\ J^(A i*t* i $\ ^ c; Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1893nafiu0ft * I PROCEEDINGS Sfcfe OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION OF THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION Chicago, July 25-28, 1893 ' f6 I UXDER THE CHARGE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES f PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION NEW YORK 1894 i 13 N. E. A. JULY 25-28. NOT THINGS, BUT MEN. THE WORLD'S CONGRESS AUXILIARY OF THE <, World's Columbian Exposition op 1893. NOT MATTER, BUT MIND. President, CHARLES C. BONNEY. Vice-President, THOMAS B. BRYAN. Treasurer, LYMAN J. GAGE. f BENJ. BUTTERWORTH. secretaries,} clarence k YOUNG. THE WOMAN'S BRANCH OF THE AUXILIARY, President, Mrs. POTTER PALMER. Vice-President, Mrs. CHAS. HENROTIN. Press of J. J. Little & Co Astor Place, New York PREFACE. In connection with the World's Columbian Exposition, held at Chicago in the summer of 1893, to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America, a series of World's Congresses was planned. In the words of the chairman of these congresses, the object was "to provide for the proper presentation of the intellectual and moral progress of the world by a series of international conferences of the leaders in all the chief departments of human achievements." The programme set apart appropriate sessions for each class of interests, the series commencing in May. Perhaps the most wonderful of all these congresses, in the magni- tude of its undertaking and the readiness of response on the part of invited representatives from all parts of the world, was the Religious Congress, or the " Parliament of Religions," held early in September. It can safely be claimed that the Educational Congresses of the latter part of July held the next place in interest, and in numbers and character of representation. In response to the request of Mr. Bonney, chairman of the World's Congress Auxiliary, the National Educational Association of the United States appointed a committee of arrangements to invite representative educators from the different parts of the United States and from foreign nations to participate in this, and to make up a programme for the occa- sion. In the various stages of progress the Committee of Arrangements had occasion to congratulate themselves on the readiness and courtesy with which distinguished educators, at home and abroad, lent their support to the movement. This will be seen both by the lists printed in this volume containing the names of those Avho accepted the title of honorary vice- president, and more especially by the names of those who were present and assisted in the discussions, or presented valued papers. The Committee of Arrangements appreciated the importance of select- ing questions of international interest for discussion, questions that affect the management of schools in all parts of the world.* The efforts of the committee in this regard were responded to in a hearty manner by the dele- gates who visited the Congress, and nearly all of the questions proposed were discussed with unusual thoroughness. As a result of these joint efforts, the committee is able to present more than one hundred and fifty well-prepared papers treating on all the many subjects that have exercised the minds of men in the higher schools or in the elementary schools of the civilized world. * On pages 20 to 30 of this Report will be found' a fuller statement of the views that guided the committee in the selection of topics for discussion. iv PREFACE. It is believed by tbe Committee of Arrangements tbat the collection of papers herewith presented will be found to be noteworthy not only for tbe presence of tbose of high merit, but for the conspicuous absence of that class of weak and pointless writings which so often fill the volumes of pro- ceedings of teachers' associations. Many of the papers here collected will be found to deserve a high place for their value as special treatises. Dr. Calkins has explained in a prefatory note printed herewith that some condensation has been found necessary to reduce the size of the vol- ume to the limits prescribed by the committee of the National Educa- tional Association which he represents. I have asked him to print a statement in the table of contents opposite each item showing extent and character of the abridgment, and I hope that it will be found that nothing has been omitted which affects the value of any one of the several contributions. There were fifteen department congresses. Of these departments, those for Higher Education, Secondary, Elementary, School Supervision, Pro- fessional Training of Teachers, Kational Psychology, Educational Pub- lications, and' Business Education represented what has long been established, and their discussions went largely to explaining and justify- ing work that is in process of accomplishment. On the other hand, the departments of Kindergarten Education, Instruction in Art, Vocal Music, Technological Instruction, Industrial and Manual Instruction, Physical Education, Experimental Psychology in Education, were devoted more especially to setting forth what is new and desirable in education, and urging its adoption into the school system. As a result, the educational problems have all been discussed in the light of these two tendencies. It is well understood that each nation has a trend of its own somewhat different from those of its neighbors. In consequence of this it assigns to its school system the accomplishment of a peculiar problem, different in some respects from the problems assigned to the school systems of other nations. To forget this fact in making out the programme is to neglect the interest of the foreign delegates present. It is a matter of congratula- tion to the committee that the discussions herewith presented offer proof that the questions proposed were in no case mere local ones. The value of this volume is enhanced by an alphabetical index,* giving names, places, institutions, and themes discussed, and in the case of the proceedings of certain departments, an analysis of topics treated. So far as known, this is the largest international educational congress that has yet been held. The civilized countries of the world were more generally and fully represented, and the total of attendance was larger than at previous congresses. It is hoped that this volume may find its way into all libraries at home and abroad ; and it is recommended to special students of education * Prepared by Dr. L. R. Klemni, of the Bureau of Education. PREFACE. everywhere as a useful collection of special treatises on the live questions in education at this time. In closing this prefatory note, the Committee of Arrangements desire to place on record their obligations to the President of the World's Congress Auxiliary, the Hon. C. C. Bonney, for his uniform courtesy and his generous and efficient cooperation. W. T. Harris, Chairman Committee of Arrangements. NOTE BY THE EDITOR. The undersigned having been appointed by the Executive Committee of the National Educational Association to edit this volume, and instructed by said Committee that the Proceedings of the International Congress of Education must be limited to a single vol- ume of a thousand pages when published, and its early publication having been pre- vented by conditions beyond control, deems it appropriate to make explanatory state- ments as to the chief hindrances to an earlier completion of the work, and also as to the nature of the abridgments necessary to bring the volume within the prescribed limits. First. — About one-fourth of the papers presented before the congresses could not be obtained by the Secretary, for various reasons wholly beyond his control, during the time of the meetings. It was found difficult to secure them after the writers had returned to their homes. Several papers were sent directly to the Chairman of Arrange- ments, and the Secretary forwarded to him, about the 15th of September, all the papers, reports, and discussions that he had been able to collect. Second. — The first package of these papers reached the editor on Christmas-eve ; others arrived during January. Those of the department latest received were delivered to him April 10th. Several single papers were received still later. Beside, many papers of delegates from foreign countries had to be translated. The extended index could not be completed until all the papers were in type and paged. Third. — The very large number of papers submitted, with about four hundred pages of reported discussions, and the lengthiness of some papers, together with the limits of a single volume, rendered it necessary that portions of this material should be abridged, or valuable papers omitted entirely. These conditions made reading and discrimination indispensable. The material submitted has been diminished by excluding some papers sent to the editor which were neither read nor considered before the Congress ; also by leaving out a few which did not seem necessary to the completeness of the volume. Abridgments have been necessary where two or more papers were written upon the same subject ; slight abridgments have been made in cases where matter incidentally related to the subject did not appear essential to the writer's treatment of it. This class includes a large majority of those slightly abridged. In all cases care has been taken to retain the exact language of the writers in the papers thus printed. In many instances the papers marked "abstract" in the volume were sent to the editor in the form used. Where abridgments have been made in the papers published the extent and character of the abridgments are indicated within brackets in connection with the titles in the following table of contents. Changes have been made in language in a few instances where the writers are not accustomed to speak or write English. Re-writing was found indispensable in some of the reported discussions and in minutes of meetings. In these cases, where possible, the language of the writer or speaker has been retained. It is hoped that an examination of this volume, in view of the facts above stated, may overbalance all disappointment from its late reception, and be accepted as a reasonable explanation of any omissions. N. A. Calkins. May 15, 1894. CONTENTS PAGE Preface, iii Note by the Editoe, vi General Congress of Education, 5-66 Committee of the National Education Association in Charge of the Inter- national Congress of Education, ....... 5 Subjects Presented in the Preliminary Programme for Discussion by the International Congress of Education, 6 List of Honorary Vice-Presidents, 12 Addresses of Welcome and Eesponses : Charles G. Bonney, President of the World's Congress Auxiliary, . 17 Rt. Rev. Samuel Fallows, Chairman of General Committee on Educa- tional Congresses, 20 Mrs. Charles Henrotin, Vice-President of the Woman's Branch of the World's Congress Auxiliary, 22 Mrs. Henry M. Wilmarth, Chairman of the Woman's General Com- mittee on the Educational Congresses, ...... 23 Dr. Selim H. Peabody, Chief of the Department of Liberal Arts, . 23 Hon. Win. T. Harris, Chairman Committee of Arrangements, National Educational Association, . 26 Albert G. Lane, President National Educational Association, . . 30 Address. By Dr. James B. Angell, Permanent Chairman, ... 34 Address. By Prince Serge Wolkonsky, Delegate of Russia, ... 37 Address. By B. Buisson, Delegate of France, ..... 39 Address. By Hon. G. W. Ross, Minister of Education, Ontario, . . 40 The Relation between Educational Methods and Educational Ends. By ' Rt. Rev. John J. Keane, Rector of the Catholic University of Amer- ica, Washington, D. C 43 Legal Education in the United States. By Professor L. Dimscha, of St. Petersburg University, Russia 48 The Present Situation of Education in France. By M. Gabriel Com pay re, President of the French Commission on Education, .... 53 A Perfect Physical Education Indispensable to an Ideal Education. [Abstract.] By Dr. L. M. Torngren, Stockholm, .... 54 Address. By M. Ergraff Kovalevsky, Russia, 55 Joseph Peter Varela and the Progress of Education in Uruguay [Abstract], 56 Present Condition of the Public Schools of Uruguay. By SeHor Alberto Gomez Ruano, Commissioner of Education, 58 Training of Teachers in High Schools in Sweden. By Dr. Edward Oster- berg, of Sweden, 60 Congress of School Supervision, 67-86 List of Honorary Vice-Presidents, 68 How to Improve the Work of Inefficient Teachers. By Frank A. Fitz- patrick, Superintendent of Schools. Omaha, Neb., .... 71 CONTENTS. Discussion. — Appointment and Tenure of Office of Superintendents — Professor Hinsdale and others, ........ 77 Who shall Appoint Teachers, and on Whose Nomination ? By II. S. Tarbell, Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R. I., . . 78 Discussion. [Slightly abridged.] — Superintendent C. B. Gilbert, St. Paul. 81 Discussion. — Should the Law Require the Attendance of all Pupils in School Between the Ages of Eight and Fourteen ? Hon. T. B. Stockwell, Rhode Island, A. G. Lane, Chicago, and others, . . 82 Grading and Classification. By Mrs. Ella P. Young, Assistant Superin- tendent, Chicago, 83 Congress of Higher Education. 87-176 List of Honorary Vice-Presidents 89 Opening Address. By the Chairman, Daniel C. Gilman, LL.D., Presi- dent of the Johns Hopkins University, 94 How far is it Desirable that Universities should be of One Type ? By President Martin Kellogg, of the University of California, . . . 104 The Division of Labor in the University. By Professor Giuseppe Allievo, of the University of Turin, Italy, 109 Should an Antecedent Liberal Education be Required of Students in Law, Medicine, and Theology ? By Professor Woodrow Wilson, Princeton, 112 General Discussion, ........... 117 Should Greek be Required for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts ? By Pro- fessor W. G. Hale, University of Chicago, 118 Telegrams and Letters, 125 General Discussion, 135 What Signs of Improvement are Visible in the Undergraduate Life of American Students ? By Bradford Paul Raymond, President of Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., 142 General Discussion, 145 Address on the Relation of Professional Schools to the University. By Hon. Seth Low, President of Columbia College, New York, . . 146 The Evolution of Liberal Education. By Professor Andrew P. West, of Princeton University, 150 General Discussion, • 154 On What Conditions should the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy be given? By William 0. Sproull, Dean of the University of Cincinnati, Ohio, 156 General Discussion, 159 The Relation of our Colleges and Universities to the Advancement of our Civilization. By Rt. Rev. John J. Keane, D.D., LL.D., . . 161 Closing Address. By the President, 164 The Study of English Literature in French Universities. By M. Andre L. Chevrillon, Professor of English Literature in the Faculte des Lettres of Lille, and Delegate from the Minister of Public Instruction, France, 168 Congress of Secondary Education, , 177-242 List of Honorary Vice-Presidents, 178 Opening Address. By Ray Green lluling, Cambridge, Mass., . . 181 Supervision of Private Schools by the State or Municipal Authorities. By Rev. James C. Mackenzie, Ph.D., Dead Master of the Lawrence- ville School, New Jersey, 183 CONTENTS. xi PAGE General Discussion, . 190 The Course of Study in Secondary Schools. By G. N. Carman, Dean of the Morgan Park Academy of the University of Chicago, . . 193 Should the Amount of Time given to Languages in our Secondary Schools be Diminished in order to make Room for a more Extended Course in Physics, Botany and Chemistry ? By Dr. Cecil F. P. Bancroft, Prin- cipal of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., 196 Should Language Studies be Limited in Secondary Schools in the Inter- ests of the Sciences ? By Dr. D. W. Abercrombie, of Worcester Academy, Worcester, Mass., 199 General Discussion, 205 The Secondary Education of Girls in France. By Mile. Marie Dugard, Professor at the Lycee Moliere, Paris, and Member of the French Commission on Secondary Education, 211 General Discussion, 217 The Professional Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools. By Miss E. P. Hughes, Principal of the Cambridge Training College for Teachers, at Cambridge, England, 217 General Discussion. — Thesis: Should Algebra or Geometry come first in the Course of Study of Secondary Schools ? W. N. Hailmann and others, 221 High Schools for Girls in England. [Abridged very slightly.] By Mary Gurney and Rose Kingsley, of England, 225 Discussion. — Thesis: In Cases where a Choice should be made, which should come first, Latin or some Modern Language, in the Course of Study of Secondary Schools ? By Dr. C. W. Pearson, Beloit, Wis., . 234 Which should come first, Latin or some Modern Language ? By W. Wilberforce Smith, Englewood, N. J., 235 General Discussion, 241 Congress of Elementary Education, . 243-319 List of Honorary Vice-Presidents, 244 Opening Address by the Chairman, Gen. John Eaton, Ex-Commissioner of Education, 247 Essentials in a Course of Study for Children, by Joseph L. Pickard, LL. D., Iowa City, Iowa, 251 Discussion. By L. H. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Indianapolis, 25? Ind., also by Dr. B. A. Hinsdale, University of Michigan, . . 260 What should be the Curriculum in Public Schools ? Some Aspects of the Question in France. By M. B. Buisson, Delegate from the Ministry of Public Instruction in France, 262 What should be Added to the Essential Branches of the Elementary Course of Study to Meet the Industrial Needs of the Localities ? By Professor C. M. Woodward, of Washington University, St. Louis, . 266 What should be Added to Elementary Branches ? By Albert P. Marble, Superintendent of Schools, Worcester, Mass., 268 Discussion. — Race Characteristics. ByG. W. Wicks, Inspector of Schools, Jamaica, West Indies, 272 What Special Work should be Undertaken in the Elementary Schools to Prepare the Pupils for the Duties of Citizenship? By Win. A. Mown, Superintendent of Schools, Salem, Mass., 273 Xll CONTENTS. The Value of the Elementary School for the Social Virtues and for Train- ing in the Right Exercise of the Duties of Citizenship. [Slightly abridged.] By Miss Catharine II. Spence, South Australia, . . 278 Methods of Teaching History to Children. By Mrs. Mary H. Peabody, of New York 284 School Savings Bank in the United States. By J. II. Thiry, of Long Island City, N. Y., 286 School Savings Bank in France. By M. Gustave Serrurier, of Havre, France, . 287 The Public Educational System of Sweden. By N. G. W. Lagerstedt, Ph.D., Teacher at the Secondary School of Ostermalm, Stockholm, Sweden, 289 Religion in the School. By Dr. E. E. White, of Columbus, Ohio, . . 295 Discussion, 300 Adaptation of Methods of Instruction to Special Conditions, . . . 301 Should Rural Schools Introduce Agriculture, Chemistry, Agricultural Botany, or Arboriculture? By Ergraff de Kovalevsky, Delegate of the Minister of Public Instruction of Russia, 304 Confucius and His Educational Ideas. By Dr. Hidesaburo Eudo, Dele- gate from the Royal Educational Society of Japan, .... 308 The Use of Magic Lanterns in Schools. By Gustave Serrurier, France. 314 Schools for Neglected Children. By James Stormont Small, Truant In- spector, Auckland, New Zealand, ....... 315 Congress of Kindergarten Instruction, . . . . . . . 321-381 List of Honorary Vice-Presidents, 323 Opening Address, Mrs. Ada M. Hughes, Toronto, Ontario, . . . 320 Shall Reading and Writing be Taught in the Kindergarten ? By Mrs. Alice H. Putnam, Chicago, 327 Changes in Kindergarten Plays and Games. [Slightly abridged.] By Miss Sarah A. Stewart, Philadelphia, Pa., . 328 The Song in the Kindergarten — Its Place, and the Dramatic Element. By Miss Constance Mackenzie, Director of Public Kindergartens, Philadelphia, 331 The Organic Union of Kindergarten and Primary School. By Mrs. Sarah B. Cooper, of San Francisco, . . . . . . 336 Discussion. — Modifications in the Primary School. By B. Pickman Mann. 342 Preparations of the Kindergartner. [Abridged.] By Mrs. Louisa Par- sons Hopkins, of the Board of School Supervisors, Boston, Mass. . 344 The Kindergarten as a Basis for Life. [Translation slightly abridged.] By Frau Henrietta Schrader, of Berlin 346 Story Telling in the Kindergarten. By Mary T. Ilotchkiss, of Milwaukee. 351 To What Extent is the use of Symbolism Justifiable in the Kindergarten? By Earl Barnes, Professor of Education, Leland Stanford, Jr., University, California, 355 ; and by Mrs. Eudora L. Hailmann, Ind. 356 Froebel's Educational Principles in England. By Emily A. E. Shirreff, President of the Froebel Society, London, 360 The Kindergarten in Austria. By Mrs. Ottilia Bondy, of Vienna, . . 366 The Real Nature of Education. By Hermann Poesche, Educational Inspector of the Orphan Administration in Berlin, . . . 369 Prevention of Criminal Idleness. By Miss Emma Marwedel, California, 372 CONTENTS. xm PAGE Congress of Professional Training of Teachers, 383^154 List of Honorary Vice-Presidents, 384 Opening Address. By the Chairman, Dr. E. A. Sheldon, Principal of the Oswego State Normal and Training School, 387 The Value of Practical Work in Model and Training Schools. By Miss Fannie S. Guptill, Minneapolis, Minn., 391 How should Normal School Pupils Acquire Methods of Teaching ? [Abridged.] By Signor Giacomo Oddo Romafede, Director of Nor- mal School, Alvellino, Italy, 399 Methods of Training Teachers at the Westminster Training College, Eng- land. By Joseph H. Cowham, Lecturer on Education and Master of Methods, Westminster Wesleyan Training College, .... 401 General Discussion, 405 Important Necessities in Present Normal Schools. By George A. Walton, State Agent of the Board of Education of Massachusetts, . . . 408 Gradation of Normal and Training Schools. By Thomas Kirkland, Prin- cipal of the Normal School, Toronto, Ontario, 410 Historical Development of Normal and Training Schools in France. By Eugene Martin, Directeur de L'Ecole Primaire Superieure, Paris, . 415 Normal Schools in the State of New York. [Abridged.] By Francis J. Cheney, Principal of the State Normal School at Cortland, N. Y., . 418 A Sociological Ideal View of Normal Schools. By Daniel Fulcomer, President of Michigan College, Grand Rapids, Mich., . . . 422 Should the Course of Study in Normal Schools be wholly Professional ? [Abridged.] By Francis B. Palmer, Principal of the State Normal School, Fredonia, N. Y., 428 How Normal School Work Differs from Work in Secondary and Higher Education. [Slightly abridged.] By Dr. M. Mac Vicar, Brooklyn, N.Y. 430 General Discussion, 432 What should be Required of, and upon Whom is to be Conferred, the Degree of Doctor of Pedagogy ? 434 Discussed by Jerome Allen, Ph.D., Professor of Pedagogy, University of the City of New York, and by Dr. Edward R. Shaw of the School of Pedagogy, University of the City of New York, 436 ; and by Dr. Charles McMurray, Illinois State Normal University, . . . 438 Higher Academic Degrees in Pedagogy. By Prof. S. G. Williams, Cor- nell University, 440 Discussion. [Abridged.] By T. B. Stowell, Ph.D., Potsdam, N. Y., . 442 The Candidate for the Degree of Doctor of Pedagogy should be able to make Original Investigations in Psychology. [Abridged.] By Edgar Duds Shimer, School of Pedagogy, University of the City of New York, . 444 Should Original Investigation be Required in some Branch of Child Study for the Doctor of Pedagogy Degree ? By Earl Barnes, Professor of Education, Leland Stanford, Jr., University, California, . . . 446 Child Study in Connection with the Professional Training of Teachers. By Margaret K. Smith, Oswego State Normal Training School, . 447 The Ideal Normal School. By Dr. Edward Brooks, Superintendent of Public Schools, Philadelphia, Pa., 451 Congress of Art Instruction, 455-506 List of Honorary Vice-Presidents, 456 xiv CONTENTS. PAGE Drawing from the Flat to Learn the Technique of Representation. By Henry T. Bailey, Supervisor of Drawing for the Stale ol Mass., . 458 Importance of the ^Esthetic Aim in Elementary Instruction in Drawing. By L. W. Miller, Principal of the School of Industrial Art, Phila- delphia, 462 Development of Art Instinct. By J. Ward Stimson, Educational Director of the New York Institute for Artist-Artisans, . . . 466 Discussion. By E. P. Fenollosa, of the Boston Art Museum, . . . 472 How Pupils should Study and Analyze Works from the Great Masters. By Dr. Alfred Emerson, Associate Professor of Classical Archaeology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., 473 Methods of Art Education for the Cultivation of Artistic Taste. By J. M. Hoppin, Professor of the History of Art, Yale University, , 476 Does Art Study Concern the Public Schools ? [Slightly abridged.] By Mrs. Mary Dana Hicks, Boston, Mass., 487 With What should Drawing Begin ? Discussed. By Miss Josephine C. Locke, Chicago, 111., 491; by Mrs. Hannah Johnson Carter, Director Art Department, Drexel Institute, Philadelphia., .... 495 Discussion : Painting and Sculpture. By Professor W. M. R. French, Director of the Art Institute of Chicago, 497 The Self-Correcting System of Drawing. By Miss Annie R. Osborne Moore of England, 500 General Discussion, 504 Should Pupils Draw from the Flat ? By Helen Bondy, a Graduated Teacher, Vienna, Austria, 505 Congress op- Instruction in Vocal Music, 507-523 List of Honorary Vice-Presidents, . . 508 Opening Remarks. By the Chairman, Professor F. W. Root, Chicago, . 510 Learning to Read Musical Notation. By Charles H. Greene, Peoria, 111., 510 General Discussion, 512 Physiology and Hygiene of the Vocal Organs. By John Howard, of New York, 514 General Discussion, 519 The Functions of Teachers of Vocal Music. [Slightly abridged.] By J. E. Lightner, Sharpsburg, Pa., c 520 Discussion, 521 Congress of Technological Instruction-, 525-587 List of Honorary Vice-Presidents, 526 Opening Address. By the Chairman, General Francis A. Walker, Presi- dent of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, . . . 528 Technological Schools : their Purpose and its Accomplishment. By Robert II. Thurston, Director Sibley College, Cornell University, . 534 General Discussion 549 Training for Scientific Professions. By Professor John M. Onlwav. Tulane University, New Orleans, ....... 554 Educational Value of Exact Measurement. By Professor Alfred M. Mayer, of Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J., . . 558 The Educational Value of Applied Mathematics, including Engineering. By F. R. Hutton, C. E., Ph.D., Professor of Mechanical Engineer- ing, School of Mines, Columbia, . . . . . . 560 CONTEXTS. xv PAGE Discussion. Professor Robert H. Thurston, Ithaca, N. Y., . . , 565 Shop Work and Drawing as Means of Developing Slow Pupils. By Pro- fessor R. H. Richards, of Boston, Mass., 567 The Educational Process of Training an Engineer. [Slightly abridged.] By Professor G. Lanza, of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, . 569 Discussion, 582 Educational Value of Applied Mathematics and Engineering. By Henry T. Eddy, C. E., Ph.D., President of Rose Polytechnic Institute, Terre Haute, Indiana, ■ 583 General Discussion, 586 Congress of Industrial and Manual Instruction, 580-614 List of Honorary Vice-Presidents, 590 Introductory Address. By Professor John D. Runkle, of the Institute of Technology, Boston, and President of the Department, . . . 592 New Demands upon Schools by the World's Industries. By Professor C. M. Woodward, of Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., .. 594 The French System of Industrial and Manual Instruction. Discussion by Professor C. M. Woodward, 597 Sloyd for Elementary Schools contrasted with the Russian System of Manual Training. By Gustaf Larsson, Principal ( f Sloyd Training School, Boston, Mass., 599 Manual Training in Russia. By Egraff de Kovalevsky, Russia, . . 604 General Discussion, 605 Industrial and Manual Training in the School Course. By W. B. Powell, Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C, . . . . 606 General Discussion, 613 Congress of Physical Education, 615-678 List of Honorary Vice-Presidents, 616 Opening Address. By the Chairman, Dr. Edward M. Hartwell, Boston. 618 Some Unsolved Problems in Physical Education. [Abstract.] By T. D. Wood, M.D., California, 621 Training of the Human Body. By Dr. Angelo Mosso, Professor of Physiology, University of Turin, Italy, 623 Psychological Aspect of Exercises with and without Apparatus. By G. W. Fitz, M.D., Instructor in Physiology and Hygiene, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., 626 Physical Exercises for School Purposes — how Selected and Graded. By J. Gardner Smith, M.D., Special Instructor Physical Training, Public Schools, New York City, 631 The Relation of Athletic Sports in Colleges. By R. Tait McKenzie, B.A., M.D., Director of McGill University Gymnasium, Montreal, 636 English Experiences in Providing the Poor of Cities with Parks, Gardens. Gymnasia, and Playgrounds. By the Right Honorable the Earl of Meath, London, 641 Physical Training of Criminals. By H. D. Wey, M.D., State Reforma- tory, Elmira, N. Y., 646 The North American Turner-Bund — its History, Aims, and Achieve- ments. By Hugo Muench, Ex-President North American Turner- Bund, St. Louis, Mo., . . 657 Discussion. By Miss L. Garde, Providence, R. L, 660 CONTENTS. The Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm. By L. If, Torngren, Director of the Institute, . . ' 662 History of Physical Education in Denmark. By Joakim Larsen, Super- intendent of the Frederickberg Schools, Copenhagen, . , . 664 Gymnastics in the Kingdom of Saxony — a Historical Review. By Pro- fessor Moritz Zettler, Saxony, 670 Physical Education of the Deaf and Dumb. [Abstract.] By Albert Gutzman, Berlin, . . . ' 674 Congress of Rational Psychology, . 679-711 List of Honorary Vice-Presidents, 680 Reality — What Place it should Hold in Philosophy. By Dr. James McCosh, Ex-President Princeton University, 682 Can Psychology be Founded upon the Study of Consciousness alone, or is Physiology Needed for the Purpose ? By Professor Josiah Royce, of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., 687 General Discussion . 