse to see any beauties except along the good ol ways by our fathers trod; that we declare that the guideboard erected by our ancestors must remain, even though we know, dowi in our inner consciousness, that the roads have changed; and tlia we even insist that the roads have not changed, and that this mossy crooked and stony by-path is the broad highway of liberal education Well, I do not think the critics are wholly right, but just here "ii the bosom of the family," as Mr. Micawber would say, I will confesj that I think there is a grain of wheat in their two bushels of chaff. I look with admiration mingled with awe at the indefatigable energy of kindergarten and other j^rimary workers, and wonder what might be accomplished by high school teachers, if educators would turn their attention this way for a few minutes. A third thing that might be helpful in implanting or cultivating a professional spirit among secondary teachers, if we could ever bring it about, would be the attendance of our teachers upon the various schools of instruction which are carried on during the sum mer months. Not only schools of methods, but those of academic instruction, are helpful. We would ever insist that the teacher be a student, not only of the branches which he is to teach, but also of some other study, that he may keep his own mind active wath work. We find strong specialists in these schools; we learn new methods by making ourselves pupils; we see as with the people's eye the mistakes which we as teachers have been making all the year. Another point w^hich I mention with some trepidation is that of professional etiquette. There is an unwritten code of ethics which prevails with most teachers; but there are some people w^ho seem to lack that intuitive knowledge of the truly noble and kindly way of treating their fellow workmen, unless it is especially pointed out and specific laws written for individual offenses. Years ago there was a fine old rule laid down by the foremost educator of his own or any r>©partment.J ^^OFE^SIONAL SPIRIT IN TEACHERS, 763 otlier ^S^J^^\^J jead something like this: "Whatsoever ye would that "^^^r^^^^ ^o unto you, do ye even so unto them." It 'is just as applicaDie lo tne nineteenth century teacher as to the Jewish rabbis wlio hea t as a new truth so many years ago. I hear that my l>r-otUer teacner ^m j^^^ j^.^ ^^^^^^ ^^ j ^^ ^^.^^ ^p ^^ ^^.^ ^^^.^^ to^wn 1 u 1 the people who love him all about it. "Whatsoever ye would. 1 nave heard that Mr. G. is criticised for extravagance. Til tell this parsinaonious j^^g^^ ^ho may run for school director next ?^^^^L^^^«^*^^^^'^^ ^^ would." That position Professor L. holds his work, but he with the political _ _ „ _ - : ^'Whatsoever ye would!" ' " The pupils complain of the assistiint's work. Let us not listen to the pupil, keep our own eyes open to see and our own voices ready to kindly correct, but let not the children know that we blame any one. Do we go to a new school whose teacher may or may not have clone good work. Let us not criticise our predecessor. "Whatsoever yG would." You say: "We are not guilty of these things. Such faults are found only in the vulgar." I would that there were no A-nlgar members of our profession. I would that all might be willing to say only the good of each other. Let us have a professional table of the decalogue. It might be something like this: 1. Thou Shalt love thy work with all thy mind. 2. Thou Shalt not make unto thee a golden image, nor teach Tvliolly for love of moaey. 3- Honor thy board of education that thy position may be secure in the city where thou dwellest; but honor thyself and thy profession more. 4z. Thou Shalt not under-bid thy fellow teacher. 5. Thou Shalt not tell to others the faults thou seest in another teaclier; first cast the beam out of thine own eye. O. Give thy days to the teaching of others and thy evenings to sel:f- improvement, if thou wouldst grow strong. T. Thou Shalt not steal thy friend's good name, nor the work of his pen and call it thine own. S. Thou Shalt not kill thy fellow teacher's reputation nor be glad of lx±s3 failure. O^ Thou Shalt not bear false witness against a teacher. lO- Do unto otliers as you would that others should do unto you. 070 j^ou and me is given the work of lifting up to a loftier planer the liig'ii profession to which we are called. Shall we open our miiicl. to tlie spirit offrutlx ix^xd progress? Shall we make our fellow teaclx^ ers, our worA- ^^^ oixr pupils better, nobler, by our contact witl^ thetti? To-mopj,^^ ^^^ ill tell. 764 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOIT. [SecoDduj DISCVSSION. [Rbported by R. G. Boone. ^ J. Remsen Bishop, Ciucinnati, Ohio.— The lack of professional spirit is du€ less to the teacher than to the public. A profession was defined as an occupatidii that requires high mental power and liberal training, and is free, as the trade i> not, from the element of bargain and sale. Teaching has these qualities, and is a profession by every sign we know. That it has not been so recognized, is due in part to the fact that teachers have not claimed it. Numerous and earnest and high grade organizations among those engaged in secondary school work will help it on. Mb. J. T. Buchanan of Missouri.— Teaching has been recognized anion? teachers themselves as a profession for forty years. It has not been generally so recognized by the public. The difference between the pay in this and other pro- fessions is not great. Teachers are as fair and as successful and business-like ti< are members of other occupations. Teachers already have too many magazines and do too much reading — not enough thinking. Mb. L. C. Hull of New Jersey.— A more vigorous and general attempt should be made to aflSliate the public high schools with higher institutions, and strive to do such work in quantity and quality as will meet the requirements of the related colleges. Teachers so possessed of responsibility will grow of necessity. The suc- cess of the system of approved high schools in Michigan was referred to and commended. Mb. C. C. Ramsay of Fall River, Mass.— Colleges are in many places doini: poorer work in teaching than are high schools. Where inefficient work is done in secondary schools it is by those teachers who do not attend and are not present at such meetings as this. I regret that the remarks of tlie pai>er could not be felt by the absent ones. Teachers can scarcely make their own work a profession. There is but little demand for such recognition. Each, however, can do bis work faithfully, and trust to the worth of the results. Do not be disturbed at low salaries. This is chiefly a question of economics and belongs to economics. DISCIPLINE AS THE RESULT OF SELFGOVEENMEXT. BY A. V. STORM, STORM LAKE, IOWA. When this topic was presented to me I was a little afraid of it. It looked reversible. "Discipline as the result of self-government.'' "Self-government as the result of discipline." The diflScuJty in de termining which is the cause and which the effect in this is equal to that in the important question of whether great men are the cause of the general advancement of mankind, or the general ad- vancement of mankind the cause of great men — to which a famous French historian devoted so much argument. While I shall not discuss the question there seems to me to be a mutual depend DepaTtment] DISCIPJ^jj^e AND SELF-GOVERNMENT. 765 ^^^li .f flPlf «1^^^^ discipline can exist without self government "^"^ J fthe irr''.'^''^^ ^eeds a process of good discipline, is as true ''^. I; San^^''^'''^ ^«^^« ^a°^^t P^^^"^^^ a Bacon, nor a Bacon raise tne e^aud^eh Islanders to the level of Queen P:iizabeth's En- griislimen. ■^^^l-hicl ^?^*^^^^^g that the only practical discipline is the dis- cipline ^ ux IS the result of self government, I concluded to in- dict the same paper upon jou, but to allow you your choice of titles. Can lie iiek all tlie big boys? Does he keep good order? Is he £t good disciplinarian? In all ages, from the days of the grandfather of the "Hoosier H< lioolmaster," to the present, and in all lands, some form of this iiitt^rrogatory has been propounded regarding every applicant for a ten Cher's position. Thus, ^'through all the ages one unceasing pur- pose runs." And this, in our public schools, seems to be to have teachers who are good disciplinarians. At one time the desirable teacher was one who could do all the Slims in Daboll's or Greenleaf's "Arithmetic;" work by the rule of tUree, single or double, and spell every word in the "Old Blueback" from "b-a, ba; k-e-r, ker; baker." Of course, if he could parse a little and set a few copies it would not be objected to; nor would it if he chewed tobacco, smoked a little, and drank hard cider, if, vvith all these minor accomplishments, he was a good "licker," for tliis age of our system gave currency to that profound pedagogical principle "No licking no larnin'." He might be rude in manners, c.»oarse in language, careless in person, uncouth in dress and gait, iijieducated and uncultured, but if he could "whale" the "feller" that led tlie "gang" in that "deestrick," he was the successful teacher of (lie age. A.S educational barbarism becomes a little less dense, we enter a transitional state. Some optimist advances the theory that chil- dren need not be made to fear in order to be made to obey. The iceexier sighted teachers adopt the theory. The duller ones adhere ia tlie old. Public opinion is in an unsettled state, as is evidenced hy tb.G form which our all important question regarding the teach- er's ability takes. It is no longer the narrow, dogmatic, positive question as to bis beating power, but it is the broader one of "does be fceep good order?" Tlaese two questions are typical of the ages they represent. Each beiii'S plainly the marks of the thought of its time. The first shows that tliej^ are fully satisfied that corporal punishment with the rod, or ^v-i til more severe nxeans, if need be, is the only correct mode of HiHcliyUiiG; for they sixow this in the question, "Can he whip?" N'o question arose in iliGir* minds as to the advisability of such punisli- nient. That nv?« se^t^tr\ed. The only question was: "Has he tho 766 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Secondary physical power to wield the rod?" Discipline to them meant only bodily pain, and bodily pain flavored with a few facts constituted education. The question in the next age has changed. Not "can he" but '*does he'' — not wield the rod — but keep good order. These words tell much. They confess that the public questions the theory, old as Solomon, of the rod and the child. However, the public are no less anxious for results than before, as is shown by their thrusting this question before all others. They feel, and truly, that without good order no school can prosper. But public opinion is growing apace. The faith of the public in the infallibility of the rod is sorely shaken. They no longer aflflrm that the rod is the only means of discipline, for they are not now seeking one who can and will use it. They are broadening rapidly. They are no longer saying: "We know our school cannot be taught unless he punish the children. We are sat isfled that the only effective punishment is beating, and we want our children beaten. Can he do it?" But they are saying: "No school can succeed and be disorderly. We want good order, if we do not have anything else. Does he keep good order?'' In this second stage, they are conceding to the teacher a great deal — the mode of punishment. Yet the development of a people in any important line is necessarily slow. The advocates of progress in all lines must fight continually against the forces that are pas- sive— inert — and against those that are actively clinging to the things of the past. Even w^hen school discipline has reached its second stage, the battle is still a hard one. Many of the people in this age have seen such beneficial results from milder means that they dare not openly question its eflScienor, yet they fondly cling to the memory of those "good old days of yore." Within a tw(*Ive-month, I have heard a certain old-time teacher ex- tolled for the wonderful school he taught and the "order" he kept and as an example of it the narrator told how this person left lii's school without a teacher while he went down to the creek, a half mile or more away, after some runaway boys, a few of whom he suc- ceeded in catching and "thrashing" back to the schoolhouse! What an exhibition of profound power! The majority of the people of this age, however, were ready to concede to the teacher the manner of maintaining order. Bat tier still clung to the necessity for good order and to their theories of what constituted good order. No one desires to deprive them of the former, but the latter they have been compelled in many in stances to abandon. What is good order to one generation is f«'^ from it to another. Some instances of good order in one of our best schools of to-day would have been rank rebellion in some of tie schools of our grandfathers* day. But the teachers and the I>epartment.] DISCIPLINE AND SELF-GOVERNMENT 767 are just one generation ahead of a majority of the parents in edu- cational affairs. While the advancement made so far indicated a great improve- ment in the conception of what discipline is and how it may be ob- tained, yet, having made such advancement, the leaders were enabled to see that there was a firmer ground beyond toward which they must press. We believe with our forefathers that no disorderly school can accomplish the best of work, but the egregious blunder of the past in regard to discipline was, in exalting good order to the position of a definite end to be obtained, entirely independent of instruction, and by methods having no connection with it. Disci- pline meant the power to compel the pupil to perform the teacher's will and to keep quiet. They reasoned thus: No school can do good work unless there be good order. Hence, good order is the prime requisite. Hence, the teacher should turn his attention primarily to having good order, and secondarily to educating the child. We now think that there is somewhere in this ratiocination a fallacy. No man can perform his daily work unless he eat. Hence, the prime requisite is to eat; hence a Gladstone should give the attention of his mighty intellect primarily to eating, and secondarily to matters concerning the welfare of the greatest nation of Europe. The present age has detected the fallacy, and is rapidly setting itself right. Regarding the candidate for a teacher's position, we no longer ask about his power to wield the rod nor whether he keeps good order; but we have broadened the question when we ask: 'Is he a good disciplinarian?" Not "Can he?" as in the first instance, nor "Does he?" as in the second, but "Is he?" Not "Can he use the rod?" nor "Does he keep good order?" but, 'Is he a good disciplin- arian?" As we ascend our horizon recedes and our field of vision widens. The three sentences we have used epitomize the rise and growth of the sentiment regarding discipline. In this third stage the senti- ment is rid of the objectionable features pointed out in the first and second, viz., the erroneous ideas of the relation existing between dis- cipline and education, and the misconception of what constituted good order. The present age believes in the harmonious development of the individual. That good order will be a concomitant of the best of work. That government of the people, by the people and for the people, under the judicious direction of the wiser heads selected for that purpose, is as well suited to the school-room as to the State. And the best schools of to-day act upon these beliefs in formulating their modes of discipline. "There is nothing new under the sun." The laws of the develop- ment of human civilization are the same in all ages and climes and 768 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Second in all departments of our civilization. The story of the deveiopm* of the subject of discipline in our schools, is, in miniature, the st( of the progress of popular government the world over. From Squeers to our more advanced American schools of 181)4, from a despotism of the darkest ages to a republic of the uineteeu century. The lines of one are traceable in the other. The sai blunted sense of human rights and methods of human developme that gave the king power of life and death over his subjects ma< "Dotheboys Hair' possible in "Darkest England." Not that th(^ conditions were contemporaneous, for they represented only the san stage of development of two lines of civilization. But the plan < developmenrt is the same. As those who governed became more skilled, they felt the r sponsibility of a right development of those under their charge, au by the treatment which they accorded to the governed show^ed thei their true position. With new rights and privileges came new dutie and responsibilities. As the new school of disciplinarians gave t< the pupil more privileges, the sense of responsibility and self-coi trol in relation to school affairs began to develop in the pupil. Allow- me to formulate a definition of discipline, which, thoii/fl it may not meet the approbation of Webster or Worcester will bt sufficiently broad to serve as a common ground for all interested in this subject from the standpoint of the teacher. Discipline is tliat which induces the pupil to do that which he should do and restrain^!! him from doing that which he should not do. This will apply to all the efforts made at school government from the earliest time. It includes three processes, viz., to know what to do, to desire to do it and to have the power to compel the doing of it. In any operation oi control, these steps must be taken. The part which the pupil takes in these successive processes dt*^ termines the character of the discipline, and distinguishes tiie dis cipline of to-day from that of earlier times. There is something: broader and deeper in discipline than keeping the pupil quiet so that others can go on with their work. If there is not, then the quietest school is the best school, and to this we are not willing to subscrihe: for I have seen schools that were quiet simply because of an atro phied condition of mental tissue. The proper devc^lopmeut of those faculties which will make the pupil capable of self-control, viz., the judgment to discriminate he tween right and wrong, the desire to do the right and the powei" to comi)el hims(*lf to do the right, is of infinitely more importance than that a denth like 8tilln(»ss should reign in the schoolroom and ev(»ry pupil move with military precision. Recognizing this, the best disciplinarians have sought good dis cipline through the medium of self-control. Such discipline is ^^"^ Department.] DISCIPLINE AND SELF-GOVERNMENT. 769 more valuable and no less practicable than the discipline wherein the teacher compels obedience to his own will and the pupil exhibits no other characteristic than that of subserviency. In the schools of the earlier times and in the poorer schools of to day, the teacher alone decides what shall be done and immediately compels the pupil to do it. Little time need be spent in pointing out the evils of such a course. The pupil, not having given proper consideration to the points touched upon in the rules which accompany such a course, is very apt to think some of them unjust that are not so. The teacher who formulates such rules is probably one who has so little con- sideration for the pupil that some of the rules are oppressive. The pupiFs judgment of right and wrong is dwarfed because of a lack of exercise. The judgment, like any mental or physical power, needs cultivation to give it strength. Judgment of right and wrong can be developed only by exercise in discriminating between right and wrong, and this, like any other exercise, mus-t be judiciously con- ducted to be beneficial. The pupiPs moral judgment is also distorted by being given a wrong motive for action. He is not moved to do a certain thing because he should, but because the teacher so commands. This deification of the power of the teacher is food for the pride of the tyrant, but an irritant to lovers of justice and poison to the highest development of the pupil. ''Not my will but thine be done," is good philosophy when used to repi'esent the relation of a finite creature to his infinite Creator; but false and injurious when used to represent the relation of a finite pupil to an equally finite teacher. Equally good reasons may be urged against false methods of achieving the second step in discipline — the desire to do right. It is not enough that one shall be able to distinguish right from wrong. This is of no avail if he voluntarily choose to do the wrong. He must be so cultivated as to desire to do the right. This second step is perhaps more difficult than the first, but the mode of discipline which ignores this factor can never be the result of self-government, nor can it deserve a place among the methods of the future. It is the teacher's duty to see that the best motive for doing a thing is aroused in his pupil. The motive one has for doing a thing gives character to the thing done and to the mode of accomplishing it. The Christian religion and the public school, the two greatest uplifting influences of modern times, have kept equal pace in their philosophy of right doing. As doing right for hate of the devil and fear of hell is giving place to doing right for love of God and hope of heaven; so doing right for fear of the schoolmaster's stinging tongue and birch is giving place to doing right for love of right and in obedience to a cultivated conscience. 770 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Seoondiu There are few pupils but need more cultivation in this secon< step than in the first Far too manj' pupils know what is right, bu voluntarily choose to do the wrong. Here is the opportunity for th exercise of the teacher's most valuable power. For, truly, is no he who can so influence one pupil that he will voluntarily choose t do right, rather than wrong, greater than he who pilots a clas through cube root or over the ^^poiis asinormnf^ Biit is a pupil capable of self-control when he is able to distinguisl between right and wrong, and has a desire to do the right? No until he has such control of his will as will enable him to do tli< thing he desires to do. Here, again, must the watchful teacher comi to the rescue, and from his knowledge of human nature in general and this pupil in particular, supply the necessary conditions for th( strengthening of the will power to meet the emergency. The three processes mentioned are necessary to the pupil's ob taining self-control, and the teacher who does his duty by the pupih must secure his discipline through their self-control. It is as niuoli the teacher's duty to cultivate the pupil's moral power of self-con trol as to cultivate his intellectual power. Are not life's problems the solution of which depends upon the former as important as thost whose solution depends on the latter? One serious charge against the education of to-day is that it runs too much to the head. Using figurative terms that are deepJv rooted in our language, our education of the head far surpasses that of the heart. It is upon this that the pessimist bases his theorv that while the world is growing wiser it is also growing wickeder. And, however optimistic w^e msij be, a warning protest from anj considerable minority must, in a land of free thought and earnest truth search, be listened to. At our late international exhibition (pardon the triteness) ™ itors to the transportation building, patent office display or electricitr building, could not sufficiently magnify the present age in its prog ress and achievements. But those who believe the science of eJeo trical engineering to be in its infancy, look for a greater revolution in the mechanic arts in the near future than the past has ever wit nessed. So teachers are not wanting who, though they realize the wonderful progress the present age has made in education, believe we are on the eve of a more splendid display of genius in this great field. And though the matter and the methods of its presentation will be greatly improved, the changes they will undergo will be no more marked than those attending the progress in discipline. The schools of to-morrow will not revolutionize methods of discipline, but they will more fully develop the work being done by the best schools of to-dav. How is all this to be done? Department.] DISCIPLINE AND SELF-GOVERNMENT. 771 What is the elixir that is to give this new life? Ah, if I but knew! If some Brown-Sequard, Koch or Keeley could furnish teach- ers a "bitactide of discipline" liquid that could be injected into the judgment, conscience and will of the pupil, and make him forever a doer of the right, the discoverer would soon be a multi-millionaire and the trials of "ye pedagogue" would be reduced one-half. But it cannot be. Practical discipline is the result of self-control and is as much the result of cultivation as is any material or immaterial power of the individual, and as such demands time, growth, and the most scientific and careful attention that the most discerning minds can g:ive it from the beginning of consciousness till the end of life; but more particularly during the formative periods of childhood and youth. The discipline of the future will accomplish this by giving more attention to each pupil as an individual and having less of the gov- ernment general. The disciplinary needs of each pupil will de- termine the mode of treatment of that pupil. No longer will our schools exemplify the king who, desiring suits of clothes for his subjects, ordered his tailor to make, them all of one size; and though the tailor expostulated that they would not fit, the king said he would make them fit, and being "a man of his word," he did so — by chopping off the arms and legs of his too-long subjects, and stretch- ing out the like members of his too-short ones. The individual will be disciplined with an eye to his good alone. I do not wish to endanger my reputation as a prophet by prognosti- cating that it will come, but I am hoping for the time to come when the third reason usally given, viz., "As a warning to others" will no longer be one of the objects of punishment. The cultivation of the individual and the protection of the rights of his companions will determine the character of the discipline. The pupil will be brought to a better realization of his relations and duties to his fellows and himself, the former requiring the sup- pression of self in the regulations necessary to the control of a large body of persons, and the latter requiring the cultivation of the strongest individuality in the pupiPs independence in movement and methods of study. Controlling by substituting the judgment, conscience and will of the teacher for those of the pupil will be replaced by controlling the pupil through cultivating in him the power of self-control and wisely directing that. This cultivating of heart and soul power will not only enable the teacher to conduct his school without serious disorder, but infinitely better than all that, it will furnish the pupil moral sinews for a life of battle. 772 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Scconi It may be urged that I but generalize. True. He who Im bej'ond the present in either direction loses the particular and & only the general. The particuhirs of the future must be left to i young enthusiast and the conditions that confront him from ti to time, as he proceeds in the educational field. And what a field it is I As the most valuable earthly possessii are goodness and wisdom, and as neither reaches its highest devel< ment and usefulness without the other, what an inspiration thc^e in the thought that to us alone is offered the opportunity of dire ing mankind toward the accomplishment of these ends. The p*i has had such schools, the present has more, but they have been ai are the exception — the future must make them the rul<». MEMORIAL SKETCH OF JOHN 8. CROMBIE, Late President of the Department of Secondary Education. BY RAY GREENE HULING. Mr. HuUng's Sketch In memory of Dr. Cromble wlU be found In the Report of the Committee on Necrology of the General Association. I - I>ei>ajrtxnentJ ^KH SCBOOZ. TRAINING AND PUBLIC SPEAKING. 773 TTTJEJ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^ THU POSSIBILITIES OF HIGH SCHOOL TUA .Mj^TQ j^ M ELATION TO PUBLIC SPEAKING. BY ' K SHELDON FOSDICK, HIGH SCHOOL, BUFFALO, N. Y. The ability to express one's thoughts in good idiomatic English is a gift greatly to be desired. To a certain degree orators, like poets, '^ai-e born, not made." There are natural endowments of voice, of pliy siqii*^' of personal magnetism, that are of incalculable value to the P'ti^^^^ speaker. B^t history, and also our own observation, have tanght us, that the most unpromising subjects, lacking all these natural qualifications, by assiduous effort, well directed, have over- come all obstacles and gained lofty pinnacles of renown and influence. Siicli being the possibilities, why is it that public speaking is some- tim€3s called "a lost art," or one rapidly becoming so? I find two reasons for this. Macaulay gives us the key to one when h^ says: ^*Tlie singular excellence to which eloquence attained at Athens is rriainly to be attributed to the influence which it exerted there." The ^i-€?at incentive of true oratory is the controlling power it has. All j>ul>lic speakers are aware of that fact, having learned it by sad and o/ttimes most humiliating experience. Kow, in the very nature of tliin|?8, men are to-day more influenced b:v' selfish considerations, by political expediency, by the eloquence of wealth or fame, than by the liuman voice, phrasing in mellifluous periods grand and lofty thoughts; and the facile pen of the editor, with his large and appreciative audience, has won for itself a more commanding position than ever UefoT'^y and this, too, at the expense of the influence of public speaking. Kilt there is another reason for what may be termed the decadence of oratory, more potent than the former. It is, that our boys and grjrJs, not only do not receive adequate instruction in this important 8iil>ject, but, also, not even a fair amount of encouragement to use what little talent they have; that the little teaching they do receive is exce?odingly casual in its nature; that the department of elocution is g-exi orally optional or utterly unsystematic, and the instruction ^vea in I hat department is more than often open to severe criticism on ac-eouiit of its mere meehanical qualities; that, in a very large niajoritv of our secondarv schools, atention is given to a select few only, tiiose who can nialvC a creditable appearance at exhibitions or commencement exereise^s w^hile the timid, the halt, the awkward, are relegated to the Z^/icJc^j-ound. Now, this is a somewhat sweeping statement- /«ee.vomc5 ^f you do not approve of it, but it can be sub- HtavtiatGd by 8totJ8ti€z-t^^ Shortly after the subject under discussion 774 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Second was assigned to me, I sent letters to some twenty high schools different parts of the country asking the following questions: (a) What definite instniction is given to your scholars in pub speaking? (b) What incidental instruction is given? I received very full and courteous replies from all the principj addressed save one. In a majority — a large majority — ^the real struction given was very close to the zero point, or confined to prep ration for stated exhibitions or commencement exercises. Such i struction, as you are well aware, is largely in the way of imitatio not to say mimicry. In a small minority of the schools, regular wo was attempted, but nothing was intimated that would lead one believe that systematic encouragement was given all along the \m in the art of expression. Two of the schools gave most satisfactoi replies, and If those two cities do not abound in young men an women who have thoughts noble and uplifting and can utter thei intelligibly and eloquently, it is not the fault of the secondary school Now, it cannot be denied that the high schools have a duty t perform in this matter of public speaking. Of what practical valu to our boys and girls is all their knowledge if it cannot be brough into action ; if, when questions of grave import are under discussior lips that should be eloquent are dumb; if, like the ancient sphinx those educated in our secondary schools only look wise and say noth ing? Now, while I do not make a special plea for compulsoiy worf in elocution, as, with the congested condition of most of our higl school curriculums, that would perhaps not be desirable, I do believe that, by a systematic course of what may properly be termed inci dental instruction, our scholars can be made more or less proficient in the art of public speaking. Permit me to offer a few suggestions. SU(1GESTI0N NO. 1. Rearrange the whole scheme of composition work. It is needed The average course in that work is lamentably weak and vexatious, and it is creditable to the intelligence of our scholars that thex despise it. Can it be wondered at? A subject is assigned for a com position ; perchance, a plan to be followed is given ; books of reference named, and our boy goes to work at his first composition in the high school. He is somewhat ambitious and as enthusiastic as the avern^^e boy; reads a good deal, works hard at this his maiden essay. In ^"^ time it is completed, handed to his teacher, and another subject is assigned, plan given, etc. In a week or two his first composition comes back more or less defaced by blue pencil marks denoting evron and the per cent indicating its value in the eyes of the teacher who corrected it. Little or nothing further is said about the essay o\eT which he worked so hard. He is not required to correct the errors Departmeat.] HIGH SCHOOL TRAINING AND PUBLIC SPEAKING. 776 he made; in fact, in many instances he fails to see any error. If, in a fit of rasliness, he utters a protest about some mooted point or calls in question the justice of the teacher's estimate, he is liable to be incontinently "called down," so to speaJi, by the haughty corrector. Karely is he called upon to read any portion of his work in public. Never is such a thing considered unless he is a "natural reader." So it goes, month after month, teim after term, until he becomes dis- gusted, and rightly so, with the whole subject. This is not an imaginary picture. I wish it were. In at least three of the promi- nent high schools in my own State it is the general plan pursued. Now, such a system needs overhauling from the very foundation. Composition work does not necessarily imply useless, thankless drudgery. It should mean pleasure, enthusiasm. To be effective it must have two distinct ends in view, and everything must be subordi- nated to these. Firat, it should give our scholars the ability to write good English; second, it should enable them to express in speech their thoughts in a creditable manner. These two results can be obtained. Begin by selecting a subject for composition that is within the reach of the average boy and girl, avoiding, so far as possible, especially in the first and second years, any technical topic or one solely adapted to the specialist What boots it, pray, whether "Ham- let had black or yellow hair," was five feet tw o inches or seven feet sixteen inches tall? To what extent are the convolutions of gray matter increased by a dissertation upon the "comparative bravery of the Japanese and Chinese?" When the compositions are com- pleted and errors noted let the scholar be required to correct all mistakes after consultation with his teacher. In this consultation encourage him to talk, and talk freely, about that sentence or phrase, or why he used that word. The more he hears the sound of his own voice the less embarrassment will he feel when called upon to read or declaim. And then there are great opportunities for good found in this confidential, and, to a certain extent, "free and easy," intercourse of teacher and scholar. When the corrections are satisfactorily made, have the teacher select from each essay a sentence or paragraph especially well written, one upon which the scholar has evidently expended a good deal of thought, and request him to memorize and recite it before the composition class. Let this preliminary work gradually grow into more pretentious efforts before the entire school, alternating choice bits of our English literature to give knowledge of the style of our great writers, with the scholar^s original efforts. Require all to take a part in this work, the awkward, the graceful, the feeble-voiced and those of stentorian tones, the boys and the girls; for I see no reason why my gii'l> who now romps with her brother in all the innocence of childhood, should not have the same 776 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Secondar opportunities of self-improvement that he enjoys. What as a parent I demand for my girl, as a teacher I most freely accord to otli^ers. Is it not plain that, by such a jihin, there will be aroused in the mind of each scholar a desire to do his best? That the coiii|>ositi<)n will mean something to him beside a task to be disposed of as hastily as possible and finally consigned to the waste-basket? Such work as has been briefly outlined, systematically and faithfully carried out month after month, cannot fail to produce the result desired — ability to write and talk good English. SUGGESTION NO. 2. Encourage freedom of speech in every class. This is a primal necessity, if we accomplish the end v>r^ have in view. It is not suf- ficient that monosyllabic answers be given to questions. Have the scholars stand before their classmates and speak clearly what they have to say. It is a wonderful assistance to clearness of thought, as well as to felicity of expression, to talk while facing your auditors. This was never exemplified any more perfectly than in a class in Buffalo, this last term. It was a poor lot, remnants, reviewers, left- over from the regents' examination in January, a class that would tax the skill of any instructor. Fortunately, as is sometimes the case, when an emergency calls for a teacher, the teacher was there, and with great tact and ingenuity she applied heraelf to the discouraging task before her. She believed firmly in the art of expression, and day after day in her regular classes she would call her scholaiis to the front of the room and have themjW'hile facing their mates, give their own version of some historical scene or describe some battle. The sentences used were often crude; there were the stammering tongue, the blush of timidity and bashfulness, sometimes total failure. The teacher, though often disheartened at her seeming want of success, nevertheless persevered, and her faithful work was amply rewarded by the marked progress made. I visited her room just before the end of the term, and heard those boys and girls talk freely and fluently, debating certain mooted points, ready with full and satis factory answers whenever questions were asked. I heard them again at the commencement exercises of the school, and instead of a lot of figureheads mimicking the motions of Madame Squealem, the lacry- mose intonations of Mademoiselle de Weepalette or the dramatic contortions of Senor Gestique, there was individuality in tone, in speech, in gesture. They had proved the value of the new rule for class work, "Expression, not repression." But, says one: **That's all very well for history, rhetoric and allied subjects, where there is opportunity for such exercises: but what about algebra? You cannot deal with a mathematical formula as you would with the exploit8 of a great general or some disputed BeparimeDt] HIGH SCHOOL TRAINING AND PUBLIC SPEAKING. 777 question in economics. The idea is absurd." Well, I grant that the affinitj' between public speaking, as it is generally understood, and algebra is somewhat microscopic; but I still maintain that our schol- ars can leai-n the correct use of words and skiU in. their employment, even when going through the mazes of a mathematical problem. Is there a subject that caUs for any more exactness in language than algebra? I heard a boy not many weeks ago going through a long example ui algebra. He was standing at the blackboard, was subject to frequent questioning by teacher and classmates^ but was ever ready with his replies, with his reasons for different steps in his demonstration, couched in good English. He had learned from that instructor, not only algebra, but also expression, and I was proud of both boy and his teacher. I wish I had time to conduct an imaginary and ideal recitation in Liatin or Qreek, to show what can be done in these classes along the lines indicated, but I see I cannot do it. Suffice it, then, to say that in every class, no matter what its nature, it is the privilege of the teacher, not only to give instruction in the specific subject studied, but also to enter the broader fields of general information and prac- tical knowledge which go to make well-equipped men and women. I must pass suggestions three, four and five very rapidly for lack of time. SUGGESTION NO. 3. Encourage the scholars to form literary societies or reading circles outside of the school. That is, let each teacher be the fountain head or a miniature university extension course. Such societies, well managed, are productive of great good. I am aware that many edu- cators have looked upon them with disfavor, claiming, and often justly so, that the work done was superficial and the results obtained were not at all commensurate with the effort expended; that the social element was made prominent at the expense of literary work, grant that all these things are liable to occur; still, I believe in lem. The same objections were vehemently urged against the Chautauqua movement. How often we heard the words "clap-trap," 'nonsense,^' "mere superficiality," applied to it, and that, too, by prominent members of our own profession. Still, the scheme pro- gressed. Hardly a hamlet was so jwverty-sftricken or ignorant that it did not boast its Chautauqua circle. They dotted the hillsides, they spread into the valleys, they invaded our cities and towns, and ^en and women by the thousand look with gratitude to a system which first stimulated their minds and unloosed their tongues. Now, we can in a small degree do the same good work, each in his own school or vicinity. Six years' experience in one of these societies, formed especially for young people, where I have seen its members 50 778 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL I grow and expand in intellectual force an< fully and often eloquently, has made me a as supplemental to our regular school wor SUGGBSTION NO. 4. Not only encourage, but also insist, u bating society in the school — ^yes, two or is large enough to warrant it — which shal by the scholars themselves. I cannot urg< strongly. Not that these societies are to which ignorant or negligent teachers can selves are unwilling or unable to do. The to the efforts we make in our regular cla that they too often furnish the only insi for practice in public speaking — ^that o There is a young man of my acquainta graduated from a high school next Juu studies, has made a good record in his c me less than two weeks ago that never present school had he been either require opportunity, to use his voice publicly. H< ingly by any means, bat rather gleefull school paper that this same young man, ii the logical presentation of his points ant day for the aflSrmative side of the questio: Where did he obtain this skill? Was i only two years ago he was unable to get gratification at his election to a minor offic he is able to do now in the way of speaki by the debating society, which gave him made it obligatory for him to exercise hi not a rare one. I ask principals of sec< if the incident I have told cannot be dupli< in the country? Is it not time that we ga have at our disposal — full, not partial, equ the girls? Contrary to a somewhat prevj do not introduce a distracting and frivol cieties, but they add grace, sparkle, a cert is always lacking when our girls, old and of the best debaters in my school last y< first attempt at debating, nearly fainted, tion and embarrassment. Form debating them by your presence, by advice, by ass after all, goes further with our scholars t beside. iNjpartmeiit.] EIOH SCHOOL TRAINING AND PUBLIC SPEAKING. 779 SUGGESTION NO. 5. Continually, in season and out of season, instruct the scholars in the derivation and true meaning of English words. Forget all the other points made, if you will; disregard any or all of the incidental instruction suggested, but on no account neglect this. We may turn and overturn our composition work until we have a perfected system; our class-room instruction may be beyond criticism; literary circles and debating societies, like mushrooms, may lift their heads all over this country; in short, we may have every accessory which would tend to make our scholars fluent speakers, and yet fail miserably if we do not give them a proper comprehension of their mother tongue; if words are to them merely things to be used in a hap-hazard or simply euphonious manner, and not living vehicles of thought. I know of nothing that will so. enrich the vocabulary, so improve one's apprecia- tion of the English language, unlock so many stores of information and lay their treasures open to view as word-study properly and sys- tematically pursued. There is no satisfactory-— I was almost going to say, decent — public speaking without a just estimate of the value of these "thoughts incarnate," as Max Muller calls them. Open this vast field to the scholar. Instruct him in the use of that most valu- able of all books save the sacred writings, the dictionary. Encourage, incite, stimulate him to a careful study of his own language. On every possible occasion trace back to their fountain head some of our common words. Show him how some of our most prosaic terms in their primitive form either blossom in poetry or throw strong side lights on the customs and habits of other days. Tell him that so replete with meaning is our English language that even our surnames point to significant facts in the springtime of our family history. If this is done faithfully, almost unconsciously new forms of eloquence and beauty are added to the scholar's speech. In a comparatively short time his interest is aroused. lie begins to read the wonderful history of the English tongue, more fascinating than a romance. He traces the successive steps of its formation from the simple Kelts of CaBsar's day through the Latin dominance, the invasion of Angle, Saxon, Jute and Dane. He follows the Normans in their great sweep of conquest, and then pauses at one of the most peculiar conditions of affairs, as far as linguistic features are concerned, that the world has ever seen, when for over two hundred years Norman and Saxon dwelt side by side, and still their language coalesced not, until the conquered had fairly forced their language upon the victors, and from the marriage of the two tongues the grand English language resulted. He sees it continually incorporating into its vocabulary new words borrowed from almost every dialect under heaven, thus adapting itself to the necessities of science and commerce, to the requirements of liew forms of intellectual and physical activity and of modern life 780 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL with its complexities. He delves into that the strength, the sweetness, thje effe and speakers depend as much on the i words are chosen as on breadth of the possessed. He finds that the wonderfu dramatic scenes of Shakespeare, the loi ponderous eloquence of Webster, the j weird-like power of De Quincey, the soi great speakers, come not by mere spon each weighed as in a hair balance the word used, gauged to a nicety almost be tentiality. And as, year after year, wit! this fascinating word study, "dives deep into practical use the beauties of exprej discovering, his love of his own languj worth and universal adaptability incr n ounces it the grandest language that tered, the noblest vehicle of human thou It will be noticed, that, in the suggej myself entirely to incidental instruction making any mention of specific training because I believed there was greater net and also that it would be more practical. is not a conglomeration of fine-spun th tarian, something that we can apply in < ever, in very few words to refer to definil I have not time to call attention to i not be. If you will listen to the vaporii teachers in elocution, if you notice th< mechanical and imitative qualities of p what the scholars who come under theii to do before becoming successful in their nine-tenths of what they have learned capital idea of how it ought not to be do ical side, it is true, but without expressio of elocution should see to it that Individ that absolute self-control is acquired, thai in all its vai-ious phases is fostered and cultivated, that the imagination is deve sary to a thorough elocutionist. In sh< possessed of real eloquence, a threefol development physically, mentally, morall essentials, no one can rightly claim to k Well, our boy having had all the ad offered this afternoon, and having receive Department] TRAINING OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER. 781 hand in elocution, bids farewell to his school and goes to college or enters active life. He has been taught to think, to reason and to express himself. With well-equipped mental, physical and moral faculties, he stands undismayed in the presence of the new condi- tions that surround him. Where others are blind^ he sees; where • others are dumb, he speaks; where others falter and fail, he finds in the obstacles only an incentive to try his conscious powers, and he is successful. And as the years go by, and he, by his ability "to bring things to pass," and his skill in the presentation of great economic, scholastic or moral truths, wins influence and fame, he attributes it, not so much to his college, nor to his professional school, as to the high school, which, in the impressionable and formative period of his life, gave him just the encouragement and instruction he required and really made him what he is, a power for good in the world. TffU TRAINING OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER. ia) Is A Tebm of Skbvice in the Gbammab Grades Advisable? (6) Is There Need op Specialists? BY MISS BOLIN® CLARK. HIQH SOHOOL, FREMONT, NEB. O, let not then nnskiUed hands attempt To play the harp whose tones— whose living tones Are left forever in the strings. Better far That heaven's lightnings blast his very soul And sink it back to chaos* lowest depths Than knowingly, by word or deed, he send A blight upon the trusting mind of youth. The purpose of anything determines its nature. So the quality of professional training must be determined by its design or end. To fairly estimate that needed by the high school teacher, we must first consider the object for which he is to be trained ; that is, what he is expected to accomplish with the knowledge and discipline he has acquired. He is to have under his direction and intluence boys and girls in that period of their lives when character is becoming fixed and crystalized into permanent form, when decisions are made which determine the direction of their whole future action, yet while these opinions and determinations are not so settled but that outside in- fluence, judiciously used, may mold them as they can never be shaped in after years. Wisely, indeed, should the influence possessed over them during these years be exerted, and no one, not even the parent, has the power 782 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOS, SO to control their tastes, in the direction of educatic least, as has the teacher who has won the love and c pupils. To be capable of obtaining this influence exercising it, the high school teacher must be tralu ment of his character; intellectually, physically, men professionally. He should have a college education The man of thorough and extended scholastic acqu to independent thought, is certainly better fitted tx) efforts of students than one who lacks this cultur less liable to allow superficial work by his pupils. has escaped one of the greatest errors made by t fortune lies, chiefly, not in the fact that it is sup< knowledge, but in the habits formed by pupils in work. It defeats one of the great objects of all ti of concentration of effort, and gives to character a never be effaced. He is more likely to inspire in b dicsire for higher attainments. Too few of our hij ever enter college or university. May not the f percentage of our high school teachers are coUej] account for this deficiency? But the possession of great scholarship is, of a man will make a good teacher. He must ] ability. This means infinitely more than the information. It means the power to awaken education possessed by every child, and wisely has assumed and must sustain the dignity o must we not require a professional training f c are leaders in our work? It is demanded of a studied medicine; a lawyer must have studied of our schools are becoming conscious of the f of the mind, as it passes through the various ment, is worthy of the care of one with, no lei than is asked of him who is entrusted ^with t being or the legal rights. The means of obtaining this prof easional i The best normal schools of our country are d< all honor be given them, but beware of imit defective training of teachers is far reacliing Supplementing, but not taking tlie pla< training, is that given by the sumnaer sclio< and institutes held in every State. Tliese clear ideas of true educational principles. struction have become, through their ag^em tions of our country; teachers have liad. fj i pressions of the resi)onsibilities pertaining Department. J TRAINING OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER. 783 ifi being brought in contact with the leaders in the work, have received higher ideals and a more exalted love for their profession. In this connection, the influence of the educational journal must not be overlooked, for it has taken a leading part in every attempt to if j"^ reach these higher ideals. 1 Yet, after all, to a very great extent the teacher must learn to ^1 teach by teaching. No amount of study of methods, or observation \ \ of the practice of those methods, can take the place of personal ex- "^ perience. Let a man be bom with the teaching ability (and some ..j men are bom teachers, as others are bom poets, painters or musi- \\ cians), and, though he may lack in some of the approved means of i ' training, this faculty will assert itself when he is placed in the school-room. , i- His love for the work will induce him to make such investigations <> of the child mind, and of the opinions of eminent educators concern- ing the laws of its development, that he becomes, almost before he is aware, possessed of a professional knowledge, enabling him to under- • r stand much of the human mind and its capabilities for growth. Let ;. this teaching be under the eye of some competent critic and the results will be infinitely better than they could be without this aid. Then, is a term of service in the grammar grade desirable? Un- doubtedly. In no other way can the high school teacher, from the \; very nature of his work, obtain such intimate knowledge of the ' development already undergone by the pupils' minds or so well com- ** prehend their weakness and strength. Let him have followed the same class, or similar classes, through the years of their work in the j grammar grades, and he will know how, year after year, new faculties become the strong ones, and greater power of reasoning, and so of .|/ assimilating knowledge, is developed. He wiU not so often be in- clined to censure either the pupil or the teacher of the lower grades for what might seem a lack of thoroughness in the comprehension of some demonstration or principle, for he will know that this same law of development prevents complete understanding till the ascendancy of the reasoning powers has made strong the power of comprehension. It is not an uncommon experience for a teacher who has taken in a higher grade the pupils taught by him in a lower, to have them express their astonishment at understanding clearly some truth which he had previously presented to them, wondering that they had never had so clear an explanation of it before, while he knows that the same explanation — only, perhaps, made more simple and better suited to their mental capacity — has been given them. The diflficulty lay, not with the explanation, nor with the teacher, nor with the pupil's willingness to learn; he simply was not able, at that stage of Ms mental development, to comprehend the truth which flashed upon ^im so clearly, at last, that he marveled at its ever having seemed 784 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A. obscure. The personal knowledge of this work the teacher has now to do for the pi yet immature mind. Added to these advantages, the effect c pupils in the lower grades, has something permanency of position. Nothing adds n real teacher than continued relation betwe I say, "the real teacher," for, while it may indifferent teacher may do as good work tl of a class as he does when that class has longer time, the man who excels in his prof influence over his pupils with each year h< more favorable the conditions for personal c members of his class the more emphaticalli Then, our high school teacher should hi acter, that steadiness of purpose, that dev work's sake, which will induce him to remf feels he is accomplishing that which will to himself and his pupils, even should som salary be open to him. Not that a lack oi advance is a credit to a teacher more tha other work; but the true professional ambi other than mere personal gain. When this the lesser considerations of jwsition and though they should be secondary, a cor sagacity and training^ is of advantage to the of that age, especially when they are beg interest in the too-absorbing question of oui sition of dollars and cents. Other things 1 is a good business man is better as a teach a failure in every other enterprise in whi This applies to the average man as we find school, not to those exceptional geniuses w horizon with some truth not before comj given their lives to its promulgation. All mind power depends largely .upon ] find, that not far behind the need of all t roents comes the need of physical culture, development reached by the high school j needs carefully and wisely directed exercis He (perhaps, in this case, I should say the i mere student, giving too little care and att( cise; or, on the other hand, the boy allo\^ animal spirits to carry him to the other ext and strength are given to athletic sports. I Department.] TRAINING OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER. 785 to lead, direct and control in these exercises, as well as in those of the class-room. This he can do only if he has personally felt the benefit derived from them and the pleasure arising from the ability to use with perfect ease every part of his body. Greater than the physical, greater than the intellectual training needed by the teacher, is the need of moral training. The legacy of character left the world by his pupils is his crown of success or his insignia of failure. He must be able to supply food for the moral growth of the child. It is worthy of consideration that the teacher who has a good solid moral character himself is the one who can most easily train the child morally. He must not only appear to be honest and true, but honesty and truth must be constitutional parts of the self which is above and beyond reputation. He cannot easily deceive his boys and girls should he so desire, and he should be so trained to self-inspection that he do not that (which is easier) deceive himself. This high moral character comes only, with true religious training — not the form, merely, but the reality. It has been said, "The elimi- nation of religious influences from any school is dangerous to the school itself, while the elimination of religious influences from our higher institutions of learning is dangerous to the State." The word ^^elimination" is used advisedly, as the introduction of these influences into our schools is not to be debated; they have had a place there since the schools have existed. The innovation is on the part of those who would banish them. One of our honored leaders. Dr. G. Stanley Hall, tells us eloquently of the need of the systematic, intelligent training of another of our endowments, that of the heart To be earnestly interested in each individual pupil, the teacher must have depth and breadth of this faculty called the heart. The divine love is received and reflected by it and is so transmitted by us to those around us. Let it not be measured or stinted in quantity as we give it to these, our pupils. Every possible effort should be made to fill their lives with happiness. Let each day and each hour ^ a bright link in the chain which begins with life, but ends not with what we call death. To make one's sunny disposition less sunny, or to fail to brightea one naturally gloomy, is a responsibility too lightly assumed by the teacher. The lesson to "trip lightly over sorrow, trip lightly over wrong," is one well worth the learning, when the effect on the inner self is considered. Nature is constantly tell- ing ns a story of joy: There's a blush on the fruit and a smile on the flower, And a laugh on the brook as it runs to the sea. To induce the pupil to see and enjoy that which surrounds him, the teacher should have a trained observation and love of nature. 786 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSi There is no lack of beauty and grandeur in thi God has placed us. The hiUs, Hock-ribbed and ancient as the su Stretching in pensive quietness bel Venerable woods; rivers that move In majesty, and the complaining b That make the meadows green; anc Old ocean's gray and melancholy wa What shall we make of this world of Iot help these young minds to be filled with its a thorough appreciation of Nature in all h to observe and enjoy these grand provisions i Added to all these qualifications, the maj high school teacher must have that polish an by intercourse with good society. His powei increased, and he will be enabled to give th will ever be thankful. No teacher who habi act of courtesy towards his pupils, or alloi towards him, has done his whole duty; for tl him to pass the limits of the school-room, and to these calls fails ofttimes in that which is 1 the class or lecture-poom. The loss is felt and seen in its effects. J] the truth when he wrote: Yet somehow we have lost amid < Some rare ideals time may not The charm of courtly breeding s< And reverence, dearest ornamen To the second subdivision of my subject, 1 need of specialists. But only those whose work began after a deep, broad foundation hi to build. A few, not connected, quotations f r the pen of Dr. Harper of the Chicago Univers the desire to use them is not to be resisted. Our teacher is not the man who to-day proft any one of twenty subjects. He is not the man wh( made a professor in the university, and that he shon to take the work of any of the professors of the u for sickness or any other reason to be absent for a se fact that the man who to-day professes to be able ti ments of a single subject in that very profession branc Our teacher, I say, may be one who, after broac subject, to some phase of which he will thereafter d tion for such work, it is suggested, requires long right. There will be the four or five- years for spe the four years of college work, and the three or fo • Department.] DISCUSSIOIT, 737 -4 . — __ __ .^ — Then, and not till then, will the young man be ready to announce himself a teacher. It is men with such preparation that are needed to-day in the high schools, as well as in the colleges. In no way can the highest passible perfection in each department of work be reached but by placing it in charge of a teacher who, though he may not have had all the years of preparation suggested hy Dr. Harper, has given special attention to that department This special work is usually chosen because of some natural fitness for it The man who could be an enthusiastic teacher of the sciences would not be likely to fit himself to teach mathematics, when that branch is distasteful to him, nor would the natural mathematician choose languages for his specialty. Many lifeless recitations, distasteful alike to teacher and pupil, would thus be avoided, and all the natural ability of the teacher be utilized to the advantage of the pupil. In most of our high schools too little attention is paid to this natural fitness and special preparation for the branches assigned each teacher. Realizing the gain to be made by such careful selection, the teacher will not be long in taking the necessary steps to prepare for it, and the time will not be far in the future, when the demand will be met with a supply suitable for a high school much nearer the ideal one than may have yet been reached. A glance, then, at our high school teacher shows us a cultured man; moral, and therefore free from habits not desirable to encourage in our boys; physically able to direct their bodily training; and in- tellectually not only capable of fitting them for college or university, but also of awakening in their souls the desire to continue their work through these higher institutions of learning. Shown, too, in his life is the reflection of that divine knowledge of which it has been said: ''And ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free." DISCUSSION. Pbincipal Chas. C. Ramsay, Fall River, Mass.— The topic discussed in this paper I regard so important as to be worthy of the consideration of an entire session of our section. The report of the Committee of Ten made no point clearer than the pressing necessity of weU-trained teachers in secondary schools. Long ago, in the establishment of normal schools, the training of primary and grammar Bohool teachers was begun; but this pedagogical wave of reform has not yet struck the high schools. If I can read aright the signs of the times, however, the time will soon come when not only secondary but collegiate instructors will receive adequate training for their work. There has been, and still is, a great reluctance, scarcely justifiable, as I think, to promote 'secondary teachers to college positions. The objection to such promotion is that high school teachers have a radically 788 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL AS. different point of view, and become unfitted, by re which they teach, to instruct college students. I thir instructor would be greatly the better teacher if he teacher in a high school, provided that it had not bee of prior experience in grammar grades for all who In my own school, I have teachers who have had who have not. Among secondary teachers who ha experience, I have often observed a certain child is method and manner, due, I think, by no means who! temperament. Too much grammar school experieu< to good work in high school teaching. In my own s^ haps know, specialists are coming to be the rule rati high school teachers; and it is well. The work a superior to that done by teachers who gave instruct monotony to the teacher of many daily recitations in a large high school, because in the exigencies of tl conflicts which prevent the special teacher of a brat or classes pursuing it. TSU FUTURE OF THE AMERICA} BY J. REMSBN BISHOP, HUGHES HIGH SOHOC The thoughtful man looks upon the past present with both satisfaction and dissatisi future, as the case may be, with hope or wit] In the past, the American high school ha the college reaching downward, but of the upward. In many States the public system c still farther upward, and we find the State part of a grand system extending from the ] the secondary school — the high school — to learning. Yet in the past the independence system of schools in this great whole was as the most advanced institution. Each systen lectual development on the broadest lines, ai advanced to dominate the less advanced was i tarily admitted. The gloriously Greek — the of free development, as contradistinct to th idea of autocratic regulation of the entire ed with practically no opposition. In the present there is found a new influeni I hope, no likelihood of giving offense, I ma^ influence. Many of our educators who, abi studied the foreign, and, more especially, the Department.] FUTURE OF THE AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL. 789 become dissatisfied with the American system. These are more and more insistently advocating a complete co-ordination of the free public schools and the corporate pay (often very high pay) schools and col- leges. The report of the Committee of Ten, which I must here re- luctantly pass by with mere mention, is a partial application of the trans-oceanic idea to our public school system. Before we can intel- ligently pronounce upon the probable advantage or disadvantage that would result from the adoption of the transoceanic system, we must have clearly in view the present status and condition of the American high school. When it was found that many children would, if public facilities were afforded, continue their school work up to the age of eighteen or nineteen, the high school was established. Preparation of pupils for higher institutions other than those which would admit on cer- tificate high school graduates of good standing was an afterthought. There is no trace of this in the original plan. In most high schools, preparation for college, adapted to the requirements for admission, is a feature of recent introduction. The main function of the high school never has been, and is not now, to satisfy the arbitrary require- ments for admission to particular colleges, nor to conform to the preparation desired less specifically by colleges in general. I believe that the province of the American high school has been, is now, and ought to continue to be, the strengthening and broadening, to the greatest possible degree, of its pupUs, irrespective of probable desti- nation in life. High school graduates should be men to vote, and women to vote or influence votes, who have learned those lessons of history and of philosophy which teach the inevitable conditions of our existence; who have made that acquaintance with the problems of the past and of the present which alone saves from the pitfall of fanaticism. More of this later, for we are now considering the actual condition of the high school. The introduction of a college preparatory course, arranged to meet the requirements of the ordinary college, necessarily hampered the freedom of the general course. With a limited number of teachers, a compromise was necessary. Some studies of the general course — Latin, for instance — was confined to the texts and portions of texts required by the college. On the other hand, the "college class" was Alarmists are beginning to cry aloud the in our precious native land. It is probali ♦Part of a school motto. Department.] FUTURE OF THE AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL. 793 buoyant, boasting patriotism is forever past, but of calm, and, if necessary, obstinately resistant patriotism, there certainly is no lack. Yet the first indication of a decline of patriotism should be watched for as Elizabeth's scout-ships watched for the Spanish Armada, and every resource should be strained to prove that the lion of patriotic love but seemed to drowse. Defeat at the hands of a foreign foe may be borne with fortitude and prove a blessing in disguise. Curtailed in territory and population, a nation may shine as a more brilliant light for the very concentration of its rays. The slow decay which follows the decline of patriotism in the heart of a people is an un- mitigated calamity — a deadly disease which, unless arrested at a very early stage, means certain and miserable death. In any case, pre- vention is better than cure. The American high school should be an agency preventive of a decline of patriotism. In two, or, at least, three years, its male graduates will be voters. In their free educa- tion is found a concrete evidence of their country's love for them; they are of an age at once plastic and rational, both enthusiastic and deliberate. What a glorious opportunity to inculcate — ^yes, stamp in — a sense of reverence, obligation and love! Work from this vantage ground. Speak often, also, of the glorious past, the bold working out of our nation's destiny in the face of Europe's contempt and our own poverty of everything except hope and pluck. Boldly teach that there is no fairer, happier land than ours; that no foreign foe would so much as think of invading our boundaries, and the traitor within carries the halter about his neck. Keep the flag in view and do it reverence. Herbart taught that the conception of duty arises from the exist- ence of hindrances to the attainment of virtue. Let every pupil know that there are many things threatening the prosperity and happiness of our country — that its future depends upon the unselfish and pa- tient devotion of true Americans. It is possible to shadow forth these things without going into political questions. Endeavor to make it a boy's or girl's ambition in some way to serve his fellow countrymen, as the surest way to induce him to serve his country. In showing him the clouds, never forget to point out the ever-present glimmer of the silver lining. The little candles of good deeds still shine in the dark room of the threatening present. Military organizations may be made of great assistance in this work of advancing patriotism; or, as I prefer, in preventing its de- cline. Future war is not necessarily symbolized in these organiza- tions; rather, the necessary wars of the past and a present determina- tion to rally round the flag, whether threatened by the weaker foe of violence, or the stronger foe of anarchism and social discontent Singing of national airs, accompanied by short patriotic addresses, should, I think, frequently form a part of the school exercises. More 51 794 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A8SC than all, however, each teacher should feel i offers in the multitudinous incidents of schc the chord of native love and pride. When t are once impressed with the need of their b sible decline in patriotism they will not be ci thinks that he sees signs of declining patrio call. If it is seconded by the public, there v^ activity in this direction. The high school t not eye-servants. I believe that there is nc woman, in this broad land, who is not ready our country's service, teaching love for her, terests, nursing her sick and wounded; if nee DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Aftebnoon, July 11, 1894. The Department of Higher Education met in the Reformed church, Asbury Park, N J., on Wednesday, July nth, at 3 p. m. President Austin Scott of Kiitgers College, New Jersey, presided. In the absence of the Secretary, Mr. Jssac r. Johnson of Wilmington, Del., was appointed Secretary pro tern. ^ \^,n^^^'^^ announced the following Committee on Nominations of Officers w iJ^.' ^^^^l^^""^ J^^'^ E. Bradley of Illinois College, Chairman; President jn'u ^^ ""^ ^''"'^" College, Iowa; and President Isaac Sharpless of Haverford •College, Pennsylvania. President John F. Crowell of Trinity College, North Carolina, read a paper upon The Future of the Smaller Colleges.*' The discussion was opened by Prof. J. B. Kieffer of Franklin and Marshall C^ollege, Pennsylvania, and continued by Prof. Louis Bevier, Jr., of Rutgers Col- T »!' rf ^ Jersey; Prof. Horace Goodhue of Carleton College, Minnesota; President John B Bradley of Illinois College; and President Thompson of Miami University, umu ^^^^P^® ^^^° °^ Columbia College, New York, delivered an address upon The Group System of College Studies." The department then adjourned to meet on Thursday, July 12th, in the same place, at 3 p m SECOND SBSSION-Thubsday Aptebnoon, July 12, 1894. ^col^^T"^^^^ reassembled on Thursday, July 12th, at 3 p. m., President Sco™V^^^*°^ ^'- ^"^'''"^ ^' Wilmington, Del., acting a^ secretary. ne committee on Nommations submitted the following report for officers for 1895- ^emdeni—J&meB H. Baker of the University of Colorado 2'e Preside^-Fresident John F. Crowell of Trinity College, North Carolina. »5rret is, that out of our wide variety of educational institutions the Waller college has been singled as the special object of distrust 798 • NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A^OCIATIO and doubt. We ought to know these things, if thi We ought to know just what sociological forces { bound up in the institutions under discussion; an out that, in the end, the smaller college can be forces and factors, thus released by the dissoluti college, can be used to better advantage under oth considered well and good. For times of transitio cal; there is sure loss with much risk, and often d( our pains. Let us note three phases of the question: 1. Existing educational conditions. 