692 The Soul as the Basal Concept of Rational Psychology. [Slightly abridged.] By Professor G. T. Ormond, of Princeton University, . 693 General Discussion, 699 The Theory of the First Principle in the Eleventh Book of Aristotle's Metaphysics. [Slightly abridged.] By Dr. Augustine F. Hewit, Wash- ington, D. C 700 Self-Activity in Education. [Slightly abridged.] By Dr. J. G. Schurman, President Cornell University, 703 General Discussion, 705 Wundt's Psychology of the Will. [Introduction omitted.] By Professor E. B. Titchener, Cornell University, 705 Discussion, 711 Congress of Experimental Psychology in Education, . . : . 713-785 List of Honorary Vice-Presidents, , 715 Child Study as a Basis for Psychology and Psychological Teaching. Ab- stract of Opening Address by the Chairman, G. Stanley Hall, Presi- dent of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., 717 Child Study as a Basis of Pedagogy. ' Abstract of Paper by William H. Burnham, Clark University, Worcester, Mass., . . . . 718 The Dominant Seventh in Education. [Slightly abridged.] By Miss Hattie E. Hunt, Ph.D., Hartford, Conn., 720 Mental Waste and Economy. [Slightly abridged.] By Professor G. T. W. Patrick, State University of Iowa, 725 General Discussion, 729 Dreaming and Poetic Invention. By Professor James Sully, London, England, 730 The Language of Children. [Slightly abridged.] By F. Tracy, of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., 737 Application of the Laws of Physical Training for the Prevention and Cure of Stuttering. By Dr. E. M. Hartwell, Boston, Mass., . . 739 General Discussion, 750 Observation and Study of Movement and Mental Status. By Francis Warner, M.D., F.R.C. P., London, England, Physician to the Lon- don Hospital, ...',. 750 CONTEXTS. xvn PAGE Some Association Tracks Involved in Reading and Writing. By Thomas M. Balliet, Superintendent Schools, Springfield, Mass., . . . 756 General Discussion, 700 Constitutional Bad Spellers. By Adelaide E. Wyckoff, the Packer Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y„ 762 The Theological Life of a California Child. [Slightly abridged.] By Pro- fessor Earl Barnes, of Leland Stanford, Jr., University, California, . 765 General Discussion, . . . . • . ' 771 The First Two Years of the Child. [Slightly abridged.] By Miss Milli- cent W. Shinn, Editress of Oberlin Monthly, 773 A Plea for Special Child Study. [Slightly abridged.] By Professor W. L. Bryan, University of Indiana, 779 Report on Eye and Ear Mindedness. By Professor W. L. Bryan, Uni- versity of Indiana, 779 The New Psychology in the Normal Schools. [Slightly abridged. ] By Miss Lillie A. Williams, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J., . . 781 General Discussion, 784 Congress of Business Education, . ' 787-807 The Evolution of Business Colleges. Abstract of Opening Address. By S. S. Packard, President Dept. Congress Business Education, . . 788 Practical Advantages of a Commercial College Training. [Abstract of paper.] By George Soule, New Orleans, La., 791 The Relation of Business Instruction to Industrial, Commercial, and Financial Interests. [Abstract.] By A. D. Wilt, Dayton, Ohio, . 793 The Higher Aspects of Business Education. [Abstract of paper.] By R. E. Gallagher, Hamilton, Ontario 796 Stenography and Typewriting as Branches of Business Education. [Ab- stract of paper.] By Isaac S. Dement, Chicago, 111., . . . 798 The World's Need of Business Women. [An abstract.] By Mrs. Sara A. Spencer. Washington, D. C, 800 Reciprocal Relations and Benefits of Business and Other Departments of Education. [Abstract of paper.] By Dr. Ira Mayhew, Detroit, Mich., 803 A Business Man's Education. [Reported.] By Dr. James Macalister, Philadelphia, . • 805 Congress of Educational Publications, 809-851 Present Ideals in Educational Journalism. [Abstract of paper.] By C. C. Rounds, Plymouth, N. H 810 Educational Journalism in New England. [Abridged.] By W. A. Mowry, Salem, Mass., 811 Doctor Barnard's American Journal of Education. [Abridged.] By Will S. Monroe, California, 822 The Purpose and Reward of Educational Journals. [Abstract.] By Amos M. Kellogg, New York, '825 General Discussion 825 Educational Journals in New York. [Abstract.] 826 Educational Journalism in Ohio. [Abstract.] By Samuel Findley, . 828 Educational Journalism in Indiana. [Abridged.] By George F. Bass, Indianapolis, 829 School Journalism in Michigan. [Abridged.] By Professor Henry A. Ford, Detroit 831 xviii CONTENTS. I'AGE Educational Journals in Illinois. [Slightly abridged.] By John W.Cook, Normal 833 Educational Journalism in Iowa. [Slightly abridged.] By Henry Sabin, State Superintendent of Iowa 840 The Educational Papers of Missouri. [Abridged.] By II. A. Gass, Jeffer- son City, Mo., 842 Educational Journalism in Utah, Colorado, and Kansas. [Slightly abridged.] By John MacDonald, Topeka, Kan., .... 843 Educational Journalism in Prance. [Abstract ; translation.] By Gabriel Compayre, 845 Appendix, 853-914 University Education for Women in England. By Mrs. Millicent Garret Fawcett, 853 A few Words of Retrospect and Forecast. [Slightly abridged.] By Dorothea Beale, Ladies' College, Cheltenham, England, . . . 862 University Association of Women Teachers. By Constance Elder, Hon- orary Secretary, . . . . t 865 Elementary Education in England. [Abridged.] By Rosamond Daven- port Hill, 870 National Education in Scotland. [Slightly abridged.] By Flora Steven- son, Member of Edinburgh School Board, 874 Women Students in the Scottish Universities. [Slightly abridged.] By Miss Louisa Stevenson, 877 Convent Education. By F. M. L., Principal of a Training College, . 879 Woman's Education in New Zealand. [Abridged.] By Mrs. Steadman Aldis, 883 Educational Work for Women in Australia, chiefly New South Wales. By Louisa McDonald, Principal Women's College, University of Sydney. 887 Recent Developments on Education for the Women and Girls of India. By E. A. Manning 890 English Orphanage and Training School in Rosnia. 1869-1892. [Slightly abridged.] By Miss A. T. Irby '. 900 Elementary and Secondary Education in Cape Colony, Africa. [Slightly abridged.] By Miss May Bengough, , 903 Public Instruction in Italy. [Slightly abridged.] By Dr. Egisto Rossi, Rome, 907 Needlework in the Public Schools of Stockholm, Sweden. By Mrs. Hulda Ludin, Superintendent of Needlework, 911 Constitution of the National Educational Association, .... 917-921 Calendar of Meetings, 922 List of Officers for 1893-94, . . 923 National Council of Education, 925 Life Directors and Life Members, 926 Annual Membership, 931 Index to Proceedings of the International Congress of Education, and Departments, 947-1005 Announcements of Volumes of Proceedings of the National Educational Association, 1870-1893 1006 COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIA- TION IN CHARGE OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. IN GENERAL CHARGE : William T. Harris, Commissioner of Education, U. S. DEPARTMENTS I Higher Education : Prof. Nicholas Murray Butler, Columbia College, New York City. Prop. A. F. West, of Princeton University, Secretary. Secondary Education : Principal Ray Greene Huling, New Bedford, Mass. Elementary Education : Inspector James L. Hughes, Kindergarten Instruction : Mrs. W. N. Hailman, School Supervision : ,,,, Supt. W. H. Maxwell, Toronto, Ont. La Porte, Ind. Brooklyn, N. Y. Professional Training of Teachers : Principal E. O. Lyte, Millersville, Pa. Instruction in Art : Prks. James MacAlister, Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. Instruction in Vocal Music : Director N. Coe Stewart, Cleveland, O. Technological Instruction : Prof. Henry Morton, Stevens Institute, Hoboken, N. J. Industrial and Manual Instruction : Dr. Andrew J. Rickoff, New York City. Business Education : Pres. R. C. Spencer, Milwaukee, Wis. Physical Education : Prof. D. A. Sargent, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Rational Psychology in Education : Pres. J. G. Schurman, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Experimental Psychology in Education : Prof. Gkorgb T. Ladd, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Educational Publications : Mr. C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, N. Y; Hall C 89 chairmen presiding at the sessions : Dr. James B. Angell, President of Michigan University, presides at general sessions. Dr. D. C. Gilman, President Johns Hopkins University. Rev. J. C. Mackenzie, Head Master, Lawrence- ville School, New Jersey. W General John Eaton, Ex-Commissioner of Education, United States. C. Mrs. A- M. Hughes, of Toronto, Ontario. 4 Hon. Thos. B. Stockwell, Providence, R. I. Dr. E. A. Sheldon, Principal State Normal School, Oswego, N. Y. Prof. Halsey C. Ives, Director of Art School, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. 31 Prof. F. W. Root, of Chicago. 24 General Francis A. Walker, President In- stitute of Technology, Boston, Maw. 6 Prof. J. D. Runkle, Institute Technology, Boston, Mass. 29 Col. George Soule, President of Soule's Busi- ness College, New Orleans, La. 26 Prof. Edward M. Hartwell, Director of Physical Education in Public Schools, Bos- ton, Mass. 27 Db. James McCosh, Ex-President Princeton University. 20 Dr. G. Stanley Hall, President Clark Uni- versity, Worcester, Mass. 21 Dr. Hknry Barnard, Editor The American Journal of Education, Hartford, Conn. OFFICERS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR 1893-94. Albert G. Lane, President, Chicago, 111. E. H. Cook, Vice- President, Flushing, N. Y. Irwin Shepard, Secretary, Winona. Minn. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer, Kansas City, Mo. N. A. Calkins, Chairman of Board if Trustees, New York City. SUBJECTS PRESENTED IN THE PRELIMINARY PROGRAMME FOR DISCUSSION BY THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. HIGHER EDUCATION. Thesis : Ought a distinction to be main- tained between collegiate and university methods of instruction ? Discussion. Thesis : Is it desirable that universities should be of one type ? Discussion. Thesis : Should an antecedent liberal education be required of students in law, medicine, and theology ? Discussion. Thesis : Is it desirable that professional schools should be closely connected with universities and colleges ? Discussion. General subject : Colleges. Thesis : Conditions of admission ? Dis- cussion. Thesis : Should Greek be required for the degree of B.A. ? Discussion. Thesis : What signs of improvement in the undergraduate life of American stu- dents ? Considered under the topics of athletics, morals, student organizations, international courtesies, relations to in- structors. Discussion. Thesis : The degree of doctor of philoso- phy— on what conditions should it be given. Discussion. Thesis : On the relations of colleges and universities to the progress of civilization. Discussion. SECONDARY EDUCATION. Thesis : The supervision of all second- ary education in public high-schools, pri- vate schools, and endowed academies, by the State or municipal authority. Dis- cussion. Thesis : The course of study in second- ary schools designed simply to prepare pupils for life (or designed as a finishing school) — should it be different from that designed to prepare students for college or the professional school ? Discussion. Thesis : (a) Should the amount of time given to mathematics in secondary schools (as they are) be diminished ? (b) Should the amount of time given to languages in our secondary schools (as they are) be diminished, in order to make room for a more extended course in physics, botany, and chemistry ? Discussion. Thesis : Should art studies, including drawing, painting, and modeling, form a part of the prescribed course for all pupils in secondary schools ? Discussion. Thesis : Should algebra or geometry come first in the course of study of second- ary schools ? Discussion. Thesis : In cases where a choice should be made, which should come first, Latin or some modern language, in the course of study of secondary schools? Discussion. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. Thesis : Should morals, language, num- bers, geography, history of the country, writing, and drawing be considered the es- sentials of the course of study for the eight years of elementary instruction, the pupils being from six to fourteen years of age ? Discussion. Thesis : What should be added to the es- sential branches of the elementary course of study to meet the industrial needs of localities or race characteristics? For example, should city schools introduce branches relating to commerce or manu- factures, or should rural schools introduce agriculture, chemistry, and botany ? Dis- cussion. Thesis : Improvement in methods of teaching geography in the public schools. Discussion. Thesis : Physiography as related to ge- ology. Discussion. Thesis : The relation which may and should exist between the National Geo- graphical Society and the public schools. Discussion. National Geographical Society. Address : Arctic Explorations. By Gen- eral A. W. Greely, U. S. A. General topic: Morals, religion, and citizenship. Thesis :.Is it possible to separate religious and. moral" instruction ? Should religious instruction be introduced into the public or common schools, and taught either by the regular teacher or by clergymen ? Should the Bible be read as a religious exercise ? In how far can the discipline of the school be relied upon to secure moral habits? Discussion. Thesis : How far should moral education SUBJECTS PRESENTED IN PRELIMINARY PROGRAMME. be made to include courtesy and social etiquette ? What school exercises are the best to promote education for citizenship ? In what ways can the studies of the common school, such as history and literature, be made to develop the sentiment of patriot* ism ? What special work should be under- taken in the elementary school to prepare the pupils for the duties of citizenship ? Discussion. KINDERGARTEN INSTRUCTION. General topic of the first session : The essential characteristics of the kindergarten as distinguished from the primary school, and the practical adjustment of the former to the latter. 1. Thesis : (1) The essential character- istics of a kindergarten. (2) Its gifts and occupations, (3) Should the kindergarten attempt to teach reading or writing ? (4) Should the plays and games which Froebel invented, be modified ? Should substitu- tions be made for any of them, or others be added ? (5) What is the place and value of the song in the kindergarten, and the degree of dramatic element which should accompany the song ? Thesis : (1) The organic union of kin- dergarten and primary school. (2) What modifications in the primary school are necessary or desirable in order to adapt it to continue the work of the kindergarten and reap the advantages of the training already received ? (3) What are the essen- tial differences in discipline and instruction that should characterize the primary school and distinguish it from the kindergarten ? Thesis : (1) Preparation of the kinder- gartner for her work. (2) Should all kin- dergarten teachers be required to pass examination in secondary studies, includ- ing such as algebra, geometry, modern or ancient languages, general history, natural science, psychology, and English literature or the literature of the native country ? (3) What training in Froebel's philosophy should be prescribed in a professional course of training for the kindergartner ? (4) What work in the gifts and occupa- tions, the plays and games, theoretically and practically, should be required for the graduate from a kindergarten training school ? Thesis : (1) Educative value of hand- work in the kindergarten. (2) Cautions to be observed as to the limits of certain of the occupations, such, for example, as pricking paper, and other work that is liable to strain the eyes if too long con- tinued. (3) The Froebel system of draw- ing, in contrast to free-hand drawing. (4) The characteristic mental and physical conditions of the first seven vears of child- hood, which determine the special educa- tive value of hand- work in the kindergar- ten. Thesis : (1) To what extent is the use of symbolism justifiable in the kindergarten ? (2) Is there any validity to the claim often urged that the child under seven years of age is to be distinguished in psychological development from the child of more than seven years of age, through his greater dependence upon symbolic modes of in- struction ? Is the distinction a valid one, between symbolic and conventional stud- ies, conventional studies being understood to mean reading, writing, written arith- metic, and appliances useful in intercom- munication but not emblematic or sym- bolic of a second and higher meaning ? Thesis : What should be the character of the stories told in the kindergarten, and to what extent should stories be told ? SCHOOL SUPERVISION. Thesis : Teachers' examinations, certifi- cates, and licenses. What scholastic knowledge should be required from teach- ers before being permitted to enter on u term of probationary service — In English ? In languages other than English ? In natural science ? In physics and chem- istry ? In mathematics ? In art ? Dis- cussion. Thesis : How to improve the work of poor teachers. Discussion. Thesis : How to interest a corps of teachers in the study of psychology and its application to the work of the school- room. Discussion. Thesis : University participation for teachers. Discussion. Thesis : Appointment and tenure of of- fice of superintendents. Discussion. Thesis : Who shall appoint teachers, and on whose nomination ? Discussion. Thesis : At what point in the course of study should departmental or special teachers be employed in elementary schools ? Discussion. Thesis : Should the law require the at- tendance of all pupils in school between the ages of eight and fourteen ? Discussion. PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS. General topic of discussion : Schools of practice or ' ' model " schools connected with the schools for the professional train- ing of teachers. Thesis: (1) The kind and degree of prep- aration required before coming to the school of practice. (2) The time in the course of preparation when the practice should be taken. (3) The value and extent of ob- servation work in the model school. (4) INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION Amount and character of criticism to be recommended. (5) Value of practice work in tilling temporary vacancies caused by the absence of the regular teacher (called "substituting"). (6) Value of teaching practice within the normal school, the les- sons being given to classes composed of one's fellow-classmates. (?) Shall the instruc- tors of branches be the critics in their own branches ? (8) Shall the critic be always present ? (9) How much practice shall be required each day, and how long continued? (10) How often "should the classes taught be changed ? (11) What degree of perfec- tion in teaching shall be required in order to entitle the candidate to a diploma ? (12) Is the plan a good one to have a paid teacher in charge of each class in the school of practice, said teacher doing a portion of the work of teaching and, in addition, criticising the work of the pupil teachers ? (13) The value of sending pupils out into neighboring schools to observe and occa- sionally take charge of classes. Discussion. General topic : Schools for the profes- sional training of teachers. Thesis : (1) The classification of the sev- eral grades of normal and training schools. (2) Professional schools for the training of teachers for the work of higher education in normal schools, colleges, and univer- sities. (3) For the training of teachers for secondary schools. (4) For the training of teachers for elementary schools. (5) For the training of teachers for kindergartens. (6) For the training of teachers for rural schools. (7) The standards required in these differ- ent grades, (a) as to scholastic instruction, (b) as to psychological and technical in- struction, (c) as to practice teaching under criticism. Discussion. Thesis : Should the course of study in normal schools be wholly professional, or should it include work in the elementary and secondary branches, even where pro- ficiency in these branches is required as a condition for admission ; if so, to what extent ? Discussion. Thesis : How does the typical normal school work differ in method from that of secondary or higher education ? Discus- sion. General topic : What should be required of one upon whom is to be conferred the doctor's degree of pedagogy ? Thesis : (1) Should such requirements be confined to scholastic instruction ? What should be required in the way of teaching ability, experience, and skill ? (2) Should original investigation be re- quired in some branch of child study ? (3) Or in some phase of the history of educa- tion ? (4) Or in some branch of experi- mental psychology with a view to deter- mine questions in regard to the educational value of some branch or branches in the curriculum of elementary or secondary schools ? Discussion. Thesis : What value should be attached to the formal study of children in the training of teachers ? Discussion. ART INSTRUCTION. General topic : Methods of teaching draw- ing. Thesis: Whether the pupil shall first take a course of drawing from the flat in order to learn the technique of representa- tion ? Discussion. Thesis : How early shall the pupil begin to use models ? Discussion. Thesis : Should the objects to be drawn as models be artistically beautiful, or shall the pupil practice drawing real objects without reference to the aesthetic question ? Discussion. General topic : All art study should aim first to familiarize the pupil with the chief types of the great works of art with a view to cultivating the artistic taste. Thesis : The pupil should study and analyze a series of works from the great masters, describing in language in the form of essays the general theme and the methods adopted of making the work of art tell its own story ; the technical diffi- culties and successful devices of the artist in completing his work of art. Discussion. Thesis : The pupil should copy or make a drawing of the work of art which he has learned to analyze, and his exercise should be criticised by fellow-pupils and teacher, making clear the respects wherein he has failed to seize the motives of the artist, or to reproduce his (the artist's) devices of representation. Discussion. Thesis : Works of sculpture after being studied analytically and reproduced in drawings should be modeled in clay, and works of painting after such preliminaries should be copied in painting by the pupil. Discussion. Thesis : Connected with the learning to model in clay, wax, or other material, the fmpil should have a series of lessons on the imitations belonging to the arts of paint- ing and sculpture, and discuss what sub- jects can properly be treated in sculpture and what more properly belong to painting. Discussion. Thesis : Should drawing commence from the beginning with light and shade, or should it be outline drawing for the first year or more ? Discussion. INSTRUCTION IN VOCAL MUSIC. General topic : The course of study, or what the pupil should learn of vocal music SUBJECTS PRESENTED IN PRELIMINARY PROGRAMME. in Hie elementary schools for children aged five to fifteen years. In what grades of the elementary school should the children learn pieces of music by rote (or by ear only), and in what grades should they commence to learn to read musical notation ? Discussion. In what grades or at what ages should pupils be required to take up part singing, or learn other parts besides the soprano or melody ? Discussion. What music is especially adapted to children from five to ten, and what from ten to fifteen years ? What rule should guide the selection from popular songs ? from classic composers? A discussion of the characteristics of the compositions of such song-writers as H. G. Nageli, Fr. Silcher, C. H. Rink, Fr. Kuecken, and the higher classical composers, Beetho- ven, Mozart, Mendelssohn, Schubert, Von Weber, Handel, Schumann, Kreutzer, Abt, Haydn, Rossini, and others, who furnish the best selections for pupils in their fifteenth year and upwards. The feasibility of forming a library of pieces of music of permanent value for the different ages of youth — say, for example, selections from such composers as Nageli for pupils from five to ten years, and from such as Mendelssohn for pupils from eleven to fifteen years. Discussion. The danger of confining the course of study in music for a too long period to reading and singing mere mechanical ex- ercises devoid of artistic merit and empty of all thought and feeling. Discussion. The importance of includingin the child's musical course popular songs of a perma- nent character, such as the national patri- otic airs, the great religious hymns, the emotional utterance of pure sentiments, like love of home, friendship, generosity, industry, sobriety, respect for others, self- denial, and general right doing. Discus- sion. General topic: The qualifications re- quisite for a teacher of vocal music. His knowledge of the physiology and hygiene of the vocal organs ; the degree of strain that the vocal chords will bear with- out injury, at the periods of growth from five years to fifteen years. Discussion. His ability to accompany the voice with some instrument, say the piano or violin. Discussion. His knowledge of classic music and of the best course of study to lead up to it. Discussion. His knowledge of methods of instruction. Discussion. Is a knowledge of the higher science of counterpoint essential to the special teacher of vocal music, in view of the alleged fact that if he lacks such knowledge he will not be able to direct the course of musical study progressively from the elements toward a sufficiently high goal ? Discussion. What musical studies in the great mas- ters should the teacher keep up from year to year for the sake of his own improve- ment and culture ? Discussion. General topic : The methods of teach- ing and learning vocal music. What are the respective functions of the regular class teacher and the special teacher of vocal music ? Discussion. The relative importance of correcting errors in musical enunciation ; in keeping time ; in proper expression ; in proper pos- ture of the body ; opening the mouth ; breathing ; in attempting to sing notes of too high or too low a pitch for the degree of physical development. Discussion. The danger of laying too much stress on the mechanical part of singing, to the neg- lect of musical expression. Discussion. The systems of musical notation — tonic sol-fa — " movable do" and "fixed do'" sys- tems. Discussion. What pupils, if any, should be excused from the musical exercises of the school- room ? Discussion. TECHNOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. Address by General Francis A. Walker, President of the Department. Thesis : How far do the technological schools, as they are at present organized, accomplish the training of men for the scientific professions, and how far and for what reasons do they fail to accomplish their primary purpose ? Discussion. General topic : Educational value of technical study. " Thesis: Workshop practice as an edu- cational means. Discussion. Thesis : The educational value of the study and practice of chemistry. Discus- sion. Thesis: The early history and organiza- tion of the Sheffield Scientific School at New Haven. Discussion. Thesis : The educational value of lab- oratory work in exact measurement. Discussion. Thesis: The educational value of the lab- oratory study of electricity. Discussion. Thesis : The educational value of work in mechanical drawing and architectural drawing. Discussion. Thesis : Shop-work and drawing as a means of developing slow pupils. Discus- sion. Thesis: The educational value of natural science. Discussion. Thesis: The educational value of applied mathematics, including engineering. Dis- cussion. 