2. The true function of the American college 3. The capacity of the smaller college to ada order of things. Without anticipating a conclusion, it may b the position of those who take a despairing vie 1 think that we may sum it up in three statemer 1. That the age is rapidly outgrowing the reason of the increase in knowledge, and is reqi equipped and more specifically organized depart in the same institutions, of which the larger ant the scientific and technological schools, as we supported universities of the State, are the stai tain to prevail over the smaller college, and \ entirely by rendering the college unnecessary i less. 2. That the old-fashioned classical college which is no longer in demand, either for lack < and take it, or because it is regarded as, on the or particularly desirable as preparation for business life. 3. That the spirit of the smaller colleges, der denominational control, is out of accord pulse; is lacking in civic enthusiasm; and tin the disposition to sacrifice the standards of s devotion or pecuniary necessities, render tlieii the best ends of higher education. There is much in these allegations tliat ma colleges; it is equally true that not a single or true of all small colleges. In all of tlie otliei colleges whose scholarship and equipment struction are of such a character as to plac yond the apologetic level of life. In thje Sc>\ are more whose charters should be surrende degrees brought to an end; but througrliout r Departmeiit.] FUTURE OF THE SMALLER COLLEGE, 799 there is a feeling that, in some definite measure, the religious liber- ties of the people are receiving a degree of positive development for which we can look to no other conceivable educational agency in ex-i istence. The modern attitude of the State toward religious activityf is almost wholly negative; farther and farther the State universitl©# and the larger colleges are drifting from the spirit of their fou6d¥#iy in believing that, in order to have safe social development, th^ ^^J tive facts of the religious experience of the race must be em^^HiSfl^y^ side by side with a corresponding exposition of political WglitV'*&iSf duties. To them the neglect of the one, no matter wh^cfi^.'VkJ as dangerous as the subversion of the other. ^^ ^^^ iooqeft I make no apology for speaking of the religious factor'iil^tt^et' education, because the small college is guaranteeing to tfi'(fe'*yfrtftti of the land a discipline whose coherent force is of inestimdBl^'TStffet? to these times. Indeed, I am more than glad to say, and SAjr Wftn emphasis, that he who attempts to sum up existing educatiiJimPxSn-^ ditions without taking due account of .the religious forced ^W f©^ American people will be so wide of the mark as a prophet or eutfte? tional progress as to render his conclusions unworthy of climtmoB^ credence. ^ ^^''^'^'^ I have asked you to take with me this point of view, becau'se ^^he genius of the small college is historically and fundamentalljPS^^H-' gious. It grasps the supreme problems of two worlds in on^'*p?fa-^ gram of education, and must, therefore, of necessity, take a veryHfifif-^ ferent view of the whole problem, as compared with the Statfe W with the other institutions whose main purpose is to see that sci^ife^ is put to the service of industry. For all these the civic ideal is We dominant impulse. The one asks evermore: "What shall we eafW what shall we drink or wherewithal shall we be clothed?" The otlffii^ commands us to seek the supreme good; is a spiritual order puttitfg^ the economic welfare as secondary in the plan of life. These two poles of thought have been the two ruling impulses in all creative periods of history. In its turn each has overborne the other and* given us a one-sided civilization. Naturally, then, if the economic * or civic view of life, as a whole, is so different from that which the' religious view involves, there must, of necessity, be the widest dif- ference in the their respective conceptions of any higher education which is to be regarded as a preparation for life itself. These two views are, after all, in no wise incompatible. Only when the ends of education are taken for means, and the higher pur- pose is crowded out to give i)lace to the lower, does the one cross swords with the other Today, while the mercantile spirit is rampant, demanding a degree of practicality that leaves no room for the reflective life, it becomes the smaller college to teach with more earnestness than ever the wisdom of the ages. The overshad- 800 NATIONAL EDUCA.1 owing growth of other institutioi: must be interpreted rather as tlie as an indication that materialism life. Once in its brief history liai nation from the palsy of doubt, called these colleges into being:. C than ever for the institutions to d the ethico-religious basis. The sma sentative of this particular class of I have, I fear, dwelt more than aspect of this question. But it is n it is not war, but welfare, that we tions are easily outlined. The Sta schools are the main competitors v West; in the Middle States and in 1 the technical and scientific schools ai age that the smaller college natural! South the schools of agriculture and grade universities have recently entei f erent planes of competition with the \ Again, in each of these sections ti cation enters somewhat differently int( the smaller college. More remotely s each section has its peculiar sociologici the problem. Yet, in their history the, ence which makes them all kin, as it be remembered, was never born of anyl spread of higher learning; largely so, i mon wealths had grasped the importance public weal. The monograms of State histories o are, show how large a share of the wo been done by the smaller college in th< historic shortcomings can the smaller cc count. It is only in her failure to keep he touch with the immensely varied unfoldin end of the century that we have found hei changes she has kept her face toward tl has been her chief glory in the past, and be her salvation in the not distant future THE TRUE FUNCTION OP THE AMBJ Prom the criticisms made adversely \(i be evident that many weak institutions really figure in the question. They will, i] Department.] FUTURE OF THE SMALLER COLLEGE, 801 appear from the list with the advance of enlightenment Some are to day being correlated with stronger institutions, so that the name that knows them now will know them no more forever. The fact of their having come into being is simply proof of the over-supply of a good thing. If now the weaker ones go under, it is only what is happening year by year in the industrial world of supply and de- mand. The real American college has two co-ordinate functions. It must, at the same time, be both disciplinary and cultural in its work. The four-year curriculum makes it practicable to give the major part of the first two years to disciplinary studies accompanied by a steadily increasing share of cultural instruction. By the beginning the third year these two aspects of the college training become equal. From that time the cultural part begins to preponderate, increasing till the end of the course at graduation, when the whole scheme becomes cultural. The division of a parallelogram into two equal parts by a diagonal line illustrates the proportion of each feature in the progress through the course of four years, beginning at one end and proceeding toward the other. Among our colleges, the smaller ones must stick to the essentials, and, on account of the limited number of students, do the work which it undertakes better than the larger college or the university can do it The maxim of Dr. Arnold of Rugby must ever be in mind; that it is not a question of how many hundred students, but how fine a product, can be produced. For the smaller college more than for any other the true end of education must be the gaining of knowl- edge in order to apply it to the conduct of life. As distinguished from the university, the college must teach the knowledge already discovered, leaving the realm of the unknown to the explorations of the university chairs. The diffusion of the best that man has thought and written in the world's history is culture in its most general form. To convey this out into the walks of social life is a task which no institution does so well as the small college. It ig the peculiar privilege of the college to make men and not to sacrifice manhood for scholarship. To do this, it must have men — not many, indeed, but enough— of such intellectual training and worthy character in a faculty as to present effectively the best stand- ards of life and the best of the products of human thought and ac- tion to the youths and young men gathered there. If this program be faithfully carried out, there will be no lack of patronage for the smaller colleges which dutifully execute it There are tens of thou- sands of homes from which sons would be gladly sent were the parents sure of such an education for their sons as they got in their day. The worth of that education consisted, to a great extent, in the *ynipathetic manner in which youth was led out of the traditional 802 NATIONAL EDVCATIONjLI modes of thought, through the maze of and thence to the firm basis — ^a rationa as Carlyle calls them. It is the functi do this with a spirit and in a way that the affections of the people. THB CAPACITY OP THE SMALLER CX)L.LBG C[HANG*ED ORDBIR OF •The newer order in education has not standard baccalaureate course. It has knowledge to other fields of human intei it needed and got newer schools; the oldt it seems. There is nothing which is essential t ill the newer education which the smallc may not teach as successfully as a larger small college now selects its teachers froi ars who have spent a year or more at graduation. Most of them hare such lal systematic practice therein in the teach wise their libraries of several thousand ^ the undergraduate than one of a hundrec be. All these are matters of money and The failure of the smaller college to g( one of its heaviest handicaps. No metho accomplish this desirable result except part of the administration. Another danger of the smaller college competing terms with larger and richer i is usually at a fearful cost. It must con resources upon the one thing that it ca can well afford to rely for public appreciati From the smaller colleges with good t scholarship, graduating young men with tl lar confidence among the intelligent class be withdrawn. Of this same class of colleg their graduates constitute a very large pr enrolled in the graduate and professional ( and stronger universities. Thus, the better is in the direct line of demand and suppl.i lower and higher institutions in our educal but consult the catalogues and presidents^ n greatest universities, and see how large a • colleges make to the most conscientious anc their student body, year by year, to be assi Department.] FUTURE OF THE SMALLER COLLEGE, 8oa real universities are concerned, there is no part of our educational system, outside of their own undergraduate department, which is quite so essential to university development as the smaller college. The universities do not distrust the smaller colleges because they are small, but because some of the smaller colleges are dishonest with their students and with themselves, in pretending to give them an education which they do not give, and often cannot hope to give. It is the sham college which has brought the genuine college into disrepute, by being allowed to issue the same grade of credentials as the best. As long as the universities and the professional schools accept baccalaureate diplomas without discrimination so long will this injustice continue, against which the meritorious colleges have no defense save the slow but sure verdict of popular contempt for the spurious. Were the National Educational Association to do for the colleges in general what has been done for the secondary schools by the report of the Committee of Ten, make a minimum schedule of requirements for the baccalaureate degree in colleges, it would help greatly to distinguish the spurious from the genuine college, and give the smaller college of the truer character a far bet- ter chance of usefulness. It is true, then, that there are many smaller colleges which must sooner or later go to the wall by their inherent incompetence to main- tain the requisite educational standards. Yet it is equally true that these colleges have come into being and remained, because the people believed in the college as an institution essential to their higher de- velopment. It is the incompetent class of colleges which the age is rapidly outgrowing, because it cannot pay for the men, the labo- ratories and libraries which are needed to furnish a first-class under- graduate training. Such small colleges as can do this are growing in with the age by leading it, rather than growing out of touch with it. This last statement is verified by the inquiry of Professor Cowey, showing that the smaller New England colleges, which represent the better type, have, instead of falling behind, really increased their attendance ninety per cent in the last forty years up to 1890, though in the same period population increased only seventy-two per cent. It seems, from other sources, likewise, that this gain of the smaller college in patronage has exceeded the rate of increase in population from decade to decade since 1850. Among smaller colleges there is a weeding-out process going on ; the weakest are disappearing and the stronger ones increasing their resources and adapting themselves to the better standards, no leas so than the colleges and universities. 804 NATIONAL EDUCATIOKA BISCZTSSIC Prof. John B. Kikffeb.— We Americans that the collegiate system of our Eastern State as the Kingdom of Heaven comes, "without obc unobtrusive way generally that life, and all tha into being. Institutions which are perfectly sul seldom are mechanically contrived and impose( spring from a popular sense of need and gro shaping and molding themselves according to they fit that people to perfection, and are an effe of its special mission. It certainly was in thj came to be what it now is, — the one member oi to the production of a manhood which shall b partial and provincial, but in that of being \ herein lies the certainty, I believe, for the co American colleges. These institutions, almost foundations. They sprang out of the solemn a education is concerned, not with the intellect oui ethical and spiritual nature of men— from the ea with the formation of human character in all th( the rationalistic factor in men's lives needs a co can be only, religion, even as religion is the ( conduct can rest. If this was a reasonable co were founded, it is much more so now. Our live events of the most momentous and alarming pro children will have to grapple with problems far si plexity any which their fathers attempted to soh institutions are now being called upon to create in therefore, in many particulars, different from tha duced. In a much more profound sense than ev* have to be self-conscious, self-determined, morally be if the formation of character is in the future t generally of the intellect only, and if, in the prooo nature is to be left to a process of slow decay. ' our educational system which lay particular stresi character, under the free guidance of religious in degree in which the type of manhood needed by require an increase of conscious moral power. And cult to see how the educational work of the future and especially with the smaller college. The daug posed to be threatening them seems to come fron school system and the larger college, or uniyersity. as a source of danger will reveal the fact, that, to b a necessity, at least a source of help of such import: cult problem to find a substitute for it. I am very far, I think, from what Dr. Low ( which objects to the public maintaining schools." system. I both recognize the necessity for its eziste for the noble work it has done, and is now doing, f( be very sorry to say anything which could be const DepartmeDt.] DISCUSSION. 806 cism of that part of our educational order. But it can be said with truth, I think, that the contribution it is making to the formation of moral character— its moral teaching— is, for the most part, independent of the system. In other words, its ethical value is imported into it from abroad. It comes to it in the lives and characters of the Christian men and women who are its teachers, in the religious influences surrounding the home life of its pupils, and in the watchful and sensitive religious sentiment of every American community. The inherent and natural ten- dency of the system as a system, however, is, and will be, to emphasize the purely intellectual side of education, and that tendency will become more and more accentuated as the system is expanded into the higher ranges of educational work. This, I think, represents fairly the true limitation of our public school system, and not the often repeated objection to general taxation for high school purposes. The latter may be of force where colleges already exist, but in itself can have none where they do not For it certainly is within the range of possibility and right for high schools ,to undertake all the work, in the way of mental training, preparatory to admission to our best universities; and by universities I do not mean the undergraduate classes of their arts departments. But whenever and wherever that is done, it will be found that a large and constantly growing portion of our best people will look with apprehension to the results of the work. The existing inability of the State to furnish proper checks to the materializing ten- dencies of the system, and to give to it a positive relation to our higher religions life, will make it continually the object of their most serious concern. They will think of it as a system whose logical outcome will be, to use the words of Mr. Pearson's reviewer, "to make of God a force, of the world to come a coffin, and of morality a regulation of police." They will gladly trust their children to the pri- mary and high schools so long as they can go to them directly from their homes, assured that home influences and the known characters of their teachers will be their sufficient protectiwi while their relation to religion is yet unconscious and habitual. But when they are obliged to send their children from home for that part of their education which falls between their fifteenth and twentieth years, they will look to institutions in which the main stress is laid upon formation of character under the guidance of religion. For this reason, I do not look with much apprehension to any possible extension of our public school system as tending to set aside the necessity for the existence of our smaller colleges. The reason for believing that our larger colleges will likewise find them es- sential to their well-being is somewhat of the same kind. For it is of the very nature of university work to deal with abstract ideas and to follow out lines of study to the utmost limits of human knowledge. It lays particular stress, there- fore, upon the intellect, and presupposes an already matured and self-poised char- acter in the men with whom it deals. In institutions which are strong enough to undertake such university work, the senior professors naturally will shape their instruction to meet the wants of these matured and advanced students, and, in proportion as the American university becomes a reality, all undergraduates will he relegated to tutors, instructors and deans; and their relations even to these will tend to become perfunctory and casual as the number of students increases. 80 that ultimately the boy of fourteen or fifteen may find himself situated at Harvard, or at Yale, very much as Mr. Gibbon was at Oxford— a waif helplessly adrift in a world of countless conflicting interests and tendencies. The formation of moral character of a high order under such circumstances would be practically almost impossible, and the few instances where, in spite of the absence of an ex- perienced faculty's personal help and inspiration, a rugged moral character is achieved are no compensation whatever for the multitudes of young men who may be wrecked in the process. If we can imagine the smaller colleges already blotted 806 NATIONAL EI>UC^\ out of existence and the union of collei plished fact, it is, for the above reason i adventure that small colleges would agrain iug mischief. That public sentiment is v in the case everyone knows. It is but a versity community whether I, too, liad he tion; and when, last week, youn^ men \ university for post-graduate work returns to their warm praise 'of the university the place for freshmen,"— a declaration which, made of all undergraduates. This inabili indeed, it be not the most important — part the university-college will always have to c< ultimately cherish the small college as its sistant. instead of seeking to absorb all the 1 What we need, Mr. President, in order of higher education in America is, not the at of our educational order, but a clearer conce the several members should confine themselvc selves universities, and let undergraduate w may be, in so far as local demands may re< courses of study be for the universities, and do and do well, and if high schools will confiiii education, we shall find ourselves on the hig of education which our country needs and whi< Pbof. Louis Beyieb, Jb., Rutgers CoJ no real system of instruction logically arr«i] versity. Colleges were founded largely undei nominations. Some, fortunately situated, or commanding positions and influence, and h.ir stituency. The majority have grown slowly, \ tional conditions, with real difficulties. The sb from as large a field as they formerly did, foi First, denominational preference plays a snj Secondly, colleges are more generally know] choice is less dependent upon personal and oral Thirdly, the development of large colleges, sc more and more away from the smaller institution Fourthly, the broadening of the curriculu; elective courses require large funds, difficult foi On the other hand, the recognized value of and mature teacher is the great superiority of t a constantly increasing proportion of the youth < education renders it certain that the worthy sn their own. When a more perfect co-ordination shall be i high schools, so that the passing into college shall from the grammar to the high school, the proI)i fewer, but a far larger number of colleges, mo comparatively small. The changed educational it likely that the small colleges will become in th stituency, but none the less potent in their influe The work of the university cannot be done assemble in great numbers, but the undergradui colleges is, in some respects, superior to that done I>epartment.] ^ "'^ ""^'^ 807 T^E GEOUP SYSTEM^ COLLEGE STUDIES tABSTRACT FURNISHED BT TBK AUTHOR.] -/Xf SVete?^Sf ^f r ^^^"^ «-«*- -o". the A^eH- depends greatly uporthTL4*^elr^\^?^*^^ «*^ curriculnm most weight. One of them is ^^;t' ^^ J'!^^^''^ seem to have ^ati^actory; that it leaveToS TS ^* ^^l?''* curriculum is un of Which for the modem man is SostTLw'?'*'' ^"^ ^'"P^^^'^^ Of tte subjects formerly studied fn t^ ' , * '^^^' *^ «"•«»* as that ^^ languages, natural iienS^ nn,-?- f '*°'**'° «' «" others. Mod- other branched have, iraft^' £ !t"if ' TT^ *°^ ^ """^^e-" of the college gates, within wSn^J*''-;-''"*^^"'* '*''' admission at 'Jl^k Of time, until tJe^J^dent ifs fS '"J^ f '^ ^^ ^''^"t^** them «f the subjects formerly pr^criber ^^ *" ^™P «°"^^' ** least, ^I'^^Y^^^-tlTH';:;^^^ P^-Bcribed curriculum is bad the student who has chosen L J'**^'',^i>''J^ is to be expected from f ^^ry step is taken under +L '^ ^*"^'^ t*'^^ ^«>m o"* whose atter viej we murt dTsclaim ' v^Z""!"' * ^^^ ''"'«• ^ith this ^r.Wfe, andlifeisfJoMrSnT^^^^- College is a preparation .^ctorfes for him, who^Lcordtn^rn ''^'- ^* '"^^'^^ ^*« g'-^atest toconq^^er his d;sires Xftin t^ '*'^''^' ""^^ determined surrounded. The verr thl!L k- J circumstances by which he is Z^ '^U to sat'iv u?. Sis'S Tr ?r "^^* ^^^^^^^ <^«^^^ ««rbo<3y else. The study which IttracL .• '*"^^"* "^ ^^" '"^^ '«•• «ne he ^m dislike the ne^f n„^ i, * . ^'™ ^'"^ y*ar is the very J^ne i^roun avAf^T*, ko« 4? ^^•-^"ut really mastering anything. ^^'if^ 8rh^.X Tteim "' f *'? "" protection of the .tudent. oe jiigj freedom of «h„s« ""lerent groups, he is expected to exer- sv"?^*^ fortrer or Z °°'^ ^"""J^^' *°"* *« remain wedded to his system, two3di« ''™^- *^"'' *^^ ««od ^o'-ting of such a !?,^ ^onsTturfh^"' '^"^ *^ *^ '^"'^^•*' '>'>«' t'^at it be possible f *J*e quS of /™?' *^** ^^"^ ''^ ^^^'^ °^«y " itself ^sess !:*«*itionofacol]f„ *^ subjects that may legitimately claim the *^ftkeboJdtoil "'^'*" *° °'^^^, ^" '^''^^^^ wisely, a condition "^y^ very seldom realized in the average freshman. 808 NATIONAL EDUC^ TIONA. L The former condition, moreover, does about. New subjects are constantly groups cannot be constantly formed. T group system is intended to provide agrai A purely elective system is sure to Too great a love for intellectual ease is pe great a love for material comfort. Shall fixed curriculum? This seems hardly p< restriction of the student's liberty of choic tem requiring him to choose from a varie number which he would follow for three him absolute freedom of choice for the rest, build his own group as he went along throu the discipline which results from the fvl^W be combined with the exultation which alw of freedom. FACULTY AND ALUMNI CONTROL OF Ci BY GBORGB WHARTON PEPPER, PHILAI The absorbing interest in college athletics on every hand is compelling the governing bo( leges and universities to take oflScial cognizai 1 dei>artment of activity in the academic world. , nized in the annual report of the president ot \ 1892-1893 ; and President Eliot's utterances upon ! athletics have called forth much criticism and c ' The term "college athletics," as popularly und \ so much to the physical exercises of the mass o 1 given institution as to the public contests in the s ] of sport between picked teams representing rival \ practice, training and preparation for these publ tinned throughout the entire college year. Indeec exaggeration to say that the mind of the student chosen sport throughout the whole length of the cai it is now the custom for college athletes, either i bodies, to permit the serious work of practice io enci extent upon the holiday time which intervenes bet ment season and the opening of the fall term. Just in the student's life is devoted to athletics it is, he impossible to ascertain. It is known, of course, thai Department.] COLLEGE ATHLETICS. 809 for a team or crew are required to devote about two hours a day to their work; while whole days and indeed several consecutive days are stolen from their studies when the time for the competition arrives. It is clear, however, that such data are by no means sufficient to enable us to determine the number of those additional hours when the athlete in his study, with a book open before him, is nevertheless Mnaking no progress in his reading — his mind being full of football signals or home runs or racing starts. While apparently studying, lie may be indulging in a day-dream of the hour when Yale — or as the -case msiy be — shall tremble at his power. The amount of time given directly to athletics, therefore, of itself should challenge the attention of those upon whom fall the respon- sibilities of government and control in our colleges. But it is not alone the element of time with which they are concerned. There is, also, the fact that probably no other single department of college activity excites so large a measure of public interest. Again, as a direct result of this last-mentioned factor in the problem, the sums of money which pass through the hands of the managers of the college athletic associations, whether arising from gifts, admission fees or contributions for "campaign expenses" are so considerable that, as is remarked in a report already referred to, there is felt to be something exquisitely inappropriate in such extravagant expenditure on ath- letic sports at institutions which have been painfully built up by self- denial, frugality and public spirit. Then, too, the publicity which attends upon participation in col- lege athletics is a matter which deserves serious consideration. A successful college athlete at once attains great newspaper notoriety. His physique is minutely described in the public prints and the measurements of his limbs become public property. His age, too, is published, and any sudden gain or loss of weight is announced all over the country by the associated press. His picture appears in the sporting columns of the papers, and it is no uncommon thing for enterprising journals to reproduce studies of such of his limbs as are called into requisition by the sport in question. All these details are eagerly read by thousands of people, young and old; and the public gradually reaches that pitch of nervous excitement which, in the case of many sedate and worthy citizens, amounts to temporary insanity when the long expected contest is actually under way. In taking a survey of the situartion we cannot afford to leave out of consideration the spirit in which these athletic contests are con- ducted, and the tone which prevails among the student athletes. As my love for college athletic sports is of the keenest, and as my sym- pathy with coUege athletes is most profoiind, it is with a feeling akin to pain that I observe what I take to be the decline of true sports- manship in American coUege athletics. Except in the annual boat 52 810 NATIONAL EDUCJLTJON^I. races between Yale and Harvard, and be vnnia, where a different spirit seems to tlie judgment of the writer, but little yvli\ sport for sport's sake. In baseball and i conspicuous. In the conventions or meeti ments for inter-collegiate contests tl^ere ] accomplish results by bargains, by trading: devices known to practical politics. Undc too apt to consider it a matter for self-coi council chamber, they have succeeded in pre measure disadvantageous to a dangerous ri advance the result of a contest which shoui on even terms in a fair field. Many of the papers espouse the cause of this or that pa cordance with the affiliations of their respecti — ^and both in news articles and editorials the interests of their favorite institutions, and, o\ unfairness, to criticise or revile the athletic others. As a result of all this, or, perhaps, behind cause, we observe manifestations of the spirit to play only to win — the spirit which leads mer a disgrace, and to look upon victory as the only cc existence is tolerable. When it once becomes t tory must be secured at any price, it is Vioi surj sighted policy should dictate the strengthening o by the addition of mercenaries who stand ready and skill to the college which retains them. Man\ leges have not been guiltless in this respect; and on various pretenses, allowed men to play upon iho in time past, athletic sport has been a means o When these facts are borne in mind it ceases \o be when the contests actually take place, there shoulc brutality in football, and instances of sharp practic( field. This is the situation which confronts us. The pi. been drawn is not an attractive one, but for our prese the darker side of the subject which we art* bound We may take for granted that a properly regulated athletics is not only a good thing for the normal m\ is essential to the rounded development and growth oi of his body. We are justified in asguming that the/ie cational value in the training for athletic contests and tion in the contests themselves. The athlete learns «eii learns to render implicit obedience to his superior. To a Department.] COLLEGE ATHLETICS, 811 he must be prompt, decided and courageous. He has a great oppor- tunity to learn how to enjoy victory with calmness, . and he may school his heart and mind until he can even understand, what Miss Wilkins aptly calls, the peace that follows defeat. All this may be taken for granted, and we can devote ourselves without reserve to a consideration of the remedies foi the evils which have been adverted to. The evils are not imaginary evils, as some enthusiasts would have us believe. Nor can we agree with those who think that college athletics is a subject unworthy the consideration of sages. The fact of college athletics cannot be ignored. It is a thing which must be dealt with by educators. If it is wisely dealt with, I believe that the good in college athletics can be emphasized and the evils reduced to a minimum. It the abuses which are complained of in athletics were manifestatio?is of a debased standard of honor prevailing throughout the whole body of American college students, the situation might fairly be considered well nigh hopeless. This, however, is not the fact. The college athletic interest has attained its present propor- tions as the result of a gradual development which has taken place under the unconscious influence of professional sport. The develop- ment* has not been subjected to ai careful scrutiny by educators. The public, and therefore the students themselves, are losing sight of the sharp lines of demarcation which ought to separate not only amateur sport from professional sport, bul college amateur sport from amateur sport which is non-collegiate. \Yhat is needed is an awakening of a public sentiment, which, during the last ten years, has gradually become dormant, by an emphatic declaration that these lines of de- marcation must be observed. The declaration should be made by all the colleges al once, and it should take the form of college legislation enacted by representatives of all the interests which will be affected by it. The legislation should specifically recognize that college ath- letics is a legitimate department of college activity, and should amount to a complete system of control exercised jointly by students, faculties and the college corporation. No one of these classes should be represented to the exclusion of either of the others, for faculties aud trustees have interests at stake, the superintendence of which they cannot, with fidelity to their trust, delegate wholly to the stu- dents. The faculties are, of course, directly interested in the matter of control, for in athletics they find an attraction which threatens- to draw after it the whole student world, leaving lecture rooms and laboratories empty. It may be objected that if the faculties are, oa this ground, warranted in interfering with indulgence in athletics,. they must, to be consistent, legislate on card-playing and billiards and regulate visits to theaters and attendance at evening parties, ^^re is a conclusive answer to this objection. These amusements ^re not recognized as part of the life of the college or university.' 812 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL They are in the university, but not of it on any theory, necessary in order that maximum benefit from his college cour in these pastimes in the name of the c< ments of college activity, as such. \^ matches become the fashion it may be f ties to deal with the situation by approp The interest of the trustees of a collet of athletics does not seem to be clearlj basis of this interest that the contenti( share the responsibility of control. The on whose behalf a contract for an educat of the college, is undoubtedly a status paternal theory is, perhaps, untenable; I that there is devolved upon the trustee and scrutinizing with anxious care this nized department of college activity. T is, at it were, in a watch tower, whenc doings of the world with which he mu athletics, if uncontrolled, tend to driv< arena, and makes the spectator himself private but before the eyes of the curi< say, as it is sometimes said, that what th hours is no concern of the trustees so 1( them. In point of fact, students engage quasi-members of the college corporati< their legal relation to the college or uni> to compete. They are, for the; time be number of people, the university. The facilities for practice and training, permi property for their game and lends them The corporation even accepts from the property in the shape of permanent imp capital account made out of the gate-in Since the athletic teams have, in a real so name of their alma mater the trustees n that the power is properly exercised. \ university for manliness and fair dealing in the eyes of a vast number of persons I or the trickery of an unworthy manager ager, like men of the Debs stamp, seems his ability to do good, but to be possesse doing harm. If it is conceded that the corporation next point for consideration is the prop Department.] COLLEGE ATHLETICS. S13 which to exercise the powers of protection. It is submitted that a body of chosen alumni may with advantage be made the delegates of the corporation for the purpose of acting in conjunction with faculty and students to attain the desired ends. The alumni who should thus act as the representatives of the corporation ought, in the writ er's judgment, to be elected by the undergraduates from a lislt of nominees approved by the trustees. By this plan, a unity of interest and action can be secured w^hich seems attainable in no other way. In the consideration of this subject, it must not for a moment be forgotten, however, that intercollegiate athletics is primarily the student's affair. The ideal system of control should preserve the autonomy of the students as far as possible. The faculty members of the joint board of government should be vested with the necessary power to control the decision of those questions which have to do with the bona fiden of one who claims to be a student of the college, and of those questions which relate to the amount of time which may profitably be devoted to athletics, either by the students as a body or by individual athletes. The trustees, through the alumni dele- gates, should have a controlling voice in the decision of questions relating to professionalism, and the legal qualifications (so to speak) of those who seek to represent the college before the community. They should have a supervisory power, also, in the matter of expendi- tures and accounts. The election of a graduate treasurer may be advocated as a wise stej) — a step which has been taken with satis- factory results at Harvard and Pennsylvania, and perhaps elsewhere. Their voice, also, should control in the decision of questions relating to the propriety of holding contests and games at this or that public park or field ; and the enthusiasm of undergraduate managers must be kept within bounds by the representatives of the corporation, in order that all arrangements made for public exhibitions may have about them at least a flavor of academic dignity. As the captain of a university team is, in some sense, the official representative of his alma mater, the alumni and faculty members of the board of control should be vested with a veto power over the undergraduates' selec- tion. Such are the powers which, it is submitted, could profitably be wielded by the faculties and the corporation. But these are the only exclusive powers which should be lodged in their hands. Their advice and counsel may be asked by the students upon other points, but their function should be advisory only. The students should determine what contests shall take place and the frequency of their occurrence. An enlightened self-interest may be relied upon, espe- cially in football, to restrain the number of contests within reasonable limits. The students should detenuine for themselves whether inter- collegiate contests shall be '' 'varsity'' contests only, or whether fresh- 814 NATIONAL EDUCATIONA. man contests shall be held as well. T] unless it be enacted by the students class of students in regular standing athletics. After laying down general in class as a prerequisite to athletic coi to tlie students in the several univers which of them can afford to seek pla mitted that it would, at any rate, be a s to leave undergraduates in a univers please, and to enact restrictive legislai dents and students reading for profesj the student should be left the decisio with the selection of candidates for th and the ultimate picking out of the rej: discipline should be left entirely in the entitled, if only for its educational val which does not rest primarily upon the When trustees, faculties and stud briefly described, are represented on a j occupied with the task of framing a ( powers, it is believed that they will, in of the regulations devised some time a vania, and since that time adopted with colleges. These rules, at the Universit mulgated by a conference committee iv and students. The rules fall, roughly, against professionalism; rules respectin athletes, their physical fitness and their regulating the eligibility of students w their athletic career. The first head reqi falling under the second head provide, i shall be permitted to play on more than college year without obtaining faculty e< has been di'opped from his class shall ti until the end of the college year, or u faculty; that no student shall be permitl contests until he has passed a satisfactor that no student athlete shall represent and throughout the year intends to be, university, taking a full year's work. Tr which disqualify students in the profef part in intercollegiate contests until tl residence at the university and have pass full year's work. There is also a rule pro represent the university in athletic contej Department.] DISCUSSION. 8I5 With regard to all such rules, however, the difficulty lies in the enforcement of them. Rules like these may be adopted by the stu- dents alone, or by the faculties alone, and yet they may lack vital force. As,. upon examination, they are seen to be rules designed to protect and promote distinct and separable interests, we, at the University of Pennsylvania, have found it of the utmost importance that each of the interests should share the responsibility of seeing to their enforcement. This paper cannot end better than with a re- peated assertion of the writer's conviction, that the body which is to be both legislative and executive must, in order to make the laws practically operative, be armed with a power derived from all the three estates. niSCUSSIOK Pbof. E. Hitchcock, Jr., Cornell University —At the risk of being .thought disloyal to the educators making up this assemblage and to my colleagues, I wish to aflBrm, at the outset, my belief, that the faculty control of athletics, as opposed to their control by the students, would be a serious mistake. In other words, I most earnestly believe, that, so far as the sports themselves are concerned, our boys are better able to manage them than are we their teachers. And yet this statement should, to a certain extent, be, modified; for while college sports essentially should belong to the students taking part in them, still there are questions continually arising relative to absence from the university of a baseball team or crew, the infringement of training upon university hours, etc., in which the university officials must interest themselves and act. It is hardly to be expected that contestants in the field of athletics should legislate against their favorite sport, if conflicts come between athletics and studies, and since the object of college and university life is largely to be found in the acquirements of the class-roon^ it does become necessary that there should be an authority to adjust and hold in proper check the enthusiasm for athletic education. But adjusting does not mean suppressing, such as seems to be intended by a late report of the president of Harvard College. The institution which I have the honor to serve has always regarded athletics as a valuable adjunct to education, but it does not attempt to exercise anything more than an advisory function in the sports. A committee of its faculty meets with the management of each department of athletics, examines into the schedule of games, looks into the finances of the team, and grants or refuses permission for a team to absent itself from the university, as in its wisdom it sees fit. This much of direct control only does the university assume. The management of the individual sports is in the hands of the athletic association, a self-perpetuating body, which is composed of ten undergraduates (the managers and captains of each of our five organizations), one member of the university board of trustees, a graduate treasurer and four members of the faculty, leaving the balance of power entirely in the hands of the players; and in the history of the organization, which has existed several years, there has been but one occasion when there has been shown anything like a marked line of difference of opinion between the older men and the undergraduate members, and on this occasion after events proved the latter to be in the right. 816 NATIONAL :E£>UCu± STUDENT CQ-OPEEATTOJV^ - BY PRDSmBNT BTHBLKEXRT D. T [Abstract FrRNisn American colleges early adoptee stood to the student in loco pm ceased to be real. Oversight has I more and more objectionable to th substituted for the decaying systeii new and definite system is demanc by the great amount of criticism in college outrages. The possibility of hazing among refined and educated to the need of an overhauling of th mitted to exist. What solution has tried student co-operation; Cornell mitting special functions to students regulating the dormitories by the approbation. Indeed, on every side college students are no longer boys, I earnest and self-respecting; that loy an increasingly influential sentiment it seems as though nothing could be i sentiments outlet and direction by i college government. The question is a larger one than i$ But few students are ever involved ii all are included in the problem of govei are interested in promoting the welfar called on for aid in directing all underg room for new forces, in stamping out ; in curbing the few who are unruly and em student life is as sensitive as the 1 been made self-conscious by too much blame, and it needs to have demands n its sense of responsibility, to stimulate its self-control. A very large proportion of our colle^ all are on the eve of becoming voters. ( them, upon whom a share of the respo And, on the other hand, is it not the di Department. J CO-OPERATION IN COLLEGE GOVERNMENT. 817 students to become citizens as well as to be scholars? In the hands of those who aid ajid abet hazing, the grand jury can scarcely be ef- fective. The cure is early teaching of the same code of morals in col- lege and in State. I believe that an overwhelming proportion of our young men are ready to respond to increased responsibility, and to justify a large measure of confidence. The details of the plans are various and unimportant. The beginning should, be made with care, and development must be made to rest on results. The future will certainly justify a large degree of mutual confidence and trust be- tween teacher and student, and will exhibit in student and alumnus a higher appreciation of the munificence of benefactors and of in- terest in the development of the college which he calls his own. IfORMAL SCHOOL DEPARTMENT. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIKST SESSION.— THUH8DAY, July 12, 1894. The Normal Department met in Whittier Hall at 3 p. ir., and was called to order by Dr. Jas. M. Milne oif New York, President of the department. The members were welcomed to Asbury Park by Miss Emily A. Rice, Ph. D. President Milne responded to Miss Rice's cordial greeting on behalf of the de- partment. On motion, r>r. J. A. Mol^ellan of Toronto, Canada, was made an honorary member of the department, axid invited to take part in the discussions. The committee appointed in 1892 submitted a report through its Chairman, Dr. Charles De Garmo, President of Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania. On motion of Principal W. E. Wilson of the Rhode Island Normal School, the report of the committee was accepted. It being announced that J, N. Wilkinson, the Secretary of the department, was absent in Europe, Principal J- Walter Barnes of State Normal School, Fairmont, TV. Va., was made Secretary pro iem.^ on motion of Dr. R. G. Boone. The Committee on Nomination of Officers for the ensuing year was appo^^^^ by the Chair as follows: Prof. L. H. Galbreath of Minnesota, President John W. Cook of Illinois, and Dr. R- O. Boone of Michigan. The program was then taken up, and Dr. C. C. Van Liew of State Normal University, Illinois, read a paper on "The Duty of the Normal School toward the Problem of School Literature." Prof. L. H. Oal breath of Winona, Minn., opened the discussion. A general discussion of the topic then followed, participated in by President L. C I^rd of State Normal School, Moorhead, Minn.; Dr. J. A. McLellan of Normal School, Toronto, Canada: r>r. J. ^1. Green of New Jersey State Normal School; and Dr. John W. Cook of Illinois State Normal University. Prof. Frank McMurry of Illinois State University, Champaign, 111., then read a paper on "Recent Educational Theory." President L. O. Lord of Moorhead, Minn., followed with a paper on "Scholarship in Normal Schools." Owing to the lateness of the hour, this paper was not discussed. The depart- epartment.] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES, 823 or scientific, standpoint. They differ from the ordinary, classical college students chiefly in their lack of linguistic training. 3. After three years of earnest study under such conditions, it seems to your committee that both justice to the individual and the good of the teaching cause demand that those who choose to continue ttieir education at the university should be allowed to do so, with the kope of ultimately winning a degree in such course or courses as they are fitted to pursue. To the credit of American universities, it must be caid they have gone farther to meet the normal schools than the normal schools have gone to meet them. The universities manifest little inclination to debar normal school graduates from pursuing the studies they are able to master. With knowledge so vastly extended beyond its old classical limits in the realms of normal and human science, it seems purely gratuitous to close the door to any who can study with profit to themselves and with credit to the institutions yielding them the privilege. 4. In view of the fact, furthermore, that strenuous efforts are being put forth to articulate and unify our public school course from bottom to top, your committee would strongly urge that so important a component part of the system as the normal school be not severed from the educational organism, to the extent of having its relations to the universities accidental and undefined. 5. While your committee recognize the value of the higher peda- gogical work now beginning in som^ of our universities, they do not regard this as the only, or even the chief, service of the university to the normal school graduate expecting to make teaching a life work. These persons have an elementary knowledge of many subjects, and a somewhat extended knowledge of the technical side of teaching. They know elementary methods from a more or less sound psycho- logical basis. But the highest service the teacher can render does not spring from technique, however extended, when associated with mere elementary knowledge. In addition to the methods springing from the needs of the undeveloped mind, the teacher needs to know a few subjects according to those comprehensive, scientific methods that have so rapidly advanced human knowledge, and which, once possessing the mind, inspire a productive enthusiasm such as can be generated in no other way. This is the influence that awakens men- tal life with a creative touch. With a combination of the practical work of the normal school and the vivifying spirit of the university, we shall doubtless reach the highest perfection of the teaching art. it is, therefore, of the utmost concern for the cause of education that no artificial bar be placed between the teacher with elementary training and the knowledge he so much needs. This may be accom- 824 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A8SOCL plished in three ways: (1) by eBtablishing clo the two grades of sehoolB; (2) by the universiti^ thing of this professional work; and (3) througli normal school course and enriching it by a more 6. Your committee are firmly of the opinio poBsibilities of the normal school, even in its pre are not yet fully realized. They are convinced t one term," principle is a wrong one, Leading to s in every department of study. They think that are often kept "marking time" in direct primai mon branches, when they should be examinin flectively in the light of more advanced knowledj most students of the normal school are, upon < studying with profit algebra and geometry. T these subjects, returning later to a consideratii as to the pedagogical sequence of topics, say, in fractions, together with devices for concrete ill no danger that the student so taught will not problems of the arithmetic. He will, on the othc fruitful insight into the pedagogy of the subject, of one-half the time now devoted to it. What, a exquisitely irrational in the normal school than t amounts of time to teach the facts of geography usually present them? Here, also, the reflectiv used, by studying first the physical and econc foundations that make geography rational. 7. Your committee would urge, furthermoi schools are badly handicapped by inadequate good college or university has on the average oi ten students; normal schools usually have one forty or fifty students, a fact that compels th ranging from forty to eighty students. But this is, is surpassed in unfortunate results by the fac little or no differentiation in the teaching, thu dents to study intensively at least a few subject taining all the students of a given grade are husi in a very limited time. This fact is much to be account, but especially when we think of the non at the university. He is practically restricted which he can begin at the beginning. Mathen only exception. 8. Finally, your committee most earnestly when the next Committee of Ten is appointed, to X>epartment]. NORMAL SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES, 825 problems of elementary education, a sub-committee be appointed to consider the whole problem of the normal school, with respect to its curnculum of study, its teaching force, its methods of work, and especially with regard to its relations to colleges and universities. Signed, Ohables De Gabmo, Chairman. D. L. KlEHLE, G. Stanley Hall, EioHABD G. Boone, Nicholas Murray Butler, J. M. Green. Committee, f>3 826 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOC O »— I P I— t (K4 o I U)*^ ? ♦* J^ O ® oc be f3 •£ o ^ » r2 5o| 1 m 1 1 1^ & s O W 0; 1.5 ♦3 na Ills sea STice s It Deelrabl Your Gradu hould be Adi :o Degree Co on Dlplom 1 i >- d S5 1 •"■ 'Ji 2- >^ 4 SI Oo . n>^ Opt? i2 0^1 a lis CO 1-JcJeo -Jwcc^ rHCTOT^ 1-i ci « 1 nt Having School or ivalent arailon. a 1 i a Per Ce; High! Equ Prep u t-t »^ fc^ & '1 05 :©c > <;o2 G-Ohj IIS "3 (2 S$t^ t3fl - P C I&5 ii 2 5 ^ ^ ^ci r^cieo lA h 1 d 0; o J M c« 1 2 3 5 i 1 S=" I ^ 1 6 C/J 2 t a ^ o U H &. I>epartmeiit.J NOBMJLL SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES, •OS §1 §fl SI s~ I 1^ a "36 CE> «s (4 P L* Ofl |i« flp . §1 <*a a, CO 5e| «!§ ©•T3 >^ !- " ^ so NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL . o I EADIN «2& 1 1 1 ^ 1 ^ 1 1^1 2 43 «3 ^ S 0 » ;« S e^P £ g ti ' "S "^oo 1 Ills. 1 (4 OrtggS o 1 d 1 ! ^ ?5 «>^5o 1 (>4 * g*- 1 1 1 til ' ^ £ Is 1 . -ri «• CI 1 pS "^SsS. 1 ' 1 11 QUISIES ■OotUinued. S12 4 1 1 MITTEE'S IN L 8CH0OLS.- 1 fill III i 1 1 1 : i 1 00 s d Oi* 1 ^ 8 g QO ; ^ S § II , 1 g r^ ' ^ - 1 ^^s 01 1 «a g IS s 1 S H is t i i III IP Ml. llf^il ) S5 « ^^ S o*' ^ ci« rH Ci «^ U\ Eh ^ 0 !? ?' 1 D -< w c8 1 S3 s 3 <-^ H » U 1 Deimrtmenl] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES. 829 830 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOC TABLE OF 0OUR8] Worcester, Brldcewater, Noanal, Tecre Haute, Ind. Arithmetic... Algebra Geometry Book-keeping. . Physloe Afttranomy. ... GhemlBtry Physiology Botany Stology Mineralogy Geology Geography Arithmetic... Algebra Geometry. . . . . Book-keeping. Physios Astronomy. . . Chemistry. . . . Physiology. . . , Botany Zoology Mineralogy.. . Geology Geography Arithmetic. . . Algebra Geometry Book-keeping. Physios Astronomy. ... Chemistry. . . . Physiology. . . , Botany Zoology Arithmetic Aritb Algebra. . . GecHnetry. . Physics. Algel Geoti Book Phya Chemistry. . Physiology. Botany Zoology. . . . Chei] Phys Bota Zool Geog. (Physical) Geog. (Physical, Math, ft Pol.). Geo! Geoi Language. Reading.. English.. Reading. Dictionary and Orthography. . . Etymology Grammar Rhetoric Literature Composition... Orttiograpliy. Rhetoric Literature. . . Composition. Penmanship .... Drawing Vocal Music. . . . Oynmastlcs Psychology Science of Ed- ucation SfSi. Organiza'n. History of Ed... avU Polity of Mass. &U. S.. History School Laws of Maasachosetts. Latin French German Greek Trigonometry Sutreylng. . . , Drawing , Vooal Music... Gymnastics Psychology Science of Ed- ucation Sch. Organiza'n, History of Ed. . ClvU Polity of Mass. ft U. S. History (Gen'l.) School Iaws of ^fassachusetts Latin French German Greek Trigonometry'... Surveying Gkanmiar. ...... Rhetoric Llterature(Eng) . Shakespeare and Themes Penmanship .... Drawing Vocal Music... Grammar Rhetoric Literature Composition. . . Penmanidilp .... Drawing Vocal Music Gra Rh< Lit Coi Pel Dc Vo Psychology. Psychology. . . . Science of Ed- Pedagogy Civil (3ovem- ment History (Med. Anc, U. S.)... School Law-b of Illinois lAtln German Greek Trigonometry. Surveying, Prac- tical Teaching Criticism CJttlculus Political Science History of Ed. . . History (U. S.& General) Latin. German . l*ractical Teabh- E ing. ........ Methods Theo. of School . Department,! NORMT-A X. SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES. 831 CATAIX>GXJE8 OF TEE. SEVERAL SCHOOLS NAMED. ■WTiltewater. I 0«we|o, N. Y. Arittametlo Arithmetic. Algelara | Algebra Gteometry 1 Geometry. . . Book-keeploiT- • • | Physloa j Phyalca ' Astronomy. . Chemistry j Chemistry. . Physiology Physiology. . Botany i notany Zoology j Zoology I Mineralogy. Geology Geology Qeneaeo, N. Y. MiUenrllle, Pa. Oeog. (Physical, andP611tioaI). Qeog. (Physical) Arithmetic Algebra Geometry I Book-keeping. . . , Physios ' Astronomy I Chemistry j Physiology Botany Zoology Mineralogy I Geolosy Geog. CPhyalcal) ' Arithmetic . . . Algebra Geometry , Itook-keeplng. 1 PhysioB I Astronomy ' Chemistry. . . . Physl(flogy ' Botany Zoology I Mineralogy. . . I Geology Gpography — West Chester, Pa. Reading. Reading. Ortho^y. Q-rammar ...... Rhetorlo ttlterature OompoBltlan. . . I (}m.Enmar ! Qranmaar Uhetxsnc , Rhetoric ' Llterat«re(Bng) . 1 LlteratoredSng) I Composition ] Composition. . . . Arithmetic Algebra Geometry Book-keeping... Physics Astronomy Chemistry Physiology Botany Zoology Mineralc^y.... Geology Geog. (Physical and Math.) . . , Trenton, N.J. Arithmetic. Algebra. Geometry. Boolc-keeplng. Physics. Chemistry. Physiology. Botany. Zoology. Mineralogy. Geog. (PollUcal and Physical) . Reading Reading Reading. Orthography.. Drawing Vocal Music. iDra-v^ing I Vocal Music. I Gyxzinastlcs. . Psychology. . . . .. Science of Ed- ucation Sch. Managem't History of Ed. . . Civil Govern- ment History (U. S. General) Scbool lisw I Science' of B5d- noatkio. ' Drawing I Vocal Mnslc ' Gymnastics raychology I Science of Bd- 1 ucatlon iHistory of Bd.. 1 civU Govem- I oaent (History (U. S. ; Oencral) 1 Scbool lAW I Civil (Jorem- ment History (U. S.& General) School Law Grammar Rlietorlc Lltemtare(Bng). Composition. . . . Penmanship .... Drawing Vocal Mosio Gymnastics I'aychology Science of Ed- ucation Sch. Managem't History of Eki. . , Civil Oovem- * meat History (U. S. G^i/ota) Latin I^tUi r^tln ; Uitin. . . French French > French. Qemoan. Greeik. . . .1 Trigonometry. 1 Gennan. I Greek. . . Trigonometry. Practice iPractice Practice. Methods. Methods. Methods. German Greek Trigonometry. . Surveying, Practice Methods Orthography. Gr Rhetoric Lit^ature(Eng) . CompositioQ. . . . I'enmanShlp . . . Drawing Vocal Music... Psychology Science of Ed- ucatlcm SCh. ^lanagem't History of Bd. . . Civil Govern- ment History (Genn.). Orthography. Shakespeare. Grammar. Rhetoric Literature. OompoaltloQ. Penmanship. Drawing. Vocal Music. Gymnastlos. Psychology. . . . Science of Ed- ucation. History of Bd. Oonstltutlan. History (U. 8. General). School Laws. Fa' iliar Science. Theo. & Prac. . . 1 i Political Bcon'y j School Bcon'y. . .| School Econ'y Man'l. Tra'lng, Moral PhU'y. . Trigonometry... Surveying, j Practice. Practice Methodi ' MetJ»^ Calculus Theo. &Prac.. School Bcon'y- Mau*l. Tra'lng, •X^txeo. ftPrao. 832 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOC TABLE SHOWING CONDITIONS AND EXTENT VERSITIES OF NORMAL SCHOOL GRADUA1 1. Do not admit to any course.. 2. Admit to non-Latin courses.. 8. Admit to Advanced Standing.. 1. State Universltle articulate). 2. Non-State Univer Yale, Columbia. 1 State University and Civic, Hist nois (B. S); M Engineering); cepted); Mlnne: for work done course, or othei 2. Non-State Unlve L.); Princeton S. and Englnee required); Har ships for Norm Cornell (same o York (Pedagog C State Universlt (Junior class a Non-State Univc Department.] TEE NORMAL SCHOOL AND LITERATURE. 833 THE DUTY OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL TOWARD THE PROBLEM OF SCHOOL LITERATURE. BY C. C. VAN LIBTW, Ph. D., STATE NORMAL tINlVERSlTY, NORMAL., ILl.. If there is any one phase of work in the more recent development of the normal school that has received a marked emphasis and shown a rapid and revolutionary growth it is that implied in the very conception of a normal school, viz., the strictly professional phase. The teaching-act implies familiarity with the mental life of the taught; hence, pedagogical psychology has rapidly come to hold a position of increasing prominence and power as a factor in the professional training of the teacher. The teaching-act implies, fur- ther, a due regard for the conditions of healthy mental activity and growth, and for a fitting physical environment of the growing child; hence, the recent prominence and emphasis of the problems of school hygiene and certain departments of child study. The teaching-act also implies something more than a mere mechanical application of methods and formulas to children en masse, as if they were so many pieces of rude but pliable clay in the hands of the potter, to be placed upon the same revolving surface, fashioned by the same manipula- tions, decorated by the same pleasing conventionalities, and finally turned out, identical in form, **dressur" and purpose. H: implies to-day a practical recognition of the rights of individuality in growth and power, so that the entire field of child study is about to add its contribution to the professional training of the teacher. Finally, the reflection that his sphere of labors involves problems as broad as the problem of human existence itself, has taught the educator to seek, not alone a practical, but also a philosophic method of ap- proach to educational questions. Thus, a distinctively professional body of thought has been appearing in the normal school, more or less well organized and harmonized, that has undoubtedly had a salutary effect upon its theory and practice in general, or upon what we term "general method." The practical test of its soundness is made in the application to the •special branches of the curriculum, and it is here that the principles of theory and practice must always be ready to demonstrate their vitality, their "right to be." One of the most important among the many problems of special method to-day is that of child-literature; or, in so far as such lit- erature bears upon the child's life in school, of school literature. For a number of years there has been a growing conviction that the masterpieces of thought in the literature of the world should not necessarily be a closed book to the child in school; that they can appeal to him more fully as wholes than as fragments. The world- 834 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A8S0 literature, it is true, is a fountain-head of ui flow the most varied waters. Here are exp from almost every sphere of human experie sparkle all the emotions that ever welled up here may be found the play of all the moti mankind to action. Fairy tale, myth, fable, fiction," all of which are more or less involves erature, imply a breadth and variety of cul ured but by the full sum of man's experience alone, however, suffice to show that school li time will probably remain, a pedagogical p within the sphere of normal school labors unsolved problem to the teacher in practice, a subject for patient thought, research an relation should now exist between the pr literature and the work of the normal schoo has prompted the present paper. That the recent movement of school lit( come one of the most significant and who velopment of the modem curriculum, can : enrichment of the course of study finds its haps, in broad ethical views of literary mai field of cultural treasures which literatui mythical, legendary and historical lines, co: fore, school literature seeks to supply ir modern common school course of study, 11 curricula sought in the so-called humanities of its claims, therefore (for a discussion of the province of this theme), let us consid erature may fairly expect the normal scl half. Without doubt the successful treatmei in the common schools presupposes in the training the cultivation of a genuine app the best treasures literature can offer. T breadth of culture to which almost all especially those treating of or toueliing legendary and folk-lore, and the growth *< stitutions of humanity that have been t songs, will contribute. From a new quari for the broader and deeper culture of t for a moment upon the contents of Hawtl of the choicest of our American classici six tales as follows: "The Gorgon's H "The Paradise of Children," "The Tliroc Department] THE NORMAL SCHOOL AND LITERATURE. 835 raculoas Pitcher," '*fhe Chimaera." Nofc one but dipsMeeply into the classic lore of the Greek. The wings, staff and sandals of Quicksil- ver; the greed of Midas, the accoutrements of Hercules and all of the wonders he performed, Beilerophon, Pegasus, ChimcBra; these, and a thousand other elements, call for knowledge, if the teacher but attempt to barely understand them. How much more thorough must be his general culture, then, if habits of appreciation and taste are demanded as the conditions of successful class-work in literature. Undoubtedly a high grade of academic work, which in itself will always remain one of the prime phases of normal school activity, will and does contribute materially to the formation of the rijjht attitude on the part of the teacher toward literature in the schools. But it is equally true that this is a problem which involves vastly more than the student's knowledge and appreciation of literature. The problem must be approached from the pedagogical point of view. Literature must be regarded in the light of the contributions it will make to a realization of the aim of education, of its effects upon other branches of instruction, and of the method according to which it should be presented. Roughly classified, the chief problems to be met are about as follows: (1) What principle of selection is best fitted to meet the re(iuirements of the whole cultural task and the peculiar needs of childhood? (2) Is there any principle of succes- sion for the subject-matter of literature given in the child himself? (3) How may literature in the curriculum affect other branches of instruction? (4) What method is best suited to the presentation of literary masterpieces in the common public school? Nowhere are better opportunities offered to test these problems, that are them- selves full of interest and destined materially to affect the practical results of the movement, than in the normal school, where the pos- sibility of investigation and experimentation should never be ex- cluded. If it is the duty of the normal school to train teachers for practical work in the public schools, these problems must be met by it. The problem of apt selection alone is one that, to my mind, has hardly been approached from the child's point of view. On visit- ing a school recently, where considerable enthusiasm was aroused upon the subject of school literature, I found the teacher in the first grade vainly endeavoring to lift the children up to the level of "Bar- bara Pritchie," which she was reading and interpreting to them with all her naturally excellent skill. She was failing, and from no lack in her own skill and tact as a teacher, but because wise selection had not yet become a problem to her. Still more recently, I have heard directly of a kindergarten teacher who had been directed to prepare to present the story of the "Iliad" to her children, and who 1^^' was wondering how she would accomplish it. These examples, per- haps, suffice to show that selection may well be a very significant \ \ w I! 836 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOd \ problem. The notion ia very generally prevale any masterpiece may be presented to the child no matter how imperfectly it is grasped, the sib it may canse to flash across the child's mental : the while. Are we willing to admit that? If normal schools to make any further study of| school work or how these may be eliminated f; cation; they may prepare to retire from servic^ ence of thought, feeling or volitional habit \ child of six and the poem "Barbara Fritchio." , imagery, all of the prominent emotions — patrio reverence, etc. — and, above all, those forcible characteristic of this masterpiece, cannot reac at this age nor can he rise to them. Do we e mightily if we presume that "Barbara Fritchie" i traits to a child of six, i. e.. that it remains "Bar It is not our purpose here to offer any solutioi selection, but to state the problem. Personal solution will be most readily worked out along spondence between the cognitive, emotional anc the child, in any stage of development, and thos^ tent; for the latter are as much vital human I Here, then, is work for the normal school. We perimentation. The best solution to the problen will be found in a series of practical tests undo school, that is usually connected closely with the school. This method of approach, of course, vantage both of working in behalf of a grave, un of acquainting the teacher directly with the pra work. In some of our normal schools, child study hag part of the training of the teacher. The investigj ing problems of school literature lead directly to feel that those problems must be approached fr( of view. In almost no branch of the curriculum attitude toward the subject-matter of instruct thought, feelings and expression, be more natura of himself than in contact with the living, typicj pictures of literature. Here, then, is certainly o] study under the most favorable circumstances. > interest the child most at a certain age? Whei keenest interest in, and get the most good out oi myth, the legend, the pioneer history story, hist( does the interest in each of these wane? Wha most influential to the child at a given age? In Department.] THE NORMAL SCHOOL AND LITERATURE. 837 modes of expression does the child react upon the stories? Are we able to read in this expression anything of value as to the child's emotional and volitional life, or as to characteristic thought-pro- cesses? Can we point to evidences that any literary masterpiece has influenced the child's character? In general, w^hat does there seem to be in any one selection that especially recommends it as being peculiarly adapted to use at a certain age? This is one of the most legitimate fields of child study, one in which we still need an abun- dance of recorded experiences. No institution is so well fitted, in general, to carry on the work at present as the normal school. We might, perhaps, look above for an occasional ray of light upon these extremely practical and significant problems of school work — from the university, whence other lines of applied science are wont to draw new life from the results of the latest scientific re- search in the university laboratory. But, as yet, pedagogical labora- tories are practically unknown in the American university; at least, so far as practical contact with the real problems of education is concerned. There is another possible phase of this work in the normal school that seems to me to be very essential to the adequate training of teachers as instructors in literature in the grades below the high school. It is certainly necessary that they understand what the field of child literature contains that is available, and that they be practiced in testing its value for the particular use to which it will be put. This matter, I believe, should be approached in the most concrete manner possible. Let the text-book here be the literature itself; let it be read, studied, discussed and criticised in the light of the needs of the pupil and teacher. Of course, it will be impossible to review more than a very small part of what the entire field con- tains, but a thoroughly live discussion of the merits of a few master- pieces places the normal student upon a much higher, more inde- pendent plane of thought, one from which a higher grade of work i^ay emanate. This plan may be the more extensively carried out at present, since the enterprise of our best publishing houses has placed much of the most desirable literature in a surprisingly cheap and available form. For a small sum, therefore, the student may become both the possessor of works representing a considerable variety as to thought, form and style, and create the nucleus of a private library. The normal school should be able to supplement such Work as this by lists of masterpieces, that will further acquaint the young teacher with what material can be had in an available form. This implies a line of work on the part of the normal school to which I shall have occasion to refer later. In the higher grades, especially, literature may be chosen largely with a view to its bearings upon other branches of instruction. This 828 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOC o s g i 1 jae i < 1 1 1^ **£ 2 O do i k > P^^ ^ 9 r- s ^ P £ S JH ! ti "O « hih 1 p d^ ««ggS \ ^ 111"! i 1 1 \ '^ OIh «>^5o 1 ' 08 b 2 ««♦* i 1 « a 1 ii i 0 '1 i 1 i- » . jar 1 1 « w tf3 ^ Jill i r^C4 M^ llii ffl 2 *S i i 1 1 : 1 1 s) a s u & O S ^ CU* 1 " »H S 1 ao ^ g ^ II 1 g 11 -^ ^ "1 %4 s s S U |s 1 1 1X4 o Ill IP ills Ills Ell liiiii s O*^ iH c4m I ,-5 ci «^ fH«^' H H ; ^ ^ ^ Si 13 g o S5 i Sz P < to s 5 PQ S 1 1 Department.] mRM'AL SCBOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES. 829 Well fitted in ma- turity of thought. 1 To a great extent. 2 Better able than High School graduates. 1 1 Ready in memory ' and expression. Defbctive In reflec- ' live research. Much better able than High School graduates. Generally thought abler than High School graduates, except in Lan- guages. § s _g ^1 3 V » p."** 2 S i i 1 5 I5 l| >* JH >> >* > Sod r S IF £ & j< S 1 i 1 d o i Ij . |5; . 1 s la. S ^ w . ^ 3 . « Mathematics Sciences. History, Lite etc. Psychology, etc 1 >. Ill lih alls- Alii iHc4oo '♦ iH c^crj"* ^iA<6'i ^•«MCO ^clco^ r4c<«^ ^ol« w 1 1 ^ *i w 1 1 f> 9 d ' a s > s 1 «;;© s S i " "3 s & ^ I u & 1 S 9!} 1 S S s CO ," s § 1 1 U ; 1 1 1 .n s s i ^ 1 a s i >> 1 s ft. s Jr., except In 3 dr 4 topics. 1 sfs§ll t. 1 fell m ill 1 :^ 1 -^ 1-4 1-i ^ c4 'Hcl m^ ■ i il 1 >* i" 4 1 1 1 1 c8 1 1 t i il ' Is s Ml [Ui 830 NATIONAL EDUCj±TiaJSrj±L TABLE OF C Worcester, Brldgewater, Nonnal, Xerre SAUte, Xnd. Arithmetic Algebra Geometry Book-keeping. . . Physios AstroiMMny Chemistiy Physiology Botany Zoology liineralogy Geology Geography Arlttmietic... Algebra Creometry. ... Book-keeping. Physics Astronomy. . . , Chemistry. . . . Physiology Botany Zoology' Mineralogy . . . Geology Geography Arithmetic. . . Algebra Geometry. ... Book-keeping. Physios Astronomy... , Chemistry Physiology Botany Zoology ^\.rithinetlc . Algebra. . . . GeometcT'. . . Geog. (Physical) Language. Reading.., Bnglisb.. Reading. Orthography Etymology Grammar Rhetoric Literature Composition Penmanship. .. . Drawing Vocal Mnsio Gymnastics Psychology Science of Bd- ucation Sch. Organiza'n. History of Ed. . . Civil Polity of Moss. & U. S. . History Dictionary and Beading Ortiiography... Rhetoric Literature... CompositioQ. School Laws of Massachusetts French German Greek Ttlgooometry. . Surveying Drawing Vocal Music Gymnastics Psycholosy Science of Ed- ucation , Sch. Organiza'n. History of Ed... arU Polity of Alass. & U. S. . Hlst(»7 (Gen'l.) . School laws of Massachusetts Latin French German Greek Trigonometry.. . Surveying Grammar EUietorlc Literature(Eng) . Shakespeare and Themes.... Penmanship. . Drawing Vocal Music. Physics. ChemlBtrjr. E*hy8loloiey. Botany Zoolosy. . . . \Zoo Geol Qeog, (Pbyslcal JGeo£ Math. & Pol.)./ AA<^ 7 Read! fOrthoej Grammar /Gramnu Rhetoric I Rhetoric Literature ILlteratuj Composition fComposft Psychology. Pedagogy Civil Govern- ment History (Med., Anc, U. S.)... School Laws of niinols [jatin Latin. Penmanship. . . . /Pei Drawing IDcawiog. < Vocal Music. . . . (Vocal MusJ Psycholoxy /P8ycholc«y, Science of JBkl- fScieoue ot J uoatioo I ucatioo... Iscb. M&nsLgei History of Ed. . .JHistory ot Ed [cirlcs History (U. S.& Hirtoiy (U. S. GeDeral) I Gen. & Oig.) School Inw — German Greek Trigonometry. . . Surveying, Prac tical Teaching iJriticism C^alculus Political Scioice .Latin.. Gt'mmn jGennan. . .( Practical Teabh-jPnicttce jPi In* Sletbodfl (MetlxKb jMe .Fan Theo. of School. Theo. & Prac. . .Political Eooq'7 8cbo( I>ep«tm»t.l KORiT^ X SCHOOLS AND VNIVEBSITIES. 831 CATAMGTJES OF TOS SEVERAL SCHOOLS NAMED. Wliltewater, Wis. Oa\rego. N.T. Arlthmetlo I Arithmetic. AJsebra | Algebra. Qeometry \ Geometix- Book-keeping. . . PhjBlcs. . . Geneeeo, N. Y. CSiemistry. . Phyalologx. Botaoj Zooloc7 Geology Qeog. (Pbysloal, andPolitloal). I Physics \ Astronomy I Chemistry Physiology 'r»otaiiy Zoology Mineralogy Geology GeoflT. (Physical) Arithmetic I Algebra Geometry ' Book-keeping. . . I Physics I Astronomy 1 Chemistry I Physiology Botany Zoology ' Mineralogy Geology Geog. (Fbyslcal) MlllersYllle. Pa. West Chester, Pa. Arithmetic... Algebra I Geometry | I Oook-ke^lng. . . . Physics ' j Astronomy. . . ' Chemistry. . . . Physiology.... ! Rotany I Zoology I Mlaeralogy. . . [ Geology G^ograiAy. lieadinff. Ortlioepy. . I . .1. Grammar (Immmar i Grammar Rhetoric ' Uhetorio , Rhetoric Llteratoie ! LifceratoreOakig) . ! Llteratare(Bng) . Composition GoinpoBition | Compositloa. . . . Reading. Arithmetic Algebra Geometry Book-keeping. . . Physios AstroncHny Chemistry Physiology Botany Zoology Mineralogy Geology Geog. (Physical and Math.) . . . Trenton, N.J. Arithmetic Algebra. Geometry. Book-keeplnc. Physics. Chemistry. Physiology. Botany. Zoology. Mineralogy. Geog. (Political and Physical). Reading;. Orthography. . Drawing Vocal Music. . Psychology. . . . Science of Ed- ucation Dm-Tvlnif Drawing Vocal Muaio. . . . i Vocal Music. . . GymnastlcB ! Gynmastlcs. . . . ' l*8ychology. . . . Science of Bd- Science of Bd- uoatlon History of Ed. . . Civil Govern- ment History 1 2. si ' a i o liilf 1 6 1 s c « 1 «d g 5^|2 , r QUIRIES RECEIVED ■Continued. 1- 1 ; s 1 1 1. ||«i Is- 1 i. at ti 1 I 1 S£l 1 12^ : las ill 1 wel ei-» ll'ggsS r4c4 m^ 13 fie MITTEE'S IN L SCHOOLS.- 1 fill 1 i i ^ i 1 flO a & o S <1 ou* 1 1 " tH E CO NORM 1^ : i - ^ II u S s s d s u 1- ( 1 o i III t n 1 « S S . «45 1 1 ' a ij Is; s o*^ ^' e4co fH c4 CO-* f*m4 ^ o C4 _ H • >i 0 5^ -< 5/) d 1 1 2 S s In e2 s 3 £ I>epartiixent.] mUMAL SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES, 829 830 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOl TABLE OF COURSES OF i Worcester, Brldgewater, Nonnal, m. Terre Haute, lad. Oshkoflh, Wte. Arithmetic. . . Alsebra Qeometry Book-keeping . PbTSlCB Astraoomy Chemistry-. . . . Physiology. . . . Botany Zoology Mineralogy. . . Geology Geography Arithmetic... Algebra Geometry. . . . , Book-keeping. Physios Astronomy Chemistry Physiology. . . , Botany Zoology Mineralogy. . . Geology Geography Arithmetic. . . Algebra Geometry. . . . , Book-keeping. Physics Astronomy. .., Chemistry. . . . Physiology Botany Zoology xlrithmetic. Algebra.... Geometry. . Physics. Arithmetic..., Algebra Geometry Book-keeping. Physics Language. Reading.., Bnglish.. Reading. Orthography. . . Etymology Grammar Rhetoric Literature Composition Penmanship . . . Drawing Vocal Music... Gymnastics Psychology Science of Sd- ucatioQ. Sch. Organiza'n History of Ed. . Civil Polity of Mass. & U. S. History Rhetoric Literature... Composition. School La\vs of Maamchusetts Latin French Qennan Greek , Trigonometry. . . Sunreylng Drawing Vocal Music... Gymnastics Psychology. . . . Science of Ed- ucation Sch. Organisa'n History of Ed. . avU Polity of Mass. & U. S. . History (Gen'I.) School Laws of Ijifassacbusetts Latin French Chemistry.. Eniysiology. Botany Zoology. . . . Chemistry.. Physiology. Botany Zoology Geog. (Physical) Geog. (Physical, Math. & Pol.). Geology Geog. (Physid and Politlca: Dictionary and Reading Orthography... Reading. . Orthoepy. Grammar Rhetoric Literature(Bng). Shakespeare and Themes Penmanship .... Drawing Vocal Music... Grammar. . . , Rhetoric. . . . , Literature. . . Composition. Penmanship . . . Drawing Vocal Music. . . . Psychology. German Greek Trigonometry.. Surveying Psychology. . . . Science of Ed- ucation Pedagogy Civil (Sovem- ment History (Med. Anc, U. S.)... School JjELWB of nilnols. . . . Latin German Greek Trigonometry. Surveying, Prac- tical Teaching CrlUcism Calculus Political Scloice German. History of Ed. . History (U. S.