10 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Thesis : On the educational value of pure mathematics. Discussion. Thesis: On the educational process of training an engineer. Discussion. INDUSTRIAL AND MANUAL INSTRUCTION. Introductory address by the President of the Department, Prof. J. D. Runkle. Thesis : The new demands which the world's industries make upon the elemen- tary schools. This question will be con- sidered under the heads of ethics, educa- tion, economics. Discussion. Thesis : In courses of mechanic arts, instruction in wood and metals, consider the relative educational values of: (a) A series of graded models embracing the fundamental principles of the art. (6) A series of completed, and more or less useful, articles. (c) A shorter course in the arts, and then a specialization with reference to some definite industrial pursuit, as in the French schools. Discussion. Thesis : The claims of the two systems of manual training known as : (a) The Russian. (b) The Swedish or Sloid. Discussion. Thesis : Since all industrial products involve form, it follows that all industrial instruction should have an aesthetic basis, or the study of the general principles which underlie all tasteful and graceful forms, and this study should be regarded and ranked as of equal educational value with the mechanic art processes. Discus- sion. Thesis : Primary Schools — Into what grades and with what subjects should in- dustrial and manual instruction be intro- duced ? Discussion. Thesis : Primary Schools — In these grades should boys and girls receive the same instruction ? Discussion. Thesis : Grammar Schools — Should boys and girls have the same industrial and manual instruction in all the grades ? If not, what should the difference be ? Dis- cussion. Thesis : Mechanic Art High Schools — The place such schools hold in a public educational system. If they are regarded as special technical schools, to what extent may they be used as fitting schools for in- dustrial pursuits ? Discussion. BUSINESS EDUCATION. Thesis : Evolution of the business col- lege. Thesis : Practical advantages of business college training. Discussion. Thesis : Business college teachers and their equipment. Discussion. Thesis : Reciprocal relations and benefits of business colleges and other depart- ments of education. Discussion. Thesis : The relation of business college instruction to industrial, commercial, and financial interests. Discussion. Thesis : Graded courses in business ed- ucation. Discussion. Thesis : Limitations of business college instruction. Discussion. Thesis : Business college training in counting-room work. Discussion. Thesis : Higher aspects of business edu- cation. Discussion. Thesis : Business colleges and the art of writing. Discussion. Thesis : The business woman as daugh- ter, wife, mother, and friend. Discussion. Thesis : The value of a business edu- cation to women. Discussion. Thesis : Business training for the world's charities. Discussion. Thesis : Stenography and typewriting as branches of business education. Discus- sion. Thesis : Teaching morals and manners through shorthand instruction. Discus- sion. Thesis : What stenographers and the business community demand of business colleges in shorthand and typewriting in- struction. Thesis : Economics and social science in business education. Thesis : A merchant's view of the busi- ness college. Discussion. Thesis : A banker's view of the business college. Discussion. x PHYSICAL EDUCATION. Address by Dr. Edward M. Hartwell, Director of Physical Training, Public Schools, Boston, Mass., President of the Department. Thesis : Some unsolved problems in phys- ical education. Dr. T. D. Wood, Profes- sor of Hygiene and Physical Training, Leland Stanford Junior University, Palo Alto, Cal. Discussion. Thesis : The cultivation of the human body. Dr. Angelo Mosso, Professor of Physiology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy. Discussion. Thesis : The psychological aspects of ex- ercise with and without apparatus. Dr. G. W. Fitz, Instructor in Physiology and Hygiene, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Discussion. Thesis : Should medical schools teach physical training ? Dr. Lena V. Ingraham, Boston, Mass. Discussion. Thesis : Supervision of school gymnas- tics by qualified physicians. Dr. Helen C. Putnam, Providence, R. I. Discussion. SUBJECTS PRESENTED IN PRELIMINARY PROGRAMME. 11 Thesis : The Royal Central Gymnastic Institute of Stockholm — its aims and work. Prof. L. M. Torngren, Director of Royal Central Gymnastic Institute, Stockholm, Sweden. Discussion. Thesis : How should physical exercises for school purposes be selected and graded ? Dr. J. Gardner Smith, Supervisor of Phys- ical Training in Public Schools, New York City. Discussion. Thesis : The revival of Greek gymastics in Germany. Jaro Pawel, University Teacher, Vienna, Austria. , Thesis : The movement for promoting popular and youthful sports in Germany. James L. Hughes, Inspector of Schools, Toronto, Ontario. Discussion. Thesis : English experience in providing the poor of cities with out-of-door facilities for exercise. The Rt. Honorable the Earl of Meath, London, England. Dis- cussion. Thesis : The athletic movement in France. Baron Pierre de Coubertin, Paris, France. Discussion. Thesis : The observation and study of movement and mental states. Dr. Francis Warner, Physician to London Hospital, London, England. Thesis : The relation of physical train- fa ing to other forms of education. Dr. G. Stanley Hall, President Clark University, Worcester, Mass. Discussion. The physical training of deaf-mutes. A. Gutzmann, Instructor in City Insti- tute for the Deaf and Dumb, Berlin, Prussia. Thesis : The physical training of crim- inals. Dr. H. D. Wey, State Reforma- tory, Elmira, N. Y. Discussion. Thesis : The North American Turner- bund ; its history, aims, and achievements. II. Muench, ex-President N. A. Turner- bund, St. Louis, Mo. Thesis : The normal school of the N. A. Turnerbund. J. Toensfeldt, St. Louis, Mo. Thesis : The physiology of the German system of gymnastics. Hans Ballin, San- dusky, O. Thesis : School gymnastics in the King- dom of Saxony. Moritz Zettler, Teacher in Gymnasium in Chemnitz, Saxony. Thesis : Swedish school gymnastics in England. Mme. Bergman Oesterberg, London, England. Discussion. Thesis : Swedish military gymnastics. Capt. Carl Silow, Instructor Royal Central Gymnastic Institute, Stockholm, Sweden. Discussion. 1 Thesis : The laws of muscular and ner- vous fatigue and their relation to physical education. Dr. Warren P. Lombard, Pro- fessor of Physiology, University of Michi- gan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Discussion. Thesis : Physical education in the South. Dr. William A. Lambeth, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. * Thesis : Physical education in Canada. Dr. R. Tait Mackenzie, McGill University, Montreal. Canada. Discussion : How far is it desirable to attempt to secure State legislation (in the United States) making physical training compulsory in the public schools ? RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATION. Address by the President of the Depart- ment, Rev. James McCosh, D. D. Topic : Reality — what place has it in philosophy ? Discussion. Thesis : Can psychology be founded on consciousness alone, or does it need physi- ology ? Discussion. Thesis : Perception, conception, and primitive truth. Discussion. Thesis : Aristotle's doctrine of a first principle, as set forth in the Xlth book of his Metaphysics. Discussion. Thesis : Self-activity in education. Dis- cussion. Thesis : Wundt's psychology of the will. Discussion. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATION. General topic : Child study. Address by the President of the Depart- ment, Dr. G. Stanley Hall : Child study as a basis for psychology and psychological teaching. Discussion. Thesis : The imaginations of children. Discussion. Thesis : Exercise of the will in children. Discussion. Thesis : A study of children's theology. Discussion. Thesis : Child study as a basis for peda- gogy. Discussion. Thesis : The new psychology in normal schools. Discussion. Thesis : Constitutionally bad spellers. Discussion. Thesis : Systematic cultivation of self- consciousness in children. Discussion. Thesis : Development of motor ability in school-children. Discussion. Thesis : A pedagogical experimental need. Discussion. EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. Address of welcome by Dr. Henry Bar- nard, President of the Department. Thesis : Present ideals in educational u INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. journalism from the superintendent's Thesis point of view. Discussion. nalism in Pilosis : The educational press and the Thesis public. Discussion. nalism in General topic : The history of educa- Thesis : tional journalism. nalism in Thesis: The history of educational jour- Thesis: nalism in France. Discussion. nalism in The history of educational jour- (•ermany. Discussion. The history of educational jour- Italy. Discussion. The history of educational jour- Mexico. Discussion. The history of educational jour- the United States. Discussion. LIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE GENERAL CONGRESS. AFRICA. M. B. Buisson, Director of the Normal School of. Tunis, Tunisie. AUSTRALASIA. Hon. W. P. Reeves, Minister of Education, Well- ington, New Zealand. Miss C. II. Spence, South Australia. AUSTRIA. Prof. Joh. von Radinger, Rector Polytechnicum, Vienna. Herr Ed. Scholz, Stale School Inspector, Vienna. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Sefior Dr. F. de la Barra. Member of National Council of Education, Buenos Ayres. Senor C. Guido F. Spano, Member of National Council of Education, Buenos Ayres. Sefior Felix Martin y Herrera, Member of National Council of Education, Buenos Ayres. Sefior B. Zorrilla, President of the National Coun- cil of Education, Buenos Ayres. Sefior Julio A. Garcia, Member of National Coun- cil of Education, Buenos Ayres. BELGIUM. Son Excellence M. J. de Burlet, Minister of the Interior and of Pubic Induction, Brussels. Dr. Eugene Janssens, Brussels. CHILI. Sua Excelencia Don Pedro Montt, Santiago. COSTA RICA. M. Gustav Michaud, San Jose. CUBA. Senor Vietorio R. Ventura y Fernandez, Havana. CANADA. Hon. S. D. Pope, LL.D.. Secretary, Council of Public Instruction, Victoria, British Columbia. Hon. J. R. Inch, Chief Superintendent of Educa- tion, Frederieton, New Brunswick. Hon. A. H. Mackay, B. A., B.Sc. LL.D., F. R. S. C, Superintendent of Education for Nova Scotia, Halifax. Dr. James A. MeLellan, Principal, School of Peda- gogy and Iuspectorof Normal Schools, Toronto, Ontario. Hon. Gedeon Onimct, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Quebec. Quebec. Hon. J. G. Hodgins, M.A., LL.D., Toronto, On- tario. Hon. G. W. Ross, LL.D., Minister cf Education, Toronto, Ontario. Prof. Goldwin Smith, Toronto, Ontario. Rev. Principal G. M. Grant, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario. ECUADOR. Senor Rafael Barabona, Professor of the Faculty of Medicine, University of Quito. Quito. Sefior Fr. Ignacio Salazar, Archivo del Poder Legis- lative, Quito. FINLAND. Senator Chas. Etnile Ignatius, Helsingfors. FRANCE. M. Berthelot, Vice-President of the Superior Coun- cil of Public Instruction, Paris. M. F. Buisson, Director of Primary Instruction in the Ministry of Public Instruction. Paris. M. Michel Breal. Member of the " Institut," Pro- fessor " College de France," Paris. M. A. Carnot, Superior National School of Mines, Paris. M. G. Compayre, Rector of the Academy of Poi- tiers, Poitiers. Superior General Frefe Joseph (M. Josseraud), Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, Paris. GERMANY. Herr A. Berthelt, Oberschulrath, Chief Councilor of Education, Dresden. Dr. Brandenberg, R. Inspector of District and City Schools, Cologne. Dr. Rud. Buddensieg, Director Teachers' Seminary, Dresden. Prof. Dr. Johann Conrad, University of Halle. Prof. Dr. Ilerm. Colin, Ph.D., University of Breslau. Prof. Dr. Dittmar Finkler, Imperial Royal Com- missioner of the German Exhibits, World's Columbian Exposition, Bonn. Frl. Helene Lange, Central Committee, Berlin. Fran Loeper-Housselle, Editor "Die Lehierin," Weimar. Herr Fr. Junge, Headmaster, Kiel. Dr. Nokk, President of the Ministry of Justice, Public Worship and Instruction, Karlsruhe. Prof. Dr. Wilhem Preyer, University of Berlin. Prof. Dr. Win. Rein, Pedagogical Seminary, Jena. Prof. Dr. Ludw. Sirflmpell, University of Leipzig. Prof. Dr. Stephan Waetzoldt, Imperial Royal Com- missioner of German Educational Exhibits, World's Columbian Exposition, Berlin. Prof. Dr. Weyrauch, Rector of Polytechnicum, Stuttgart. Prof. Dr. Wiener. Dir. Polytechnicum, Karlsruhe. Prof. Dr. Theo. Ziegler, University of Strassbnrg. LIST OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS. 13 GUATEMALA. Sefior G. E. Guzman, Director of General Statis- tics, Guatemala. HUNGARY. Prof. Imre, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Buda- pest. Prof. I. Pauer, Budapest. ITALY. Signor Qnintino Carrera, Director of the Public Library, Turin. Signor Fedele Lampertico, Member of the Superior ~ Council of Statistics, Vicenza. Sua Altezza la Principessa Strongoli, Naples. Signor Dr. Egisto Rossi, Rome. SPAIN. Senor Don Manuel Ruiz de Quevedo. President of the Association for the Instruction of Women, Madrid. Senor Don Federico de Botella, President of Royal Geographical Society, Madrid. Sefior Don Nunez de Arce, Madrid. Sefior Don Rufael Maria de Labra, Madrid. SWITZERLAND. Prof. F. Bluntschli, Architect, Zurich. URUGUAY. Sefior Dr. F. A. Berra, Montevideo. Sefior Honore Roustan, Director of General Statis- tisc, Montevideo. JAPAN. Mr. S. Tejima, Imperial Japanese Commissioner for the World's Columbian Exposition. Tokyo. Tsudji Shindji, Minister of Education, Tokyo. GREAT BRITAIN. UNITED STATES. ALABAMA. Col. N. II. R.Dawson, Ex-Commissioner of Bureau of Education, Selma. Miss Dorothea Beale, Cheltenham Ladies' College, London. Rev. Dr. Henry Boyd, Vice-Chancellor, Oxford. Prof. James Br.vce, Oxford University, Oxford. J. G. Fitch, Esq., London. Prof. Fr. Max M tiller, Oxford University, Oxford. Dr. T. J. Barnardo, Home for Destitute Children, London. Rev. Hugh Price Hughes, M.A., London. T. Scott Keltie, Assistant Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, London, W. C. Hon. A. J. Mundella, M.P., London. Sir Bernhard Samuelson, M.P., London. Swire Smith, Lowfield, Keighley, National Associa- tion for the Promotion of Technical and Sec- ondary Education. Hon. Lyulph Stanley, MP., London. Prof. Silvanua P. Thompson, London. IRELAND. Rt. Hon. Sir Patrick J. Keenan, Commissioner of National Education, Dublin. NETHERLANDS. Dr. P. F. Hubrecht, Secretary General of the Min- istry of the Interior, The Hague. NORWAY. Dr. D. F. Knudsen, Chief of the Department of Public Instruction, .Christiania. PORTUGAL. Dom Ignacio Fr. Silveira da Mota. Secretary-Gen- eral of Ministry of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs, Lisbon. RUSSIA. Monsieur L. de Dimseha, Professor agrege at- tached to the University of St. Petersburg, Delegate of the Ministry of Public Instruction at the World's Columbian Exposition, St. Petersburg. Monsieur Ergraff Kovalevsky, Delegate of the Min- istry of Public Instruction at the World's Columbian Exposition, St. Petersburg. Prince Serge Wolkonsky, Delegate of the Ministry of Public Instruction at the World's Colum- bian Exposition, St. Petersburg. CALIFORNIA. Hubert H. Bancroft, the Bancroft Library, San Francisco. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Prof. A. Graham Bell, Washington. Dr. J. L. M. Curry, Agent Peabody Fund, Wash- ington. Dr. E. M.Gallaudet, President National Deaf Mute College, Washington. Prof. G. Brown Goode, Director National Museum, Washington. Rt. Rev. John J. Keane, Rector Catholic Univer- sity of America, Washington. Edwin Willets, Department of Agriculture, Wash- ington. Bishop T. M. D. Ward, D.D., Washington. Dr. T. C. Mendenhall, Superintendent Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington. Prof. Alex. A. Oldrini, Washington. GEORGIA. Rt. Rev. A. Grant, A. M. E. Church, Atlanta. Rt. Rev. H. M. Turner, A. M. E. Church, Atlanta. ILLINOIS. Rt. Rev. J. L. Spalding, D.D.. Bishop of Peoria. Miss Frances E. Willard, Evanston. Mrs. H. N. Wilmarth, Chicago. Brother Maurelian, De La Salle Institute, Chicago. INDIANA. Hon. W.N. Hailmann, Superintendent of Schools, La Porte. IOWA. Dr. J. L. Pickard, LL.D., State University, Iowa City. KANSAS. Rt. Rev. J. A. Handy, A. M. E. Church, Kansas City. KENTUCKY. Judge Wm. Beckner, Winchester. MARYLAND. His Eminence Cardinal Gibbous, Baltimore. 14 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. MASSACHUSETTS. Edward Atkinson, Boston. George W. Cable, Northampton. Mrs. Ednah D. Cheney, Jamaica Plain, Boston. Hon. George F. Hoar, U. S. Senate, Washington, DC. Mrs. Mary A. Livermore, Melrose. Mrs. Mary Hemenway, Boston. Edwin D. Mead, Boston. MINNESOTA. His Grace John Ireland, Archbishop of Minnesota, St. Paul. NEBRASKA. Bishop J. P. Newman, Omaha. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Hon. H. W. Blair, Ex-Chairman Senate Committee on Education, Washington, D. C. NEW YORK. Rev. Lyman Abbott, Editor of " Christian Union," New York. Prof. Vincenzo Botta, Columbia College, New York. Dr. Hamilton W. Mabie, Office of the "Christian Union," New York. Dr. David Murray, New Brunswick. Hon. T. L. Morgan, New York. Hon. Hugh S. Thompson, New York. Dr. Anson J. Upson, Chancellor of University of the State of New York, Albany. OHIO. Hon. Vincent A. Taylor, House of Representatives, Washington, D. C. Rt. Rev. D. A. Payne, A. M. E. Church, Wilber- force. PENNSYLVANIA. Hon. D. B. Brnnner, House of Representatives, Washington, D. C. Dr. H. L. Wayland, Editor of the "National Bap- tist," Philadelphia. SOUTH CAROLINA. Rt. Rev, M. B. Salter, A. M. E. Church, Columbia. TENNESSEE. Hon. B. A. Enloe, Chairman of Committee on Edu- cation,House of Representatives, Washington, D. C. TEXAS. Rt. Rev. B. F. Lee, A. M. E. Church, Waco. VIRGINIA. Hon. George D. Wise, House of Representatives, Washington, D. C. WYOMING. Hon, J. M. Carey, Chairman of Senate Committee on Education, Washington, D. C. INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. THE GENERAL SESSIONS. SECRETARY'S REPORT. FIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS— 3 o'clock p.m.. July 25, 1893. The first general session of the International Congress of Education was held in the Hall of Columbus, in Memorial Art Palace, Chicago, at 3 o'clock p.m., Tuesday, July 25, 1893. It was called to order by Hon. Charles G. Bonney, President of the World's Congress Auxiliary. Rev. P. A. Noble, D.D., of Chicago, opened the meeting by prayer. President Bonney, of the World's Congress Auxiliary, gave an address of welcome. Among the eminent educators upon the platform there were present the following : General John Eaton, ex-Commissioner of Education, U. S. A. ; Dr. Stephen Waetzoldt, Professor in the University of Berlin ; Dr. Dittmar Finkler, Professor in the University of Bonn ; Dr. L. M. Torngren, Director of Royal Central Gymnastic Institute, Stock- holm ; Prof. L. Dimscha, St. Petersburg University, Russia ; Dr. Selim H. Peabody, Chief of Department of Liberal Arts, World's Fair ; Prince Serge Wolkonsky, Delegate of Bussian Ministry of Public Instruction ; Dr. Edwin Osterberg, Delegate from Sweden ; Dr. N. G. W. Lagerstedt, Delegate from Sweden ; "M. B. Buisson, Delegate from France ; Dr. G. W. Ross, Minister of Education, Ontario, Canada ; John Millar, B.A., Deputy Minister of Education, Ontario ; Dr. N. A. Calkins, Chairman Board of Trus- tees of National Educational Association, New York ; Prof. Irwin Shepard, Secretary National Educational Association, Winona, Minn. ; Dr. B. A. Hinsdale, Professor of the Science and Art of Teaching, University of Michigan ; Dr. James C. Mackenzie, Lawrenceville. N. J. ; Dr. E. Ribera, Professor of Institute de la Universidad, Valen- cia, Spain ; Dr. J. M.- Harper, Quebec; Dr. Paul Hoffman, Assistant Superintendent of New York City Schools ; William Jenkins, Superintendent of Illinois School Exhibit, Mendota, 111. ; Zalmon Richards, Washington, D. C. ; William A. Obenchain, Presi- dent of Ogden College, Bowling Green, Ky. The Rt. Rev. Samuel Fallows, Chairman of the General Committee of the Educa- tional Congress, gave additional words of welcome. Mrs. Charles Henrotin, Vice-President of the Woman's Branch of the World's Con- gress Auxiliary, gave further words of welcome ; Mrs. Henry M. Wilmarth, Chairman of the Woman's General Committee on the Educational Congress, followed. Dr. Selim H. Peabody, Chief of the Department of Liberal Arts, extended the welcome in behalf of the "White City" in Jackson Park, and invited the members to visit the Liberal Arts Building at 3 o'clock p.m., Thursday, July 27th. Hon. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, and chairman of the committee appointed by the National Educational Association to take special charge of the International Educational Congress, which opens this day, presented the Report of the Committee. 16 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Hon. Albert G. Lane, as Superintendent of Public Instruction for the City of Chicago, welcomed teachers to the city ; and as President of the National Educational Association introduced Dr. James B. Angell, of the University of Michigan, as Presi- dent of the General Sessions of this Congress. On taking the chair, President Angell expressed his thanks for the honor conferred on him, and, in behalf of the Congress, tendered appreciation and gratitude to those who had made such careful provision for these meetings. The following resolution, offered by President Lane, was unanimously adopted : Resolved, That as members of the National Educational Association, and of the Inter- national Congress of Education now assembled, we return our thanks to Dr. Selim H. Peabody, Chief of the Department of Liberal Arts, for his cordial invitation to visit the Exposition and the Educational Exhibit at 3 o'clock on Thursday afternoon next, and that we do hereby accept the same. President Angell then announced the appointment of Irwin Shepard, Secretary of the National Educational Association, as the General Secretary of the World's International Congress of Education, and that all secretaries and stenographers of the fifteen depart- ment congresses are requested to report to the General Secretary. The meeting then adjourned to 8 o'clock p.m., Tuesday, July 25th. EVENING SESSION-July 25th. The second general session of the International Congress of Education was held in the Hall of Columbus at 8 o'clock p.m., Tuesday, July 25th. The meeting was called to order by President Angell, who gave the first address of the evening. Addresses were also given by Prince Serge Wolkonsky, of Russia ; by M. B. Buisson, of France ; Hon. G. W. Boss, of Ontario, and by Dr. Stephen Waetzoldt, of Germany. This last address was delivered in German, and the manuscript was not furnished for publication. Owing to absence of Sir Truman Wood, Secretary of the Royal Commission of Great Britain, and also of M. Gabriel Compayre, of France, neither of their papers was presented. The meeting adjourned to meet Friday, July 28th, at 8 o'clock p.m. THIRD GENERAL SESSION. The closing meeting of the general sessions of the International Congress of Educa- tion was held in the Hall of Columbus at 8 o'clock p.m., Friday, July 28, 1893. The meeting was called to order by President Angell, who introduced Miss E. P. Hughes, Principal of the Cambridge Training College for Teachers. The subject of her paper was, " The Professional Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools." The Rt. Rev. John J. Keane, of Washington, D. O, addressed the Congress upon " The Relation between Educational Methods and Educational Ends." Prof. L. Dimscha, of St. Petersburg, Russia, gave an address on "Legal Education in the United States." M. Gabriel Compayre, President of the French Commission on Education, gave an address on "The Present Situation of Education in France." Dr. L. M. Torngren, of Stockholm, Sweden, spoke on the subject, "A Perfect Physical Education is indispensable in order to produce an Ideal Education." M. Ergraff Kovalevsky, Delegate of ihe Russian Ministry of Public Instruction, made a brief address. A paper by Dr. Alberto Gomez Ruano, of Uruguay, was read. Subject: "Joseph Peter Varela and the Progress of Education in Uruguay." Dr. Edward Osterberg, of Sweden, gave an address on "Training of Teachers in High Schools in Sweden." Closing remarks were made by President Angell, Dr. Harris, and C. G. Bonney. ADDRESSES OF WELCOME. ADDKESS BY CHAELES G. BONNET, PRESIDENT OF THE WORLD S CONGRESS AUXILIARY. Friends of Universal Education ; Educators of Many Lands : I bid you welcome to the International Congress of Education. The Special Educational Congresses which have occupied the past eight days are closed, and the International Congress of Education, in which the leading departments of education will have appropriate presentation, is about to open. That the eighty-six sessions of the fourteen congresses held in this building during the time specified have more than realized the expectations entertained in regard to them, is agreed by all whose opinions I have heard expressed. We have enjoyed a series of gratifying surprises in the attendance given, the interest manifested, and the high character of the proceedings. Most noteworthy has been the spirit of peace and progress which has reigned supreme. Distinguished educators from many countries have met together as old friends to consider common interests and aims. If the Special Congresses have been so satisfactory, what may we not expect from the International Congress of Education, in which all will take a part, with its fifteen separate department congresses, presenting a programme with forty-seven sessions ? The original announcement of the "World's Congresses of 1893, issued in September, 1889, included, among other subjects, " Educational systems, their advantages and their defects, and the means by which they may best be adapted to the enormous increase in all departments of knowl- edge." The educational systems of the past have been outgrown. This fact is so obvious that it needs neither argument nor illustration. Those systems were but local and temporary, and could not permanently endure. The old education had no place for those important departments which are the peculiar glory of the new. The kindergarten, manual and art training, technological instruction, business education, practical psychology, are new gifts to the educational world. Modern science is itself a new world, created within the memory of living men. In all of the old branches of learning there has been a wonderful increase of knowledge. There is now more of language and 2 18 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. literature ; more of natural science ; more of political and social science ; more of moral and intellectual science ; more of technological and con- structive science, and more of other important branches of knowledge, than can be mastered during the school years. What can be done to meet this emergency ? The cruelty of cramming has been tried and abandoned as worse than utterly useless. The liberty of election has been enlarged and reenlargcd without fully satisfactory results. But the difficulty not only remains ; it increases. We cannot meet it by suppressing knowledge ; we must endea- vor to do so by enlarging the means and improving the system of education. The old curriculum was a pamphlet ; the new curriculum is a volume, growing larger from year to year. While the learned world ponders the new educational problems and seeks a means of their solution, a new and tremendous influence enters the field and asks attention. It is the spirit of the new age, demanding inter- national fraternity and cooperation in every department of civilized life. The institutions of learning have more than willingly responded to this call, and have manifested a desire to accede to it so far as sound reason may lead the way. A true and enduring educational system must have its national and international as well as its local relations. The time has come to discriminate the universal from the particular, the requirements of all from the needs of the few, and form an educational system in which those discriminations will be preserved. The programmes of the Educational Congresses held during the past eight days, and those which are now to follow, show that the elements of a true educational system are at last at command. To some extent, the characteristics of the new education may already be discerned. (1) While in the primary schools the kindergarten and the first rudi- ments of manual and art training will lay the foundation for future culture, the instruction will, for the most part, be limited to such knowl- edge as is universally necessary for intelligent human relations. In a word, the instruction imperatively demanded for the eveiy-day needs of all classes will be the chief object of the primary schools. (2) In the secondary schools will be given a knowledge of the existence and nature of all the sciences, arts, and callings, so far as may be necessary to enable the learner to select those in which he will be most likely to find his appropriate life-work. The learner must know that there is such a science as chemistry, such an art as engineering, and their general nature and scope, to enable him to decide whether in either of them, or in some other pursuit, he will be likely to be most serviceable to himself and his fellow-men. (3) In the higher institutions of learning will naturally be given that thorough and prolonged culture in a carefully selected course of study, chosen with reference to a proposed life-occupation ; that careful and ADDRESS LS OF WELCOME. 