& General) Latin. Practical Teabh ing ^fethods Tbeo. of School. Grammar. . . . Rhetoric Literature... Composition. Penmanship. Drawing.... Vocal Music. Psychology. . Scieoue of £< ucation. . . . Sch. Managei History of Ec Civics History (U. S Gen. &Ski| School I^w. . Latin. German. . . Practice. . . . Methods Theo. & Pra< . PoUUcal Ko< 1 jvoBarAz, SCHOOLS and universities. 831 E8 OF THE SEVEEAL SCHOOLS NAMED. Oswego, N. Y. Arithmetic . Algebra. . . . QeometiT. . . Geneseo, N. Y. .ys^'i^ , Physics ' Astronomy. Chanlstry. . Physiology. . Otology----;- Oad PoUttORl) . Iiotany Zoology Mtaeralogy Geology Geog. (Physical) Arithmetic Algebra Geometry I Itook-keeplng. . . I Physics ' Astronomy Chemistry " Physiology I Botany ; Zoology I&llneralogy Geology Geog. (Physical) MlUersvlUe, Pa. West Chester, Pa. Arithmetic, Algebra Geometry ! , IkxA-keeplng. . . I Physios I ' Astronomy. . . I Chemistry. . . . I Physiology. . . . ' Botany , 2!oology I Mineralogy. . . Geology Gtxvrapby. . . . Trenton, N.J. j Reading. orthoepy- ■!■ ^rantunar. . . . jltbetorlc t»licratnr«-" CSompoeltlon. (rnunmar Grammar^ Ithetorlo ! Ithetorlo. Uteratore(Biig). I L.iterat«reCBi«) . Reading. Arithmetic... Algebra Geometry Book-keeping... i Physics I Astronomy I Chemistry | Physiology Botany Zoology Mineralogy Geology Geog. (Physical and Math.) . . . Arithmetic. Algetoa. Geometry. Book-ke^ln«. Physics. Orthography... . Grammar Rhetoric Literatare(Bng> . CJomposition ! Composition. ... Composition. . X>rawlii« P9ycbolOg7 science of Bd- acatton 3eb. Managem't H:i»toryofBd... OlvU Goyem- roent history (U. S. Oeneral) ScHool lAW Drawing Vocal Music. . Gymnastics. . Science' of Bd- 'I Drawing Vocal Mnslc... Gymnastics l*sychology Science of Ed- ucation History of Bd. Civil Gorem- ment History (U. S I General) .... 1 School Iaw Civil (3ovem- ment History (U. S.& General) School Law. Penmanship .... Drawing Vocal Music Gymnsstlcs I'aycbology Science of Ed- ucation Sch. Managem't History of Ed.., Civil Ctovem- • mont History (II. S. General) I^etin- ^>erDaa^- ppACtice. !" iJitin ; r^tin I i^itin French ^ French French German I German ; Qerman Greek Greek | ©reek j Trigonometry. . . Trigonometry. . . , Trigonometry. . Practice ' Practice | surveying, I ; I Practice , I Methods Methods | Methods Reading Orthography.... Grammar Rhetoric Liitemtnre(Eng) . Composition. . . . I'enmanship .... IMrawlns Vocal Music. . . . Psychology Science of Ed- ucation Stih. Managem't History of Bd... Civil Govern- ment History (Genl.). Chemistry. Physiology. Botany. Zoology. Mineralogy. Geog. (Political and Physical). Beading. Orthography. Shakespeare. Ckammar. Rhetoric. Uterature. Composition. Penmanship. Drawing. Vocal Music. Gymnastlos. Psychology. . . . Science of Ed- ucation. History of Bd. History (U. S. General). School Laws. I^itin. Fa'illar Science &Prac. School Bcon'y. . . | School £k!on> Trigonometry. . . I Surveying, i Practice. Practice 1 Methods I Methods. Calculus Theo. iPrac... School Bcon'y. I Man'l. Tra'lng, 1 Tbeo. & Prac 850 NATIONAL EDUCATIONTAL A& home en\ironment, his experience in travel panions, his favorite books, etc.; all these n tinually observed, for they must be made u interest. This kind of study makes the in in his pupils, more sympathetic with them, the spirit of a true teacher. Thereby the errors of instruction is assured and the att is promised. Hence, it is with reason that recent edu ing attention to the teacher's highest immedi in distinction from the ultimate object; that as the immediate purpose, and declaring tt citement of a lively, permanent interest in a genuine love for the thoughts that they c< SCHOLARSHIP IN NOBMAL BY LIVINGSTONE C. LORD, PRESIDENT STATE NOf MINN. Far be it from the writer of this paper t< normal schools that is considered distinctly p of T^sychology, the history and science of e devices in teaching, the observation of skille teaching under competent criticism; all these to be, prominent features in any school whic young men and young women for the busine has been, and still is, the notion abroad ami especially among those whose course of study 1: than that of a normal school graduate, that i not give proportionate recognition to the idea against the method in presenting knowledge charge made against normal schools, that th for knowledge, may have been exaggerated, c not entirely without foundation. No grofessio upon general culture and accurate scholarship is true that the normal schools as now organi tent the attainments which the college gradua acquired, but the normal school can, and ougl minds in the right attitude toward knowledge, i portions of knowledge are, or have been, thoro a monstrous theory that the normal schools sh graduate and give him professional training wh< Department.] SCHOLARSHIP IN NORMAL SCHOOLS. 851 ship is poor, and then hold the high school responsible for his general scholarship; and all practice that is based, consciously or uncon- sciously, upon such a theory is reprehensible. When students whose knowledge is poor in quality and small in quantity enter a normal school for professional training, the normal school must either send them away to acquire knowledge or provide for their instruction within its own walls. A school which prepares teachers must not only see that its students have mastered some portions of knowledge, but must also see that they are introduced, to a good part, at least, of the best literature on each and all subjects upon its curriculum. The man of one book is always provincial, even though that book be Shakespeare. The teacher must be cosmopolitan, and he can never become so unless he travels far and wide in the intellectual world. The well trained and exact scholar, with no knowledge of what is technically known as "method," is more likely to succeed in teaching than the one with less training and scholarship who has the amount of professional training given in the average normal school. The re- action against the idea that a good scholar must be a good teacher has gone too far, and it is too nearly assumed that a good teacher need not necessarily be a good scholar. In the opinion of the writer, for the preparation of teachers for grades above the fifth, any school that can maintain the claim that it gives the best possible training in the art and science of each subject upon its curriculum, may also maintain the claim that it is a good school for preparing teachers. In arithmetic, its students are accurate and rapid in computation, and clearly grasp the logical relations which exist among the various parts of the subject In geography, they have accurate knowledge of some parts of the earth and know the causes and effects of air and water currents, and adequately grasp the more important changes that have gone on and are still going on in the earth's crust. They are ready and accurate readers, not only able to grasp for them- selves the thought upon the page, but also able to give such oral ex- pression to the thought that a listener can easily understand it. They are able to spell correctly ordinary English words, to write a legible hand, and to understand the structure of an English sentence well enough, at least, not to say that words perform oflfices which they clearly do not perform. And in all subjects dealt with in this school, the student has the best Ifnowledge of the subject-matter that his n^iiid is capable of grasping. On the other hand, the school that allows slipshod habits of study, that gives only general views of things, and passes over particular knowledge; whose students can neither add, si)ell nor read well, is not a good school for preparing teachers, no matter what its work in psychology and methods may be. That attitude toward the subject taught, which Professor Davis 80 felicitously calls "the easy mind," is almost entirely determined by 852 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSC full and accurate knowledge. With regard education of the teacher must not only be i The single text in English grammar will not the teacher himself. Richard Morris, John bulky volumes of Maetzner, and a dozen oth< suited, not only by the teacher of the subject the class. In literature, a scholarly and cat sessed by the teacher. The man who said th Shakespeare, did not like Shakespeare. Shal enjoy Eugene Field, and the admirer of "Tarn in "Dibden's Ghost"? Shall the man who 1( peachment of Warren Hastings" be above ' And has not the "Knickerbocker History of ] teac^her's reading as truly as Justin Winsor'i John Fiske's masterly grouping? Again, the subjects in a normal school must be men a instincts and attainments. The teacher of more than the four books of CsBsar, four ora books of the **^neid." He must be able to t merely to construe with a facility that is little best pupils. The teacher of mathematics mii promptness and ease pi*oblems that are diflficii in the class. In fact, before every class of sti sons preparing to teach, the living scholar scholar who knows his subject well is likely t best method of teaching that subject. The ma any man ever was, and whose talk is profoui ever was is little to be trusted. So far as hat judging are formed by the teacher in the mim far as the pupil is taught to detect the vital ] sentation, these things are done by the teach( a scholar. The writer disclaims any intention of those subjects which are known as profess of attention, memory, and the rest; a knowk education and their growth, both in the presc our own country as well as in Gennany; a stu or concentration of studies; a careful examin theories of school government — air these am n normal school. But, while scholarship \n not £ teacher, what is any teacher without it? I>epartment.] ACADEMIC FUNCTION OF NORMAL SCHOOL. 853 TlfJE ACADEMIC FUNCTION OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL. BY DR. JAMBS M. GKEBX, STATE NORMAIi SCHOOL, TRENTON, N. J. The place of the normal school in the educational system is and ever lias been under discussion. Tliere are those who claim that it has no clearly defined special duty ; that it is an educational institution supported by the State and is at liberty to do whatever needs doing. There are those who claim that is is an academic institution that finds a place by virtue of territorial conditions; that the population and ratables of the State are so distributed that there are large sec- tions that cannot afford to provide a local training that would suf- ficiently qualify for teaching; hence the establishment of a central school, available to all, where this work can be done. There is still another class who claim that there is a preparatory distinct from academic training and strictly peculiar to teaching and that this is the province of the normal school. The first of the above claims contains the element of freedom in a high degree, but the purpose is not sufficiently defined to entitle it to be considered educational. The second claim, while it may be en- titled to respect from the economic standpoint, can present no valid reason why it should be titled normal. The third claim would imply that the special qualification for teaching is independent of the sub- ject-matter to be taught It is the opinion of the writer that neither of these claims best suits the normal school of our country. There is a training independ- ent of academic knowledge necessary to the teacher. There is a treatment of academic subjects peculiar to the teacher. It is the wedding of these two forms of work that defines the true character of the normal school. The subject of this paper requires that its attention be given mostly to the consideration of the pedagogical treatment of academic subjects. It will give clearness, however, if we briefiy note the part in the training of the teacher which is independent of the academic matter he is to teach — ^that which is purely pedagogical. Under this latter qualification may be classed the study of the mind of the child, its faculties, and the laws of their growth and de- velopment; the planning of work in conformity with the laws of the mind; the study of the principles of school organization and school government; the history of the origin and development of the leading educational systems of the diifferent periods and nations; the com- parison of these systems and the discussion of their values. Finally, 854 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASt the consideration of the underlying prineipl civilization and the relating of educational It will be seen at once that this departme It can be well done only in a place set \ equipped and adapted to it; namely, a norm^ work that is not provided for in the curric academies or high schools. It can only be w have given long and well directed attention with such thoroughness and dignity that th other institutions and especially the college* school for its accomplishment. To come directly to our subject, the acade school, it should be borne in mind that we i of what may be considered* a true normal sch( tion of such an institution is to be distingui academic work which is often adjoined to a n sary outgrowth of territorial conditions, and strongly favored for reasons of economy an( termed preparatory. Its only normal shadin that it is done by normal teachers, and thus t for a more ready appreciation of wha;t these t present from a pedagogical basis. It is a lei necessary by reason of the great variety of from which the students of a State school com ignored when we remember that it is a fu school organization to adapt the school to th< With the above preliminary discussion in with clearness the true academic function of t This academic work may be defined, firstlj as to manner of treatment. Firstly, the academic scope of the normal s institutions are designed to prepare teachers 1 that is, the primary, grammar and high schoc to better the condition of the masses. The reu in these grades of schools does not warrant, an to come, warrant, a demand for college-trained school, therefore, in accordance with the econ attempt to cover the range of the college i wisely consider its academic scope bounded b; best secondary schools, and even within this whether or not it can always include all of i would ordinarily be covered by secondary sch( Secondly, the fact that the normal school fi; above the primary and the grammar school and affect the manner of treatment within that vi Depaitmen^- 3 ACADEMIC FUNCTION OF NORMAL SCHOOLS. 855 to quote irom my esteemed friend, President Charles De Garmo of Swartlxmore College: "The university and college rightly pride them- selves u-X*^^ ^^ breadth and depth of the knowledge they impart and upon tlie rigorous scientific character of the methods they pursue. But rigorous scientific method for adults is the logical unfolding of relatively perfect systems of complete knowledge, or is a difficult ex- cursion into new realms of truth hitherto unexplored. But the young are mostly incapable of pursuing either of these processes success- fully. Theological unfolding of a departm^ent of acquired and sys- tematic knowledge is not a proper guide for imparting it to children, since tlie course does not coincide with the psychological laws of learning in the young. The laws of apperception demand that new knowledge shall be imparted in view of the interpreting experience that the child has already acquired. Suppose an attempt is made to teach natural science according to the order of evolution from lower to higher organisms. What interpreting experience has a child had of protozoa? None whatever. Hence, both understanding and interest Tv^ohld be lacking in such an order. University knowledge is, therefore, of small account until it has been analyzed and re- adjusted in accordance with the psychological principles governing the child's mental assimilation. On the other hand, students in academies and high schools acquire knowledge imparted, in an ele- mentary, non-reflective manner. They are so much engrossed in absorbing that they are unconscious of the manner of assimilation. Nor do they pursue the higher studies long enough to see their inter- preting value for the more elementary branches. It is evident that to a still greater degree there must here be a lack of psychological insight as to the proper way to select, arrange and impart instruction, since there is a lack both of the knowledge that the university gives and the broad liberalizing outlook that it imparts. The function of the normal school, therefore, is to pass the white light of knowledge, whether acquired in the high school alone, or in that and the college combined, through the prism of that psychology which reveals the elementary processes of learning." It is taking an unusual privilege to quote at such length, but the clearness, conciseness and value of President De Garmo's statement forbid its division. He expresses forcibly and satisfactorily that phase of the treatment of academic matter commonly called method, for I understand the poetic expression "to pass the white light of knowledge through the prism of that psychology which reveals the elementary processes of learning," to mean making the student con- scious of the conformity to the laws of mental development in the arrangement and presentation of the lesson. The normal student must also consider academic matter as a theme. The traveler journeys over hill and through vale, unable to 856 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSi review his path or form a conception of the he reaches the summit of some lofty mount entire landscape spread beneath him. H( glance its proportion of forest, pasture, fiel tive value of each. So with the student passing througli a si as arithmetic. Case after ease, is presente offering some new idea. He proceeds from quiring a mastery over each that will enal practical life; but not acquiring that concepi respective problems to the theme of arithmet enable him to plan a course of study skillful a class with greatest economy and dJefinite ception of the theme as a whole that the m its pupil. Then will he realize, when teachin wliat part of interest and mensuration he i pupil conscious thereof and render possible concentric system. As an outgrowth of this conception of a normal student must learn the art of select with respect to culture and utilitarian valui waste of time and energy than that which g custom of assigning to be learned that wh books. No person is entitled to be consider not a well defined theory of what constitutes the utilitarian and culture sides, and who i academic tasks uLeans to the promotion of his For instance, in Hhe subject of America should know the origin of our Constitution, the country under its provisions; the relati general government and the effect of these ment of municipal government and its tend< character of our systems of transportation an great themes, about which nearly all that ; clusters. The normal pupil must know how to selec to pursue them in a manner that will dev scholarship; that is, the/ habit of close invest!^ ment of results. That which has been instanc is only suggestive of what should be dome ir branches. When the normal school has taught its pu demic knowledge he is to teach within the brought him to a conception of a subject as a i him to see the relation of all the parts to the ^^ ^ THE TEACHER A8 AN EXPERT. 857 X)ep*^^^*^ ^^ , ^ ^cfYi\.\iS:x^^ ^^ select topically from all subjects with relation to prac- itral^Vte ^i-^^ culture combined, it has given him a power that must TYiat: i:1»4^ «.cademic treatment is the function of the normal Bchool follows ^ogl^^^y? from the fact that it is peculiar to the work of teach- ing ^^^ i?vli.i<5^ the normal school is designed to prepare, and from the fact fha-t no teacher can be dn educator in the truest sense without tliis training. THE TEACHER AS AN EXPERT. BY r>K. K. G. BOONE, STATE NORMAIi SOHOOL., YPSILl4I^TI, MICH. The relations of students in a school for teachers have a double significance. The days are school days, and so should mean all thdt BTich days do or can mean to anyone. But, in addition, the process lias been one of training also. While they have been growing, the primary thought of the school has been to make them conscious of the process of growtih, and to busy them with thinking how most wisely to direct it. To the degree that it is training, there is the result of '^taking shape" more or less as the clay yields to the potter's hand. To a certain extent it has been a process of making rather than growth. The hoped-for chance to teach has been the primary motive in learning, the individual interest secondary. It is found expedient in such schools to take on the teacher habit, the teacher's interpreta- tion; the captain's point of view, not the private's; the soldier's attitude of following authority, not the free joyousness of the child or the controlled interest of the student. In every law school, because it is a law school, education as growth is subordinated to the acquisition of legal forms and the application of certain established principles underlying human civic rights. In theology, the best training stUl magnifies the importance of shaping oneself to the controlling interpretation. Professional training of every sort looks less to growth than to possession. The technical school, as such, also presupposes a preparative time and process of education. To this it undertakes to add technical in^ght and skill. Is it otherwise with the training of teachers? If so, is it ether- ise as an expediency or as a necessity? Academic work in a normal school is the result of a compromise. It IB there because students have not the knowledge, and so cannot taJke up the method; or it is offered to give the teacher's vi^w of branches which had been taken only from the side of the student. 56 S58 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A CJonceding to instructors in such school education and the fullest conception of 1 remains true that work has been prosecu tacitly held, although perhaps with reserv and very elementary way, perhaps, the educ completed. That is, certain minimum p have been met. They are there to lear They are expected to yield up their best but in a prescribed line. It is not enough required to confine their thinking to a cer Are they studying history? As teac making) they have constantly before them ditions in the process of culture. Are the;; It is to understand how it may be best ei of education. The study of literature has b insight into the ways and means of the spi so, incidentally, of the individual. To the e school, however, the inquiries have sought questions of training. That is, training school experience is, i; like all former school experience. In the j to be made of it gives, more or less, the prii lesson. It is learned for a purpose. The en is in the life external to the learner. Its others lends it all its point. Their traini efficient in proportion as it has insured suc( among children. Directly and' narrowly, pe tion is not what it has done for them, but to do for others. Schooling for education, then, is one thi would seem to be something else. Nevei lieved to be sometimes, if not always, i with the former. Indeed, it may safely be training that most respects the requireme manently, though not perhaps immediatel Teaching is essentiaUy an unselfish act "He is able to be touched with the feeling well be our example in a purely pedagoglca witfi the need of others is the primary ped not less than the characteristic trait of the ] needs be compassionate and sympathetic. "] is rather the attitude of the instructor than On the other hand, learning is a selfis appropriative and centripetal. To teach un to think and feel for others, to live for othe i>epartaneiit.] THE TEACHER AS AN EXPERT 859 sense. Teaching is centrifugal. It is not sufficient, either, to be able to be compassionate and thoughtful simply; but to be so habitually; to he anxious, inclined, disposed to be, and do so. A ready, facile, inteiJig^ont participation in feeling with the impotence and ignorance and fear of the learner — this it is to be a teacher. Concerning such schools, then, and in this presence, it may fairly he assumed, I think, that what their academic years could not doi for them — ^gri^e this unselfish attitude of the real teacher— their pro- fessionaJL study has made possible to students. Whatever else their studies do or do not accomplish for them, this is fundamental: the habit ot jDfiind called above "touchableness" — responsiveness to others' needs axi ci conditions and fullness of resource to make that sympathy fruitful- As I xregard the question, I find myself in a strait between two ways. One is a teacher. He should be a student A.long with the interest -fcrliat prompts him to live for otlhers — his wards for the time —the t^a^«her has still need to live for himself. Over against the school-i'o^=>^°i ^or teaching let there be set up the laboratory and the library :f or learning. A life devoted to either becomes narrow and poor; w'lx^sther that life be within college walls, on the farm, at the ^ench, 1x1. the domestic circle, in the pulpit or at the forge, in writing 1)00^8 or teaching the young. Speaking accurately, the only sa£e teaclie^ is the learner. Only lae who has unanswered questions facing him, whose answers ^e earnestly seeks, can be greatly "touched" in the presence of those to whom most questions remain unanswered. Hence, the call every- where for growing men; not young men or women necessarily, but persons who are aspiring and progressive; who, seeing the tasks to be attempted, have the courage of their understanding. The need is for teachers who are students. But, in educational affairs, the demand is made more specific in the want of the public for some reliable appeal. From the point of view of the teacher, every one is a student From the side of the public, every professional teacher is, in theory, and should be actually, an expert Difficulties in building you refer to an architect Questions in sanitation and therapeutics are turned over to the physician. To the degree that either fails, he drops to your own plane and is no authority. As he is able to converge the latest and the best thought of mechanics or medicine or the labora- tory upon the problem, his knowledge is expert knowledge; this, too, though every point made may be contradicted by to-morrow's better insights. So, of the teacher; it is expert knowledge that the schools need. There are thousands of teachers, and other thousands of sensible men and women who are not teachers, and more who are neither, who 860 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASi yet have a considerable but partial and sc questions of education and schooling. Tt culture seem simple enough. Teaching is making, or cobbling, or clerking, calling fc nor considerable study. There are those, something other, and, it would seem, bettei that larger and more wholesome results i processes of education a subject of serious who seek to find the law of their procedu culable; who recognize the social and persoi education as infinitely complex, and the physical forces involved as both little underg prehension. All this represents a knowlei patient study only, and the co-operation of but different lines. It means a study \^itl! It means a generous understanding and a d( ous and impetuous and hasty are excluded 1 task. Here is no place for indifference Equally, also, the narrow commercial instir ment and care for reputation are but hin< render or be able to render large service hei tively, if not literally, to "forsake houses a and father and mother and wife and childrei single only to his vocation. It is no more true of teaching and tea ' pursuit, where truth is the end and truths no less true. It is expert knowledge that ^^ Most of us can remember when few crec I required of us. In the last generation, or ev ' taught well satisfied the unthinking, — mosi teachers. The instruction might be purely so, — resting on the lowest level of the art. 1 plane was to imitate it To explain its sue / or to quote authority or precedent. That th the hands of the most successful teacher, ai device, is what we should expect. The g being not understood, their failure was nec< insight that is able to think both the suocesj common law immensely exalts the art, and 1: science. The normal school, or whatever other p not merely to make teachers, but investigate of its laws — that they be put in the way of b( in the art; no longer apprentices or journey] Department] THE TEACHER AS AN EXPERT 861 profession. The burden is upon each of us to become such, or show cause. Primarily, then, an "expert" is one who has knowledge of a kind, or insights, which the average individual, even the highly-cultured individual, outside the class, does not have. The teacher may fairly be held responsible for knowing more of education and the conditions of culture, and the uLental and moral forces that make for progress in both the individual and the race, than any parent, except he also be a teacher. This is, of course, true of superintendents and inspectors and of all who direct education; but is it not, also, incumbent upon the teacher in the ranks? Here should be such mastery as that patrons, willingly or unwillingly, will concede the leadership. "We know that thou art a master," are words that may be spoken to any great teacher. Now, concerning teaching and the processes in education. One may have read history and be ignorant of them. Not every scholar is also instructor. Not every artist is teacher. One may make a wheelbarrow well, and bungle in either telling or showing another how. Not every preacher — even successful preacher^-is a wise critic of preaching. But the teacher who is not superior to his art soon becomes inferior. The public may know— neven the indifferent, busi- ness, unsympathetic public — when the school's work is well done, through examining its product. The teacher must be no less sure in advance, through watching or planning the steps of the process. The teacher, as expert, has no need to wait for the badly-written manu- script to know that poor work has been done. The loose thinking in daily work should have assured her of misspellings and false syn- tax in advance. The common mind looks back upon the process through results; the expert. predicts results from given conditions. In dealing with the child there must be reasonable assurance that there is no blunder-making. It seems as if it ought not to need saying that no amount of gen- eral culture will, of itself, give this insight, any more than the tra- ditional liberal education makes one an author or editor or builder <>r Preacher. 1 trust that you will agree that the writings of both the author and editor, the edifice of the builder, and the sermon of the preacher, will, if they be really authors, editors, builders and preachers, be improved by so much as there is liberal cultuire behind their doing. It rests with us and our colleagues to prove that there is a higher j plane of pedagogy than that occupied by this even highly cultured general public; a higher plane than can be taken by those who give it but incidental attention. One's saying that it should be so does not make it so. Not all teachers are experts. Most of them lack the general training to 862 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL. make expert knowledge trustworthy. M the processes actually involved. Some h the school. A few are still content to many are lacking in several or all of the afford the time requisite for such' prepara The professional school does but little. first "push;" fixes the direction and habit come must determine how well the imj young teacher forges ahead of his patroi expect, in his chosen sphere, or drops intc sons trying to do expert work; accepts me< crowd, and is content to borrow dignity f i All this is common enough in some Sta To succeed means to follow a very diffc need to read widely. Other languages m results of study of not less than three or f c familiar. Men and institutions must be s history will afford perspective; the insig Familiar intercourse with the local and e path J and effectiveness. Here is learning \ is mere scholarship. This anyone needs { better for having. Without it, for anyai paucity of life. The teacher, however, has and other languages and history and litera to interpret and direct the learning process teacher off from the larger public. Here sion." It is not so much the amount of guishes him as the kind of knowledge and is held. ^ • But expertness implies more than kno\s facility and mastery in handling the quest pursuit of such knowledge or its use. Th( i of skill in the practice of the art for the sak has been acquired. Washington Roebling, who built our gr an: expert engineer. This was not alone, or calculate the strength and resistance of ma and measure strains, but equally because he the handling of, tools and machinery with i An expert chemist is one who can hin No physician would be permitted to testify authority who has book-knowledge only, o Expert knowledge is first-hand knowledge. experience and initiative of a high order. skillful working with the soil, not interestini Department.] THE TEACHER AS AN EXPERT, 863 sanitary engineer who fails to make his apparatus "work," finds him- self without a "job," or should. Efficiency is one measure of man's claim to recognition. "One is worth to himself what he can enjoy; he is worth to the world what he can do." It is true for whatever art and for every individual. It is pro- foundly true of teaching. You may with reason suspect the theory of one who himself fails in practice. Neither alone can satisfy. There are notable exceptions. One may think well, and bungle in the doing; as one may teach effectively through instinct, rather than with intelligence. But this is not expertness. Of the two, the public usually tf^xalts the latter. The tendency of teachers, on the other hand, — especially young teachers, just out from school, and carrying the atmosphere of their instructors with them, — is to excuse them- selves for deficiencies in the class-room, through over-devotion to their "methods." There is no virtue in "methods" except they be productive of results in their following; and skill in itself, without constant reference to the principles that make the doing skilled, as distinguished from unskilled labor, is only manufacture or bald imi- tation. Let us not deceive ourselves by supposing that distinction lies along either way exclusively. The "educational expert" must have botb. knowledge and skill. Public and professional confidence would be, as they deserve, far more thaxi it is, with the critics of the schools, if there were con- fidence in their acquaintance with the processes of teaching. Just as there will be more confidence in our teachers in the ranks when, as a class, tliey have become better established in the accepted doctrines of education and the modes of insight into the mental life. To the young person going into the school let it be said: Study to teach. It is an achievement to command the admiration of the philosopher to have brought to fruition the several steps in a lesson or a series of lessons. Take pride in your success before the class. Carefully think out devices. Compare and criticise your efforts. Weigh results in an impersonal way. Make careful note of condi- tions. Test failures for their cause, not more than successes or sup- posed successes. "Covet the best gifts." To have administered a trust well, goes far towards dignifying one's motive. Yesterday's failure becomes a new lesson. No greater honor comes to one than, in the light of larger or more accurate knowledge, to improve his teaching. A degree of success here is open to everyone. Whatever one's position or service in the school-room, it is of vital importance that he keep himself in close touch with the children and the recitation, the discipline, the homes and the playground, the games, public amusements, neighborhood enterprises, and local move- ments. It is the only means known whereby one's theories may be 864 NATIONAL EDVCATIONA.I. ^ ritalized. In the school there is a rich i removed from the general public. Expert knowledge in education, then, skill in handling the processes involved ii training as come only from a life devoted Among the questions involved in this < are certain ones which would seem to be those who would teacfh. Without any intention of making com other phases of the problem, there is much for a patient, painstaking, unbiased obser facts concerning our natural history relatior We are so accustomed to think of man as directive and deteimining, that we are cons getting that he is also animal and thing, though it is sometimes forgotten in the sc natural object, just as is the cabbage, the do is accordingly subject to the same condition interference and exhaustion and failure and and dependence, as are they. He finds lipiii even to his thinking and wishing. In theo; climatic conditions, he finds himself crowded picks her provinces and civilization thrives. and nations diverge. How man, first used by Nature, comes in t her forces to his own advantage, and so enla liis satisfactions, is the problem of civilizati< this, it is obvious, is the problem of culture, We call the science anthropology; and, by so much that is written and spoken in its name. study, it must be known to you, as I am convin the body of teachers, opens up a rich field. In a race's early dependence upon, and gradual eman are to be found some of the most fruitful lesson some of the most neglected. How climate an( Faphy fix barriers to migration, and hence set nations and cultures; affect health and custoi morals; determine the food supply and modify t tal energy, and so, man's efficiency, is easily af of the people. That the like or corresponding company in thef individual, is equally true, it won understood. The fact becomes significant for ever narrow the field of her labore. It is sig] who is interested to bring to bear upon it tlie d Departmoot.3 THE TEACHER AS AN EXPERT. 865 class and the individual lesson, the insights of tbe race, and her own insight into the ways of the niee's culture. The entire question of race is an anthropological one, and is very important. No social or educational problem in this country, I appre- hend; is more in need of serious and sensible study by teachers, rather than by politicians, than this of associated races under the same institutions. Inequalities, also, in race development complicate the problem. There is included, not only the difficulty of throwing them into the same school, but that of including them in the same system. To have the same, or nearly the same, curriculum for the body of negroes and Indians and most whites in this country, is a little like including representatives of the race from the time of King Alfred and Knox and Shakespeare and Cotton Mather and Washington and ourselves under the same refnme. The difficulty of the former is one in which, directly or indirectly, every teacher is interested. No more helpful or more misunderstood generalization has been reached \>j modern science or by pedagogy than this: that in his de- velopment, the individual follows the same order as that through which the race has passed. To the end that the principle may be in- telligently interpreted, and the conditions understood which give rise to it, the would-be teacher will find occasion for much study of his- tory,— real history, — the personal and social and institutional life of peoples, observation of men and investigation of social forces, and the conditions of public and domestic life. As opportunity offers, she will become familiar with epoch-making literatures; not for the sake simply, or chiefly, of the literature, but because of the richer peda- gogical insight that comes as ai result She will be also led to study art, and the arts and inventions of men, their comforts and con- veniences and luxuries, along with their wants, their industries and pastimes, conventionalities and intercourse, as opening a door into their lives, and so offering a means of learning the forces that have operated td further the intelligence/ and make effective the culture of whatever historic people. Here is a large field for study, and none of it can go amiss to one interested in education. It is particularly helpful to primary teachers to study these relations among primitive people, among the uneducated, the simple-minded, or thoae of defect- ive senses. Formerly, it is known, anthropology had to do almost wholly with man as a moral being; later it came to mean the science of the physical man in his natural, racial connections. At present the study comprises the entire man in his natural history relations. There are included questions, also, of age and sex, neural char- acteristics, physical and mental heredity, with all that the term im- plies since Weissmann has written; the faculty of expression, the kinships of savage and civilized life, customs, traditions and myths, 866 NATIONAL EVVCATXON^L the religious impulse, rites and cereir in a broad way, the distinguishing chj culture epochs. "Long prior to the age of reflection," s of the mind. ♦ ♦ ♦ In the period oi posed of all impressions from the sum>i way. Whatever any mind doth or sai native law remains over it, after it has C4 thought. In the most worn, pedantic, life, the greatest part is incalculable by able, and must be, until he can take h What am I? What has my will done to ing. I have been floated into this thougl of events by secret currents of might an and willfulness have not thwarted, have degree.''* Certainly, the will has done something making each one what he is. But, look( wave of influence, it seems relatively litt] comprehending this law, which precedes a or conscious thought," the being able t< "incalculable, unforeseen and unimagina the individual's life, and the natural fore has been "floated into this thought, this events," is great to every one, greatest, There is need to understand this principle , in life, the native attractions and repulsion I iiiinking of chUdnen, and such as have not by the drill of school or other education. ; This is chiefly, I take it, the motive, whei . or not, which underlies the modern experi ' study of children, and whatever applicatioi ; to pedagogical affairs. 1 It should be noted, however, that exper \ requires not this knowledge as an end of < insight which it is hoped they may give into tions of the child and his instinctive and and biases. In much of all this the experiments and ol no immediate pedagogical motive. They ha because of their educational implications. 1 perimental studies in general psychology, th( and institutional and economic questions, lab • See Bmerson'B essay, "Intellect." Departaient.] DISCUSSION. 867 ©logical and related phenomena, statlBtical collections in anthro- pology and antiquities— all of which sustain established and well- understood relations with public and individual culture. But many of them are only incidentally pedagogical. How greatly this broader view needs to be taken by school men and women, no one knows so well as one who has had long contact with the work of the public schools. The narrowness! of view of the great majority of the teach- ing class cannot be doubted by one who has more than a local ac- quaintance with them. It may be, doubtless is, unavoidable under present conditions; but it is none the less deplorable. Whatever gives one a better insight into the nature of civilization, and the con- ditions that make for public and individual culture, the motives that underlie conduct, and the affinities that obtain between thought and thing must improve his teaching. It is not enough that pedagogy be rooted in psychology; it sus- tains, of necessity, vital relations with ethics, physiology, anthropol- ogy and logic, in addition to the almost equally helpful ones of soci- ology and philosophy. Indeed, the one thing that most distinguishes the current study of educational questions is, perhaps, this vitalizing of our notions and our interpretations of them, through a better in- sight into and employment of these collateral relations. No one can be thought an expert in such matters who only knows the school. DISCUSSION. [REPORTED BY MISSES FLORENCE M. MATTESON AND GRACE B. LATIMER.] Db. Charles Db Garmo: In this normal Bchool problem every man must look at it from his own standpoint. The papers read indicate that we are entering upon a new era in normal school work, and one which will enable us to utilise the benefits of the past and to reap benefits never before realized. The development of the high schools is progressing rapidly under the influence of the universities. This means that it will be possible for the normal schools to do a new class of work, as has been suggested. We shall be able to go on with the higher branches from the beginning, forming ideals of what constitutes teaching from the higher branches and then returning to the lower branches for a briefer time. If this ia true, a large amount of time can be saved. For example, the study of English grammar, which now takes a large amount of time in the school course, could be shortened if the student were encouraged to study Latin, which is really an ex- planation of English grammar. Dr. J. A. Baldwik, Texas: I wish to say a word about the problem pre- sented by Dr. McMurry. The article seemed to me to be pure gold, rich in sugges- tions. What was said of the teaching of literature, Dr. McMurry carried over into all subjects. Interest, as Dr. McMurry explained, leads to effort, and effort to all achievement. Normal school work is standing on solid rock. The last paper 868 NATIONAL EDVCATIONJLL A read sets forth this fact. In our work we realize Will it be possible as in our universities to make t] ditlon of entrance to the normal school? Then our be largely professional and the normal student e junior class. Pbihcipal Charles C. Ramsay, Fall River, :> happy to say, a law was passed going into effec schools to admit none except those having high sc must also pass a rigorous examination in the commc Question: What fixes the grade of high school Principal Ramsay: The high schools of Mj rank. Some have a four years' course and some a subject to the inspection of the State Board of Educj Question: Is there a uniform standard of grad of that State? Principal Ramsay: No, sir. Question: Do the leading colleges and univers graduates upon certificate? Principal Ramsay: Many of the best of them Dr. John W. Cook, Illinois: If all the high s of Illinois, graduated from our high schools last violently seized and put into the normal school, we w the number of teachers required yearly. Conditions must admit pupils into the normal schools direct fr< normal schools are of low grade, but they are like prepare teachers. The normal schools in each State can for its public schools under all the conditions tl scattered. We have a few cities, but by far the grea in the small towns and in the country districts. Whc district schools? We must offer to those willing to £ thing in the way of education. We endeavor to li way professional; it is largely academic. Many of oui from the district school, but they have the capacity to second year they ask no odds of the high school grad the power to pay attention, one of the things most nee Question: Is it not possible under the present c ferentiate the work in the normal school so that those of work may do it instead of spending time on the elen Dr. Cook: It seems to me that this is just the school graduates are so far away from elementary work that geometry or algebra would have. Almost invaria! yanced work, after one year they ask permission to 1 My proposition is that those high school people need e not from the high school are not ready for other. Dr. Db Garmo: I do not wish to deny the fruiti common branches. The whole problem is the balancii] advanced and elementary work, that we may get the p spend a large amount of time upon one group of subject Dr. Ck)OK: The proof of the pudding is in the eatin under the present conditions it is possible in the Stat< Department.] DISCUSSION, 869 suggestion to have a two years* course for graduates of high schools of larger cities. With us the elementary work is necessary, and normal school graduates, like this gentleman (Dr. De Garmo), hare given pupils their first knowledge of thorough work in the common branches, and have always uplifted the whole system of education in places where they have gone. Mb. Baldwin: In Ontario every teacher has normal instruction. Suppose, in addition to university normal schools, we could have plenty of elementary normal schools, we could better prepare all classes of teachers. Dr. Cook is right as to elementary work, but the time has come to make a distinction between elementary and university normal schools. Dr. C. C. Rounds, Plymouth, N. H.: Twenty-five years ago I was present, at the organizing of the Normal Department of the National Educational Associa- tion, and I am amazed at the progress made in that time. In our school we at- tempted to require high grades in entrance; but the results were disappointing.. Now we are much more lenient in admitting students. But once in the school,, their advancement is very rigidly guarded. About one-half our students are- graduates of high school or academic courses, but in the second year work they seem to possess no advantages over the students from the district schools, while the latter seem to have a higher sense of responsibility. Some of our most bril- liant teachers have been from the district schools. We have to adapt ourselves to conditions, and we do not suffer from that adaptation. We have only a two years'- course, but we want a three years' course. Question: Do you make any difference in your required work from high school graduates and your other students? Dr. Rounds: There is no distinction made in the elementary studies, but when they come to the higher studies, high school graduates are credited with part, thereby evening out advantages. Dr G. M. Phillips, West Chester. Pa.: No one in Pennsylvania would wish. Dr. De Garmo's suggestion accepted. Any board may organize a high school with any course of study, hence high school graduates are not uniform. Students entering high schools enter at early ages. Courses of study are culture courses, rather than teaching courses; hence, upon graduating they are unable to teach the common branches without special preparation. I have helped conduct twenty- five normal examinations, and know the limitations in that direction. The question is not so much how students go in as how they go out from the normal schools. Dr. James M. Milne, Oneonta, N. Y.: The academic work in New York State is unique, inasmuch as there is absolute uniformity in the regents' examina- tions and also in the marking of these papers. Still, the greatest variety is found in these schools. We must hold in mind that there are two outlooks in teaching, one where facts are taught, the other where power is obtained. The normal school seeks power rather than facts. Teachers teach largely as they are taught, ancj grow afterward into the principles of methods. We make the work in our training department just what we think the work in the public schools should be. Arithmetic, grammar, etc., are studied by studenta with immature minds and when they face the problem of teaching these subjects they see their lack, and ask permission to take these subjects again with their more mature minds. Our best students in arithmetic come from the district schools. There are limitations in practical experience which every normal principal must recognize. Db. De Gakmo: May I ask how much time is given to science work in the. New Jersey normal school? i 870 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL Db. J. M. Grkene. Trenton, N. J.: One physics, five months in zoology, five months in connection with physical culture throughout t] science work long enough to get the feeling of teach these subjects they go back to mechanica time to a subject and give power in it, even if number of subjects. Principal Ramsay: Heretofore in Massa seemed to be of lower grade than the high schc a premium on high school graduates, but the ne normal schools establishes them as distinctively schools. Dr. Cook: Again I would suggest that w< has its own peculiar conditions, and we must do whether we be in the East or in the West. ii'" 1 pg^^^RTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July 11, 1894. TA«.*^«,rt;inent of Industrial Education met at 2:30 p. m. in Westminster ^rc^'^^ SL\y^^^<^^ o^ *^ ^^ *^® officers, Dr. O. M. Woodward of St. Louis was ^ X^ ^resi^Sez^t' and Prof. E. R. Booth of Cincinnati, Ohio, Secretary pro tern. .^c^^ -^ Jolin O. Miller of the Chicago High and Manual Training School read a ^ ^*^^ti **I>ra,'WTing— Its Relation to Manual Training and the Industrial Arts." ^p^^ t>ftP®^ '^vas discussed by Messrs. Larkins, Clarke, Booth, Wasson, and others. '^^^e session adjourned at 5:30 p m. SECO.>^D SESSION.— Thursday, July 12, 1894. rrlie session opened promptly at 3 o'clock p. m. ^^ C. M. Woodward of St. Louis, Mo., read a paper on "Organization and for Manual Training Schools." ^^* t3r. ^®^^ Leipziger of New York City read a paper on "The Progress of ^al Training." >i^** paper on "The Hygienic Relation of Dress to Education" was read by Miss Tl^a Morris, Des Moines, Iowa. fi' "t^ethods of Manual Training in the Philadelphia Public Schools" was the .t of ft paper by J. Liberty Tadd, Director of the Philadelphia Industrial Art giiibj*^* rpjie paper was illustrated by teachers and pupils from the Philadelphia ^cl^oo '^^jj^jg^ whose work was the subject of extended and interesting discussion. P^^^^ue following officers were unanimously elected for 1895: p^estdeni—^' R- Booth of Cincinnati, Ohio. rice Presidenf-^^' N. Ebaugh of Baltimore, Md. l^^yy— Ohas. D. Larkins of Brooklyn, N. Y. 5he Department adjourned. ^ E. R. Booth, Secretary pr^ ^^- 872 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Manaalaiid DRAWING— ITS RELATION TO MANUAL TRAINING AND THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS. BY JOHN C. UIL1.BR, BNGtLISH HIUH AND TliAINING SOBOOL. OHIGAGO, LUL While superintendents and teachers are trying to solve the ques- tion as to what kind of manual training they ought to introduce in their schools, in what grades it ought to be taught and what meth- ods should be followed, whether it be called whittling or sewing, blacksmithing or cooking, metal working or sloyd, one fact stands unassailed — drawing is the foundation of all manual training. From the most advanced stages of manual labor to the paper folding and model making of the primary school, the pencil line is the agent and its proper use the language which conveys the thought of the designer to the workman, be he young or old. Not a ship plows the sea nor a train parts the air but has it» first material existence in the lines and figures of the draftsman, and, in a less ambitious sense, no lesson is well taught in our manual training schools but that is or should be based on a good drawing, which embodies the thought, the experience, the best effort of the originator of the course. The drawing is the foundation upon which the student in handi- craft builds his structure; the platform upon which he stands to build that statelier temple of the mind through the agency of the liand. Without the drawing he is a wanderer, he knows not his course and sees not the end from the beginning; he is as a mariner without a compass, sailing this way and that without an approach to the desired haven. In the establishments of this country that deal most closely with the industrial arts, no one workman takes precedence over the de- signer. Indeed, the output of the establishment is but the reflection of the artistic sense of him who plans the work, to be afterward exe- cuted by the skillful hand. If the designer has not the cultured mind, how far short the product must fall of what is required for the purposes of competition in this age! The hand may be skillful, but the mind of the designer must be trained in those lines now being studied, appreciated and held in high esteem by the American people. We, manual training teachers, are too prone to look upon the end of our teaching as the perfecting of the student in manual execution, losing sight of the mental training, which is the parent of the manual. Mental training is the end; manual training the means. The drawing, then, which we must have as the basis of our studies in handicraft must be carefully chosen. We must get rid of the .notion that drawing in connection with manual training should be r> RAWING AND MANUAL TRAINING. 873 Xndtistrial. 3 . '^ ^^^ti.anieal in its nature. A simple transference of ideas pUiW I'Ci ^^j^ftsinan to the artisan is not the drawing that raises tlie f roni tbe^ ^rrulture and thought. We make our boys machines l>y gttide^t ^ .^x^^®- ^t is the method of drafting-rooms, and while we ^xxc\^ P^^ ^^^^^^ beautiful work — work, that, from an artistic sense, is Uji^y *^^^^^^ look at the student and see if an advance has been made ^pr^^^* '^ ^^velopment. Y^ ra^i^^^* -g^ot tell of the work being done in our schools bj^ the \Ve c^* ,^^^ction of drawing. We see only the material part; but -iiUP^^ ^^^^^i: stays with the scholar — the life of the teaching — is em- Tu^ p^^^ ^^: ^^^ human sight, to blossom forth at some later day. Go ^AA^^ ^^^-K^v^i^*^^ class, stay the lesson out, and, from the methods, the tl^e ^^^^^ jE^aanner, judge of the work. Make the visible pencil line ^jjtt^^ ^^^^^j^^iit in your judgment. yt ^^ ^^^ -tm^'^^ ^^ study in drawing adapted to all grades of manual ** \iX ^ ^ ^^\^4^o\^y we should by no means omit those divisions of the ^^iiii^^^^^3j^^ liave to do with the beautiful in art and nature. ^ Ip^*^^^ ^(^o generally understood, in speaking of drawing in its rela- ^ X^ ^^ uan^i^^ training, that only that division of the subject which '^t^ ^^ ^ tli^? working drawing and orthographic pi-ojections is re- \u^^. The sooner w^e get away from these narrow limits the ^ ^r^ ^vill ^Vmerican j>roducts take their deserved place in the mar- ^o^*^^r the world; for the present generation includes the designers ^1:0 ^ next, and the present American design, in machine construc- ^^f '^^^ specially, falls far below that of our foreign cousins. ^la^ ^mp^^*^ ^^^ ^ moment the design of a radial drill of English and ^^.-ean manufacture. An American manufacturer even sent his ;?yTi^^^^'^^jv0 abroad for sketches of the above, but the vital point in ^r^*^^ jiuty was lost. The subtle curves of the Eqglish machine, ^t%e ^^.^ lay its beauty, evaded the draftsman, and while we have .^'\^^^\l\\iy the beauty is marred. Of two constructions, the more -ttx^ ^-ful commands the market, their utility being the same. Xye^^^ ^^g then introduce more freehand and perspective; not the ^^* xiical perspective of the architect, but the free, sketchy work X^^^^^o"^^ readily from the pencil point. We are too mechanical in ^ Ji^^ ^ least. The study of subtle, graceful curves and forms of ^1^^^' .1 ^nd grace cannot be begun too early in the course. t^^^^^e qutjstion often arises in the relation of drawing to manual • a and the industrial arts, as to the connection between the ±r^^^V^Zr,i'oom and the shop, or to the drawing and working periods, ^^^^me i* ^^ ^^^^' *'*^^' hefore the boy executes a single piece, he -^y ^1^ ha^^ made a working drawing of the same. Such an opinion e^l^^^ Her once held, but experience, that great teacher, has taught tJ^e ^^^^rently. In the drawing-room, first of all, lay a foundation, Ijiiii Ai u^Yt time the preparation of such shop drawings >vill be 874 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCi but mere play for the student. His theory will the shop drawing-work will be abandoned fo fields. If we start by having the student make ings, all his early time must be devoted to th£ it blindly and will acquire habits hard to ovei the course the student who was first grounde the projections has also drawn, or has the abil of the shops, beside having had a logical develc system he is following. There are many points in favor of having t] other drawings than their own. In the sho drawing is the reverse of that of the drawing- is analytical, but will teach the student of di as the synthetical work of the drawing-room. The shop drawing should be a masterpie student will notice its style, and the ideal h< working drawing is thereby raised; and, in la revert to them and he will endeavor to equal having high grade drawings on the walls of c highly recommended. We should, in this, avoid the opposite € work so abstract in its method or tiresome it of all its life and interests. Principles c make their study pleasant to the student, but do not carry the note-giving too far. Tht less. Text-books can be bought that about are looking for the perfect one, and trust to Again, the methods should be adapted to we are teaching. That which we would foil intermediate school would not be best for h ! Manual training to the American people What is best for Sweden or Russia is not be ers must be students. Methods must be trie J accepting that, only, which has proven goo< student of himself, open to conviction, and, ent chaos in the systems of the country, theiM can system ; not the creation of a day, but 1 refined by a questioning people. The question as to the time we should c manual training course is one to be cons devoted to the separate divisions of the s tention. Drawing is so closely connected that, limit the drawing period as we will, ♦ nent one of a manual training course. Tli the drawing is the graphic means of expres ladnstriAl.] DRAWING AND MANUAL TRAINING, 875 written work, and should be directly related at every point to all the work of the school. The science teacher makes use of it in biology, describing by few words and related sketches that which would be impossible otherwise; the teachers of chemistry and the physics find their work rendered simple and clear by the introduc- tion of many sketches; and so on throughout the industrial school, the lesson is taught at the blackboard and not at the desk. We cannot take the subject by itself and limit the time devoted to it, for it is so interwoven with every study as to make its isolation im- possible; and it would be an error so to do, for drawing, every- where we find it, is mental training, acquired through the hand, and is manual training as truly as the joint the boy executes in the wood «hop. We may well divide our drawing-room work into periods devoted to the mechanical and the artistic divisions; the latter including the perspective sketching, decoration, historic ornament and work in color; the former, the purely mechanical work, as developments and orthographic projections. It has been found that an hour a day devoted to drawing, will, at the end of a four years' course, give ^ student a thorough preparation in drawing in the high school grade. Less time should be given in the lower grades, decreasing AS we descend; for the tendency in the lower schools is towards weariness. Do not spoil the effort by over-zeal. Of this weekly time, devote two-fifths to the artistic branches of the subject; the remainder to the mechanical side. This will so temper the one with the other that the drawing adapted to the industrial arts will pre- dominate, and the product will be beautiful in design as well. In our drawing we should cultivate originality to the greatest degree. While it is folly to expect from our students many designs that would be accepted by our manufacturers in the arts and in- dustries, yet by attempts and consequent criticism only can we se- cure improvement. If he continually copy from others, the scholar does not improve as he ought. A single venture of his own, criti- cised kindly, will do more to help him on his way than days of copy- ing. Lay the foundations, teach the correct principles, give a knowl- edge of ornament, then incite the student to action. With him rest the results. The teacher 6f drawing in manual training and industrial schools must be a strange combination. He cannot be a theorist, nor a draftsman pure and simple, but a person who knows the purpose and the aim of his work from the educational standpoint; a student in the history of education, of industrial work in particular. He must know every detail of the shop work from beginning to end — the shop practice followed by the various trades; and he should be a designer 876 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL At if original work is to be pursued. It is i qualities in the teacher; when we do, we fii The future of industrial education depen ers and what they make of it. If they are not revolutionizing the system at once, an experience as seen by unprejudiced eyes, th< the foundation laid by them, will grow to and be a structure, permanent as the hills tem of America. Theirs is the work; it hi and by a continual study of results, and \ when so proven, the manual training syst stand impregnable. ORGANIZATIONS AND FLANS FOR 2 SCHOOLS, BY PROF. C. M. WOODWARD. ST. 1 [Abstract by the author The question of organization of a manua erally preceded by an inquiry as to the pix)l ance. As a useful rule, one per cent of the town consists of boys in their sixteenth yej 25,000 people in a given city, there are 250 1 not sixteen years old. So that for the four course there are 1,000 boys available so far j the same number of girls. In other wor^ secondary schools is 2,000. From 2,000, subt ing school and you have what the manual tr upon. If possible organize a separate and new h high school alone, and give the grammar gra two. The standard of admission should be tl more, Louisville, Philadelphia, Chicago, Provi Louis, Cincinnati, San Francisco and Brookl; rate schools; Springfield (Mass.), Toledo, St Moines, and numerous smaller places, have annexes to existing schools. The objections to such annexes are seriou; selves may be appealed to in confirmation of i 1. All the traditions of the old schools training. They find it difficult to regard tool not literary; not scholarly." XnduaSrial.l PROGRESS OF MANUAL TRAINING. • 877 2. TUe daUy programs can admit tool-work only at the end of tJbe day, ^^^ extra demands of the teachers on the pupils are gen- oraJIj at the expense of the manual work. Such treatment would kiill any l^^nguage studj, and it almost kills manual training. 3. Tl^e manual training school day is at least one period longer tlian the ^^^ school, and an economic use of plant and teachers re- quires tlx^t some manual divisions come early in the day. The spec- tacle of pxapils going home ia a hard on^ for pupils to beai* who have to reinaii3^ ^^ extra hour. 4. Tl>-^ diversity of courses in a mixed (manual and literary) scliool is ^distracting. CJoncentration of interest is found in separate scbiools; €^i3ich flourishes best by itself. Xjet girls have the same drawing as the boys, and let them have some joinery and wood carving. After the chemistry, let the girls study tbo theory and then «ome of the art of cooking, but let the tXt^or^ be most studied. If objection be made to tlie expense of such a school, it will be l>rief , for tlie attendance of a large number of enthusiastic students -cvdll bring popular support. Three hundred boys have applied at the ^^icago school for next year, and 265 applied last year in Boston, t^bougli all could not be admitted. Xn grammar schools, make no distinction between boys and girls . manual training. Confine tool work to the seventh and eighth vea-rs or grades. jyo not have tool work in ordinary rooms, and do not send pupils otn ^^^ building to another at a distance. Keep the entire work f a school under one master. Have the tool rooms or laboratories i^" ^bt, pl^^sai^t and clean, and employ none but educated teachers. THE PROGRESS OF MANUAL TRAINING. BY DR. HENRY M. LrDIPZIGER, NEW YORK CITY. ■^Q <4dea'' — if that term may be so used — in education has met - th. BO much popular approval as the "manual training'' idea. It is ^ I ' since the Centennial Exposition that it received its impetus, on|> ^jiat brief interval schools based on it have been called into ^ ' ec ^^^ ^^^ growing with great rapidity. ^^^^e n^^ ^° ^ practical age, and what is practical, or is thought to \acticBX^ appeals strongly to all men. Among the most popular 878 * NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL At of benefactions, second to hospitals and ho schools are taking their place. The history of the growth of this idea satisfaction with that education sometimes called narrow — which trained the memory Froebel says: "Only that which he makes telligible to the growing man." On the otl may, as advocates of manual training, its made if it is exalted into a substitute for panacea for all other existing social evils, training, and there should be trade scho^ These three divisions are totally distinct, phasize the fact that manual training has i of an elementary school except as an elei Manual training, as has been said, should n by the hand, and not education of the hand, hand means a development of the hand in li That the hand plays a great part in power has been shown by Professor Marsh man made he had to finish by himself." T labor exercised a powerful influence on rapidly to a great superiority over that of Whenever, in manual training schools, is the desideratum, then such school ceases institution. The progress of manual training has 1 educational ideas, i, e., from the higher sch( schools have proven in the Euroj>ean coue development of commerce, art and industry gather about them a class of students tha as high an order as that exercised by clasi a standing for the technological school university of to-day recognizes the labora the seminary, and the degree of bacheloi lent to the bachelor of arts. The advance ii attention to the need of man for power to r objects and phenomena, and this power through manual skill and large brain powei in all lands are workers, and for them it is training is absolutely essential. Hence \ duction into the public school system. A survey of the present advance of m useful. England has, during the last ten yean notable advance of any country on the glol rBOQEESS OF MANUAL TRAJNINQ. 879 jodostrial. J . ^ h -t^£jL^^^^^^ Society for Technical Education, the United King- o' the ^ .^^-^n studded with technical schools and evening science ^ova haB ^^^^ -the Liondon board schools, manual training is introduced. gchools- .g^-^y wMle there are some of the best technological schools JH Cr^rm ^ ^ jnining and weaving schools, manual training in the ele- XII ^ -^a,! j::iiining ana weavmg scnoois, manual traming in the ele- ^nd ^^^^ ^^-yxCKA is not interwoven with the curriculum. In Sweden, iiien^^ g^^^tem is becoming a part of the general curriculum, and ^jje b1o3^ ^43^ ^^^ ^^ excellent system of manual instruction. The g^it/-^^ ^ ^ ixiing school of to-day is, however, a trulv American ^,i-od^^ ■ ^-c>^^ ^^s been set by the admirable manual training school T^^ ^ i^-»^ under the direction of Professor Woodward. Since its .f B^- ^^^ ^*rit nearly every gi*eat city except New York has organized 1^^^ /^ under the direction of Professor Woodward. Since its p^t^^^^^ ^ ^x-i^^^^^S tigh school: Boston, Denver, Cincinnati, Atlanta, ta^^r^^ ^0>l:iiladelphia; and Chicago has two. These schools are ^iroo^ ' d'co^*^ jjupils who leave the grammar schools at an average age, • -rtt^^^ *o^ii»i:^en years. There are in both New York, Philadelphia «*i^^' ^ ool^lV^ excellent trade schools. But what is of greater im- " ^d ^ g \xJ ^li<^ consideration of the pix)gress of manual titiiniilg is ^4>r^^ Yporsttion in the curriculum of the elementary school. ytt* ^^ e conipeller of its introduction, the kindei-garten may be con- d 9^® ^^ most efficient cause. In the kindergarten the pupil's ^i«J*f^.^^y is e^mployed and directed, and a continuation of that manual ^c^^y ,j^^ is d.enianded. In New York City shop work, pai)er cutting, ^Ct^ ^^jjg^ clay modeling, sewing, cooking and mechanical drawing A^^ ,^x^ of the regular curriculum in twelve schools. The woodwork i%X^ niv ^^^ boys. i^ ^^*X5os*^^ wood-work is given in the grammar schools to girls as ji9 boys, and the superintendent reports that girls are in no ^riect inferior to the boys in their work at the carpenter's bench. r^^Pj^l of the teachera are women. ^^\n tbe schools of Chicago, Washington, Springfield (Mass.), St. 1 aii^^^^' ^^^^'^ ^^^^^ schools the wood-working is taught by gradu- al ^'^ ^"the New York City College, all having the bachelor's degree, ^^^o^his is «s it should be,' for manual training is, after all, a means, ot an end. I have visited schools— so-called manual training a^^ ^ig.^where modeling in clay was taught— and yet I ^^^ ^?^ ^^^f^hfit the teacher of geofn-aphv in the same schoorhad* used this and tiiii 880 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOC means of aiding instruction on that subjeci teacher of physics utilizing the skill in wood ^ of apparatus. If manual training is treated in our grammar schools, it fails of its real pur] failure as a real element in education will be f It must be brought by real teachers into other studies, vivifying and emancipating them The report of the Committee on Secondary ' reference to industrial and art training. Thi by stating that the committee considered the «< not as they ought to be. The school of the fu the barrier betw^een the brain w^orkers and iii combine the two. General education should h handicraft alike. "Whosoever he might be, sci cist or surgeon, chemist or sociologist, histori be the gainer if he spent a part of his life in tl farm. Better the workshop and the farm, if h< humanity in its daily work, and had the satisfa he himself discharges his duties as an unp wealth." That a three days' session of manual instnic that great institutions like the Young Men's C are going to incorporate in their work trade j indicate what hold the subject has on the min eration. In conclusion, two thoughts present themsel training in elementary schools, /. c, grammar scl welded with other forms of instruction, and tl should be calculated rather to develop thougl that the teachers should themselves, besides nia broad foundation of a liberal training. THE HYGIFMC RELATWX OF DBIJSS I?Y K. ANNA MORRIS. DES ^SIOIXES, Nature has clothed all of her beings, with t in a wise, beneficent way. Man, her crowninjj she has endowed with judgment and reason, ai terial wherewith to clothe himself. He has the ] "^^^^Uatrial. 3 DBESS AND EDUCATION. ^^ his coxxiinand, and, by appropriation, has proven himself to be ^^^mple o^ the survival of the fittest To polar regions waste and wan Comes the encroaching race of man — A puny, feeble, little lubber- He had no fur, he had no blubber. ' The scornful bear sat down at ease To see the stranger starve and freeze; But, lo! the stranger slew the bear, And ate his fat, and wore his hair! These deeds, O Man! which thou transmittest. Prove the survival of the fittest! t^ioA^^. ^^^"^^ ^^"® perfectly created, and endowed with ability -t^arxu ^ ^^'"^ «^^lf, owes it to the Great Artist of his being to protect "H'oxj^ ^^''^*^ ^^;y decorate this "temple of the soul." He is strangely -^iziv ^^^^^^"^ CKnade in Ood's image — moVe beautiful and perfect t *^^«id^^^- ^^*^r years of hard toil, a great artist was found knee ^ti^u^ - ^^5-^»=iished work— a fine statue, a graven piece of art ^^^de^M^^^^^ "to him: "Are you worshiping the little god you t **7:^j^ j^ '. ^^^ ^^ ^ raised his eyes, full of tears, and replied regretf i ^o j^^ I® ^J^ i if e-work ; and it is not well, because it has no life, it ^«* be .^^ ^^^^^^J ^^ destroyed.'^ ^'Yes," said his friend, "it is wel •^Oj^^^JJl*^^^^^ ^ ^:3^ created in the image of God's work, and resembles ] Out <38-^:z^.^3^^ who gives the soul, could do better." ^8'xxie^ ^'^^^^-^z^'^js work is dear to him. It would be impossible to ^^ ord^ S01JM.X :^z^ -i:ror who would allow the lines of his statue to be chai ^"otil^j^^ ^^^^ It^^ace it in even a golden niche; or to find a painter ^"^Uhh ^f'^^^"^^^^ ^«. "t the inventor of a novel design in picture frames to the azn *^ ^^ ^»^<^ation with a discordant molding, or to clip off a bi ^ ^iain '^^^if" ^"^""'^^^^^d «^7 ^^^ foreground in order to crowd his picture *J^cJigjjj|^^^^Li:;,^^^'^^aped novelty. Yet people are constantly treating tlxey era" ^^ ^^^ ^^ '® highest work of art. They destroy God's design v ^'^all fo .^^!^"^^ -^^iid bend their precious bodies into clothes that are Ua taraJ f -^^^ ^^ x x- size, and into shapes that are out of harmony with i Of beaut>-^^'"^^*^^- ^'*-^' attempt to justify this indignity on the grc KMf perso^ X^:K:*oves that the ideals of beauty are incorrect. Jiei movemerL-t^'^^^*^^^* eome from veneering; it must be expressed in \xx the a ^^:k^<3 form, radiate from the true being within, and ne to l>e bes^^^^^^*^*^^°® ^^^^ harmonize with these qualities. A pei as far as ^^^"^ "^^ '^"^^ ^"''^' ^^ exercise, diet and proper care, his h to oii\t\x^i-m and tone. It takes time and thou lii^J thia^X"^ ^lie body, select and provide the right things for di K • l^ , 7^^^<:>xxght brings its own reward, just as a painter's thou A \ ^^ward. Man, being the crowning feature of creat ciress o^c!^^:^.,-^^^^ tlj^ highest form of decoration; and in just as m 882 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOi as the living being is superior to the cold mai just so much are the cultivated, correctly di 1o the artist's figure. We educate for life, therefore, in conn* schools, a great benefit could be bestowed up< tablishment of a practical department relatiu gienic dress, a question which concerns every-< cated dressmakers, as well as competent carpo vise that, instead of training the girls to join done in some manual training schools, they and design their own clothing. It gives one a his own handiwork, and therein is labor dignifii taught with profit, yet I shall have little to say attire, because it is very nearly hygienically cc in a measure, account for the generally accept superior mentally and physically to woman. school-room, the study of the body receives attt^ standpoint; the muscles, the blood and the studied from books, charts and skeletons; b turned out into the world to be caught by U toms, and, in opposition to all the laws of ph.^ bodily expression, it is distorted in form, wej incapacitated for the natural expression of the human capabilities are thwarted \)y conventio In this department there should be taught omy, which would give due attention to every The first consideration would be, how toi select j economy and discretion. This would require as to their cost, quality, durability, color and h effect upon the skin of different materials, such and their power to conduct heat or cold. This, tute a wonderful training in careful, thrifty n so lacking in the American people. The suitability of costumes to employment teach discrimination and pmpriety, as to how a ferent styles of dress. If I had but twodi-esses have an "everyday dress" and a "Sunday dress Certain styles of dress are adapted to certai] example: In professions involving writing an need freedom to perform the movements. The j moving around among furniture and utensils, duties, demand a plain short dress, while b a di\ided skirt or Turkish dress suited to w surely have a business costume for a woma should be a dress unhampered by heavy trimmi Industrial. J DBES8 AND EDUCATION. 883 Styles as are only appi-opriate for the parlor. This business suit should be of plain cloth material, short and neatly made. Such a suit would give the limbs and lungs all the freedom that health and com- fort demand. There is a proper place for the wearing of tea-gowns, wrappers, flowing draperies and beautiful trimmings, and this place is at home or on dress occasions, where they are appropriate and can be made very artistic. With scientific training, the sweeping skirt on the street, which gathers up filth and disease germs, the tight sleeve which restricts usefulness of the arms, and the heavy bands and stays which paralyze the muscles would never be worn. 1 am glad that athletics and healthful sports demand freedom in costume, and that they are bringing about a change that will ma- terially influence fashion in favor of health and beauty. The old fashion that says, "Lace your corset, pad your bodice, clothe your waists five times as thickly as it ought to be, and balance on high heels/' is being left in the background by the healthy, sensible, bright- eyed girls of to-day. The proper study of dress, based upon scientific principhis, wonld help. In a measure, to solve the great social problem bearing upon the chastity and purity of character. It would lead to Jie wearing of plainer, and, in many cases, uniform costumes during the schoiJ year. This would bring about a kind of brotherhood or sisterhood which would at once put all of the young people, rich and poor alike, on the footing of equality in dress, during the years in which they are intimately associated in the same work; thus ending foolish and ofttimes bitter rivalr3^ This would establish principles that would bestow a lasting benefit on mankind. This study would teach the kind of dress which would have regard for God's design of the human form, and would give physical com- fort «ind mental serenity. It would discourage the motives of dress which lead to a desire to excel in expense, to fascinate with glamour and color, or to please a barbaric taste that admires an unnatural form. These motives are degrading; they bring about needless mis- ery and place the "lust of dress" on a plane with sensualism. The question of dress is becoming ai question of political economy. It concerns the pocket-book of mankind. "The nonsense in dress is eating into the strength of the commonwealth." Husbands and fathers grow gray and broken-down in their efforts to provide for extravagant families. Men are forced to crime in order to clothe their wives in the latest style. Woman's love of jewelry and dress becomes almost as great an evil and extravagance as man's love of tobacco, and quite as injurious to morals and health. "But woman's dress touches man more vitally than through his pocket-book; it concerns his muscle, his blood, his brain." The physical degeneracy of woman is produced in her sons as well as in 884 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A8SC her daughters. "Vengeance is mine, saith t people pay the penalty for outraged laws in tl sins of the fathers and mothers are visited u] third and fourth generation. Woman*s cause is man's cause, They rise and sink together; Dwarfed or God-like, bound or By the wearing of tight corsets, the whc is changed ; the soft flowing lines of the ches immobile, and its beautiful curves are made angles. The corset not only decreases the presses the contents of the body upwards ai middle, displacing the organs and causing dls Dr. Kellogg says: * Women, according t and well-known anatomical facts, require, i difference in proportion, a larger waist than a liver in proportion to her size, besides the hood require provision for an increased wait of the ancient Greeks, Venus de Milo, had a \ wish that every woman would buy a picture and study it until it would become an ideal tc Tight clothing not only hinders the free c but destroys the correct co-ordination of the forbids the expression of the body. Howevei be, she cannot be graceful with a stiff waist ; revelation, becomes a wooden thing in a tigi ticity and spring, given by the many articuh sesses, are destroyed when the foot is bound i the high stiff collar arrests motion at the chi tide of graciousness and sympathy out of wl We sometimes hear it said that woman th but this is not true. On the contrary, she about dress; she has fallen into the way of lei for her. She allows fashion makers to hasti] absurd article of dress; then, at another com denly lays it aside for something probably less the changes of fashion and voluntarily (that slavery) endures torture with a fortitude wo These changes come because fashion has no j art or health underlying it. If people could h of real beauty and art, such as are found h paintings, which have held the admiration of 1 would not be attracted by fashion's follies, interests of the trade-world, and take advan IndnBtrial. ] DRE88 AND ED UCA TION, 885 instinct of beauty. They keep her trying experiments until, in the course of a score of years, she has appeared in everj^ color known to the human eye, and assumed every shape imaginable, except her own. Again, it is said that woman dresses to please man. Unless he is an educated physician or a man of non-conventional ideas, he will probably be a very poor critic. Fashionabh^ men have fashionable women's ideas, and, as a general rule, they admire a woman whose dress, bedecked with lace, feathers, ribbons and jewelry, gives her an appearance which removes her as far as possible from a man's appearance. Why men should want women to dehumanize them- selves into dummies forf the display of style to please them is a mys- tei-y. It is the remains of barbarism only that prompts such a desire. For the sake of comfort they themselves dress with respect to the Creator's plan in r^ard to the structure of the human body. Men, as well as women, should have their ideals of beauty changed and elevated. However, to do the majority justice, it is only fair to be- lieve that sensible men are willing to approve and indorse any im- provements in dress thati will tend to health and vitality. I have no war to wage against the true and the beautiful. "Beauty is its own excuse for being," and it is the common ground upon which we can all meet in this correct dress movement. It is an inherent impulse of woman to dress herself as becomingly as possible. Then, let us grant that the love of dress, founded on sensible principles, is justifiable. In its proi)er exercise it is worthy, but, like every other gift, it should be based upon common sense and consecrated to noble purposes. Woman's love of beauty is GK)d-given, and, therefore, right. Someone has said: *1f she have natural beauty, she ought to study how to preserve it in and through every period of her life — yes, even to the very last; for there is nothing more beautiful than beauty in old age. If she have moderate beauty, she should do her utmost to make the best of it. If she is positively ugly, she should, by every kind of justifiable supplement that will not destroy grace and health, transform herself into comeliness." She can do this in no surer way than by giving attention to exercise, diet and dress. Tasteful dress is one factor of success. Even in the school-room, so forceful is the example and so natural is it for the young to imitate that which they admire, that the teacher ought to give special thought to her dress, both as to artistic color and hygienic construc- tion. It is hardly possible to bring too much of warmth and bright color into the primary school, for the children love it. If dress is an educator, if it contributes to the children's training and happiness — and, therefore, to the teacher's success — then "How to Dress?" is not only a society problem, but an educational one. M^rs. Jenness-Miller, with her good sense, ready money, and ffisthptic taste, bas done much to cause prejudice agaiust l»ygi*^nie 886 NATION A,jL EnUC dress to yield. Yet, the average to give up fashion, or too stupid disabilities are due to irrationi habits become fixed; yet, if sli< change for something better. give up the corset for the easy \ bands and girdles, high-heeled s toms of following fashion and y\ long established by the people of will require conviction and coura form. I wish that I could whe< teacher in the country. In taking: of herself, but of the great armj < women who have not the time to i imitate social leaders and educator will lead to the study of anatomy ai physical development; it wilj mak moral conditions, and will thus est and education. MANUAL TRAINING METHODS 8CH00 BY J: liberty TADD, DIBiBCrrOR OF THE PHTTiAPELPI In speaking on methods of manui schools, I shall leave out all mention o ing high schools in Philadelphia, trai my purpose being to show what is aci 000 children in Philadelphia in the loiv The fact that ninety-four per cent before fourteen years of age shows cJ( the higher grades will not touch the m thing in education our duty plainly \iq\ The public industrial art school rec mar grades, two from each division thri nishes us with about eight hundred pu for merit in any way, but come by theii the art school counting the same as in tends through two years. Several tests it interfered with their studies, with the i found that it helped in every way— in depc Indnstrial.] MANUAL TRAINING IN PHILADELPHIA SCHOOLS. 887 intelligence. The sessions are from 2:30 to 4:30, the children being excused one afternoon each week from their own schools. A ticket is given to each pupil in the art school every afternoon to prove at- tendance. From five to six each day after the children are dismissed the industrial art school receives the public school teachers, during the past term 740 having been in attendance. The course of instruction for the teachers is elective. They select the courses in drawing, modeling and carving, in some cases pupils taking two or three branches. My aim in forming this course is to give them in the shortest space of time the elementary, and therefore fundamental, part of the work. Experience with numbers and facilities for car- ing for them has developed a course of thirty lessons in drawing and thirty in modeling, lasting one hour each. Bational people will realize that in this period only a start or a disposition can be formed; that the work must be continued. The teachers, of course, get prac- tice with the class in our method, and one of the best features of the work is the new energy with which the teachers attack the prob- lems of their work in its application after being freed from the tradi- tional formulas of the past. The freedom from schemes planned and charted gives them an opportunity to impress the children, and stimulates them in many ways, producing vital results. These teachers' courses are attended voluntarily, the classes usu- ally being crowded. The teachers are not as yet required to actually apply these methods, but in many instances they introduce them soon after starting in the course. They readily see its application to all the other studies, and how it can simplify their work and render easy some of the difficulties, and they are only too glad to introduce it as soon as possible. The whole work from the start should be con- sidered in its elementary stages, not as an addition to the curriculum, but as a means of helping all the other departments — the art part, ilie doing, providing channels for expression in all directions from all things, not from a few set forms. Is this the usual idea of manual training, judging from the ex- hibits at Chicago? It is not fit that we should ask: What is manual training? To some it means an exercise for the muscles, like gymnastics, and to others a process for making boys merely handy. Others think it is a way of teaching trades to children, and nearly all confound it with mechanical training, and suppose a drill is necessary in sawing and planing, chipping and filing, wood-turning, plumbing, etc., while very few disassociate it from the use of machinery and from slow, tedious trade processes. Manual training for education cannot be obtained by mechanical pursuits similar to carpentry, plumbing, chipping, filing, sloyd, etc. 888 NATIONAL EDUC^I Manual training is not a matter o is the intelligent selection of ino^ pursuits most suited to produce t bells or pushing a plane or saw pr^ the constant use of the intellect. creased in ratio. There are many pose. We must select for manual ods that, in addition to giving mi peripheral nerves as tools of the that train the muscles and the mir of its applications it gives skill in but just as legitimately does it maJ nerve, to engrave an etching, or to manual training is obliged to teach so no school of the kind must nece£ and filing, or several other very i must teach are those processes that as ready to begin any kind of work w school studies make him mentally i such processes are inseparable from sloyd, paper-cutting, etc., have not Io< We feel here that we are able to experience, the mother of ideas. The ters, the Philadelphia Industrial Art for the past fourteen years. During i been made and various methods subjec schemes or traditions have been accep deavor being to find and to formulate i date, we can safely say that real eleme thoroughly established in the public that, out of 3,000 teachers, 700 use ni clay modeling, partially or together, £ vital organic way. Manual training is that training of obey the mind as a mode of thought ex] thought and action made vitally and mu other. Thought being nascent action, an being motory, it is simply a method of ( I , eousness in its true sense, action from rig and substance of a true education. Peo} the mechanism of thought is motorr can that the mechanism of the expression of t training must, primarily, then, aim to pre of motion. As Professor Hailmann of Wa est authorities on the subject, and whose \ Indostrial.] MANUAL TRAINING IN PHILADELPHIA. 889 of any to-day, states: "A mental act is incomplete unless through its feelings and thinkings and willings it reaches the corresponding deed. The hand is the projected brain, through which the directing thought achieves the heart purposes of man. The hand mediates inwardly and outwardly between man and his environment, makes him and his environment one and stimulates and establishes thought." Scientifically stated, facility of motion from the complex inter- action of the supreme ganglionic cerebral plexuses to the periphery ill its inward and outward currents must be established, and, in many cases, be made automatic, to allow the will still higher free- dom. I have no sympathy with the manual training methods that make the use of tools and workshop exercises the main end. I observe a tendency to make the pupils use tools, instead of developing first the instrumentalities of the organism, the mind, the eyes, the hands. These are the primary tools; to these our chief care should be given. It is of little use that the pupil has built a machine by mechanical means if his own organism is not complete; if his hand is not sure, his eye true and his mind balanced. I make a plea for this organic skill, first, because I have tested many pupils from various institutions, and have found, almost in- variably, that, without instruments of precision, rulers, compasses, gauges, calipers, etc., they ai*e powerless. In many cases, they are simply plan-followers and thoughtless mechanics, without the ele- mentary facility' that small children can get spontaneously in a few weeks' practice of rational methods in manual training. They have been trained, under traditional formulas, to do certain things certain ways, like pegs made to tit certain holes, without any en- deavor to have them realize the immeasurable life possibilities and potentialities planted in each one. Why should manual training be applied in the old traditional school ways? In the new education is not evolution chiefly chang- ing the methods of instruction? Are not the old ways chiefly con- cerned in producing conformity to types, imparting information — cramming? Should not the new ways do the reverse of this? Should it not give the pupils a glimpse of the life within, teeming with possibilities far beyond the ken of anything in the past or pres- ent, with means and facilities to work them out? Should we not aim to produce original ideas and to carry them out in action, in- stead of the pitiable (^Iforts represented by a series of flfteen joints, made after a conventional plan, following thoughtless rules? I as- sert, that, after a certain amount of rule-following and obediencd to fonnulas and dogmas, the productive and creative imagination, with the inspiration to achievement and action that goes with it, is lost. The vital energy is diverted, and, finally, tied down, to certain well 67 890 NATIONAL EI>UCA.1 marked grooves and ruts. Life b€ that should accompany every norr As at present constituted, tlie j schools are simply adding extra £ crowded curriculum more lop-side< organism. Our methods of manual as arts to relieve all other studies^ paths, the drudgery of unmeaniii^ action through things. I have no \ speak of the need of discipline and ti Life is full of this, but if we are evej ice to the noblest of ideals it will be by making all the worlc pleasurable will need the help of instinct that co Must we not consider heredity, e: formulating manual training metho( If we know that some circumstan* up some organisms and entirely desti their amount of, or lack of, motive j] ernment, must not our methods pi strengthen these capacities? I agree thoroughly with Aristotle Clark University: "Whose whole oth formation of good habits by constant who has said that even as we learn t( on the harp, so we become virtuous b just and brave by doing actions of brai I have no faith in the morality that thority states, through the study of "1 mons, or through the intellect alone, not always inspire one to action, thouj too often the pleasure becomes an er dulgence. Self-reliance, self control, sel righteousness, must come and can only c until they become instinctive and auton I sometimes think some of the old s( waste, divert conduct from aims, indi and useless emotions, and breed the fe; the hearts of many grown people. Wo very rapidly; right habits, made aiitom or allow it to have issue. Many people ^ things that never happen. Normal actioi rouse healthy thoughts; normal thoiiffhts The creative and inspiring imaginatior consciousness. Self-consciousneas, in mn Industrial.] MANUAL TEAININQ JN PHILADELPHIA. 891 thrown back upon itself without any outlet. It is conspicuous in many grown people, the proper outlets of the life forces never hav ing been provided for by the various modes of expression. Only the fool wastes his vital force in laughter; only the stupid babble all the time. What is in, must out by some channel. Let us see to it that they are unimpeded; not blocked up. Strict conformity to conventional rules and traditions limit the spontaneity of the spirit and the movements of the body. Spon- taneity is inspiring, for the instincts make it so. The spirit must be guided, not curbed; allowed to well up in all fullness and freedom. Then it will seek its own channel and will lead out into a stream, ever broadening, until it reaches the ocean from whence it came. If forced along the narrow grooves and ruts of traditional mediocrity, the quantity and the quality ever decreases until it gradually reaches the sandy desert of aimlessness and is lost and dispersed. The only safe rules to follow are those that well up from within; that inspired our sage Emerson to say: These rules were writ in human heart By him who built the day. The pillars of the universe Not firmer 'based than they. In closing, I must claim, that, to get rational manual training, a reformation is necessary in the traditional schools. Manual training is not a mere method of using certain tools. It is, as I have pointed out (1) a mode of thought expression that must recognize the po- tential and creative capacities before anything else, and (2) provide for freedom of expression. This can only be well done during the nascent period of growth in structure, and during development of complexity in the organism, by physical co-ordinations, and (3) by making sense impressions organic — first-hand — by ministering to it at right periods right things in line with the instincts, heredity and environment, and no teacher should dare to deal with the subject who is not familiar with these three immense powers. DEPARTMENT OF ART EDUCATION. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIKST SE3SI0N.— Wkdnksday, July 11, 1894. The department was called to order at 3 o'clock p. m. by Miss Emma John- stone of Bradley Beach, N. J., Chairman of local committee. After prayer by Rev. Dr. Spaeth, Miss Johnstone introduced Miss Christine Sullivan, the President of the department, who delivered an eloquent opening address. J. Liberty Tadd of Philadelphia read n paper on "Art Education and Manual Training." Mrs. Mary Dana Hicks of Boston, Mass., followed with a paper on "Color in Public School Education." The following Committee on Nominations was appointed. R. E. Booth, C. M. Carter, Alice Broadwater, Emma Johnstone. Bloomfield Barr. SECOND SESSION.— Fbiday, July 13, 1894. The department was called to order by the President at 3 o'clock p. m. Miss Elizabeth C. Kent of Minneapolis, Minn., read a paper on "Elementary Art Education in the Public Schools." "Elementary Art Education" was the subject of a paper read by Miss Bertha Hintz of the New York Normal Art School. The paper was illustrated with rapid black-board sketches. (This paper was not furnished for publication.) The Committee on Nominations reported as follows: ^e«'dc7i«— Charles M. Carter, Denver. Colo. yice Presideni—Bnrei Fawcett, Newark, N. J. Secretary — Wilhelmina Seegmiller. Allegheny City, Pa. ■^^ rexwrt was adopted by a unanimous vote, and the nominees declared "nanimonaly elected as officers for 1894-95. After passing a vote of thanks to the local committee at Asbury Park for roany courtesies received through its Chairman, Miss Emma Johnstone, and to ^e ^resident of the department for her efficient administration, the department a^io'irnod. • Mabgabst B. Pakkb, Secretary pro tern. 894 NATIONAL EDUCATIC PAPERS AND J ART EDUCATION— ITS INFLVl TTONAL, E BY CHKISTINB SULLIVAN. A. M., Ph. NATIONAL BDUOATIONAIi ASSO In reviewing the history of pedf fact, that, although the educationa involve such widely differing doctrii still, in one respect, they are alike, includes the training that prepare duties, for his probable sphere in lif The warlike Spartan provided a letic and military skill, because the i possible soldier. The fine speaking, beauty loving culture and the study of literature, o tion for their youth, because bodily speech were ideals in Athens. I)ui conceptions dominated every departn ophy, art, chivalry and romance, all belief. In harmony with these coni accoi*ding to religious and moral idej life to come rather than for this life. The little Indian is taught to swiii physical endurance, because, in his were all important and all sufficieni Australian was the one most deft in t The educational ideal of any peoi of their religious, intellectual, social their conception of the ideal man, earthly mission. In beautiful harmtmy with the fn^ try, and our lofty conception of indi duties, the educational ideal is nothii training of children with the view o bilities, of making them the best th< Regarding education as "a univ good," its benefits are reserved for nei J>epartment.] INFLUENCE OF ART EDUCATION. 896 ties are thrown open to all. Even woman, so long excluded^ is called to take her place beside her brothers in the halls of learning. Equality is our ideal, although existing social conditions place limits to the possibility of its realization. We may strive to give equality of opportunity ; equality of mind and of body not even a re- public can bestow. Our work is with the stupid, the perverse and the weak, as well as with the strong, the intelligent and the obedient. But whatever the capacities or limitations of a child, it is but just to start with the assumption that he is capable of complete develop- ment. With this aim for our goal, every step of his education is in the right direction. He is given the opportunity for the broadest culture and widest activity of which he is capable. The school has an economic, an educational and an ethical purpose. ^ While aiming to develop the intellectual powers and to equip with the knowledge and skill that enable one to be self-sustaining, it should, at the same time, strive to quicken the moral sense and to give standards of righteousness and nobility. In this comprehensive educational scheme, what is the function of art instruction? This is the problem that presents itself to our department. As a factor in economic result*, we have already demonstrated its worth. Educators, statesmen and business men alike admit the influence of art education on our industrial welfare. They know that the ability to read and execute simple working drawings makes the intelligent workman. They recognize the commercial value of beauty, and also the fact that artistic manufactures are the work of skillful designers and of artisans capable of entering into the spirit of the design, and qualified through their art knowledge and skill to fully realize the artist's conception; and they know that if we would turn into the coffers of our own country the vast sum that Americans expend annually for beautiful things, we must make it possible for our own people to produce them. Utilitarian results are easily per- ceived; 80 we no longer need a plea for industrial drawing. The warm support extended us is proof that our work in this department is a success. Indeed, manufacturers are unanimous in their prefer- ence for the boy that has studied drawing in the public schools. They roalize that he has a general training that is applicable to any \ trade t:liat has to do with the production, the arrangement, or the .f embellighment of form. T^b^ educational value of art study received a tardier recognition, becausie gains in the realm of mind are Less striking and tangible than a.re utilitarian rewards. Educators called attention to the law of miu^, that the doing of work that exercises a certain set of facul- ties iix^reases the ability for any work in which these faculties are oaUed into action. They demonstrated that the mental culture, se- 896 NATIONAL EDUCATIO cured through art education, incr(*ij attention, to observe comprehensi^ anything that is the object of viaiu to translate descriptive passages int described, thus taking into the miii and that art educaition prepares oii< beauty that is revealed to those oiil sensitive to beautiful impressions Xr all beautiful things. It was made evident that these influence on any life; that to the »ii . chant, or to the professional, they f and a larger power of thought. Th< the industrial idea and systems of ar ment of both. And now we are seeking to give influence in the educational field. "S and modeling by both teacher and | thought, of obtaining ideas, and of with any subject in the curriculum. I add modeling because I beHin- work ought to be enlarged to include tration, and -I believe in the use of < realize our purpose. Illustrating shoi and continued throughout the course increased attention and appreciation a feature of the lesson. Of course, t dren are, from an artistic standpoint, tionally they are priceless. They rev of the fact we are trying to teach mislead us, giving the impression thn entirely failed to grasp the idea. T! knowledge, and stimulate him to obs< a means of concentrating thought on t of stimulating the imagination, and acquired, the value of these exercise vocabulary' and comprehension of woix to see form through verbal descrip teacher will fail to convey in a ten nil strokes of the chalk place clearly b(H exercises is this: they bring the cliihi stead of leaving him with words and thi His memory, instead of vague impR's>i; a clear recollection of facts. He has tli parison, and the impulse to acquire m\ n I>epartment.] INFLUENCE OF ART EDUCATION. 897 his new idea to his stock of (dd ideas. This interaction betw een the new ideas and the old, called, in the parlance of recent educational reformers, apperception, is the very essential of mental growth, and is possible only to a mind stored witli clear conceptions. As to the artistic requirements in this illustrative work: Here we use drawing as we do language, as a means of developing and imparting ideas, as a medium of expression. So, if a drawing serves this purpose, no matt-er whait its technical deficiencies, it has an edu- cational A-alue. We let the little child express himself in faltering, imperfect language, until he is able to u«e more correct forms, and we accept the drawing that is to him an equivalent of his thought, no matter how absurd it is artistically. However, just as we expect him to grow in fluency and con-ectness of speech as a result of mental development and of familiarity with standards of correct and ele- gant expression, so we expect him to embody in these illustrations the knowledge of the principles of representation that he has acquired in the drawing class. Each year his work must be better artisti- cally, because the regular drawing course gives rules and standards, and induces a gradual development of the mental and manual apti- tudes that enable one toi represent correctly. Each year's; work must embody tbe technical knowledge acquired in the drawing class. How much of the study of children is absolutely fruitless, simply because tbey learn and remember words instead of facts and appear- <^uces! The absurd answers we sometimes receive from them show how completely they have failed to comprehend. One little boy writes: "A watershed is a stone shed built on the tops of very high mountains to make the rivers run the right way," and another opti- mistic little fellow says: "A watershed is a shed in mid-ocean where ships retreat in time of storms." One enterprising teacher has col- lected enough of such answers to make a funny book; and very funny it all is, or rather would be, were it not inextricably associated with thoughts of precious time wasted and of little minds confused. With a handful of clay and a cup of water the teacher can present a model of a watershed, and make clear the influence of land elevations on the direction of streams. And the children will not forget the lesson. She called their attention, not to words, but to the evidences of tlie working of natural law\ One of the best history lessons I ever witnessed was given by a backwoods teacher. Best in this: that it brought to his pupils' minds the facts he wished to teach them in a manner that gave them the impression of reality. With a pan of earth, secured from the roadside, he made a crude miniature of a certain section of coun- try, and placing marks here and there to indicate the position and movement of the opposing forces, traced the war career of the Army of the Cumberland. It was a pleasure to watch the wrapped atten- 898 NATIONAL EDUCATIONj±L, jL tion of the children. When at one poin Thomas and his men are on the furthei Every neck was strained to catch a glinipsc mountain, so enthralled were their iniagin I think we are not claiming too much study of geography, histoiy, language and t use of plastic and graphic illustmtions 1 realm of words to that of facts. The introduction of illustrating necessi grams. A little co-operation among the t work for a common end. Progress, succc^? oughn^ess of the work done in the drawing the pupils must learn the rules governing co and standards of technical excellence. Un] edge and skill that enable them to prodi advance in school, they are disposed to abai of expression, because their conception of wl be so far trancends their ability to execute t unpleasiug and inadequate. *^Baby drawiii disregard for perspective, light and shade, ai beneath the dignity of children of the seve graphs, engravings, or indeed pictures of a the history lesson, if historically correct, tei narrative. I recall a picture, "The Merry \ the character of Charles II. and the influen( ner that no dozen pages could effect. And the natural antagonism between Cavalier ai] showing the finely cut, high bred featurei drooping plumes, gorgeous silk doublet, poi flowing curls and wavy lovelock of the one the other, his sober garb, stiff hat, severely air of seriousness and moderation. No matt< description of the crusades, the? reader niiis sions of immense hosts, religious fervor, recli nage, agony, triumphant joy and thaiiksj^i^ Dore's illustrations. They breathe the very action. Inexpensive* reproduction processes havc^ pictures in such abundance that the earnei difficulty in securing black and white prints i and events of any era, giving a correct ide? styles, their customs, costumes and ceremonii The Aesthetic delights that come as a gift v claim their share of importance. Tlie individi found a beauty and a meaning in the fomis ^^Partment.] INFLUENCE OF ART EDUCATION. 899 *^^t understands the measages that painting and sculpture hold, . J^^s pleasure and solaces that enlarge the scope of living. He has *^^^ key to an enchanted realm, where, leaving behind the hurting, ^-^Utling cares of existence, he meets and holds converse with the ^^nl, the wretched, the noble, the heroic; laughs with the merry, J ^^ps with the grieving, thrills with the brave. He is initiated into *^y feelings, that everyday experience might never awaken. Each -j^^ tells him some secret, some truth that bears upon life's mysteries. j ^^ the time being, he is endowed with "the larger visift^n of the art- *-"*' He sees with him, feels with him, moves with him. 'Who ^^keth- with wise m^n shall himself become .wise." This ancient ^^^^ance of wisdom holds the secret of the ethical influence of art. As a means of expressing the truths of nature and of life, art j^^^i's almost unlimited possibilities. Not didactically does she ^jP^H lier lessons. She impresses by awakening in us the feelings .^^^^^ have inspired and guided the artist in the production of his ^^k. Our quickened imaginations make us sharers in his experi- ^Ce. Wo escape the narrow limits of our own lives, gain other ^Hdpoints, see other horizons. This enlarging life, by assimilating . ^^ exporience of others, widens the sympathies and the understand- ^^^3 and Istys the foundation of a broader, more correct judgment. ^^ of our seers has said, "The secret of morals is imagination,'' and ^^^ely tliis is true, for how can we be just, how judge fairly, unless ^'^ can g-o outside ourselves, imagine the feelings of others and form ?^ idea of their temptations and their needs? We may wish to be •^^st, but -w-itbout the enlightenment that comes through a sympathetic ^^tiire \jv-e^ cannot be just. The development of sympathy, of that ^bilitj t4:> :f eel the feelings of another, to "put yourself in his place," is the pi-of'oiindest moral influence that art education can exert. It is said t±:M.^M. -t the pathetic picture, "The Poacher," impressing sympa- thetic he-ii. i*ts, led to the abolition of the game laws in England. How naany ha-%.^^^^ been quickened to the most exquisite feeling of tender- ness aa<:>:i3 to say, whether the law for capital punishment shall stand? rrj^e ethical influences of art education answer a need of every hLU XXX iin soul. Shall these benefits, these delights, be reserved for the f e^-^?v ? Our educational ideal, "Equal opportunity for complete developnxe^xnit," dictates that the public school furnish the elements of this exxlture, because it is a part of the human birthright— the light to -tlx-^"ors, direct' the child to seek beauty and meaning in every form of xxj^ture; guide him in his work to give expression to the im- 900 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL pressions of beauty of which he is aware, i appreciate; what is suited to his Btaf?e development. Let him give verbal expre) feelings that come to him when he stiM All this will give him the knowledge and i to progress in the understanding and en^ art long after he has passed beyond the And this understanding and enjoyment wi humanizing ipfluence as long as life lasts. Our ideal of man is not the present typ keener perceptions, more comprehensive ] will, broader sympathies and subtler spirii of an education based upon a deeper know and more particularly of the laws of men of an education that, calling into harmoi round of faculties, inspires and guides to a and achievement As educators, we strive of this ideal. Keeping in mind the larger a deeper understanding of our mission, and which we may accomplish it. No effort she promises to accomplish it. No effort shoii greater than the consciousness that our effc seem less remote. ART EDUCATION AND MANUA BY J. LIBERTY TADD. DIRBOTOR OF PUBLIC IN PHILADBLPHrA, J»A. The time is past when it is required to p and manual training are necessary and d schools. All teachers worthy of the name ar The question now confronting us is : What 1 If we have manual training that is not artis we have art work that is not manual trainin Is it to be the art training of the commer of selling their copy-books and materials anc ingless study to the already overcrowded cu the simple working out of thought in deed as ing all other studies easier by the outlet it \ sion of various ideas? In addressing teachers on this important eralities are to be avoided, and the most v Department.] ART EDUCATION AND MANUAL TRAINING. 901 can make to this discussion is a relation of personal experiences. 1 find a tendency in all the addresses at the last international con- gress to avoid the question of method si and :ways of work. In all my experience, of nearly twenty years, I have never yet found a teacher educated by the book methods or by normal art schools where systems are taught, able to draw. This seems an in- credible statement, yet from my point of view it is correct. By drawing, I mean thought expression, the power to express ideas of all form on surfaces, and in things; not the feeble imitations of cer- tain models, conventional forms, with labored application bit by bit, dot by dot, but to have organically the power to at once delineate balance, proportion, grace, beauty, fitness. By drawing, I mean the vital union of thought and action that gives definite expression to individual thought through the hand, the power to reproduce men- tal images just as we express them by speech after assimilating cer- tain sense impressions, creating and designing nature anew. The methods I advocate are not new. For the past ten years they have been in operation in Philadelphia. Ambidexterity, psycho physical co-ordinations, memory work, and other features peculiar to our course, have received the test of time and application to large numbers. Could any sane person walk around the ten acres of school ex hibits last year at Chicago and be satisfied with the work going on under the name of art, of drawing, of manual training? Could any one for a moment think that it represented the work of individual child life, of growing organisms — each one alive? Did it not all se<^m fashioned from the same mean lack of thought exhibited by some plan or system-maker? Did it not show, in its very similarity and endless repetition of the same things, the hand of trade? Did it not show from its very constant and feeble ringing of the changes on cubes, blocks, cones, prisms, definitions, the reiteration of terms, construction, representation and decoration the shallow minds, wading in a morass of second-hand thoughts, words and phrases; able to talk parrot fashion, but not able to do; able to see, but not to feel ; able to preach, but not to act. In short, to dogmatize; that is, liter- ally, to assert with undue confidence and to advance with arrogance? IMd it not show, from end to end, the commercial element, the spirit «^ greed for money at the expense of minds? There were only a few gieen oases in the desert represented by work like that of our presi- ^^"cture is to be built up by certain plexuses beco.u- ^m«!i ^ connected with other plexuses, the connections are to tion f ™"t"a"y dependent, one arousing the other by automatic ac- ***«oLi "^ movement by movement, until we have actually made 'Conv^ °" '^^^ "^""^ "intelligence," "inter %o," "inter lacing," 'Opened* * Tk^ meaning of the process. Lines of transit must be ■**i^e-' rt, '"^petition actual structural connections must be ^^'^tti^man^^^^ °®''^® centers, both centrifugal (outward) and ^*"oin ^hlv f^^^ ^*^*^ ^° *^® goodness or moral quality that comes ^^fon^!!, f "'■ ^^^ '°''<=® o'f intellect alone. Habit is one of the ^^stano? • l^^^ *° ^^tnre, energy will follow the lines of least re- ^'''tant nf°+i! **''S^*«'»- The will itself is simply the sum or re- *^e orc-i • complex interaction of the complicated mechanism of *^*<>OehV^*™' ^°** '* ^^ ™^^^ "P P^'^fy «^ *e actions, feelings and Jgfit, compounded and embodied. ^'■ejr ^]^LiA leave school before they learn the lesson 58 *^^>Jited on each side of erery leaf, embodied in the archi- / / 906 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A880CIA tecture of every shell, and that shines forth fr flower? Is it fair that they should leave schoo joy that is planted in every natural thing as d high as space? How can we expect them to balanced, thinking and acting beings, unless and a desire for beauty and right action organ superficially and by imitation. This can only b to them at the right periods the right things; of the powers of the instincts, and considering vironment Should we not, in the very nature of things, tion than has ever been done before, aided by 1 with our vast resources and wealth? With th not our art work, our actions, our deeds, be a 1 taneous force in shaping thought, until all car of Emerson, when he says: Ever the rock of ages melts Into the mineral air. To be the quarry whence is buil Thought, with its mansions fai COLOE IN PUBLIC SCffO BT MKS. MARY DANA HIOKS, BOSTON, MAS [ABRlDtiBD BY THE AUTHOU J My subject is announced as "Color in I subject must necessarily be treated from the st tion. The inquiry at once arises, What is art edu the art education of the studio and of the ar main purpose is the development of the abilit; art, and which is intended for those specially gi the art education which is now claiming its pla which is intended for all. Color in the art ei or of the art school is indeed an important and this afternoon we have to consider color in tht is now coming into the education of every chii better that art education which is now in t] child. For art covers all that is finest and 1 covers music, and poetry and physi<;al culture, ing and color. So, that, for a long time, art o stantly gaining ground in the schools. First, ^^^^partment.] COLOR IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 907 ^^^troduction of singing into schools, a recognition of the humanizing ^i^d harmonizing element of music Along with music came poetry, ^iid memory gems became another humanizing and harmonizing ele- ^^^Bt. Physical culture, rapidly advancing to recognition, is not mere I^^ysical training, but leads to grace, ease and beauty of movement. The children are taught to sing and to love music, they are accus- "*^omed to repeat, to hear and to enjoy poetry, they are learning grace- ^^ and free movement. If you think of these — of music, of poetry, of physical culture — yon will see that these are modes of expression of the highest ^^oughts and emotions possible to man, and that they may all be tanked in art education. The range suggested by my subject is wide, but in its considera- tion there are four especially important points which present them- selves. 1. T\^hat color is. 2. Why color instruction should have a place in education. 3. The necessary basis of color instruction. 4. The methods of color instruction. There is no color outside of ourselves. Color is purely a sensation, "the result of the impact of ether 'leaves upon the retina of the eye, ^^st as sound is a sensation, the result of vibrations caused by the ^i^pact of sound waves ui)on the: drum of the ear. rj, ,^^^ recognition of the sensation of color is called the color sense. his color sense varies greatly in different individuals, because of ^redity and because of the greater or less degree of cultivation. ^ K^^ connection between sound waves and color waves seems also s^d^'^^^^^^^ *^^^ *^^* ^^ analogy of sensation. The study of color ^ m^^^i^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ extreme interest. There would also seem to be ^ixa^^ ^^ ^^^nection between magnetism and color. It is evident It^'^ ^^ ^^^^ ^° *^^ borderland of the great field of color, ^^d /"^ ^^^^^^sting, also, to study the color perception of poets- verj^ rtf?^ ^^iiceives the people of the time of Homer to have had ^^tdoo ^olor perception. Although Virgil dealt so largely with ■^^gUsh ^^^^^s> he shows very little color feeling. Among early ^^^^rpo JP^^^^^y Chaucer and Shakespeare delight in color. Upon does not '"^^P^? Cowper, Akenside, Young, Thompson, Gray— color oaodern r> ^^^^^ to have made as much impression. But the more color nc^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ appreciation of the presence of and delight in ^^^tVs a^ ^-^ Keats, Shelley, Wordsworth and Tennyson. Words- But ti^^ Poem, "The Daffodils," is a delightful instance. ^*^iyas sfa ^^^ outlooks "over the fields and far away" are alluded to ^olor. Oxji^'^^^g the possibilities that open to the special student of ^I^eimpor**-^ Pt-esent purpose is rather to consider, in the next place, ^^oe of giving color instruction a place in education. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOC The child delights in color, and seeing it him. He wants to handly and to use it. Thi reason for its study, but educational reasons j In early education the essential aim is, or i child acquainted with his environment. H( objects of which the chief visible characterist Through form and color objects become api Hence, through the study of color the envir< becoming more and more real to him. Froebc of color over the child, and provided for it ear gift six colored balls, showing six leading col the most simple type-form, the sphere. The child should learn through his sense observations and then express his observatio subject that will furnish this opx)ortunity for < sion is essential in primary education. Color ent, to be observed and to exercise the sense \ the concepts that can be ultimated in color e becomes a powerful means of mental develop The uses of color in industry and art ai great that it would hardly be necessary to alli for the apparent unconsciousness of many edu public in general, of the prevalence of color it plays in human affairs. The industries wl color include nearly the whole round of mar the industrial arts. All wallpaper, all tapesti the tailor, the dressmaker, the milliner, the d depend for success in no small degree upon The influence of color upon the eye is not o pain, but it is also for the higher spiritual effi made to the Public School Art League, Bos physician, stated clearly the effect of variou the eyes, but also upon the minds of childrr Color instruction, then, answers to an app acquaints him with his environment, furnis development as it gives him opiwrtunity h resultant expression, cultivates better poss through enlarged capability of expressing 1 use of color materials, opens new avenues of through finer observation of nature and of ar cultivated sense activity, the higher spiritual Seeing thus the importance of color instr tion, the natural inquirj^ is: How can this ini What shall the basis of the instruction b< hitherto has been mainly that of the physic I>epartmeni.] COLOR IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 909 vi'ith the study of physical color forces as they present themselves to him. The results of this study are of great scientific value, but they contribute very little to the solution of the problem before us, which is the cultivation of the color sense. The need of standards of color upon which to base this cultiva- tion is apparent. Where shall this standard be found? The color spectrum is the most perfect type of a scale of color found in nature, but there are colors in nature and in pigments which cannot be found in this spectrum. The solar spectrum gives no pure red (the red of the spectrum being distinctly yellowish) and shows none of the colors intermediate betM^een violet and the spectrum red. Again, the various colors of the scale change in appearance according to the time of day, the spectrum at sunrise differing considerably in general color from that ^t noon, and again from that at sunset. Therefore, as nature furnishes no complete series of color and no stability of its types in the spectrum, this cannot be accepted as a ^nit of color. Nature furnishes no ideals; these must always be the creation of man. The true unit of color is formed by an idealization of all the color forces embodied in the wave of pure white light. The ideal unit of color requires a complete physical series, forming a circle of bands of colors unbroken by missing links or hues. This ideal unit may be divided into any convenient number of equal intervals, these fumish- mg the types on which a nomenclature can be based. For practical nse, these ideal types have to be represented and fixed materially by the use of pigments. The types of color can be presented for school-room use by colored papers, ^vhich afford the means of regular sequential study of color. The nomenclature must be simple and easily comprehended. If six leading colors are taken, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, six more can easily be added as intermediates, taking the names of the colors between which they stand, as red-orange, yellow-orange, etc., making a band of twelve colors, and to these intermediates may be added inter-intermediates named "R. R. O.," etc., as the points of the compass are named "N. N. W.," etc. Then would follow the grays. Here would arise a question with regard to the artist's nomencla- ture of primaries, secondaries and tertiaries. In this nomencla- ture, red, yellow and blue are considered the primaries because of their three pigment colors; all others may be compounded, red and ^^^j^ellow making orange, yellow and blue making green, and red and ^lue making violet. Thus the secondary colors, orange, green and iolet, are produced. These secondaries are combined and the ter- ^iaries, russet, citrine and olive, are produced. The scientist, however, nterrenes, and says that red, yellow and blue are not primary phys- 910 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL AS80CU ical colors. This is claimed on account of some color wheel, which seem to prove that yellow a green and that yellow is a compound color. Tl however, accompanied by so many conditions thj stood that the inferences do not seem fully j scientists who accept the results as stated at agree as to what the primary colors are. Hunt | sometimes giving five, Hering six. Maxwell tl three, Rosenthal two, etc., so that the experimc form conditions, even among those who accep proving what they seem to prove. There are of Edinburgh and M. Leconture of Paris and Boston who believe that these experiments let because the conditions which surround then understood. However, this discussion concern ical colors may result, it is not disputed that colors are red, yellow and blue. The recent printing give fine illustrations of the results' of colors. In discussing the subject of primary colors i bered that the study of physical color force hai of advanced physics. The cultivation of the cc object of color instruction in the school-room, cultivated by the optical study of color, and c by the sequential study of color presented by hands of the children. Moreover, all color us any way must be by meaus of pigments appli paper or a brush. The brush is an admirable of color, although colored papers conforming color are preferable for the study of color. We now approach the method of color stud to the consideration of child vision. As coloi result of the action of the color-sense, the : should follow the method of sense-training, that, whil^ we all know that children's powers state, we have proceeded for many years in ou assumption that all eyes, whether of child or ; or untrained, could see all colors equally we- simple colors; for example, the six leading col two or three years has it been realized that tl of children or untrained persons are in an i:i that only by wisely directed exercise can they The method of color instruction should, lik' tional methods, consider first the capabilities o Department.] COLOR IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 911 be developed only after careful study of the power of color perception possessed by those who are to receive instruction. It has been found by numerous experiments that little children do not perceive the darker colors as well as the lighter or bright colors; that the color-sense is with them, as with many adults, in an un- developed state; and that some colors have for them no distinct char- acter as colors. Hence, investigation as to the color sense percep- tion of pupils becomes an important factor in the course. The charts exhibited show the result of some extensive experiments. I began systematic Investigation as to the children's power of eolor perception in March, 1891. In this investigation I had the cordial co-operation and assistance of Mr. C. E. Meleuiey, superintend- ent of schools at Somerville, and of Miss Elizabeth Herrick, super- visor of drawing at Somerville. The investigation was carried on from the first to the sixth grade in schools, where (from locality) it was supposed that the color perception of children would not have been influenced to any considerable degree by direct or indirect culti- vation of the color-sense. The experiments were made first in the lowest primary grades and continued in order in the other grades. The regular sequence of those colors in the color unit in the spectrum order is red, red-orange, yellow-orange, yellow, yellow-green, green, blue-green, blue, blue-violet, violet, red-violet. In order to have the relations of these colors before us, it will be necessary to bear in mind that the investigations described in this paper have all been based on the Prang standards of color. A series of twelve cardboard tablets, half an inch by two inches, showing the twelve colors of the color unit according to the Prang standards was prepared. To each child a complete set of these tablets in an <^n- velope and a piece of gray cardboard, eleven inches by fourteen inches, were given. The children were asked to take out the color tablets and spread them on the gray cardboard. CJolor material had never been distributed to them before. It was beautiful to see the delight of the children over the bright colors. After they had looked at the tablets for a moment each child was requested to take up the tablet that he or she preferred and lay it at the back of the desk and then arrange the others at pleasure. A careful record was then made of the colors that had been placed at the back of the desks. It was soon seen that the preference of the children was decidedly for the colors, red, red-orange, orange, yellow-orange, yellow, yellow- green, thus showing a decided inclination to the colors tending to- ward 3-ellow. It will be noticed that the colors just mentioned oc- cupy tile left half of the color unit given above. The general results &re tabulated below — the colors preferred being divided into two classes^ ^ ^^^ B. A signifies that the colors preferred were in the 912 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A8SOCIA7 left half of the color unit; B signifies that the c in the right half of the color unit. SCTIOOL YEAR. ExamlnJd. First 142 Second ^2 Third 131 t^ourth 47 Fifth 33 Sixth 46 Total 481 Out of the whole number of children, ninety low, but six preferred green and but four prefei to the sixth year, but twenty-seven in all prefei sixth year the preference for red was marked, ti of forty-six preferring red. This investigation sIj preference was for yellow and colors containing: 3 An investigation made in the kindergartens similar result. The next {wint was to discover, if possible, v saw all the colors with equal distinctness. A 1 the twelve colors of the color-unit with distinctn< all the children could see it, and they were askec just as they were in the chart. Many childre correctly, but laid the right half indiscriminat< blue the place of violet, and vice versa. Blue-gi red-violet shared a like fate. One little girl laid and said there was no place for it. This expe three classes of the first and second years each, dren in all, and but 11 succeeded in laying the 1 The experiment has been tried repeatedly sinc< that the colors in the right half of theJ color-unit the children as readily as those in the left half, ai of the color-sense is necessary for the clear per twelve simple colors of the color-unit. The first experiment showed the preference fo color-unit, and especially for yellow and colors The second experiment showed that the childre versally discriminate between the colors of the 1 unit, while very few of them could discriminatx? of the right half of the unit. The conclusion wai majority of cases, the study by children of indi begin with yellow and should be continued th orange, red, violet, blue, green, according to the ception in the children. Department.] COLOR IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 913 The ne±t step was to discover whether children would, of them- selves, discover color affinities; as, for instance, that red-orange par- took of the color nature of red and of orange, that orange partook of the color-nature of red and of yellow, etc.; or whether It would be necessary to tell the children these color facts. For this experi- ment, entirely different children were taken from those who shared in the previous experiments. The tablets were given to the children and their preferences recorded. A pleasant talk with the children enBued about brothers and sisters in a family; the children were led to tell that brothers and sisters looked alike, and the. children were asked to arrange the color tablets in a family, placing those brothers and sisters next each other that looked most alike. The result was anxiously awaited, for if the children could see for themselves those affinities, the development could be from within and this color Imowl- edge need not be imposed f rom^ without. Experiments were first made in one school as to making families of twos and threes, with considerable success in the colors of the left half of the color-unit, but not in the colors of the right half of the color-unit Finally, the exx)eriment was made in another school, where the children had not handled or seen the color tablets at all, of having the children arrange the twelve tablets in one family, placing those nearest each other that looked most alike. Many laid the left half of the color unit correctly, and two in a class of forty-one laid the whole color-unit correctly. Subsequently experiments pro- duced similar results. The results of all; the experiments seemed to show : 1. That yellow should be the starting point in the study of in- dividual color. 2. That the order of individual color-study should be yellow, orange, red, violet, blue, green. 3. That children have the power of discovering color affinities, and can, through proper cultivation of the color-sense, attain to the perception of color compounds. The interest awakened by these color experiments was so great that I prepared blanks with directions for experiments. Investiga- tions Tv^re made, and the results recorded in these blanks in New- t>i3rgh, St. Louis, and other towns, and in single schools — notably the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute and the Carlisle In- dustrial Indian School. Experiments were also made by Earl Barnes, professor of education at the Leland Stanford University, with Chi- nese ciiij^pgjj at Oakland. These experiments produced very in- terestiti^ results with regard to race preferences, and confirmed the concluaioxig drawn from previous experiments. ^^icig the last year Miss A. L. Balch, supervisor of form, drawing and coloi* at Somerville, has made an exhaustive investigation of the 914 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL AS80CL public school children at Soinerville, the result J in the charts exhibited. These results agree y viously obtained. The results at St. Louis sho^ tion toward the darker colors than is seen in ({ The experiments with Indians (from eight to ^ show a decided inclination toward blue, whil^ students of about the same ages show an incline violet. The Chinese preference (the children fourteen years of age) shows the main colore to 1 jellow-green, with the greatest inclination towai The charts illustrating the results of the Somerville bring out very decidedly the inclini red-orange and blue, as the three favorite colo year. In the seventh, eighth and] ninth years, d place among the favorite colors. During the Barnes has examined 1,000 children in Californ to grade, ranging, therefore, presumably from of age. The results show a greater tendency t seventh, eighth and ninth years of Somerville ; be expected, as the examination included younj Professor Barnes also made an investigation with regard to the colors which children would p which brought out some interesting results sho hibited, and are well worthy of careful study, made from these charts some very important de* A series of experiments were also instituted i department of the Columbian Exposition by He instructor in psychology at Harvard University, preferences and color combinations. These in^ posed to carry farther, as to race preferences f of artists. It will be seen, therefore, that a foundation : instruction being given according to the powe in the child. This is a good step forward from color facts to be learned. Hugh Magnus believes that the color-sense development of th6 race, that in very early time the light and dark, and that gradually there es of color, as the eye attained greater sensibility evolution. Mrs. Christine Ladd Franklin, fellc University, believes that the eyes of infants g^ responding to the race experience, and she ie careful series of experiments with infants, in i of color vision. department.] 3fODELINO IN PUBLIC SCHOOL WORK, 915 But color instmction must not only take account of the state of color perception in the student; it must also proceed according to educational method. The color sensation must be recognized by the teacher as something distinct from the color name. Investigation in this line shows that children may associate a color nanue with some particular colored object, and yet fail to recognize the same color sensation in another object. Hence, it is necessary to study the sen- sation as produced by various objects having the same color. It will be seen that what the child needs is association with, and close observation of, various colored objects to awaken his color perception. Still further, color instruction must be given according to art principles. To lead children to the most acute perception of color in its different tones would be very little. To the art educator, the study of the physiological effect and psychological influence of color is of primary importance, as all art creations in color are the result of ideal conceptions intended to influence the senses on the lines of educated color perception. Not only standard colors must be studied, but also color} in nature and art. At every stage the pupiFs mind should be led upward. The beauty of leaf and flower, of bright winged insects, of birds, of land, of sun and of sky, of fabric and of tapestry, of ornament and of picture, through its color, should all contribute to his development. For growth in aBsthetic feeling, he should study the polychromatic decoration of Egyptian, Greek and Roman; of Saracenic and of Gothic art; for, in their art, these people expressed their lives. He should study and learn to produce haiTuouy of color. Color in its highest sense is spiritual. Harmony of color, the reconciliation of divine ele- ments through mediation, exemplifies the brightest harmony of life. He must learn, too, of the qualities of color which lives and breathes; of glowing, throbbing color of clouds and sky, of color which expresses and color which controls mental state, of glad color and of sad color, of color which is inspiring and of color which is subduing, of color which is exciting and color which is soothing, of combina- tions which are debasing and of harmony which is exalting; for color is the purifying and sanctifying element of material beauty. MODELING IN PUBLIC SCHOOL WORK. BY M:h^ b. M. KENT, SUPERVISOR OF DRAWING, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. ^^^aident Eliot is quoted as saying, the real object of education for all classes, without exception, is very plain. We want to train all child^e^j^ ^^ |.j^e keen, alert, accurate use of their senses, to have them 916 ^ NATIONAL EnUCJLTJO. make an intelligent use of ^wlxat tlie | so they can use comprehensively tlie* And another writes: "Tlie school which is to initiate the child into tl spiritual life of his fellows. Its :Q.r8 character of the child in accordance acquaint him with those ideas wliicli the language in which tihey are ex| supposes the mind prepared to think \ the will to purpose it, and the hand to ] those ideas which form the basis of family, and a valuable member of soci the State and guardian of liberty and will. This is what we understand by p With the axiom that mind is educa it were, only through the senses, and '*Not a soul helps sense, the more than si pass theoretically the triune personality in all its individual manifestation. The teaching of to-day is more and u basis. We would be brain-builders, as so ing its areas separately and conjointly unt its parts. The continued compelling of t velops, as we know, ability to know alon, knowledge. As we consider knowledge we find ov( One holds the substance of things definabi of things not caged in definitions, free as aii fessor Royce calls the first the descripti As the foundation of all knowing, appre real and essential. Truth is but embodied ii know truth to understand it. Behind all thought. We must grasp it or form is mea; reau's exclamation, **Whata thought it was wh£ For our acquisition of knowledge, and n what is it that modeling gives? First, as to descriptive knowledge, for tJ energy in school work isi demanded bj it. The study of foiin is the study of facts. hension is demanded, and the equally exact p sion of the thought. From the whole to its pai the last edge or corner has been considered, \h the child's first experience in analytical thinkir thought habit is inestimable. It provesi its pen readier grasp of other studies, especially those t Department] MODELING IN PUBLIC SCHOOL WORK. 917 and parts, as number work. It is the study of form in the concrete, the logical precursor of drawing, the study of the representation of form in the abstract The acquired ability to see and state facts in logical sequence, implies power in logical thinking. We take for especial study in the first three years the type solids, and approximate forms as found in nature, interesting to the child. He finds curved and plane surfaces and f aces^ and evolves comers and edges in their making. He notices resemblances and differences in the forms, and they classify themselves into families the rectilin- ear, curvilinear and mixtilinear. Then, insensibly, form about him becomes classified, as he seeks resemblances in the world without And this linking, step by step, the work at school with the child's world is most important Given clay, modeling is the natural expression by the child of form. He grasps it as a whole, and his expression would show how far short of the truth his comprehension was. The teacher's guiding leads to accurate conception. With the truth realized, the perfect representation must foUow sooner or later, as sight and touch work in harmony. They are called into mutual action in modeling as in nothing else. Sight must be keen as to form and measurement, and touch delicate and accurate to translate sight and to determine the character of surface in its minute variations, in order to produce it exactly. This takes for granted that there is a model, and that the pupils ai*e led to the earnest, sincere study and faithful copying of it In some cases, I have known it to be omitted, and the results mij^ht be oousidered designated with charming exactness by the small boy who begged his teacher to "Please come and see my muddle." Aimless work is too often the cause of unsatisfactory results in modeling. There is nothing so interesting to a human being as the consciousness of growing power, the knowledge that he is succeeding in doing that for which he tried. "The faith in one's ability" which is "half the battle" is engendered, and action and perseverance are pleasurably incited. In the primary grades, even, when type forms and approximates are studied, there is always the forward step to take for knowledge, or power, or skill. There is no place for half-way work for such tangible results. We hold it a truth that accurate imitation is an essential stepping- stone to the representation off that which is beyond imitation. Original thinking depends fundamentally on clearness of concep- tion gained through the senses. Milton says: Among these Fancy next Her office holds. Of all external things Which the five watchful senses represent. She forms imaginations, aery shapes. : ^ 918 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSC She can but combine, in ever varying servants supply. The mind must be fed, must digest and as manifests itself in what we call originality. We get its first unfolding, valuable educai attempts to "make something." There is cle euQe and limitation, by the inevitable combi seen or done, and usually what hef has seen op The more accurate or beautiful forms be< lines are studied and wrought (for practical mordant), the greater and richer become the i the truer and more beautiful will be its ex imagination's power transmutes and transfc wholes, and the sixth, the artistic sense, has I We would cultivate, too, the divine faculty" body can look at. How patiently we wait for through the constant demand we make on it! utility of the type solid is realized. T^ere is n( there. In modeling the leaf, or apple, glarii complacently viewed because "Mine was like th forms, sight is compelled to do accurate work, rections are so self-evident and capable of ma mand exact seeing. When once gained there a Objects from nature and art will be seen corn the schoolmaster. What we can/ see we can re The sight-training in absolute measuremen measurements accurately. If the child sees th upright square prism on his desk is twice the le edge, can he not also compare the edges of the regard to apparent length, and by this power d ing of the retreating edges? His discovery ths to converge leads to another phase of his study leaves touch and walks alone for appearance's ^ Yet is there not stronger work even here b object in its entirety in his mind, who has acq linking of the three dimensions, and an apprecia ences that could be obtained in no other way It is a psychological fact that a sculptor's draw It never lacks the feeling of the third dimensi express itself, for '^Drains in our fingertips" is truth than poetic fancy, and subtle gradations mean more, and are more quickly apparent to surface. The objection, then, sometimes raised, tha accurate seeing when appearance drawing is be l>opartmeiit.] MODELING IN PUBLIC SCHOOL WORK. 91^ eretlier well founded. I doubt not the pupil would see just as in- accurately had he never modeled, for a knowledge of the third aimension, which seems to be the great stumbling block, will come to eyes that see. But then it does not seem the especial province of pacxieling to make absolutely smooth the path for appearance draw- ^g. Th^y are inherently different, the) basis of sister arts, and both ^aiicationally important The only remedy seems greater develop- naent of the connecting fibers 'twixt the brain cells^ I fahcy, and that ^laearis good work in both directions. History proves the fact that for healthy and truthful work all the arts must advance and develop side by side, and we emphasized our acknowledgment of the truth when architecture, sculpture and painting made fair the ^^Whibe City" in our nridst, and preserves her ^niemory, the admiration of all nations, as the perfect flowering of the P«>ple's thought ^WWle sight and touch are being trained, mental habits and char- acter are being molded. Discrimination, judgment, thought, choice,. are being exercised, the realization of cause and effect comes to the clxild, and the absoluteness of rightness becomes objectified. While tlie psychological claims of modeling are great for its place in our school work, still more securely it rests on its own peculiar power to give. As modeling is taught in most of our schools we have but the ^phabet. It is never formed into words even; still less for the ex- pression of an idea. As an illustrator of the highest order, facile in expression, yielding readily to the will of the user, it is unequal, and almost unused. We consequently miss much. Design should first be tauglit in the concrete. It can be used in the first years. If the child can model form he can apply it in design. It is so easily cor- rected and modified that its superiority is at once apparent. We haTe stick-laying and paper cutting, but are they fitting illustrators of all forms of designs? Is it a rational thing to construct the Greek echinus or the astragal from colored paper, as we are sometimes directed to teach the children? We have led them to think of the ovoid aa the solid and the oval as the plane face found in bisecting tiiatform. Does it not seem a contradiction of this essential differ- ence we have taught, to construct the echinus and astragal with the o\aland the ellipse? Is it a possibility, strictly speaking? And then we must apply color, independently of our opinion as to its use by the Greeks. When completed, accuracy in cutting and neatness ill pasting may be commended in our border, but that is all. From Ills work, how nearly will the child's conception of the echinus or astragal approximate the reality? What thought would tliey ob- jectify? How could we at all intelligently study the derivation of term and form? What connection is there between the sea urchin 920 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A880CIA and the color oval to impress the child? Wh thing? As to time, it would take no longer i pasting; as to material it would be cheaper; as not be more interesting, more instructive, more is the strong thing." Let us work for that, the the color decorations for our schoolrooms. Ot in legitimate line of study, for there are designs in abundance. Study and model the simpler scrolls and on the astragal, the antheminon and beautiful cu rangement, and balance and rhythm will be tively grasped, as it is the only way they can b^ In the study of language, we carry it to its ai the child an introduction to our authors, ex( awaten love and appreciation through our ow needful that modeling and drawing be studied ; That our chOdren come to know the names of arts, grow familiar with, their greatest works, bj • and experience an ever growing desire to know time shall give them opportunity, should be oi which we work. In the modeling! of the chosen' forms let that be manifest through the sign, in order to "use records that others have made." Art is disti plastic art the heart-throbs of the ages seem children know the meaning they gave the circl typified; the protection of the winged globe am the scarabaeus. Show them the sea waves' likei where the anthemion got its curves. The mys lotus flower tell of people wise in art and ricl them bit by bit the history that "survives and? fii and lives." Faith and hopQ and high courage i Not that we would give exhaustive lessons in ] archeology, but simply that a sense of the meai with the symbols. Ever view history through proportions and for human interest. Model to illustrate your geography and h botany and general lessons. Demand like worl Have your clay-board as ready for use as you understanding of many facts would then be cleai make them. As you model your relief map for tl and river courses, associate with the countries your modeling. The pyramids, Bunker Hill moi at Newport, Fort SnelHng, the obelisk at Centra country, with its story cut in stone, lend themsc "^^Partment ] MODELING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 921 T^^J^k, and are not only illustrations of type forms, but are of historic ^^terest For Mexico, we might show the! temples of the Aztecs, the ^teons with their strange carvings of thel little people of Alaska, the ^1^^ of the Eskimo, the utensils of the Mound Builders. Would not ^txe archeological collections begin to have a little attraction for ^^e children if only when searching for illustrations at first? The growth of leaves from the stem and the many facts of botan- ica.1 study objectively wrought, would mean much, and could a child ^^»ily forget the action of a ball-and-socket joint which he saw ^^odeled and articulated? Illustrations multiply as we consider the ^^"bject, and how it may supplement or precede the excellent illustra- Wve work already being done in drawing. For the study of the applied form, our schools should have their collections of casts, as large as may be, that the children may become ^axuiliar with them; for with the senses must be grasped the central ti*iitli written in ornamental form, as well as by the intellect. Let the children know, that, from the temples and palaces of antiquity, the crumbled civilization of the East, with sculptured triumphs of Q^reece and Rome — ^from their theaters, shrines and homes — ^are talien the forms we study. They will prove an open sesame to jewel ^^^ines of interest. But casts for the school are few, and the supply scanty, you say; stud possibly there i« no art collection to which your pupils have a^ccess. But photographs and magazine illustrations are plentiful, «^nd will give us material sufficient to make broad the foundation, ^rom their modeling of ornamental form — or study, if modeling is ixnpossible — send the bright-eyed seekers about the city on quests for i lie decorative forms on and within our public buildings and churches. ^^'^ them see how the old forms are repeated and varied. And while th^ connection is real and vital, let them illustrate to the cla«s some- thing they have found by modeling it as nearly as they can. Let this be done, not once or twice, but often, and you will be surprised at the €rrowth in power of expression. Apart from its sfiidy ^^^ ^^"^' ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ meaning men wrought tlierein, the mere opening of the eyes to the existence of beautiful ornamental foi-xn would be a priceless boon. You will then find: keen appreciation of xmir photographs of the Alhambra's exquisite tracery, or St. Mark's *< bodied music," as it is styled, "rich, mysterious, splendid, harmo!5!!>ur solemn, pathetic, dignified, grand." The Cam- PaniJe, the g-at^^ f rihiberti, should become known, and cathedrals ^ and towei-s azi^^ ^lif>s as you will. Bits of architectural beauty will be noticeil aucj ^.^d The beauty of form in its entirety will grow "POB them. >: ^^^^^^^m to study churches and towers, or any beauti- ful huUdin^^ .