19 efficient training and discipline which will qualify the student for the best discharge of the duties of that occupation. (4) In the professional and technological schools there will be given both a theoretical and a practical training for the particular requirements and duties of a selected calling, such as law, medicine, engineering, agricul- ture, or any other. Thus may be secured, in a rational order, that general knowledge which intelligent persons in all countries should possess ; that mental culture and discipline of the brain which correspond to the skill and accuracy of the artisan's accomplished hand, and that special and ade- quate preparation required for the successful pursuit of a special calling. Among the signs of the times which distinguish the new education from the old, a few may be briefly noticed. First in order and importance I name the kindergarten, which for the first time in the whole history of the race actually established in the world the great idea that the schoolroom can and should be made a place of delight, and that a love of learning is vital to its attainment. Next may be mentioned the training of the hand to perform what the mind has been taught to conceive and plan, thus providing against that "pathetic helplessness" sometimes found in very learned men. Another important sign of substantial progress is in the introduction of practical psychology, to give both teacher and student that knowledge of the mind, its constitution, faculties, and operations, without which serious errors cannot be avoided. Equally important is the idea, now well established, that the farmer, the manufacturer, the merchant, or other business man, needs a thorough education for his calling quite as much as do the professional classes for theirs. Modern experience has abundantly shown that a farm abandoned by ignorant incompetence as worn out and worthless can be made to blossom like the rose under an application of intelligent skill and scientific knowledge such as the higher institutions of learning impart. Of vast importance and significance is the new movement of colleges and universities, under the name of University Extension, to ally them- selves with the people. That alliance will prove of inestimable value to both. In the highest sense, there is but one education, of which all schools and all instruction should form appropriate parts. If one cannot be a master of philology, or astronomy, or geology, or architecture, or engineering, it should, nevertheless, be his privilege to know enough of each to follow with pleasure and with benefit the achievements of its leaders. In the new education we shall miss many things with which we have been familiar in the old. Among them will be the incredible folly of 20 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. attempting to eradicate the natural differences of mental endowment, and to reduce all to the dead level of the average attainments. We shall miss the barbaric system of rewards and punishments, under which the most heroic efforts to overcome natural deficiencies were visited with humiliation, while merely natural gifts, without merit in their appli- cation, were conspicuously rewarded. The new education will endure, because it will rest upon correct and eternal principles ; because it will be supported by an enlightened public opinion, and by the settled public policy of the enlightened nations of the world. The basis of this public policy is the truth that the true wealth of nations is in their men ; and that as a mere matter of self-interest they must provide for all, even the humblest, enough education to stimu- late the development of latent genius. The new education, extended as it will be throughout the world, will do as much as, if not more than, any other agency to promote the unity and peace of mankind. For by education we mean not merely the training of the intellect ; we mean also the culture of the heart and the hand. The golden circle of education embraces not only literature, science, and art, but it includes as well the whole broad domain of virtue, morals, and religion. In conclusion, I extend to this World's Educational Congress my highest wishes for its success in every department, with many regrets that the arrangements for the congresses to be held during the month of August will prevent me from attending the sessions, in the proceedings of which I shall nevertheless feel a profound interest. ADDRESS BY THE RT. REV. SAMUEL FALLOWS, CHAIRMAN OF GENERAL COMMITTEE ON EDUCATIONAL CONGRESSES. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : We have been doing a little skir- mishing the past few days preparatory to bringing on the general educa- tional engagement. The light artillery has been doing its duty, and we shall very soon hear from the heavy guns. I can only hope that we may go on in the good way in which we have begun, and that this International Educational Congress, under the auspices of that grand National Educa- tional Association, may end in the spirit in which the Congress of Educa- tion has begun. Mr. Bonney in his excellent address has referred to the old and the new in education. I am a very firm believer in the old as well as in the new. Mr. Ruskin somewhere said that respect for antiquity is the salvation of art. I can say that respect for antiquity is the salvation of truth itself, and respect for antiquity must always be in the mind and heart of the enlightened educator. I think if our old friend Socrates were ADDRESSES OF WELCOME. 21 here to-day in this gathering, which represents the very culmination of all the educational gatherings of the world, he would not find himself out of place. I think if he were to restate some of the things which he used to state, we should find that they would be the things which we insist upon as belonging par excellence to the new education. I think we should learn something from him about the value of object lessons ; I think we should learn something about the power of the personality of the teacher. I think we should learn something of the way in which specific characters are to be specifically treated. And if we could bring a Plato on the one side and a Xenophon on the other, a man of the deepest and the highest philosophy, and a man having the most intensely practical interests in the affairs of life — if we could bring corresponding specimens of our new education as a result, just as he brought forth the result of the old education, we should be very well satisfied. Now I bid you welcome on behalf of Chicago. We in our struggle to gain the supremacy among the cities of the United States have been put- ting victory on the run and keeping fame out of breath ; but we are not here to boast of our numbers, our increasing miles of streets, our office buildings that are climbing up higher and higher toward the sky until the city council has said they shall not climb any higher ; but we have the right, I think, to boast of our public schools in spite of some little criticism which has been made upon them. In the other room corresponding to this we were told a day or two ago that we had sixty thousand children in this city who could find no seats in the rooms of our public schools. Why is this ? Simply because the people from every part of the globe have been crowding in upon us, and we have not been able to overtake the needs and necessities of our common-school children. But I pledge you on behalf of this great city of Chicago, that just as soon as possible we will have the amplest provision for every child within our limits ; and if they are not able to go to school because not sufficiently or properly clad, they will be taken care of in that respect. We are glad this congress is to be held in our city, so that our instructors may find their hands strengthened and the purposes of their hearts con- firmed to make the school system of the city of Chicago second to none in the world. Just one thought about the old, and I close. Glorious John Milton said that prose was his left hand, but I submit to you that the most emi- nent modern educator never wrote with the cunning right hand a truer meaning of education than John Milton wrote in the seventeenth century: "I count that a complete and generous education which fits a man to per- form skilfully, justly, and magnanimously all the offices, both public and private, of peace and war." Who can surpass that definition of education ? All the papers which are to be read at this congress, and all the discussions had upon them, will simply elucidate this idea. I know that the results 22 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. of this congress will be to throw a flood of light upon this subject, and the old and the new will be bound together as they never have been in the past in the education and' lighting up of the moral powers of the child that is placed within our limits. ADDRESS BY MRS. CHARLES HENROTIN, VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE WOMAN'S BRANCH OF THE WORLD'S CONGRESS AUXILIARY. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : The president of the Auxiliary, in his excellent address, to my mind did not mention the greatest factor in the new education. I see by the smiles on the faces of my sisters that they have divined what it is. That is the entrance of woman into the educational arena. She is found as the link between the child and the university, stretching out her hand, it is true, for the cap and the gown, but holding tight with the other hand the little child in the nursery. To my mind the entrance of woman means practicality in education. The kin- dergarten is here to stay with ber. Manual training, sanitary conditions of schools are here, and while the universities will still flourish, the kinder- garten will be all over the land. As I have spoken of woman's practical influence, I shall confine myself for my part to two practical suggestions. One is that you visit and care- fully study those wonderful educational exhibits at Jackson Park. We as a composite race can there see what is so essential to the development of our schools — England with her exact classical education, France so beau- tifully generous, always to art, and Germany Avith her scientific and tech- nical training. It is invidious really to mention any, they have all been so splendidly generous toward us. The study of them will help us greatly, because we need not only thought, but the thought of all nations, for our harmonious and right development. . Then another practical thought. In attending all these sessions I have been impressed with the cry of each one that there is no standard of edu- cation to start from. Uniformity is a word tremendously abused in the past ; but in all humility, to such an assembly as this I submit this suggestion, that the National Educational Association shall endeavor to establish in each city, whether under the State or the government, a Bureau of Education, in which every person who aspires to teach, whether in the private school or public school, shall obtain a license. That is the system adopted in France with splendid results, and I think if it were once inau- gurated in our land it would give us a firmer basis on which to establish the newer education. And I will tell you for Chicago that you can say here just what you please. We have no prejudices to be shocked. In fact, we are very much like Athens of old, eager to see and hear always some new thing. (Applause.) ADDRESSES OF WELCOME. 23 ADDRESS BY MRS. HENRY M. WILMARTH, CHAIRMAN OF THE WOMAN'S GENERAL COMMITTEE ON THE EDUCATIONAL CONGRESSES. Ladies and Gentlemen : The state has no more important function than to care for the education of its children. What the result of this educa- tion should be is matter of general agreement : that it should train the individual to reasonable thinking and adequate expression, to right esti- mate of values and to wise choices, to habits of right thinking and of right doing. The debatable ground, then, is only one of methods. For the ascertainment of these methods and what is best in them, the United States has had for more than thirty years a most able advisory counsel in the corporate body of this National Educational Association. This body, while neither executive nor administrative, and perhaps, therefore, the broader in its deliberations, and the firmer, has yet maintained its relation with the government, with the States, and with the cities, by including in its membership officially the representative heads of the government. And this Association has carefully provided on all points against excess and defect. In every department of education the National Association has had its representatives. The International Congress of 1893 could have no happier fortune than being able to secure the alliance of this body, and it has no greater gift to offer to the nations of the earth than the results of its deliberations. ADDRESS BY DR. urse — had a foundation in which Latin, looked at from the point of new of immediate utility, was required. Far better, then, the reasonable multiplication of degrees to meet new conditions, if they exist, than the confusing of the meaning of a degree long established. On the affirmative side of the question, on the other hand, the argu- ments seem to me not to admit of so easy an answer. The most import- ant are as follows : (1) First, there is the old argument of meum and tuum. It is on this argument that the whole question really turns. People must not be impatient with us of the older faith. Hackneyed as the argument is, we cannot turn aside from it. The Decalogue is not novel, but we have not outgrown the need of it, and we certainly are by no means yet in a condi- 124 INTERNATIONAL CON Gil ESS OF EDUCATION. Hon to dispense with that particular article which deals with the question of the rights of property. The degree of Bachelor of Arts has for cer- tainly four centuries carried with it certain associations. It has meant an education essentially founded upon the conception of humanistic culture — of a knowledge of the hest that has been thought and said in the world upon the subject of the most interesting of the world's products, man himself. If there are people like myself who, though not conscious of a conservative turn of mind, believe that this humanistic training — enriched, as I have shown it to have been, by the addition of some training in natural science — is, for a good many persons, the best training, then, no matter how old-fashioned and simple-minded we may be, our degree, with the associations which centuries of our way of thinking have woven around it, should be left to us. If a foundation which omits that which is most characteristic of our degree, and replaces it by some of the new studies, is better than the foundation which we believe in, then its advocates should be proud that it should bear the name of these new studies. Not to do this — to demand the use of a degree because of its associations, when, in the very nature of things, the new course would inevitably create different associations — seems to me not merely a plain invasion of vested rights, but a palpable confusion of logic. If the case were reversed, if the dominant studies had for centuries been in natural science, with a corresponding degree of Bachelor of Science, I can hardly imagine that, upon the rise of a demand for a training with a foundation primarily humanistic, people of my way of thinking would insist that we be allowed to use the degree of Bachelor of Scieuce, because of its centuries of associations of a differ- ent kind. And this I say, even though there would be some justification of such a demand in the fact that all work in language, so far as it falls within the domain of science, is carried on by scientific methods, and that too large a proportion of us professors of languages are, in our own investigation and publication, men of science, and not men of the humanistics. (2) The granting of the degree of Bachelor of Arts without Greek leads to a very serious injury to many men. Harvard and Johns Hopkins, in giving up the requirement of Greek for that degree, did not intend that men should be forced not to take Greek, but only that men should not be forced to take it. Yet the inevitable, no matter how illogical, result of this action has been, for young men in countless high-schools in this country, precisely this, that, under the conditions of their life, they can- not get Greek at all. Greek has gone out of many schools on the ground that it was useless to continue to provide instruction in a subject which two great universities no longer regarded as necessary for the degree of Bachelor of Arts ; and it has also, for the same reason, stayed out of many schools into which it would otherwise in time have entered. Far better would it be, to my miud, to run the risk that some men who might GREEK FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS. 125 afterward prove to have no natural aptitude for Greek should spend a part of their time for two or three years upon a subject which, at the worst, would necessarily give them help in the use of their own tongue and in the understanding and devising of scientific nomenclature, and which would not be without value in forming habits of exact observation and logical inference. Now I regard an injury done to the study of Greek as an injury inflicted upon the one side of education which our American public, eagerly engaged in commerce and industries, is most likely to disregard, and upon the one side of education of which, without knowing it, it is really most in need. There is no danger that the sciences will not be vigorously pursued in America, at least to the very considerable extent to which their practical applications make it profitable to pursue them. There is, on the other hand, a very natural danger, due to our youth as a nation, and to the immense opportunities which our undeveloped resources afford, that the pursuit of studies more remotely practical will be regarded as a waste of time. Yet the thing which we most need is, not greater opportunities to make wealth, but a higher regard for the things which Greek civilization represents, and which the study of Greek liter- ature and Greek life conveys. We need, in our triumphant Americanism, a good deal more of Hellenism. For a great many men, as I myself believe, the one thing that is best worth knowing well, alongside of our own literature, is Greek literature, and the one spirit best worth compre- hending intimately is the Greek spirit. My own conclusion, then, is that, among excellent examples set us by Harvard University, of whose service to American education I, as one of her sons, am justly and deeply proud, and among excellent examples set us by Johns Hopkins University, to whose guiding spirits American education owes a great debt, the example of granting the degree of Bachelor of Arts without Greek is not to he reckoned. TELEGRAMS. I would retain Greek as requisite to the Bachelor of Arts degree. C. A. Young, Professor of Astronomy in Princeton University. Cite me for Greek in A.B. degree. A. C. Merriam, Professor of Greek in Columbia College, New York City. Greek has too many and great educational values to be sacrificed. The degree of .A., usually presupposing Greek, has a history, definite meaning, and commercial ralue that should not be needlessly disturbed. Other degrees, existing or easily made, lould be given for curricula without Greek. Tracy Peck, Professor of Latin in Tale University. 126 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. LETTERS. As I shall not be able to be in Chicago this summer, I must miss not only the Colum- bian Exposition, but also seeing and hearing you. 1 don't know how much you care about A, B, and C's view on the question of requiring Greek for the A.B. degree, but 1 shall feel a little easier if I tell you why I still favor such requirement. I can do it very briefly. It seems to me that Greek history, literature, art, and language still stand far enough outside of and away from our modern languages, literatures, and arts to furnish to the mind which busies itself with them that essential feature of culture, viz. : dnodjjtua. I grant that Latin and the modern languages and literatures do this to a far greater extent now than they could do it in the times of the Renascence and of Isaac Casaubon. But only Greek can do this, and is worthy to do this, supremely. The modern languages and literatures are still too near us, too closely associated with our own, too identical with our own in countless molding influences. The Latin can do it, and can do it better now than when Greek first gave Europe its new intellectual birth. But the Latin cannot do it supremely well, because it is too closely woven into the web of our scholastic and literary and intellectual life. The Latinist is not remote enough from the Germanist. And, besides all that, my instinct as a Quellenforscher drives me to the Greek because it is the great Quelle, as well as because it is a supremely good Qiielle. Whatever else I might say or write on this subject would be hardly more than an amplification of this line of argument, and I suppose that even at Chicago in this culminating time, verb, will be sat. sap. B. Perrin, Professor of Greek in Yale University. The argument for requiring the study of Greek for the degree of Bachelor of Arts is with me a brief one, because it comes of my personal experience. The Greek I learned in college has been of immense service to me in my scientific work. I look upon the study of Greek as of far greater importance to the student in science than to those of any of the other professions except the theological. His scien- tific text-books, and all collateral works that he may study, are full of words of Greek origin, and such words are multiplying with every new advance of science. Greek is really of more importance in this respect than Latin, but Latin is essential, not only for its general contributions to our language, but also because Greek words are usually put into a Latin dress for introduction into English. By the study of Greek I do not mean study according to the most approved of modern methods, but with less of the refinements of grammar and more of English etymology. I would have each lesson in the translation of Greek a lesson also in the derivation of English words. This could be easily accomplished by requiring at the recitation the stating of the derivations — the more the better — from the roots of words, not compound, that may occur in the passages translated, the student finding them by the use of his dictionaries ; and also by asking for an explanation of the present meanings of the words, consequent on their derivation. By this method of instruction the study of Greek and English would go on together, and in a way that would be profitable to any student, whatever his future profession. Whether the candidate could acquire under this method sufficient Greek before entering college for a degree of Bachelor of Arts I do not undertake to say. He would certainly know more than many college graduates under the existing method, for I have found lamentable ignorance in my geological class as to derivations, even of words that ought to be familiar. GREEK FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS. 127 My conclusion is that Greek ought to be required for the degree of Bachelor of Arts The degree of Bachelor of Science is sufficient for the student that does not make his foundation broad. Yours sincerely, James D. Dana, Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in Yale University. . . . I cannot, therefore, write at length, although I am ready enough to say that I am in favor of the requirement of Greek in the A.B. course. My reasons are partly traditional and partly based upon the intrinsic value of the Greek language and literature. The A.B. course is either for men intending to enter the learned professions, in which case there can be no question of the need of Greek, or for those who intend to enter upon business, etc. In the latter case the value of a literary culture seems to me equally great, and if the foundations for it are not laid in college they never will be. After all, the great argument in my mind for both Greek and Latin is the value of the literary tradition and the great importance of its continuity. If we gradually cut off the Greek and Roman world we shall suffer in all sorts of ways, and shall fail to hand on to successive generations the sum of the culture behind them. Yours sincerely, T. F. Crane, Professor of Romance Languages in Cornell University. I am most decidedly in favor of requiring both Greek and Latin for the degree of A.B. Whatever the aim in life, we all agree that a sound preparatory education is the best means to the end. The first demand we make of such an education is that it give command of our mother tongue and the power to enrich it in the line of our special studies. It is not only facility, accuracy, and elegance in the use of English as it stands today, but also ability to enlarge and improve our stock of words that must be consid- ered. This ability to create presupposes a knowledge of the sources, and the sources for the scientist are limited to Greek and Latin. In the biological sciences these languages are in everyday use, as our whole termin- ology is borrowed directly from them, and every addition comes from the same sources. This is, in brief, the ground for my opinion. Of course there are many others which I do not forget, but which I need not here refer to. Sincerely yours, C. O. Whitman, Professor of Biology in the University of Chicago, The degree of A.B. seems to me to mark a man as possessing a certain kind of education, which may not be the best education for the ordinary bright boy who has the best chances in life, but which is at least definite in its method, and has been held so for centuries. Circumstances have changed greatly in the last century. The study of the classics is no longer of paramount importance. Other sciences must and should be pursued. For many men the study of the modern languages is more important than that of the ancient. But even if the culture afforded by the study of the modern classics is better than that afforded by the ancients, it is not the same. 1 believe, then, that students who have not studied Greek should not receive the degree of A. B. The advocates of the modern culture, if that is superior to the old, should not seek the degree of A.B for their followers, but should rather prefer another degree, that the two classes might not be confused, but that the holders of the new degree might receive the higher honor. 128 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. This is not the time to discuss the special merits of the different systems, but I cannot see why each should not receive its own degree and its own honor. Sincerely yours, T. D. Seymour, Professor of Greek in Tale University. It seems to me that the degree of Bachelor of Arts is stripped of its meaning if it is given without Greek. Historically it can mean only that. We have taken the term from English universities, in which "arts" always includes Latin and Greek. My second reason for keeping the degree of A.B. to designate the classical course is that other courses of study have their appropriate designation, such as B.S., B.L., Ph.B. Or, if putting it in that way is begging the question, it is desirable, it seems to me, to make some discrimination between the degree conferred for studies that are scientific, semi-technical, and general, and that conferred for studies that are pursued more for discipline and culture. Reduce the number of degrees to two, if you like, but let the degree of A.B. stand, as it always has, for the education that is pursued for its own sake — in which Greek is the essential factor. My third reason for giving the degree in arts only to those who have taken Greek is a prudential one. In this land and this age, Greek has to contend against much prejudice. Now, if the A.B. degree has any prestige or value as a degree over other Bachelor's degrees, is it not in the interest of good education to give this premium, so to say, to the classical course ? With those who would make Greek simply a luxury in education, or a professional study, this reason would have no weight, nor would any other reason. Very truly yours, M. L. D'Ooge, Professor of Greek in the University of Michigan. I have always been of the opinion that Greek is an essential feature of the A.B. course, for the reason that the A.B. degree, in distinction perhaps from the B.S., represents to me culture rather than mere knowledge. And I do not see how culture can be acquired without Greek. The Greeks were the first to have a clear perception of what is meant by a solid, well-rounded, spiritual development. They knew far less than we now know, but it may be doubted if our faculties are as well trained. In my case, I freely admit that I can remember nothing that so quickened my mind in college as the ail-too imperfect rubbing up against Greek literary method. It is a kind of training that I don't believe any modern literature, not even our own at its best, can give with quite the same delicate and firm touch. The ineffaceable stamp of Greek art is upon all that the race produced. Besides, there is a practical value which is fully as great as any mere theoretical training. It is this : All, or nearly all, modern thought and modern form have been influenced by Greek, either at first or second hand. The modern literatures that I know best are German and English. Now, I do not know how to interpret the great Englishmen and Germans without reference to Greek. In German, Goethe and Schiller are permeated with Greek methods and principles. Lessing's " Laocoon " and " Drama- turgic " (his most valuable writings in my eyes) are Greek through and through. In English, how many of our best poets and prose writers have been influenced by Greek models! Tennyson was a life-long reader of Greek; his "Idylls" are full of remi- niscences of Theocritus and the dramatists ; his isometric song is a direct imitation of Theocritus. Browning is also Greek in culture, although, perhaps, in a less degree. Shelley is out-and-out Greek in his sympathies. So is Coleridge. So, perhaps, Words- worth. Keats tried his best to become a Greek. As to the Elizabethan-Stuart period, that whole literature is the avowed offspring of the Greco-Latin renascence. What is GREEK FOR TEE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS. 129 one to do with Milton, for instance ? Even Shakespeare, so original in many respects, is best appreciated by one who approaches him from the Greek point of view. This is abundantly proved by Mr. Moulton's book. The only section of our literature that tried to cut loose from Greek methods was the Pope-Goldsmith school, and that is precisely the least poetical, least imaginative section of the great whole. After all, is not the permanence, the immanence, of Greek thought and method and form a fact in our life ? Can it be argued away ? Is it not wiser and honester to admit it frankly, and make the best of it ? I am no fanatic. I grant you that a plowman, like Robert Burns, may rise to the front rank of lyric poetry without a scrap of Greek. But Robert Burnses do not abound. They are sporadic. The great mass of Literary men for centuries have been molded by Greek influences. And if our colleges and universities are to expound our Anglo-American literature, to give the why and wherefore of literary movement, they must postulate Greek. At least that is my view and my experience. More than once I have tried to dodge, or at least tried to help a pupil dodge, the Greek postulate. But it has always been a failure. My own knowledge of Greek is anything but satisfactory. It has grown spmewhat musty with time. But poor as it is, I could not possibly afford to part with it. It keeps up my sense of form and mental sanity. It exorcises fads and fopperies. And fads and fopperies are our besetting danger. Yours, as ever, J. M. Hart, Professor