^^^nd tne ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ evening, when details are lost Seeic tK^ th^ ^f^ . in natural forms as well. Study the bare 69 ^^ i)eo^^^ 922 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASl trunks and branches of trees against the v silvery background of snow and moonligh flowers give their beauty of form. It is ev( To the highest form of art, sculpture- modeling begins — the child should be led. presents the thought will the children fe not comprehend. Yet there is much that oughly appreciate. The attitude of teac! mind open and expecting that more and grow with knowledge, is our ideal result. lute form knocks at the door of conscioui great step onward. How that is, perhaj he makes Vittoria CJolonna say to Michai in itself is useful, by awakening our finer be our fault if we do not carry with us inl moral effect. Sweeping the arc from Vittoria Gol( Washington, and from the past to the inq chemically test emotions and measure th logically tested laws on which) we may bi visionary vagary. The beautiful, seen a does fill the mind with finer thoughts woi ment in the whole nature. Prom whatc be led to cherish noble, beautiful thought or successive times, tihere is a phyeieal e! structure. The cells which, receive and j to the corresponding diminution of thoi thoughts not so admirable. One can f ol physical treatment to the practical oblii coming of evil with good, in a most pra the individual and the nation. This is Still, like Michael Angelo, our designs i shape of the block, I fancy. We see f r economic value of beautiful surround school should be made beautiful with statuary. O^i this gi-ound we cannot a1 language of ascendant ideas, be it lil painting. Sight impressions, being the are therefore highly important. The love of art must grow with a engrafted in maturer years. We put \ the clear-eyed Grreeks put first, the r< which made Greece great, and even 1 Guido, DonateUo, and our own Shalies ucts of the times in which they lived. Oopartment.] MODELING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 923 cease to wonder at their ability to produce such works with ap- parently so little special training. "The children of to-day are the sovereigns of to-morrow." How they shaU rule depends upon their fitting. A love for art in the child wiU make art's opportunity as the man has power. And how shaU we make the children art lovers? We can never teach art, we know. We teach its science only; yet from the roverent, earnest, sincere spirit of the teacher in the/ mysterious realm, where thoughts keep step and spirit answers spirit we know not how, the inspira- tion is passed along. The child knows that art is lovely and desir- able, worthy of patient seeking and earnest endeavor and loving sacrifice to gain the benediction of its touch. Given the ideal, growth toward it is inevitable. One other consideration. As modeling led to analytical thought in the acquisition of descriptive knowledge, I would notice the syn- thetical in its application to appreciate knowledge. The habit of thought of the child should be such that it need not be revolutionized, when, as a self-conscious being, he reaches out to deep truths. Truth is not necessarily literal. There is for all arts and most study a vanishing point where the real merges into the ideal— the spiritual. Like the garments the children of Israel wore out of Egypt, our thought habit should grow with our growth un- consciously to us. We have classified form, found our type which gathers to itself all of perfectness and completeness, and have found many of its modifications, each developing a separate character, each equally admirable. And following this thought, is it too much to claim that it holds within itself the power to ronder more comprehensible, more easily grasped, the greatest fact of appreciable knowledge in the world^s history, the visible manifestation of the perfect type, ''When the Word was made flesh and dwelt among us?" And wiU it not make the broad charity, which appreciates the fact that likeness to that type will be infinite in variety, individual in expression, seem most reasonable? We have found, I think, that modeling in our public school work trains senses to be keen and accurate, gives exact conceptions of form in its entirety and of component parts by analysis. It is valuable on sound psychological grounds, and because it embodies the science of one of the greatest of arts, sculpture. This becoming appreciated in degree, awakens the desire for further knowing. It makes vivid the records of the ages, wrought in form, sign and symbol. It opens the eyes to the beauty of form, and we come into vital connection, like an awakening to new life, with the beautiful in form as expressed by art and with all the half -concealed beauty 924 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A which lies around us. It leads us to nobk lions which are joys forever — ^a fortune w exhausted while imagination lasts and ^^ It teaches that law and order are f undan expression. It gives thought-life that t appreciative knowledge with sweet real learner "sharer in the spiritual life of hi character symmetrically. That is what modeling, lingering on tional temple, holds potentially for our t^ DEPARTMENT OP MUSIC EDUCATION. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST SESaiON^.— Thursday, July 12, 1894. The opening session of the department was called to order at 8 o'clock p. M. by the I^resident, Mr. N. L. Glover, Akron, Ohio. Mrs. Bennet of Asbury Park was introduced and sang Dudley Buck's "Bedouin Love Song." The President then delivered the opening address. Mr. David M. Kelsey, Saratoga Springs, N. Y., presented a paper on "Music in the New Education." The discussion was opened by A. J. Gantvoort, Piqua, Ohio, who was followed by C. C. Congdon, St Paul, Minn.; J. C. Broekhoven, Cincinnati, Ohio; O. B. BUI, Salem, Mass.; and W. S. Twichell, Paterson, N. J. Mp. Bryan, Hartford, CJonn., entertained the audience with Bartoli's "The Dying Flowers." Mr. Frederick E. Chapman, Cambridgeport, Mass., read a paper on "Is as Much Time Devoted to Instruction in Vocal Music in Oup Public Schools as Its Impor- tance Demands T' The discussion was opened by E. W. Newton, New York, who was followed by others. The session was closed with a paper on "Defective Hearing of School Children," by Dr. Bphraim Gutter, New York aty. SPECIAL SESSION.— Fbiday. Jxj^y 13, 1894, 10 A. M. This session was called by the President with a view to interchange of expe- T\ence in the various lines of work. A Jong and interesting discussion was held on the character of the songs ordmarily avaiJabJe for use in the primary grades. By common consent, upon comparison, it was admitted that no good collection of songs, in which both the text and the music was suitably adapted, had vet been published, sentatfl .'^^^^^^en, Cincinnati, moved that the President appoint twelve repre- for^ ^!^^^^ctors j^ j^^^aic, each one of whom should compose a song suitable annual m^^7f^^'^^: each son^ to be submitted to this department at the next VnaniZusiZ ''^^^^^^^'^ ^°^ comparison. 926 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOi Mr. Newton, New York, moved that each membe name some song, which, in his or her judgment, wa pupils. Carried. Mr. Gantvoort and Mr. Glover each sang an origri: The President apx)ointed the following committee the personal interest of one representative in each State Mr. A. J. Gantvoort, Piqua, Ohio; Mr. Newton, Nc New Brunswick, N. J. AFTERNOON SESSION, Session opened with a solo, **Sweet Charity'* (bj Newton, New York. Mr. N. Ooe Stewart, Cleveland, Ohio, read a papo Concerning Music in the Public Schools." Miss Meeker, Asbury Park, rendered a beautiful **] Stewart's paper. The nominating committee, consisting of Mr. Johui Brunswick. N. J., and Mr. Congdon, St. Paul, reported for the ensuing year: PresidetdS. Coe Stewart, Cleveland, Ohio. Vice President— G^TgQ Carothers Young, Salt Lak< flfecrrtarv— Miss Mary E. Grandy, Sioux City, Iowa Mr. Congdon moved that the Secretary be instruc headquarters for next year. Adjourned. Geo ^^^irtment.] PRESIDENTS ADDRESS, 927 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. BY N. L. GLOVER, AKUON. OHIO. Since our last meeting, held at Saratoga two years ago, we have attended the greait world's congress held in Chicago last year, *^^d any persons present that were so fortunate as to be in attend- ance at thejneetings of this department, will, I am sure, concur in 5*^y opinion, that the meetings were both interesting and profitable ^n many ways. There were two assemblies of the musical profes- sion which were similar both in kind and purpose, that known as the Na^tional Educational Association, which was under the direction of til is body, and a similar one conducted by the Illinois State Music "X'oa-chers. 1 was in attendance upon the occasion of the meeting binder the supervision of the National Educational Association. The discussions were full of practical suggestions, and were participated in by people from many parts of the world. There was no business of special mention transacted by this de- I>artment except the passing of a resolution which reads as follows: ■Resolved, That this Department of Instniction in Vocal Music heartily indorse *^« appointing of a committee, to be composed of one from each State and Terri- tory, to take measures to influence the several State legislatures to take such action as will place the study of music in the curriculum of required branches ^^' ^^^^y JD all schools of the State, and that we earnestly co-operate in efforts to "Us end. We believe this to be an important step, and would recommend ^tBfuimiment As it occurs to me one of the most vital questions relating to our le that a person can utter 10,000 words and not say anything?'' It *^ust be. Therefore, from that and subsequent bitter experiences, I I'eason that nothing written or spoken is of real value except as it <^omes from the living experience of someone. Hence, so little is of ^'alue, and hence so many empty words. And, as theory-spinning »liould have no place in a teacher's mind, I shall say nothing for the «ake of saying it, or to coax dull teachers into sympathy with, or in- ticipest in, what I have to say. To speak what needed to be uttered lias alone been my thought, and to say that in a quiet, solid way, «tssuming both interest and intelligence on your part. You read the title, "Music in the New Education." Even here I oannot go on till I am sure you know what ideas the terms, music, education, etc., bring up in my mind. You cannot go along with me in this little walk or path of reasoning safely until I am permitted to define, from my p'oint of view, these terms. Following Ruskin's advice, I dig for the root of this word, edu- <5ate. If you will divide the word as follows, educate, we shall find the meaning. E means "out," due means "to lead;" hence, e-duc-ate, *'to lead" or "draw out," and educated means "led out" or "devel- oped." Ex-President Hulbert, in his excellent lecture on "The Destructive Jdea in Education " says: "An educated apple seed is an apple tree, find an educated apple blossom is an apple." Then school is a garden — ^kindergarten — and the word school teacher means gardener, and his field is not unlike the philosopher's grarden, of which you have read. When he was accosted by one ^vho had come from far to view this garden, of which fame had told ^^^i yet who could not restrain his disappointment at its meager i>ounds, the ph-losoplier reverently replied: "It is narrow and it is not Jongr, but iVfV wondrous high, and it is wondrous deep." What niore mortal t^ st could have been given at the many unskilled and careless J a^e only the surface area and its bounding fence, who 8o ofteti / rmistakenlv exclaim, as did one of Scott's teach- f »• '^uijcf. ^^^ ^^^ and dunce you will ever remain," wbi^^ ^^^^^ does lie i^ ^^.>on ^^f ^epth of soul and a height of aspiratio- ^^^P^y bou^^^^ry ^^^^^nimeasurable. n 930 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL jLSSOCL I might well stop here and leave you to c thought, undisturbed by my efforts at explanati give direction to your reflection and say: One o directions of growth, educating and important, is the development of expression. What do I ir that the pupil be trained to know that he feels { that he be helped or trained to be able to ma feels and thinks and what he feels and thinks, have been rightly trained or educated in expresi in making you — every one of you — understand ra ings on the subject before us. But we must study still more. Among the various forms of expression let Now, divide vocal expression into sound and spe to face with our topic, and I may proceed in a si definition of the other word of the subject — mu Music is the expression of feeling, as words \ would that all future musicians, so-called, could stand this: that their art is made for this pui purpose wholly — to express feeling. This, then, is music, the expression of feeling b acoustic forms. This, then, is music in the ne at growth or unfolding of the embryos of feeling i soul, and the term "Music in the New Educati< to call your attention to the possibilities of Fro< kindergarten subject, both in spirit and in subjec But right at this point we begin to experienc< the work, and I know of no other subject which h many discouraging circumstances. For years, I have been convinced that the grej music work in this country is caused by various c< following difficulties: First, and worst, dense and complete ignoran the regular teacher, of practical methods of pres ing the subject-matter in this study. Second, special teachers in the same condition, publisher's cant to some one idea, as the "Nationa Holt's to intervals and harmony, Jepson^s to sigl to time, and the latest, "The American," to enuncij Third, the whole mass of the people, including actually illiterate in music that there is no standa which to purge out the vile in either matter or metl We Americans have been digging and building i years, while tortoise Europe has crept on toward till to-day, the low and humble in England, Germai ^*^partment.J MUSIC IN THE NEW EDUVATON, 931 Italy sing as naturally as they speak, and could teach the American ^Jiillionaire. Our paths have been antipodal. We liave forbidden ^iinsic in our churches and forgotten it in our homes, while they have Postered it at every turn, even by ^ojeA patronage and subsidy, quite l>eyond our reckoning. Now, our stumps are pulled, our fences are built, our houses and l>arns are up, and w^ have pro tempore houses and roads. Now, we are at peace, and, pausing to take breath, are confronted by the "tremendous work of educating the masses up to keep pace with their freedom. We all agree that the place for this educating is in the public schools. Now, education means the development of the whole man, and not the fashioning of his mind to the neglect of body and soul, nor yet of mind and body to the neglect of the soul alone. We de- velop the body; we also zealously overdo the mind work. But who is charged with over-developing the soul of his pupil? Shut your eyes and slowly pronounce the little word ^T' a few times. It is not your body nor your mind which you mean. It is that undying reality within, which the conscientious teacher of the future will reach and mold by such studies as develop memory, feel- ing, emotion, and their expression, of which studies music is the pioneer. There are also many difficulties, in the form of unsettled ques- tions, about our work, which both keep us from unanimity, and so- called ''systems'' from becoming effective; some of which questions let me here and now recommend that these meetings, as a delibera- tive congress, begin to take up and grapple with. But, friends, some things are beginning to be settled; and I will now mention one or two of these. First, the order of importance of the various branches of this subject in education. It is this: First, training of the ear (sense); second, training of the voice (muscle); and third, training of the thought (brain). After this matter, folIa^s sight-singing, then theory and harmony, and, last of ^^h real instrumental study; for my topic certainly covers instru- mental education. Now, teachers mark the order. Ear, first ; voice, second ; thought, *Wrd; and ^J^pr these, sight-singing, theory and harmony. 'What!" yoD sajr, ^epartment.] MUSIC IN THE NEW EDUCATION. 933 This, then, is music in the new education. This, then, is music in its natural growth and order. And, I repeat it: that this order has been settled upon by the leading educators, and, following it out, let us take up the first subject — ear training — and see what is settled in that branch. The babe in its cradle is, practically, an idiot, and he runs great risk of remaining so, for the only communication between his embryo soul and the outer world which is to educate or unfold it are his five senses. Deprive him of these and an idiot he will remain. Deprive iiim of any one, and he will forever be so much less the image of his <^reator. Do not take my word for it. Test it for yourselves. Study i^ature. Give the baby a plaything. Instantly he applies every test of his senses. He feel it, tastes it, turns it round and round to get acquainted with it by sight tests, using the nose at the same time nor ever fails to pound the fioor with it or shake it to get audible ef- fects. Teachers, through these five senses — keys to the avenues of J'our approach — you reach, inform, educate and fashion your pupil. His "life to be" is in your hand, as wax. Can you afford, then, to neglect one of your five chances to succeed? Betain this thought in mind a moment while I go back and repeat something from a former lecture. It is a curious fact that every dis- tinctive age in the history of mankind has been characterized by the special cnltivation of some one sense over the others. Those of the remote ps^st were touch and taste, and riotous living was the harvest. Latoi- on we find men running wild over the sense of smell, until the spioes of the East were caravaned into all the world. To-day, the sens^ of sight is the shrine at which we worship, and beauty of form anosed of artistic form and color, it must be beautiful. We easily tolerate the wretched, whining, cackling voice of our Anglo- Saxon, so he receive us in a drawing-room which delights the eye. Fifty i>€ij>erhangers and decorative painters will thrive in a com- munity -v^rhere a piano tuner would be starved out. The gaudy pageant: along our street to please the eye vnll attract a throng in the rain, "but a poor traveling minstrel trying to please our dull ears is kickLOfi from the curb and no one cares. When we say a thing is beautif vil, we mean to the eye. We borrow every useful adjective to descr-i-be the pleasure we derive from seeing. That of hearing is too sligti-t ; we need no modifiers. I rei^eat it. Sight is the shrine at which we worship to-day, but there is one sense left for the future, which, when fully realized and developoo not our pupils see too much, think too little, and remember almost nothing? Are we teactiers not actually writing on the sand, instead of pre- paring the mind of the pupil as a piece of parchment, tough and re- tentive, by such exercises as require thought processes and memory — ^by music, that: invisible reality, which can be grasped only by the ♦mind and whose retention is so permanent? Surely, this is the way to better things, had we but better cultivated the sense of hear- ing. Almost every chronic case of pupil's headache I ever knew was traceable to an overstrained eye nerve or weak ear nerve. What is to cultivate this neglected sense? Again, music. But it is a source of growing wonderment, that, in the face of the fact that music is rapidly spreading, entering home, school and public place, it is not better understood. I say this, not in the way of fault- finding, having discovered that musicians themselves suffer this lack almost as severely as the masses; L e?., they have never solved the mental enigma, music. They look very wise when they compare the terms, "classical music" and "trash." They try very hard to ^njoy a concert by an acknowledged artist. They practice for hours at any difficult composition, cheered by the fact that in its title page is an unpronounceable German name, eleven letters long. 'Hot many years ago this sort of thing might have been tolerated, but to-day the capacities and peculiar adaptabilities of music for ^very condition of the human family have been established. We must therefore, hasten to rescue the intellectually blind and deaf lovers of 'Qusic, till they can, at least, "see men as trees walking," and hear voices, though they fail to interpret what is expressed. And this is a teacher's work. In sajying that music is a mental enigma, I do not mean that the object of this paper is to expound it Dig its precious ore for your- seJves. There is a golden key to all mental listening. If you were enjoying- a. reading from some classic author, you would not remain "ttepj^ * incapable of telling that author's name, his subject, his plot OP stylo. Could you not tell blank verse from prose, and whether thelang.^^g^ was well chosen or not. But such is the contemptible Jaziness of listeners to music, that they never put forth sufficient ef- lopt to lo^^n ^^ follow the composition. They stare at the performer ^'•His instrument; listening with their eyes; they look with their ^ars, or- xvith their mouths; they think with their nerves, and feel 936 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOC a sort of a drowsy joy which they flatter th the well performed composition on the 'well i One of the greatest needs in the art cul tion in the art of listening to good music, many persons, who would not admit that tl if the vision were so fleeting as to leave tl mass of colors more or less harmoniously co to permit a musical composition to pass be sort of audible phantasmagoria, void of ev formless, purposeless something, which occa ing impression upon the ear. Let me den< prevalent habit of indulging in the art of inco: listlessness, laziness! But enough; another There has been a prevalent idea that, if a chi] to sing the whole scale, or fails to sound t voice is at fault Almost never! Only in a U a non-singer, under twelve years, whose voic< trouble. The exceptions are usually heredi throat or bronchial affections. The rule is, tl is dull, is imperfect or undeveloped. And w part of the scale and then goes monotone, the partially developed. These difliculties of the little folks are fi parallel to so-called "color-blindness," and ar tional exercise of the organ of sense found veloped. Of course (carrying the parallel a 1: seated color blindness is often incurable, so wanting ear. But in nearly every case, with the ear, trouble disappears in a year or two. This is these cases are dealt with in the public schoc is daily compelled to listen to correct tones, an yields. Now, assuming that most of the prevalent ] untrained ears, notice these figures: By rough per cent of our present adult population can cot In the best school, ninety-four per cent. This the trouble, and that, taken early, and kept at singing, except in the few cases in a hundred really affected, will disappear. , Further, it is interesting to note the progre* lected ears, and their slowly yielding, in spite were. Again note these figures: In the first two ^ eight per cent to fifteen per cent of the little foil 1>^ ___^^^ent.J MUSIC IN THE NEW EDUCATION, 937 t^^ correctly some of the tones of the diatonic scale. At the end of th ^ months from twenty-five to forty per cent wUl be able to sing |.^ ^ntire scale correctly; at the end of the year's work, seventy eighty per cent; and this number is increased until ninety to ^Uety.five per cent is reached in the fourth or fifth grade. So surely ill this compelling the ear to listen to tuneful music accurately ^iu it, that, in one instance which came under my observation, a V^^^ whose vocal chords had always been in health, yet who went ^J*ough into the high school grade unable to sing the scale, in two ^^P^t year3 mastered it completely, and is to-day a fair bass singer; *ils triumph over a naturally dull ear on his part being the result 5^ persistent mental effort, after he was old enough to understand *^^ rationale of his case, as now explained to you. There are, also, one or two settled points regarding the training ^^ the voice, and I should like to go on and name them. But as I ^^ti already on record on this point, let me pass it with a word of ^I>peal only. First— Keep voice training in its proper class, which is with I>-i^y8ical culture. It is but muscle training, guided, first, by a trained ear, the tone sense; and second, by the mind or will, which Sives volition to muscles. Second — Remember ho healthy child has a real chest tone before T^^ eighth year, and usually not before the tenth or twelfth. Train «nn first in the F scale; never lower. The five tones, F to C, should ^ the first learned. Hence, never pitch any work on middle C. f^eep out of these chest pitches. They had better sing the scales *** -A., or B-flat, than any scale lower than E. ^ Third — Teach both right and wrong tone production from the i-aJI ^^^^^ children know good tone, then they will choose it natu- p as they do the beautiful in everything else. me "^f ®®^°^ *^^"s subject, the matter of thought training in music, X w^ M ^^ ^® ^hird, opens up a wide field. Let me only say what Jo^fv' f^^^ ^^ speaking? of any of the subjects I have placed as fol- hut^^^fh ^^^ discussed, that I believe along all these lines we are g^j, .^'^ /^^ *^^^shold. Our star of promise has but just risen on the ject of education in any of its great departments. clim ^^ "^^^ the self -satisfied teacher who deems our work near its pro ^ "^ ^^ ^tire the teacher is in the vanguard of all human est blf^f ' ^^'^opker with Christ himself, yet not with the great- like fbfr ^^^- We are in the throes of a transition period, not un- ^ew y^r/^^ ^h^ stage coach to steam. Our present efforts but a preB8\fn^^^^^ llll seem to have been clumsy, like the old hand- ^orld/p^f^^^it or the qnaint De Witt Clinton engine at the 938 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSO • Be wai'ned, teachers I The eyes of all ar ; day, by whatever name he may be called. Sc I of God, in him lies the hope of the race. J I have said that nothing written or spol • unless issuing from the living experience o repeat it now, and add to these thoughts a I actual experience. Yet, let me add, that m \ ence can become to you valuable, save by the I ing it out by and for yourself, and thus mal i For on paper or in the mind it is still dead, < I Do not receive my assertions point blank I your consideration. They will stir you into selves. If I have treated extraneous subjects is any subject to which applied pedagogy \ ing teacher, so he will treat his work psycho things minutely, and you will see their rela wards, all others. To conclude. If a child's faculties are no ure to himself there is something wrong in this arraign our present school system, which of anything but pleasure to a child, and is true one? How to make knowledge desired is the ] every teacher, and it is one that FroebePs But original investigators in education were so enthusiastic, as now. The morning of i The eastern sky is rose-tinted with promis a blaze of splendor upon an educational ' though often interrupted, can never be stoppc As I look along the vista of our future — oi; — which is rolling sunward like the earth itsel of an ocean, whose peaceful bosom seems but my heart bounds with unshaken faith in the state, and responds to the call of Webster on \ vance, then, ye future generations! We won! in your long succession, to fill the places wh taste the blessings of existence which we are welcome to the healthful skies and verdant i to the grain laden prairies of the W^est, to tl South; to our endless chain of emerald hills of inland seas. W^e greet your accession to of ours. We welcome yon to the blessings of religious liberty. We welcome you to the tri the delights of learning and art. We welcome ent sweets of domestic life. To the happine I>epartment. ] vqcaL MUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 939 ratio^^V^''^"* ^^ welcome you to the immeasurable blessings of a evei-lasti^^^^^^'^^^i *^^ immortal hope of Christianity, and the light of niSCUSSIOK obie^^ ^* ^' ^^^"^v^^T, Piqua, Ohio, who opened the discussion of this paper. the * Kelsey's classification, especially with reference to the training of dev T*^' ^^^^ ^^^ ^^*^^' ^'^^ ^^^^ *^** ^® ™*^^ follows the ear in the order of hnt^t^^^^^' ^® ^^"^^ ^^* command the monotone vocalist to desist from singing. r^^JZ'^V'^^^^^ '^'^' ^^ ^*^ °<^* *>®"«^e ^at a child is an idiot, but an undeveloped P08sil>ility, and argued for the study of the child nature. ^^" ^' ^' ^^°^^^' St. Paul, Minn., thought that too many difficulties were ^ esente|d at the same time. Develop sight-singing as early as possible. Train the t^>^«'* ^^ .' above all things, train the child to think in music in the same manner '^nat lie IS trained to think in language. j^^ Mr. J. c. Bbokkhoven. College of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio, entered a plea i^*"^ *^achers, both regular and special, who were fully eauiPPed for intelligent lastruotion in music. ^^j.j.^^- ^' ^' ^ii-T,. Salem, Mass., called attention to the fact, that increasing and* H i^'^ *^^ ^^^^ ^^ public school children in the study of music is very marked, ? *^** ™*^y publishing houses were doing much towards the attainment Of real results in this regard. ^^ tl^^i ^^ ^' ^^^^^^^^^ Paterson, N. J., stated that mucli of failure was due le lack of qualification on the part of musicians themselves. He would have musicians know vastly more than music alone. ' Ms. Kelsky closed the discussion by saying that training in the study of music eant the comprehension of the training of all the mental powers. ^^ ^^ ^UCH TIME DEVOTED TO INSTBVCTION IN VOCAL ^TUSr/^ ZJT Qjjj^ PUBLIC 8CH00LS AS ITS IMPOBTANCE IJ^JHARDS f ^^^XmmCK. E3. CHAPMAN. qaMBR^^^^^^'^* ^^^^ T..iT^^^V^^ ^^tional Educatio^ Association met at Saratoga in -mIIj^^^^^^^ interesting an^ convincing paper was read on T» ^hia ,> ^^BS of Mental Caltiire." ifL ^^^^. answers to fon J: nuestions on the importance of .::^r^.ZS^^- '^ ^^^ P-Wi^^Vc^ls, which had been previously 2 Xr?^^i^dent«, commirtej^en and directors of music were ^^ese authorities agreed as to the importance of the 940 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSC study of music in the public schools. I was **I believe no study can claim superiority o^ mental activity, and, if the circumstances teaching are perfect, its influence is at ona studies, stimulating the mental faculties to i We hear a great deal nowadays about the in our public schools, and that they are consta ber. I often wonder how many of us take fact, that all studies are more or less oo-relait< proper place and time helps the other. How in the old Pestalozzian tripod-form, number ar that as yet the "three R's" claim pre-enrinen much time and careful attention. But they d side of child life, and therefore only affect h neoted with general business transactions, the study of the divine art of music a potent it is not of so much prominence in business, ] enters into and helps to ennoble and soften a d men to live rightly, deal justly, and, in conseqii demands attention. I have therefore taken for my text, if you as much time devoted to instruction in voca schools as its importance demands? As I have already said, the author of the ferred emphasized the importance of music i culture, and brought to bear upon the subject of our best instructors. It therefore remains things regarding the importance of the study, a as to the time used in instruction. Public school education is chiefly directed a We should, therefore, realize the necessity of ] what he really is. That music forms a potent factor in educati and in this only accept the ideas and beliefs of 1 Aristotle, Quintilian, and other great philosophi altogether indorse their beliefs? No, because m the importance of music in education as they d: no, because we do not give one-eighth the time t their custom to do. Are ^'e not, then, behind th such thorough believers in the value of music in not only sanctioned it as a study, but did e\ eryl ward it by their personal attention. It is wel what they have written on the subject, and th they brought to bear in its favor. department.] VOCAL MUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 941 "We find faiilt, I have said, becsause of the many studies we are , obliged to tea^h. I believe we can base them all on Pestalozzi's "tripod;" and, to illu-sitrate, I have in mind a city where they have recently introduced into the primary grades the studies of botany and calisthenics. The latter had been taught before, but not by a 8i>eeial system under particular supervision. The teachers objected and said, as many others say: *^We have more than we can teach now; where are we to find time for these new studies?" The director of music of that city went into a primary school one afternoon, and found there the directors of drawing, botany and calisthenics, all, ready, as he, to give their lesoons. What did he do? Not asking any questions or waiting for the others to begin, he went about his work, took his usual time, had a most delightful lesson, and left the building. A short time afterwards he met these directors when one re- marked: 'What did you do to the children when you were in the primary school the other day? We had a charming lesson." Is it necessary for me to tell you what he did? Not at all. It was evi- dent what music had done. The children saw more clearly the tiny roots, the delicately shaped leaf, the faintly expanding bud«; went through their gymnastics more rhythmically and in better time; their lines were straighter and curves more accurate in drawing, because the perceirtive faculties had been stimulated by music, and only fifteen minutes had been taught— shaU I say music alone? No, no; the music lesson was plainly visible in every lesson taught in the building that afternoon. Again: I attended a masters' club dinner not long ago. The studies of geometry and physics had been introduced into their schools, and were the subjects about which we were expected to talk after dinner. As I sat there listening to their pros and cons, I thought: "Now, gentlemen, you may think you have a subject with which my special hobby has no connection." I was called upon to speak, and said: "I believe, gentlemen, that geometry and physics are both connected with music. Geometry — the staff, lines, spaces, bars, double-bars, stems and flags of notes, all kinds of angles. Physics — sound, wave upon wave, now a crest, now a trough :" Thick rushing like an ocean vast Of bisons, the fair prairie shaking, The notes rush heavily and fast As surfs on-plunging, while the last Draws seaward from its foamy breaking. Do you ever think of the mental process connected with reading a piece of music at sight? Think of the rapidity with which the mind must work. Tbe note, its sound, time, accent, words, expres- sion, movement etc. ; tell me, can mathematics, with all its boasted glory, claim superiority over music? 942 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOC We cannot divorce music from mental pro^ * those abroad in our land who seem to think v body can sing in his own way, without givin reading, writing and arithmetic require seri< I have in mind a representative to the legislati his opinion on this subject, said: "The ^three for me, and I have represented my district in t\ years now, and I did not have to learn music, well enough alone? I cannot see any benefit i I told him the story of the man who, after givi towards buying a town hearse, complained bi had never received one cent's worth of benefit I believe music enters into and does more foj are being taught in our schools than we are av pares the way for othei- studies, but, as I have i mind to greater efforts, and does for the child can do. It reaches that something within him of the mind and muscle, through mathematics could not touch, be they trained upon superio universally accepted as the best methods of i best gymnasium tactics that ever existed. It i good, and if we can reach the abode of that i light the best that is in man, it is like the blac having been polished by the same elements of ^ becomes the brilliant gem visible alike in light ; **The snowflake," says Professor Tyndall, "lei so intimately related are all the subjects we teji I will only mention mu»ic as a disciplinary ag body here has seen its practical working in that is also a physical exercise of wonderful power serious work of the school-room. 'T])own, do^ reaching influences of the schools," says Mr. "deeper than what he does or thinks, at the vei the boy, are latent tendencies for good and for o himself is ignorant. This music alone will reac of love, heaven-bom, God-given ! It searches ou the soul, awakening them to response; stimulatii of growth that leaves no place for weeds." And now that I have spoken of music as studies, let us consider it as a distinct branch ol We can force a child to recite tables, and exei and writing, but we cannot force him to sing. fear of punishment, but won't sing; he must b( respect — use of the voice — ^that the study of musi from the study of other branches. I>©partment.] VOCAL MUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 943 The human voice! Wliat an instrument! The greatest, and yet the most fragile. All others if injured can be repaired. Can we not recall cases where a beautiful voice has been ruined, and years spent in trying to restore it, but without success? . How much depends upon the human voice. We cannot possibly estimate the value of its quality in encouraging, stimulating, sym- pathizing, warning, entreating, praising; everything depends upon the quality of tone. How often misunderstandings arise simply on account of the tone of voice. How much real pain can be caused by it- I tell you there is more stubbornness caused in our schools be- cause of the improper use of the voice than in any other way. And jety by its proper use, the over-wrought are relaxed, while the de- pressed are lifted up; to each equilibrium is restored; and, in the g^^neral response, fraternity is develox)ed. It is said we waste time in singing. A great German writer said: "The secret of success in education is to waste time wisely." Happy is he who knows how to do this. Ck)unt the minutes — ^aye, the hours — which have been wasted by miserly withholding time from the study of music in every school curriculum. Horace Mann said: "When your children are restless, uneasy and tired, do not scold them ; sing to them." And I add, have them sing to you. To scold, would be to use the voice to the worst advan- tage and be a loss of time. To sing would be a blessing in disguise, and a gain of time. • How careful we should be in the use of our speaking voice as well as in singing. Remember, a gentle voice is a power greater than the forces of nations. When we read and recite tables in mathematics, little, if any, attention is given to the use of the voice. Class recitations are usually left to the caprices of the children, in so far as the voice is concerned. In this connection, a director of music in one of our large cities was telUng me that, passing a school building one day, he heard a class reciting in a sing-song style. He stopped and listened. They were spelling; the teacher gave out the word "Thunder," and their way of spelling was so unique he wrote it out. This is the way they spelled : Teacher: "Thunder." Children : T H U N Thun- DEB der, Thunder. This, in the key of E minor, as you perceive, will, no doubt, recall to your minds the hymn-readers of long ago. 944 NATIONAL EDVCATIONA.I. ^& It is not generally expected, however, t any, time to the cultivation of voices as ^ them in the public schools; however mueli we would like. Only a word of warning hei there. If we could always have musical exj class-room teachers we could do much bettei but we could hardly expect much of them, were musicians, the time for music is so lim This matter of the use of the voice, too, i reading. How much better readers we have how much depends on the tone; yet the diff and singing must be kept in mind conBtantJ '* Where speech ends, song begins." You criticism, after listening to a class read : ^'I he, "you sing poorly. If you are reading, wh would he have said, to the class in spelling' of Realizing, as I hope we all do, the value o: our public schools, its co-relation to the other seeing the advantages to be derived from the ] in recitations, conversation and general teachi time devoted to its teaching in some of our whether or not this important branch of educa as much time is given to it as its importance d I will begin with Cambridge, Mass., my own schools, ten minutes each session is devoted to mar schools, fifty minutes a week. In the h minutes a week. In the primary and grammar time is not considered, and the regular class-r ment his work by devoting the regular time fi In the high schools this is not so, and no time teaching outside of the forty-five minutes durin, is present, once a week. We have a carefulJ study, which includes as much as it is possible allowed to music, but the scope of the work g insignificant. In Boston, sixty minutes a we^k is devoted director's time is taken out of that, he usually gi\ minutes to the work, accoixiing to grade, when he high schools they give no time to music outside < director. In Springfield, Worcester, Salem, Ljnn, large cities in Massachusetts, the rule is practi< there is any difference, less time is devoted to u named. In Providence and Newport, R. L, New Bridgeport, Danbury, and other large cities in Cor Department.] VOCAL MUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 945 rule holds. In New York City "ten minutes each day" is the rule in all primary and grammar schools. I might go on and enumerate cities throughout the country, and, where music is taught at all, the rule seems to be, on an average, not over sixty minutes a week, and, in nearly every instance, the director's time is taken from that. America is setting out upon a most stupendous scale to educate her heterogeneous population gratuitously; everybody has an equal chance. Englanddoesnotoffertoall, free, the same advantages as does the United States, but her belief in the importance of music in the school we know she emphasizes; and, w^hile her sdhedule is not systematic — that is, she does not stipulate just how much time shall be devoted to any particular study— yet every grade has a standard, and every teacher knows what thlat standard is, and is examined semi-annually in music, as well as in everything else. Indeed, her continuance as a teacher depends upon this. After reaching the required standard in all branches, she may devote as much time to any one as she chooses. I am told, that, in a large majority of cases, this extra time is devoted to music. Greece has planned for free education to all, even through the university, though her basis seems questionable and ^otisticaJ. France has yet a small fee for education, and Germany ^how we strive to imitate her in many educational directions! I sometimes think in everything but music; and yet, in each of these named, more than twice the tim« is devoted to this study that is given to it in the United States. Switzerland and Austria, too — ^but I would that we might adopt their reasoning in regard to music in our public schools. Then we would devote two hours a week to our music, where we now give less than one hour; and in our normal schools — as, in the case of each of the above-named nations — we would devote six hours a week to the study and teaching of music. In Paris, they give two hours a week to the study of music in school, with "occasional singing every day." In comparison with these facts it is hardly worth while to think we devote any time to music study in our schools. And now, on the eve of our launching out on such a stux)endous scale of education, with all the splendid advantages of our own great country, let us think twice before we assign the teaching of the divide art to any in- ferior position. Somebody has said that the true American is yet to be made; that, as each one comes to our shores, and looks into the great camera of our world, the plate is moved and moved and moved, as each takes 946 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASi Ms look, SO that, out of many, is formed c face is to be the typical American- We must also bring them to believe tha that our form of government is the best ; oi the best But how can we do this if the s to have you regarcl as extnemely'imiK>rtant, learned so to regai'd, is neglected ; and by v sary time for teaching, the good intended i is a spirit of good in everyone, and as we try influx to our country homogeneous with our mu^ be cultivated as well. By what better way or by what better good be reached than by devoting time lil teaching the greatest and most ennobling better men and women, and by which our ^ improved? Are we not doing a work which, by lack of time from giving to it the attent if time is allowed us, eventually be a poteni nation — which indeed, under God, our ance be — the greatest and best nation of the uni Charles Lamb wrote: "I am sentimentaJ but organically incapable of a tune;" but , heart never melted at the *'concord of swoe libel. It matters not to me what is said abc There never was an ear so heavy but that th< in some measure by the wonderful charm of i We are constantly looking for improven work. We search and compare, and quote having superior educational advantages. W< and not in that, way of doing things; and ye\ for the best, we do not act as though we \ Qod^s own provision for ennobling and ele^i anything more than of minor importance, material to help in teaching music, we appi charge cautiously, and with fear and trembli the best evidence that we believe music secon else. Here is a chance for improvement. L( more closely with our noble profession, and bo He who would be a great teacher of any \ self in the way of far-reaching investigation, he may choose he should be wise enough to* se tunity for reform, and so give it to the worh all humbug. We do not any of us mean to t Department ] PUPILS' DEFECTIVE HEABINQ. 947 he easily, and that, too, by underrating our profession through the laxity with which we hold our opinions upon the subject Therefore, hold high to the public mind the standard, by giving to it a special sanction ourselves, using our peculiar weapon for the greatest good to the greatest number; this will discourage quackery, and the public will soon see that we builded better than they knew. This change will become contagious, until it shall reach from north to south, from east to we^t over this broad land of ours, and what now suffers from the want of time for proper development, will, by the rounded-out measure of its superiority, bring all enemies to its feet. DI80U88I0K Mb E. W. Newtox, New York, opened the discussion. It should be remem- bered that the condition of the pupil with reference to music is not the same as to other branches. Superrision of music ought to be in the hands of well-rounded scholars. Music should be taught as a regular branch. Develop ability to teach; then teach music. Educate public sentiment, and recognition wiU come. The speaker advocated legislation, if other means did not reach the desired result Mb. Congdon, St. Paul, Minn., urged the teachers to be persistent in their efforts to promulgate the study of music as an essential part of the daily work of the school-room. Mb Young, Supervisor of Music, Salt Lake City, stated that music in his city received due recognition, and that it was put upon the same plane with the other branches of the curriculum. Mr Bill, suggested the adoption of some resolution to go before the authorities of the Association. Mr. N". Coe Stbwabt. Cleveland, Ohio, closed the discussion with some helpful remarks, concerning what might be done towards the recognition of the Depart- ment of Music, if the right meaui» were adopted to that end. PUPILS' DEFECTIVE HEARING. BY EPHRAIM OUTTEm, M. D., NEW YORK OITY. Since four-fifths of the instruction of primary pupils is oral, their hearing is important. In a late report to the Paris Society of Pro- fessional Hygiene and Public Medicine, Dr. Gelle insists that it is not without surprise that one ascertains the part which defective hearing plays in thfi production of faults in school work; that pupils with defective hearing show inferiority, not in play nor at meaJs, but 948 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL AS in the class; that an oral pupil should 1 teacher in the usual place, and not vary ai of hearing; that vowels axe prolonged so consonants are short sounds, hard to hea associated consonants and vowels alone gi that if the consonants are not heard thew the speech becomes noise to the addressed apparently inattentive, does not progress prehend, lagging and possibly obstinately is best to see if that pupil has defective h< demnation and discipline. It is sad enou to be punished because of deafness. Our school system takes it for granted good ears, and all pedagogic arrangements for defective ears. PRBVALHNOB OF DUFBCTIVB Sexton of New York reports 13.33 per and Worrell of Terre Haute, Ind., 25.49 per with defective hearing. (Letter of Prof. G V. Dix, Brooklyn, N. Y., reports June 14 hearing in her school. Ool. H. B. Spragi with a case of defective hearing among hi For France, Dr. Gelle reports twenty to tv^ children, seven or eight years of age, whc their school work. He adso avers that de influence of children's diseases, particula that from birth to maturity there is a sloi that those who are partially deaf at birtl age of twenty. This is not surprising, wh development of the. ear in its bony shell age of five or six years, and the bony sj \'elopment until twenty-five years of ag< Stuttgart reports thirty per cent of defec children. A FBW WORDS ABOUT 1 1. The external ear includes the o condenser shell or auricle, along with the brane of the drum or tympanum. 2. The middle ear includes the memb hammer, the anvil and the stirrup bon< vibrations to the internal ear; also the * eating with the throat or upper pharynx, ear fills with air. The tubes usually op quadrant of the posterior na»al openings. Department] PUPILS' DEFECTIVE EEABINQ, 949 3. The internal ear or labyrinth comprises the vestibule, the cochlea, the three semi-circular canals, otoliths or ear-stones and auditor^' hairs. The auditory nerve divides into two branches, of 'Hrhich one goes to the three semi-circular canal's and the other divides into filaments distributed to the base of the cochlea. The vestibule contains- fluid media and stony bodies. For a minute description see the monograms recently issued.* The wonderfully delicate mechan- ism of the ear should be impressed on teachers, in order to give them a realizing sense of the important organs they deal with. RELATIONS OP THE THREE PARTS OP TBM BAR TO PEDAGOGY. 1. External Ear. — ^The cause of partial deafness here is found to ^e, not so much in the auricle, whose deformity or absence would appear at once, as in the' auditory canal. Anything which diminishes its caliber may diminish hearing by obstructing the sound waves of tbe air. The walls may be thickened by the results of colds and in- flammations; by fibrinous deposits due to food improper in its phys- ical nature, which food, feruLenting in the alimentary canal, produces gases and partially paralyzes thus, not only near, but distant parts; by accumulations of wax; by bony growths; by the introduction of foreign bodies, as beans, slate pencils, insects, etc. In other words, the air must have free access to the exquisitely delicate mechanism of the middle ear in order to have good hearing. These needs are based on scientific} grounds, but it is enoug-h for our purpose to point out that an incapacity of conduction of the external ear interferes with pedagogy. 2. Middle Ear. — The membrane of the drum may be thickened or inflamed. It is a serious misfortune to lose the curious chain of mobile bones; still, though this loss may not be followed by complete deafness, it will be partial. But the more or less complete occlusion of the eustachian tube® is probably the most frequent cause of partial deafness and needs more explanation. Under the rhinoscope the openings of the eustachian tubes in the pharynx (of course, the middle ear ends are invisible) are seen as oval openings about one- third of an inch in diameter, the large part of the oval being upwards. The edges are rolled inwards like the auricles. Inside they are of an ash color. I have seen the eustachian opening to be at the middle of and also at the lo'wer quadrant of the nares ; hence, I have thought that the rules for catheterizing the eustachian tubes which leave out rhino- ^^oopy were liable to error, as they take it for granted they always ^^Zh^ *'*ie same point of the pharynx, ^v ^^^tachian tubes are cartilaginous at the outer end and bony otlier, analogous to the auditory canal and nares. uals." ^**^'ogy of the Senses" McKendrick J. Snodgrass, "Unlyersity Extension Man- 950 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A The office of these tubes is to convey a principle of the holes in military drums, the eustachian tubes are open, other thini will be good and no liability to rupture panum, as it is said the skin of a militai^ the holes provided. This doctrine is prac Theoretically, the following professionfl (1) That the eustachian tubes are close (2) Open during swallowing. (3) That they are open all the time. 3. Internal Eiir or Jjobyrinth. — ^By its the petrous part of the temporal bone, tli comes next to the teeth, it is to be inferrc of the vestibule, semi-circular canals, audit in complete deafness. A pupil with lesioi be a deaf mute so clearly as not to come in for a parent or guardian who would send s It would not do to class a diseased interna but it would be safe to consider them pn made great advances, but it does not hand fully. It is not to be wondered at that a n of precision, as the internal ear must be 42,000 to the second, if diseased, is hard 1 think of its complexity, not yet wholly e: ranks as one of the most remarkable orjj deserves more care than it receives, and w its subjects objects of divine compassion s fested, when he made the deaf to hear, a dence of his divinity. If we would follow the deaf. Resumef, — Partial deafness is caused (: of the eustachian tubes; (2) by the obstruct (3) more rarely by the diseases of the intei SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS AS TO THl First — Place the scholars near the teac hear by proximity. Second — Place them with a good, bripjh see what the hearers are doing. By look with the rest. It is astonishing what ke acquire when put on the right track. Allowances should be made for their statement as to their scholarship. Those who are incapable of manageme be sent to the special schools of training. Department] PUPILS* DEFECTIVE HEARING. 951 Third — Tests need not be applied to all the pupils, but, before condemnation and punishment, to those who appear indifferent, un- interested, stupid, vacant, possibly obstinate and rebellious. Such should be tested by the blackboard method alone, since the deaf are apt to be suspicious and distrustful. The pupil should face the black- board. The teacher should stand behind and dictate some familiar phrase or word from a distance half the usual one. If this is twenty- four feet distant, the station should be twelve feet distant. If the pupils do not comprehend, take a position of six feet or three feet. Such pupils will be sure to have defective hearing, and if retained should be placed close to the teacher. Ears often will vary. One ear may hear twice as far as the other according to the amount of trouble in each ear. In all cases of defective hearing the parent or guardian should be notified to have the pupil examined by an aurist, who should re- lieve the difficulty or certify to it, as is done with vaccination. Fourth — The teacher may test the amount of deafness, and, in addition to the blackboard method, add the watch or lock method. A watch is ever an attractive object to a child. The teacher could show a watch to the child and touch it to his own ear. It is sup- posed that the teachers have ascertained the distance this watch or clock, run with a spring, can be heard to tick from their own ears. This will be a gauge unless they are themselves hard of hearing. After touching the watch or clock to the child^s ear, it can then be withdrawn slowly to the vanishing point. Comparing this distance with that previously obtained on the teachers or» on sound-eared chil- dren, an estimate will be found which will be satisfactory to the aural expert. Both ears should be tested. Fifth — ^If ,it is supposed that there is wax or some foreign body in the auditory canal, put the pupil so that the sunlight (best when its rays are horizontal) falls directly on to the ear shell; the obstruct- ing bodies if present will be generally manifest, as their color differs from the walls of the canal, which also may he straightened by elevating the top of the auricle with the left thumb and fore-finger. The lobe directly in front of the canal opening may be pulled forward by the right thumb or better with the loop of a hairpin bent towards the pin at an angle of forty-five degrees. This de\ice called "Cutter's ear speculum" has been found prefer- able to the cylindrical ear specula, as these take up room in a space of small caliber. Should wax be found, soak it over night with some bland oil and syringe with lukewarm water the next day. Same procedure for foreign bodies and insects. Oil will kill insects in the ear. Should tbe obstruction not come away with syringing in a half pint of Water, soak again for a new trial the next day. ^^^^ ^^®^ be taken not to injure the ear by rough usage. 952 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A. Fifth — ^If there is perforation of the ir pected, let the child hold the breath, clos If the eustachian tubes are pervious tli whistle through the puncture. This procc ness of eustachian tubes and make a cracl pressure of the air against the sound m proper examination of the middle ear inc difficult to make and too much neglected, eustachian opening, there may be oblit roughened condition of the post-nasal spa tumors, catarrhal congestions, infiltration of the mucous tissues, to name no more ; \\ teacher's reach, save by diet Sixth — Believing in the idea that deaf feeding, I feel it a duty to suggest to to^ mOre for partial deafness by diet than in j from experience that a diet of two-thirds of food by bulk from the vegetable kingd< and if their ears are diseased during suck best on this diet. The excess of starch and sugar in the ( tinned produces gases in the alimentary c lyze, not only the parts near, but also tl throat and ear for example. This def ectiv of colds, catarrhs, thickening of fibrous a excessive secretions from the ain passages, cold, not so much from drafts of air, as shown by those on the diet suggested not 1 exposed to drafts. Teachers might infoi palatable food is not always nutritious; t hydrates do not have elements enough t( the connective fibrous tissues; that in e cause the fibrous or glue tissues to increas astrous thickenings which in time produc White fiour is a food not to be depended oi normal proportion between the starch an( much reduced in order to make bread pleasj wheat fiour, w^hole wheat, cracked or rolle common fiour, and when it is sixty cents a the cheapest vegetable food ; that wheat, n diet for partially deaf chOdren; that Bost that the best foods for human beings are for animal food, and wheat, rye, rice, hon lemons, salt, pepper, mustard and fruits a good water and air are essential, and that sparingly used for children. epM-tment.: BELPFUL THINOS W MUSIC STUDY. 953 >SrOilC£? HELPFUL THINGS CONCERNING MUSIC IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. BT N. COB STHWABT, CLEVELAND, OHIO. [An abstbact.] line'^J?^ ^Z^^^ confines the discussion of the hour to no particular anc^ «+'ir- branch in music study. It does specify "helpful tilings," ^itio J^ ?^^ "^""^^ helpful" are clearly implied when the present cou- th ia^^"^ f ^'"^ ®*"^-^' throughout the country, the importance of far- r^^ ^^' l^ *^^ education of children and young people, and the "•T^tf ^ 1 ^^ influence of this national gathering are considered. y^l.^ legislators who make school laws; the boards of education, into ' ^^ ^^ "^^^'^ ^^^y exercise their prerogatives; the school super- ^ ^ ^«ients and other executive officials who would do the best things, wh • ^liom, after all, so much discretion is conceded; the teacher ac-t? ^^ V ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ through witli her forty to sixty XI ve boys and girls who must be directed rig-htly; the boys and Ibv ^'l ^^^. ^^^ character of whose school training depends very all^^"^ * ^^^ success, true happiness and real -usefulness in life; p^^,:^^®^ "^^^ help. The strongest ones in these several classes ^iize most that they need help. With this sense of need resting ^-^ ^^® *^ nnderstand are honestly made, we enter upon the discus- T> ^^^hout further elaboration you will agree, that, before we can prom niost from the discussion of any feature of music in the public scm>oIs, we must come to some similar ideals. Tlien the terms used will convey to all a like meaning. ±iave you in mind, as an ideal, a family in which every member ^'^^^ whose solo and part singing of songs have meaning, sense an cl heart in them? Have you in your mind as an ideal a neigh- oorltood gathering, and a church in which everybody joins heartily in tJie worshlpfuj and religious musical service? Do you have in mind, when singing in school is mentioned, a school in which eacn pupil, With earnest countenance and hearty will, joins in the soji^ as tAough he loved it, and ^vas only heartily expressing his own sennmeuts? :sdoreover, when ^'understanding music" and "singing new music at ^ighV' are mentiox^ed do you think of all children and /1/n/L ^^^^ years and over xvbo have had thorough public school /f rS^l^^^'"^ ^^^^ *^ ^'°^ ^^ readily at sight a melody or a part linkoffh^^ ^^^y ^^"^^ '•^aa a story in the newspaper? Do you Sil?^ -^ ^--^ ab'e to ^nVe any music that comes into their ^; ^^t they liear as r-c-^dily «» ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^"*^ ^ 954 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL j. Bomething dictated? Do you think of ; intelligently the merits of a piece of mu tion, the strong and the weak points, th the several parts and of a whole, as readi president's proclamation, an account of novel? Do you think of this music of being the work of the best composers, a ard comparable with the best literature c these people as using their voices corre< oughly musical tones, and of having a i singing to which it is delightful to liste training which will produce all this give quickens the mental faculties as nothing development in every way as will the m Do you think of the proper study of so ically patriotism and all noble virtues i Now, it may seem to you that thes< possible to attain in real life. But ther coloring about them. There are glimpse country, which show, that, under condi sible to obtain, such ideals can certainly music study cannot do everything ne< good morals and a generous education, other agency is as potent in these dit other which aids all other studies in more to the enjoyment and good gov< is so helpful in all the occupations, ei tions and other conditions where right tions are concerned. Hence, I say, stud functions of music than you have at pr see through a glass darkly," and that t which can and must be reached, and w of every educator to strive to attain. To bring the matter directly home, the beginning of the year, in school wii children, which she is to pilot through live the greater part of each day. If grade they are to make a beginning; their voices; to sing their little songs pression and spirit; to obtain correct tone, pitch, in pitch-reading, in tinae an putting all the above things into one g€ sight-singing. If it is a grade above the first, it mn mental things have been understood Department.] HELPFUL THINGS IN MUSIC STUDY. 955 ■^ ' * — ■ ■ — thinking, of study and of practice have been established. If there is fault in any of these things, it must be corrected, and the children put unon the correct way. Then the specific work of the grade, whatever it is, must be taken up and prosecuted, until the close of the year finds the pupils able to master more difficult music, both in sight-singing, writing, song singing, and with a larger repertoire of songs, or pieces which have been studied. Now, in accord with the first part of this paper, I desire to em- phasize the points: (1) That the parents have a right to expect that the child can do this work alone if he is supposed to be doing it in school; (2) that every child can do it, if he has been well taught, and has done his part of the work rightly; (3) that this is the ideal which each teacher should have of the outcome of her work, and to which she must rise, and to the accomplishment of which she must make herself capable before she can be ranked as a first class teacher. I may add by way of parenthesis that singing alone in school, each pupil thinking and acting independently when singing and practicing with the class, are just as easy things to accomplish as are the think- ing and doing in anything else, if the practice is begun and continued in the right manner. I repeat, this is a possible and not an imaginary ideal for every well taught school, and' one to which our American schools must and will come. Permit me to mark out certain lines, which, if apprehended and faithfully followed, will lead certainly to the desired end. First, you must have in mind, in each general division of your subject, as sight-singing, voice-training and study of musical pieces, a correct ideal of what the outcome is to be. Second, these several things are to be analyzed until the indi- vidual things which compose each are apparent. Then teach these individual things objectively, whether they are things for the ear or the eye, until, with proper attention and effort, the pupil grasps the thought, and, by right thinking, makes it his own. Then, with what the pupil is to become able to do clearly defined in your own mind, and, as far as may be, in his, he should set about trying to do it. You, realizing that his mastery can only result or be built up by continual and systematic trying, keep him, cheerfully and hopefully, at his practice day after day. The ability to do a given thing can be built up in no other way. After attaining considerable ability in one branch of the subject, take up another branch, and adhere to that until a like proficiency is obtained. Then combine the two. Then take up another. Then combine; and so on. Now, it is the proper appreciation, classification, analysis, correct teaching and persistent practice, day after day, with all possible cheerfulness and 956 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A ± right incentives thrown in that are to oi desired. If you do not understand this subject, yourself, set about it, and by following practice as above described, you will ce Great care should be taken in selecti For the way must be correctly pointed There are a good many things that t< that a few must be mentioned: (1) Th the one who must become prepared, if i the music if it is done best (2) "A Trea "A Set of Music Books in Ck)urse," are are Mr. Stewart's. This requires compete visors to instruct and to train the teac their work; at least, until they are qualij makes it imperative, that there shall be s visors can become qualified, musically i portant work. Finally, it is obvious thi other journals, as well as teachers g agitate the matter, until a desirable cond Dm€U8^T0:S Mr. G. R. Bill, Salem, Mass., put special e; no longer taught as it was years ago, but is cond teacher under intelligent supervision. The whole be considered from an educational point of Tiew. Mb. Twitchkll. Paterson, N. J., held, that, yet been reached, the time was coming when chi as readily as they read an ordinary reading exer< Mb. Chapman discussed the methods empk port, Mass. Reviewed the requirements of the presenting the study of music through teachei features of the entire work. Miss Irwtv. Chicago, asked Mr. Chapman i not sing. Mr. Chapman replied that such boys \ Mb. Fobsman. Chicago, took the ground ths they need; urged the bringing of the child's mine sees. Mb. Gantvoobt gave his experience with demand will eventually bring the desired results cannot sing. Mb. Bubns, Canton, Ohio, asked what shoul Mb. Bitx replied, that much depended upon employment of tact. DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST SESSION.— Wbdnksday, July 11, 1894, 3 p. m. The sixteenth annual meeting of the Business Educators' Association, the second as a' department of the National Association, was called to order by Presi- dent R. E. Gallagher of Hamilton, Ont, at 3 p. m. A motion of W. B. McCord of New York, that a 'committee of three be ap- pointed to revise the Constitution of the Association, to adapt it to the new Depart- ment of Business Education of the National Educational Association, seconded by Frank Goodman, was passed. Frank Goodman, ^STashville, Tenn., offered the following resolution, which was unanimously adopted: B^iolvfd, That tlie business educators here assembled heartily approve the merging of the Business Educator's Association of America into the National Edu- cational Association. J. M. Mehan, Chairxnan of the Executive Committee, reported the plan of the meeting as published. Treasurer McCord reported as follows: Receiptei. Cash on hand at last report 5F82.y3 Membership Dues for 1893 310.00 $392.93 DiSBUBSSMENTS. For stenographer's report J^87.50 For expenses of Executive Committee «I-40 For printing report of 1893 144.77 For postage, express, etc ^'^ For printing membership cards *^-^^ Balance on hand 92.41 $392.93 The President read his address. S. S. Packard moved that the President's address be received and referred to a commiitee for future use. 958 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A S. S. Packard read a paper on "The Religion ness/* which was discussed by various members. A motion to omit discussions during the remaii Col. George Soule read a paper on "Higher A W. O. Isbell, Terre Haute, read a paper on Doing of It" W. J. Amos, Stamford, Conn., read a paper oi Mrs. Sara A. Spencer, Washington, D. C, Training in Business Colleges." The President appointed as a Committee on I Packard, H. T. Loomis, A. S. Osborn, W. E. Mc Auditing Committee, Col. George Soule and E. A Committee on Introductions was appointed Mrs. E. E. Childs. SECOND SESSION.— Thubsday, Ji The Committee on Revision of the Constitut CONSTITUTION OF THE BUSINESS EDI AMERICA. Adopted at Its Organization in New York City, 1880, in Milwaukee, July 20. 1887, and in Cl( Park, July 12, 1894. PREAMBLE Forasmuch as there are a large number of departments in the United States and Canada, of clearness in the public mind as to the mission occupy in the educational field, it is agreed I teachers of commercial schools to organize an "Business Educators* Association of America," promote fellowship and fraternity among the te feeling and intercourse the employer and employ sonal acquaintance with those adapted to help hi; a personal knowledge of those likely to need hi) methods of teaching and courses of study, and | elevate the standard of business education. Anyone engaged in teaching, or qualified to lege education, who is a member of the Nal thereby a member of the department OFFICERS. The officers of the Association shall be a Treasurer and Secretary, and an Executive ( annually and to serve until their successors shaj Education.] SECRETARY'S MINUTES. 959 DUTIES OF OFFICERS. The duties of President, Vice President, Secretary and Treasurer shall be such aB are ordinarily performed by such officers. The Bxecutiye Committee shall have charge of the business matters of the Association, such as the auditing of aU bills, the revision of Proceedings for publication, the calling of special meetings, the preparation of a program of exercises for all meetings, and generally to perform any duty not otherwise provided for by these articles of Association. MEETINGS. Meetings shall be held annually, during the vacation period, at such time and place as the Ezecntive Committee shall designate. ORDER OF BUSINESS, ETC. In all other matters the Association shall be governed by the rules laid down in Roberts' "Rules of Order." AMENDMENTS. Any of these articles may be amended by a vote of three-fourths of the mem- bers present at any meeting. The report was adopted. . The Auditing Committee reported: July 12, 1894. Officers and Members of Business Educator's Association of America: Your Committee on B'inance respectfully report as follows: 1. That they have examined the books and vouchers of the Secretary and Treasurer, and find the same correct 2. Cash on hand July 18, 1803 5P«2.tt3 Received since . 310.00 Total $392.93 Expenditures a.8 per vouchers ^^^^^-^^ Balance July 12,1894 ^^^-^^ Respectfully submitted, Geo. Souls, E. E. Childs, ChmmiUee, A committee oonsisting of Messrs. Packard, Saddler and Mehan reported the following (resolution iu memory of the late X>r. Ira Mayhew: Wh^e^. It has pleased divine providence to remove from our midst our hon- ored co-worker, Ira Mayhew, who was the first President of the Association, and who, for more than fifty years, has given his time and talents to the Promotion of our common cause, first as a teacher of rare gifts, and next as an author oi un- doubted merit; and , . ^ - ^u« ^?,.*««. Wh^eoB. It becomes us to put on record for permanent reference the virtuea and the services of our eminent associates, both while they are hvmg and after they have passed to other scenes of usefulness and activity; therefore ^^^o^*^^ Revived, That L the sense of this Association we recognize m our departed brother an eminent teacher, a genial companion and a true man. 960 NATIONAL EDUCATION Benofred. That in his life and services w ciple, of intelligence, patriotism and efficiency and American citizenship. Besoived. That a copy of these resohitiont sent, properly engrossed, to the family of our the Proceedings of the National Educational ^ Resolutions were adopted by a rising vot< The Auditing Committee's report was a The following officers were elected for th< Frt8ident—J. M. Mehan, Des Moines, h First Vice President— A, S. Osborn, Rod Second Vice President— Mrs. E. E. Childs Third Vice President— J. E. King, Roches Secretary and Treasuret^^W , E. McCord, Chairman of Executive Committet — Frank The selection of the associate members THIRD SESSION.— Fbida J. M. Mehan, Chairman of the Executivi thanks be extended to Hon. A. J. Rider, Trei ranging for the meeting. The motion was uii The Secretary read greetings from A. D. and J. T. Pish of Louisville, Ky.; and H. E. V. The Secretary was authorized to solicit ab; through him with the National Educational A Mr. Osborn offered a resolution that the Se to secure each year, by direct correspondence teachers in the United States and Canada, t\ them. Howard Champlin, Cincinnati, Ohio, was ( Association in place of J. E. King, resigned. A. S. Osborn read a paper on "The Discipl Mr. D. T. Ames, New York City, read a Future,** which was discussed by Mrs. H. C. Sj and C. W. Robbins. J. M. Mehan, Des Moines, Iowa, read a i: and Bad." J. P. Byrne, Erie, Pa., read a paper on "Th discussed by W. J. Amos, Mrs. Spencer, E. J Ames, Howard Champlin. On motion of Mr. Goodman, Colonel Soule i the President-elect to the chair. Mr. Mehan, being conducted to the chair, t! speech for the honor conferred upon him. Education.] PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 961 PAPEES AND DISCUSSIONS. PRESIDENTS ADDEm^, BY R. B. GkALLiAOHER. HAMILTON, ONTARIO. I extend you hearty greeting upon the occasion of our sixteenth ailnual convention. We meet this year under auspices different from those of any previous gathering of this organization. It is the first time we co-operate with the National Educational Association as the Department of Business Education, and from this union we are led to hope for higher usefulness and better results. The hearty manner in which we were received as a department of the National Educa- tional Association is an evidence of the cordial recognition, by other departments of education, of the work in which we are engaged, and whatever prejudice or antagonism between representatives of other departments and the one in which we are engaged may have existed is to-day a thing of the past. The fact alone is a just cause for con- gratulation, and an encouraging sign for the future. It is gratifying to notice that the business colleges of the country have, notwithstanding the general business depression that has pre- vaUed, been fairly successful during the past year. We are en- couraged to believe that the coming year will make a marked im- provement in all departments of trade, and that commercial schools will share in the renewed prosperity. In many respects, this year has been one of substantial progress for business education, begun in an auspicious way by its timely and appropriate exhibit at the World's Fair; an undertaking which has done more than any pre- vious single effort to establish business and commercial education upon the same high ground as that occupied by any other depart- ment of education. That the exhibit was a success appears to be the unanimous verdict. I question if the business coUege people of this country fully realize the enormous amount of work required and the anxiety experienced by those who thought it out, ^quipped it, and carried it through to a successful issue. Too much cannot be said in praise of the men who unflinchingly and unselfishly undertook the responsibilities of making it what it was. No more interesting, unique or effective exhibit was to be found in the great education court, and never before was the American business college so truly and so effectively represented to the world. 