of Rhetoric and English Philology in Cornell University. December 21, 1893. My dear Sir : I have to acknowledge the receipt of your favor of the 18th inst., in which you call my attention to the exact point raised in what I may call "the Greek discussion " in its present phase. It is whether the degree of Bachelor of Arts should be given to candidates for that degree who have received no elementary training in Greek. You add that this point I did not argue in my "College Fetich," and ask me to write a short statement of my opinion upon it. ♦ In its present common acceptance, as I understand it, the degree of A.B., as it is called, implies that the person receiving it has acquired a certain degree of proficiency in the classic tongues, especially Greek ; that is, he is one who has approached what I believe is respectfully, though somewhat pompously, known as the arcanum, by the classic path. Would it be offensive, and do you think I should use too strong language, if I should say that this venerable theory is to-day little else than a fraud, not to say a falsehood ? Also, should I express myself with an undue lack of reverence if I asked you whether you think it altogether proper for our leading seats of learning to lend themselves to fraud, if not falsehood ? Yet, on the other hand, can any person connected with those institutions truthfully assert that the amount of classic learning now achieved by at least seventy-five per cent., if not more, of those on whom the degree of Bachelor of Arts is annually conferred, amounts to any knowledge worthy of the name of either Greek or Latin ? Is it not the " little Latin and less Greek" of Ben Jonson ? However it may have been in the more or less remote past, 1 think you will agree with me that there is not one institution of academic learning in the United States to-day, twenty-five per cent, of whose graduates — and I have put the figure, I think, very high — can. when the degree of Bachelor of Arts is conferred upon them, read at sight one line of ordinary Greek, or a paragraph of simple Latin. If I am wrong in this estimate. I shall be glad to be corrected. Now, for reasons which I am unable fully to account for, as I have grown in years, and approached what is pleasantly designated as " the afternoon of life," I find myself 130 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. filled with a greater and greater dislike of what, for want of a better term, and again not speaking offensively, I will call cant. If the leading institutions of learning in this country, including Harvard, Yale, and other universities, were careful, in conferring the degree of Bachelor of Arts upon their graduates, to ascertain by proper examination that that degree was never conferred upon any one who did not have an adequate knowledge of the path through which it is alleged he has reached his right to that degree, I should have the utmost respect for the degree, as well for the institutions which confer it ; but when, as I have every reason to believe, that degree simply lends itself to a falsehood, I find it difficult to speak of it with that respect which should be its due. If those who advocate thus conferring the degree of Bachelor of Arts are prepared to come forward and assert that the degree is now habitually conferred upon those only who have made themselves reasonably proficient in classic literature, I shall agree that there is sense and reason in the limitation under which it is supposed to be given. Until they do, I consider the burden of proof is not on me, but upon them, to show that they and the universities are not lending themselves to what is at best an innocuous fraud, and innocuous because generally understood. In fact, a harmless tradition, except for the false and injurious training it involves. I do not think it too much to ask of those upon whom a degree is conferred that they should be fairly acquainted with the elementary principles of the learning in regard to which the degree in question is their certificate of proficiency. Neither do I consider that the ability to read at sight the more simple books of either of the so-called classic languages constitutes an undue amount of elementary acquaintance with them. How many of our institutions of learning would care to subject the large classes of students upon whom they annually confer the degree in question to the test I have indi- cated ? And what would be the result of so doing ? I remain, etc., Charles Francis Adams, of Boston, Mass. Mr. Adams brings forward an argument not produced or foreseen at the July meeting. I have therefore asked and obtained his permission to attempt an estimate of its value. Let me, at the outset, call attention to the fact that the question is not whether young people should continue to be forced to study Greek or go without a college education, but whether, if they do not study Greek, they should, nevertheless, demand the same degree. (1) The principal aim of the study of classics has been, and is, to acquaint the stu- dent at first hand with a literary art which is of the highest kind, and which stands in the most vital relation to the great literary art of our own language and of its sisters, and so to establish in his mental constitution a standard of expression at once vigorous and sane ; to give him a direct outlook upon the thought and feeling of two epochs in the history of man which are of immense interest in themselves, and which stand in the most vital connection with the thought and feeling of our own time, and so to forestall mental narrowness ; to give him, on the purely formal side, a clear understanding of that manifestation of the human mind which we call language, an understanding best got from the study of a highly developed inflected tongue ; and to train him to face difficulties in his own thought, and in the interpretation of the thought of others, and so to establish habits of insistent clearness of vision and rigor of inference. If the study is carried only a short distance, the results are proportionately small. But so are they in the study of modern languages, or mathematics, or natural science. If the teaching is mechanical, the results are bad. But so also are the results of mechanical teaching in natural science, or mathematics, or modern languages. As to the acquisition of the power of reading Greek and Latin at sight, desirable as it GREEK FOR TEE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS. 131 is, and ardently as many of us have labored to have it made an aim in all preparatory and college work, the aim was not inherited by us from the generation before us, in whose time the significance of the degree of Bachelor of Arts was undisputed ; nor has the possession of the power been announced in college catalogues of this generation as a condition for the granting of the degree. There have been no claims, and there is no fraud. Mr. Adams' phrase, "generally understood," is a commentary upon his argument. (2) In the second place, it should be said that the picture which Mr. Adams has drawn of the actual state of things is much too dark. In a respectable and constantly increasing number of our universities, translation at sight forms a part of the test applied at entrance, while at Harvard and Chicago the admission examinations in the languages are wholly at sight. Much is also accomplished after admission. It is my opinion that a considerably larger proportion than one to three of the Bachelors of Arts of the colleges whose standards of admission and graduation Mr. Adams would select as worth founding an argument upon, are competent, on the day of graduation, not merely to "read at sight one line of ordinary Greek or a paragraph of simple Latin," but to take such a book as " Xenophon's Hellenica," or an essay or oration of Cicero, and make a good deal out of continuous pages. (3) Let us, however, suppose that our colleges did have the requirement that their Bachelors of Arts should be able to read Greek and Latin of moderate difficulty at sight, and that not more than one man in four were, in fact, competent to do it. What then ? The conclusion which I should myself draw would be, " We must endeavor to correct our failure to reach an ideal commensurate with our degree." Mr. Adams' conclusion, " Therefore we will confiscate your degree," seems to me a somewhat less reasonable one. If there existed a degree of Bachelor of Natural Science and Mathematics, or something which had been understood to have this meaning, and three-quarters of the graduates of the better colleges fell short of an avowed ideal, it would not seem to me right that a new course, founded principally upon modern languages, should demand to have the degree of Bachelor of Natural Science and Mathematics, or its synonyme, conferred upon its graduates, even if they were able to read French and German at sight very rapidly indeed. But a definite test of the validity of Mr. Adams' argument may easily be had. If all the new-fledged A. B.'s of our better universities were to be set in June next to write the entrance examination papers in mathematics one day, and in Latin the next, there is no question that they would do better on the second day. But does it follow that mathematics, which, though not the more characteristic, is yet an essential part of the work associated with the degree of Bachelor of Arts, should be dropped from the require- ments for that degree ? The fact is simply that Mr. Adams has turned against one group of subjects an argu- ment from the imperfect results of education which could equally well be turned against any other study. His letter, nevertheless, seems to me in several ways to be of great value : First, as showing in the phrase, "the false and injurious training which it involves," a misconception of what is actually accomplished by classical training in the better col- leges, and a somewhat non-judicial attitude of mind toward the whole problem. The view more commonly urged is, not that classical training is injurious, but that there are other trainings which are equally good, and at the same time more practical. Second, as marking the discovery of a new " college fetich." The Greek one has been exposed and broken up. Now Latin has been found out, and must go. But the old degree, which, though founded on associations with this "injurious training," is very good, must stay. Harvard, for example, evidently ought to give the degree of Bachelor of Arts with neither Greek nor Latin. I have never been able to take the " Stanford 132 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. idea " quite seriously, but it would seem to be intrenched even to the eastward of Harvard University. Third, as enforcing the old argument, the principal one of my paper, of meum and tuum. The degree of A. B. , as Mr. Adams himself understands it, " implies that the person receiv- ing it has acquired a certain degree of proficiency in the classic tongues, especially Greek." Mr. Adams, in the "afternoon of the day" — a long and sunny afternoon, let us hope — dislikes cant. I also, though perhaps only at the meridian, am of his mind on this point. But, as the sun begins to go down, I deprecate intellectual narrowness and the untempered mind almost as much as I do cant. In this age of alarms, the ideally edu- cated man of the future threatens to be blind either of his humanistic eye or of his sci- entific ; or, if he is humanistic of both eyes, to be near-sighted. May my sun set before it shines upon a world so unsympathetic . William Gardner Hale, Professor of Latin in the University of Chicago. I do not in the least believe that a knowledge of Greek should be required for the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The argument for its retention is entirely different from that for the retention of Latin. There are other grounds for entertaining the view I do than the one I am about to state, which is that the change is desirable for the sake of Greek itself. As a voluntary study it would be pursued more enthusiastically, and carried infinitely further than is possible under present conditions. There is no more depressing sight than the one now commonly seen, of a body of men interested in that particular language and literature, and eager to make the most of their opportunities, perpetually held back by another body of men associated with them, who care nothing for the subject, if they do not actually hate it. Such a state of things can only be defended on the ground that a knowledge of Greek is somehow essential to a liberal edu- cation, and, that, if one cannot get the reality, one must at least make a pretense. Of all shams, I believe the least in any sham that dubs itself liberal education, which, it sometimes seems to me, must have received its name from the illiberality of the ideas exhibited by men who are supposed to possess it. Whatever may have been true of the past, I have heard but one argument for the retention of Greek as a required study in the present, which struck me as possessing any real weight, and even that does not seem to me very important. This is, that if once made an optional study, it would soon cease to be pursued at all, or pursued by so few that it would come to be considered of no account. If this were true, it would be a most damaging imputation upon the value of the subject. A branch of learning which needs to be maintained by artificial aids had better be dropped. Its disappearance would show that it is entirely unsuited to the requirements of modern life. But I do not believe for a moment that any such result would follow. I believe thoroughly in Greek, and am perfectly confident that the loss in the number knowing it would be immeasurably over- balanced by the enthusiasm and proficiency of those who set out to know it. A lan- guage which has been the vehicle of one of the noblest literatures of the world will always attract to its study the highest class of minds which are interested in literature itself. It will require no artificial stimulus to arouse the attention of such men to its interest and importance ; and it itself will be relieved from the odium under which it now suffers in consequence of its being forced upon those who are not interested and cannot be made to be interested in it, though they may be able, and may turn out emi- nently successful in other departments. It is because I believe in Greek that I want it reserved for those who need it most and will get most from it. Very truly, T. R. Lounsbury, Professor of English in the Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University. GREEK FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS. 133 The degree of Bachelor of Arts as now awarded by our universities and colleges is understood to give proof that the recipient has completed, in a manner satisfactory to his preceptors, a college course which includes Greek language and literature. But to a considerable proportion of our young people this course is not the best, and in selecting their college studies they substitute for the Greek such as they believe will be more directly and immediately beneficial in their after life as they plan it. But their college course, if satisfactorily completed, ought to result in intellectual discipline equal to that expected from the classical course, and their college honor ought not to be lower in grade. But I do not understand that the degree such students may now claim is regarded by college authorities as in any sense inferior to that of Bachelor of Arts, or that it fails to indicate equal intellectual discipline ; and it would seem that the fact that it shows what college course was taken ought to be no objection. It is probable that something like a public sentiment still regards the old college honor as most desir- able, but this sentiment is changing, and if it works injustice now the remedy would seem to be to help along the change, instead of making the award of college honors wholly undistinguishing as between courses. Thomas M. Coolet, Professor of American History and Constitutional Law in the University of Michigan. Should Greek be required in American colleges as one of the prerequisites for the B. A. degree ? If this question be considered on rational grounds alone, I have no hesitation in saying that in my opinion the answer should be, distinctly, yes. The arguments which lead to this conclusion have been so frequently and so well stated that I need not repeat them ; but some of the facts on which they proceed may be simply mentioned. Study of the Greek language and literature, even though it be not profound, gives one a view of the life, modes of thought, and customs of one of the most gifted people of the race. The language itself affords material for the best kind of discipline. It is the source whence are derived many of the most valuable ele- ments of our own language and literature. It is the source of much of the nomencla- ture of the learned professions, notably medicine. The various disciplines of science are having constant recourse to the Greek for names of newly-discovered phenomena which mark their progress. A knowledge of Greek is of incalculable advantage in acquiring the use of modern languages, and so on. But my experience in teaching college students, extending over a period of more than thirty years, during which I have had under my instruction those who were pursuing the B. A. course, and consequently were required to study Greek, as well as those who were pursuing the B. S. course, in which Greek was not required, has shown, generally speaking, that the former are more successful as students of pure science and its applications, as physics and chemistry, than the latter. During the first ten years of my experience as a college teacher, I also had under my instruction students in medicine, many of whom were graduates in Arts, and con- sequently had some knowledge of Greek ; while others were not college graduates, although they had been trained in Latin. The difference in ability to grapple with difficult subjects was always very markedly in favor of those who had some acquaint- ance with the Greek, and, so far as I have been able to follow the subsequent profes- sional careers of these students, their superiority over their less fortunate classmates has been almost uniformly maintained. For some years past I have been giving instruction in electrical science and its appli- cations. Most of the students in this course, which, in connection with collateral studies, may be termed a course in electrical engineering, have been graduates of Princeton College or of other colleges. Some of them were graduates in Arts, and had 134 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. studied Greek; while others, graduates in Science, had not. Here, again, the difference in ability to meet and overcome difficulties is very conspicuously in favor of those who have 'had the broader classical training. This is shown in their greater ability to appreciate nice distinctions and abstract statements, as well as in their greater facility of working generally. In view of the arguments which may be adduced from rational considerations, and especially in view of my own experience and observation as a teacher of science, I should be very sorry ever to see any considerable number of our colleges consenting to bestow the B. A. degree, except on condition of requiring study of the Greek as a part of the course leading to that degree. C. F. Brackett, Henry Professor of Physics in Princeton University. As I am neither a teacher, nor connected in any official way with education, I can contribute to the " Greek question " nothing but the practical experience of a journalist who earns his living with his pen, and whose calling requires a continuous observation of society. I frankly exclude from any conclusions on education, genius of the first order, whose brain difference from the average man, plus or minus education, I believe to be in even greater proportion than the relative rarity of his appearance, so that education is with genius a neglectable quantity. Mere money getting I also exclude, since it is a mechanic trade in which an early apprenticeship is, if not indispensable, still a great advantage in acquiring a fortune, though education is needed to enjoy one. What I have to say deals with the needs of that great body of men who carry on the business of being civilized, without which nations are mere herds of dumb driven cattle. First. In my own calling a generalized capacity f6r expression and observation is of first importance. Relative to the. number with and without the regular classical training, this capacity is earliest acquired and best used by those with this training. For fifty years, for instance, at the point of greatest competition, New York City, an overwhelming majority of the men in charge of periodicals, daily, weekly, and monthly, have been college men of the Greek course. The greatest have not been such ; but the average is the other way. Next, the man with the old degree and required Greek rises faster and holds his own more steadily. So far as my own personal experience goes, but a small thing in a subject as broad as this, the value of the study of classic tongues, Greek in especial, to secure skill in the expression of thought and the use of language, has long been to me past all discussion. Modern language study is mere gruel by the side of it. Second. With the overwhelming drift of our day and time toward mere use as the test of all value, cannot you who control education keep one degree which visibly stands for devotion to the highest intellectual ideal, irrespective of wage-earning use ? Greek, and the education which the affirmative of the " Greek question " stands for, is, I believe, the best for the stress of practical life in all of its walks which make the creation of men- tal and moral values their chief aim. But, aside from this, there ought to be one degree whose requirements are avowedly arranged to meet the highest intellectual ideal, with- out compromise, conciliation, or concession. Where all substitutes are presented on the ground that they are " as good, as Greek," the practical conclusion is and must be that the Greek standard is the best, by common agreement and a mutual exclusion. Let us have one degree in the future, as A. B. has been in the past, whose distinct aim is not a choice between advantages, but an uncompromising requirement of the best. Lastly. Ours is a secondary civilization. Where in history has there been one which did not owe such intellectual life as it had to the study of a classical field ? The per- manent and mental tilths which the world's wider civilizations enjoy, all rest on the DISCUSSION. 135 study of a tongue analogous to Greek. I have wandered somewhat afield in Oriental study. I wish some man more competent than myself could be asked if the singular staying power of the thought based upon the Chinese classics, on the Koran, on San- skrit, and on the long succession recorded in Cuneiform, does not rest on the precise quality and character of thought developed and stimulated by the study of a great vehicle of expression which has ceased to be the means of ordinary human intercourse ? Even as to the Koran, classic and colloquial Arabic are far apart, and Arabic is the tongue of but a part, a small part, of militant and conquering Islam for six hundred years. The others have all based their education on a language once great, but long disused. The world is full of imposing monuments which we can neither describe nor decipher because their civilization had no staying power, no " bottom," for the long steeple-chase of history. Is it an accident that all the civilizations which live and last are based in education on the study of dead languages and classics ? Yours sincerely, Talcott Wiujams. Editorial Boom, PhiladelpJiia Press. DISCUSSION. Professok A. F. West, of Princeton University, said : When Dana as a geologist and Young as an astronomer and Whitman as a biologist, tell us that we need Greek, we may well cherish the hope that Greek will not have to "go." The one thing which, as much as any other one thing, will help to hold Greek for the Bachelor's degree in the immediate future, is the help that is coming from the great men in the natural and physical sciences. If one should run over the list of American discoverers and investigators in the world of nature, it would be found that such a large proportion of them have been classically educated men that no explanation could be offered for the fact, except that classical culture contains something which helps to open the mind, that is really liberalizing, that enfranchises thinking. It is a familiar fact that the same is true even in a greater degree in Germany, where the scientific men have been almost entirely produced in the classical gymnasium. The cause of Greek is the cause of pure science. Furthermore, the requirement of Greek keeps away from our academic courses many who ought to be kept away from them. It is a superb sieve. It strains out the utilitarian element, and with it those who insist on an answer to the question, What is all this worth ? before they will study anything. When we have to learn a thing which does not seem worth a great deal practically, we learn at least the noble lesson of disinterestedness. Professor Whipple, of Wheaton College, Illinois, thought Professor Hale's paper had covered the whole case. Speaking as one who had been for many years a teacher of natural science, and who during his college course found the study of Greek irksome, Professor Whipple stated that the result of his experience and observation in the class- room had changed his views entirely. The main reason for insisting upon the study of Greek, the principal advantage there is in it, is that, if properly pursued, it secures an exactness of expression and an exactness of thinking which is of immense value through- out life. The question may be asked : Why will not the study of modern languages do as well ? Several answers might be given, but it is sufficient to cite the fact that mod- ern languages are so much easier that they do not yield the same discipline from their study which the classical languages yield. President Jordan, of Stanford University, California, considered Professor Hale's paper the best presentation of the affirmative side that he had ever heard, and yet was 136 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. free to say that, while agreeing with Professor Hale's facts, as far as he understood them, he must disagree with every one of his conclusions, and that, too, in the interest of the study of Greek. Nothing so weakens a study as to make it the subject of official pampering ; to put it in such a way that it is to be studied, not for the visible good it gives, but for some peculiar good which the student is taught he has not the ability to comprehend. Noth- ing has so hurt the study of the classics in this country as the divine sacredness with which we have tried to invest them. We have hurt science as much as the study of Greek by not putting Greek on its own merits in the same position, in regard to university work, as other studies are put on in Harvard or Johns Hopkins. We certainly would not name any other university than Harvard and Johns Hopkins, where higher work is done, where Greek is studied for the good it gives, and not as a part of a divinely appointed curriculum. Making Greek a requirement weakens it in all its relations, and the utili- tarian spirit has not done one-twentieth as much harm as the spirit of pointing to Greek as something sacred. Accordingly, Greek should not be made a required subject for anything except Greek courses. A scientific study should not be required except in purely scientific courses. Let us change the form of the question from, Should Greek be required for the degree of Bachelor of Arts ? to, Should we give the Bachelor of Arts degree without Greek ? That is, shall we give a certain name to courses without Greek ? The question is one of name. It is not a very important question for that reason. It is, of course, desirable to have degrees that will tell what a man knows, as, for example, an A.B. stating that he had Latin and Greek. It would be better if he could be labeled A.B. in Anabasis, enumerating the books he had read, the places where he had read them, and, better than all, the teacher under whom he had read them. It might be still better to have different colored gowns to signify different degrees. Thus we might have pink gowns for those who have read the Anabasis, and blue gowns for those who have read something else. Then you could see a Greek man across the street and say, " There goes a Greek man who has done an advanced piece of work. " But we do not care for that sort of thing. We do not want titles. It is not the American spirit. This is the strongest reason for reducing all these degrees to one, and has not been referred to by Professor Hale. Caligula wished all the Romans might have one neck so that he might cut it off at one stroke. Likewise, let all degrees have but one neck so that they could all be cut off at one blow, for the whole thing is merely foolishness, as the wearing of pink or blue or yellow gowns is all childishness. It is a step in the right direction when we either multiply degrees unduly, so that they will appear ridiculous, or when we reduce them all to one. The separation of degrees from B.A. is bound sooner or later to kill all degrees. It will not kill the Greek, for which the degree stood, and the time is coming when Greek culture will be more and more appreciated. Not that there are not plenty of other kinds of culture, but there will always be Greek-minded men and Latin-minded men, for whom Greek and Latin will have value. The degree of A.B. had meant such liberal culture as the colleges of the past were able to give. The colleges of the present were able to give a liberal culture in many more directions. All academic words and terms are undergoing changes. The word doctor and the word bachelor are not exempt from this. It would have been better to have found new names for every one of the new conditions. But all colleges cannot meet the demands of all men, and it is not the business of any college to force upon any that which is not for his best development. If an institution proposes to teach only classically minded men the classics, very well. It is a noble field, and the work may be nobly done. It strains out by that sieve a vast number of men who want training, and want it in other fields. Although in Germany, all scientific men of all kinds were forced to go through a course in the German gymnasium, yet there is nothing in DISCUSSION. 