962 NATIONAL EDUCATIOl The business college idea in educa a hold upon the popular mind, is nc natural development of the industria! of our time. The fact Hiat our ordina] prepare for practical business life gn thus the business school grew up to i creation of the last half century, and it in keeping with that of the develop years, however small an arc in the c^ when it becomes the history of the re furnish some data, in any educational cess or failure of the undertaking may i be predicted. Business education has tion, and has earned and gained her r indispensable department of educatio life of this country have been years o expansion, marvelous activity and grej have witnessed changes in the conditio: of production which amount to an ecoi raneous with these came the social ai have affected education. The inventioi advancement of trade and commerce c prenticeship system. Business men fo boys into their offices and teach them tl ciples of commerce, as had formerly b young men who were anxious to ente fronted with the demand for 'trained where such preparation could be^ made f< business was closed to them. No syste the requirements of the times; no curric subjects peculiarly adapted to the spec] for business life. From the counting-ro bank, the exchange, the merchant marir in the land, came the demand: 'We w skilled in accounting, and in the most acting business, who shall be our immi partners." To meet this demand is t business college; and its promoters are to-day of practical training in this count world is the special work of business tra tically and more directly than on this co schools are the most popular private edi day goes without saying; their total att( of the literary colleges and universities, ment of any kind, without State or Chuir -■ ■ PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 963 ^ a^iix ^^^^ public confidence and public recognition, and are meeting ftel^ c^^^ ^® ^^^y ^^^^^ ^'^^ as essential as that of any other special ^X>era.t: ^^^^^ti^i^al work. The great law of supply and demand ^^Ucn+^^ ^® ^™ly and as. surely in the province of the humanities and ^ot re ^^^ ^® ^^ ^^® vedlm of economics. No element of education f Ullear^ ^^ iieeded, and not really essential to the requirements of the xnaixe ^^^ ^^* development of human achievement, could be per- troi^^ ^^y established in public opinion or arbitrarily forced to the ter, and who have been taught to think it brave and plucky to give their sympathy and aid to the under dog — and see how elasy it will be for them to underscore the broker's sentiment: **! should infinitely rather be in your Aocp liian in those of Dun or Douglass/' I have no desire to make a sensational use of this notorious case, and possibly might be disposed to look leniently upon this misuse of a bright man's opportunities, could I see any int very mudh if even the energy of Dr. Parkhurst and the Gerry Society, aided by the various committees of safety and vigilance, or the sensational diatribes from the pulpit — some- times resorted to as a device to fill otherwise empty pews — will do much towards enforcing morals as a rale of life. So long as churches uphold or condone shameless criminals be- cause of their wealth or power, so long as the people themselves look lightly upon crime when it becomes familiar or they can share its emoluments, what hope is there that such exposures will work a cure or that the words of a professional moralist or teacher will be greatly heeded? It is not so many months since the awakened susceptibilities of the Brooklyn public demanded the trial and punishment of the great- 968 NATIONAL EDVCATIONJLI. est political criminal of modern times, and be spoken of without a deep sense of sliaj naries of his trial were in progress, aiic[ af well known, he was permitted to coiiitim tendent of his Sunday-school, and was ev< criminals to the presidency of the board < doing the State some service at Sing Sing is aware, still holds his membership in th I confess to you, my fellow teachers, th question of our responsibility for instructio plexed I am. And I am, by no means, a way, I believe that the worid is grow'ing than w^orse; nor have I less confidence in m The neighbors of my mature life seem poss strong virtues as were those of my boyhoc women living happily together — in familioi and I witness, almost every day, acts of altri right that would not pale in the light of the I can even see some hope in the political glimmerings of a far-off day when honest an< hold the high offices, and when it will not b< for having been a member of congress, a ci policeman. And I believe, too, that this bet about greatly by education, and that no man do with the shaping of the young mind can of the responsibility and the labor. The question does not come to us whether anything to do, but what can we best do to i and satisfy our consciences? Let us concede at the outset, that, if the wc it will be because those who are coming into better understand their relations to it, and ha do the things which, in their judgment, shoul that one cannot discern the difference between that there is any question as to abstract duty ui but whether the individual is able to so withst ments as to do the thing which he knows is rigl Perhaps I cannot better illustrate this point t to the present congress in its attitude on the reve be those who, on the final passage of the bill, w stituents by their vote; but it i^ as well known n that the great majority of the final supporters i contrary to their convictions and to their sense ( requires. That is, from pressure, or policy, or wi or another, they will yield their best judgment an Kdncation.] MORALS AS APPLIED TO BUSINESS. 969 tHeir consciences cannat commend. Of course, there may be certain mental reservations covering the act, which will enable some of these men to sleep of nig-hts— such as choosing the least of two evils, or doing evil that good may come; but the devil has made such free and open use of these salves for lacerated consciences that they deceive nobody. The average congressman desires either to represent or to hood- wink his constituents so that they will send him back, and it is often easy to discern, in his speeches and his votes, that "lively sense of favors yet to come" that takes away his manly independence, and makes him a hanger-on for revenue. Take another view: The senate of the United States is supposed to be so far removed from immediate contact with the people that its members are, in a measure, independ- ent. It is known as the "deliberative" branch of congress; and its members are supposed to have a sort of reverence for each other, founded, as we have the right to infer upon a sense of inherent virtue. And this reverence, or mutual admiration, is carried so far that it is considered in bad form for one member to oppose another in any matter which may affect his personal interests, until the "courtesy of tihe sena*te" has grown to be a phrase of wide and por- tentous significance. To the ordinary mind, and if applied to ordi- nary men, it might better be expressed in the catch phrase, "You tickle me, and I'll tictle you," and under any circumstances it is only the sentiment of standing by one another, suc^h as animates the trades unions and ^ves backbone to ruinous strikes. For instance, when was there evor a more palpable "strike" than in the cai^e of the senate refusing to confirm the appointments of Homblower and Peckham at the nod of Senator Hill? Here was an object lesson that even a child could vincLerstand. Senator Hill had a personal griev- ance against the president which he wished to settle in the most public manner, and, availing himself of this unwritten law, he had no trouble whatever in bringing into his private quarrel his dis- tinguished associates. When we know tbat these things exist in their fullest strength in our most dignified and exalted deliberative body, why should we expect our inexperienced boys and girls to be governed by higher motives? And so it is not strange that we are brought face to face in our schools with this "courtesy of the senate." Not many days ago, I summoned into my presence six of my ordinarily good boys, who had entered into a conspiracy to have a half-holiday, and, if questioned about it, to lie out of it. Each one, in my presence and in the presence of all the others, deliberately denied what I knew was the fact; and even when I intimated that I knew, they all defended themselves under the senate rule; each one, with the greatest solemnity and emphasis, repeating what he knew 970 NATIONAL EDUCA TIOISTA I. to be a deliberate lie. Of course, they \vi fess the truth, but even then soughi: to up plea of school-boy "honor." I studied tliij although I openly commended the one bo;^ break in the chain, I am not at all sure th respect for those \^'lio held out longer, aecc ^^eourtesy." I gave the required lecture o put special stress on the greater sin of agi*e There may be people in the inrorld wJ should hardly know where to look for then the query whether there are not degrees of childhood we have heard of "fibs" and "wh cent recreation, and I'm sorry to say most o There is scarcely a mother in the land w sweetened the life of her darling by a help child" cannot stand it to be told the oold, \ii\ soft lie is given instead. And yet, we want our boys and girls to b tell them, above all things, to be truthful, depend upon a boy's word, what chance hfi shape his character? What I am trying to get at is a reasona with the purpose, if possible, to fix our dutie teachers. And I think we must first remember thai easilj' humbugged. One of the best things e^ was said by a "Salvationist" girl, who was n the free methods of the Salvation Army nee of morals. Said she: "How would it be poss before our people and preach purity of livin variance therewith? The fact that we are sc and free in our contact with each other, precl deception as to our lives. A person of disaolut living may possibly get into the army; but no any means, stay there. No, the power of our ( depends upon consistency of living. We cannoi practice another." Now, it seems to me that here is the key U As the stream cannot rise higher than the four w^ords, to have effect, must emanate and gi teacher's life. This is seen clearly in the chara come to us, with the expectation that we will m The father very often informs us at the bejifinn: got ahead of him, and he wants him placed un( and be held to strict account. He volunteers \ JEdncatioD.] AN IDEAL BUSINESS COLLKQE. 97I bis son has no respect for him and no proper love for his home, and lie is willing to pay any amount if we will only give him a good boy. The first question we should be likely to ask — if we asked any — would be why the boy didn't respect his father, and the answer, if truthfully given, would be that the fatlher did not deserve his respect There is nothing that a boy would more like to do than to respect his father, and nothing that he more surely will do, if he is given half a chance. A good thing is told of one of our popular actresses, who was taken to task by the manager for not treating him with proper respect. "But, Mr. ," she said, "you make it so hard for me." And so it may trutihfully be said of some fathers, that they make it very hard for their boys to respect them. Whether teachers are open to this charge, it is for us to say, and each for himself. But, be that as it may, I do not hesitate to lay down tlhe rule that no teacher can enforce a moral lesson which he disregards in his own conduct. Take a simple example. I have a rule in my school against smoking. That is, no young man is permitted to smoke in the building or on the sidewalk contiguous thereto. Suppose a teacher who enforces that rule should say, "That applies only to the student," and should disregard it as applicable to himself? It is easy to see what difficul- ties he would encounter. Not only is it necessary that the teacher should observe tlie rule he enforces against the student, but, if he desires the best resoilts, he will abstain from the habit altogether. And so of lessons of morality. He can enforce only suiih rules as he is known to observe himself. And he will make a great mistake if he imagines that lie can live a double life without being caught at it. l^erhaps there is no life that is not in some ways inconsistent, and we often deceive ourselves infto believing what we wish was true, but IS not. So, I have only this to say concerning the duty of teachers in rela- tion to the religion of morals. Attempt only so far in your preaching as you find yourself able to carry out in your practice. AN IDEAL BUSINESS COLLEGE, BY PRINCIPAIi VrSi. J. AMOS, STAMFORD, OONN. I deem it an honor to be able, this afternoon, to stand before an intelligent audience like this, consisting, as it does, of a portion of that great body which means so much to the educational growth of the youth of our country — the business educators of America. When one looks into the faces of the delegates from our sister on the North, the land of the orange grove and magnolia on the South, the Golden 972 NATIONAL EDUCjkTIONJL. (Jate in the West, and the rock-ril>bed s. East, and from all intervening territorj the expression "practical education" irtea ago. I am to speak to yon, to-day, upon all — ^"An Ideal Business College." You will notice that my subject deals probabilities, with expectation more than think, with imagination more than reality A few years since the business colleg^< day the institution is w^orld-wide in its po possibilities. All over out nation, almost in every city, the business college has foiin trained men and women leave its doors eve the sea of active business life. The wondei education is evinced by the fact, that, whc college, be it good, bad or indifferent, ther students ready to attend. No other inetitu educational movements of the world has eve and is it any wonder? Too many men are left to the severe i Day in and day out, we hear the cry; "S( practical men; more earnest men; more trail opportunity is ours. Let us prepare to me duty, as men, as citizens, as business educa What are we doing? Competition must grow sharper as popu] all-around uDen will be needed to manage our d can think, as well as do. More men who can s( how to go. More men ; fewer machines. Unk strides of improvement, we will continue to w the time wonder why our schools grow thin. I have noticed with much pleasure, during i\ most business colleges are making advanceme plane. Schools that were doing scarcely anythj have found that there remains but one af two to improve their curriculum, or dose their doors Men are thinking more than they did five yea that a father would take his son to the propriet lege and enroll the lad without looking into the \ have changed. Men investigate more to-day i Every year this investigation is growing more am one reason, if for no other, the modern business pace with the rapid strides of progression in a What comparison would there be between the litl AN IDEAL BUSINESS COLLEGE, 973 ^^^j^ tiT^iT^ — '^^l>lie ^ ^^aiich^s as taught therein forty years ago, and the present ■*^^^es ^^^^^^^ system? What competition could exist between two ^^Qtli ^^^amships, if one were furnished with Fulton's model and ^"^e^i^ ^ "^ith Cramp Brothers'? What competition could exist be- ^Xi^ ^ lighting company who furnishes tallow candles to its patrons eon^j^? /^raishing electric lights? Friends, may I not ask what "^^liool ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^° ^^^^ between a first-class, up-to-date, brainy rtiorje i^^^ *^^ business college employing methods fifteen years or ^^Vf^ ^Ad? There can simply be no competition, because one would £^W the trade. V>^^- ^s» for a moment, examine the courses of study in a modem o^ ^ ^*® college. There is the commercial course, including the study o:f ^- ^^^^'^^eping, business writing, commercial law, and a long list j>^j^ . ^^ hranches. There is the shorthand course, with its accom- a.xi^ ^^ studies. There is, in a few schools only, the English course, of -tli^^^^ other courses, varying according to the talents and ideas Xi^^ ^ proprietor, i^t us look at the commercial course. It would m^ 5^ ^^ think, at this day and age, of spending more than eight con»iH ^"^^^^^S" siich a course, and, by a great many, that would be '^oi^H ^^^ a wasto of time, and I am inclined to think that such ^« be the case ixi no* a few! instances. ii^ t^^^^ comes a boy, we will say, twenty years of age. He has been <^j^ ^ public school sinoe he was seven; gets tired of school and de- ;q^^^^ *^ prepare f oi» the duties of a wage-earner and a bread-winner. <«^ ^omes to your "business college and his father comes with him. To **' ^^^^^^ I havo decided to put my boy in your school. I want ^ ^ to prepare him to earn his own living. You will find him poor ^^ithmetic; can^t: spell; can't write, and he knows nothing about ^ a-ininar. Now, ^Xv Jones, I would like you to g^^ him ready for ^^ess inside of six months." -^^ ^or that boy what has not been done for him in one hundred tea ^^^y months! Do for that boy in six months what his best it ^^ ^''^ ^^^ not been able to do for him in thirteen years! Friends, cj^^^^^* ^e done, i should say, then, that the very first radical We^^^-f™^ our modern business college to the twentieth century keep apace of the easy-going stage-coach of our grandfathers were completely distanced by those wonderful new contrivances of intercommunication. It became neces- sary to write better and to write faster, and Necessity is a mother that never becomes barren. In preparing the writing system which Mr. Spencer gave the world, he had the forethought to look deeply into the most advanced business conditions of his own day. The necessity for better methods of writing, to which I have referred, had existed for some time, and its best development at that period oiTro has twenty specimens— about forty per cent of the whole and ttxe writing is almost absolutely vertical. The fourth group has t^veix^y-six specimens— just one less than half the entire lot. Of tuis 1^^ "^^^ ^^^^ pronounced slant does not exceed sixty per cent, -.a the sx>ecimens run the scale from this figure to eighty-five *de- ^^ees- ^iost of them would answer to the scale between sixty ^\^^,rees £tnd seventy degrees. Perhaps the most remarkable pomt f eopneclion with these specimens is, that only one out of ^^f^;^^l *^oV^^ ^ slant as great as that which we have known for half a ^^tury as standard; and even some of the letters in this show a ten- ■a^ticy.^^ greater erectness. . . ^^ onvthincr ^^%ow, I think these specimens show as co°«l"«;^^^",'/°iS ^ that the greatest speed, the greatest legibility the gf^at^st ^>alness" 5^1^, whe'n the writer is ^^^-^Z;,^': Z:, ^rources and made to do his level best, do not culminate in a sJant '^'Sfty-two degree? I will not now undertake to say just at what ^,?t this natur.?r;„lmination of slant is, if indeed it does no Tat^ gj^ely witi. ditS\^Tdlvidnals, but it is safe to say tha. future JJ^sions of copjT^ks will be in the direction of less slant, ine 980 NATIONAL EDUCJLTlONu^ material referred to, together witli a vi obtained from business houses, from pu etc., and from students and business ii many, Switzerland, Latin America, and oflfice of the "Penman's Art Journal, '^ p over and digested with a view to a seri< find time to prepare in the near future. In conclusion, I will say, that, while J that the time is near at hand, or ever will as a rule will adopt a rigidly perpendic nevertheless convinced, from close obser portant modifications are probable — ^ind handwriting of the future is to serve its a times have been served by the handwritii] BUSINESS TRAINING— GOOi BY J. M. MiBHAN, DES MOIXES The weaver sat at his loon Flinging his shuttle fast. And the threads that wiJi Till the hour of doom Were added at every cast. The question of to-day is not, what do y( you do? Therefore, training is more import leading dictionary gives, "train" literally "to d and form by practice — ^to discipline." The 'teach" "to impart knowledge — to show." V definitions represent the exact value of these they convey very fair definitions. That there is in the whole routine of edi much teaching and too little training, all thii But teaching, wliile it is less useful is also less ( ing. Teaching is a kind of nap, an external fini training is the very woof itself, woven into the w cated only by annihilation. It is the hope oi mi of the poor teaching we have done may be corii experiences of life; that, in the fire of applicatio its crudities may be burned away. But we hav the training we have given. It is to remain. T what he was tallying about when he said: ^'Traii £dacation.] BUSINESS TRAINING. 981 way jou would have him go, and when he is old he will not depart from it" Train him up; not tell him up; not teach him up. We call our schools business training schools, and it is well that we do, for in so far as they train their pupils to right things they have a place in the great work of education. The term education itself, already overloaded with definitions, has reference to training, to a growth, a development; therefore, an education of any kind is for life. Once gotten, it cannot, like an unsatisfactory garment, be laid aside. It becomes, in the very acquirement of it, a habit fixed and fastened to its possessor for life. Here, then, is the danger of lax discipline, undesirable methods and loose government. The student has a right to expect, and does expect, from us such training as will make him sure of foot on the slippery highways of business life. He comes to us usually with much precept but little practice; having a surplus of telling and a dearth of training. He comes to be trained as best we can train him for business, for life, for manhood, for destiny. Ii^ this a task to bel lightly undertaken? I hold that we do more than teach pupils to write, to keep books, to spell, to use English, etc. These things are good; but without order, discipline, self:Control, manners, morals and right views of life they are worse than useless. It will be urged that our time is lim- ited; and let me say now that that is the very reason I urge the necessity of training. Because our time is limited, we should strive all the more along these lines. Students are with us long enough to be impressed in the things I have mentioned if they are taught and practiced by those in charge — if pupils are trained in them. "Our schools are finishing schools," said Mr. Packard. Yes, from the business school the young man will go out into the business house with ideas of honesty or dishonesty, order or disorder, care or care- lessness, honor or dishonor, and who shall say that he has not re- ceived much of these in the school where his last lessons were learned — where he was trained. It is safe to say, that nowhere in his life can he, in an equal space, of time, be trained to so great a degree. He comes to our schools with the desire, the determination, to be trained; for, notwithstanding we occasionally get an incorrigible, the large majority of our students are among the most earnest, as well as the most impressible, of young people. " We are of all we meet a part;" It has been tnily said, And each of us from each Will bear a trace of mind and heart. If this be true in general, what shall we say of the example set for those who come to us to be trained into our image and likeness, so to speak, looking upon us as model business men. 982 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL A880CLLTIC Man is dual-sided. He is on the one side an in thinking, iiesiring, and satisfying his desires; on the a part of the great body of all mankind. Indindua inal; socially, he is intellectual, moral. It is only j contact with men that his intellectual side is cul work of bringing men into touch with each other tl so potent as that of commerce, no ministry so great Then, with what shall the influence of our training be measured? Looking at it from this standpoi degree of care should a father select a business tra A gentleman called on me a few days ago, bringi enrolled in our school, saying : "I took a course in \ once, but I want my boy to be under better disci under. So far as the teaching of the school whert cerned, I find no fault; but no attention whatever training of students outside of the branches taug be getting lessons at their rooms, or playing pool i; without special notice from the principaL" Now, it ia not the great value of the restraining Around pupils, disposed to shirk work and to do ot that I hold to be of special value; but it is the exai like, well governed school I plead for, as a great power that captures the student's interest and cc iind attention. "Can figs grow upon thistles?" Can a disho student into honest ways? Can an unscrupulous to shun questionable practices? Can an untruthfi righteous pupil? Can a business failure point out and train the inexperienced feet to walk therein? There are schools of all kinds, the very existen discredit, and they are most plentiful in the line They mislead hundreds of young people, and des for a successful life; their training is vicious, the the lessons they teach are the lessons of failure, •educational field which we cultivate is not free f n many of which are conducted by men who have thing else and failed, and now set up shops to te tion. Forms, position of execution and knowledge of must meet the requirements of the style mentionec teaching is so aimed that the outcome will result in that which they need, it is a failure. We must ] SdocatioD.] TEACHISG OF WRITING, 985 results in the teacliing we give our pupils, and we must go even further, and so arrange our work and methods of practice, in con- junction with tlLe many aids which surround the student in our schools, that we shall develop a thorough habit which will cling to liim in his future w^ork. When I speak of the writing habit, I refer to that method of c^xecution, which to the student becomes essentially part of his in- dividual action, and which, to him, will come as naturally and be done with as little thought as other functions of the mind or body. That this can be accomplished is without question, and such a develop- ment on the basis of legibility, rapidity and ease, is a test of the greatest success of the teacher's work. Further than the inculcation of the habit of writing, is another oim which should be in the mind and pui-pose of the teacher — ^the building and arranging of such a writing basis for his pupils, that, 'When changes come, as they surely will with other business environ- ments, a steady growth will be the process of the change instead of retrogression. That many pupils retrograde is a fact, and this should not be so. I believe that this fact of retrogression comes naainly from the striving of the teacher after present effect, with little or no real, positive basis for the methods of writing. It is obvious, therefore, that not alone present effect, but future results, shoxdd be the ultimate aim and object of our teaching. From a business standpoint, by doing this, we are increasing the confidence of the student and the business community alike in our claims as business preceptors. THE METHOD. The method of teaching this subject covers a wide range and variety of matter, and can be presented here only in a limited man- ner. The success of teaching any topic will come from the manner of presenting the subject to the student. But here we have a wide field and a more difficult one than in any ordinary study, for the reason that, unlii^ any other study, to accomplish a desired end there must be a union of the physical and the mental powers; the physical representing the method and manner of producing char- acters and fonxx^ q^ a surface by means of the muscular motion of the arm, hand an^j fingers, while the mental consists of the percep- tion of the fonxi ^n^ the motive thoug'ht necessary to act with the physical in the production of the idea by characters. Necessarily, therefore, whet^^ these are united, there must be in the teaching an inteUigent oba^t^^ ^ion of the faculties which act in the blending of the»e two ^orc^^ ^ produce an effect. By careful observation, it Tviii be seen th-^ \^tion or movement— that is, the physical— should cecewe theSpsf: ^^ention of the teacher; for there can be no action 986 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [Bi without the power to act and the faculty to guide that action. Gradually the development of the mental, in the conception and contrasting of form, should he united with the expansion of the physical power in execution. We are agreed that class drills to develop the writing motion, blackboard and written copies to teach form, and individual sugges- tions to instruct the pupil and correct his errors, should be the basis of our instruction. The really difficult feature of the methods to be pursued are the kind, quality and quantity of the exercises which shall be used in the drill class. To achieve simple, practical results, it is obvious, that, in the arrangement, use and gradation of exercises, there should be simplicity and actuality, so that the practice of the student will daily come nearer to the aim in view. In the use of many, varied and fantastic exercises, which often have but an in- definite relation to the succeeding work, there is danger of develop- ing in the student's mind such a view of writing that his results will be uncertain, to an extent illegible, and unsuited to ordinary demands. Therefore, there must be a w^ell-defined purpose, a careful grada- tion of the plan of instruction, and an arrangement of copies, so that the class or student will pass lightly and systematically from one step to the other, and so on from grade to grade, with the stimulus of satisfaction through the evidence of his own progress. Tt will be found that the general difficulties which will predominate in the work of the class or student, are badly conceived ideas of effort, awkwardness of the writing movement, or ignorance of form. If some of these are not carefully and quickly overcome, but little result will be seen, and it is certain, therefore, that there must be no hesita- tion on the part of the teacher in striking at the root of the difficul- ties. Without a clear outline of what is to be accomplished by the teacher, nothing but haphazard results will accrue, and certainly there can be no specific impress on the mind of the pupil. In the use of copies we must come as near to the simple require- ments of business as it is possible; we must use the blackboard to facilitate instruction, and to develop the power of observation and discrimination in the student. The blackboard, while being in the main the best means of presenting copies and exercises for the drill, ought to be supplemented by written copies, which are yet not too accurate to be stiff and mechanical, nor so careless as to mislead. They should be freely and easily written within sight, and should to an extent be adapted to the needs of the individual student as a means of stimulating his powers. By this I mean that they should be somewhat in advance of his own standard, but not so far beyond his results that he will be discouraged. Simplicity and ease should TEACHINQ O^ WRITING. 987 ^^^Xi:\x ^ ^^^^^nating characteristics of the work presented to the pupils j^^^^om we deal. t^xxtk^i, '-^^ matter and manner of suggestions and corrections of the ^% ^^»» '^ork lies a very large measure of the teacher's success. It ^stix v> ^- ^^^t he can reach the individual abilities of the students, and "Uti^^^ ^^S to his class real teaching ability. Whatever methods are Sl^^ * ^ ^^lly believe that there should be the larger share of the time ^•c^-^ ^^ individual instruction, nn that the student can be nersonallv ^"^H.'cv. individual instruction, so that the student can be personally iix^ ^^- This individual instruction should touch position, penhold- Xicx^ijj^ ^^^"^ement, form and efforts, more than is ordinarily done. It trovi^^^ ^ deeper impress, leaves a larger share of thought, and ^^^e^ *^® power of observation which students lack to a very ^lxoi^^^^5^' ^^ ^® essential in all this instruction that the teacher ^lx»^ "^ ^™ *^ adopt a manner of suggestion, rather than one of Uxi^ K^^^' ^^ *^^ ^°^ ^^^* ^^^ student be led to search, discriminate ^Wiu Vi^^^^ ^^^ himself, and that his process of comparison and study tiox^^ ^ OTVor, and to gauge the depth and benefit of his instruction. ECe must further, by the energy of his own labor and purpose, v-1-talize the class into work and determination. I have really no toolio'f in the mi^T^y mechanical aids and amusements which many ^vriting- teachevB bring to their assistance. They have little teaching efife<5t:, and malce no real impress upon the work and effort of the I>ui>il. The teacher ought, with the class of students which he gets, tcp :toz'CG hia own individuality and energy into their practice, and miicli more will be eventually accomplished for his student^: - My reason for this is, that the student of to-day has really too much amuseinent and too little of the thinking, self-asserting and life- 4leireloping process merged into his efforts. To my mind, therefore, the teacher of writing should know how to teach his sxil)ject by force of precept and example; should be capatole of putting himself into the work; should not only be an ordinary penman, but should be a teacher of other branches relating to ^writing; shonld be a whole man, mentally and morally, and be able to command and deserve respect as an able teacher and a thoaglitf nl one- ^ r^r^Cirl^iy^ABY VALUE OF THE BUSINESS COURSE THE ^^"^ fyjp STUDY. OF STUDY. BY A. S. OSBOKX, KOCHES'J'EK, N. Y. adjusting of old ideas to changed conditions is a problem ^^^ ^ g^g^ inust solve for itself. The changed and changing re- tlxat: ea ^^^.^^^^ ^^^ classes of society has forced on the world a new \slWo^^ problems, many of them yet unsolved. The growth of de- set o^ P ^^g indeed, wrought a revolution in the westeni world, ^ixocracy ^^ '^^^^ .^ ^^^ ^^^ concluded. When capital owned labor a. revolii ^^ strikes, when the king's wish was law there was no tli^^^ ^^^ election laws. These new growths are the adjustments ixeed ^ conditions impose. til at ^^^^ changed conditions have had an important influence on rpuese cii J^^^^g r^^^ growth of democratic ideas has greatly eati<^^^^^!^!L^field of education until it is now thought that an edu- e:»:tended tne .^ ^^^ ^^.^^^^ ^^^ natural right of every child, and c-xtion is ^^"^ ^j,Ve a voice in the government, ignorance is a danger since all men ^^^^ warrant for compulsory education. ?r> tlxe State a^ J' ^^^ ^^^ i^ea that education was only ^"^ Tlxis i^'J^^'d the rich And with this growth of political free- ^\xe noble * for tne 990 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Ba dom there has been developed a new conception of labor. A s of individuality and self-reliance now prevails that takes it granted, in our land, at least, that every man has some busii Trade no longer disgraces, if it fails to distinguish. Not many j ago good men could do nothing to add to the world's comfor wealth and still retain their self-respect; but that time is now j Non-producers are now looked upon as the real paupers, an^ feel in duty bound to at least seem to do something. The '^e fashioned gentleman" is now a curiosity for the museum. All t changes involve losses as well as gains, and it is not now neces to show how the present is, on the whole, an improvement on past. These changes have had a mighty influence on theories of ed tion. Under the old state of affairs education was an end in i and only this. Plato, it will be remembered, deplores the pros tion of the noble science of arithmetic to the base uses of trade, it is an unwarranted assumption to say that Plato would, under conditions contend that education should have relation to praci life. There are those who even now are prone to apologize if i with an arithmetic, and say that it is not for any base practical they teach or learn the subject, but simply for mental training. 1 no doubt, is the main purpose of the study, but in our day and it is at least respectable to learn some things for use and to ackn edge it. Let us plead for honesty and frankness in these matters, hard, stubborn fact, is that a very large proportion of those are striving for an education must become self-supporting, \^ they are yet almost children, and education is the only means possess to assist them to mount on the ladder of life. They u seek their ransom from penury and drudgery in the mines of kn edge. What that education should be, it is diflSeult to determine; is it not cruel, erroneous and dishonest to claim that education sb< be planned, pursued and completed with no thought of its rela to practical life? When we are told that the aim of the scho( character, not livelihood, let us answer that the aim of the sci is character and livelihood. When we are told that education i fit one to live a life, not to earn a living, we will answer that it is both. It is this undue emphasis on '^living a life" and the imp slur on "earning a living" that tends to develop that creature, ha less and useless, but fair to look upon, called the dude. One can make this claim for the practical without becoming advocate of dead, stark materialism. Let us pity, indeed, on( whom it may be said: A primrose by the river's brim A yellow primrose was to him, And it was nothing more. ^^^^^-^^ VALVE O^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ —^ — 991- -tsut let us also pity one whose Pdiicatinn • Z broaa, it may b^-that it becoinp„ 1 .k '* ^"^ ill-chosen— bo this struggtfng ^rld. ^''^ ^'^ ^"'^ ""^^ *<> «* ^m for Education sliould fill the mind with k^o.,** , . "islx contemplative delight; k awf? ™^"'' «^'*"^'* '"'- strengthen the mind, and it should sto.^ « A^ -^u ^^«"P"°e and ii^gr With ideas, and facts for clptTor ^^ '' "°^^"^^^ sHould develop skill and accompTsWr? generalizations, and Wlxere to place the emphShas b°V« """ '°^ ^'T"''^- in education now for i^unle^ZjL^'' ^IZ''!;.T '' ^r"""°' DHn^ W r ^S'h'' 7"'^ ^''^^ contemplative pleasure or £ phne, l>ut the world has been asking these last years whetherTis not possible to got mental discipline in a degreef at least, frSm the study of subjects more nearly related to actual lie. Science sSdL have been obliged to flght their wa3^ into the courses of stud,:'" the higher schools, and gradually other subjects have forced n,2 way into the highest schools until it is remarked of a number of f« mous institutions, that, when it is said that one is a graduate it7« impossible to tell whether he is a doctor of philosophy or a hors^ dU tor. These changes in the courses may, in some instances be eT treme and unfortunate, but they are likely to be permanent Th jv may show that the world is drifting into materialism, but a more reasonable mference is that it has come to be thought that real ed„ cational values may be extracted from so-called practical subjects" The elective system in colleges allows one to select studies to his taste and which will have a bearing on his life-work but it ' now generally thought that this is done at the sacrifice of real edu^ca^ tional development. «j euuca- There are good and mse people who look upon the special busi- ness or commercial school as the typical expression of materialism— as the latest development of blind utilitarianism. The charee mav be true under some conditions, but no more than may be said of anv other special or technical schools. The advocate of any particular I>base of education who claims that all else is futile is either bigoted or ignorant; and this is true, whether he contends that education should be all culture or all utility. The advocate of the educational or disciplinary value of any study or course of studies assumes, to begin with, that the subjects are to be properly taught, and sometimes describes possibilities in- stead of realities. Music, drawing, manual training, science studies the kindergarten, must be in the hands of adepts if their highest values are to be realized, and this is, of course, also true of the busi- ness course of study. 992 ^^ TIOXA L EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION. [ B The primary purpose of a business coursi* is a practical pui but it does not follow that it may not have other values, soi which are here outlined. In the first place, the business course of study in very mai stances awakens an entirely new interest in education. The relations between knowledge and life are perceived for the first in school work, and study is at once invested with new interest, pupil has not before realized that school is a preparation foi and he now sees that it is for himself he is working. Thus is ar that interest which the Herbartians have taught is so essent education. This mental awakening is one of the most comm< suits of the business course. Many pupils from this impulse ; into other courses of study that they did not before dream of \ ing. The first discipline claimed for the business course is tl awakens an interest in education and cultivates an appreciati its value. The business course is a preparation for work, and this i outspoken attitude dignifies labor in the mind of the pupil. 1 not decry culture, but let us say frankly tliat, in this world of any kind or course of education that directly .or by implication matizes honest toil is not the highest education, whatever it m called. The painful reiteration that real education is not a pn tion for life work brings its natural result. We are told that e tion which looks toward preparation for earning a living is cj on a par with the education the wild animal gives its young in ing and seizing its prey. Is it not tliis spirit that sends out schools those who have unconsciously been taught that it is no to dirty their hands or trammel their minds with labor. The second claim for business education is that it tends t( nify labor. The business course, from first to last, insists, in ( thing, on accuracy, rapidity, and that general business-like m of doing things which may, in a general way be called neatness these three ways the business course certainly has a real e tional, disciplinary value. The habit of accuracy is in itself rare and valuable. Th( surely a valuable moral training in a course of study and pn that insists on absolute, unvarying accuracy. Here, again, is s the effect of a long course of training on so-called principles a expense of accurate results. Pupils are complacently told: the result is not correct; But you have the right principle and is the important thing;'' and they are told this until they cor think that accuracy is not important, as though principles worth anything if they did not lead to correct results. Here again implied that they are not learning the subject for pra< purposes, but for the culture and development it gives, and ih Education.] VALUE OF THE BUSINESS COURSE. 993 suits are not important. Such a theory is a vicious tlieory. Manual training has demonstrated that there is a close connection between morality and accuracy, between square corners and square actions. This fundamental necessity for accuracy is the vital defect in those courses of practice in commercial school work that, without control and without check, actually cultivate habits of reckless inaccuracy that it is the purpose of such a course to correct. The business course of study i^sists that accuracy is the true test of principles, and that there is a mighty difference between exactly right and nearly right. This is the third disciplinary value claimed for the business course. Along with the habit of accuracy the business course insists on rapidity — insists that work should not only be done correctly, but that it should be done quickly. The aiming at these two results in conjunction is certainly a mental discipline of the highest order. It cultivates attention and self-control, and makes one master of himself. It is certainly pitiable to see the slow blundering that is the outcome of school work in so many instances. The fear of put- ting education on a low, utilitarian basis has prevented the teacher from impressing the fact that a habit of rapidity is not only a valu- able habit in itself, but that it is of practical value; that labor is paid for in proportion to its quality and its quantity. The business course deliberately attempts to cultivate the habit of rapidity in all mental and manual operations; introduces the time element into every act, mental and physical. And in this lies the fourth disciplinary value of the business course of study. The systematic course of business training also attempts to de- velop a habit of care and neatness; insists that all things shall be done in a neat, business-like manner. Here, in connection with the learning of writing and the mechanical parts of book-keeping, the business course develops some, at least, of the educational value that comes through well-directed manual training. The training of hand and eye and taste in the acquiring of a good handwriting has certainly in itself a high disciplinary value. The business course pupil is from the start impressed with the truth that the acquiring of a decent business hand comes largely tbrough the acquiring of a habit of neatness. When one observes the slovenliness that is the product of many public schools it is no wonder that a reason is sought for. And now, it is all at once discov- ered that the trouble is all with the slant. This is the scapegoat of the teacher and the school that has, in fact, not made an honest effort to teach writing. Let the pupil be impressed, by example as well as percept, that good writing is desirable; let him be taught neatness in everything pertaining to the subject; and, above all, let him hear no teacher boast of his own shortcomings in this direc- 994 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [B lion by calling attention to the poor writing of some great men implying that there is some connection between poor writing greatness. Let these things be done, and it matters but little the writing slants. There has come down to us from the old ing days, when to read and write was a sign of weakness ac feminacy, a habit of slurring good writing, of belittling wh called the "clerkly hand." Principals of schools do this in p and then wonder why pupils do not take an interest in the sul And the poor pupil finds that his 'slovenly writing is no indiw of greatness, but actually bars his way to many a possible av of success. The business course insists on good writing, and in every seeks to develop an abiding habit of neatness. It insists on ] ness as being of practical value, and also 4s of disciplinary vj This is the fifth claim of the business course as discipline. The business course pupil is inspired to unwonted activin the business spirit of activity that surrounds him. Activity becc contagious. The pupil begins to see a purpose in work and his life begins. Before all was vague and in the air. Now he sees education means something; that it is a ladder let dow^n to him f I higher places, and that he, an independent, thinking, willing dividual, if he is to go up, must do his own climbing. DEPARTMENT OF CHILD STUDY. SECRETARY'S MINUTES. FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, Jui-y 11, 1894. The Department was called to order at 3 o'clock r. m. by Acting President Dr. G. Stanley Hall. Following a brief address by Dr. Hall, Mrs. Annie Howes Barus, President of the Associated Collegiate Alumni, read a "Report of the Child Study Work Done by the Boston and San Francisco Societies." Reports were then presented from various sections of the National Association for Child Study as follows: Boston— Miss Sarah E. Wiltse. South Carolina— Thos. P. Bailey, Jr. New York— Various reports collected and read by Miss Jennie B. Merrill. Hartford— Miss Hattie E. Hunt. A paper on **A Study of Motor Ability in Children.** was read by Mr. John A. Hancock. Supt. W. A. Hoyt, Brookfield, Mass., read a paper on "A Study of Children's 11,0 ve of Nature." Prof. M. V. O'Shea, Mankato, Minn., followed with a paper on "Children's Expression Through Drawing. The Chair appointed as a Committee on Nominations of Officers: Prof. M. V. O'Shea of Minnesota, Miss Adelaide E. Wyckoff of New York, and Prof. Thos. p. Bailey of South Carolina. This committee brought in the following report, which was adopted: President—^ m, L. Bryan of Indiana. Vice PreHdeni—^Toi. Thos. P. Bailey of South Carolina. Secretary -WiBH Sarah E. Wiltse of Massachusetts. After the election of officers. Dr. Hall presented a paper. He was followed by A. H. Yoder of California upon the "Study of the Childhood of Great Men," in which it was shown that the boyhood of great men was Tery sensitive, while that of the criminal child is very callous and hardened. 'NOTK.-The above rnlnutes are Incomplete, as no complete Secretary's report was filed with the Secretary of the General Association. 996 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS. REPOBT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE STUDY OF ( DEVELOPMENT, OF THE ASSOCIATIOX OF COLLFG ALUMN.E, BY MRS. ANNIE HOWSB BAIIUS, The suggestion of the president of this section on Child S that an account of the work started bj the Association of Collt Alumnae be given, was complied with, not with the expectatioi the character of the work would be judged especially merito but from a belief that the experience gained in putting a meti study to a practical application might be of service to those should have in mind similar experiments. The study so outlined in the schedules prepared by the comic having the work in charge was distinctly a study of babyhoo^ the child as a nursery specimen. This limitation was due to the first, that, at the time, Preyer's book on the early weeks of his 1 life was the only good model; and, also, because it was presi that the task would especially appeal to the college mother w routine of daily duties tended to shut her off from sharing in i lectual pursuits. It was felt that a careful reading of Preyer's '^ of the Child" should render an intelligent woman capable of fol ing in his footsteps and of recording from day to day observat that would bring their reward to her in the pleasure of their re) tion of her baby's growth, and which she could contribute as offering to the vast sum total of observations needed to trace laws of development. Miss Mellicent Sliinn of California, a member of the associat began an independent series of obsei-vations before any formal ad was taken. "I had no idea," she: wrote, "of doing anything of seri value myself. I was absorbed in the baby, and simply took no for my own pleasure and instruction, and was much astonished wl I learned that no set of notes as copious and complete were kno in this country." Miss Shinn\s conviction of the value of co-operative work of tl character induced her to start a section for the study of child Jiff the California branch. Her idea was maturing into a practical sha when the decision of the General Association reached her. S gladly accepted a place of active membership on its committf study.] STUDY OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT. 997 While efforts were made to create an interest in the work in the other branches of the association, the California section experimented with the plan of study prepared under Miss Shinn's supervision, and succeeded in reaping a good harvest of data. Profiting by the ex- perience gained in the working of this section in San Francisco, the committee, before issuing the circular, sent out in tlie name of the General Association, cut down to a few definite points, the sugges- tions which were to serve as an outline for common observations among its mjembers. The topics which were chosen were those which would yield data most desired by workers in the field of psychology and pedagogy — such authorities as Preyer of Berlin, Sanfbrd of Clarke, Eoyce of Harvard, Baldwin of Princeton, Barnes and Angell of Leland Stanford, Jr., and Brown and Le Conte of the University of California, having, either through personal intercourse or corre- sx>ondence, given the committee tlLe benefit of their counsel and criticism. Professor Preyer, though expressing a cordial interest, doubted if the time had come for methodical and systematic work on psychogenesis in the nursery, yet he agreed to compare and utilize notes the committee might send him if kept by the rules laid down in his works — rules ser^ing to obtain exactness by accepting only the observations of the credited^ recorder written down within twenty-four hours of the time the phenomena were noted. The topics suggested to the Alumnse were divided into four schedules. The first concerned mainly babies under three months. Some color experiments were introduced, 1:o be begun at this age and continued for a long period at intervals of a month. On the second schedule, topics were noted for following the muscular development of a child through its various phases, beginning with its efforts to raise the head, on through the series of movements leading up to walking. The difficulty of rightly analyzing an emotion, of discrimi- nating between conflicting feelings, induced the committee to a cau- tious brevity in the list of points suggested for observation in this particular — sorely as the emotional nature of childhood needs an interpretation. Memory, imagination, sign language and speech were proposed as the intellectual phenomena to follow. It was by no means the desire of the committee to limit the notes to the points suggested in their schedules. These points were indicated only that they might serve as a basis for common observation, and, as might have been anticipated, some of the most interesting records have been along lines quite distinct from those given; but it was hoped the numerical value of the observations to be gotten in this way would add greatly to their importance. Enthusiasm as a factor in child study is not to be discounted, but neither must it be allowed to mislead the expectations. It is so 998 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. easily and so naturally aroused. The universality of the specii for study, the apparent ease of note-taking, tend, along with novelty of the investigation, to create a ready acceptance o methods by those at all interested in children; but the experien the Alumnae, as of other organizations, has been that it is o select few who will have the persistence necessary to attain sue Child study, like studies in exact science, calls for sacrifice of and inclination, which will only be given to it by those thorough earnest and imbued with a love for their work. The hindrane( systematic study in ordinary nursery life call for more persist and patience on the part of thel student than is given elsewhere. It has been possible to experiment with work in sections in \^ ington, Boston and San Francisco. Owing to the small numb( AlumnsB available as active observers in the first of these c invitations were given to other intelligent mothers to join a clasi study and investigation. The directing of the work was in i competent hands, an experienced teacher and an ardent studei psycho-physics was in charge; but though she brought togethe her first call over a dozen mothers, she was only able to count systematic workers. The Boston section made a vigorous start winter. It received stimulus to continued well-doing in timelj dresses by Dr. G. Stanley Hall and Professor Royce. Two mo] from the date of its organization last February its leader wrj "Our section grows so fast that I have about shut down on collegiate mothers, unless of exceptional training. I have ti mothers (five psychologists, and one, as yet, childless wife). 1 new babies are promised us before next falL About ten of mothers have come in to see what it is like, and may resign, more are of doubtful value, but the remaining ten wiU realh something.'* The San Francisco section was organized with a membershij twenty in the spring of 1892, and held three meetings that ses for the comparison of observations upon topics announced a mc in advance. "Of the twenty," Miss Shinn writes, "several drop out by sheer carelessness, including! some of those who had profes the most interest. All the unmarried ones, except myself an doctor, one by one left from inability to get a good chance to obs( a baby. This left but thirteen to start in with in the fall term. I of these being connected with Leland Stanford, Jr., Universitr, account of the difficulty of arranging a meeting to suit their tra we decided to divide forces, and start two independent sections. ' Leland Stanford, Jr., section gradually died out." Miss Shinn sums up the difficulties of working in a section follows: "A most baffling trouble was the fact, that by the time had mastered a method of getting some results for a given age study.] STUDY OF CHJLl> DEVELOPMENT. 999 children passed on to a new one concerning which we were at sea. -tt was hard also to work in unison and present reports interesting to all when the children observed were of varying ages. The anticipated evils of maternal bias, she reports, did not ap- pear; "possibly," she adds, "because we feared it most and started out with caution against it stamped in every step of our progress." -Tlxe notes have been uniformly frank, cool, fair and dispassionate; iio one has shown the slightest tendency to exaggerate or smooth over in the child's interest; nothing could be more sober, cautious or conservative than the spirit of the meetings from the first. The ueads of the three sections which have been started have all borne testimony to the fact that a college training tends to render the judgment of the observers more critical and less prejudiced than are tiiose of the associated non-collegiate members. Miss Shinn finds her college mothers "over cautious, hampering themselves with fears of sources of error too small to be worth re- garding, seeking an impossible and fussy precision, and fearing to risk even essential interpretation." By the close of another year Miss Shinn was able to bring about the aflSliation she had ardently desired. In January, 1893, Professor Brown of the chair of pedagogics in the University of California assumed charge of the work of the section, which became recognized as a graduate seminary of the university. The class started out ten in number, but has been reduced by force of circumstances to five active working members. The original syllabus issued by the asso- ciation was abandoned, as the children under observation had out-* grown its instruction, and the work has been carried on in lines mapped out by Professor Brown. The first series of Miss Shinn's "Truths in the Development of a ChUd" have been published by the university, the second is on the point of publication. This book has been introduced as a text-book into the normal schools of California and Illinois. In preparation jointly by members of the section are essays on "Spontaneous Drawings" and the "Time and Number ??eBse." To quote again from Miss Shinn's exhaustive report to her com- mittee: "Much larger than the direct results in notes gathered has been the training of the observers. We have become quite a different set in this respect. Meeting monthly and talking over phenomena, we have clarified our minds, corrected our own and our babies' per- sonal equations, foreshadowed generalizations, till I consider our fire regular observers now among the clearest and most correct in the country. Requests have come to this San Francisco section to initiate some method by which the scientific study of childhood can be Incorporated into the kindergarten training." 1000 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION BEFOBTS FBOM VABIOUS SECTIONS OF THE NATIO ASSOCIATION FOB CHILI) STUDY. BY MISS SARAH B. AVH/rSB, BOSTON, MASS. In 1880 a study of the contents of children's minds upon entering public was undertaken in Boston, President Hall giving a list of questions, anc Quincy A. Shaw employing a few of her kindergarten teachers to make t aminations. We began these talks with small groups of children who were aside for the purpose, but were not long in learning that the best way \ retire to an unoccupied room and make the acquaintance of each child by Later, a study of grammar school children was undertaken, which inTolve^ dren*s lies and children's collections, among other important facts and phenoD A series of tests of hearing of children in the public schools were also Dr. Clarence Blake, the eminent aurist, kindly lending his aid. A most interesting study of yisualization among boys in the English school was made, Mr. Frank O. Carpenter, one of the sub-masters, ha?ii operated most heai'tily in the work. Boys were given a word at a time the black board and asked to write instantly and in Tcry limited time wb word suggested. This part of the report I make entirely from memory, ac recall but a few of the words, those being: horror, abstraction, cold, fear, number, courage, fun, time and space. I hope this audience is entirely familiar with President Hall's "little cli **Thc Contents of Children's Minds," which was based upon the first of studies, appearing in the Princeton **Review," and lately reprinted in imu form. A paper upon "Children's Lies," also written by I'resideut Hall, waj lished in the "American Journal of Psychology," and we now have it iu a rt "Children's Collections," one of the most suggestive of papers, api)eared "Nation," and ought to be known by every teacher. "Sound Blindness" was reported upon at the National Educational Assoc in Nashville, Tenn., a few years since, and the paper afterwards printed i "American Journal of Psychology." I believe the "Visualization of Boys" also published in that journal. REPORT BY THOS. P. BAILEi', JR.. CHAIRMAN SOUTH CAROLINA ASSOOUl FOR STUDY OF CHILDREN. At last year's meeting of the State Teachers' Association a Committt Pedagogical Investigation was appointed. The committee reported to the asj tion a few days ago. Most of the work was done at Marion, S. C, in both i and colored schools. The report of the investigating committee recommends that teachers r cases and record symptoms in their character notes, just as the physicians c their reports to their fellow-practitioners; that State, county and town ass tions be formed; that the work for the general observers be limited to the sot down spontaneously of children's spontaneous doings and sayings; that the mat be turned over to a special investigator for working up. About forty misc neons illustrations of sayings and doings were given. At a meeting of the superintendents, the experiments on children's intei were reported. Data were gathered from Marion, Darliugton, Greenville scf study.] CHILD STUDY, 1001 < white and colored), from South Carolina College, from the teachers of Marion, and from several other adults. On July 4th the South Carolina Association for the Study of Children was formed. It was thought best to collect a small membership fee during the meet- ing of the General Association, and to have a working organization, consisting of an executive committee, with the chairman as co-ordinator of data and general director of the work, with the sanction of the committee. The chairman will map out the work, which will be begun this summer by teachers, mothers and others. The State Kindergarten Association will co-operate. There will be a child study section, child study round tables, etc., at the next meeting of the State Teachers' Association. The Association "for the Study of Children will heartily co-operate with the National Association for the Study of Children. REPORfT BY MISS BLLA HASTINGS, PRESIDENT OP SOOIBTY FOR CHILD STUDY, NEW YORK CITY. Our membership is, as it hapi>en8 now, composed exclusively of mothers, although all interested (n the work are eligible for membership. But, as a rule, mothers only apply for membership. We were an independent organization, owing allegiance to no larger body, until the spring of 1893, when we joined the Woman's Conference of the Society for Ethical Culture, in order to participate in their lecture courses. This past year we have studied the questions of the various duties imposed upon children, because they are children, as the filial and fraternal duties. We have also taken up the question as to how far civic duties may be im- posed upon them. We also took up proverbs used as admonitions for children's conduct We have also considered parental duties as the converse to filial duties. Then we took up the larger questions that grow out of fraternal duties; as, for instance, philanthropy. The beauty of the performance of the various duties were further impressed by the biographies of great persons. We have not of late given -as much attention to the physical natures as to the moral and mental. But as in the gradual development of the child these three are inseparable, it is not neces- sary. As, for instance, the physical nature of a child of three only permits of certain sorts of mental training? and the moral side is only awakening, so you under- stand how the study of one includes the other. RBI'ORT BY PROF. C. B. MBLBNBY. I'lUNCIPAL HORACE MANN SCHOOL. NEW YORK CITY. I do not feel that we have accomplished very much. We have all the reports and pamphlets issued by the universities and associations, but have not yet for- mulated any systematic scheme of our own, although we have made a beginning. We have made some examinations of children along the following lines: First, physical. We make note at the beginning of the year, and from time to time dur- ing the year, of the age, weight, height, posture, gait, the effects of the gymnastics; we give especial attention to the position of the children in exercises and in study; to their walking and standing and movements. We note the conditions of health, nutrition, fatigue, effects 6t study; note any indications of nervousness, irritability, etc., and trace their causes. W^e inquire into the home life and habits and diet of the children, and do not hesitate to advise them and their parents. The coming year the whole institution wUl be under the medical supervision of one or two regular practitioners, whose duty it will be to look after the general health and to note especially the development of the children under our instruc- tion and training. Of course, we have tested the senses of hearing, sight and touch 1002 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. to enable us to conform our instruction to the needs of the children. Ererj has been examined and the points recorded on a blank similar to that em by Supt. A. E. Frye, with which, I presume, you are already familiar, points noted have been used to aid us in giving the right kind of instruct the individual children and in making our promotions. The points, noted regard to proficiency in studies, to habits formed, temperament, and the po^ observation, thought and expression. We have not attempted to pursue investigations along the lines sugges the National Association for the Study of Children, because we have not ye decided upon the. merits of such an examination or the use we might make information obtained. We believe that a systematic study of children i be made, both for a better knowledge of the child in general and for a knowledge of the individuals with whom we have to deal. We shall be ver: indeed to have any aid in determining what tests ought to be made and fa^ corded, and what practical use may be made of them. We shall be verj next year to co-operate in any way possible in this important work. I might add that one of the Columbia College students has made some on our children in the matter of power of attention, but I do not know t would be possible to give any summary of these tests that would be of val^ your report It is expected that next year we shall have a psychological laboratoi^ pursue some system of experiments in connection with the work at Columbi: lege. RBiPORT BY DR. MAXIMILIAN P. B. GROSZMANN, WORKINGMAN'S SOH NEW YORK CITT. As long as I have been connected with this school I have made it a po gather from the teachers as much information on the individual children as ble. The teachers reported at regular intervals on the progress, capacity character of the children. Special observations and incidents, disciplinary < rences, and other happenings, were carefully recorded and collated. As we bine the class teacher system with the specialist's system, no child is seen 1 under the influence of, but one teacher, each one seeing a special side of the while the class teacher as well as myself have an opportunity of judging the as a whole, basing our judgment upon comparing notes with the other tea A careful medical supervision, connected with physical examinations and mei ments, conducted by the school physician (Dr. Franz Torek) and myself, si ments our other observations and has furnished valuable material. The £ physician who examines every suspicious case of absence, and, in case of need nishes treatment, reports on the home surroundings. A ladies' committee, at as some of our teachers, visit the homes and report At the monthly pa meetings, the parents consult with the teachers, and much is learned in this In fact, the parents have learned to confide in us, and to report on, and to a us about, many matters concerning their children. A number of our pupil sent to the country during the summer, and here they are under the super of some of our teachers, who have an excellent opportunity of studying the dren in their natural freedom. All our promotions are based exclusively ujx open and frank discussion of each individual case in the teachers* meetings. This is, in brief, an exposition of our scheme of child study and the opportn we have. MOTOR ABILITY OF CHILDREN. 1003 * X>H. HDGAR DUBSSHIMBU. NEW YORK SOHOOL OF PEPA:G0GY. ^^ <^failcl mind ^^"^^^*^^^"™ ^'® developed a theoretical scheme for the scientific study *o stinj-v- ♦v. *^^^^ ^^ translation, privately made, Perez' "My Two Cats." in order ^^ *"^I>xa'to. *^®thod of observation and record practiced by a trained psychologist ^oiit:irfc-tie<3* ^y. ^^*^^y minute and detailed descriptions of children were begun and 3, ^vy- *"<>ughout the course. These reports are kept up throughout the year. Tho ^a-ta _^^^^^^^ on an extended observation of children's flow of association, t:o ixxxil>ii^ ?*^ ^^*^ original report on file. The scheme was to develop power in liis tJioxi h ^^ ^^^ teacher to tell all that can be told of a child's inner life by seeing -^ sxaT>*:k - ^^Pression in form of words, drawings, modes, or anything he makes. pr3^^^- tendent or principal, with keen perceptions exercised or developed by tile r>r vL w* • *• ^^ ^^^ swift glance, often detect hidden factors, and vastly increase ixxs ix^ Jollities of giving the correct advice to a nonplussed teacher, besides gain- ««^^ -a <^roased respeet from teacher and scholar for power to penetrate character and a^Hect motive. - * Tnis led up to a renewed study of plans of mental measurement serviceable , <^^^- I purpose keeping at this for the sake of my colleagues in public schools; to Iielp -tliose who leave my classes better to "size up" a pupil from combinations of symi>toms. Personally, I took measurements of 300 pupils, and have reports from ma-ny more. Hight here, I may refer you to the systematic measurements Daa.de at the Workingman's School by Dr. Groszmann, and the interesting conclu- sions t:o be drawn in an eminently practical way. X Icnow, too, that Dr. Shaw has made exhaustive experiments on hundreds of oliiiaren as to vertical writing. Tn:J3 MOTOR ^t BILITY OF CHILDREN— A PTiELLMINAEY STUDY. BY JOHN A. HANCOCK. CLARK UNIVERSITY, MASS. [AN Abstuact.) The enormous difference in ability between the child and the aclialt, both pliysieixHy and mentally, is fully realized by few. While it is commonplace- to say that there is such a difference, yet the practice of the sclxool makes comparatively little allowance for it. I>eclagogy is baseefore, all control of the finger seemed lost, hence the finger tests were all made for a half-minute on both men and children. Contix)! of the muscles and attention seem to me to be too closely as- sociated in young children to permit study of either separately. Tlie instrument multiplies the movement four times; the results are reduced accordingly. The same university men gave tracings for tliis test. The following are the results: WITH EYES OPEN. EYES CLOSED. Vertical Vertical Movement, Lateral. Movement. Lateral. Tlio men 0975 c-rn. by .0911 cm. .085 cm. by .110 cm. IT \yoya, 5 years old USS cm. by .532 cm. .794 cm. by .080 em. X4 srirls, 5 years old 580 cm. by .337 cm. .714 cm. by .453 cm. 32 "boys, 6 years odd ' .396 cm. by .378 cm. .689 cm. by .534 cm. 02 grirls, 6 years old 394 cm. by .319 cm. .5:55 cm. by .395 cm. X3 l>oys, 7 years old 419 can. by .282 cm. .093 cm. by .442 cm. 8 ^rl3, 7 years old 300 cm. by .350 cm. .312 cm. by .305 cm. The same general relations hold in this tab]^ asi in the others. Bryan has shown ^ that the rate of tapping for the child of six- -tee^n is about five times as great as for one of six, and that hand power is later than arm power in developing, bnt gains and eventually sur- 1>a.sses the arm power. Taking the rectangles of the standing and fingei* tests and the lateral measurements of the shoulder tests, the ratio of control between man and a five-year-old child in the swaying test is as 1 to 4.1; for the shoulder, 1 to 4.5; for the finger, 1 to 5.8. Wliile these results may not stand with more extended research, the trutli evidently lies in the direction they indicate; and, in my opinion, tlie motor control in man is from three to six times greater than that of children in the first year of school life. The order of control is from fundamental to accessory, and is evi- dently in harmony with the theory of physiological development. Tbe following results are from simple and general tests, and throw some liglit on the motor ability of children to make complex co-or- ^inations, both of larger muscles and of smaller ones. 1006 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. [CSiild A pattern found in most of the kindergarten iniides consists nf four slats interlaced. This was taken for a test, using slats eight inches long and one-half an inch wide. Four were taken and inter- laced before the children, and left so for them to see. Four others were then given to each child and the children were asked to inter- lace them. The slats were interlaced a second or third time before the children, yet but one child — a girl of six — succeeded; nine copied the figure, the remaining fifty failed wholly. There was not oppor- tunity to test more. Have young children the power to make delicate co-ordinations? To test this power, 162 children were asked to rest their forearms on the table, the hands in an easy position with the fingers curved. the lower parts of the palms and the tips of the fingers touching the surface of the table, and then to begin tapping, letting the movi^ ments proceed rapidly from the little fingers to the thumbs. The/ were also asked to reverse the order, but all failed to do so; five suc- ceeded somewhat slowly in tapping correctly with both hands; four were successful with the right hand only, and three with the left: fifty tapped with the whole hand, using a wrist motion; nine with the whole hand, using an elbow motion ; five with the whole* hand, with both an elbow and a wrist motion; forty-nine alternated the index finger with the other three; seven of these, however, did this with one hand only, the movement of the other being with all fingers moving together from the knuckles; twenty-five gave irregular move- ments indefinite and uncertain, and in many instances approaching succc^ss; in twelve cases the movement was from the knuckles, all of the fingere moving together. I am not concerned at present with the effect of training on the ability of children to make these movements, but rather with the problem, what is the period of the development of function in the nerve centers controlling the finer muscles concerned in delicate co- ordinations? Evidently, for these children, it is only beginning. Far less difficulty was experienced in tests involving the co-ordina- tion of arm movements. They were first asked to make one hand move in a circle on the breast; after this was started they were asked to place the other hand on top of the head and pat with it. In forty-five cases the i*e suit was either patting with both hands or movig them both in a circle. In the other ninety-seven cases there were first unsuccessful movements, often patting with both hands or moving both in a circle, or an alternating of these, but a considerable degree of success fol- lowed in each case. One-hundred and sixty were shown how to beat time. Arm move- ments were used. Practically all could beat double time freely. Treble and quadruple were more difficult, but, by going slowly, it was Study.] MOTOR ABILITY OF CHILDREN. 1O07 done by all but fifteen in the not more than two minutes' time taken for each test I draw the following inferences at this point, subject to change or modification by more extended researches: Children early learn to make movements involving large muscles. They succeed easily in large movements of some degree of complexity. The order of development of control is, evidently, body, shoulder, arm, forearm and hand. In the hand, control of the index finger differ- entiates before that of the others. Pine and complicated movements are made with diflSculty. Efforts to keep quiet produce strong symptons of nervous irrita- tion. Movement is; inhibited only in parti and awkward swaying and twitchings result Children have far less control of their muscles than adults, as is shown in ^ach of the tables. Generally the girl at the same age has better control than the boy. Children in normal healthy growth show a lack of control and co- ordination paralleled only by ataxic, choreic and paralytic patients. Tills is based on the fact that 38 out of 150 showed the ataxic symptoms of dragging the feet, or walking with them wide apart when asked to walk with eyes closed. Sturgis^ test for choreic tendencies showed that but half of 15o children tested were free from them. To show the importance of a knowledge of chorea and the value which Sturgis places on the test I give here his own statement : "1. Movement disorder is the product and the index of mental disturbances, and may be known by nice observation of the higher muscles (the face and hands) before it has reached the stage to which the term of St Vitus' dance (or chorea) properly applies. "2. When the school child (and especially the girl between seven and twelve or thereabouts) alters in temper, works less well, less willingly than usual, gets untidy or slovenly, in a word, degenerates mentally and bodily, inquire of the mother as to home conduct and temper. Ask particularly how the child sleeps and whether she com- plains of headache or limb-ache and whether her food is sufficient. "3. Amongst the incidents of school life apt to be injurious in the way we are considering, there stand out prominently examinations, moving into a higher class, sums (too difficult or iU explained), and punishment or admonition before fellows. "4. The best index of muscular infirmity tending to St. Vitus' dance is the hand. Face mobility may be simply nervousness, the tongue may be tremulous by nature. The hand test is infallible, and may be thus applied ; '^id the child hold up both hands open, with extended arms, the palms towards you. If that' is done steadily, both hands upright and 1008 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. both alike, no finger or hand quivering, no falling 'back of eitb€ nothing to choose between the positions of the two, then tt has not nor is it near (either before or after) St Vitus' dance may confirm this test by another. Let the child place tlie opei upon yours, palm to palm. Look then at the backs of the hands, observe whether fingers or thumbs (especially the lat pose without tremor and without restraint."^ In the gradual acquisition of control of its muscles, th( needs to be carefully guarded from inconsiderate treatmen should, if chorea seems at aJl imminent, be taken out of school from responsibility and given for some weeks a quiet out-of-do with plenty of nourishing food and as much sleep as possible. It remains to consider briefly the principles of physiologi< velopment and certain pedagogical experiments in relation foregoing results: Exercise is a term with a great variety of meaning. In it tion to education it is, to quote Du Bois-Reymond,® "the fr€ repetition of more or les^ cotnplicated action of the body with t operation of the mind, or of an action of the mind alone, for th pose of being able to perform; it better." The close relation between muscle, nerve and mind makes possible for exercise to affect one alone. The various senses powers of mind are all called into play to give proper adjustm( the muscles in all the range of activity, from the play of the ch the work of the artist and artisan. Herein lie great possibility education. Motor centers make up about one- third of the brain, motor training brain growth and mental activity are increased new avenues are opened leading to a more intimate acquaint with the world. The laws of physical development should be more regarded i construction of systems of education. Much emphasis is thrown, in ordinary discussion, on the nece of making directions exceedingly clear, to get children to do wh required of them. The student of children has it strongly impre on him that the child ordinarily has very slight power of susta attention, except in the lines of his spontaneous activities anc terests, and that he cannot grasp anything in any great detail, mental powers are very small. As Barnes has shown,^* the c thinks in units, fragmentary and broken. Such logic as it has is poor. It is interesting to note that Hodge found the curve of sea in carrier pigeons, dogs and man logieal,^^ while that of chM was illogical in the extreme. The activities and emotions are dt nant in childhood, and yet we insist on training the intellect from first primary year. Mental grow th should proceed on lines in 1^ MOTOR ABILITY OF C^^^DREN. \ ^^ ^^ development The applications of the law ^ ^ e raade especially to all phases ot motoi- training. stantlv^^*^ ^^ggestions are offered: Physical training should con- *lio Yy^ ®^PPlement manual training. Manual training should utilize ^^xx&\\^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ before the knife. Vertical writing should he c1j.^j^, younger children. Prom som^ hundreds of specimens of chil- stir-ok^ ^i*s1: efforts in writing, I find the great majority of down ^s "to ^^ ^^^ vertical, or nearly sa When not vertical, the tendency ^xxTx la^^* *^^ ^^^^ strokes to the right Writing may well be be- in» o ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ blackboards for some months. Early writ- -^^ I>a-per should be large and without ruled lines. Y^ ^^y of Barnes' conclusions in regard to drawing seem lo be in ^wo^t ^-^^ with the law of physiological development. Kindergarten ^ "^ ^® generally too fine. Too great precision, involving delicate 1^ . ^^^nix>lex co-ordinations in pasting, folding, pricking and sewing, ^ -"^^ listed on. Occupations and games for young children should be ^ a. ^^atiiiire that will involve large muscles and movements. - '^^'Q-olie^rs can at least give much help with such work and permit ^^y more extended investigations. BIBLIOGRAPHY. ^- I>axia. "Text-Book of Nervous Diseases," p. 38. ^- ^J^ Millard and Brackett "Boston Medical and Surgical Journal," Vol. i., 1888^ _ ,_^I>- 136; vol. ii., iggg^ pp. 600-603. *^* -Hinsdale. "Hie Station of Man;" "Ajnerioan Medical Journal." Vol. xciii.^ I>I>- 478-485. ^- JastT-ow. "American Journal of Psychology." Vol. iv., p. . O. IBxillard and Brackett "Boston M'edical and Surgical Journal." Vol. ii., 1888, I>. 598. e. Ba-yan. "On the Developm'ent of Voluntary Motor Ability;" "American Jour- _ _ ^^^ ^^ Psychology " Vol. v.. No. 2. „ ^ ^ -- Strxir^^is. "Report of the Congress of Hygiene and l>emography, London. I*art iv., pp. 2o «>7 8- X>u Bois-Reymond. * "The Physiology of Exercise;" "Popular Bclentifie ^ ^^o^thlyr- Vol.- XXX. ^" S^®" "^seases of the Nervous System," p. 70. , „ p, __ -O. :F-r-ioli ton-Brown. "Th^ Relation of the Nervous System to Bducaaon. Chap. IV. of Morris' -b^qi, of Health." KCartwelJ. "£-1,^.,^^^ Training Congress." 1889, pp. 16 and la ^^ T^X'PT "^^^hives of Medicine;" "The Psycho-Fhysiological 'I^^'^^^f ,^,,otic Xdiotic Han^ ,, ^ . .. i.^be Psycho-Physiological Training o^ *" Eye.'^ Vol. / Yl' ^^^* "^!!^^'^*iTand Industrial Training of Criminals." 1^. Barnes. 'Clxij^ J ^^^ ^^^^^^^ Fed. Sem., vol. ii., No. 3. X5. Hod^e. 'Po^^aV^^y^.^^'^^ April, 1894. XO. ax. X2. ]010 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION^. CHILDREN'S LOVE OF NATURE. BY SUPT. W. A. HOYT, BROOKFIBLD. MASS. [An Abstract.] At a meeting of the college representatives last Novembe] fessor Dolbear of Tufts presented a paper, in whicli he dec ^The results of the teaching of science in schools of all kindt been a great disappointment to the friends and advocates of S( teaching. This is as true abroad as at home. The matter wi cussed at length at the last meeting of the British Association May it not be that the occasion for this disappointment ia j failure to recognize how early the attention of the child mi directed to nature and in what light he should view her? Too little attention as yet has been given to child study t termine at what age, generally, there is an awakening to the ch of nature. Various are the avenues that lead to her encha palace; in many instances, too, that which in early years att gives place later to some different fascination; and easily is shown in the case of eminent scientists. The motion and son] canary birds have unmistakably given delight to a child of tv months. Indeed, now and then, a fond father, in the case oi child who has not uttered an intelligible word, has heard in th vigorating air and beauty of out-doors inarticulate sounds whic believes evidence of joyful susceptibility to nature's elixir; an support of this Mr. Beers writes: "A child experiences an aJi purely physical pleasure from the play of the outward world oe senses." A child of thirteen months has shown her pleasure at sight of moon and stars, and again and again has "greeted t \vith a shout of joy." The impressionability of a child is hen realized. The love of Walden began almost in Thoreau's infa; In his last records, Jeffries tells his amanuensis that he sees in sun-lit water barred pike and floating clouds of his childhood. S< has of the borderland "infantile memories." Agassiz's love of i ural history displayed itself close to years of infancy. Tennyson his last years, paints a vivid picture of his early playgrounds, deed, 'the study of almost any poet's childhood, in connection w his works, will show that his strongest, most vivid, and most last impressions of nature were his earliest." How early color and odor of flowers attract attention; what desire for possession seizes the child! Huxley thinks there is son thing kindred between the child and the flowers she holds, as ifi ing back to those early ages when they were appreciated not alo for their beauty and fragrance, but were regarded as the bond co _^^^y^ cHax>^£2\^,^> j^Qy^ Qp A^yrai:. ^Q^^ ^^^ ^.^T^ ^Ttl !^T«^^^ie« of the life encircling him. Did not eoont^ i^..?'"^^^' feel this, when, at their festivals, altars were fes- «i«^^l Z^^ "T"' 'f ^^^'*^ ^^ ^^^«^« ^^r^ ^^eorkted with the es- ^t^^^\^^^^:^:iJ^^^^^^^ ^"^<^.t^e air, as Mothertar^l^ i« T^ri'^^^ winter's sleep with the pulsating life'of spring; when^ ^ri«^' J' b^-vest-time, as the leaves and flowers faded and fell «=*or-ro^w solaced herself in fitting requiems?— T^e melancholy da^rs ♦ ♦ *. the saddest of the year, K^£ waihng winds, and naked woods, and meadows brown and sere. -^^^if - ^^^ ^^* accredit Dickens with knowledge of child-life*^ Has t^^^^/^^^^»^™Pathetic simplicity been a passport to the deep recesses ip ^tXG liavoii of the heart and emotions, as he writes the well known IXTios of little Nell: "Her couch was dressed with here and there «om^ -v^inter berries and green leaves, gathered in a spot she had ooen XI sod to favor. 'When I die, put near me something that has lo v^d t:lxo light and had the skj above it always?' " ^^^<^^rxt\y a teacher of children varying from six to nine years ot:a.ls, each dotted with gold. As he pored over its beauty, he f axiciod hie could see into its depths; hours at a time he studied it tlic^xi, SLXidL in succeeding years. He tried to voice its message, but -ooia-ld not; yet he never tired of watching it, enamored of its mystery. -A^xxd ^wtiy should not the flower fascinate the boy? Like him it was l3om. It respires, sleeps, takes and digests nourishment. In Plato's "t>o{i.vit:i:f ul figure, man himself is a plant, not of earthly, but of heav- <3'Xi.ly origin. Xn -tlie case of a few of Nature's children, let us trace recognition o€ lioi- charms: Humboldt, as a child, displayed a fondness for TiSLiivir-al history. His favorite playthings were floWers, butterflies, "i>oet:les, stones, shells, which he was jealous in collecting. "Wliat an exceptional life was that of Jeffries, one who in adult yoars uvas sustained afield! In boyhood, his father by his side was ever ready to provoke curiosity, to lead to the home of insect or l3ix-^, to familiarize with habit, to peer into secrets with hardly the t\ir of intrusion, responsive to all the varied influences affecting senses so keen, delicate, discriminating. TVhen the school days of TjTidall began, he had already as a foundation an affectionate intimacy \^dth the outer world. Birds, plants and rambles had endeared it to him. 1012 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCLA.TION [Child Bryant, in his boyhood, was given to collecting shells and min- erals. He writes: '1 was always from my earliest years a delighted observer of external nature. ♦ ♦ ♦ The poets fostered this taste in me." "Man is necessarily a naturalist." Agassiz, in his boyhood, was possessed with the mania for collect- ing birds' nests, eggs, especially insects, and other objects from the world of life. Love of acquaintance with such objects is said to have been a mental trait with him and not a mere desire "to find friends and playmates" in the animals about him. With his brother, he haunted forest and stream. He knew the birds by song and sight; he had a knowledge of their habits, food and life. He waded in the brook, watched the fishes and sometimes captured them with peculiar devices all his own. Not satisfied with the life he lived in communion with the animal world out-of-doors, he converted his room into a habitat for his pets and favorites — his home was theirs. Audubon's boyhood extended through life. His first recollec- tions are linked with the fiowers, the orange-tree, and mocking-bird^ *i:he king of song" in Louisiana. He says, that, so remarkably vivid were his earliest impressions of Nature, that her beauties excited a "frenzy" in his blood, and at a very early age his career could have been predicted. Boyesen was distinguished in his boyhood for his love of pigeons^ rabbits, dogs, cows and horses. The pigeons, several hundred, he named after characters in books he had read, and viewed them as actually impersonating such. Under the tuition of Qunnar, he was^ fascinated by the secrets of the woods, in which he sometimes passed a night, the better to watch the movements of some bird on animal^ and become acquainted with its habits and peculiarities. His inti- macy with animals and love of them are touchingly brought out on the occasion of leaving home to attend his first school. The morning came, the steamer was at the pier, but the boy was not to be found. An anxious and protracted search began, messengers being sent in every direction. The suggestion was made that he might have gone to the pasture to bid the cows good-bye. This, sure enough, had been the case. He had said his farewells to several, but in his grief he was unable to part from his favorite calf, around whose neck he was clinging, his tears a child's witness to the bondage of love. Readers of Buskin are aware of his strong passion in the pres- ence of landscape, and his love for the beautiful in nature. He has sketched the development of it. The first thing he remembers aa eventful in his life was his visit, under the guidance of the nurse, to "Friar's crag on Derwentwater; the intense joy, mingled with awe, that I had in looking through the hollows in the mossy roots, over the crag, into the lake, has associated itself more or less with all twining roots of trees ever since." He remembers, likewise, a walk ♦i^^y. 3 CHILDREN'S LOVE OF NATURE. 1013 .^^ l^ill on a winter morning, "when the rocks were hung with icicles." Ixonever in the vicinity of hills or in mountain scenery, *^I had a 1> ^a^Tire, as early as 1 can remember, and continually till I was eight- ^'^ 5^** twenty, infinitely greater than any which has been since I>ossil3le to me in anything; comparable in intensity only to the joy ^^^ ^ lover in being near a noble and kind mistress, but no more ex- F>liea'ble or definable than that feeling of love itself." ^^^*li such scenery, there were always thought-associations. Very '^^y^y reading and parental instruction had prepared him for this. His favorite book was Scott's "Monastery;" "so that Glenfarg and all '^^^^i' l^lens were more or less enchanted to me, filled with forms of liesitating creed about Christie of the Clint Hill, and the monk, Eustace, and with a general presence of White Lady everywhere." TV"e might, also, study with similar results the child-life of such TJaen as John Burroughs and Gilbert White and many others. Sucli is the record of some of Nature's noblemen. Why does it T^ot approximate the condition generally of the child to-day? One c-aiase is the decline of country life. Children used to live under the Infliaence of forest, field, pasture, lake and stream; much of their lives was thus spent. But the city child is with his kind, and rarely ^•lone with nature. A large proportion of modern city children, on -entei-ing school, according to careful statistical observations of Presi- -clent Hall and others, have never seen a sunrise, sunset or rainbow; haT^e no idea where potatoes and most common vegetables come :f rom ; have never seen the most common birds, as robin, bluebird audi crow; know nothing of growing buttercup, clover, corn, dan- riiners are concerned. There is little doubt, from all we are coming to know of the child, ±liat in his flitting fancies are to be seen traces of about all the out- grown superstitions of the race. If his individual development does run parallel with that of the race, it must needs be that Science, instead of exterminating superstition, as she strives to do in the ad alt, should rather foster it in the child. If she makes war upon It prematurely, she destroys her own foundation. Crude and fond myths, lying so warm and so long about the heart, fertilize thti roots ot love of science in childhood. They are the pledge and mold of a :f eeling toward nature which must not be too early intellectualized. We should not thwart Nature in her endeavor to fill the chUd with tlie animistic feeling that everything has an inner life sympathetic with hiB own. Savage life seems a kind of macracosin of childhood. It so, we may use the anthropology of primitive man as the common 10 14 NA TJONA L ED UCA TIONA L A SSOCTA HON, child life writ large, or so highly magnified that all its laten and tendencies stand out' in bold relief. The crude superstitions of primitive races — the wildest of are still very vital for childhood, and both show and str€ man's pristine closeness to nature. Let those who doubt tr upon young children, and they will realize that childhood thi the world of myth. If this seem a questionable statement, suggest a few specific tales to be sympathetically told to chili from five to ten years, as follows: The tale of Arachne, turm a spider for daring to compete with the divine weaver, ^&M tale of Tithonus, who asked for immortality, but forgot to a eternal youth, and so shriveled up with age, and w^as turned ii first grasshopper; the origin of the sunflower from CI jtie, the nympth; of laurel from Daphne; of the first pair of oak tree Philemon and Baucis; of the robin in the Indian tale, whe human original fanned the dying flame that saved the worW the ice age of the great polar bear. Let him tell the whole st the dying summer, as the death of Baldur, or the tale of the s( in the myth of Persephone stolen by Pluto. Such a ^^edagogy 1 us to that lost point in the psychogenesis of the child and race science and religion have their common origin, and gives new. z all forms of the interpretation of nature and life. In conclusion, those who are concerned for the welfare oi sc in educational institutions admit the imperfect success attei their efforts. The nght attitude toward it has not generally taken. Scientific men of the professional order must look abov4 beyond the discovery of fact to the contemplation of the discc like Newton and Kepler. In his early years the student should his attention mainly directed, not to microscopic aspects of phe ena, but to macroscopic and cosmic. His feelings of interest sympathy with the life about him should be kept warm and glov Too true are the words of Gibson : "We are as much strangei nature as we are aliens from God. The fox and the deer run a from us.'' We need the old-fashioned star-gazing and tracing of stellations, as in Burritt's map of the heavens; we need the Wed day and Saturday excursion, with equipment of hammer, collec case, and net for capturing butterflies and insects. The laboratory is the end and never can be the beginning of devotions to nature. All its methods are not essential, but ins mental — not ends, but means. We may abhor paganism as ascetics did the body, but it is the condition of science, and the io cannot be complete unless the roots strike into a rich, deep, d soil. Thus, whenever we can teach out-of-doors, have school exi sions, substitute real flowers for their pictures, growing ones picked samples, living for dead animals, dead ones for stuffed sp Slucly . 1 EXPKESSION THRO UC?^ ^Ba WING. 1015 ^eiis, tlie eiiTironinent of nature for that of the school-room, we xoster tli:e trae love of nature. The spirit of botanj is where the fl^o^vera grow, of zoology, where creatures thrill with the joy of being; of geology, where the rocks are found; of astronomy, in the silence of tile open air — silence save the "music of the spheres." The surpris- ^^8 ignorance of nature on the part of children entering upon school life, ougbt not to be possible. Professor Trelease writes: "I believe in beginning the study of nature before the child learns to read, and in continuing it as an out-of-door recreation through life, whatever ills nltimate specialty may be." Xn this he is right We must begin early, before the more and more evanescent oneness with nature, which is the glory of childhood^ lia.s forever faded. Only thus shall we secure to Mother Nature her riglitf nl dominion. We must start in the lower grades of our educa- t^ional system, remembering that the greater and higher anything is in tlie soul the deeper its roots muBt strike. CHILDREN'S EXPRESSION THROUGH DRAWING. BY PROF. M. V. O'SHBA. STATB NORMAL SCHOOL, MANKATO, MINN. [AN Abstract] For about two yfears several lines of experiment upon the relation of expression through drawing to a child's mental activities have l>een carried on in the Mankato Normal School and in some of the j>iil>lic schools of Minnesota, and it will be the purpose of this paper to state briefly what these have been, and to indicate certain results tliat seem to be in view, but which will be given here tentatively, aTvaitlng further data from the working over of a lar^e amount of material that it has been impossible as yet to examine. Two princi- pal lines of study have been made, each supplementing the other^ tlie object throughout being to discover the relation of representa- tion to the contents and operations of the child's jnind in certain di- rections. In the first place, a study 'was made upon the general form and characteristics of representations of objects that were drawn to tell a bit of narration or description, usually cast intc the story form ; and also, drawings made from objects seen and from memory were studied in the same way. Second, the relations in time and place, and the proportions shown In the objects drawn were studied; and an attempt was made to discover if they represented relations and proportions actually conceived by the child. A large number of drawings for these studies have been obtained from school children 101 fi NATIONAL EIJUVATIONAL Aim)€U in tlie practice department af the Mankato Noi the training and city schools of Ht. Payl. and Kochester; and there were, in addition, some } tween thrt*e and four years of age experimenter homes- All those in the Mankato Normal who quite a number from other schools, wei*e subject ond motor-ability and the results kept in record earning the drawing; and careful stateuxentf study of the phy^icid and intellectual charactei were obtained from many teachers under whonj niadA^ and thesp have also been of account in cei It was f'nind after eonsidorable trial that the these drawings as expii\ssion9 of the mental activiiies of their authoi^s, or to account for thi such, necessitatecl much familiarity with the ha of mind and body of a number of children^ in and i^tudy everj' thing that could in any way con standing of the peculiarities shown in the drav^ post* about fifty children in the normal school in led in a rather thorough manner; and it is tlie dc i^ome of the conclusions which it seems possible special studies, and upon which as a basis it is over more cai*efully the material gathered fr* making^ if possiljle, some statistical tables wl worked out extensiyely yet About ten thous have been obtained fmm children between th eleven, at least six being made by every child; child mn u|)on wliom special studies wem made s hve drawings were obtained, these being made a1 over a period of nine months. 8uch stories as *^Johniiy Ix>ok4n4he-Air/' (used l)y Professor Bai and admirable stndy)^ "The Lion and the Mouse quite a numl>er of original stories for the purpos tain objects in particular relations and events w*ere read or told twic^ to the children, who wer back on paper without help from anyone. 1 In the study of these drawings the first ( '*Do children refrain from drawing certain obj cause of the difllculty of representation ?■' As awering this, tlie I'hildren were given pei'fect any difficulties wliicb th(\v met with in illiistr stories, and to consult the experimentjer upon an^ them. They were closely observed while the st to thetn and dtiring the making of the drawinj had finished, the story was told orally without c ejs:pee8sion thbouqh drawing, 1017 I>iot:xir^«i^^ '^^ objects and events were remembered that were not o^Kie I>er " ^^^^ ^^^ records of 500 cases studied in this way, about J^^ot:^ • ^^^t indicated that they could not represent certain ob- f^iiirjr Vvi^^^^^ these being a bridge, a horse and carriage, and a I>osit;e ways. And so there are many conditions of objects similar *^ "tlix^^se which individual children find difficulty with; but this dues «^ot: seom to hinder them from representing the object so that the story may be told. It; would seem, then, that children from four to nine, or there- al>oiits, represent the objects involved in drawing a story as readily CLii.d with as much pleasure as they would in repeating the story orally, or even in listening to it. After the age of eight or nine, it secerns that the difficulties of representing begin to be really appre- ciation, and there is less confidence and satisfaction in the work. To tost this farther I had quite a number of children of different ages cipaw first from some object or person present, and then from, memory tsoxuLO object or T>er8on well known to them; and, while not one m t:on children up to nine years of age, made any objection whatever, 1 lxa.resenting a l>ov or girl whom they could see. I noticed, also, tliat younger cfaOciren rarely hesitate in drawing from memory, but go straight to work with their lines and dots to make man, ^^^^^ cbild, or other ol>iect- while older children seem to be absorbed m meditation and ekL not draw so readily. It is true, that, in older children's drawix^^- more characteristics and qualities of things are sbown; and it i^^ms probable, also, that qualities are perceived or remembened t:T^t reauiie deliberation to picture, and sometimes t:lie task is too ^5ftc^ It should be said in this connection that young chUdreu clo not always represent in their drawings ^JfJ remember of ait ordinary story; but this must be account^ for I>robably, by tlieir physical inability to continue a great time at any 1018 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [ChiM one task, and must not be laid to their lack of understanding how to represent objects. Once in a while older and stronger cluldreD repeat orally more than they tell upon paper; and they say, in apology, that they were in a hurry, or had no room, but hardly ever that they did not know how. n. The purpose of the second study was to find out if children represent those objects and events that appeal most to their inter- est, and thereby claim their attention. If there is no difficulty in drawing objects to tell a story, then it might be supposed that those parts of the story which aroused the interest of the child to the greatest degree would be the ones that would be continually in consciousness and that would get themselves worked out in the illustration. It appears, though, that there are important disturbing elements in the ordinary class-room that prevent the representation of those objects and events which the individual child would be most interested in; for one cannot observe a class of children, whOe some bright story is read or told to them, without seeing that cer- tain points are unduly impressed upon the class because of the ex- pression of one or two demonstrative membera For example, in the ''Bear Story" when "Silver-hair" sits in one of the chairs and break* it, the humorous faculty of one or two boys in the class is aroused; and giving way to their feelings they get the whole class to laugh- ing, a suspension of the reading for a moment is made necessary, and these unusual conditions tend to impress this one particulsr event upon each pupil in the class. And further, it is difficult to find a teacher who does not by her voice or manner, unconsciously though it may be, impress upon pupils her own feelings and interpretations of the story which she reads; and while this is a most commendable trait in the teacher, it seriously interferes with the results of any experiments to determine the interests of individual children. m. One of the most interesting studies made was upon the dia- grams and symbols which thei children used to represent objects, \!i)t aim being to trace out the origin of the peculiarities or characteristic of each child's drawings. The question was asked: What has led the child to make this distinctive kind of a diagram to represent a given object? With young children the human )f ace is always round, with two dots upon it for eyes, somewhat of a scrawl for a nose, and one for a mouth. But ears and hair are not so often found, while the body is either a single line, or an irregular oval, with lines branching off from it for the limbs. Quite often the arms are omit- ted, but never the lower limbs, showing that the youngest child ap- preciates the necessity for something to support the body. In some cases there are evidences of raiment; and in every case, with chil- dren of all ages, girls are clothed, even in drawings where the bor figures never show any trace of clothing. These are pubstantialij* :EXPBE88I0N THBOUQH DRAWING. 1019 xia^i:^ f or-m ^'^^^^^^ ^^* always appear in a reppesentation of the hu- xxxoT^^ th^' ^^ ^^^ exception being that with some of the older and "tions a.ntfi^^^^^^ children the faces are made in profile and the rela- TMX€>T%^ proportions between the different parts of the body are ^s tm+i- ^*^^^^^^- Sometimes a few other features are added^ such th^ sVi ^^^ ^^ the coat, feathers in the girls' hats, and buttons on 'V'€*r*tLic* ^'^^' ^^^ these are comparatively rare. A tree is at first a ^ixd -t-YiT ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ * dozen branches shooting out on either side,. j^lj^ ^««e do not bear twigs and leaves until the child is eight or ^^^ ' '^^lien a substantial trunk also begins to appear; and quite ^ ^j ^ Volume of roots are as visible as any other part, and appar- , ^ ^* more importance. A house usually has a roof and two sides ^^^^^> althougii in a number of cases the end of the house only is. ^^■"^* There is always a chimney with smoke twirling up to the ^*^^^»> and hardly ever more than one door, but all the way from ^^^^ ^^ ten windows. Animals have long oval bodies with four legs, "ta.!! a^nd head in profile; and even in drawings where the human *ace is always a front view, animals' faces will be in profile. A ta.l>le is a horizontal line supported by four vertical lines. Beds and ^^^•irs show some diversity, and yet everyone shows the essential cli.a.ra,cteristics- Windows show four bordering lines with two bi- seoting lines, vertical and horizontal. There is much diversity in tli^ drawing of a river, probably explained by the fact that many chil- dren, liave never seen a river, and the only characteristic they know 3.1>ont, or at least think about, is water; and this they put into sqixsLre or circular patches narrow or broad areas, and various other :foiTms. Enough has 'been said to indicate that one basis for the diagrams ixiade by the cbild to represent any object is his comprehension of XYxe distinguishixig characteristics of that class of objects. A child's diai^rams are, in a way, pictures of the concepts he has of the vari- OTis classes of tbings that he tries to represent. The young cbild is liot bothered with anything but fundamental attributes, and his clia.g:rams are built on these alone; while with older children it seems tlxsit additional characteristics are added as they are perceived and trlieir relations eoxnprehended ; and it is probably the consciousness of the great numt^er of characteristics which inhere in every object tYkSLt overpowers ^he child of twelve or thirteen in his effcwpt to rep- resent them all x^i their right relations. A significant fact about tlc^em is, that th^-^ are* always the same for any one chUd; and while -all display the f ixDdamental characteristics, there are still some fea- tmres in each individual case which make each child's peculiar to biimself. An attre^xnot was made to account for this individuality lu -tbe representations of things by inquiring if the child takes some object in his euArxronment as a model in his representations of that 1020 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL AJ380CIATIOIK - object in any story. About 400 drawings were studied "wit authors to find out if the objects they had represented liad teristics like those which were best known to them. A good tunity to test this was afforded by the "Bear Story," ^wliere terior as well as the interior furnishings of a house w^re repri a number of times by each child. In no case did the?re seen an attempt to reproduce the form of their own bouse, al three school buildings had steeples something like the norma] ing where the children attended school. The other school bu were all conventional, with no indications of the influence < particular building in the making. The interior of the homef very much alike, showing an upstairs and downstairs Tvith priate furniture, and eveiy one having stairs to reach the story; but in several instances stoves and the entire course of pipe to the chimney were shown, and these were copied from own or grandmother's house. The evidence seems to indicate that the child is possessec system of symbols which he uses to represent objects at all and places without any care to make his representations repp the special characteristics of any distinct object of a class. S< series of experiments gave additional data in favor of this view the first place, the diagrams used in the representation of any number of objects were traced throughout the whole of the child drawings, which extended over a year with the pupils in' our nc school; and with many of the most familiar objects, aa boy, girJ, house, sun, sky, stars, ground, four-footed animals, and so on, 1 was an average of 150 representations made by each child, j result of this tracing has shown that the peculiar diagramma representation of any object is strikingly characteristic of a chii all of his drawings, and any one characteristic that appears ij object in any picture will be shown in all the pictures of that ol drawn. Some children always show roots to the trees; always 1 the feet in human beings turned out in opposite directions; all have the arms straight out; some-always have clothing showing buttons; some show the interior of the house in every picture of object that they make; some always make the sun and sky, ti grass and flowers, when these are not mentioned in the story, cannot observe many of the drawings of any child without 8e< that his characteristic symbols are used to represent classes of jects without any attempt being made to indicate special cha teristics of particular members of these classes. To test this somewhat farther, a number of children in our sch from whom we had gotten many representations of men and boys their story drawings, were requested to draw some boy or man wh they could look at In quite a number of cases the writer posed study.] EXPRESSION THBOUQH DRAWING. 1021 a model, while the children with great earnestiiess and readiness represented him upon paper. It was ver*' interesting to see, no mat- ter in what position he stood, the sam^e picture grow under the artist's hand as he had made hundreds of times before with no one to look at. Children who made full front views in the story would also make a front view when they saw a model in profile. It seems otherwise with older children, though, for I have been unable to get thosei^bove ten to represent readily a person whom they could look at, and who stood in a different i)08ition from what they had been accustomed to represent in their drawings. In addition to represent- insr an object that was before the child a number of drawings were obtained in which some familiar playmate was represented from memory by the side of representations of myself in various positions; and, with the exception of some one or two trifling differences, the drawings were all just the same. Another experiment along; this line was tried with all of our chil- dren between the ages of five and seventeen. This was drawing a chair or table, or other familiar object, of which some parts were more or less ornamented. The child was intimately acquainted with the use of every object, and care was taken to place it in such position that it would be easy to represent in forai and outline. Directions were given to reproduce the object, and it was not indicated in any wav that the ornamentation was or was not to be included. The results showed that with children of five the omamei tation was never represented ; with children of eight exactly fifty per cent of tJie drawings showed evidence that their authore tried to reproduce the ornamentation; while with persons of sixteen, some of whom, had had but little instruction in drawing, eighty-seven per cent represented the objects ornamented. It seems that young children do not regard details in things, but look upon them as wholes, capable of being put to some practical use; and they make the simplest sort of lines to represent parts of that whole. It has, I believe, "been sho^n by Pro- fessor Barnes, from a somewhat different method of experimentation, that children are concerned at first mainly with the uses of things, and only after a time come to observe and appreciate detailed char- acteristics; and it is the same in narration and description as with single objects. Their interest seems to be in the thing as a whole described or narrated, and they go to work to picture this thought- whole, paying almost as little attention to the making of individual things required to portray the various events as they would pay to their spoken language if they were going to tell it After children have been under the drawing teacher for a while, though, and have reproduced . somewhat from nature it ai>pears that they begin to appreciate details in things and to show them in their* drawings. 1022 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL AS80CLATI0N. IV. The purpose otf the last study made thus far was to i if the logical relations and proportions shown in the drawing sponded with the child's actual thinking of these. In sonde di there is nothing but confusion and disorder displayed thro while in other reproductions it is easy to discover the logical n of events, and the proi)ortions do not impress one as being verj or unnatural. With some children, it seems that as many; obj are remembered are put upon the paper wherever it happen only yery few of the actual relations existing in nature are ind It is always true, however, that the sky is the topmost thin picture, and the sun, moon, stars and clouds above everything e The ground is always under the house. Smoke always rise the chimneys; and a few other similar relations always sc be understood correctly even by the youngest children. Bu boy is walking along the road and falls into a river, the river d away off some place and only a mere circular or square pa water. How the boy gets into it is apparently never thought ( the artist People go into houses that have no doors or win steps run up to the rear of a house where there is no door. 1 are shown living out of water; the sun appears lower than the cJ and hundreds of other impossible things are frequently seen. I thing of the same kind can be seen in the proportions preserve tween the objects in the pictures. Bears will be made as lar; the house they live in, and a dozen times larger than the doors go through. Some of the children tell a whole story in one pic whiles others make a number to tell the same thing. It has found, however, that children below eight or nine years of age no difficulty in putting everything they want to into one pic Some get a portion of the story logically and then fill in the rest as best they can, all in one picture. In the '^ear Stoiy'' there possibility of twenty different views, showing the progressioi events; and this wjtfe first read to all of the children as a whole, reproduced from this reading. One exceptionally bright girl thir years of age made thirteen views in a half hour's drawing, rim no one in regular order as far as she went No other drawing more than eight. This same girl made seven views for "Johnnj-i^ in-the-Air;'' and it may be mentioned that she was known to al her teachers as the brightest student in the class. In our oy^n set very few made moro than one drawing to represent the "Bear Stoi while a number made two to tell the story of ''Johnny-look-in-^ Air," and two or three to tell other stories that had six or sej distinct scenes in them. It can be said, in general, that, ^fi^^ ^ dren to eight or nine years of age, a whole story is crowded into o or two pictures, which makes it in some measure illogicai auo fused. It would perhaps be too presumptive to attempt to Stndj.] EXPRESSION THROUGH DRAWING. 1023 whetlier the general logical relations and proportions expressed in a drawing are an exact index to a child's mental operations and con- ceptions; but it is worthy of note that a teacher who has had charge of a child for some time will, on seeing his drawings, say in almost every instance that she would expect such results as were secured, Such a child will be either physically weak or very restless, or con- stantly absorbed in what is going on about him. On the other hand, the children who impress their teachers as being bright, and who always show interest in what they are doing, usually malre drawings that preserve the logical arrangement of eventfe and ob- jects, and in which the proportions are fairly good. It may be said that a lack of right proportions in objects is not necessarilv indicative of a child's inability to conceive the true pro- portions of these things, bmt that objects are drawn out of proportion to indicate the relative importance which they have in the mind of the child. There can be no doubt that thisris true in some cases; but in others it is hardly true, as when a table is made twice as tall as the girl who is to eat from it With some children only one thing is held in the mind at a time, and when this is made to pass out, the next object takes entire possession of consciousness, so that when a picture is completed things are out of proportion and out of sequence. It appears, though, that this lack of ability to visualize more than one thing at a time depends largely upon the child. The physical element of temperament, whether nervous or calm, easily discouraged or persevering, has an important influence upon the child's logical thinking. It determines whether ideas or pictures come and go with- out much power of restraint and control, or whether they linger in the mind and are not dispelled every instant by an overflow of nervous energy, or by some other distracting influence. In all the drawings a record was kept of the order in which each object was made, and in some it was noticed just how and in what sequence the parts of each object were represented; and it is the purpose to work this over later, to see if there is any correspondence between illogical drawings and an illogical order in the making. In some cases studied children would build a house and then put ground under it; or they would make the furniture of a house and put the sides and roof around them afterward. Quite a number of the children ob- served made the sky first, and then seemed to fill in everything else as they happened to think of it. One restless girl without much power of application, but possessing some native brightness, pro- ceeded this way in making a human being; she first made a round head, and then a loop for a body; then one limb, and dressed it with pantaloons; then she made the ground for him to stand on, and then made the other limb and dressed it appropriately. -ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP FOR THE YEAR END1N& JULY 1, 1894. ^S^S;-«55^**-.?- N., Birmingham. »«2^f*?J'* *?*• cP- Montgomery. B?aiS^* '^- 9;* Selma. Siry^W' -SI-, T. Montgomery. SV^^^^*^-™!'®*^ Peter, Tuscaloosa. S^iiP^J^* ^^S^^ »• M., Montgomery. ><2-rC» O. -«V., Mont4vallo. ^^'^^/^^^iioy J.. Montevallo. JclcLr-lll - , JFort Smith. SCelena. S. R., Pine Bluff. Oraj>^illo, I'ony. Little Rock. :F*nt:x-ai.ll, T. A.. Marlanna. Oelder-t, ^. BT-, Arcadelphia SCerz. S., I-.lttle Rock. ^ Jones* -A.- C5., Batesville. Jox-da-xi., Jun-ius, Pine Bluff XCellofiTfiT* -A.- M-, Vanhiiren.' Kloblns, Mrs. I>., Littie Rock. X^ohr-, OBJ- It., Batesvlllp. LefkovltsB, Mrs. A.. Birmingham. Loeh, B., Montgomery. Loeb, I., Selma. Mkasey, John, Tuskegee. Morgan, J. W., J5., Florence. Morgan, Mrs. J. W., Jr.. Florence. Morlasette, B. R.. Mobile. 0«ien, Bussev. Chlldersburg. O'Neill, W. b.. Do than. O'Neill, J. T., Dothan. Philllpa, John H., Birmingham. mrdham, Geo.. Mobile. Roquemore, John D., Montgomery. Kosenbaum, S. 1., Bessemer. Smith, L. G., Florence. Smith, A. G., Florence. Smith, C, Anniston. Taylor, W. D., Bessemer. TJllman, L., Anniston. Werthemer, J. S.. Blrmlngham.^^^^^^^ ARIZONA. Netherton, F. J.. Mesa. Arizona — 2.. ARKANSAS. Mvers. Bettie, Helena. Mviri Mrs. Charles., Helena. Mllflr Anna A.. Sprln?dale. Ml Ir W. M.. SprlngSale Miller F W., Arcadelphia. M^n. J.C..>rtSm^^^^^ la%\terk!-lW''Bo^^^^ ShlmT. J. li.. Little Rock. Sparks, G. I.. Fort Smith Snurka M. B.. Fort Smith. 3'»nen: jtsylVester. Fort Smith Arkansas —25. OALIFOBNIA. Stovall, Anna M., San Francisco. OOIX)RADO. California— u J^aCLy, X-.- M., Denver. -A.sa.y- «:, ^^ Denver. :OaKS's» E5. C, Denver. :Ba£er'« Janies H., Boulder 'R&fsm9^ it- H-. Denver. :Ben, -A... I>eiiTer. Oa.ro i>l>elJU G. H., Denver. Oarter. Olias- M., Denver Clinton, Oh as. Denver. Oox, Itosai XI., Denver. Bllder, HLelen, Denver. '^'^• Elder. Edith E.. Denver. Fleming, Miss M., Denver. Foster, M. T.. Denver. Gordon. J. R., Pueblo. Hart, Chfls. M., Denver. Haslop, Ida B.. Pueblo. Hayward, Emily A., Denver. Herrick. Elizabeth A., Denver. Hlggln, ii'. G., Denver. Kail. Thos. W., Denver. Keith. Mrs. O. P., Denver. Kelleher, M., Denver. Kerr. H. W., Denver. Knnpp, W. B., Denver. Liowell. H. A.. Hugo. 1026 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION COIX>RAIK>-C0fUinwfrooke. Deane, Cbai*. W„ Bridgeport. Gnllck, Alice M.. Lyons Plain. Hnrd, Geo. D.. New Haven. Boberts, Dimon, Pueblo. Shepard, A. D., Denver. Smiley, w. H.. Denver. Smiley, Mrs. W. H., Denver. Snyder, Mrs. M. B., Greeley. Snyder, Z. X., Greeley. Spalding, F. 8., Denver. Todd, B. 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Pollock, Mary, Washington. Pollock, Susan, Washington. Pollock, Louise, Washington. Powell, W. B., Washington. Richards, Z,, Washington. Sites, C. M. L., Washington. Spencer, Henry O., Washington. Spencer, Sarah H.. Washington. Upton. F. K.. Wuablngton. Wilson, Annie M., Washington. J*ij»tricf of CohnMbia-24. Bolio, Frank B., Key West. FLORIDA. Sheats, Wm. N., Tallahassee. Florida— 2. GEORGIA. Ames, A. H., Atlanta. Anderson, C. L.. Atlanta (3). Ashmore, Otis, S:ivannah. Barnes, Laura, ITioinasvUIo. Barnes, Mary F., TlioniasvUle. Barnett, S. T.. Atlanta. Bleakley, H. E., Augusta. Bleakley, M., Augusta. Brooks, L., Augusta. Brooks, H., Augusta. Brooks, K. L., Atlanta. Brooks, C. L., Atlanta. Byron, W. F., Montezuma. Cams, Alex, Atlanta. Chancellor, A. C, (.3ohmil)us. Degen, Chas. F.. Augusta. Degen, 1^\ A., Augusta. DeGroot, E., Atlanta. Dox. C. E.. AtlaiUa. Evans. Lawtou B., Augusta. Fewell, Mrs. B. M., Atlanta. Force. A. W.. Atlanta. Fox, A., Atlanta. Fry, A., Atlanta. Orifflth. W. A., VaMosha. Griffith, Mrs. W. A.. Valdosha. Hammond, Mrs. P., Augusta. Haro, J. O., Macon. Haro, A. O., Macou. Harris, Miss N. E.. Augusta. Harrison. Lucy Funk, Rome. Herty, F., Athens. Holmes, F., CoIum«bus. Jackson, S. M., Atlanta. King, W. E., Atlanta. Krc^sett, Otto, Athens. Laudsberger. A., Atlanta. Lumkln, J. H., Atlanta. McNamara, B., Carrolton. McRae. M. W., AtJantn. Merrill, Bessie, Thomasville. Miles, Fred, Atlanta. Parks, L. B., Atlanta. Payne, M. Amy, Atlanta. Peabody, J. M.. Atlanta. Perrlne, Ada. Atlanta. Roumsvllle, J. W., Rome (2). Schiff, Ike, Atlanta. Shumaker. D. E., Atlanta. Slaton. W. F.. Atlanta. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP. 1027 GEORGIA- Confinued, Slatoa, W. M., Atlanta. Stein, S., Atlanta. Btevens. J. p., Atlanta. Tedford, B3. L., Atlanta. 5rquhart, K. C, Alien Station. Tan Dyne, Atlanta. Waters. Mrs. W. T., Atlanta. Waters, Lole, Atlanta. Wiber, M., Atlanta. Woodruff, Mrs. Chas. M., Macon Wright, Homer, Columbus. Georgia— S4. IDAHO. Ganlt, F. B., Moscow. Idaho— 1. A.dani«, Alice M., Chicago. Adams, A., Chicago. Adams. J., Chicago. Adams, Maud, Elgin. Adams, Margaret, Elgin. Adcock, A. W., Chicago (5). Adler, I. S., Chicago. Affeld, C. E., Chicago. Allen, Helen J. Chicago. Allen Jennie, Cnlcago. Alexander, Ellen C, Chicago. Allinson, T. W., Chicago. Alllnson, Mrs. r. W., Chicago. Altneter, F. W., Chicago. Anderson, Ada M.. Chicago. Anderson, H. Y., Ohlcago. Armstrong, James E., Englewood. Armstrong, Ida, Chicago. Arnold, Greta, Braldwood. Arnold. Hattie L., Chicago. Ash, Grace B., Ohlcagb. Atkinson, Francis, i^reeport (2). Atwood, Lena G., Chicago. Anstin, Bertha, Chicago. AnsUn, G. M., Chicago. Austin. Ethel, Chicago. Avery, H. Louise, Chicago. Arery, Helen M., Chicago. Bach. W. A., Chicago. Bacon, A. T., Chicago. Bacon, Lulu, Englewood. Bacon, Mary C, Englewood. Baldwin, Alice, Danville. Baldwin, E. F., Peoria. Baldwin, Ethel, Danville. Baldwin, G. C. Danville. Baldwin, H. I., Decatur. Barber, W. S., Ohlcago. Barber, Melvina, Chicago. Barbour. O. F., Rockford (2). Barnes, Catharine, Chicago. Barnes, S. A., Freeport (2). Bartlett, Sue H., Peoria. Barton, Flora B., Ridge Farm. Baumgartner, B., ^$priDgfleld. Bay, G. P., Chicago. Beflch, E. A., Chicago. Beale, K. W., Chicago. Bean, Anna, Peoria. Beardflley, O. L., Chicago. Beatty, v. L., Chicago. BclrlJng, Frances, Chicago. Bendlx. A., Chicago (2). Bennett, Mrs. C. B., Des Plaiues. Bennett, Hester A.. Des Plalne«. Bennett, Martha, Chicago. Benning, Elizabeth. Chicago. Benson, Agnes I., Chicago. Berry, aTv., Chicago. Berdon, Carrie, Chicago. Berdon, Lihtbie, Chicago. Bergh, Miss R., Chicago. Borpnan, B. M., Chicago. Berry, R. L,, Springfield. Berry, Mrs.^R. L., Springfield. Bevans, Homer, Englewood. Beynon, John, Chicago. Beynon, Mrs. John. Ohl<'ago. ILLINOIS. Black, Mrs. Abba, Pekln. Block, Krederioka, Pekln. Block, Sophia, Pekln. Blake, Mrs. 0. H., Chicago. Blank, Mrs., Chicago. Bliss. K' B., Chicago. Boarke, Anna S., Peoria. Boarke, Patricia K., Peoria. Boer, S., Chicago. Boetion, v.. Chicago. Bowie, jSuphemla, Byron. Bowie, Margaret, Byron. Bowman, S. C, Serena. Bowman, F. E., Bloomlngton (2). BowTman, C. H., Serena. Bowhian, Mrs. C. H., Serena. Boy den, Esnlly M., Ohlca«ro. Boyden, Helen W.. Ohlcago. Bracken, £3inily, Chicago. Bracken, Bxnma A., Ohlcago. Bradley, A., Peoria. Bradley, John ^., Jacksonville. Bragdon, Bllzabeth, Evanston. Brngdon, Mrs. M. C, Evanston. Brannon. Virginia S., Chicago. Brant, H. E., Chicago. Bratton, M. R., Chicago. Brennan, Agnes, Chicago. Brewster, J., Ohlcago. Brewster. W. O., Chicago. Briggs, Thos. v., Delevan. Bright, Supt. O. T., Chicago, BMght, Mrs. O. T., Chicago. Brinkmeyer, John, Chicago. Brooks, G. H., Chicago. Brown, Blanche, Danville. Jirown, D. S., Peoria. Brown, L., Chicago. Bryant, John, Chicago. Buckley, Bdla, Chicago. Budd, Ella, Chicago. Bunn, M. E., Chicago. Burke, Kate, Chicago. Burke, Margaret, Chicago. Burkholder, C. S., Chicago (2). Burns, Flora E., Chicago. Button, W. J.. Chicago. Byrne, L. G., Chicago. Byrne, Catharine A., Englewood. Byrne, Lizzie, Englewood. Byrne, Mary. Chicago. Callaghan, Ed, Chicago. Card, Chas. H., Chicago. Cashier, Alice. Chicago, aiandlcr, D. B., Chicago. Chapin, E. J-. Chicago. Ohapin. A. M.. Chicago. Charles, Fred L^ Austin. Cheney, A. Jm Oak Park. Chittick. Eleanor, Englewood. Chlttlck Adnclla, Englewood. Oiittick. Charlotte. Englewood. Christie, Wm.. Jollet. Church, Geo. W., Chicago. Church. Ted, Chicago. Clancey. Minnie A.. Ohlcago. Clancev A. W., Chicago. 1028 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. HjIjlSOlS—Continued. Clark, iSarah S., Lee Center. Clarkson, A., Chicago. Clay, Sasan I., Gdlcago. Clendenen, T. C, Cairo. Clnte, R. C, Chicago. Coddlngton, A. 0., Chicago. Cohn, D., Chicago. Cohn, Mrs. Heury, Chicago. Cohn, JesBle, Chicago. Oole, Alfred, Aurora. Colt, Mrs. Florence J., Chicago. Colton, Mlrian, Kockford. Condltt, I. M., Chicago. Connell, J. C, Chicago. Cook, G. W., Chicago. Cook, John W.. Normal (2). Cook, Jane, CoIIlnBville. Cook, laa M.. Chicago. Cooper, A., Chicago. Cooper, Mrs. W. T., Chicago. Copp, Allen, Chicago. Coppj C, Chicago. Cortbell, Mrs. J. L.. Chicago. Oorwin, S. G., Chicago. Cottrell. Mrs. T. D., Chlcngo. Oowper, Mrs. J. H., Chicago. Oowper, B. Alice, Chicago. Cox, James A., Chicago. Cox, Mrs. Clara, Chicago. Coy, Miss B. Annie, Rockford. Coyne, W. L., Reck Island. Craft, P. W., Rochelle. Craft. Mrs. I. C, Rochelle. Cram, N. D., Chicago. Crampton, Alberta, Alollne. Crane, Miss Marietta C, Chicago. Craver, T. T., Chicago. Crocker. J. W., Chjeago. (2). Crowley. Catharine M., Chicago. Culbertaon, Ml8«i C, Chicago. Cutter, Anna L., Chicago. Cutting, S., Chlcagu. Cutting, L., Chicago. Dahlem, Flora, Napcrvllle. I>alton, Jas. P., Chicago. Darley. C. H., Ouincy. Darnell. K., Chicago. Darnell, Mfm R., Chicago. David, V. C. Cbloago. David, Rllla A., Chicago. David C. A., Chicago. David, Anna A., Chicago. Davis, Chas. B., Chicago. Davis, W. A., Chicago. Day, Bessie M^ Peoria. Day, Warren W., Peoria. Day. Mrs. Kate M., Peoria. Day. Mrs. H. F., l*eoria. Day, W. P., Peoria. Deane, 8. L., Chicago. Deaver, S. C, Bloomlngton. De Clark, Geo. W., Chicago. De Clark, Mrs. Geo. W., Chicago. Delmar, D. T., Chicago. Demmon, Rose, Chicago. Dempsey, R. J., Chicago (2). Dickey, N. L.. Chicago. Dlllman, L. M., Chicago. Dixon, W. D., Peoria. Dodd, Mrs. L. B., Chicago. Donald, F. C, Chicago. Dole, G. S., Chicago. Dolly, Mary, Chicago. Donald, Harry, Chicago. Donelly, M., Chicago. Donovan, M. C, Chicago. Doollttle, M. J., Chicago. iJougherty, C H., Chicago. Dougherty, B., Chicago. Dougherty, M., Chicago. Dow, Theresa M.. Chicago. Dnimmond. Mrs. M.. Chicago. Barl, Anita, Chicago. Barl, Bllen B., Chicago. Earnest, May, Peoria. Bastlake, Josle. Chicago. Baton, Ira T., Gbicago. Baton, C. li., Chicago. Baton, W. L., Chicago. Bdmunson. Bva, Chicago. Bdwards, R., Chicago. Bdwards, D. R.. Joflet. Edwards. R., Chicago (3). EUefl, K., Chicago. Ela, C. B., Bloomlngton. Bmbree, J. R., Chicago. Billot, H. 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Gesham, Miriam L., Chicago. Getwan, C. B., Chicago. Glffen, M. B., Chicago. Glflford, Mrs. H. B., Chicago. Gilbert, Mrs. Mary E., Chicago. Gllmore, B. L., Monti cello. Glmmell, Elizabeth. Ctiicago. Glmmell, Frances, Chicago. Glmmell, Margaret, Chicago. Gintzberger. L. D., Chicago. Gllckauf, L., Chicago. Glover, Ed, Alleuvllle. Glover, Frank. Alleuvllle. Goldman, E., Chiciigo. Goodhue, Lincoln P., Chicago. Goodman, B.. Chicago. Goodman, Milton F.. Chicago. Goodyer, Owen, Chicago. Gorham, Dorothy S., Galesburg. Graham, David, Chicago. Lrraham, Mrs. David. Chicago. Grant, Belle, Danville. Gray, T. M., Chicago. ^ Green, Amy, Peoria. Green, F. G., Gale«burg. Green, S. M.. Peoria. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP, 1029 Oreene, Jefferson, J., Dunlap. Greenwood, Carrie, Chicago. Gregg. Bdim S., Chicago. Gregory, O. A.. Chicago. Gray. K. M., Chicago (2). Griffin, H. C, Chicago. Grimshaw, Mise B. C., Chicago. Gross, Alice, Sycamore. Gross, Amanda, Sycamore. Gunther, C. H., Qulncy. Gumea, Jennie B., Downers' Grove. Hagen, B., Chicago. Hagen, B., Chicago. Haggins, Cornelius E., Ravens Wood. Hailmann, H., Lincoln. Hallcett, Belle M., Chicago. Halkett, Margaret, Chicago. Halsey, Mrs. N. G.. Kankakee. Hamilton, E. W., Chicago. Hammers, Jeannette, Elgin. Hammond, A. H.. Chicago. Hammond, Estelle P., Chicago. Haniek, Robert, Chicago. Hannahs, Ella, Chicago. Hannon, A. R., Sprin^eld. Hansen, Norman, Franklin Grove. Harkins, Jas. W., Chicago. Harklns. Jas. AV., Chicago. Harris, Wm. M., Chicago. narrower, W. J., Barrlngton. Hart, A., Chicago. Hart, Percy, cailcago. Hart, Mrs. S. H., oblcago. Hartley, Helen M., Chicago. Hartley, May, Chicago. Hartwell, Bdwln, Greenwood. Hartwell, Bertha, Greenvirood. Hartz, Dora, Rock Island. Hatfield, Ida, Chicago. Havlland, W. C, Aurora. Havde, Mary A., Chicago. Heaford, Geo. H., Chicago. Heln, Mrs. Emily, Peoria. Hein, Dmlly, Peoria. Helm, S. H., Chicago. Helmke, C, Chicago. Hemstreet, Miss B. A., Chicago. Hemstreet, Miss H. N., Chicago. Hemstreet, M. J., Chicago. Hemstreet, Mrs. M. J., Chicago. Hendricks, G. C, Chicago. Hendrle. T. G.. Chicago. Hersteine, Kate, Peoria. Hesser, Grace. Chicago. Hesser, Ida, Chicago. HuntJey, Alice B., Ravens wood. Huntley, Grace, Ravenswx>od. H bbord, A. B., Chicago. gaoher, Kate, Chicago. H cjte, J. B., Peoria. Hicky, Miss J., Chicago. HlIJ, Noble, Woodstock. Hobeon, W. C, Bunker Hill. Hoff, D. W.. Ohlcago. Holbrook, Annie M., Chicago. Holmes, Sarah B., Chicago. Holt, R„ Ohicajso. Hootman, G. WT, Eureka. Hootman. Mrs. G. *W., Bureka. Honke, Milton, Chicago. Horn, Alfred, A., Chicago. Hough, A. B., Galva. Houifh, W. S., Galva (2). Houehton, P. A., Chicago. Howe, W. K., Chicago. Howe, Mrs. J. K., Chicago. Hnbbell, Jennie, Rockford. Huot, B. B., Chicago. Hunt, J. N. Ohlcago. Hunter, A. W., Chicago. Hurd. Mrs. D. N., Chicago. Hutchison, Grace K., Decatur. ILLINOIS-Con«nt«'d. Irwin, Miunle L, CliJciigq Lawn. Irwin. Mlsa .L B., mileugo Jack, Aoiin. JSpriugtieUl. Jack, Jnue. i^priiiRHeld. Jayne, T^. L,. Chicago, Johns, NefUe, OhU'a&c>. Johns, S, Ct Oblcago, Johns. < r^ W., FulrfleLd Johnsoii, A, M., Chicago" Johnson. Annie W., rhlcauo Johnson, lletcn V.. OhlcaSo" Jones, Thomas, Chicago * Jones, L. W., Chicago! Jones, Nettle L., Austin. Kane, Juliette, Chicago Kinn, ^^4^8 Cora A., Oliicago Kelser, John, Chicago. Kelsteter, C. W., Chicago. Kelllger, W. H.. Pana. Kelsey, J- M., Chicago. Kenworthy, Charlotte. Rock IslaiiU. Kenworthy, J. T., Rock Island. Kerns, Chas. S.. Mollne. Kerns, Mrs. L., Moline. Kester, A. A.. Fairfield. Kimball, O.. Chicago. Kingsley, C, Evans ton. KJrby, Dorotha M., Chicago. Kirk, Robert, Berdstowu. Kirkpa trick. A., Rock Island. Kleine, Oscar B.. Chicago. Klemert, A., Chicago. Knapp, Mrs. J. V., Chicago. Knapp. Margaret, Chicago. Kniglit, J. B., Sheridan. Knight, Mrs. J. B., Sheridan. Knobe, Bertha, Chicago. Kretlaw, Louis, Chicago (2). Krimmel, F. C, Chicago. Ijane, A. G., Chicago. Lane, C. B., Chicago. Lanstrom, Fred, Galesburg. Lantz, C. L.. Chicago. Lavery, Nora, Kankakee. Ijaw, Jas. B., Dixon. Lawrence, Nellie, Chicago. Learnard, J. Perry, Danville. Lebeand, Chas., Bvanston. I^e, R., Chicago. Leigh, J. Im Chicago (2). Letterman, Mlnda, Chicago. Levering, L. R., Fairfield. Levi, M. J., Chicago. Levy, Louis M., Peoria. Lewis. Edward C, Chicago. Lewis, Julia M., Chicago (2). Lilly, Frances, Champaign. Lin, R. M., Paris. Link, Mrs. R. M., Parts. Liser, H. B.. Chicago. Lloyd, Mrs. W. C, Chicago. Lockhart, Grace, Danville. Loveland, Julia, Chicago. Low, M. C, Chicago. Low, H. A., Chicago. Lowell, M. H., Chicago. Lowell, Mrs. M. H^, Chicago. liUkens, Thos. B., Chicago. Luther, Mrs. Annie, Chicago. Lynch, F. B., Chicago. Lyons, Su§le, Jojlet. Lyons, John,^Jollet. iS^ons Mrs. J.. JoUet. Lyman, F. A^, 9S'\^»«P- Lyman O. W.. Ohlcago. Maoklen, W.. Bnglewood. MftcMfthon. Tena F., Chicago. M^ddiS St Bllse. OarlUle. Malcolm Fannie K., Ravenswood. m2 tby?'Mrs. C^IU Champaign. ManS Bli«abeth M., Chicago. MiSvan S. B., Galesburg. 1030 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, ILLINOIS— Continued. Mansfield, Sue, Ein«lewood. Marcus, Bdw. S., Chicago. Mara, Minnie, Chicago. Marsh, Mrs. H. E., Kockford. Marshall. C. B.. Rock Island. Marshall, Mrs. C. B., Rock Island. Martin, Serena M., Chicago. Martin, Margaret J., Chicago. Martin, Harriet, South Chicago. Mather, John M., Chicago. Mathews, F. W., Chicago. May, R. E., Caiicago. McCarthy, Agnes A., ChdinVr ^J H. Chicago. S^ue^Oln^' 5117.® k.. Chicago g. ^bt^ Chlcaeo. ^^ ^- !>•. OhampaTgn. ^K^rif^V ^^^\^- ^- Champaign. ^»vim^„^«*e. Kankakee: * ^^S^^'?*^®"^' Chicago. ^-visS^l 't^ss ®' Chicago. »yai^ VrS^/, ^^ay, Morgan Park. SteLMn* A *'ii® M-. Bnglewood. SaSSiixi V/^ • Chicago. SandS^S:^ ^- ^•. Chicago. SaSS^M^^ Maude S., GMcago. Sa^iiSS^S- ^^' E.. I>a Grange. s5S«?^?J; ^«^- F. E., La Grange. S^fi^ltTf-?' il^i.' Chicago. ScS^.^*^» -A.lt»ert, Chicago. S^Sf^**^^^**' Mina P., Buglewood. sS5JSS%- •^- <^- Chicago g^golc^^er, I. M., Chicago. §X?1S* Hf^nnajh, Chicago. 5^t«P, BlixMiifi.. Chicago. sS^^S^T' JiacH: J.. Chicago. a^S^^^I- S^^^S' Chicago. S^^Jna^l^ B311a, Chicago. g^^»»T>CC, .A., X,., Peoria (2). »oblaxftx>2, Airs. A. L., Peoria (2). Sc^mi>CC. ^A^xnelia, Peorta. ^^i»»pfiC, I-.lllie. Peoria. So^l^sln^ex.^ M.. Chicago (2). ^^^'"T^^*"- ^- ^'* Chicago. »ofhulcx-a:r*, TVm.. Chicago. ^{J^y^^^^^^^-.^^^.^- W™- Chicago. So^nlar, :m:. a.. Chicago. Sohnltas, ^I^. J.. Chicago^ gcimitas, ZEfcl. C, Chicago. Selxnan.^^Onnle M., Decatur. »ei-%ri«, :]^oward, Chicago. o^rr*^- ^E>v>elyii. Chicago. »e>tJo^arr-^M, CMiafl. G.. Chlcaeo Set:te^re-n. Mrs. C. G.. Ohlcaio S^'wrar^, IZ^innle. Danville SbalToir, ^5. R., Chicago (3) S^a^««r. -A.da M.. Chicago. Sb A-w, IP*. ^. , Chicaguir«:. Eva, Nap^viii« Siok. SSlIza K.. V*- "m: Slolcel, IN-e-llle 2M.. fjvunJI^n Silliinan, Miss L. H.rlT^lfS^flU Silver. JR. B.. St. lyinifl^'^^fi^- Sisson, IT*. M., CT]lont-*-r Slclllxoan, John Af., Cai*+-r.« S^lauson, H. M., MoJJtie * SI0CLE&* ^W. H., Chicago ^"°^- Sloan. Caiaplotte, EWJe^ood iSf^T^^H!^k^ch€?S--^ ^^it:t^, I-ll>ble, Chlcagro *^ Sixilrei:^* J-. Ohioago. Smitb, I>ayld, Peoria. Smltl:&, m R., Chlcaifo. • anxitb, :F. a. B., Offiek^^ Smyser, J. H., Irving Park, Chicago. Sneed, M. E., Chicago. Sneed, Bennle, Chicago. South worth. Wm., Chicago. Sperry, H. F., Champaign (2). Spierlng.A B., Chicago. Splerlng, Therese, Chicago. Spooner, Catharine Joi., t CarlluTlUe, Stoltz, J. H-, Cblf^ago (2). Stone, Mr a L., Chioago. Stoner, H. F., Chicago, Stoner, Joj^eplilnt, Calcngo. Strauss, Evn^ Chicago. Strauss, Levy, fjhtcag^d. Stull, John, Chicago. Sture. Gilbert D., Chicago. Snndhelmer, Z., Chicago. Taylor, Bstelle. Chicago. Taylor. H. C, Chicago. Telfers, Grace A., Chicago. Tell, A. C, Chicago. Temple, Frances A., Chicago. Thomas, Anna, Chicago. Thomas, Emma M., Chicago. Thompson, Susan, Chicago, Thrall. W. A., Chicago. Tlnan, Jennie, Bnglewood. Tlnan. Dora, Bnglewood. Tlmb^rlake, T. M., Chicago. Toll, Agnes L., Chicago. Tomllnson, Grace, Chicago. Toole, Helen, Chicago. Torrance, K.. Chicago. Towles, B. >!., Chicago. Towles, M., Chicago. Townsend, B. M., Chicago. Traney, L., Chicago. Tucker, F. S., Peoria. Tukey. J. B.. Luverne. Tumler, Blfreda. Chicago. Tnmmermuth, Bertha, Chicago. Vaile, H. S., Chicago. Van. 0., Chicago. „ ^ „^ ^ , Van Danelven. Taney, Bast St. Louis. Van I>anelven, Mrs. B., Eaat St. Louis. Vandruff, B. M., Bock Island. Van. Llew, 0. 0., Normal. Van Pelton, E. M., Bloomln^ton. Vldlund, Annie, Evanston. VlncrUre>li * • -rJ «»alanapolis. 3*C<3BS^Silr«-^^"*et. Frankfort. ^^^oCKlSi.^™J?^V Isabella, Indianapolis. ^^^oS«S^??^» i-^o ^. Indianapolis. I^^y ^iT* ^S* ^•U^^*?; Orawlordsville. 3tei:^yer4 ^«^- ^' South Bend. 3^Ill^jr®'T ^S^™-2^Terre Haute. Mo"r£; "^V ^i«, A^^e Haute. 3k.lSrrlS* T^r- ^^v Indianapolis. MoSSr^' -^5^- **^" Frankfort mSSSV S- ^-' Conn irsTlJle. mSi^* -^-^^^^^^v Indianapolis: N^eay. nrtxotB^.^ ladliniapoiia' S^^5L. CJo ra , IVI o nm his. SS'JJ'^^^^^'WV^- ^^-' In dl una poll?!. gox-tor. lBCtti*i->% lileiimond ^owerB. Jff*. a,. IVotre Dame. Qui^oy. i»^r-y, IndlnuanoIlB f2) Ra^iael. C3-. , IVrr-e Huate ' ^' Xler&r&oly^* ^k^jTi*.. TetT-e Haute X^I ol^ci. iT(3s on Xtot>irason. -glances M., Rlchmnn^ Xtol>io.8ozi., S-u.8ai], KlchiDoiid Itotrtin^laosse, O. H., Gas CltlV^ O.. Indianapolis. Schley, Geo. B., Indianapolis. Scbmuck Emllie, Indianapolis. Schoonover. Mrs. A., "Warsaw. Schroyer, J. B., Indianapolis. Sooney, Ora, Ft. Wayne. Scrlbner, M. J.. India nap jlis. Shafer, Ada, Inolananolle. Shilling, Mrs. A. C, Knijriitstowii. Shreye, W. IX, Indianapolis. Simon, H., SfvansYlIle. Sloan, Geo. B.. Indianapolis. Small. Jiini<»R, IdnviTTe Sniub. leGslo J.. InillnuapoTls. MniElii, Ai»i]cB N.p Cruwfijrdsvllh*. Sm t ih , iia y J C ra w ford.-* v i 1 1 e. S[.ieDcer, K. M., Judirtuiipolii*, Stacb. Mrs. Anufi. Sonfb Uend. StaHiuck, Agrnos, Miflhawaka. Rtompfel, Tlieo., rndljiQapoJIs. KtnwGll, M. D.. Indiannpoll's. Straus, M^i Terre Haute. Strunk, I, l>ey» -A>l>t>Ie S., Cedar Ka».M. ^Ajznskeo. :H^t tie, Manchester ®^' rvrell* Vbr^rlnliL Marlon 1». .A^ TT., Cedar Rapi Towti City- Scht^ln Ilia L** Fort Dodjf^. S^-henck. U C. Clinton, Scbul^^rn John K., Kefikvik. Seerley, O. C, Cedar Falls, SefTley, H, H., OtTar FziJlS- Seyujorej John F,. Sigoumey. ShurU, Mra. Addle, Brndfocd. Smith Gertrude, Grlunell. Smith, G. A., Ceanr impldg (2i Smith. J. Frrd., Grlnii^lL Smith, Mr?, J. 1 red. Urlnaell. Smith Lillian. Grl^inplL amitiu Miirgarot U,, Sloai City. SpftUJdJng, J. M,, Sioux City. Spencer, Mrs. O. T.,_Cllntnn. Spurr, Cora A. P., Of>rrt?fnloaTJllfe 8tlpp, ^V. H;, State Center, Storm, A, V., Storm Lskc. Straaser, F. k, BeHevtew. T^ont^, Cattle. Rockford. Thompson, W. O., Shell mcls^ Timpj^iie, 'I^esifla, De Witt. Tolerton, M^y B., Codar Fali^ TVirdyee, Euima J., Cedar KApld* Tracy, tindel. Des Moines. Tijacr. JfLS, M., D&s MoInt«. TratT. Mabel, Dta Molues. \ an UnniiUt Gertrude, Marshalitowa. Van ^aun, Geo. B., Cvdur Fwlls. Van Sftun, MfB. Geo. W., Cedar Fj Vati Tine. Mrs, O. L.., Marsh fcltown Von ^^tvck. A., Cedar Uupl^a, Van Vlaek, ChNB. A., WaTert^ Veber, Bdna M., Marahalltown. Waite, O, W., Council itlriff;'' WaJIey, Su^an U G., Watarl&a- WHitrlU'ldH Wm.. lUymunil. Walerfit^ldj Mrs. Wm., Rjirmoat!. Wwlij^ier. k. h,. Skkux Oiiy. Wetwer, Mrs. B. H„ Cedar BapM«» Whie, Oj^ithla M.. Mnriaa. Wllt^^x, I'ranr, M(?ntiiur. Wllcojt, Mltial© p., De» Molnirs. Wllcoxen, W. M., Des Moines. Williams, Robert. Waterloo.. Wilson, A. G., Hopkinct»n. Wllsijn, Mrs. A. G., Hopkin«ton. Wilson, V. I*, Ottumwa. Wllley. R. Jy Sioux aty ©. Woltediek, W. A-, Oedar "^pldj Woodbury, H. A., Council Bluffs. ^^ KANSAS. Bowman, Annji, t^aTcaworth, Bowman, Aliop, wa^bfiup^. Brennan, J^ena, Leareuworth* Brennan, Kntti*, Ij^^avenWLHtfi. BriggB, Ada B., Lftwrt'HC*. Burton, G. G., IVf*'"^*' ™..pm Callahan. B. U, l^av^aw^rui. Gambtoen . M t- 1 Isaa, At ciii sou . oSpbell Mrs. W.^W„ Atc^lsoit. • Churchill, W. S, OeftWJi^Li^ ChnrchlU, Mrs. S. K-. Oa*TTBtMBi«^ ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP, 1035 *^^' »■ il! ■ Newton. it^ A' ^""^ ^ '^ * NortonvUle, C5i-o •wf:J?'^ ^f^' ^- *^- Columbus. ^2^IS?' S-» CMitawa. r^^M^J^m^ :^., Ottawa. X-«. '^4:., Liawrence. J. O., Burlingame. -D,-— ^-— "*«^Vt» J- O.. Burlingame. S5!?5*<34», 3k<£r». B. H.. Olatha, ST^^^**» <3^- '^-. Klncaid. O-Iddlxftfirs, -O. . - Atcblnson. a<>«>clrlola. O. B.. Sprlngvale. ^*'"«-'«l l«-x* . JTames S., Ottawa. ^r&Aasxa, ;]B-, LeaTenworth. »rim_ni, 0«rtjrud€, Nortonvllle. 0«riflE|jn, Ikf xns. S. C., Nortonvllle. O- 'W.j, Topeka. :g*axil B., Leavenworth. ^^^ ^ — "^^. <*•» JSa?»aB City. ^^UfiDKlzisoxi, BJj^ Wichita. £Ut:e, I>. Jfe-, *Topekaw 'ELowLSCf X^Tmlu S>., Kanma City. iao«Lfirllx&» ^Sne D., Bmporla. JolmooTx, S^BteKle, Kansas Cdty. -rtr* ^ X«eaven worth. KANSAS— C7on«»t«?d. Klttlaua* Ida L., Leavenworth. Learned, A. J., Lawrence. Learned, A. J., Lawrence. Lehman, J. L.» Osage Olty. Lehman, Mrs. J. S., Osage City. Leidy, M., Leavenworth. Logan, Frank, a>9peka. Moulin tock, O. P., Topeka. McDonald, John, Topeka. McKeman, Blla, Topeka. McMillan, L. w., Lawrenoa McMillan, M. I., Lawrence. Miller, Sadie F., SaHna. Miller, B. L., Seneca. Miller, 0. G., Salina. Mellcr, Johnny, SaUna (2). Miner, L. W., Wichita. Mull, Charlotte, Lawrence. Newcomb. Kaitie, AAchison. %>Tv.-oTnh, ff. H. Attihlson. Peony, B. R.* I^wrenc^. i^Qlps, Frank, Leaven worttw Ph<^lpe* Holen, Le^Lven worth. B«TGB, Susan, TDpeka. Kle^, g. H,. AtcWBon, Uolwrtson, Mm. Hei^, WtcilU- Hoeeri, Saille, L&aveiaworUi* lfo3(-bur^U* E3. B., Liiwrence. Itojj*, W. JK, Mc^Clouib. Ryoin, L. B*, Leert-'ttwortn. SatterthwTilte, A- H-. Glrard- SbannoD. W. A., Angnsta. Slnelair. O., EMorndo Smitb, WtLL. Jr., Burlingame (2>. snow FraiiTc H.. Lnwrence. .SttiTeus, a S., Loaronworth. TViylor, Oora» Leavenworth. Walker. Miss, To^a. Wllkhison. J. N., ^appPfa. WllUoms, I^Tira»„Np^o^- Wilson, X a, yi<*JJ«r„. Wilson. Thoe. a, Wichita. ^^^_^^^ :» So-i>lil«, MaysviUe. BdCx-8. XlT-a, Louisville. KHNTUCKY. .Aai«n, BdCrer- BTva, Louisville. ^A.dAxxBJSox&» .AJlce K., Maysville. .AjKMloxTBOxm. AriTW S., Louisville. :i3«i., "Covington Ooimella, Loalsvllie ^j.,..*,.^^^, DdTvard, Ollnton. CttM^dle^' -r^,^- 1^**? A^ Olinton. Cloolc, :EU>l>er;t N^ Bard^to^Wii ivllle. DeJ(l^^, W. H-t Lonl^TlUe. Fajrittr Blisftbetb, N<>wport. Fenft, Attne- I^^'»y*^\* ,^, Flrahnian, A, C Wliiche8t«r. Foley, O., Bardstown* Frazor, L.* C-ovin^bon. Frlck Kuiipa, Louisville- Frrtechxier, Wlllctta. iWRVlll^, Fritechner, Geo.. Loulsvlll^ G^tteya. Mrs. J. C L^n arlfle. Gmeys, W. O., l-o,«>*V"ni* Gl^ai^worKb. M»,. I>>QlaFme. Gda.<^tea(l, Wnu C. DanTllle. GfliisEeftd. P. \^*. I^^^'"^:!""' GrJnst^^ad, Irene, LwlQffton. GTOm, TVtn., LcrutfiT^lie* G nib It 2* B.. T^tilsFl ^, GmbUsE. A., TXJUlsYiNe. Hdll, S., LoiiltiT'IIlo, IltiJl. n.. LmilsTlile. Hall. Wiilkor. CoTlnffton. Hull, Mi's. Walkcrn Coirlnztom. Hsnillton. itaia^L L.t IjOiilaTllle. narley^ C L., Richmond- ][h tinuin, A. BJ., Paris. IJIIUirlcih. X A„ Trf»uisVlHe. Ilu-we, W. H.p Carrol I ton. Hufst, G«rtrudie, IjoulfiTlJle. Jacob, Mre. He! (me, LoulavlUe. Jaoob, Helone. IjotilBTlllc. Jftcoliflt Bellts, Lrfjulsville. Jobwson, J, N., IjotilfiVllle. Jobnsc^n. M., Loularin^. Johuitou, Mrs. M, &., LonltfVlHe. 1036 NATIOI^AL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. KENTUCKY— Con«»M«d. Keaitiiig, Mary E^ LouisTllIe. Kerr, Mattle V., LoulaTllle. Kinney, P., Loulsyllle. Kneose, B. W^ Ooyinrton. Kobert, Mrs. Chas., Lebanon (2). Kcje, Mrs. O. A., LonisTllle. LaJbe, O. J., Lontorllle. Lake, Mrs. O. J., Lonisyllle. Lee, WntL W., LoolBTiUe. liowry, Mrs. Max, LonlsvIIle. Mount, Annie B., Louifiyille. McOonathy, W. Jr., LonlsyiUe. McDonald, J. P., Loalsyllle. MoGlnnlBs, James, Owensborougb. Mindennann, O., Ooyington. Morgan, Ihnma, Paduoah. Newbaiser. J. L., Louisville. Nield, C., London. Nield, Mr& O. S., Barbeyyille. Norman, Oertmde, LoiiisTllIe. Norman, A. B., Loulsyllle. Norman, Kate L., Louisville. Fiaynie, Cornelia, Newport. pM>per, Dixie, IiexingtOD. Fnest, W. C, LoulsvUla Bailey, Ada M., Lexin^rton. Bankiu, Mande, Louisville. Blioads, McHenry, Frankfort. Kobblns, George^ BVankfort. Sdvwabaobel, W. P., Louisville. Soott, W. J., Louiflvllle. fibaplnsky, &., Louisville. Bheckler, M. S^ Loolsvllle. Shuttleworth. J. A-, Louisville. Simmons, W. H., Lomlflville. Singleton, Lulu, Paducah. Soban, J. A., Lonlsyille. Soencer, SJnos, Louisville, gtelnberger, W. S. Louisville. Sttaiiifald, F. L., Louisville. Tieame, M. B., Covington. Tbdd, A. B., Berea. Tucker, Mrs. M. B., Louisville. * Tucker, L. B., LoulsvUle. Vaupel, Hattie, Louisville. Venn, Jas. H., Louisville. Wallack, Louis, Lonisville. Waller, Bmma. ]:x>ul8vllle. Warfleld, W. O^ Covington. Warfleld, Mrs. W. 0., Oovin^rton. Weaver, B. W., Nerwport (2). Weber, Alice, Lonifi'Tllle.' Wilson, W^ Bardstown. WUislow, H. M., CaarolUon. Winslow. Lucy C, Oarrollton. Wright, B. J., Louisville. Kentutt LOUISIANA. Beer, Ferd, New Orleans. Bennett, Edward, New Orleans. Brofwn, Markan, New Orleans. Chamberlain, Bthel, New Orleans. Ooe, W., New Orleans. Oohn, L. H., New Orleans. Dwyer, A. J., New Orleans. Fortler. L. A., New Orleans. Gold, Samuel, New Orleans. Giraw, B. G^ New Orleans. Hedges. F. C., New Orleans. Hurt, A. D., New Orleans. Kilgrove, A. B., New Orleans. Lee, T, J., New Orleans. Lewis. M., New Orleans (8). McGuigan, Oarrie, New Orleana. MulfoEd. M. W., New Orleans. Niek, Bt. L., New Orleans. Qulnn, Mrs. J.. New Orleans (2). Bamfl^, Geo. j., Clinton. Bey, B., New Orleans. SmltilL, B. N., New Iberia. Boule, Geo., New Orleans, athele, T. G., New Orleans, ii^uter, H. A., New Orleans, ^rman. A., New Orleans (2). Well, D. L., New Orleans. Well, Wm. L., New Orleans. W9iite, S., New Orleans. Wolf, I. J., New Orleans. Oorthell, W. J.. Gorham. Drake, O. H.. Flttsfleld. Bmery, Geo. B., Gtorham. MAINB. Gray, L. A., Portland. Munger, L. M., Old Orchard. Mtnn^ MABYLAND. AndenKm, B. M., Mount Airy. Bannon, John a, Annapolis. Beatty, Ixrals L^ Centrevllle. Blades, Fannie L., Baltimore. Bond, F. Batolle, Baltimore. Browninsr, Sue, Baltimore. Claude, Dr. W. C, Annapolis. Cox, Bsrbher Lamb, Baltimore. Deony, Dr. Wm., CentrevIlleL DifflezKbau^h, James, A., Westminster. Dobben, Bobert A., St. Denis. Dulany, William J. C. Baltimore. Bbaugh, Annie L.. Baltimore. Bbaugh. A. Newton, Baltimore. Foreman, S. B., Baltimore. I^ttUE, M., Baltimore. Franz, B. B., Baltimore. Gardner, Mary B., Lohaconlng. Gareeche, B., Belcamp. Harde9% John T., Olaj^ville. Hebbk Dr. John W., West Friendship. Hill, J. B.. Blllcott City. Hazell, J. B., Sudlersvllle. Joioe, Mary A.. Baltimore. Lamb, Bachel B., Baltimore. Lamb, Bli M., Baltimore. Lamb, Mrs. Bli M., Baltimore. Xjeai^ae, M. B., Baltimore. McCahan, John B., Baltimore. Prettyman, B. B., Baltimore. Held, C. W., Cheetertown. Held. A. A., Oheetertown. ScuJl, Chas. O.. Baltimore. Shaffer, Cora H., Baltimore. Shelley, Wm. H., Baltimore. Smith, Wilbur F^, Batlmore. Spedden, Sadie. Baltimore. Stephens, M. Bates, Denton. , Sumerlng, Kate, Baltimore. Sumering, F., Baltimore. Sudler, Dr. A. B., CentervUle. Weston, Laura A., Baltimore. Wise, Henry A., Baltimore. Woodall, Lottie L., SudlersviUe. Worthington. John P., Belaid. ^^^ ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP, 1037 BaoMi, Geo. a.. Boston. Baker, q. M., Sprliurfleld. BarkCT, Mrs. Mary H., SdtuatB (2). g"t O-^R.. Salem. ^lake, Mrs. Henry W., SOTlnfffleld. Bonrne. Clara P., AttlelK>ro »ra^ey, Mrs. B. M., Sprtnirfleld. Bradley, Milton. Sprtn^lf^ Otoington, H. B., BoSjtm. SSfiffi^^' £^®1S'l<^^ JJ- Oambridgeport. GbUds, q. H., Holyoke. g Clarke, John S., Boston. i"5*^S %5? ^^"^f V Bridgewmter. t^SIl ^•^9"'^<>'*' ®- Hampton. SSSSJ' ^"- •^•«^' Nor& Adams. Downs, Edgar R^ Boston. i>re8lar, F. B., \Vorcester. Ualwan^amee J., Boston. Batch, Wm. B., New Bedford. g®a5^»,P* ^•' Boston. W^i^^''^ Mary Dana, Boaton. goyt, W. A., N. Brookfleld. Shn^ ^A^ ^'^^®' Cambridge. Johnson, G. B. Worcester. Kellogfi^ Bra D., Boston. King, Bacbel, Newton. MAssAOH UBHrrrs. Adams, Geo. A., Detroit. Allen, Cam! He, Sagtnaw. Amsden, Lillian C. Detroit Amsden. Mrs. G. A., Detroit. Andrew, Sarah B., Detroit. Armstrong, B. V., St. Joseph. Barker. Georgia, Grand Bapdds. Bassett, M. B., Detroit. ****""■• 2®!?£!*» 5; v.. Detroit. Beldtog, B. A., Deitrolt. Beverly, Clara, Detroit. Beverly, Ada, Detroit. Blackwell, B^. B., Detroit. Boone, R. g., Ypellanti. ™>wn, Garret S., Detroit. Brown, Mrs. Garret S., Detroit. Bryant, Lavla O., Plymouth. Buchanan, L. M., Detroit. Bachanan, J. I., Detroiit. ?n?' ^- a ^- Three Rivers. noJ?^?f™4r®®*^J!''' Ypsllantl. Campbell, Mrs. R., Ann Arbor. Oa^^l. Bllaabeth. Ann Arbor. Oajpter, JuUa, Detroit. Carter, Ellen, Detroit. ^apln Anna, Detroit. Oillds, F. H., Gratiot. (Hark, Blnora M., Grvuss Lake. Cole, H. S.. Gi^nd Rapids. Oonklin, Mrs. M. S., Detroit. Oomoy, Wna. B.. Saginaw. Converse, Mamie, Saginaw. Converse, B. H.. Hillsdale. Cook, W. O.. Saginaw, B. S. Cook, Mrs. V. b., Detroit. Orozler, B. A., Glrand Rapids. Culver, Joh^ AJauAon. ^es, Johanna, Detroit. golson, Sarah K.. Bay 01 ty. I>07le, M. E>., Grand Raplda. Dm^am, Mary> Jackson. Bby, Qmma, Detroit. IDd^rards, A. D., Jackson. Bdward. J. H., Dollar B«v. Eldrich, Bmlly G., Ann Arboi- Bills, W. A.. Detroiit. *^- Bvana, T. L., Jackson. Fisher, Mrs. J. P. Detroit. Foster, Bmma, Ooldwnter. Foster, Floyd. Ooldwater. Gates, WdM B., Morenol. Gillis, BllMbeth, Detroit. Goeden, L., Detroit. King, l8a,bell, Newton. Lull, H. W., Quincy. Martin, Geo. H., Lynn Meltcalf, Robert C. Boston Mowry, William A.. Hyde Park Packiid. Anna W.. Hudwn Parry, Elizabeth H., Swlnrfleld Perldiia, Isabell. B^ton ^ mteJ^:. I T . Boston. RfKlniiiii ' ]K, WelfW ESaiJ b or n.\y niter I.., Nei^^oa CkkntiAr Smltli. Frank, B^i^on iSocnce, rn>r., Saiern, JStrj^tfo". J, D. Sprin^'n^Hd ?iTirfon, U^TT M..'No(ijbVm. Wheel ock, Lupy, Boston Wlit»e^ Sarah E., Boston Wlnahlp, A, E.. Bo^ton^ ' MICHIGAN. Graham, Mrs. A, Flint. Grlel, K!atherlne, Detroit. Guest, Grace D., Detroit. Hall, Matilda B., Detroit. Hamilton, Anna G.. Detroit. Hanchett. M.. Leelle. Hart. H. V. C, Adrian. Hart, Clara, Adrian. Hinsdale, B. A., Ann Arbor. Howard, Sarah M.. Detroit. Howard, Mrs. Bmlly, Detroit. Hughes, «arah L., Detroit. Hughes, Mabel M., Detroit. Hughes, Fannie K., Detroit. H-unter, J. W., Grand Rapids. Hutchlns, Adella A, Detroit. Jacobeon. J., Grand Rapld^t. Johnston, Josephine, Saginaw Judd. Mrs. R. Y.. Jackson. Keeler, F. A., Mt. Clemens. Keplar Chas. H., Sas4naw. Klmberlln, Nettie D., Detroit Knight, B., Jackson. Lawrence, J. B., Ann Arbor. Levi, Geo. L. Grand Rapids. Logle, Wm., Grand Rapids, liott, Bmma; M., Lanslne. Low, J. M., Detroit. Lyon, W. F.. Detroit. ^Iarsh, M. J., Detroit. Maynard, M. L., Detroit. McCarthy. K. B.. Detroit. MoCulloch, G. L., Jackson. MoKay, B. I.. Detroit. M<3Kerrell, Belle. Detroit. Murray. A. J., Sault St. Marie. Murray, Grace M., Sault St Marie. Nioholflon, Georgle, Detroit Nicholson. Florence A., Detroit G'Dwyer, J. G., Ja^^keon. Osborn, Clara M., Rloe Lake. PattengiU, H. R., Lansing (2). Peet, B. W., Grand Rapids. Perry W. S., Ann Arbor. Phillips, Henry W.. Ogden. Pierce. B. J.. Am Arbor. Powell, L. M., Detroit. I»ul8loher, Ida, Detroit. Ilandkll, Elizabeth Detroit Itandall H., Ann Arbor. utSilSgton. Mrs. I. D Fenton. Item nSton, Lew D., Fenton. ^^ ufchiSfndVW. B., Grand Rapids (2). 1038 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. UlcniGAN-Continv^d. Boi>erU, Mn. J. B., Three RlTers. Bobtnson, Wm. iB.. Detroit. BnMell, Fannie M^, Mt. ClemenB. teckett, B. L., (Mt Clemens, flcbaff, ID. E^ Ann Arbor. Boott, John P.. Detroit. Soruiton, W. fi., Detroit. Bharpstem, N. B., Lansing. "^ W. H., TpBllanti. flholl. f>. N., Lansing. SmitSi, Mra. Ohaa. H., Detroit. Smith, Mrs. Jennie C, Detroit, fltaiith, B. >!£., Detroit flmlth, £. L., Jackson. Cknith, Clara. Nilea. Spear, J., Grand Baplds. Springer, D. W., Ann Arbor. Stewart. J. A., Bay City. Strong. MlBS L. >M.. Ypsilantl. Strong, B. A^, Ypsilantl. Tajlar, £)dlth, Bay City. Thayer, B. 0., Detroit. Thompson, B. C, Saginaw, W. S. Abbott, W. D^ Winona. Abbott, Mrs. W. D.. Winona. Alton, George B., Mlnneaipolis. Burchard, Miss H. M., Winona. Obideater, W. E., St. Fanl. ChldetfteriF. B., St. Paul. Oolburn. W. S.. Bed Wing. DaTls, Bnel T., Winona. Denfeld, B. B., Duluth. Doud, Jennie v.. Winona. Dow, J. J., Faribault. Doyle, Boae M., St Peter. Darkee. Carrie, St Paul. Bberman, W. S., St. Paul. Blmer, Frances A., Winona. Famsworth, S. A^ St. Paul. Finn, Paula, St Paul. Finn, Mrs. Geo. H., St. Paul. Ford, Ellen A., Moorhead. Oadbreath, Louis H., Winona. G«llagher,Wlnifred N., Winona. Gardner, W. H., St. Paul. Gerloolls. Preece, Loaii$e, iMinneapoIis. Runyon, Miss, Wlnomt Sadler, W. H., Minneapolis. Scott, Ohai-les BL. St Paul. Selover, Julia, Winona. Shepard, Irwin, Winona. Sherln, S., iSt PacU. Soudon, Miss A. P^ Minneapolis. Stebblns, L. C, Winnebago. Thomas, Jennie, Minneapolis. Van Ness, B. S.. Anoka. Van Ness, Mrs. B. &, Anoka. White, B. T., Mlnneaipolis. MISSCaSIPiPL Able, C. M^ Oxford. Ayres, O. H.. Columbus. Burke, L., Aberdeen. Chilton, L., Oxford. Frazer, Bobert, Columbus. Fnazer, Florence, Columbus. Fulton, R, B., UnlTersily. Lawrence, J. M., Greenville. Lawrence, Nellie, Greenville. Leatberman, Mrs. M. S., Commerce. Lowe» L. Cm Columbus. McCauley, O., GreeuTHle. McKay, B. B., Port Gibson. Nassauer, H.. West Point Preston, Supt. J. R., Jackson. Schwab, S., Aberdeen. Sherman, B. C, Oxford. Thompson, B. K., Natchez (2). Trigg, M. A., GreeuYlUe. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP. 1039 MISSOURL Abbott. Laura B., Sit. Lools. Abel, J. K, St Loui6. Abel, Mrs. M. G., St. Louis. Aliematby, M. 6. ELansas City. Adams, J. W., Miarahall. Adams, BCrs. D. S., KJensaa Oity. Adams, Jessie, St Louis. Adams, Julia, St. Louis. Aide, Jesse M., Kansaa City. AUn, T. R.. St. Lools. Allen, Mrs. H., St. Louis. Allen, Oliye S.. St. Joseph. Apple, J. R., St. Louis. Archer, Ruby, ICansas City. Arnold, Abble, Kansas City. Arnold, "W. w., Kajisas C*ty. Arnold, K., Kansas City. Atwill, F. R. St. Joseph. Bailey, B. E., Kansas City. Baker, Geo. A^ St Louis. Bannister, B. B., St. Louis. Baptlflte, Geo., St. Louis. Barber, L. S., St. Louis. 