137 ucation so much criticised as the German gymnasium. In this country it has been e that the great majority of scientific men were outside of the colleges altogether. t is not true now, by any means, but it was once true, that the men who had done ork and made a name for American science were men outside of colleges, who reached eir knowledge through other means, because they were strained out of colleges which reed them to do what they did not want to do. [Here Professor Sborey, of the University of Chicago, asked whether President Jordan ould name some of the American men of science who had received their training out- de of the colleges.] President Jordan said that he could mention in general almost all those who are great in zoology, such as Audubon, Wilson, and Lawrence. He could think of only two early scientific men who were college graduates. However, all that class of men was Iutside of colleges ; not that a classical education would have hurt them, but that a lassical education stood between them and what they wanted to do. Most of the scientific men whose letters were read by Professor Hale appealed to the alue of Greek from the utilitarian side, referring to its etymological advantages. But re know that the knowledge of Greek for etymological purposes is not the kind usually aught in college, nor is the value of Greek to scientific men in giving them the meaning of scientific words of very great importance. In another letter read there was a refer- ence to the fact that the intellectual tilths of this generation were largely on classical fields. As a matter of fact, they were largely in biological and psychological fields, matters wholly outside of the classics. The intellectual tilths of this generation have been about the works and name of Darwin. They have dominated everything else, and if we are to apply the weight of evidence as to the value of Greek and Latin, we might appeal to Darwin, who says his time in the university was absolutely wasted, because it was spent on subjects he had no use for. But unfriendly criticism of Greek, as Greek, is not legitimate, because Greek and what Greek stands for will always have its importance. The question here is simply whether we will take the name B.A. for a narrow field, or spread it over a wider one. In the statement made in one of the letters, that modern languages are mere gruel beside Latin and Greek, the person simply gives himself away. A man who has read Goethe, Lessing, and other masters would never say that. Nothing is gruel if it is done in a worthy spirit. Advanced work in any subject will lead to strength. There is no conceivable subject in which it will not. In closing, President Jordan asked when Greek became a dead language and ceased to be a means of human intercourse. He had supposed that quite a number of persons, who said they were Greeks and came from Greece, were still actually using Greek as a means of human intercourse. Greek is not a dead language, and even if it was it would not deserve any special consideration on account of its death. Dr. Imelmaxn, of the Joachimsthal Gymnasium, Berlin, Germany, in reply to Presi- dent Jordan said that the Greek question, which in America and England is in the first place a university question, is in Germany primarily a college or gymnasial question. As an old gymnasial teacher, he took the highest interest in this question and had studied the literature on the subject: — an immense literature, indeed — with an unprejudiced mind. He was under the impression that the general bearings of the question in Amer- ica and in Germany were quite analogous, and that the arguments pro and con were the same. The problem itself appears to be an endless problem. This Greek question will never be solved. Still, to occupy one's self with it, to study the question of Greek, is in itself of the highest value. Even those who oppose the classical system, whenever they study this question are studying Greek, too. It is, after all, more a question of personal experience, and, so to say, of personal faith, — for a scientific final determination of this problem is not possible. Those who have once lived, and, more so, those who are so 138 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. happy as to live in a daily and intimate intercourse with the Greek language and literature, with those old and immortal masters of European culture, know what they are and how rich they are. They know how much they themselves owe to the Greek spirit, to Hellenism, and it is their credo that there is no substitute for the study of Greek. It is their belief that the study of Greek literature, Greek philosophy. Greek poetry, and Greek science is much more, is unspeakably more than to learn a language, than to read several authors. It is, so to say, to drink from the oldest, purest, richest sources of European civilization. It is to lay the most firm foundation for an idealistic view, for a high and broad view of life. It is perhaps the best way, the natural starting point of an historical education, the best warrant of what the Germans call moral free- dom— that is, the freedom of an unprejudiced and comprehensive mind. Professor Shorey, of the University of Chicago, said : Man is not a logical ani- mal, and questions of this kind are rarely decided by sheer stress of argument. But since there is little which I could wish to add to the direct presentation of his thesis, given by my colleague, Professor Hale, I will venture, in the few words I have to say, to inflict a little of the dialectics of the subject upon you. We all of us probably remember the scene in "Daniel Deronda " in which Sir Hugh Mallinger remarks that he has forgotten all his Greek ; but still it did him good, it formed his English, which, by the way, is rather hesitating and faltering ; and we all remember the respectful silence that Daniel Deronda himself observed in the face of this declaration. I generally feel inclined to preserve a similar respectful silence in the presence of most of the arguments which it is my misfortune to hear in defence of Greek. The paper of to-day was a happy exception. Nevertheless, even in to-day's debate it is to be noted that nearly every one of the very able and tellingly put points made by the distinguished president of the scientific university in the West, were made against arguments in favor of Greek that will not bear scrutiny, arguments that fairly made me cringe when I heard them — the etymological argument, for example; a mere argumentative stop-gap employed in default of more serious reasons — or the idea that Greek should be required of everybody as the one thing needful, a point that is not seriously made by the true defenders of Greek. The real educational issue raised, apart from those telling retorts against weak and indefensible arguments — the real educational issue he raised was the challenge to produce sufficient reason for establish- ing distinct degrees of B.S. and A.B., and sufficient, fair, and serious practical modern educational reasons for reserving one of these degrees as a distinctive degree for the course in which Greek plays an important part. That was the sole serious educational issue raised by his amusing persiflage of the " blue and yellow gowns." I will ask you to watch me closely and see whether I do not answer this challenge before I have done. But before entering upon that matter I wish to clear the debate of one or two irrelevancies constantly brought forward in the discussion of this question. In the first place, it is proposed to compel nobody to study Greek. It is proposed by the advocates of Greek to compel those who want the degree of A.B. to study Greek, there being concurrent degrees of B.S. and Ph.B. Therefore all questions of compelling men to study Greek are questions not relevant to the subject. Secondly, it is often stated (I am still clearing away irrelevancies) — the argument is often advanced that Greek is not practical. That is a question for a man to decide before he goes to college at all. The very idea of a liberal education iu this country, and I hope it will always remain so, is that a man has a certain amount of leisure for disinterested culture ; and I should be very much interested, as Charles Lamb once said, to " examine the bumps of the gentleman," and to investigate the processes of ratiocination that would lead to the conclusion that Middle High German is a more practical study than Greek for a practicing attorney, and that the comparative anat- DISCUSSION. 139 omy of the invertebrates will help the wholesale grocer where Greek literature leaves him in the lurch. No college studies are practical, if by practical you mean calculated to insure the kind of success won by Jay Gould. The practical course for men whose hearts are set upon this career is to begin as Jay Gould did, by sweeping out the office at fourteen, with the chance of remaining an office sweep forever, or of accumulating a fortune like Jay Gould's. So with regard to the argument we often hear — an argument that has not been advanced to-day, but which I am sure is in the minds of many present; — the argument that whatever may be said of the delicacy and subtle precision of the Greek language, of the glory and beauty of Greek literature, the average student does not really attain to that. This is not a relevant argument, for it is simply an indictment of human nature and of our bad methods of teaching. When scientific men are together by themselves, when modern language men come together and the history men are meet- ing, they will all admit that their own subjects are not taught according to the ideal method. We must be consistently optimistic or pessimistic when we are comparing the relative educational values of subjects. We must either assume that all studies are to be taught so as to bring out all there is in them, or we must accept the present low standards for all. It is not relevant to say that the beauty of Greek literature is not grasped by all students who pursue its study, unless you admit the same conditions with regard to the peculiar discipline of science and other studies. So, in the same way, some will say that Greek is forgotten. But I will venture to affirm that nobody in this assembly can have forgotten his Greek more absolutely than I have forgotten my old English history and my calculus. The fact is, no man remembers anything in detail unless he keeps it fresh by daily practice either as a pro- fession or a hobby. But the general civilizing and refining effect of his study he does not lose. And some subjects perhaps leave more of this civilizing after-effect than others. Now, having attempted to clear away some of these irrelevancies that ought to be left to audiences of another character, 1 will endeavor to state what I consider to be the real educational issue. Are there, in the present state of education in the United States — are there logical, practical educational reasons for bestowing more than one degree as the stamp and seal of what is known as a general collegiate education ? Secondly, is there anything in the special claims of the study of Greek to make it reasonable that one of these alternative courses, one of these degrees, should be charac- terized by the presence of Greek in its curriculum ? I think both of these questions can be answered in the affirmative, and, if so, the question is settled so far as the logic of debate can settle anything in a world admittedly not governed by logic. I think from the educational chaos of the time there emerge two or three distinct types of education. We all recognize that there is an education based essentially not merely on knowledge of the results, but on discipline in the processes and methods of physical science. That distinction (between methods and results) is not made often enough, but the distinction is all-important. All educated people may master some of the results of science ; only a few can master scientific processes. If we try to master the methods, we have to sacrifice liberal culture. If science means several hours daily in the laboratory (and our scientific brethren will accept nothing less), then science and the older literary and historic culture are for all but intellectual giants incompati- ble. We cannot have both, as Mill demanded — ceci tuera cela. This education in science may be broadened in many ways, by free election of culture studies, or by pre- scribed courses that will widen the student's outlook ; but his main work must be done in the laboratory. It would be idle to attempt to ignore this type of education, in view of the part played by physical science in our modern civilization, and the many able men whose powers are best developed by this discipline. It must be recognized and 140 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. stamped by the seal of the college with a degree, the degree of B.S. There is no ques- tion about that, and there is no necessity of compelling men who want this training and this degree to take another type of culture. Then (but of this I am somewhat doubtful) there is an intermediate, compromise form of education which certainly has been shown to meet a popular demand— i lie course that leads to the degree which the University of Chicago calls Ph.B. ; in which some of the detailed knowledge of the processes and methods of modern science is sacrificed to make room for a certain infusion of the mental and moral sciences, history and Latin, and a certain modicum of the modern languages. This is the second type of education (possibly a transitional type) recognized, and for the present I think wisely recognized, by the University of Chicago. And now we come to the third and last of my three types, what is known as the old classical course, sometimes called the humanistic education, but which I prefer to define as an education, as my colleague says in the knowledge of the best that has been thought and said in the world, studied systematically and scientifically in its sources. That education, I think, is a sufficiently marked distinctive type, and, what is more, there is a distinctive type of mind adapted for that education. I hear a good deal of the unfortunate youth who is compelled to waste his time grubbing among Greek roots and analyzing Greek optatives when he would rather be working in the laboratory ; but what of the youths who are forced to waste their time dissecting star-fish, and who are tortured with test-tubes and retorts, when they would rather be reading Sophocles ? The argument is as strong on one side as on the other. I do not advocate compulsion in either direction. But the " election " of elementary physics and chemistry is not left to the caprice of the student of biology, and it is at least conceivable that there is a type of education in which the study of Greek should not be an accident. And now I come back to the main question, which I have not lost sight of : Why is it necessary to distinguish B.S. and B.A. ? What educational end is achieved by stamping the course that prescribes Greek with a special degree ? Why not have a free elective system, and allow students adapted to Greek to pursue Greek, and those adapted to science to pursue science ? The idea of the free elective system is very alluring. It results, however, in chaos, unless intelligent pressure is put upon our students; and intelligent pressure is not put upon our students to choose their courses wisely where the absolute free elective system exists. I am myself a son of Harvard, and I admire and love Harvard as much as anybody in this assembly, and yet my own course, considered a successful one, was not wisely chosen, and I believe that is the case in a far larger number of instances than appears in optimistic annual reports. What guidance and direction there is, is exercised in casual perfunctory interviews with deans and advisers, and may at anj time be counteracted by caprice, prejudice, a letter from home, or the last "able editorial" on the college fetich. That is not the way to plan a well-considered scheme of education. Such schemes should be elaborated by the collective wisdom of our university faculties. The university should define in their broad outlines two or three main types of liberal educa- tion, and set up the corresponding distinct degrees as sign-posts to guide the student to a definite goal. It will tell a student who wants a predominantly scientific training that he must pursue certain studies, because such studies are, in the judgment of the entire scientific faculty, necessary for a properly coordinated scientific education ; and, simi- larly, if his tastes and capacities are for the historical culture, it may, without tyrannous restriction on his freedom of election, tell him that it is well for him to read the " Chanson de Roland," but it is indispensable for him to read the Iliad. By so doing, the university will often save its students from false tendency, wasted effort, and vain regrets. Every teacher of Greek is familiar with the experience which 1 have had repeatedly DISCUSSION. 141 during the past year. Intelligent students have come to me who have discovered that the education they want is the literary and linguistic. They do want to know the best that has been thought and said in the world, and they do not want to work in the labor- atory ; and they have been brought up in colleges, like some universities that have been represented here to-day, where they were prevented from studying Greek at the right season ; and now they anxiously inquire whether it is too late for them to secure this key to the one domain of knowledge that attracts them most, and it is difficult to advise them honestly. If the alternatives had been clearly put before them at the beginning, and they had been told that Greek was indispensable for the particular culture that they wished, they would have been spared their misdirected efforts and regrets. Here is the distinct educational argument in favor of the division of degrees. It sets up a sign-post, as I have already said, to guide the student from afar, and forces upon his attention the problem of distinguishing the two or three leading types of education, and choosing, with intelligent advice, the one for which he is best adapted. It is mere quibbling, and not a fair reductio ad absurdum, to argue that this principle would lead to a .dozen specific degrees with a colored gown for each.. I pass lightly over my other points. The second point is (assuming that it is desirable to bestow two or three distinct degrees) that Greek should mark such a type. The rea- sons for that have been developed repeatedly to-day, and I could not possibly do them justice in the brief time that remains. One strong reason familiar to the lips of all, although not believed and felt by all, is that the Greek literature is in itself intrinsi- cally the most beautiful in the world. Unhappy those who think this is a mere super- stition of Greek professors ! But if any here are thus skeptical of the imperishable charms of Greek, how can I prove it to them in five minutes extempore discourse ? I can prove it to any intelligent class of sophomores who have passed the first thorny hedge of grammar, and who will rea:l with me a masterpiece of Sophocles or Plato, and perhaps that is enough. But it is not solely or mainly on account of this charm that some knowledge of Greek must be the distinctive stamp of one form of culture, one type of education. It is because, as was said in one of the letters read from this platform to- day, it is impossible to be a Quettenforscher without Greek, because Greek is indispensable for the systematic and scientific knowledge of the history, philosophy, and religion and poetry of the West ; because the Greek spirit is the direct source of all that lives and moves and has its being in the higher world of modern thought. True, the average stu- dent will not realize all this any more than he will appreciate the full significance of the "scientific spirit." But the appointed custodians of Greek culture must not merely affirm, but believe and know it. In the daily routine of the classroom we must draw for our students the subtle lines that link that exquisite past to all that is truly living in the spiritual life of our own time. If that were done, we should have the students with us, whatever may be the opinion of the general public. Professor T. C. Chamberlin, of the University of Chicago, said that in the past the jatin-Greek-mathematical combination had presented a somewhat definite curriculum, ind that this fact apparently justified the giving of a definite degree for that combina- tion. He thought that the other curricula that had been presented in the past were aferior, with the exception of some recently introduced, and that this seemed a suffi- cient reason for giving them other and distinctive degrees. The present, however, is clearly a transitional period. None of the old curricula are iven in their former integrity. All have undergone transitions. The practice of giv- ig a specifically definite course of study may be said to have passed away, and the practice of variation by individual election has taken its place. The degree of vari- ation is increasing, but as yet it has not progressed so far as to entirely destroy the distinctness of the several courses in institutions which still retain the course svstem. 142 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. At present, therefore, it seems a matter of discretion to rest with the judgment of the several institutions whether they shall confer several degrees, or shall substitute a single baccalaureate degree. If old degrees are retained, it is perhaps best to follow as nearly as possible historical precedents, and to require Greek for the Bachelor of Arts. If a single degree is substituted for the several degrees, it seems clear that Greek should not be required, because it does not seem a necessary constituent of an excellent college course, and our practices do not at present make it a necessary constituent. As to the future, it seems clear that very soon the number of actual courses that will be taken by election, or by other devices adopted by institutions, will become so great, and the com- binations of studies will become so inextricably interwoven with each other, that there will be no legitimate basis for discrimination free from arbitrariness and invidiousness. It seems, therefore, that the coming practice will be the substitution, in place of the present divers degrees, of the single degree, which shall signify simply the completion of a college course. The only alternative apparently open is the addition to such a general degree of addenda which shall indicate the special study selected, or the spe- cial group of studies selected. This, however, seems more or less impracticable. It seems probable, on the whole, that the coming degree will be A.B., because it is easier to adapt an existing practice than to institute a new one. It would be better, however, to institute a new and different degree corresponding to the new significance. Professor Hale, in closing the debate, said : My agreement with the last speaker is nearly complete, if I have apprehended his final statement rightly. With regard to President Jordan's argument much might be said, but I will take time only to dissent from a single expression, the word "pamper." President Jordan charges us with wishing to "pamper" Greek. In point of fact, no odds are asked in behalf of Greek except those which in any other relation of life are called " rights." On the other hand, it is either lack of frankness or lack of discrimination that keeps the advocates of the new scheme of education from seeing and admitting that, when they say that a new degree is not good enough for their scheme, and that the old degree, with a broader meaning, must be given it, it is they who are asking odds, and it is their scheme of education for which the " pampering" is demanded. WHAT SIGN'S OF IMPROVEMENT ARE VISIBLE IN THE UNDERGRADUATE LIFE OF AMERICAN STUDENTS? BY BRADFORD PAUL RAYMOND, PRESIDENT OF WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, MIDDLETOWN, CONN. Several topics suggest themselves on the question before us : " What signs of improvement are visible in the undergraduate life of American students, in athletics, morals, student organizations, intercollegiate cour- tesies, and relations of students to instructors ?" Let us begin with the subject of athletics. Apparently the thought in the mind of the person suggesting this question was substantially this : Are we making a better type of manhood in our colleges to-day than we were a few years ago ? Are there any indications to show that we are UNDERGRADUATE LIFE OF AMERICAN STUDENTS. 143 advancing in the quality and effect of our work upon those who attend our schools of learning ? I suppose this phase of the question may have been suggested because of the perils that confessedly are connected with athletics in our higher institutions of learning. It is certainly true there is peril to life and limb in some of the sports in which the college students engage. It is true, to a certain extent, the young men who are devoted to athletics have compromised their studies ; and true that there come periods in these contests when the moral stamina of these men is put to the severest tests. Nevertheless, I want to say at the outset that I am in favor of athletics, and I believe that there are signs of progress in all of our colleges. The opinions we form must come largely from our own institutions of learning ; hence, perhaps, I shall represent only a local opinion, while very likely many of you may differ from me in some of the things I may say. Nevertheless, I believe that there are signs of improvement. I think the fact is that our college athletics are judged by what is to be seen on those days when college teams meet for the college contests ; but this is evidently an unfair and an unjust basis from which to estimate the value and the significance of college athletics. You do not so study the significance of civic life. If you were to ask what is the value of civic life, and of our laws and institutions, and what is being done to make good citizens, you would not go to the polls on election day and stand there with your arms folded to find how many profane men there were there, how many drunken men there, how many who take bribes there. Not at all. You would say these are extravagances, excrescences ; this is an abnormal manifesta- tion which does not truly represent the heart of our civic life. You would rather go through the country and study what is being done in municipal government, and in state and national legislatures ; you would not study the effect of our national institutions upon the character of the people as seen on an exceptional day, but as seen throughout the whole year. I would study athletics just as I do civic life ; I would see what is going on three hundred days in the year, not on an exceptional day. And if I found that in the gymnasiums there is a process of training, with carefully planned physical exercises under the care of competent directors being pursued through the year, and that at the end of the college year the students were far better physical men than they were at the beginning of the college year, I would say that we had the best foundation laid for their development ; that athletics in our colleges are doing a great deal for the development of physical men who must be able to stand the stress of hard business life, and of professional life, and to carry on with success the enterprises which they take hold of. This much with refer- ence to the method of investigation of the subject. I think there are signs of improvement in the college teams themselves. 