'Barnard, William. St. Louis. Bumee, Arthur J., St. Louis. Borrertt, E. D., St. Louis. Barrett, Mrs. B. G., St. Louis. Barrett W. H., Kansas City. Batterton, Ylglnia, (Jarthnge. Benesch, A., St. Louis. Bery. B. F., St Joseph. Berry, Ella; F„ St Joseph. * Blest, Ida, St Louis. BHllngB, Jennie, St Louis. Blanco, J., St. Louis. Blanchard, Blene, St. Louis. Block, F., St Louis. Block, Geo. (M^ St. Louis. Block, Helen D., St. Louis. Block, Helen, St. Louis. Bier, Wm. M., St. Louis. Bier, M. A., St. Louis. Boddle, J., St Louis. Bogy, C, Kansas City Bohn, Harry F, St. Louis. Baugnen, Nellie C, Nevada. Bowlee, J. J., Hannibal. Bowlee, Mrs. J. J., HJannlbal. Brenncm, Florence, St. Louis. Brlfl^t Mrs. W., St. Louis. Buchaaiadi, John T., Kansas City. Buchannn, Mrs. John T., Kiazuias City. Buchanan, G. Y., Sedalia. Burlin, Mrs. A M., St Louis. Byrnes, J. W., St LduIs. ^mes, Genevieve P., St. Louis. Byrnes, Lee M., Sc. Louis. Byrnes, M. J.. St Louis. Oabanne, O. G., St. Louis. Cahlll James L, Kansas City. Caldwell, E. N., St. Louis. Caldwell, J., St Louis. Calkins, Mrs. W. T., Warrensburg. Calout, John W., Kansas City. Campbell, James B., Warreusburgh. Campbell, SXllth, Warrensburg. Cannon, J. tM., St. Louis. Oarlle, H., St Louis. Cartwrlght, G. S., Kansas City (2). Ooptwright, Mrs. G. S., Kansas Ctty. Cosev Michael, St. Couis. Oaaidy, W. B., St. Louis. Chandler, Anna H., St. Louis. Chapman, M., St. Louis. Chapman, S. B., St. Louis. Chase, Wm., St. Louis. Chase, Frederick X, Kansas City. Clark, Laura, Kansas City. Clement Bertha, St Louis. Cohen, iMlss Raor. St. Loui;). Combs, F. F., Sedalia. Condi t, L H., Kansas City. Conn, Joe C. St Louis C2). Cook, Mrs. S. A., St. Louis. Cooper, W. H., St Louis. Cooper, Nellie, St. Louis. Cox, Mrs. R. H., St Louis. Cox, R. H., Jr., St. Louis. Cox, Ida, St. Louis. Cox, Stella^ St. Louis. Cox, R H., St Louis. Crestman, T. W., St. Louis. Cummins, Hattle, Jefferson City. Cunningham, 0. A., St Louis (2). Cunningham, Mrs. C. A., St. Louis. Curtis, B. A., St. Louis. Curtis, N., St Louis. Davison, J. L., St Joseph. Davison, Mrs., St Joseph. DeClue, John, St. Joseph. DeClue, Mrs. John, s>t. Joseph. Delen, Agnes, St Louis. Devtne, Mamie, St. Loius. De Witt, Miss M., Kansas City. Dickinson. Wm. W., Kansas City. Dieterlch, Lena K., St. Louis. Doane, L. F., Kansas City. Dodson, Mrs. Chas. L., St Louis. Donlon, Tho8.iSt. Louis. Donlon, Mrs. Thos., St. Louis. Dorsett, Mrs. W. B., St. Louis. Duenckel, Minnie, St. Louis. Dumay, Henri, St. Louis. Dunne, iEL L., St. Louis. Duress, Kate, St. Louis. Dyer, Romeyn A., St. Louis. Elsensftadt, Samuel, St. Louis. Elbe, L, St. Louis. Ely, Mrs. Frank, St Louis. Bngel, Caroline, St. Louis. Engel, J., St Louis. Evans, Mrs. W. B., Kansas City. Fatrchild, Mrs. a P.. St. Louis. Feldman, Mrs. M., St. Louis. Ferrel, H. B., St. Louis. Findley, A. D., Kansas City. Flndley, Mrs. A. D., Kansas City. Fitzgerald, Alice, Ciayton. FitzgenUd, Wm. F., St. Louis. Ford. J. L., Jr., St. Louis. Ford, Mrs. J. L.,'St. Louis. Ford, Elsie, St Louis. Foresman, Ro'bt., Kansas City. Forney, Irwin B., Moberly. Foster, H. W., Kansas GiXy. Foster, Mrs. J. W.. Kansas City. Foster. O. A., St Louis. Fraley, Mrs. M., St. Louis. Francisco. H. C, Marshall. Franke, Geo. C, St Louis. Franke, Mrs. Geo. KX, St. I^uls. Frlsbie. Jennie W., St. Louis. Frost, Sara, Kansas City. Fuller, Blanch, St. Louis. Gave, R F., St. Louis. Gallagher, Miss, Kansas City. Geary, Miss, Kansas City. Gtemer, Frances, Kansas City. Gill, M. B., St. Louis. Gill, B. P., St. Louis. Gill, A. H., St. Louis. Gladfelter, Llsbeth^ St Louis. Goemer, Mrs. M. L., St. Louis. GoetTtler, Laura H., St Louis. Goffney, L., St. Louis. Goldberg, S., St. Louis. Goldberg, Mrs. R., St. Louis. Graff, M, Kansas City. Green, I., Kansas City. Green, M., Kansas City. Green, M. J., Kansas City. Green, 8. M., St. Louis. Greenwood. J. M., Kansas City. Grisham, C. N., Kansas City. / 1040 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ■< - - MISSOURI— Co»«ntt*d. Hall, id. Lee, Kansas City. Hammerstein, G. L., St. Louis. Hammersteln, Lilly J., St. Louis. Hammett, B. F. Jr., St. Louis. HazDznett, Mrs. B. F.. St. Louis. Harris, J. W., Kansas 01 ^y. Harvey, H. A., Kansas City. Hassett, W. B., St. Louis. Hausmann, M., St. Louis. Hausmann, A., St. Loula. Hay ward, F. M., Kansas City. Hay ward, Mrs. F. M., Kanaas City. Hazard, B.. St. Louis. Hazard, L. C, St. XiOuis. Hedge, Lillian, St. Louis. Henry, J. A., St. Louis. Hlnsman, C^ St. Louis (2). Hinton, T. J., Kansas City. Hlrsch, Mro. S., Kansas Olty. Hirschcl, S., St. Louis. Hlrschberg, Sadie, St. Louis. Hlrschyerg, A., St. Louis. Hlsey, J. C, Kansas City. Hlsey, Mrs. J. C, Kansas City. Hlzon, J. C. Kansas City. Hodkinson, G. F., St. Louis. Holbroolc, Mrs. J. A., St. Louis. Holilngsworth, J. O., Kansas City. Humphrey, O. F., St. Louis. Humphrey, Mps. J. N., Mexico. Jamerson, O. R., St. Louis. Jamerson, Mrs. O. R., St. Louis. Jeuklna, IS. J., Kansas City. Jenkins, J. W., Kansas City. Johnaon, J., Kansas City. Johnson, M., Kansas City. Johnson, W., Kansas City. Johnson, S., Kansas City. Johnson, Jennie C, St. Louis. Johnson, B. P., St. Louis. Johnson, Mrs. B. P.. St. Louis. Johnson, Geo. B., KlrkTllle. Kahn, Henrietta, St. Joseph. Kahn, M. M., St. Joseph. Kahn, A., St. Joseph. KeMer, B., St. Lauls. Keiley, A. T., St. Louis. Kelley, A. T. Jr., St. Louis. Kedley, A. B., St. Louis. Kelley, I. B., St. Louis. Kidd, Leila M., Sedalla. Kimberly, A. S., Kansas City. King, M. B., St. Louis. King, Mrs. Bra, St Louis. King, T. C, B. St. Louis. Klibgman, S. B.. St. Louis. Kli'k, John R., Westport. KlrtJey, R. A., Kansas City. Knapp, Ralph H., St. Louis. Knapp, Mrs. Leigh O., St. Louis. Knight, G. A., Creighton. Kroeger, B. R., St. Louis. Kroeger, Mrs. B. R., St. Louis. Kuehn, B. W., St. Louis. Laffoy, Richard, St. Louis. Langman, Mrs. B., Kansaal City. Lang, B., Warrensburg. Lazarovie, Mauris, Kansas City. Learning, Ruth, Sedalla. Leigh ton, J. F., St. Louis. Lewis, Virgil A., Charleston. Lohman, B. H., St Louis. Lohman, Reglna, St. Louis. Lohst, Bertha, St. Louis. Long, W. J., Kansas City. Long, B. H., St. Louis. Long, Sadie B., St Louis. Long, Blvlra, St. Louis. Lorlng, Cosmer J., St. Louis. Lorlng Bthlyn, St. Louis. Lougan, G. B., Kansas City. Luckey, B. D., St. Louis. Ludlow, Josephine, St. Louis. Macken, M., St. Louis. Maloy, T., St Louis. Maria tt, A. L., Kansas City. Martin, Geo. N., St. Louis. MarUn, Mrs. Geo. N.. St Louis Martin, Mies C. O., Kansas Ci Mason, Mrs. J. 0., Kansas Git Mason, Hortense, Kansas City. Mason, Paul, Kansas Olty. Mason, W. H., St. Louis. Maule, E. P., St Louis. May, J., St Louis. McAIlster, W. H., St. Louis. MoAilster, Mrs. W. H., St Loul«. McAIlster, Amelia, St. Louis. McAIlster, Florence, St Louis. McAullff, Bd., Kansas City. McRlhlnney, Alex, CHayton. McElhinney, S. A., Clayton. Mclntire, B. V., St. Louis. Mclntlre, Mrs. S.. St. Louis. Mclntire, Nellie. St. Louis. McNeill, I. C, Kansas City. McNeill, Mrs. L C, Kansi^ GEI Medburg, F. H., Independe Meissner, A., Bushberg. mi Merrlman, Agnes M,, St Loi Merriman, A. M., St. Louis. Merrlman, Katie, St Louis. Metca fe, L. B., St. Louis. Metcalfe, D. B.; St. LouIr. ^ H®^* Mrs. Elem, Kansas ai M Her, Nellie, Kansas City. Mlnckwitz, Richard A., Kanb«« Mitchell, Mrs. Blanche. Kansas Moore, Rob't St. Louis. Moore, Alice, St. Louis. Moore, Chas. W., St. Louis. Morrison, G. M. St. Louis. Morrison, L. S., St. Louis. MuUaly, Lizzie, St Louis. Munson, A. B., St. Louis. Munson, H. A., St. Louis. Murphy, J. G^ Kansas City. Nearlng. O. H., Kansas City. Neet, Mary V., Warrensburg. Neet, Mary G., Warrensburg. Newland, H., St Louis. Nicholls, Lizzie, St Louis. Norris, Cella, Mexico. Norris. Mrs. W. H., Mexico. Oppenhelmer, Mirs. H., Kansas Cit^ Orr, H. C, Kansas City. ^' Ovlatt, Frank L., Kansas aty. Packard, B. B., St Louis. Parish, D. L., St. Louis. Parson, Miss C. W., St Louis. Pelletler, F. D., Elansas City. Perkins, J. W., Kansas City. Perkins, Mrs. J. W., Kansas Qty^ Pitt J. B., Kansas City. Poole, B. F., St. Louis. Poole, Mrs. B. F., St. Louis. Poole. John, St. Louis. Powell, W. A-, Kansas City. Powell. Mrs. W. H., Sedalia. Prentlfl, H. W.. St. Louis. Priestmeyer, M. A., St. Louis. Proctor, Marcei:a, St Tx>uls. Puckette, L. Francis, Kansas Clt^- Quaile, Pepe L., Moberly. Queatin, August, St. Joseph. Quentin, Mrs. August, St. Josepta. Radford, O. M., Kansas City. Ratchlff, F. G., St. Louis. Richards, J. S., St. Louis. Rlury Park. Brown, Jamee, Paterson. Brown, Mrs. James, Paterson. Brown, John, Camden. Bryan, Wm. H.. Lanoka. Bryce, Margaret T., Passaic. Bnrkhard, Bosalle A., Jersey City. Bard, Lixzle H., Union. Borke, Mary B., Jersey City. Bnrke, Margnerlte T., Weehawken. Bntcher. F. P., Ocean Grore. Bntler, Nicholas Murray, Paterson. Byard, Stella. Paterson. Oailhopper. Sallie W., Keyport. Campbell, D. 8., Dnnellen. Oarey, Margaret, Weehawken. Carney, Bd., Harrison. Carpenter, James D.. Woodbury. Oarr, Blias F., Trenton. Carringer, Wm. M., Newark. Carter, Sarah F., Jersey City. Case, Anna M., Stanhope. Case, Richard. Red Bank. Oassady, Lizzie, Camden. Gathers, M. H., Bound Brook. Oansdeli, Clara L., YlDeland. Chamberlain, Raymond, Milton. Chambers, Wm., Vlneland. Chambers, Mary N., Camden. Champion, Eila, Port Oram. Chance, N. L., Hasbrouck Heights. Childs, Maud E., Jersey City. Chllds, Bdith L., Jersey City. Chlnery. Serena, Keyport. Chiswell, Mary, Paterson. Christie B. C. Trenton. Clark, J. H., Leonla. Clark, Joseph. Newark. Clark, A. T. S., Metuclien. dark, J. H.. Leonla. Cllne, Charlotte S., Madison. Coffin, Mary B., Asbnry Park. Coglll, Miss W., Glouopster (Mty. Coker, Florence, Klnfrston. Coleman, Mrs. M. F., Jersey City. Collard, T. T., Newark. Oolllngs. Bra. Gloucester City. CoUlngs, a u, Gloucester City. Collins. Maria T., Port Republic. Condelf, L., Blisabeth. Condon, Miss, Harrison. Goners, Magdalene. Jersey City. Conklin. LaTinla u., Morrlstown. Constantine. Mrs. B. V., W. Hoboken. Contessa, Mary C, Hudson Go. Cook, W. Oollom. Clayton. Cooke, Miss S. M., Hackettstown. Cooper, James O., Dover. Cope. A. B., Stanhope. Corliss, Alonzo B., Old Bridge. Corse, Miles J., Paterson. Corson, D. B., Rahway. Corson. Rodman W., Colllngswood. Cosine. Fannie M., Rldgewood. Cox, M. L., Dover. Goyie, Elate A., Monroe. Coyle, Nellie R., Monroe. Cramer, Lillian, Camden. Crane, Minnie A., Cranford. Crane, Ida M., Rutherford. Greasey, Hannah M., Jersey City. ' Greden, Francis I., Rarltan. Crispin, W. C, Hackettstown. OuUmn, Sarah, Jersey City. Gumlback, I. N., Mt. Freedom. Gurry, Jennie S., Weehawken. Curtis, Annie B., Newark. Dadmun, Mary H., Long Branch. Dalrymiple, Ghas. M., Rldgefleld Park. Danfortn, H. J., Passaic. Daniels, Bmma M., Hackensack. Daahrell, Caroline, Arlington. Darey, Vernon L., Bast Orange. Davidson. Elizabeth R., W. Hoboken. Davles, Mary H., Jersey City. Davis, Ella, Cranberry. Davis, Edna A., Hopewell. Davis, Chas. M., Bayonne. Davis, Florence, Asbnry Park. Davis, David, Haddonfleld. Davis, Mary, Camden. Davidson Kate B., Old Bridge. Defmarest, Abraham J., Hoboken. Denlson, Sadie, Rldgewood. DeWaltearss, Bthel B., Long Branch. Dillingham, James D., J,ersey City. Dlnon, Annie, Harrison. Dix. J. A.. Blisabeth. Dodson, Blisabeth A., Cramer Hill. Domahay, Etta, Asbuir Park. Donnell, Margaret, Hlghtstown. Donohoe, Maty J., Bayonne. . Doren, Llda A., Asbury l^ark. Dorian, Virginia B« Wrightstown. Dorphley, Mabel, Hammonton. Dotterer. Joseph, Gloucester City. Dougherty, A. L., Jersey City. Douffherty, Wm., Oamden. Doughty, Joslhua, Jr., Somerville. Doyle, Robert S., Oressklll. Downs, Katherlne, Tremton. Drake, Ghas. M., Hackettstown. Drake, W. B., Jersey City. Draper, Horatio. Oamden. DuBols, Alice. Freehold. DuBols, Sarah A., Freehold. Dumbacher, Emily, Hoboken. Dumont. Martha N., Asbury Park. Dunham, Alice A.. Ocean Grove. Dunham, Elizabeth A., Ocean Grove. Durand, Sara B., Manasquam. Duerkes. Frances, Weehawken. DuRle, Wm. B., Rah way. Darling, Mayme O., Rarlton. Dutcher, Mrs. E. H., East Orange. Dwyer, John, Harrison. Eaklns, Elisabeth, Paterson. 1044 NATIONAL EDUCATIOI^^L A Baklns. Marie, Palerson. Barl, Bbenezer C, Bayanne. Basrt)urn, Mary B., Trenton. BajBtlack, Emma C. Blackjwood. Bbenaperger, Obriatlan, Gloucester City. Blaenhoweer, A. D., Norrietown. Kldrldge, Wm. H., Willlamstown. BlllB. Mary B.,Whlppany. BUaworth, H. W., Montvale. Blmendorf, Martha S., Bayonne. Bly, Sarah Y., Trenton. Bmmell, Alice R., Glaesboro. Bnrlght, Julia, Lone Branch. Bnrlght, John, Freehold. Bppley, Grace, Asbury Park. Itetelle, Sarah D., Lrconla. Bvans, Abigail, Clnnamlnaoo. Bvans, Lydla T., Clnnamlnson. Bvans, May, MJ lit own. Bvana, Btta, Milltown. Bveland, BUza J., Jersey City. Bveleth, F. W., Jersey City. Bverett, R. M., Hibemla. Bverett, Mlse S. R., Batontown. Bverett, Anna, Lafayette. Brersole, W. S., Blalrstown. Bwlng, 6llTe M., Ivong Branch. Farley, D. H., Trenton. Farredi, Anna, Oamden. Farrell, May, Hudson Co. Faussett, Emma C. SomerTlUe. Feldler, Wm. F^ Hackensack. Fell, Anna M., Trenton. Fellenbaum, Etamia, MerchantSTiUe. Field, Charlotte, Bed Bank. Field, Mary C, Trenton. Fields, Jennie M., Jersey City. Fields, Anna W., Jersey City. FilllpB, Susan M., Oak Tree. Finke, Carrie L., Jersey City. Fisher, Carrie, Dunedlen, Flske, Cora B.. Weehawken. Fltzer, J. A., Salem. Fltzhei4>ert, Bdw., Suocasunna. Flandreau, A. M. T., Farmlngdale. Fleming, Geo., Judson. Fleming, Ida H., Somerrille. Flint, Nettie J., Cramer Hill. Flock, Jacob D., Hackettstown. Foen, Kate G., Glassboro. Foley, Bila T., Morristown. - Foote, H. B., Jersey City. Force, L. O., Ledgewood. Force, Blla G., LodgewxX)d. Ford, Jo' la B.. Morristown. Foster, Kate B., Jersey City. Fountain, James, Browntown. Fountain, B. G., Clarksburg. Fountain, Hortense, Clarksburg. Fox, Walter T., Williametown. Frorcls, Mrs. Annie B., Hoboken. Freeland, M. Frances. Asbury Park. Ficy, G«o. A., Camden. Froet, Jennie M., Jersey City. Frost, Marion J., Hudson Co. Fry, Geo. B., Camden. Gaffney, Kate, Jersey City. Gallivan, Mary J., Harrison. Gamble, G. W., Woodbridge. Gardner, Sarah L., Jersey City. Gamier, Bessie M., Passaic. Garretson, Henrietta, Bound Brook. Garrison, Gertrude, Swedesboro. Garry, J. A., Jersey City. Gaw, Bllzabeth, Weehawken. Geary. Blla J.. Weehawken. Gennng, Josephine S., Weehawken. Gerdts, Mrs. B., Hoboken. Glfford, Bmma L., Passaic. Giles, Bdlth. Hoboken. GUhul^, S. B., Flemlngton. Gil man, Bmma A., Perth Amboy. Ginn, B. R., Plainfleld. NEW JERSEY— C€>n//n Olnocchh Goldsinitj Good, He Gk>odenou Oorxnafi, Uofilec, ^J Ciould, W Cirant, CM Oravart, S Graves, ^■ Gray, Km '<< M Hlnks. Nolllp. I Hoff, Emma D., HofPmnn, (rnliis Hoffman. Edsrnr Hoffman. Hat (It ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP. 1046 NEW Hoffman, Caroline J., Wechawken. Hoflkier, Richard J.» Jr., Gloucester. Holdrum, Abram C, River Vale. Holdrom, John C, Norwood. Hollinahed, L!szie, -Stoarta. HoUoiway, Anna A., Freehold. Holmea, B., Blizabeth. Holsmann, Minnie, Hoboken. Hoover, Jennie K., Faterson. Hopkina, James J., Jersey City. HoppIn^T, Louisa B., Afton. Homer, C. G., Neshanic. Horton, JoeJL Guttenbur^. Hooc^ton, G. O., Hudson Co. Houston, B>va A., Jersey City. Hover, iLillie F., Englewood. Hovey, B. O., Newark. Howell, H. B., PhllUpsburg. HowelU Sabilla R., Hackensack. Howell, W. G., Bast Orange. Howell, Mrs. W. G., Ilast Orange. Hoyt, 0. A., Newark. Hodson, Anna, Haddonfield. Hughes, Saidee, Rldgewood. Hughes, Florence, Camden. Hull7 L. O., LiawroncoTilie. Hulsart, J. H., Dover. Hulsey, Blanche, Jersey City. Hulslnger, P. a, Jersey City. Hummer, Ida, Middlebush. Humphrey, Bercy, Trenton. Hurley, Belle. Asbury Park.^^ Husted, May B., Gloucester City. Husted, George, Gloucester City. Button, H. H?, Passaic. Hyde, Lizzie C.. Franklin Furncae. Hyde, Margaret A., Franklin Furnace. IngerBOll, Obas. W., Pleasantville. lyfiis, Geo. W. Jr., New B>gypt. Jester. Alice Mm Camden. Jewett, R. B., Passaic. Johnston, Mrs. A. T., Elizabeth. Jones, Florence, Asbury Park. Jones; Anna Qm Camden. Jones, Jennie. Freehold. Jordan, Stella. Woodbury. Jordan, Mary K., New Brunswick. Joslin, A. D., Jersey City. Joutraa, May, West Hoboken. Judthi, Geo. MoC» Wenonah. Kachlene, Mary D.. Airt>UTy Park. Kams, Mary, Harrison. Kase, Mattie, Ledgwood. Kaysar, C. F.. Newark. Kelly, Isaline, Weehawken. Kelly, Edward, Jersey City. Kempf, Bmily_M., Newark. Kennedy, J. WUmer, Newaric. Kennedy, Qeorgena, Hoboken- Kennedy, Anna, Asbury Park. Keman, Edward, Hudson Co. Kerr, Alex P., LambertviHe. Kerr, Sue H. O^ Woodbury. Keynton, Jno^ Kearney. Kieman, E. H., Hoboken. Kirby, Ida, Hackensadk. Kirby, Mrs., Harrison. Kirkbride, Lizzie P., Medford. Klein, H. 0., Weeharwken. Kline, Miss L. B., New Monmouth. Kline, Ambrose B.. Union. Klock, Ella, Woodbury. Knapp, E. Fred, Summit Knutson, O.j, Jersey City. Kost, Ida, weehawken. Krebs, Henry O., E|gg Harbor City. Laird, Henry Dover. Lambert, CeoUla, Passaic. Landrine, Lawrence D., Maywood. Langstioth, Margaret, QUftooi. LaPlerre, Hallle, Camden. Larkin, Hannah, Dunellen. LaRue, Martha, Dover. JERSEY— C7o»«nt«?.. As^ury Park Martin, John V^ Somervllle. Martin, Daisy, Boontou. Martin, Sarah W., Trenton. Martin, Miss S. C, Elizabeth. Marvin, Mrs. Susan C, Jer.^ev Cixtv Mat^ewB. B. C, Newark. ^ ^*^- Matthews, Cora S., Asbury Parlr Matthews, W. B. Madison. ^**'*- Maufifham, R. S., Tenafly. Maxson, H. M., Plalnfleld (2). Mayberry, Belle. Camden. McCain, J. S., Mt. Hermon. McOarter. Clara S., Jersey City. McOonneli, Howard W., Smith's Landing McCoy, Kate L., South Amboy. ^*'»"»^- MoCue, Cornelia, Freehold. McOully, Clara E., Camden. McGorem, Miss, Harrison. McGown, E. S., Jersey City. McGuire, Caroline. Trenton. McKain- Jennie, Jersey City. McKinzie, Wm., Carlton Hill. McKernan, Julia, Weehawken. McKInney, Frank D., Paterson. ^icNaily, Lizzie. Dover. McNary Sarah J., Newark. McWllIIams, Anna, Bemardsvilie. Meehan, Mary, Jersey dty. Meeker, Martha, Succasunna. Meerargee, G. E., Morrlstown. Meharg, Anna S., Jersey City. Mehlln, H. Paul, Maywood. Mehrhof. Luclnda D., Bidgefleld Park. Meley, Florence P., Camden, Messenger, Jane E., SomervUle. Meseroll, Elizabeth A., Trenton. Middletown, Ohas. K., Camden. Miller, R. Anna, Somervllle. Miller Mary R.. Cold Spring. Miller, Phoebe SL Cold Spring. Milllgan, WuL, Woodbury. MlUIngton, a M., Passaic. Mills, Annie E., Morrlstown. Minihan, Julian A., Jersey City. Mitchell, Hannah W., Woodbury. Mordorf, Oliver C, Ttenton. Morris, M. Jennie. Newark. Morris, George, Keansburg. 1046 NATIONAL EDXJCATIOHr^L Morris, Mrs. Jennie L., Long Branch. Morris, Dorothy, Cramer Hill. Morse, C. E., Bast Orange. Malford, A. I., Bast Orange. Malford, Miss S. M., Roselle. MnlUnger, Clara L., Camden. Mumper, W. N., Trenton. Mnnay, Carrie, Madison. Mnnn, Abby M., Montclair. Munson. EDattie D., Sparta. Murphy, B. A-^New Durham. Musgraye, A., Hoboken. Neafle, Bmma, Hoboken. Keff, M. Josle, Passaic. Nelson, Bmma L., Warrenyllle. Nelson. Carrie, Ocean Grove. Newell. Marion L., Passaic. Nolan, Agnes, Jersey City. Nolan, Anna AL. Passaic. North, F. A., Toms River. NoTTis, Alice L., Boonton. Norrlsh, J. W., Park Ridge. Norwood, Jos. M., Paterson. Nte, Myrtle B., Camden. O^Brlen, Theresa B., Weehawken. O'Connor. Mary A^ Bound Brook. O'Donnell, Mary, weehawken. O'Dyer, Mary C., W. Hoboken. Ortel, Otto, Weehawken. Osborne, Fannie, Ocean Grove. Outwater, Maria, Jersey City. Owen, James, Montclair. Paddock. M. H., Jersey City. Palmborg, Blln v., Dunellen. Palmer, Anna, New Brunswick. Park, Myra, Paterson. Patton, Marlon C, Camden. Payson, B. R., New Brunswick. Pearson, Miss J. B., Jersey City. Pease, N. W., Blis&abeth. Peck, Mary L., Dover. Peek, Adelalne, Newark. Peetz, Oustav, Maywood. Pember, Miss F. J., New Providence. Pemiberton, Jennie, Perth Amboy. Pennypacker, James L., Haddonfleld. Perlne, Bmma, Jersey City. Perrlne, Kate H., Cranberry. Pettlt, Linda S^, Gloucester City. Phelan, James W., Weehawken. F9iUllpe, Mary L., Bast Orange. Pldcock, Annette, Dover. Flerson, Mary M., Weehawken. Plerson, Lydia Gm Woodbury. Pike, Laura A., Camden. Piatt, Belle, Bridgeport. Plum, Flora V., Rah way. Polhemus, Bdgar W., Herbertsvllle. Poole, Ada F., Keypprt. Porter, B. H., Mt. Hope. Porter, A. J., Forest (irove. Powell, Lou, Gloucester. Powell, Fannie, Juliustown. Prendergast, James F., Harrison. Pressy, Mark A., Hammonton. Price, R. S., Hackettstown. Price, Mrs. R. S., Hackettstown. Prickltt, William A., Lower Squaukum. Prudden, Geneva, Ai.c. Arlington. Pruden. Elati^ K., New Vernon. Pugh, Mary L., Plainfield. Sulnt, Anna B., Camden, atne, Charles D., Mount Holly. Ralston, J. M., Asbury Park. Bamsdell, W. C, Jersey City. Ranken, Mrs. Alice B., Jersey City. Rappleyea, Mary J., Jersey City. Ray, Agnes, Hudson Co. Read, Mary B., Weehawken. Readlnir, Mary, Rlngoes. Redfleld, Miss P. H., Gloucester City. Reed, Flora A., Johnsonburg. NEW JERSEY— Con^i Reed, S Reed, A Reeves, ReeT'es, Reiser, ]^ Relcl, Op Reid, Lu Rellly, A Relllv, A Relnbard Reinaart, Ressmllle Rlbble. S Rice, Mai Rice, Mlsj Rice, ]B>ml Richards, Richards, Richardsoi Richdale, Rider, HeJ Rinehart, Rittenhous Roberts, G Robertson, Robertson, Robinson, 1 Robinson, \ Robinson A Rogers, A. Romaine, IVJ Romer, ciai Root, Miss I Rose, Bmily Rosewall, a! Roby, Lllia, Rudd, Kath< Rudlboc, Ma Rue, David Rumsey, Ma Runyon, Sarj Russ, Bdwar Ryan, Geo. C Ryer, Gertru Ryerson, Mai Salisbury, On Salisbury, Kb; Sanderson, Ki Sargent, Fanii Bawklns, Geoi Sayless. Q^tti Sayre, Ann B., Sayre, Jennie, Scarlett, Augu Scbeck, Ohas. ' Scblnder, Rosa Scblabacb, Flc Scfarader, Ida < Schnster, John, Schuyler, B. H Schuyler, BUza Scobey, Prank Scott, Edith, "\^ Scott, Isabella, Scott, Dr. Austi Scndder, Laura, Searle, Sellna ^ Segulne, Nellie, Senter, B. N., I Severance, Kzzii Sexton, Blmer E Shackelton, Osca Shafer, Martha I Shafer, Ida M., : Shaffer. Lulu R., Shaffer, Ada L., Shafto, Ellsworth Shaw, Mary W., , Shepard, Edwin, SheT)Dard, W. W., Sherman jLngle >i in,Ai Sherrlll, Helen L. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP. 1047 NEW JERSEY— CV)n«nt/, Eilj.% IliiCkcttsfown. Skltmer, A* H.. Kw rite CT«f own, Slattery, 'WUJlam J.,, Piit^raon. SinaJlej"t Phoebe A,* lion^ BraneUn Srnitht Elizabeth A.. Tie rl tan. SmJtti, Madorft R.. HigbtsiowttK Smltli^ Madge 3.. a^uth Atoboy. Smith, AgTie«, Wechnwkeii. Smith, Mary P., Jersey City. Smith, Carrie S., Camden, Smiths May L, Jersey Clty» Stnlth^ J. Sarry* PennagroTe, Smitbt AuQfi* Ofimiif?n. Sttoofc, J. L*. Obatbjim, Sdva&r, Henry, Jersoy C3ty* eoiJ(*r. Frnnf^tj?!, Jersey iMy (2X SpfluJdlQg, Jtflnrlnll, M'lUfcIrifr. Bpencie, Loulst" n.^ Wethnwkeu, Btwoci*r, Enmia O., Pnsaaic. Stand inger, Louisa T., Jersey CSty, 9ta^^ey, Mre^ Ijiulae H., Jersey City. Starkey, Warren L., Paterson. Steelmiiti* Daal^l T, Smith's Landing* Stelli^eSp AmaniJa M.^ jersry GUy, Stephens, Aug^jHtns W-, Hackettstown. Sttfiiert Henry W., Manasqnajn. Stewart, Joy. J, Otimdeii. Stewiter Uazie H„ swedi^sboro. Stllea, M. J. Hlltoti StliiBon. Mrs. Alk^ E.. Glouceat^ir* Sttaaon Mi»s A, B., Glouccater* BUnsoD, MiS3 D. An^ustn, Glout>eBtot. Stlnson, J. C, Gloucester. Stokes. B. O., MlUvllle ^ Stoops, William H., Riverside. Stont, O. !».. BngllshtowTi. . Stowell, Wlilard A.. Bamsey*s Stradling, J. M, Hdgewater Park. Strang, Arabella, Oamden. StrldSand, Carrie D., New Brunswick. Strong, Mrs. R H., Berlin. StrubWe. Mary O., High Bridge. Stryker. Bmma L., Mlddlebush. Stryker, Frank A., Rarltan. Stuits, Ella, Plalnsboro. Sturges. Emma, Weehawken. Sturges, Lowell, Gloucester. Sullivan. Ella P., Passaic. Sullivan, Mayte, Passaic. ^ilSSk^^Xv. Plalnfield. Talbot, I» P., Hoboken. Tantum, F'^ti^h TI., Ocean Grove. Tappen, Kiui iX, X^wton, Taylor. Kate. French town. Taylor, Gfo. O. F.. ^^ewark. Terhune J no. Hackeuaack Tharp, Jolia H., Swedeaboro> Thistle, Hay B.. West Hubflkeja. Thompson, J. W,. Up[H?r Mt, Clair. Thompson. Helen, Trt-aton. Thompson, frcntj, Manaiiqiinjo* Thorn, Frnnklln, Patt^n^oii. Thomall, DHllf^, Metnchtn. Tlce, R. Howell. UoKf^lle. Tlemey, Mary B-j Rurltan. Tllton, P< t^r, ToujH li[vers» Til ton, J. n,, Bt'lford* Tllton, A S.. Bnyn lie. Tlngley, JinaJ^ E,. Kahway Tltman, A. J., Dorer. Titsworth- Jfaufi. fHinell^n, Tltsworth, SaTllI/i, SonnTTtlla* Titus, Mary I),, Aabriry Park- Todd, Mary A„ N'ewiiik. Ty)mIln8on, Ckira, A^biar^ Park* Toombfi, ^Ira. M. F.» Souatl Brook. ToWTie, Irrinff P,. Pat^rSLm. Tudor, Nellie B-^ Hammuntqn. Tueps?, W. J., Paters on r^}. Tuolcjr. Margarita A,, IV^fil Hohoken* ■iU5*t.trii[f, R. A,, Anbury Park. TwicbelL, WilH&m S., F^iteraon "l^womey, Maggie A., Jersey City. Tyack, Laura, Port Ornm. Vail, Dr. M. H. a, Vollsbur^. Vantlprbeek, T^^ulsa E, Pnter^ion. V'anderreer. Geor^u A., Vanderhnrg. Van I like. Jut>. S„ HopewelU VBtn Biten, P. U, Newton. A'tm Etten, Mi-h. F. L. Newton. Vtin Horn, It, M., B. dividers, Vtto Horn, Mrs. R. M,. Belvldere. Vua HoQicBj. Isaac. I'li'^^sate* Van Kirk, EUiabethH Uamilen, Van Kirk. T. G,, S™>ttsi,voo*K Van Middlofi worth, RHa V, D.. Mlddlebuah, VaQ Ormer, A. Ph, Bxvrnn, Wowt Summit. Van Sickle. Wm. M.. Weehawken. V^im SyqkeU Rachel, Newark, Van Syckel, Bethnny D., Bound Brook. Tan Syckel, L. H., Faasalc. Van Winklf?. M. U, JtrBoy City . Yku Winkle, Daniel, Jersey City, Van Winkle. Esther. Jt-rsey City, Van Zuuiit, FtiDtiJe H.. Blawenburf, Vincent, Grace, Asbury Park. Vtfgel, AtqoM, N'.'Wiifk. Vogel, Geo. J., Wi»st Summit Von GottsjeboJijk, Mary H.. Jer«f dtjr Hrfffhts, Von Beyfpl«iJ, E^nurty, Newark Von Sey fried. Mlsss S. ja., Newack. Voorhees, Ada Y., Somt-rTrliie VoorhU-H G*n>, H., Trent uii. Toae, Marlfj H., tlob-ik^^ii, Voyer, Lucie, West Hobijken Vreeland, Gettie, New Brtmswlck Vreelanfl. MfijrjTie, BIdgt?\ryQj Vrocjm, Philip G., B.iyi>iiij(i Wade, Miusarat L, A&liury Partr Walte. J. lid gar, RlTer Eflte Wnkemati, J» Wotki?r. Jer-^tV ntf^ Wiin, Annie S.» Enj^ll^ijtown '^ Wall, LUlie C, Bn^BhtowTi. " Wallace, Annie Jj,, Weehaiwken Walllpg, a Herbert, Key port " Walling, Eleanor S,, Neiv Monmotith Walter? Addle, EJnfflfshtowu ^'*^"* Ward, Man* A., Li**'d*H Point Ward, Philip M., Gottenbtirff ' Ward, Mrfy, Haekensack, Warne. M.'imte S, Mjitawan Worne. Annie, Mate wan. WfljTier, W, W-, Penii Amhoy Warwick, Be^ale B., Med fori Waters, Robert. Hndaon Oo, Wehi^r, L»ttle M., Jersey City, Weekes, Kate, Trenton, Weir, Rat'hel. Weehawken, Wel»manii. Mjirthii, We^t HobokeA. Welch, T^ P , Keypori, W- Ingralls. W. cj Vh^Jng, Inscho, Ada, Blmira Jackson, Helen M., Brooklyn. tJ^^k*' M.JJ Syracuse. Jacobson, M. B., James-town. ft«2l°^' Xi ^41 Rochester. Jones, B.N. Plattsburgh. Johnson, €. S., New York. Johnson Emma A., New York City. JpslTn, F. M., Buffalo. Keeler, Emma A., Brooklyn. Kelsey, David M., Saratoga Springs Kendall, Mrs. J. \v.. Waverly. Kenyon, Ellen E., l^few York. Kerr, M., Geneva. King, J. B., Rochester. Koth, Robert. Pawllle, L. I. Kyle, R, J., New York. Ladd, A., New York. Lagomarslno, Miss C^ New York. I^ane, Frederick H., JJSabylon. Lang, O. H., New York. Loiham, Mary E., Oornelsvllle. Latimer, Grace Bell, Oneonta. Leach, Orlando. New Y^ork. Leader, Ellen S., Rochester. Leipzlger, Henry M., New York. Lenrl, I^ Roy t., Brooklyn. Leonard, Albert, Binghampton. Le Kow, Caroline B., Brooklyn. Lone, Lulu B^ Livonia. Lord, A., Buffalo. Luther, Miss B. M.. Trenton. Lyles. Mary L., Flashing. Mac Bumev, J., Roctiester. Mackey, W. A., Millbrook. Main, A. B., Alfred. Marsh, Clinton S.. North Tona\to„„/in Mattlson, Florence M., Oneonta ^"^ Mary^eli. W. H.. Brooklyn. ^• McClaIn, Mrs. J. F.. New Yort MoCord, W. B., New York. **'^'^. McCrum, B. Howard, New Yopt McLachlan, A. C, Seneca. *' MoLachlan, A. H., Seneca Fali« McLean, C. D., Brockport. '*- McLean, Martha B.. Broc4cporf Me neke, Miss B. U,. New Y^^ Meleney o. B.. New York. *• Merrill, Jenny B.. New York. Merrlman, s. Francis, Rochestt* 67 **- NEW YOms.-Continued, Merwln, A. G.. New York. Mldcey, Gertrude. Northport. JJ)!}^*"',P^a8- ^L, New York. Mills. Mary Regina, Pleasant Valley. Milne, James M., Oneonta. Milne, John M., Geneseo. Mixer. A. H., Rochester. Moffett, J. F., New York. ^fonteser, Frederick, New York. Montfort, R. V. K., Newburg. Moore. H. A., Elmira. Moore, H., New York. MTieller, A. V., Locfcport. Mueller, W.. New Tork. Murphy, Ruth, Herman. Murphy, J. M., Buffalo. Murray, Margaret T., Hornellevllle. Myer, M., New York. Newton, B. W., Bing^baiinpton. Nott, E. B., Hamburg. Oakley, M. R., Buffalo. OrgiU, Fred, Brooklyn. Orr, Miss M. E., New York. Orr, Susan M., Brooklyn. Osborne, A. S., Rochester. p'Shea, D. J.. Roches '•^r. Packard, S. S., New York. l*atton, C. L., New Y'ork. Pearse, Ix)uiBe M., Brooklyn Pearson, T. H.. Suspension Brldep Perkins, Frank K., Brooklyn *^ Perkins, A. I>., Syracuse. Perry, Cora, BrooKiyn. Picaso, Henrietta. Brooklyn Pink. L May, Brooklyn. ^ Plimpton, Geo. A., New York I'orter, M. E., Rochester. Post, Amy H., Batavla. i*ower, uertie. Hudson. Power, Gussie, Hudson. Powers, Minnie M., Oxford. Pratt. E., New York. I'uruy, Henry S., Brewster, iteibold, Leonard B., New York Rice, Gratia L.. Buffalo, itickoff, Andiew, New York. Riddle, O. F., Blmira. Riddle, Mrs. O. F., Blmira. Roberts, Hester A.. New York Robinson, Oscar B., Albany. Rogers, Belle C, Lima. Rntledge, John B., Rochester. Ryder, Harriet L., Brooklyn. Ryon, Chas. M., Kingston. Sargent, E. A., New York. Schiller. Blanca, College Point. Seegmiller. Miss W., Brooklyn. Shaw, Edward R., j^eiw York. Shipley, Melissa, Rochester. Smith, Geo. W., New York. Smith, Anna H., Binghaflnpton. Smith, Edward, Syracuse, bmlth. May A., Rochester. Smith, Ruby Indianapolis. , , Speer. Mrs. P. A. MlTBrooklyn. §SS!''^' E- ?V' Jamestown. Squires, F. F., Jamestown. Stocker, Mrs. E. c Brooklyn. Steams, W. H., R^ichester. Stevens, Mrs. jtL, Rochester. Stevens, Mary, iflmira Stewart, Seth T., Brookiyn. Stout, Mrs. L H.. OonAva. Stowell. T B.. I^otsdam. i^^MT ?an?eli?S^r Talson, femma V.. n|S York aty. Taylor, Joseph S., New York. Tfernan, Jatnes Q.\ R^Sjester. 1050 NATIONAL Er>UCj±Tia. NEl^ YORK — C Turner, Sarah L., Rochester. Turner. A., Brooklyn. _ Van Aken, Mrs. G., New York City. Van Ber^h, T., Rocbester. Van Bergh, S., Rochester. Van Buren, B. M., Brooklyn. Van Rensselaer, Martha. Randol|>li. Vedder, C. Suspension Bridge. Vernon, Blizabeth, New York. Vogel, M., Rochester. Walker, Samuel L., New York. Wallan, George I., Brooklyn. Walsk, A. K. Niagara Falls. Ward, Bdwerd G., Brooklyn. Webster, 0. I., New York. Webster, A. Cm New York. Wedd, H. A., Rochester. Clayton, P. P., Greenboro. Cotton, Mrs. R. R., Falkland. Oozart, HalUe, Durham. Cozart, Alta, Durham. Denaon, C. B., Raleigh. Bdmiston, F. G. Jr., A^hrlUe. Goodson, Louise, Durham. Graham, Flora May, Rldgeway. 'We. ^Wlii ovinia WIIHai Willis, IVIlson, ^Vinne, • Wood, J\ -Worth, i Wyckotr, XORTBT CAHaX^IA^A. He.rrlBon, C Jjcsley, John McCoy, T. Q. McDonald. J. Smoot, W. B., Toms, a W., . NORTH -DASiOTA. Allen, L. H., Wahpeton. Benedict, Ida H., Fargo. Brannon, M. A., Grand Forks. Brannon, Mrs. M. A., Grand Forks. Kianonse, Mrs. G Nellson, Minnie, Spurr, Belle. Valh Stocliw^ll, W. L., Aberle, Maria. Mansfield. Adelsperger, Sadie, Toledo. Albery, W. H., Columbus. Alexander, Mrs. J. W., Cleveland. Allen, Bertha D., Dayton. Allen. Geo. G., Akron. Allen, D. O., Akron. Alword, C. C, Columbus. Alword, Mrs. C. C. Columbus. Ambahl, Blla, Xenla. Anderson, H. B., Cleveland. Anderson, Mrs. H. E., Cleveland (2). Anderson, B. G., Portsmouth. Averbeck, P., Youngstown. Balnter, Miss B. L., Columbus. Baldwin, Harriet L., Akron. Baldwin, Arthur C, Granville. Ballard, B. J., Canton. Bane, Mrs. J. W. Newell. Barstow, B. B.. Cincinnati (3). Bartholomew. Blla R., Springfield. Barmann, Belle. Chillicothe. Bashford, J. W., Delaware. Bashford, Mrs. J. F., Delaware. Beaumont, Miss M., Cleveland. Beck, Minnie, Cincinnati. Beecher. H. B., Youngstown. Beekey, Mary, Columbus. Beers, L. B., Cleveland (3). Beers, N. C, Bast Cleveland. Beggs, John J., Cincinnati. Bell. B., Dayton. Bell, Lizzie, Dayton. Bender, H. G., Akron. Bender, Mrs. H. G.. Akron. Bennett, S. C, Dayton. Bergmann, L.. Dayton. Bergmann, Gustav, Cincinnati. Bernstein, A., Cincinnati. Berry. D. C, Tiffin. Berteh, Mrs. A., Bast Liverpool. Biddle, Laura, Columbus. Biggs, Bmile, Columbus. OHIO. Bishop, J. R., Cincln Black, Sam'l, Olnclni Black, Simon, Cinclni Blitz, J., Cincinnati. Blodgett, Esther, Tok Bfnm. J., Bellaire. Blumerscbeln. W. L.. L Boar, Lizzie R, Canton. Bochle, F., Cincinnati. Bodkin. M., Cleveland. Bobllor. Lena, Clnclnnnti Bold. John T., Sprlafffiehl Boltt, Minnie, Cincinnati. BootSi, E. R., ancinnatl. Borroway, Jesse, Canton. Botkin, J. W., Columbus. Botkin, Mrs. J. TV., Columbi Bowie, Mi«8 S. M., Portamci Bowman, May, Masslllon. Bowman, Mrs. Fannie, New . Boyd, Dorothy, CAnclnn&tl. Boyd, W. W., Marietta. Boyd. W. H., Clflcinflflti. Boynton, B. M., Portsaoutb. BrachmaDD, Fred C, ClDclnnatl. Brackett, Kate, Youngstown. Brackman, Mrs. Wm.. OlDclnnnii Bradbnry, E. P., Cleveland. Bradford, Mrs. R. W., Cinclnn if/, Bradford, Mjdk, dndnutl Bradsbaw, F. I, Columbns i'Jk Brainerd, Mihel, Ciere/aod Brandon, J. A., Akron (21. Brandon, X E, Akron (2). Brenan. Mary, Toledo. Brennan, M&egle, Toledo. Brian, A.. Salem (2). Broekboren, Jobn A., CAacimtl. Brooks, E Cblumbos. Broome, Mrs. Da/ay, Colmhua. Bryan, Marie A., MadiaoDr/Z/e. Bochoan, A, N., dereiaod, Bandey, John E., dncinoatl. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP, »txriJ«:<^r • ^^^^ Job OUIO— Continued. «nB Cincinnati. ..^ <-olumbus. c^^^\ CltwJlniiatl. «2?S- p"4- » ru-ixi^ ' ifc^ 1 Oan ton. g«*-n«. ™- J^^-'iS?' Cincinnati. :Bm-S^- ^^«^ ^- Canton. SuW^^-JS^^^^- Olndnnatl. ^Butrle-r W^ ^rV, ^'^^-» Van Wert (2). Oal«^Mt:^r-, .A.lvJn, Akron. Oa.i-i>^nt:oiT, .A.. W., Cincinnati. o2^?^"V^^^ ^^';«-, ^' W., Cincinnati. S^*"^^^^^* -A^i^na, Cleveland. Oart-^^xrlj^liit- , ICate B., Youngstown. OcLrt-^eTrrs-^iiJt, Hlelen, Young»town. 01i«.<:?lc:s:a.c-»lcfl, S., Cincinnati. ^^aTXi.^t>^irla.iD, OllTe, New Carlisle. C3ai"ajix-i.i>ll.Ei., JE^.^ Cincinnati. C:Mxai>lx^, IT- :Ei.j_Atkin8. 01iax>Dci-a.i:i., li. \V., Chillicothe. CTtfcoxi^^r* X3:. JhC., Toledo. Cl«.rkt, 3ki:is«s ICatie, Dayton. 01a.r"*c, Icla., OoluznlbuR. C31a.iry, :E3t:t:.a., Cleveland. C31ayi>ool» C^- K-. Toledo. C51a.3rt;oxi, rr. -A... Cincinnati. C31e^^lxi^e^ir, :Nrrs. Carrie, Cincinnati. Clycle, 33- :AJ:., Cincinnati. CJotyio, :3wl.r». Hfura M., Cincinnati. C3oile>xxi9C»xm» 3(i:i-s. K., Columbus. C>OTXfc»i>t:o«^, K. "W., Toledo. Oonaa-^ton, :Mj-8. H. W., Toledo. C3on.- 1^., Coliimlnis. CZJoxi-clox*., E>uima, Columbue. CJToiaklin., JL-izzie, Cincinnati. O^oTin-^ly, Jolin IS., Cincinnati. Ooolc, %Vxr». O., Cleveland. C3oor>eTr, :M:r8. M. J., Cincinnati. <_5oi>elo.xit>o<=^- ^•' Cincinnati. c^o-r-Tain, I-#iacy, Columbus. Ooroor»xi, 'X^etf^sa, Dayton, c -orrey, ^Wxn., Cincinnati. >S3rl^t:t:, ^Wm. K., aeveland (4). C3ox-&oii, O. T., Colum-bus (2). <:>€> rasoix, IiSl la M., Columbus. ^^tx:, -EScl-wlii 13., Xenla. ^-*<:»'«-. GGTkSL I^., Cincinnati. V^Syl .A^lia B., Cincinnati. o5oy! :B. ^V., Cincinnati. Coy. Hlelen H.. Cincinnati. Cr-ane, Oora B., Coaumbus. C^T-olflcliton, Jessie, Columbus. ^ritciineld, C. W., Columbus. Crevoi8l«, J. A., Canton. >*^ck0r. r,. ft., MurvsvlSlf*. Jfennis, m. K.. Cohimilius, ' Dpnni^on, Mjirllln J., Youugstowii, Bi^rtlfit. M., Akmn. JJettfiifj»:if*^r, T. s., Pinion, 1: ckprson w. n.. rciltmibus (3). j>; th<^r, Mftry A., Mrif^sin.m. yiJI, MIsi* AiJtia, rolijijibus, l'"^*N UrH(> 1^,. rHh]itriil-iiH, Iwrlug, Wtn. <^.,,, rijirintkntl. noiigbt^rfy. Ffmik. S;iJrni. J ]ap,r, Aiirlrew .S.. C'h-vt^lnncL I iiohoJiM^ V\ E., ntlrjn, Kati? B., fSt'Voland- JJHyer, M. A.» Akron. 4>yaa, Jas., Sandwidi- Eadle, Mrs., Olevelauil. Ecjert, R., Cincinnati. gcnert, Miss Sal]lo, ClnclpnittL *^«eter, Helen, DuTton. g ru?^. Fettivels *'- iliidiman. i^ I?* :^r>Jtlslin; '^Mt4ll«^, Cantoo- J?»w^ein*iP>. ' r,., ^orwaJK. 1052 NATIONAL EDUCJiTION. Fucbs, Jullua, Cincinnati. Fuchs, Mrs. Julius, Cincinnati. Funts, G. B., Cleveland. Gadden, W., Cincinnati. Gadden. I., Cincinnati. Gadden. Mrs. A. L., Oinclnnatl. Galloway, Alice, Xenla. Galloway, Lee, Xenia. Galloway, Mrs. Lee, Xenia. Galloway, Sallle, Xenla. Galloway, Anna, Xenla. Garno, Mrs. A., Cincinnati. Gamo, Albino, Cincinnati. Gates, Emma M., Columbus. Gault, Wm. P., Cincinnati. Gayer, Mary B., Akron. Gayman, C. W.. Canal Winchester. Gepbart, H., New Carlisle. Glloert, Frank, Cleveland. Gilcibrlst, Mattie, Youngstown. Gilchrist, Mrs., Youngstown. Gillen, John, Youngstown. Gillespie, Grace, Cincinnati. Glelm, Llsette E., Cleveland. Glover, N. L., Akron. Golden, Cora P., Athens. Goldstein, Anna, Youngstown. Goodspead, J. M., Athens. Gouldfiig, M. K., Columbus. Graeser, Amelia, Cincinnati. Graeser, Louis, Cincinnati (2). Gratar, Louis £., Oinclnnatl. Grau. Mrs. Otto, Cincinnati. Gray, Clara, Columbus. Oreenman, H., Cincinnati. Greene, Mrs. J. W., Toledo. Greene, L. M., Wilmington. Greene, Mrs. L. M., Wilmington. Greenslade, J. M., lima. Greenslade, J. M., Bellevue. Greenslade, Emma, Bellevue. Grever, B. J., Cincinnati. Griffith, Mta, Cleveland. Gutman. L., Cincinnati. Haas, Alma, Cincinnati. Haas, Stanley, Cincinnati. Ilaaa, Mrs. S., Cincinnati. Haas, Marcus, Cincinnati. Haas, Mrs. B., Cincinnati. Haas, Carrie, Cincinnati. Haas, Marx, Cincinnati. Haas. Jessie, Cincinnati. Haas, Grace, Cincinnati. Haas, Estelle, Cindnnati. Haas, Mrs. A., Cincinnati. Haas, Harold M., Cincinnati. Hablitzel, Thekla. Cincinnati. Hablltzel, B., Cincinnati. Hadsell. Delia, Lima. Hahn, Frances A., Columbus. Hahn, Louis, Cincinnati. Haines, Isaac S.. Wakeman. Hale, Nan B., Dayton. Hall, L. A., Cincinnati. Hall. Anna M., Cincinnati. Hall. Edith M.. Cincinnati. Hall, B. C, Cincinnati. Hall, J. R.. Oberlin (2). Hall, Mrs. L. A.. Cincinnati. Halle, A., Cleveland. Halle, Joseph, Cleveland. Halle, Julia, Cleveland. Hallett, Mrs. Theo., Cincinnati. Halliday, Blanche. Zanesvllle. Halnman. L., Akron. Hammond, B. D.. Springfield. Hammond, Mrs. Flora R., Sprlngfleld. Hannet, Maude F., Columbus. Hanson, W. J., Canal Dover. Hard, M. B. Salem. _ ^ Harding, Mrs. Emma, Canton. Homan, Grace. Columbus. Harris. Julia A., Cincinnati. O H lO — Co nt in Harr S[ars\ Hart, Hart. Hart. . Uai-t, .. JJart, IL Hartuia i Hartznuii Mar wit z, Ilauss, Xi IlAWthon I MayTvaru8. I^°i2£! '"''^A; !>•. Ba«t Liverpool. Kanflknan, H. L., Columbus. Kaaffxnan, H. P., ColnmbuB. Kauffman. Mrs. Columbus. Keadln, M.. Cincinnati. Keadiu. K., Cincinnati. Keck, Amanda, Cincinnati. Keeler, Marriet L., Cleveland Keeier. Wlil W., Cleveland Keffer, Mrs. John, Cleveland. Keffer, Bertha, Cleveland. Kelley, F. J^ Cleveland. KenM)er, C. R., Cincinnati. Kendall, K. H., Palneeville. Kendall. Ags. F. H., Painesville. Kenarl^, Helen F.. Cincinnati. Kerr, Theodora, Cincinnati Kerr, Geo. B., Cincinnati. Kershaw, Ella, Columbus. Kerwer^ Philllplne. Youngstown. li.etU B*rank, Cincinnati. Kientz, Libble C, Oardln^ton Klentz, Wm. A., Cardiugton KImmel, M. A., Younirstown. Klngs»bury, A. T., Akron. Klnesbury, Mrs. A. T., Akron. Klrby, Harriet R., Columbus. Klrwan, Bessie M., Cleveland. Klemm, Mrs. Clara B., Clucluuatl. Knapp, A. N., Cincinnati. Knott, Jamua W., Mauslield. Knott. Mj-8. J. W., MansfleJd. Knowles, L., Portsmouth. Koenecke, Mrs., Columbus. Kohnky, iTrauces, Cincinnati. Koontz, LAura E., Canton. Korf, Mrs. Henry Jr.. Cincinnati. Karger, Annie, Columbus. Kronacner, D. F., Cincinnati. Krout, O. A., Tiffin. Kuhn, Lewis, Cincinnati. Kuhn, Mrs. Lewis, Cincinnati. Kuhn, Bda, Cincinnati. Laird, Mrs. Ada £., Clev^and. Lake, Mrs. 'S. C, Akron. Lamers, Mattle, Portsmouth. Lamer t, C. J., Cincinnati. Lamert, Mrs. C. J.. Cincinnati, liane, B., Cincinnati. Lane, Mary, Batavia. Lane, Mary F., Batavia. Lang, Lillie D., Toledo. Lange. Cbas., Cincinnati. Langsdorf, W. B., Oxford. Langsdorf, Mrs., Oxford. Lascn, Mrs., Columrbus. Lascutt, Eva L., Cincinnati. Lathrop, C. N., Clnchmntl. Lathrop, Mrs. H., Cincinnati. Layman. Geo. M., rimia. Lawrence. Josephine, Marysvllle. Leavltt, I*ercy W., Cleveland. I^elbenderfer. Ed, C, Dayton. Lemoine, S. B , Akron. Leonard, Isaac, Columbus. Leonard. Mrs. Isaac. Columbus. Levy, Ed, Cincinnati. Lievy, Lllllnn, Cincinnati. Lewis, Dorothy, Medina. Light, Mrs., Akron. Link, Emma L., Columbus. Loeb, Clora, Cincinnati. Longwell, tSusan A., Springfield. Lonn, Francis, MasslUon. Loomia. H. T., Cleveland. Lorey, P. G., Portsmouth. Lcsee, Mre. F. B., Toledo. Losee, Irene, Toledo. liOth, Sabina, Cincinnati. Lovon, M. A., Cincinnati. Lucas, G., Bucyrus (2). Luker, B., Cincinnati. OUlO-Continued. Limdquist, Anna C, Springfield. Luth, Theo., Cincinnati. Luthey, J. Oliver, Cincinnati. Lynch, C. P.. Cleveland. Lynch, John F., Canton. Mabley. A. U., Cleveland. Mack, M., Cincinnati. Mack, J., Cincinnati. Magrane, Chas., Hammonsourg. Magrane, Mrs. Chas., Hammonsburg. Mann. G. C, Dayton. iManter, Miss M. H.. Cleveland. Maroellus, Jean, Toleuo. March, Aralbella, London. Martin, W. P., Canton. I^Iartln, O. W., Loveland. Martin, William. B.. Cleveland. Martin, Lydla, Columbus. Mathews, G. D., Tlflan. Mayer, Mrs. W. E., Dayton. Mayer, Wm. C, Dayton. McAninch, Orvllle, Cleveland. McAninch, Emma, Cleveland. McBroom, F. W^ Cleveland. McBroom. Mrs. F. W., Cleveland. McCague. Addle M., Akron. MoClelland, J.. Columbus. McCully, Frank J., Newark. McCuIly. William M., Newarlt. McDonald, Emma L., Cincinnati. Mc*^adden, W. O., Columbus. McGonan, Maynae, CinclnuAtl. MoGowen, Ida, •Cincinnati. McGowan, Mary B., Cincinnati. McGregor, Robert R.. Sprlngilehl. McGregor, David, Springfield. McGurk, jB., Cleveland. McGurk, Irwin, Cleveland. McGurk, M. B.. Cleveland. McHenry. W., Cleveland. McHenry, 15^ Cleveland. McKell. M. W., Chlllfcothe. McKinney, Carrie C, Clnelnnatl McXoy, T. H., Marietta. McRay, H. K., Somerset. Meagher, Edward J., ToJedo. Melr, F., Cincinnati (2). Meixell. GrenvlUe H.. Tlflln. Mencke, F., Cincinnati. Men eke, Mrs. F., Cincinnati. Merchant, W. W., Columbus. Murry, Julia B., Belle view. Merkel, Louisa, Olncdnnati. Merkel, G. H^ Cincinnati. Meyer, Bda, Cleveland. Meyers, Minnie, Orrvllle. , Mlihum, W. F., Cincinnati. Miller, J. L., Dayton. Miller, H. C. Cleveland. MUJer, Mrs. H. C, Cleveland. Miller, C. C, Hamilton. Miller, J. S., Shreve. Miller, Julia B., Cleveland. Miller, Maude, Akron. Mills, Mrs. James E., Clnciunatl Mitchell. Lenora, Tiffin. Mitchell, Sadie C, Akron. Mitchell, T. J., Cleveland. Mitchell, Florlne. Akron. Mitchell, llioe., Dayton (3). Mitchell, C, Toledo. Monfort, B. M., Marietta. Moore, Jessie, Salein. Moore, BmUy A., Newark. Morgan, C., Akron. Morgan, l^^j^^^^^^on. Morgan, W. H., Cincinnati. Morgan, ^K. M., Cleveland. Morgenthan, ^J". S., puclnnatl. Morgenthan. HIcca, Cincinnati. Morris, W. ®.. Conneng^jj,^ Morrison, E. K-. Chlliicothe. Morrison, N. J., Marietta. 1054 NA TIONAL ED UCA. TJOJS! Moulton, M., Cleveland. Mount, R. C, Carlisle. Muckley, H. C, Cleveland. Mullen, Mary B., Cleveland. Mallen, Libbie, Cleveland. Mullen, C. B., Cleveland. Mueller, Marie, Cleveland. Mueller, C. LouisejCleveland. Mullifiran, Blla J., Wooster. Munford, K., Sidney. Murdock, Jessie B., Youngstown. Murray, Sallie, Cincinnati. Murray, Kate J., Cincinnati. Murphy, M., Cincinnati. Murphy, Hannah L., Toledo. Mufisbaum, B., Bucyrus. Neare, O. J., Cincinnati. Neare, Mrs. Clarence J., Cincinnati. Neare, Cora M., Cincinnati. Neare, Bmma, xounffstown. Neeb, Matilda, Dayton. Neereamer, Cora /., Columbus. Neereamer, Jennie, Columbus. Neereamer. Kate, Columbus. Nelson, Blla, Cincinnati. Nevin, Blla C, Columbus. Newman, A., Cincinnati. Noble, H. R., Shallow (2). Nott, Belle C., Dayton. Nott, L'ucy A,, Dayton. Cakes, Nellie v.. Cleveland. O'Brien, Mrs. John, Cleveland. O'Connel, P. J., Ironton. Oeh, Kate, Cincinnati. Ogier, Ida, Cambridge. Ogier. Myrtle, Cambridge. Oglesby, E. C, Cedarville. Ogleaby, Mrs. B. C, Cedarville. OTCane, Henry, Columbus. O'Neill, N., Akron. Osgood, R. H., Columbus (2). Oviatt, Mary A., Cleveland. Owen. C. D,, Dayton. Pabodle, Robert J., Cincinnati. Pabodie, W. H.. ^VyomIug. Pabodle, Mrs. W. H., Wyoming. Painter, Jonathan E., Newark. Palmer, Mary C, Youngstown. Palmer, Caroline L., Youngstowu. I'ark, "Wm. J., Cleveland. Park, Mrs. Wm. J., Cleveland. Peacock. Sarah, Cincinnati. Peaee, L. M., Toledo. Perman. Mrs B., riuclnnati. I'erry, Florence, Columbus. Peters, Alice, Columbus. Phelan, M., Cincinnati. Phelps, Anna L., Columbus. Phillips, Geo. W., DavtoK. I*hilllp8, Mrs. Geo. W.. Dayton (2). Plchel, Adelbert, CincinnaU. Pichel, Mrs. C, Cincinnati. Plchel, J., Cincinnati. Plchel, Laura, Cincinnati. Pickett, Annie E., Toledo. Pickett, Mary B., Toledo. Pierce, H., Cincinnati. Pierrez, A. S., Akron. IMersol, Mary J., Cincinnati. IMke, A. B., Cleveland. Pinkley. Virgil A., Cincinnati. Piper, H. P., Cincinnati. Pisel John R., Akron. Pisel, Mrs. John R., Akron. Plout, B., Cincinnati. Povser, Grace M., Canton. Poland, L., Cincinnati. Poet, Nellie, Cuyahoga Falls. Porterfleld, W. D., Warnock. Pratt, D. B., Portwnouth. Price, W. M., Columbus. Price, C. W., Mansfield. Pruess, Emille, Cincinnati. Purlnton, John J., EaHt Liverpool. rur Qua J£ac< J)I SchwllI, Ferd, Port SchwiJ]. M. A. OJD> Scott, Mary H.. Spi Scott, Walter, Sprli Scott. Donglas. Spri Seagraves, Clara. M Searleht, Clarissa. V Sechlar. D. M., Huni ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP, 1055 OUlO—CoiUinued. Sechlar, Mrw. D. M., Cincinnati. Seelye, A. C, Wooster. Seelye, W. J., Wooster. Senne, Leonora B., Sandusky. Sexton, C. G., Columl)U6. Shaffer, F. N., Xenla. Shaffer. Mrs. F. N., Xenla. Sharkey, J. P., Eaton. Shawan, J. A., CJolumbns (2). Shawan, Mrs. J. A.. Columbus. Sherwood, M. B., Cincinnati. Sherwood, J. "B., Cincinnati. Shipley, Wm. B.. Cincinnati. Shone, J. S., Columbus. Sliobe, J. W.. Columbus. Sholes, Maud, Cleveland. ShoempSker, Carrie O., Golum*b\i8. Shoemaker, Mrs. W. A., Columbus. Shomo. Robert. Dayton. Shumakear, F. P., Cha^ln Falla. Shumaker, Mrs. F. P., Chagrin Falls. Shunk, F. R., Cleveland. Shunk, Mrs. F. K., Cleveland. Slebert, Mrs. H. L., vingiito-5^n Wjinnati. E. Q.* OndrtnatL Wjirtier, L. K., Cl3^dt C2>. W(?tiv^r, Carry E^ Toledo. Webbpr. Thrroan. You n^s town. WeiwhtiT, Sjumiiel, Cnnton. Weidenlirtpt ,Tosle J,. Clevt^lnn^ Weldenknpf. Nellie L, Cl&velam! Well. M., CinclunalK Well, S.t Cincinnati. Wen B.t CI nolo Da tl. W(*nor. H> J.. CTlnvlnoatL AVelnfttein, C Nn<**«. AVclfkh, Ilclta. OrTllle. Weiit^. Chfirles H., Ss Mary, Medina Whlraker, MIhs H. n., Cincinnati \\%ltaker, MIfifi I- J-t CludnontJ. White, J, iM„ CU^vpland. MTilte. W. J., Dn3Fton. Whltr-bend. MInnl«* U., CleT&land. Wlckliara, tola. Go umtms. Wlfv^hcr, K H,p rinflncEitK Wle^^he^. Anna. Cincinnati. WIliK Annuwia >r, Akron. Wlk-F. Marirsirft, <5lendale. W^UllQmfl. Stella Q., CincInnatL Winhims, SjiUye. riiidnimtl. WllnictL Afldl^* Youngstown. WilHon, Rvn. NU^^h. Wilson, H, "W.. CK^vii^laniL Wilson, Mrs. Jtio.. BmryruB. WtlHOTl. F. N H 'lotritn. Wilt. A. D., Dayton- Wisslnger, Mrs. T. K.. Columbus. Wlssler, Katharine, ChllUcothe. Wlssler, Klsle. ChllUcothe. Wolfe, Josle B., Cleveland. Woltr., Tiaura R.. Akron. Wood, Elizabeth A.. Columbus. Wood, Llnnle S., Columbus. Wright, Anna J.. Cleveland. Yrager, B., Portsmouth. Yeo, A. G.. ChllUcotho. Yerjrer, Wm. D., Cincinnati. Young, John H., P^qua. Young, Mrs. John H., Peqna. Young, Alice, Masslllon. Young. Geo. H.. Sprlngflel*'- Yowell, R. C, ancinnatl (2). Zerbe. Ida, Cleveland. Ohio -99 1056 NATIONAL EnUCA^TIONT. Boyd, D. R.. Norman. Jock, Dora M., Anadarko. 01CLA.XT0M. J one "Willi PENr:XS YI. \'-4LV Aaron, Ii. I., Pittsburgh. Adair, Kate L., Alleghany City. Adair, M. J., Alleghany City. Am-bler. Louis B., Jenkintown. Ankron, Anna, AJleghany. Atkinson, H. L., Philadelnhla. Bacon, Frank, Philadelphia. Baer, Samuel A., Reading. Baker, Lldle J., ColumNa. BalUnger, A. L., Meadyllle. Bare. H. Blomlield. Philadelphia. Baymore, L. H., Philadelphia. Becht, J. George, Muncy. Benson, W. M.. Huntingdon. Benton. S., Philadelphia. Berlnler. Wm.. Corey. Bird, Elizabeth. Montoursville. Bll8«, Mazy, New Brighton. Bodler. Anna. Gondersport. Booth, Mrs. L., Scranton. Bower, John, Newcastle. Bower, Mrs. John. Newcastle. Bowman, Llllie, Allentown. Bowman, Annie. Allentown. Boyer, Millie, MeadrlUe. Boyer, Cyrus, Lebanon. Brecbt, M. J., Lancaster. Brewster, Miss R. W., Elwyn. Brodwater, L. 0., Philadelphia. Brooks, Bdward, Philadelphia. Bropley, M. A., Philadelphia. Bropley, K. H.. Philadelphia. Brown, Thomas K., Westtown. Brown, Mary H., Cannonsburg. Brown, W. F^, Cannonsburg. Buehrele, R. K., Lancaster. Bull, Emily L., Germantown. Bulsford, Ohas. H., Philadelphia. Bushfield, Caroline M.. Plttsbiirir. Butler, Mrs. -S. S., Brie. Butler, Harry, Erie. Byrne, J. P., Erie. Cameron, Lizzie. Washington. Carroll. Delia, Union City Carroll, Phebe, Union City. Ohism, Miss S. C, Norrlstown. Cnrisholm, Adelaide, Erie. Chrisholm, Andrew, Erie. Clark, Mrs. Margaret, Cannonsburg. Clark, W. ®., Erie. Clement, Mrs. Frances, Philadelphia. Collins, Mrs. J. S.. Alleghany. Colter, J. P.. Meadevllle. Colter. M. B., Meadeville. Colter, Fannie, Meadeville. Colter, W. Hy Meadeville. Colter, Mrs. Weltha J., Meadeville. Colter, Bertha, Meadeville. Cordery, D. L., Philadelphia. Cornman, Oliver P., Philadelphia. Criley, Elizabeth F., Downington. Crouch, Mattie, Brie. OuUen, Z. Adams, Pittsburg. Deahl, John L^, Irwin. Deatick, Rev. W. W., Kutztown. Deens, A. M., Pittsburg. De Garmo, Ohas., Swarthmore (2). Dempster, A. P., Pittsburg. Dempster, A. A., Pittsburg. Dempster, J. G., Pittsburg. Dempster, A. J., Pittsburg. Dewey, James A., Wanamle. Dewey, Idrs. James A., Wanamle. Dick, Wallace P., Westchester. Dickenson, Mary B., Pittsburg. Dixon, Edward C, PhlladeliAlsi. Donaldson, Emma, Alleghany. Douglas, Carrie, Meadeville. £2astI>L Bl.v. Te Flint. A Floundo. KosttT, < JF^a^■e^, j Fras«r, .; Fraeer, J. Fraser, 3 Fraser, V Frey, EJij GaJlag-her, Gamble, I GABsawny, G:bbs, «. : Gideon, P:c Gilbert. Sa Glllett, Mn Gotwals, Jc Graham, 31 Greeyes, M. Griffith, E. : Gulst, M. 31 Hahn, Enimi HaJI, Waiter Hall, Louise, Ha^l. Loyai J HaJloweJI. An Hamar, Howt Hamilton, Saj Hamilton, Mrt Hamiin, Annn Hannon, Davi< Harmon, Mor^v Harpel, Wm. H Harrah, Mrs. F. Hartranft, H. J Hasting, L. B., Haxton, B. K.. Heikes, Irving . Herring, Beiia, . Highland, Lyclia Hill, Ida Af., Am Hobson, Miss C. HoiTman, S., Coii Holland. T. K, T Hougendobler. M. Houston, Lizzie. I Hull, Geo. W., yil Hulsmann, I., Phil Hutdiln. D. W., 1 Irwin, Sarah M., I Jackson, K, Elwyi Jones, Ificbard, Sw Jones, Annlo L., P Jones, M., Phllude/ Jones, Addison, We Johnson, H. P., Job Johnston. W. E., Cb: Jordan, Mm., Readir Ealn, Chas. H., i'bil Kellogff, Abble, Me«) Kellogg, 0. B., Mem Kieffer. J. B.. Lanca.s King, J. J., Wllllms KirbT, Lydia A., Phlh KlssiQger, TSmma. Bei] KnausB. Tlvllla E.. ^1 Knowlton. A. L, Philj KoWer, Matilda, Ettm Knt2, Mrs. S. B., Ilea ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP, 1057 t-alclley, :E3. 3^., Oil City. Xialrd, :X£a.ss^e, TVlIIlamsport. r»axrfcl>e>irt:oi:i, »£ary J., Phfladelnhia. ILiCLixvl>ex-tor&, E3. fi.. Pranklln. ILifL]Xfel>«rt;on, ATrs. B. H., Franklin. ILiaxKleirs. .^xnanda. MlllersvlUe. X>ea.cti, A.. 'V., Plttabxirg. I-»ee, Ol&ax-leA S.. Philadelphia. Let trimmer, -A.., Philadelphia. I-»e^wls, I. TC nttfltourg. I^ieto^l , It . , E>rl e. X^l-nensood, Olive. ESkhart. lL«ol>l3, S- El., P31wyn. I-o^jare, Susan C, Westchester. Loclor, :^Tairy r»., Philadelphia. I^odor, E^li2al>eth. Philadelphia. I-»oonjiis, IB^. B., Pittsburg. IL«oxi^sti-etli, ■Etanma J.. Philadelphia. T^ulcens, 1±. T., Philadelphia. X^yle, Anna, MlUer-svIlle. lL#3rte, U. Oram, MlllersTllIe. :MaelDeloCraIiller. O. U., TVIlkesbarre. Sifiller, Gertrude, Wllkesibarre. Allner, liJUTUttoelh, Pittsburgr. :M:ciratt, S., Philadelphia. >TrK-*rly, >f.. "Warrensburg. >Ioran, :Margferet, TltusvUle. Aforan, ^Wm. J., Philadelphia. :M[onarty, Mary, Pittsburg. »j:oiTlson, Andrew J.. Philadelphia. ISktforse, Addle L., Troy. M:oyer, N. O., lieadlng. ^ , ^, "M:nTnforarke, Onl., I^ltt»burg. ^a»smore, Jolm A. M.. Philadelphia. :PatterBon. B. F., PottsvUle. i*at:tersoii, J. A., Falrmount. Patterson. CJ lar a N., Pittsburg T-artrldee, I-llla K.. Philadelphia. ^ayne, Kate- S., CJolambia. ^avne! Sarali V._, Colombia. ^lllps, O. IMN, tVefltchester. ^UllllTM, G' ^- Scranton. S?iw^. Bliasalieth, Yocumtown. Kapp, E3. M.. Hamburg. PENNSYL.VANIA-Con«ni^iirord, Rowe, D. J., iQdiunn. Russell, Clnrn B,, Meadevllle* Russeil, I.iiiuni, Mendoville. Russell. M[i5, M. J,, McConnon'H Mill*. Sawvell, F R., flrfpnynic. Shaeffer, >'a:h jn c^ Supt.» ITacrlsburg. Schmncker, 'S. C, Indiana. Schroeder, Emma' M., Ck>lumbla. Scott. Cha«. W., Willlamsport. Sharpless, Isaao, Baverford. Shaughnesey, Mary, Erie. Shnw, M. A., Pittsburg. Shaw, M. M., Pittaburg. Shrader. Caroline H.. Philadelphia. SIckel. J. F. C, Philadelphia. Siegfried, M. B.. Pittsburg. Siegfried, H., Pittsburg. SImipson, Ellen, Reading. Simpson, Jennie C, Pittsburg. Simpson, M. B., Pltteboirg. Smith, A. T., Westchester. Smith, A. O. O.. Meflln. Smith, Lillie S., rnJumhla. Snakard, Rose, THnsvliie. Snyder, J. L., Allf^s^lnmy. Spaugler, Rer. ITt-nry T., Colle&reville. Spayd. H. IL, MSMri*v[He. »«▼»"€. Spencer. P. w., T'liDnrl^^iphii]. Starr, Mrs. H. C . Mj^nlPvJiic*. Stewart, J. A., llftllliTny^^tmr-^ Stewart, Sarah A.. i'liUuU. tpjhia Stout, Geo. H., Phlladelnhla. Stuart, James, Meadeville. Swift, Minnie, Bdenboro. Swift, Annie, Bdenboro. Tadd, J. j.iberty. Philadelphia. Talt, BllMbeth S.. Philadelphia Taylor, Laura, Pittsburg. Telsen, C. B., Blwyn. Thompson, Margaret. Pittsburg. Tomklnson, Martha M., Harrlsburg Ullman, S.. Pittsburg. ** Vandever, Miss J. »., Philadelphia Venables, Esther M.. Philadelphia. Verienden, Elizabeth L., Darby. Verlenden, Mary S., Darby. Verienden, Mrs. R. H., Darby. Waden, R., Warrensburg. Walker, A. M., Philadelphia. Wallace, M. A., Philadelphia. Walter, Mary H., Tradesvllle. Warm, Mabel, Bradford. Warren, Josephine, Brie. Welsh, J. P., Bloomsburg. Welsh, Wm. L., Philadelphia. Walker, Alice L., Allentown. Wlllard, J. Monroe, Philadelphia. Williamson, L. J., Philadelphia. Wirtz. P., Brie. Wishart, Mary C, Himtlngton. WItmer, Chas. K., Lebanon. Wobensmith, A J., Reading. WoJl, C. J., Newcastle. Wolverton, W. J., LocJc Haven. Wolverton, A- O., Lock Haven. Wood, B. C. Pittsburg. Worrell, J. Worcester, Philadelphia. Wunder, Annie M., Reading. Young, C. M., Pittsburg. Pennsylvania — 32.?. 1058 NA TIONAL ED UCJL TIO Arnold, B. C, Piovldeuce. Baker, Benjamin, Newport. Bevan, Alexander, Proyidence. Fisher, Gllman C, Pawtucket. Jacobs, Walter B., Providence. Jenks, Jennie B., Pawtncket. riioi:>e: is It SI Tj Tf SOUTH CAR< Allen, Mrs. J. W., Spartanburg. Ard, A. J., Sumpter. Bailey, Thomas P. Jr., Marion. Bailey, B. F., Bbbevllle. Brodie, P. T., Spartanburg (2). Brodie, Mrs. P. T., Spartanburg. Gannon, Mrs. T. H., Spartanburg. Cannon, T. H., Spartanburg. Gates. C. F., Spartanburg. CleTeland, B. S;^ Spartanburg. Cofleld, L. R., Spartanburg. Ooheu, S. H., Charleston. Cook, S. F., Greenville. Cook, M. D., Greenville. Coulter, Mamie D., Rock Hill. Davis, Geo. F., Charleston. Dawson^ J. H., Charleston (2). Due, H. C, Jr., Charleston. Flanders. Mrs. H. Y., Greenville. Gill. M. Cm Allendale. Gill, W. v., Allendale. Harnby, Thomas B., Marlon. Havns worth. Mrs. J. L., Sumpter. Heinltsch, Mrs. Geo. W., Spai-tanburg. Hook, H. L., Spartanburg. He Jei Joi Ke L»a^ Lei Lef Mai Me« Mef Pea Reei Rob Sobl Ten Tied Tied Well Wes Wetl Whei Whe< ZIma ZImir Zlmm Booth, Mason, Mitchell. Miller, Homer R., Elk Point. Miller. Mrs. Bllen, Elk Point. Piles, I.. Yankton. Piles. Mrs. I., Yankton. SOUTH DAKO: Roper She]d< Whlta Willse Abernathy. W. T^Nashvllle. Abernathy, Mrs. W. T., Nashville. Alprin, B., Memphis. Alprin, M., Memphis. Armstrong, S., Knoxyille. Bennett^ J., Chattanooga. Bennett, C, Chattanooga. Bigley, A., Memphis. Blum, C, Memphis. Bornett, J. C, Myhie. Brister, M. W.. Memphis. Bronston, S., Memphis. Brown, Nashville. Camp, N. B., Memphis. Clark, S. M. D., Nashville. Clark, Mary L., Nashville. Clark, Mrs. S. M. D., Nashville. Coe, Mrs. P. A., Memphis. Oompton, Mrs. J. M.. Memphis. Cowan, C. C, Memphis (2). Drawbrock, G., Chattanooga. Elmore, E. A., Knoxville. Felsenthal, Julius, Memphis. Fllppin, J. R., Memphis. Flippin, Miss Helen, Memphis. Foster, N., Memphis. Foy, G., Chattanooga. Frayser, R. D.. Memphis. Frayser, Florence M.. Memphis. Freeman, L. R., Nashville. Freeman, Mary L., Nashville. Furgason, E. O., Athens. Gaboy, R., Memphis. Gaifagen, James, Memphis. Goodman, Frank, Nashville. TBNNESSHE. Gordot HamlK Hansel Harris. Hawkl) Hennln Herber Hesse, HIrsch, Hlrsch. HIrsch, Hodges. Horn, IJ Horn, L Howlaui Hunt. M Jones, E Jones, )J Johns to I] Johnston Johnston Johnston Kane, M] Klnsella, Kornman Eremer, Lee, J., 3 Llebermai Llebermai Louis, M., Louis, H. Lowe, L., Madden, J Main, 0.. March, MIi ANNUAL MEHBEB8HIP, 1059 TENNE SSEE- Co»/<»? wi. McHemry, IB- T.. Memphis (3). M:c:?i3, ^wt. o.. Memphis. Mo:?^a.l3"l3, :^essie,_Memphi8. M^eliex^. Cte>o. F. KnoxTllle. M^«^xils:en. J- S., Memphis. Mooxre, IT. AV., Naahviile. l^oslsLo^vltz. Atempnis. >Jelsoii.- SdLlss E. A., Knoxvllle. Ne-w, C.lia.».- Memphis. I^orrls. <:;.♦ Memphis. ■palrko, :Bki:i88 M:. K., Jackson. I»a.te. XI-. ISIaslivllle (3). :E*erl£.lns. -A.- I>., Memphis. JPllsofslty* ^..Memphis. Xta.l>lno^w'lt:5'5, M., Memphis. Ttos€s. I^.. IMemphls. 1^086X3.1x611X1., I^., NashTllle. IC^sLxxo, :M-. Memphis (3). I^yaxi, J-JM., Nashville. Sa3tl>y, "^V. M-, Memphis. Sears. J'olin >!., Memphis. Selpt, M. D.. NashTllle. Shaal, B^ Memphis. Sheffer, H., Memphis (^. Simmons, MolUe, Mempols. Simpson. A. J., Memphis. •Smith. O. P., Nashville. Sneed, W. B., NaahvlUe. Sternberg, M., Memphis. Stnber, J. M., Nashville. Thomas, Jacob L., Knoxville. Thompson, Grace W., Knox vl lie. Thomoson, Grace W., Knoxvllle. Thompson, Maria £2., Knoxvllle. Tngendrloh, I., Nashville. Ward, C, Memphis. Watson, M. m. Nashville. Weber. Mrs. A. B„ Nashville. Weld. Mrs. F., Nashville. White, W. T., Knoxvllle. Whltmore, M. B., caiattanooga. Wolf, F.. Memphis. Young, D. F., Knoxvllle. Young, Jane, Naahville. Tenn€8see-^124 TBXAS. .A.lc>iixe, 'X^'* £[ouston. :B.&ler, O- K^, Galveston. Ooiarsion, "R. H., Yoikum. OxroolcLe, 'El. UV., Paris. CJroolce, J. I>., Paris. I>iolclxi»oii, H. T., D\llas. I>lcl5:lTisoii, Mrs. C. T., Dall.as. ISlxrlcli, J. B.. Dallas. .I31«er, ACa3c, CJorsleana. "Els^r, ILi. jr., Oorslcana. BSmexry, lAary B., Arransan Pass. Ifo3c, ^A^lex., Gorslcana. Oolxmert. S. G., Taylor. Oolamert, E>. G., Taylor. GS-olimex-t, L. S., Taylor. Oiroenl>erg, M., Houston. OrvLXicflsteln, C, Dennlson. Oir-uTMlstroln, M., Dennlson. Halsted, G. B.. i^^stln. P^stlstred, >lrs. G. B., Austin. BCarrls, >J. A., Clarksvllle. "Harris* !-»-• Clarksvllle Hax-x-l«» J. G., Clarksvllle. XI^XTls, I*'- E., Clarksvllle, ■H^ari-ls, K- H., Clarksvllle. ;^elnz, -A.- C, Gainesville. :H:emlii^ei-, J., Gainesville. T=Ctll. MTrs. J. A., Dallas. Soiar, ^A^lex.. Fort Worth. So wards, B.M. Dallas. Trvln^, .A-nnie, Waoo. IrvlSe. >«:rs. J. M., Waco. Irion, J. R., Overton. Jones, S. J., Salado. Kalwerlsky, N., Houston. KaufTman, H. A., Galveston. Kauflknan, A. R., Galveston. Key, C, Marshall. King, B., Marshall, liamhkln, D., Dallas. Lazarus, P., Dallas. Mahaffey, W. A. Dalla.«». Manton, W. J., Bellevue. McKnlght, Miss T. T., Dennlson. Momand, C. B.. Dallas. Movar, Mrs. J. W., Colorado. Murphy, Blla, Dallas. Murtha, P., El Paso. Muslohm, J. A., Pt. Worth. Newton, J., Ft. Worth. Nicholson, S. G., Seguln. Peters, A., Corslcana. Prltohett, H., Huntsvllle. Ramans. John T., Dallas. Bamsilell, C. T., Dallas. Ramsdell, J. M., Dallas. Randall, N. O, Fort Worth. Reed, J. L., Clarksvllle (2). Rlplnski, J., Sherman. Rlplnskl, L.. Sherman. Rosenburg, Ben, Gorslcana. Shakford. B. B., Houston (2). Smith, Mrs. J. B., Beaumont. Solinsky, H., San Antonio. Swain, w. F., Houston. Sweet. B. M., Jr., Fort Worth. Thompson, Maria B.. San Antonio. Underwood, P. H., Galveston. Underwood, Mrs. P. H., Galveston. Wllkins, A H., Dallas. Woodward. B. P., Waco. Zelle, G. W., Dallas. Ttxas- UTAH. -r^«,if «>s 3. Dlchel, I. B., Richmond. Fox, William F., Richmond. Glase, B. C, Lynchburg. Gorsnch, Wm., Amherst. Jarkson. Daisy L., Lynchbui-g. Johnson. B. F.. Richmond. Massey, John E.. Richmond. P«LIXipll I*ieirce, 1 Iteynol' Itooerts Ilo1>iii8o , 31iepT>o, Smith deal Thomas, , Wlieatloy, Barnard, F. J., Seattle. Abrama, W. S. Wellsburg. Anderson, W. H.. Wheeling. Anderson, E. S., Wheeling. Barnes, J. Walter. J^alrmont. Blngell, B. E., Wheeling. BocKumler. Mrs. B. O.. Wheellns Pomam, John, Wellsburjr. Domam, Mrs. Susan, Well»burg. Brans, Ohas. W., Iralrmont. Isenberg, I., Wheeling. Jones, J. McH.. Wheeling. Kelly, A. W., Wheeling. Kelly, (Mrs. A. W., WheeUng. Knott, R. M.. Keyser. Knott. G. O.. Keyser. Markwood, .L H., Keyser. Markwood, O. B. Keyser. McMechen, M. L., Wheeling. Norton, Virginia, Wheeling. Roedi^er, R., TVEST VIKGiA-XA. l*nc^, U. W., I I^rUlemuiB, Byis Hevmetto. Mary, Rohon, Mtb. N., HohoD, Mrs. N., Rogers, Uora B., Ruimer, Joseph, \ Smith, Mollie Va., Staunton. E. W., i^tTang. A. J.. Pnr Strauss, W. M., Par btrauss, Mrs. w. M UpdegTMiT, Frank. V Vardy, Geo. M., Wb/. Wade, A. !L., Morgnu Warner. Eveline. \Vh\ Wiley, Mrs. J. 3f., Wl Wilkinson, E. h., Wb€ Abrams, Mrs. Esther, Milwaukoiv Allen, M. O., Milwaukee. Allen, J. F.. Mllwauk»nflon. Ro Salter, M. L., La Crosse. Sclienk, G. G. B., Milwaukee. Sehenk, Mrs., Milwaukee. iJchxiette, Louis, Manitowoc. Sidlar, Agnes, Milwaukee. Slater, A. T., Milwaukee. Slye, JSlizabetti, Baraboo. Smith, Marietta A., Milwaukee. Spence, Tho6. H., La Crosse. Staelile, Max. Manitowoc. Steenson, Mrs. N. H., Whitewater. Stoner, Mary, Madison. Sutherland, E. B., Milwaukee (3). Taylor, Frank H., Milwaukee. Thompson, O. P., Rosendale. Tigert, Mrs. M. G., Eiver Fails. Toai, Luella, Whitewater. Van Tessel, Mrs. J. B., Milwaukee. Von Taseel, E., Milwaukee. Wackier, Catharine, Baraboo. Warden, A. M., Wash'hum. Waeweyler, Anna G., Milwaukee. Weber, A. M., Milwaukee. Weber, Fred J., Milwaukee. Weber, Lillian, Milwaukee. Weineheimer, Adolph, Milwaukee. White, W. P., Oshkosh. Wild. Elizabeth, Milwaukee. Wild, George B., Milwaukee. Wolf, Hally, Milwaukee. . ,,, ^'heeler, O. W., Cheyenne. WYOMING. Winkle. J. A., Jr. Wyoming— i foreig:^ couivtribs. DOMINION OF CANADA-O.VTABIO. Brum, Mrs. Hume, Toronto. •Olape, Geo. F., Toronto. •Clark, D. L., Toronto. Clement, SInda C, Chatham. Clubb, B., Toronto. •Clubb, A., Toronto. Douavan, A., Toronto. El^Us, A. H., IngersoU. GallagherjR. E., Hammon. Glass, J. w., Toronto. Gordon. Mis** A. V. L.. Toronto. Senderson, Annie, Hamilton. Hughes, J. H., Toronto. Hughes, J. B.. Newmarket. Hunter, Mrs. James, Hamilton. Ironside, Mrs. A. V., Toronto. Jackson, J. P., Toronto. Johnson, D. C, London. Lees. Richard, St. Thomas. Macdonald, J. S., Toronto. MoCracken, Mary H., Toronto. McDonaM. M., Toronto. ^^( Kfiongii, M. A„ Chathatn. .MeKt-ouj:H. W. E . rtiattiatii. McKiK^uiih, A.. rhutUfim. McKeough. II, A., ChftUiain. McKDftiipb. .1, F.* ihttihiim- MciLellaij* J. .^M Torontn. McLecwl, John, Tortanlo* Newt-mrtb, Mrs. L. T.* Bamllfon. Ruthken, Evelyn, Hamiltoa. Sbeppnnl. Grave, Toronto, Sheppard. >L G-, Toronto. ^impaoQ, Jes»te, Londou. Hlnclalfp S. E.I Ottawa. SmUlit C* C TorotJto. Spendp, Hugh, ''l^aroii tci, Sptnce, jr. D.. Toroutcj. SUckey, Mrs. J. R., Toronto. Stewfirt JeflAle, Hamilton. WSlHon, F, W,t Toronto. Ontario — il. HUNGARY. Krelsy, Prof. Bela, Royal States High School, Keskemet. MEXICO. Stone, F., City of Mexico. Ifungary — 1. Mexico— U 1062 NATIONAL Er>TICA.TION^ RECORD OF MEMBKRSF. TXl TiaB NATIONAL EDUCATION/ I Fob Each Ykj^b, wlovl 1884 to l Excepting 1893, when no regular meeting of tlie ^ssc i show membership from the State In -wliicli tlio xaeetln^ i PliACB AND DATB OF Meeting. North AtUintiG Division. Maine New Hampshire- Vermont Massachasetts Rhode Island Connecticuu ^. New York New Jersey Pennsylvania South Atlantic Division. Delaware Maryland .«« District of Columbia Virginia West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida South Central Division. Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas North Central Division. Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan ^ Wisconsin Iowa Minnesota ~ Missouri North Dakota 1 South Dakota j Nebraska Kansas Western Division. Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada. Oklahoma Indian Territory Idaho Washington - Oregon California Miscellaneous Canada Total membership 2,781 624 1,187 9,096 7,2» INDEX. Pack. Academic Function of the Normal Schools, Jas. M. Greeu, 858 Act of Incorporation of N. S. A 5 Adams, O. K., Practical Bdncatlon, 1^ Adaresaes of Welcome by, 49-53 Bnpt. J. M. Ralaton 49 Mf^or Frank Ten Broeck 50 Dr. Nicholas Mnrray Butler, 50 Hon. A. B. Poland, 51 Amendments to Oonstitutlon, 4 Ames, D. T., Uand- Writing of the Future, 076 Amos, Wm. J., An Ideal Business College, 071 Andrews, Ghas. M., Hi8t<»>7 and Moral Culture, 897 Art Bducatlon, I)e]>artment of "^ Secretary's MlnuteiB, 893 Papers and discussions, 894 Art Bducatlon— Its Influence. Christine Sulliyan, 804 Art Bducatlon and Manual Training, J. Liberty Tadd 900 Author's Reception at Boeton 250 Bailey, Thos. P. Jr.. Report on Child Study, . '. 1000 Baker, I>r. James H., Review of Report of Committee of Ten 045 Discussion, 068 Baldwin, Br. J. A., Discussion 665, 867, 869 Balliet, Thos. M., Training Teachers in Active Serrlce, 877 Barringer, Wm. L., Discussion, 481 Bams, Mra A. H., Report of Committee of Coll. Alumnae on Child Stuly . 906 Bellamy, Francis, Discussion, 400 Bevier, Louis., Jr., Discussion, 806 BUI, C. R., Discussion, 930. 947, 966 Bishop, J. Remsen, The Future of the American High School, 788 Discussion, 764 Blake, Henry, Discussion, 690 Blodgett, A. B., Discussion, 457 Blodgett, James H., Discussion, 289 Boone, Dr. R. G., The Teacher as an Expert. 857 Discussion U4, 451, 6a0 Bradley, John B., In Memoriam— John L. Cromble. 241 Discussion, 618 Bright, O. T., Discussion 455 Broekhoyen, J. C, Discussion, 9a> Brooks, Angeline, Principles of the Kindergarten System, 606 Brooks, Dr. Bdward, ObligaUons of the Teacher, 186 Discussion 740 Response to Welcome Address at Author's Reception. ... 250 Bruce, Wm. G., Discussion, 714 Bryan, Wnu L., Discussion, Child Study. 170 Buchanan, John T., Discussion, 152, 764 Buerhle, R. K., Discussion. 296 Bums, Mr., Discussion, ^ Business Bducatlon, Department of ^ Secretary's Minutes, ' ' ^ ^1 Report of Committee on Revision of Oonstltutlon 958 Resolution. In Memoriam— Ira Mayhew ^ Papers and Discussion ^^ 1064 NATIONAL EI>UCA.TIONu^ President's Address, R. K). Oallaslier Business Training, Oood and Bad, J. M« Mielian, Byrne, J. P., Tlie Teacliing of Writing". Butler, Dr. Nicliolas Murray, Address of IrVelcome, Discussion. ... Educational Problems in Shirope, Report on Higlier BSdxLcatlon, By-Laws of N. E. A., . . ^Oalexidar of Meetings, ...... Cambridge Experiment, Francis Cossweli, •Ganfield, Jas. A., Discussion. ..... Care of Truants and Incorrigibles, BdTvln P*. Seave^r, <3a(rli8le, J. M., The Soutb and Its I^oblema, Celebration of Columbus Day in Public BciioolB, Ohapman, F. E., Vocal Music in our Public Scbooi/s, - •Chapman, Frederick E., Discussion, Child Study, Department of Secretary's Minutes, Papers and Discuselon, .... Child Study, G. Stanley Hall, Children's Expression through Drawing, Ai. V. O^Bhea, Children's Love of Nature, W. A. Hoyt Clark, Miss Eollne, Training of the High ^(Aiool Teacher, Clnxton, Mr., Discussion, ■Closing (Remarks by Pres. Klehle at Richmond Meetings, . Cogswell, Francis, The Cambridge Experiment, . Cohn, Adolphe, The Group System of College Studies, <3ole, Ohas. W., Discussion, ^College Athletics, Faculty and Alumni Control off Geo. Whar Color in Public Schools, Mrs. Mary Dana Hicks, Committee of Ten, Course of Study Reoommended by, Report of Chadrman, Review of the Report of, by James H. Baker, . Summary of Recommendations ot, . Congdon, C. C, Discussion •Constitution of the N. E. A. Cook, John W.— in Memorianx, George Howland, .... Training of Teajchers in Normal School, Discussion, •Council of Education, . Constitution and By-Laws Members, Honorary Deceased, Officers, 1893-94, 1894-95 , Papers and DiscussiODs Secretary's Report, Standing CommitteeB Country School Problem, by E. B. Wihite, "Coy, E. W., Discussion, Cropsey, Miss N., Higher Use of Nature Studies, Crowell, John F., The Future of tilie Smaller College, .... Curriculum for Secondary Schools, Wm. T. Harris, •Curtis, Virgil G., Wood-Work in Grammar Grades, Cutter, Dr. Ephraim, Pupils' Defective Hearlog, Davis, Emma C, Ideal Primary School Curriculum, De Garmo, Charles, Literature In Moral Training, Moral Training, etc ... Relation of Normal Schools to Unlrersities, .... University and the Teachers Discusfiiou 'o]2,Sli Oenfeld, R. E., Discussion, Department of Superintendence, Boston Meeting, INDEX. J 065 Page. Department of Superintendence, Richmond Meeting, 413 Development of Morality in the Kindergairten Idea, Mrs. L. T. Newcomb, 686 Dickinson, J. W., Discussion, 372 Disciplinary Value of Business Course of Study, A. S. Osbom 089 Discipline as the Result of Self-Govemmen/t, A. V. Strom, 764 Dougla!", Alice A., Discussion 726 Draper, Andrew S.. Plans of Organization In Cities 208 Drawing, Its Relation to Manual Training and Industrial Arts, John O. Miller, . 872 Dutton, Betty A., Discussion, 725^ 741 Dutton, Supt., Discussion, 492 Baton, Dr. John, Exhibit of Education at Columbian Exposition, .... .'^15 Education of Colored People, Richard R. Wright 18« Eiucatioual Problems in Europe, by Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, 400 Elementary Education, Department of, 705 Secretary's Minutes, 705 Papers and Discussions, 707 Elementary Instruction, A Few Changes in, by Edward G. Ward, 715 Emergency Fund, First Annual Report Relative to 24 Emerson, Henry P., Improvement of City School Systems vn. English— Discussion, A. F. Nightingale 155 Enriching the Course In Elementary Schools, 1st to 4th Grades, Ellen Q. Reveley 418 Essentials of Kindergarten System, Angeltne Brooks 696 Enriching Course in Elementary Schools, 5th to 8th Grades, by H. C. Muckley, 428 Ethical Element in Literature. Etc., J. A. Mcbellian 71 Examinations and Promotions in Elementary Schools, Discussion, W. A. Mowry, 294 Exhibit at Oolumblan Exposition, by Se:im H. Peabody 00 Exhibit of Education at Columibian Exposition, by Dr. John Eaton, 515 Brans. Lawton B.— The South and Its Problems 567 Discussion, 126 Farrell, Edward D., Discussion, TM Financial R^ort for 1892 (Saratoga iMeeting) 18-19 Financial Report for 1893 (Chicago Meeting) 20-21 Fltzpa trick, F. A., Discussion, 465 Fleming, M. A., Discussion 726 Formal Discipline, Dogma of, by B. A. Hlnsdaie 625 Forsman, Mr., Discussion, 956 Fosdick, Frank Sheldon, Hi«;h School Training and Public Speaking, 773 Future of the American High Bfchool, by J. Remsen Bishop T88 Future of the Smaller College, John F. Crowell 797 Galbreath, Louis H., Discussion 840 Gallagher, R. E., President'e Address 961 Gantvoort, A. J.. Discussion, 939, 956 Gaton, Chas. B., School Boards 707 General Sessions of N. B. A 49-220 Secretary's Minutes 29 papers and Discussions 491 German Methods in TJsing the Mother Tongue, by Richard Jones, ... 471 Gilbert, Chas. IB., Grammar School Curriculum, 323 Glover, N. L., President's Address, Music Department, 927 Gove, Aaron, Supply of Teachers in City Schools, 375 Grading the Country School, Henry Sabln, .{49 Grammar School Curriculum, CJhas. B. Gilbert 323 Green, Jas. M., Discussion, 490, 842, 870 Greenwood, J. M., Non-Progressive Teachers 388 Discussion 453,492,514,567.580 Gregory, B. C, Discussion, 704 Greenough, J. C, Discussion, 387 Group System of Ck)llege Studies, Adolphe Cohn, ^ Hall, G. Stanley, Child Study ^^ Rhythm in Education ^ Discussion ^ Hancock, John A.. Motor Ability of Children, ^^ Hand-Writing of the Future. D. T. Ames "'® 89 1066 NATIONAL Er>lJCA.TIOJS^^ Hardy, A., Discussiou, ... Harris, Hon. Wm. T., Curriculum for »ecoriclary 8St Influence of Higher IDducatloxi, Itespouse to AdUresse«* of Welcome, Report of CX>inmlttee on Jb*8ycliolo£rle; School Statistics, .... Discussion, ... Harrison, Miss Coriune, What Makes — AV'liat yi&rti tl Discussion, . . Harrison, Blizabeth— In Memoriaui, Emily JklarwGd&J, Hart, Albert Bushnell, Discussion, . . . . Haslop, Ida !B., Professional Spirit In Secondary Toa oratory ]Sd;ethod8 in Schools, Ohas. B. Scott 191 IL«u.zi.e. .A.ll>ert O., In Memorlam G^eorge Howland 224 Heaponse to Address of Welconae 54, 57 I>iscns8lon, 457, 527 l^cutlix X>lsoTiBsion, J. T. Buchanan, 152 X.ia^vv's, I>r. S. S 642 JLiorcl. IL.- C-, Scholarship In Normal Schools 850 Discussion, 842 IL»eli>»5ii?er, iHenry M., The Progress of Manual Training 877 Lyncli, Cl»a.s. P., Are Secondary Schools the Most Defective? 745 ^wlae^AJlster, r>r. James, Discussion, *^ ^f &eX>ouaIcl, JTcxhn, Training of Teachers by Bd. Publications, . 106 Discussion, 873 A£&cICexkzIe, CJonstance, President's Address, ^82 >f:a.e]coozie, James C, Modifying Programs of Secondary Schools, .... 1^ Discussion ^^ NLanual O^ralnlng in Philadelphia Pub. Schools, J. Liberty Tadd, .... 886 Ai:a.xi.v&al Training, The Progress of, Henry M. Leipslger 877 .B^auual Training Scbools, Organization of, O. M. Woodward 876 :M:ar1c>le, ^- I*-. Study of Bngllsh, Btc, 279 Al.assey, Jolin B., Discussion ^ ^iax^well. ^W. H., Supervision of aty Sctiools 31^ Discussion, ^*^' ^ in:ayli»^w, Ira, Resoiutlon In Memorlam ^ BCor^ellan, J. A.. Bthioal BJlement in Literature * " olo Discussion, 842 aAcaJlurry, Chas., Discussion * ' ^ :MolM.iirry, Frank M., Recent Bducatlonal Theory »« Discussion, History, 160 AdLeetin^s of N. D. A., . ' „' * * ^ ' o«i A&enaji, J. M.. Business 'X^aining-Good aiid Bad 9^ l^eloney, Clarence B.. DiacuBslon W AJLem-bers for 1894, List of 1«25 :M:eml>era]ilp of General Aasoclation * -.^ if Life Menibers. - • 1*'^^ Life Members Deceased 17 Members' Addresses Unknown 17 Life Directors . 13 :M:«>morlal Addresses, . * ' ^' „^ * o^r Robert Allyn, by E. 0. Hewett, . 247 John 8. Cromble, by John M. Bradley, 241 John S. Oromble. by Kay Greene Huling 243 George Hawlaml, by Albert G. Lane 224 George Howland, by Josiah L. Kickard, 224 George Howland, by Joiin W. CJooke 225 Miss Bmlly Marwedel, Elizabeth Harrison, .... 238 M Alex Newell, by Sarah B. Kichmond. 234 Miss Bllxabeth P. Peabody. Wm. B. Sheldon, ..... 231 Leland Stanford, by Will S. Monroe, ...... 236 Kobert Wallace Stevenson, by Bmerson B. White 249 l^erwin, A. G., Dlscussion,^^ „^,.J_ A .,:«„.,' n>,:.«.«.. ^^a fha Tndn- *a^-* IS! Mm^;johiLC.. Drawing-Its Relation to Manual Training and the Indus. Arts. 872 iw€fixie Jas. M.,* Discussion, ,.......••• 869 iimutes or l>ep«rtment of Superintendence at Boston. 252 -^* Kl^hmand Meeting 413 Minutes of Meetings at Asbury Park-Gen. Sessions, 27^ Board of Directors, 1893-94 40-^ Board of Directors, 1894-95 *™ 5 !^ will s In Memorlam Leland Stanford »» JJorirTralnlnKThrough the common Branches, Charles De Oarmo. . . . ITO *^.- BL^A-nna, Relation of Dress to Bducatlon ,?SS Motor 'AWli^oi Ohndren. John A. Hancock 1«» 1058 NA TIONAL ED UC^ TJON^ Arnold, B. €.. Piovideuce. Baker, Benjamin, Newport. Bevan, Alexander, Providence. Plsher. Oilman C, Pawtucket. Jacobs, Walter B., PtotI deuce. Jenks, Jennie B., Pawtncket. RHOi:>£: ISL^ StoeJ Tarb Tarb< Tarb< WIJso Allen, Mrs. J. W., Spartanburg. Ard, A. J., Sumpter. Bailey, Thomas P. Jr., Marion. Bailey, B. F., Bbbevllle. Brodle, P. T., Spartanburg (2). Brodle, Mrs. P. T., Spartanburg. Gannon, Mrs. T. H., Spartanburg. Cannon, T. H., Spartanburg. Gates. C. P., Spartanburg. CleTeland, B. E^ Spartanburg. Cofleld, Li. R., Spartanburg. Ooheu, S. H., Charleston. Cook, S. P., Greenville. Cook, M. D., Greenville. Coulter, Mamie D., Rock Hill. Davis, Geo. P., Charleston. DawBon, J. H., Charleston (2). Due, H. C, Jr., Charleston. Flanders. Mrs. H. Y., Greenville. Gill, M. O, Allendale. Gill, W. v., Allendale. Harnby, Thomas B., Marlon. HavnswoPth. Mrs. J. L., Sumpter. Helnltsch, Mrs. Geo. W., Spartanburg. Hook, H. L., Spartanburg. south: CAROJ.X Hope, JTejiDln Johns o r#aws, . XreftTWlC Leftwlc Martin. Means, i Melgran, Pearce, i Reed, Ht liobson, Sehleppe/ TerreJJ. 1 Tiedman, TIedman. Weiis, H. West, W. Wetherhoi Wheeler. < Wheeler, J Zlmmermai Zlmmermar Zimmermar Booth, Mason, Mitchell. M er. Homer R., Elk Point. Miller Airs. Bllen, Elk Point. Piles, I.. Yankton. Piles, Mrs. I., Yankton. SOUTH DAKOTA. Roper, j. M. Sheldon, Mn Whltaker, H Wlllsey. H., : Abernathy, W. T., Nashville. Abernathy, Mrs. W. T., Nashville. Alprln, B.. Memphis. Alprln, M., Memphis. Armstrong, S., Knoxyllle. Bennetti J-» Chattanooga. Bennett, C, Chattanooga. Blgley, A., Memphis. Blum, a, Memphis. Bornett, J. C, Myhle. Brlster, M. W., Memphis. Bronston, S.. Memphis. Brown, Nashville. Camp, N. B., Memphis. Clark, S. M. D., Nashville. Clark, Mary L., Nashville. Clark. Mrs. S- M. D., Nashville. Coe, Mrs. P. A., Memphis. Oompton, Mrs. J. M.. Memphis. Cowan, C. C, Memphis (2): Drawbrock, G., Chattanooga. Blmore, B. A., Knoxvllle. Felsenthal, Julius, Memphis. Pllppln, J. R.. Memphis. FUppln, Miss Helen, Memphis. Foster, N.. Memphis. Poy, G., Chattanooga. Prayser, R. D., Memphis. Prayser, Florence M, Memphis. Freeman, L. R., Nashville. Freeman, Mary L., Nashville. Purgason, B. C., Athens. Gaboy, R., Memphis. Gaifagen, James, Memphis. Goodman, Frank, Nashville. TBNNESSBE. Gordon, Gen. Hamilton, Evi Hansen, W. S, Harris, R. W., Hawkins, D. A Hennlng, H., J Herbert, \. R., Hesse, Sol., .\fe Hlrsch, LeopoI( Hlrgch, Miss Sti Hlrsch, Mrs. S., Hodges. Ada K. Horn, Harrv, M< Horn, L., MempI Howland, W. E., Hunt. Mrs. H., 3 Jones, Barl, Mem Jones, Mrs. N. J., Johnston, Miss M Johnston, Miss M. Johnston, Mrs. J. Johnston, Dr. T, \ Kane, Mrs. D. 0., Klnsella, KnowJtoi Komman, L., >'asl Kremer, M., Memji Lee, J., Memphis. Lleberman, A., Xas Lleberman, M., Nas LoQls, M., MempliN. Louis, H. W., Jacks Lowe, L., ChatMnoo Madden, J. B., Knoj Main. 0.. Memphis. March, Miss M. i., J« ANN-UAL MEMBEBBEIP. 1059 TENNESSEE- Coniinwi. Mcl^ox^ e: T., Memphis (i). 5c"al?^ M. O., Memphis Melleo. G^o. F KnoxTrJUe. Myer, J^. H:., Nashville- Nelsoxx. :M:i»B B. A.. Klnoxvllle. Ne^w, Otias.. Memphls- Norris. C, Memphis. P^ftlneT Aliss M. K., Jaokson. ?aiS "&7 Nasnvllle (3). ^ Seipt Shaal, Shaal, B,. Menipbi^^, Sheffer, IL. MLLiiphb (2). Simmons, MiJIl^H M(?taijlils, Simpson, a, J.. MempulB. •Smith. O. F„ Nflr-hFllle. Sneed, W. li,. Nsi^hrilie. Sternbere. M^^ MempUta. TliEJirias, J'tkt-ub Lh, KnoxTllle. Tliomptiniit (irnrL' W., Knox v lite. Thcimnsiint tirae*^ W., KnoxfUlc. Thompson, JliifUi K,^ KiiosTlllt*. TusendrlotiH L. NnnhTlJ^e. Wartl, icl5:ln»o^. w^ o. T.. Dallas. X>lclclTisoxi, ^^ Pallas. Blser, >*-*^^- C'^TsUanii, Klser, ^Vii^i-v ^■' A^ft^^saii Pass. Emery, >^* torslf^^^a. Oolixnert, — ^^ T^^yJ^^ G^oHmert * ^ -^^ Houston. O-reenoer^. ^^^ i>,.tiiilfl<>n. S:arris, i^-o., ClflrksTllle. Marris*. J- ^ ciarksTllle. Marrls, ^' -^1 ciarksville. Sarrl»» **• ^T, Gainesville. Hel»«' ^^r J.. Gainesville. geinloff^J' J. A.. Dallas «111, ^lex., Fort Worth. Ko^^^J^d B. M., Dallas. So^s^a^^knnie, Waco. I^lne, -^"^^ i. M., Waco. Irtou. J. R., Overton, Jonofl, S. J,> Salail'j, Kftlwerleky. N.. Houston. KaufTmau. H. A.. Galveston. Ka\iflrtnant A. IL, OAlveslon. Kejr^ r.. >Tan?halL KlriL^ K.. Mursliall, I - i.'.it-N-. }-\, Dallas, Maili:iiTvV. W. A. Ddlas. Mant.iD. V7. X, B.^lb^vne. M*^KjQl(jht. MlsH T. T., Dennlson. MoTOimVL r. E,, Dallas. Morar. Mrs. J. W.. Colorado. Murpliy* Ellji. DflJlas. Murihrt^ 1'., El Paso. Muslfihm. J, A.. Fi. Worth. Nt-wtou^ J.H Fi. Worth. 3; 1 Choi son, SO.. Si^guin. Per^^rs. A-H cTorsiojjna. Prltchell, H.. HunTarilie. namauiit. John T„ DaJlas. Ramsfli 11, €. T.. DiUlas. Ramstl^^II, Jh M„ Drtllas. Itandall, N. C„ Fort Worth. KcimL J. L.. Ciarksville (2). KIpiiiskL J.. Shtruian. RlpluskU h.. ^hvrmaji^ UG»t*nbnrg, H^'ti, Coralcana. Slhakford. E- E,. nou*iton (2). Smith, Mrni. J, E.. BH^aumont. Sollimkv, H.. «in Antonio. .Swtiln. W. R* Dnuston, Sisvpet, E. M., Jr , Fort Worth. Thotunsoii, ^Liirla E.. San Ajitonio. ttDderwotMl, Mrs. P. H- Galveston. WllkluH, A. H., Dallas, WottdwanJ. E. P-, Wa«>. Z-operatlon in College Government Warfleld, W. C, Discussion What Makes— What Mars the Teacher? Coninne Harrison, Wheeler, B. J., Discussion Wheelock, Lucy, Kindergarten and Primary Schools, White, Emerson E. — In Memoriam, Robert W. StevensoD. The Country School Problem, Training of Teachers in Summer Schools, . Discussion, Williams, S. T., Training of Teaohers in Colleges, .... Wlltse, Sara E., Report from National Association for Child Study, The Kindergarten and History and Literature, . Wise, Henry A., Discussion, Woodward, C. M., Organizations of Manual Training Schools, Report on Technological Education, .... Discussion, Wood-Work in Grammar Grades, by Virgil G. Curtis, . . Wright, Richard R., Education of Colored People, .... Young, Geo. C, Discussion, VOLUMES OF PROCEEDINGS 2SrA.TI0NAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. I^rior t.o 1870 there were three National AssociationB in the United States consilia.8e8 of educational work. 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