144 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Take an instance which is characteristic. A few months ago, at a little gathering in my home, the captain of one of the teams came and said : " You will have to excuse me ; I will have to retire ; it is ten o'clock." I said : " Why do you have to retire at ten o'clock ?" Said he : "I make the rules for the members of the team, and I have to obey them." And in a few minutes the men had all gone home. I say that is a good thing for a man of force to say to twenty or thirty young men in college who are working on that team : "You must retire at a given hour at night ; you must live under such and such a regime"; and for men to hold them- selves to that regime means not only physical strength, but it means moral control. It does seem to me that this subject of physical training is one which has been neglected in our whole land. If we compare ourselves with Ger- many in this respect, we see how little is done in our elementary schools, and how little has been done in our higher schools and colleges. We are just taking hold of the subject, and are realizing that it is of vast import- ance to a nation that men sent out to carry on national life should be men of splendid physique, men of splendid constitutional force, and that we should develop a physical constitution which will tell in our national life. We need men of courage, and the man who goes on the foot-ball field is the man who learns to develop the right kind of courage to meet the difficulties of our great cities. Because of the excesses of compara- tively few of the men in our colleges, which show themselves on certain days, we have inclined to think college athletics generally are demoraliz- ing. This much with reference to this question of athletics. The next point is the question of student organizations. I can say only a word with reference to the fraternities. I am not a fraternity man. I wras educated in an institution where Greek-letter societies did not exist, and when I became connected with an institution wrhere they were somewhat numerous, I had some hesitation, and con- cluded that the best thing was to stand outside of these organizations and be in right relations with every one of them. I am prepared to say, after a few years' experience, that the best men in these fraternities are in control — the men of scholarship, the men of highest ideals, the men of the best type of manhood ; and there is a pride in the members of their own societies leading them to work constantly for the good of these societies. They are proud of their men who make fine records as scholars. And not only so ; they are interested in the morals of men, and they labor w7ith them for good character as well as a high type of intellectual life. In this way, I believe there is an advance being made in the fraternity life of our colleges ; the best men are now taking control of these societies, and they are running them for the best interests, social, intellectual, moral, and religious. Now as to the question of morals. It seems to me that there is a new DISCUSSION. 145 force taking hold of our colleges, to make first of all the religious life, aud, secondly, the moral life, more sensible, manly, and effective than ever in the past. It grows largely out of the newer sociological studies, and that view of life which is turning Christian men out into the world and upon men. Take, for example, the work being done in our great cities — in New York City. What are we going to do ? Shall we go, as some of the noble young college men have gone, down into the very depths, and there accomplish something substantial for the advancement of society ? I want to say that that thought is being taken up in our colleges, and young men are becoming intensely interested, and are giving themselves to this work. Men in colleges are trying to raise money to support men who want to go down in the slums, and so this study, which has ethics in it, is turning the thought of men everywhere to the external world for an exhibition of religious life. We ought to say a word directly on the relation of students to instruc- tors. It used to be the case that the students looked upon the faculty as their mortal enemies. That tradition is dying out. It dies hard, but there is very good evidence that it is dying out. When students organ- ize themselves for the purpose of suppressing dishonesty in examina- tions, it is a good indication of a growing, healthful, moral life ; when they organize themselves for the suppressing of hazing, it is an indication of a higher moral standard, a sense of manhood, which did not prevail years ago ; and when they are glad to associate themselves with the faculty for the discussion and consideration of all those interests that pertain to college life, that, too, is an indication of a higher type of manhood. So, then, looking generally over the wide field of influences at work upon the character of college students in our time, I am prepared to say there are visible evidences of improvement in the undergraduate life of the American student, in athletics and morals, in student organizations, intercollegiate courtesies, and the relations of students to their instructors. DISCUSSION. President Blanchaed, of Wheaton College, Illinois, dwelt on two points in Presi- dent Raymond's paper, the question of university settlements in the degraded quarters of large cities, and the question of college fraternities. He thought that it was a mis- take to expect any considerable regeneration of society as the result of university settle- ments. Individuals will be helped by it, but no general effect in the way of improve- ment is to be expected unless the perennial sources of degradation and evil are reached. In regard to Greek-letter fraternities, he was sorry President Raymond did not speak more fully in regard to their disadvantages as well as their advantages, and had not referred to such facts as the killing of a student at Cornell University in 1874 at an initiation, the death of another at Yale, the blood poisoning of another at Harvard two years ago, and the branding which has just been made the subject of legislation in the State of Ohio. Take also the arrest and fining of two of the societies at Harvard for maintaining a liquor nuisance. Are these things the abuses or the natural results of secret 10 146 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION society action ? A full examination of the record of secret societies in colleges would not show that they are conducing to manhood or scholarship or excellence of any kind. In this connection he called attention to the recent examination made by a committee of students in Chicago, through extended correspondence with the colleges of the country. In written reports from more than two hundred colleges, it was ascertained that in more than half of this number all fraternities were forbidden. It is also well known that in the organization of the University of Chicago, the latest of our greater uni- versities, after a full discussion, the faculty, while not positively prohibiting fraternities, yet gave their judgment against them, and urged the students not to form them. It is one of the favorable signs of the times that more than a hundred of our higher institu- tions have forbidden the organization of Greek-letter societies. Rev. Dr. C. H. Payne, of New York City, said he was disposed to take an optimistic view of the questions relating to the character and improvement of American college undergraduates. However, a precautionary word was necessary in reference to the question of professional or semi-professional athletics, as now existing in our colleges. Anything that will develop a strong physical manhood is to be encouraged, but it is very doubtful whether professional athletics, as carried forward under our institutions to-day, encourage the development of physical manhood. It is more likely to be a hindrance to it. It does not reach the mass of the students. One or two college teams, a base-ball nine, and a foot-ball team, in a college of a thousand students, are not enough to develop the whole body. Dr. Payne's observation was, that interest in the regular gymnastic training and work was not increased in proportion to the interest in these out-door sports, but rather the contrary. Several colleges could be named where the gymnasium has gone down in the presence of the greater interest manifested in the professional games. It is not enough to train a few students when we have a thousand of them. We want some kind of physical training that will affect the whole. The moral aspect of these great intercollegiate games is a most serious question. If we are to follow President Raymond's principle of securing an environment for stu- dents which will make it hard to go wrong and easy to go right, then we shall adopt more vigorous rules within our institutions of learning concerning these games. He could not quite agree with President Raymond that, at the places and days on which these games come to the surface, the general public has a chance to see what is being done ; these do not afford a fair criterion of the practical working of the system. It is to be doubted whether any good result comes to the larger colleges which allow these games. It is true that here and. there they put forth a man who is pretty good as a scholar, and he is well advertised ; but it lies in the nature of things that if you allow a man to go away every week to play games, and sometimes twice a week, you are not going to help scholarship by his absence. It does not favorably affect scholarship, while it does tend to deteriorate the morals of the students. Dr. Payne said that for the last five years he had given careful examination both before and afterward to the condition of things in connection with the great foot-ball game that comes off in New York on Thanks- giving Day, and gave a description of the excesses he had observed. He urged that the deteriorating tendencies connected with these games be vigorously taken in hand by college authorities at once. ADDRESS ON THE RELATION OF PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS TO THE UNIVERSITY. BY HON. SETH LOW, PRESIDENT OF COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : I am sure I share with you in the keen regret that will be felt at the absence of the president of Prince- ton, the Eev. Dr. Patton, for he is a master in the domain of higher edu- cation, where I am only a learner ; and he has, moreover, the gift of eloquent and interesting speech wherewith to express the thoughts which he may have on any subject. I wish it had been possible for me to have RELATION OF PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS TO THE UNIVERSITY. 147 been in the convention during its earlier sessions, so that I might have been able to gather something of the wisdom and something of the spirit that always is to be found in such a meeting ; but I was, unfortunately, unable to reach Chicago until yesterday afternoon, so that I have come into your midst as one hardly yet in touch with what has been thus far said and done. Nevertheless, I count it a high privilege to be called to bring you a word of fellowship and goodwill in these deliberations from the city of New York. The mistake will not be made in this gathering, I am sure, of thinking that New York is notable only for its finance and manufactures. There has been no time since the foundation of the ancient seat of learning with which I have the honor of being connected, when the city of New York would not have been entitled to honorable place in any gathering held in this country to consider the interests of higher education. Nevertheless, the influence of the city upon this ancient institution of the higher edu- cation, Columbia College, has been singularly interesting. In the first place, the cosmopolitan character of the city stamped itself upon the charter which was given to the college by George II. It was provided in that charter that there should be an ex-officio membership in the board of governors consisting of the principal clergymen in the city of New York as it then was. And I take it that it is due to that pro- vision that Columbia College is the only one of the colleges dating back of the Revolution, unless it may be the College of Philadelphia, which was a city college, and which has never had any theological seminary in close connection with it. At the same time, the charter of Columbia College provided that no distinction whatsoever should be made toward students on account of their religious belief, a provision which strikes me as singularly worthy of note when one considers that the authorized oaths required of candidates who wished to attend Oxford and Cambridge were only abolished as recently as about 1870. A hundred and fifty years ago the atmosphere of this country was unfriendly to that sort of thing. Then the influence of the city upon the college, I think, appeared very shortly in another way. Columbia opened its doors in 1754, and in 1767 it established the first medical faculty in the State of New York. In other words, the seed that was planted there was not simply the seed of a college, as we distinguish colleges and universities — not simply a seed that would bring forth its fruit of liberal culture, but it was really the seed of the university that was planted there. Then there came in 1797 the first chair of law ever established in New York ; that was held by Chancellor Kent. And thus, from time to time, one professional school after another has been thrown out from this ancient root, until Columbia College to-day is, perhaps, better known through its professional and higher schools than by the work of its School of Arts, as we call the college proper. 148 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The history of the connection of the college with these professional schools is also interesting. I refer to it, of course, not at all to tell you about our college, but to illustrate this theme in regard to which I was to have spoken if I had been able to be with you in your meeting two days ago. The first medical faculty was established in the college in 1767. In 1807 the College of Physicians and Surgeons was established as an independent medical school, as though medical instruction could be better given free from the entanglements of the university (as they might have said in that day) rather than as an integral part of the work of the university. That idea prevailed so strongly that six or seven years later the medical faculty of Columbia was allowed to resign and become part of the faculty of Physicians and Surgeons, and there remained not even a nominal connection between Columbia and the medical work. In 1860 Columbia once more gave degrees in medicine to the graduates of this school ; and Avithin the last two years there has come about a complete reunion, and the College of Physicians and Surgeons is an integral part of Columbia College. That is interesting because it shows that, from the time at which it was supposed that medical education could be better given in an inde- pendent school, we have once more come into the time when it is generally believed that the best medical education is to be found inevi- tably, one might also say necessarily, in a university. The reasons, I think, are not difficult to see. In the first place, medical education is like all the higher education. It is impossible for it to be self-supporting in the higher grades. The medical professors, who are dependent upon their office, are able to give a medical education that is as good as can be made self-supporting, but it can be no better. Therefore the endowment of the university is of the utmost consequence, it seems to me, in lifting up the course of medical instruction ; and it is now a part of our pride at Columbia that the medical instructors hold their chairs upon a salary as independently of the fees of the students as any professors in the whole establishment. That is one direction in which the university must be of great service to the professional school. In the second place, I think the connection with the university has a very strong influence upon the character of the instruction. If a profes- sional school stands by itself, the inevitable tendency of the school is simply to fit for practice of the profession. Now, surely a university wishes to fit its professional students for the practice of its profession, but it wants to do something more than that. It wants to give them a scientific understanding of the principles and the knowledge upon which the practice of their profession ought to rest. It ought to develop in the student not only the desire to investigate, but it ought to teach him how to do it, and to place at his service the facilities for doing such things ; not that every student who comes out from school will become an RELATION OF PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS TO THE UNIVERSITY. 149 investigator, but that some may. You perceive that unless the endowed university offers these privileges and these opportunities, the privilege and the opportunity is not to be had anywhere. That the university should stand for these high ideals is not to say that the professional schools unconnected with the universities have no value. They are distinctly useful in a community like ours. They offer privileges of immense value to many who are unable to attend the others. But I fall back on the thought with which I started, as one never to be forgotten, that it is surely the duty of the university to offer to the com- munity the best possible education, the best possible scientific education, in every professional direction. Then, if you look at the curriculum of a professional school, indepen- dent of a university, you will find it, I think, in almost every case, like the old college curriculum : a certain fixed thing, which every student is pledged to take. I take it that the university carries the idea of speciali- zation into the professional school in a helpful way, further than it could be when it is not connected with the university. Of course, there is the irreducible minimum with which every one who tries to practice the pro- fession must be familiar, but it is outside of that that the university gives every opportunity for specializing and carrying one's special talents into the utmost reaches that are known. That again is a service that we must look for entirely to the university. It alone has the facilities, the library, the apparatus, and perhaps it alone can best command the men who are capable of serving as guides in that direction. There is, therefore, a freedom or largeness of opportunity, or ought to be, in con- nection with the professional schools attached to a university, that is not to be found outside. Now, as to how these schools of the universities should be most help- fully united — that is a question that I ought not to enter upon at the present time. There is no opportunity to discuss that, nor would we find any unanimity of opinion on a point that involves so many details ; but I am sure that there would be no substantial difference among university men as to the great service of the university. Perhaps there is one indefinite service that is not the least of all ; that is to say, that it leads men to study the profession in the same scholarly atmosphere in which a man obtains his liberal education. It seems to me that one of the most important effects that can be produced upon any man comes from witnessing other men laboring just as hard and just as earnestly to learn something else of which he knows nothing, and for which he cares little or nothing, as he is laboring in the line of his chosen work. It gives a certain capacity of mind that is not to be found in any other way. Therefore, for all these reasons, I should say that the professional school in connection with the university docs offer, should offer, the best oppor- tunity for obtaining a professional education. 150 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. THE EVOLUTION OF LIBERAL EDUCATION. BY PROFESSOR ANDREW F. WEST, OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY. I. An answer to the question, What properly constitutes a liberal educa- tion ? may, like solutions to other educational problems, be attempted in three ways, which may be styled the practical, the theoretical and the historical. The first attempts the answer by examining present educa- tional practice, including both the existing institutions and the operative ideas therein embodied. Even if the enormous labor properly involved in collecting and classifying what is necessary to a true description of our educational practice were performed, the answer obtainable would be an unsatisfactory one. A view of the state of education at any one instant of history is too limited to serve as the basis of a theory which, to be true, must comprehend all the salient facts of history ; and too limited also for us to be sure that it is representative of the whole of history. Accord- ingly this method may be set aside, not as being useless, but as unprom- ising when taken alone. The second way of attempting an answer is the theoretical. Theorizing is always pleasant, usually dangerous, but at intervals safe and necessary. It cannot be ignored. If we are not seeking a sound theory of education, we are not acting rationally, and our educational activity will suffer accord- ingly. Even if we should go so far as to concede that a comprehensive theory of liberal education is at present unattainable, we might still hold with Kant that " we are not to consider the idea chimerical and denounce it as an idle dream, even when obstacles appear in the way of its realiza- tion." * We do not yield to the notion that because there is as yet no doctrine of education which amounts to a science, the study of education does not promise well, and urge that the study of education is becoming a science and that education itself is already a great art, and therefore, from both points of view, a fit subject for high ideal study. We may, however, freely admit that the most convincing single method at the present time is not the theoretical. For a theoretical solution, if it is to be a true one in edu- cation, must receive its data from the other sciences on which a science of education will depend ; namely, physiology, psychology, and ethics ; and these sciences, though constant contributors of late, have yielded a contri- bution insufficient for theoretical construction on any general scale. Nor may we expect that they will begin to satisfy us until their own induc- tions are reduced to greater exactness and likewise made more extensive. It is still early in the world's history to expect this. * "Ueber 1'aedagogik." I THE EVOLUTION OF LIBERAL EDUCATION. 151 The remaining method is the historical, and, for the problem of liberal ducation, the most promising. The idea of liberal education emerged, early in the history of Western culture, and we have a fairly continuous record of its outworking from its first manifestation to the present time. It is reasonable to suppose that an idea which has been unfolding for nearly twenty-five centuries, and has been potent in preserving and diffus- ing enlightenment and stimulating the love of truth through all that time, should afford us some light from its record both as to the ideal toward which its outworking tends and as to what are its constituent elements. II. The concept of liberal education originated among the Greeks, and gives continuity to the history of liberal education since their time. They were the first to coordinate what they called syuvuXioi naidsia, an " all- round education." By this they meant a training in selected studies of the most central character, so as to secure harmonious wholeness or integrity of intellectual culture. They sought a general gymnastic of the mind for the sake of the mind, and not for any extraneous utility. This view of the material and method of liberal education, however, was not the whole of their concept. If it were, then there might be several, per- haps many kinds of general culture. But with that instinct for ideal unity and perfection which appears in everything they touched, they determined what ingredients should enter into their method and material of instruction by determining the ideal end of liberal education. This was what we inexactly name Virtue (apery), or, as they meant it, the highest manhood, or aperi} Kara yevos, the highest excellence of the individual according to his kind — that is, as a man. If it could be ascertained in what this highest excellence consisted, then the method and material of instruction which would develop it would be the method and material of liberal education. Now, to their best thinkers the attain- ment of apsTij was inseparable from knowledge. "All men naturally desire knowledge/' is Aristotle's opening sentence in his " Metaphysics" and a commonplace of philosophy ever since. The desire for knowledge is constitutional, and on this the possibility of educating depends. But to be liberalizing, knowledge must lead to virtue. The ideal knowledge, then, was that fine blending of theory and practice which served the individual both toward the understanding and the doing of the truth. It was ffoqjia, Wisdom, the guide of thought and the guide of life. And so we can hardly wonder at their frequent identification of knowledge and virtue, and wisdom and virtue. The divorce of theoretical and practical, either inside any sphere of knowledge or conduct, or between knowledge and conduct as wholes, would have seemed to them utterly irrational. The discipline of youth in knowledge until they attained the character of enlightened and virtuous men, sure to go on spontaneously in the dis- 152 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION covery and use of truth, being by that time imbued with cpikoGoqtia — the love of it — was the Greek idea of the school training of youth which would lead to the best manhood. Their whole concept is indicated in the Pythagorean saying, TIpo (piXoaocpla? naiSeia — first education, then phil- osophy. First discipline in the central categories of the best knowledge, then free research into all knowledge. First the school, then the uni- versity. Out of these presuppositions there naturally grew up the idea of a log- ical sequence and coordination of studies to achieve this end — that is, of a curriculum. That there should be one finest way of doing this, to which other ways were at best approximations, needed to them no demonstration. " Truth is one and only one, and error is manifold," is their reasoning from Pythagoras onward. The only question, then, remaining to settle was what studies properly fill out the form of this ideal curriculum. The Greeks discovered and determined the ideal form of liberal culture, and, if history means anything, they have determined the form once for all. The race has been progressively determining the content ever since. The first body of studies which thus gradually arranged itself passed over to Rome, and then crystallized with some shrinkage in the early mid- dle ages into the famous "seven liberal arts" wherein all medieval educa- tion centered. Whatever condemnation is to be passed upon the barren technical subtleties of the medieval mind, let us not charge these defects to the seven arts, but to the natural behavior of minds exercising them- selves almost solely on the forms of knowledge — a logical thing, by the way, in the evolution of the modern world. Nor should their defects be charged to Christianity ; scarcely to ecclesiasticism. The semi-barbarous Euro- pean mind was beginning to be schooled de novo. The seven arts, while devoid of the living expression of ancient liberal culture, presented at least a recognizable outline of the features, and thus preserved some con- tinuity. What were these arts ? Grammar, rhetoric, and logic were the first three to be pursued. By grammar, their best teachers, though not the most of them, meant both strict grammar (Latin, of course) and the study of the literature. It was the inevitable first study, the nutrix infan- tim, the induction into the art of correct expression. Then came rhetoric, springing out of grammar, leading to the study of style and also analysis of themes, and thus bridging the way to logic, the art of correct think- ing. Such was in concept the trivium, a coherent arrangement corres- ponding to the order of a scholar's mental development and the sequence of ideas in the studies themselves. It combined the artes sermocinales, the arts concerned with expression. Following the trivium came the four arts, usually called " disciplines " or " sciences," sometimes " mathemat- ics." They made the quadrivium. The opening study was arithmetic, defined by Rabanus Maurus, the great preceptor of Fulda, as " the study of numerical quantity," and the generic " mathematical discipline." It THE EVOLUTION OF LIBERAL EDUCATION. 153 bore the same introductory relation to the quadrivium which grammar >ore to the trivium. The others were music, geometry, and astronomy — lames which mean to us somewhat different things. For their scheme )f sciences on the nature side was of course hopelessly crude. Their rithmetic oddly but not unnaturally included chronology ; optics came inder geometry, geography under geometry, and acoustics under music -things afterward differentiated from what they had been awkwardly ittached to at first. But though the scheme was in an embryonic stage, fcructural lines were appearing, and, most important of all, two distinc- tions were spontaneously recognized. The first was the distinction be- tween the trivium, or the humanities, and the quadrivium, or the nature studies, the artes reales. The second was the order in which these were be pursued as liberal studies, the humanistic studies coming before the sciences. The seven arts completed, then came " philosophy," to com- )ine and coordinate trivium and quadrivium in a higher union, thus con- stituting the great triad that lasts still. The age of scholasticism was the best of the middle ages. It founded our universities. " The priceless pearl of knowledge is sought in the scholastic field," is the characteristic opening of many a medieval univer- sity document. That ideal knowledge rested on the seven arts, and was ihilosophy, and its language was Latin. Was not this outline, though meagerly bodied and crudely colored, a loble one ? At worst, was it not the damaged skeleton of the ancient liv- ing form, but still the reminder of its time structure ? New life had to be >reathed into these bones that they might live again, and in the Revival of Learning this happened. The spirit of the Greeks revived, and humanism arose to clothe the lifeless skeleton with living tissues. But only in part. In its reaction igainst the barbarous Latin and barren formalism of scholasticism it plunged into Greek antiquity and filled literary studies with new life. It really developed the trivium. Its legacy is the humanistic studies, and its language is Greek. No new movement comparable to the humanistic revival appears in the modern world until we approach the nineteenth cen- tury, the age of science. Modern sciences — physical, natural, social, polit- ical— are the educational material developed in our age. Science has developed the quadrivium, formerly inchoate and feeble. Its gift to edu- cation is itself, and it speaks in the modern tongues. Here we may sum up our results. Western liberal education has gone through stages as marked as the stages of life in an individual or the history of types in biology. The ancient world spontaneously evolves a concept of liberal education which it hands down to medieval times. The form lingered, though the spirit, if not dead, was sleeping. The ancient form consisted of the humanities and sciences coordinated in one scheme and issuing in philosophy. Scholasticism awakened the philosophic sense, 154 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. using Latin. The modern age first developed humanistic studies through the medium of Greek, and then developed science with its polyglot corol- lary, of which the chief constituents are French, German and English. We have, therefore, come to a time in the history of education when a scheme of studies must be followed either by synthesis from the lessons of history or by selection from that synthesis. Synthesis alone will give the completest culture, if evolution means anything. It is not a final or perfect synthesis we seek, but a view of the best thus far. The only question to be settled is a practical one, it seems to me. Have we time to do this ? If not, we must make a selection out of our historical elements, and get along with a recognizably imperfect scheme. But I believe we have time. Much of school time is wasted now for those who would prepare for uni- versity studies. We can save enough to admit of a liberal culture includ- ing all the great historical elements. Keducing these to a tentative ideal scheme, we get the following curriculum for a liberal education : I. The humanities — consisting of the mother tongue and foreign lan- guages and literatures. The foreign tongues include Greek and Latin, fundamental to Western culture as a whole, and the continental languages as useful to present culture. II. The sciences — mathematical, natural, sociological. III. The elements of philosophy. Such an education should be attempted whole, and kept separate, one, distinguishable by its own degree. It will vindicate itself. I have not touched, and do not mean here to enter upon, the boundless theme of the influence of Christianity in liberal education. But is it too much to expect that, under the university charter-words of our faith: " Whatsoever things are true, honest, just, lovely — think on these things," we may see a new epoch, finer even than that time when, as Shelley beautifully tells us, Freedom spoke — " And like a sunrise from the sea Athens arose." DISCUSSION. Professor Hale agreed with the results of the last paper. One question, however, troubled him in regard to its practical solution. In a scheme which will embrace begin- ning in Greek and Latin, beginning in French and German, and beginning in science, mathematical, natural, and sociological, it is important to know how far the sciences could be carried. This is a great practical problem. We cannot possibly have an education which shall dispense with training on the scientific side, as it is called. How- ever, using the word science in its ordinary sense, how far does Professor West think we can go in requiring it for everybody who is to be liberally educated ? Professor West thought it quite practicable, as well as necessary, to include a general discipline in science in any proposed scheme of liberal education. The question to be answered is : What sciences, and how much of each of them, are to enter into such a scheme ? To settle this we must draw up a scale of the sciences, dividing them first DISCUSSION. 155 into pure or theoretical sciences, and mixed or applied sciences. Then arranging the theoretical sciences according to their historical development and logical connections, we shall put first in the series mathematics, the science of abstract relations. Then built on mathematics will come mechanics, serving as a bridge to that vast science we call physics. Then on top of physics will come chemistry, and on top of chemistry, if it were as fully developed for teaching purposes, would be placed biology. The scale of pure sciences is thus, roughly, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology. Then there are the mixed, or, as they might be styled, the applied sciences, such as astronomy and geology. We must keep for the Bachelor's degree at least the elements of mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry; and as soon as biology reaches a development and attains a body of doctrine so that its elements are capable of dogmatic inculcation, biology should be included as a required subject for the Bachelor of Arts degree. Room can be found for the elements of the pure or theoretical sciences as a complete body, but it is doubtful whether there is room for any more. Professor Hale wished to inquire whether it were possible to prepare a young man, say in Chicago high-schools, for the strongest universities, giving him, besides his mathematics, classics, and modern languages, physics and chemistry also. Mr. French, of the Hyde Park High School, answered that they were now attempting to do this in the high-schools. Professor Hale thought that the saving of time which might be effected in the lower schools would yet make possible all that he hoped for, and Professor West asked for, and thought that the solution would be found in this direction. President Jordan, of Stanford University, said he had listened with great interest to the discussion. He did not agree with the reader of the paper in regard to the les- sons to be drawn for our own time. He did not agree with Professor West's remark that instruction in biology would be suitable for his proposed course of study, when biology became dogmatic, when it had a groundwork of doctrine which could be taught and learned by heart from a text-book. President Jordan referred to a paper which had recently come under his notice, which took the ground that only those subjects are fitted for training the mind which have no groundwork of dogma ; that is. in which the stu- dent must find out the truths and facts for himself. It is this which gives the unde- veloped and unsettled sciences an enormous value for educational purposes over those which are settled. Professor West said, in reference to the dogmatic teaching of science, that it was difficult to conceive how anything could be learned at the start, even the alphabet, without its being in a sense dogmatically inculcated. It was difficult indeed to see how we are to learn anything, without beginning with some body of provisionally received truth. The atomic theory in chemistry, for example, like the elements of anything else, is to be received at the start as a working basis, or else the student must quit study. What he thus provisionally receives is to be tested by experience. Applying this to biology, it does not seem to be the fact that the doctrine of evolution is yet formulated with such precision that the elements of biology can be as profitably taught as the ele- ments of the older sciences which have had completer development. President Blanchard, of Wheaton College, held that the likenesses among men were far more important than their differences, and that the likenesses among men called for culture and training just as much as their differences. While every man is to have his special occupation, every man before he has an occupation ought to be a man, and ought never to lose his general humanity in his profession. It does seem that a man who is to be a biologist, and is never compelled to learn anything in his preliminary education for which he has not a natural aptitude and which he would not himself naturally choose, is in danger of becoming a man with a narrow horizon. On the other hand, if while he is in the elementary stages of his training he could be required to learn some things which naturally he would not choose to learn, and develop those parts of his mind where he is naturally weak, then he will in this way attain a certain intellectual symmetry, and will by and by exert far more intellect ual power in his specialty than he could possibly do if he were to omit everything which he does not wisli to study from the beginning of his training. The advocates of the old education do not at all object to special training. They do not object to special courses for specialists ; but what they do object to is the present 156 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. tendency to omit all common elements, and undertake to train men on their differ- ences. The duties of men in society, in the home, in the state, in their religious rela- tions, are as important as the relations they sustain to one another as chemists, biolo- gists, as instructors in technical schools, or practicers of any other technical art. If this be so, then to begin by omitting all education of the general elements in humanity, and to lay out a line of instruction intended to develop only particular elements, in which each man may be superior to some of his fellows, is not an improvement in edu- cation, but a sort of return to barbarism. Professor Sanford, of Stanford University, thought the whole question was whether we ought to train for symmetrical development or for effective development. A good deal could be said on the side of training a man where he will be worth more, instead of putting our application to develop powers he never had. It certainly makes a great difference as to the effect of the work we do, whether we give him a chance to develop faculties he has, or whether we try to make a mathematician of one who has not the mathematical sense at all. We all know that most men are weak in certain lines. There is some line in which they have no taste, and in which they cannot do anything. The result of years of training in mathematics may be such that some are heartily glad when they get through with it. When a man has studied anything four years and is glad to get through with it, it seems better for him never to have studied it at all. A study which will lead a man to dislike a subject, is a study that is bad. In regard to the dogmatic teaching of science, it would be hard to find a good pro- fessor of science who would maintain that the general principles of a science must first be taught dogmatically, and afterwards be proved by experiment. This is not the modern method. It is not the feeling of teachers of science. ON WHAT CONDITIONS SHOULD THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BE GIVEN? BY WILLIAM 0. SPROULL, DEAN" OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI, OHIO. Of all literary degrees, that of Doctor of Philosophy carries with it the greatest weight. It is generally believed that the possessor thereof has done something to merit the distinction. On account of the importance which it bestows upon one, and on account of the vain custom now pre- vailing of addressing by the title Doctor those thus distinguished, many exert themselves to obtain this degree as quickly and as easily as possible. Unfortunately, there are institutions ready to meet this demand, which by their charters are authorized to confer all academic degrees. Unless some check be applied, the degree of Ph.D. will become as common as some others, and those who are justly entitled thereto will be far outnum- bered by those who sought and obtained it in some expeditious way, solely for the purpose of gratifying their vanity. That this degree be not debased, two things are necessary : (1) That there be essential agreement as to the conditions on which it should be given ; and (2) that only such institutions confer this degree as are prop- erly manned and equipped. As to the conditions, it will be best to refer to those laid down by the universities of Germany. In general they are as follows : (1) The triennum ; i.e., three years' residence at German universities. (2) The preparation of a dissertation, involving original work, afterward to be : THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY. 157 printed. (3) An oral examination in one major and in two minor subjects. There is not, however, uniformity in Germany. At Heidelberg no disser- tation is required. At other places the dissertation need not be printed, but the manuscript becomes the property of the university. In Berlin the candidate must be prepared to discuss his dissertation publicly, and to defend the theses appended. There are also other differences of less value. If Professor Mommsen's charges, published in the Preussisches Jahrbuch (April, 1876, page 335), are true now, the degree can be procured from universities, which he names, merely on payment of the usual fees. Per- haps the following anecdote in circulation among German students con- firms this : The birthday of Herr Johann Schmidt was approaching. His wife was determined to make the occasion memorable, and to this end carefully saved up her pin-money. On the morning of the day, she, followed by the household, took her husband by the hand and led him into the corridor. Exultingly, yet with certain solemnity, she handed him a ponderous document, and pointed to a new door-plate on which was engraved : " Herr Johann Schmidt, Doctor der PhilosopMe." We should suggest that the conditions already mentioned be modified as follows, and be required by all institutions conferring the degree : (1) The candidate must have received a Bachelor's degree. (2) A residence of two years. (3) The presentation and acceptance of a dissertation in- volving original work. This dissertation, if accepted, must be in every case printed, bearing the names of the professors by whom it had been accepted. (4) An oral examination in one major and two minor subjects, to be conducted by at least three professors. Two years' residence should be considered as the equivalent of the Ger- man triennum, for our college graduates are at least a year in advance of those leaving the German gymnasium ; and, moreover, American stu- dents take the degree in Germany in three years without great difficulty, although they may have gone thither without any previous knowledge of the language. In reality they may not have been able to devote more han two years to their special studies. In the third condition, it should be insisted upon that the dissertation e printed with the names of those who accepted it. This last, we think, ought never to be omitted. A professor can shield himself behind the college or university and deny responsibility. This cannot be done if the dissertation bear his name. It will make a great difference to many a professor, as to the acceptance or rejection of a manuscript, if it is to be deposited in the archives, or given to the world with his indorsement. Inasmuch as the degree Ph.D. has been for a long time given for attain- ments in philosophy, language, or science, it is not a good plan to increase the number of degrees by such additions as Doctor of Science and Doctor of Letters. Several questions suggest themselves in connection with the fourth con- 158 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. dition : Should the examination be oral or written ? Should it be in one or two subjects ? Should these subjects be in the same or different depart- ments ? Should the examination in the different subjects be conducted by different professors ? We answer : The examination should be oral, for the dissertation is equivalent to a written one. It should be in three subjects, so that the student, although specializing, may not become one- sided in his specialty. The subjects should be in the same general field. The examination, even in a minor, should not be delegated to one of the other examiners, although competent. It detracts from the dignity of the occasion and of the subject, that any other than the professor in charge should perform this duty. If these conditions were required of candidates by institutions properly qualified to engage in this advanced work, the dignity and worth of the degree would be maintained and even enhanced. The giving of the degree in ahsentia — i.e., after a certain amount of private study, and on the presentation of a dissertation — cannot be sanc- tioned. Although some would in this way do meritorious work, yet the opportunity for abuse is so great that no concession in this respect should be made. Ought the degree to be given honoris causa f We answer No. On the other hand, we cannot see why certain exceptions should not be made. In many faculties there can be found professors without this degree who, nevertheless, have done original work, who are authorities in their subjects, and who themselves pass upon candidates for this degree. It would be ridiculous to expect them to comply with the conditions required of others. Exceptions could properly be made in such cases. The second proposition is by far the most important. It matters not what conditions are nominally imposed, this degree cannot be guarded so long as an institution, without reference to its qualifications, can and does bestow it. This does not mean the outright selling of the degree. There are, however, so many colleges ambitious beyond, their ability, that they are not satisfied with any narrow bounds. Not only must a faculty consist of men competent to conduct this work ; it must also be large enough, so that the proper amount of time and energy can be devoted thereto. If the undergraduate classes occupy nearly all of a professor's time, he is not able, no matter how competent, to give to advanced students that indi- vidual attention they should have. Both of these cannot be done. If attempted, one or both will be slighted, and the institution will suffer. How can a check be put upon such institutions ? No legal enactment is possible. It must be done by public opinion. There ought to be organ- ized a body consisting of the presidents or executive heads of the leading institutions, which would meet at stated times to discuss and pass upon various questions connected with colleges and universities. Some journal or magazine should be selected as its organ, or, at least, medium of com- munication with the public. This question, among the many others, DISCUSSION. 159 should be discussed by that body and answered ; namely : What institu- tions in the United States are qualified to confer the degree of Doctor of Philosophy ? This list, increased or perhaps diminished from time to time, is to be made known in the journal selected. Likewise there should be published each year the names of all successful candidates, with the names of the institutions respectively, the titles of the dissertations, and the subjects in which examinations were held. Such action would be the greatest check to the degradation of this degree. Candidates would hesi- tate long before applying to an institution which had not been approved by this board, and institutions would correct abuses, and seek to obtain its recognition. The public would be enabled in some degree to ascertain who procured their degree in some mysterious way, and who, on the other hand, were adjudged worthy thereof by institutions properly accredited. This organization should embrace also other institutions not conferring graduate degrees, for most of the questions that need to be carefully considered pertain to undergraduate work. The organization should be careful, however, to form rules for its own protection. It need scarcely be said that this body could exercise no authority in the matter under discussion. Its duty would be to designate certain institutions competent in certain departments to do this higher work, without any reference to other institutions making the same claim. These latter may or may not ask that their qualifications also be considered. If the actions of such a body be conducted with great deliberation and fairness ; if its members can judge questions without a bias in behalf of their own institutions ; if they stand for and honestly act as representatives of higher education, and not as those seeking to further the interests of this or that college or university, there will soon reign order instead of chaos ; their decisions will be looked upon by the public as final, and higher education, with all pertaining thereto, will be raised to a plane far above that on which it now stands. DISCUSSION. President Gates, of Iowa College, Iowa, thought the suggestion of the paper a bold one, that we should so far depart from our American tradition as to form some kind of an organization, to have an organ, and determine what institutions shall confer the doctor's degree, and which shall not. He did not know whether such a course was feasible, but would be very giad if the discussion could take a line which would indicate some such possibility. He had looked into the possibilities concerning legal action. There is no hope in that direction. There seems to be nothing left but an informal, non-legal organi- zation, such as has been recommended. Those who live in the East have, of course, their own problems to face, but they seem to be ignorant of the struggles which educators in the West have on hand at this point. They not only do not appreciate the situation, but they do not seem to be aware of it. There are many people who have in some way gotten the degree of Bachelor of Arts who could not get into the freshman class of a respectable college. As for the higher degree of Doctor, surely if there is a degree which in scholastic circles should be honored by being kept pure, it is the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ICO INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. It is being given unworthily ; it is being given for studies in absentia. There is an institution in the State of Illinois which has put out a paper saying that it will give the degree for one or two years' work in absentia, sometimes with an oral examination, and sometimes without it. There is another institution in- Iowa, where the graduates, in their annual meeting, have had to implore the authorities to put a stop to the practice of giving the degree of Ph.D. for a little work, and the sending in of a thesis which might be copied out of the magazines. Apparently the only way in which institutions can at present protect themselves is to put after the degree the name of the institution conferring it. Professor Fisher, of Wheaton College, Illinois, said he wished to emphasize the last speaker's words. He unfortunately belonged to a college that had advertised this degree for study in absentia, though he was happy to say that the conditions had been placed so high that no one has come and asked that he might do the work and receive the degree. There are institutions in Illinois that have conferred the degree for study in absentia, and they continue to do it. It would be well for the real universities of the country to have some plan of concerted action so as to protect the colleges against the importunities of degree seekers. Professor Hale thought the evil had been pointed out fully and courageously. There was no reason why we should not boldly mention names. He knew of two institutions, Syracuse University in New York and Allegheny College in Pennsylvania, which granted this degree without residence. The practice is absolutely indefensible, and is working great injury. Perhaps resolutions adopted by this body, if adopted by the great majority, would be valuable. President Gilman called attention to the fact that the American Philological Asso- ciation had passed resolutions endeavoring to arrest public attention and awaken public sentiment upon this matter. It might be well to appoint a committee of this Congress to correspond and co-operate with other bodies with a view to protecting the Doctor's degree. The requirements for such a degree are, in a sense, matters of detail ; but it is clear that the degree, to be maintained in its dignity, ought to stand for higher work dono in our universities, through a prolonged period, under competent men, with access to suitable laboratories and libraries. President Blanchard agreed in deprecating the too common practice of conferring degrees upon persons who are unworthy of them. Still, the main stress of the argument in this matter did not, in his judgment, lie so much between residence and non-residence at universities as between merit and demerit. If a degree is merited, it is a credit to the institution which confers it, and to the person who receives it, no matter how he may have got the attainments which have called forth that recommenda- tion ; and if a degree was not merited, it does not make any difference, for it is a dis- credit to the institution which confers it, and also to the person who receives it. On motion of President Gilman, seconded by President Gates of Iowa College and Professor Hale of the University of Chicago, the following resolution was then unani- mously adopted : Resolved, That a committee of this section be appointed to correspond and co-operate with committees of other educational and scientific bodies, which have been or may be appointed, to protect the significance of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and Doctor of Science. It was moved by Professor West that the Chairmen printed in the programme of the sessions of this Congress be appointed such a committee, and that the committee have power to add to their number. The motion was unanimously adopted. The members of the committee elected under the resolution of the Congress are as follows : President Gilman, of Johns Hopkins University, Chairman j President Angell, of the University of Michigan ; President Dwight, of Yale University ; President Harper, of the University of Chicago ; I President Low, of Columbia College ; President Patton, of Princeton University. THE RELATION OF COLLEGES TO CIVILIZATION. 161 THE RELATION OF OUR COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF OUR CIVILIZATION. BY ET. REV. JOHN J. KEAlfS, D.D., LL.D. De. Davidson, in his excellent work on ''Aristotle as an Educator," has clearly shown the difference between the notions attached to the words civilization and education during the era of the Grseco-Roman civilization, and their meaning in the Christian era, or the era of Christian civiliza- tion. In the Graeco-Roman era, civilization meant, as the etymology of the word indicates, advancement or perfection in the qualities which make a citizen. Citizen was a higher notion than man; relation to the state was the highest of human relationships. Accordingly, education meant the training of the young in those qualities which fit for citizenship. And as citizenship was the privilege of the few, and citizens formed but a small proportion of the population, it followed that civilization and education , were limited to the few. Christianity brought into the world not a less noble notion of the citi- zen, but a far nobler notion of man ; and the notions of civilization and of education were modified accordingly. The immortality of man's soul, its direct relations with the infinite and eternal Cod, gave to man's being and destiny a dignity which the Gra?co-Roman mind had totally failed to grasp. Man was still a social being, not as accidentally growing up thereto from savage or brutal conditions, but as meant and fitted for that condition by his Creator ; and thus the character and the rights and the obligations of citizenship were invested with a sacredness far beyond that involved in the Greek or Roman conception of the state. But sacred and important as are man's relationships with his fellow- mortals in those things which concern the welfare of their temporary sojourn here, still more important are those relationships shown to be which unite him with them and with his Creator in regard to those things which concern man's eternal destiny. Man, therefore, means more than the citizen ; human life means more and higher things than the rela- tion to the state called citizenship. Citizenship had risen in dignity and sacredness, but man had risen incomparably higher. So, too, has it been with the notions of civilization and education. Civilization has expanded beyond the boundaries of its mere verbal ety- mology, and has come to mean development, and, if possible, perfection in all those qualities which constitute the excellence and dignity of man. And, accordingly, education has come to mean the training of the young, not only in those qualities which fit them for their rights and duties as citizens, but also in those which fit them for all their other relation- 11 162 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. ships as social beings, and in those which pertain to their immortal des- tiny and to their relationship with God ; in a word, it means cultiva- tion in all those things which pertain to the fullest development of man, viewed in the light of all his being, all his relationships, all his rights, and all his duties. This development may require various agencies for its accomplishment, but it is all included in the true notion of edu- cation as understood in Christian civilization ; and whatever the agencies co-operating toward it, they are all working for a common end, and ought to work together harmoniously. They are co-operating to make the good citizen, but, more than that, they are co-operating for the fuller and higher perfection that makes the good man ; and to such a degree does the lower depend upon the higher, in which it is comprised, that the best way to secure the highest civilization and the best citizenship is to be careful for the development of the qualities which make the best man. This idea, given in Christian civilization, has long had to struggle with the surviving notions of the old civilization and of the barbarism which overthrew it. It is struggling with them in many parts of the world to-day. The glamour of martial glory that surrounded the old imperialism still has its charm for certain minds, and authors more highly gifted with imagination than with philosophy have bewailed the advent of Christianity as the introduction of a lower ideal. But clear-sighted reason must eventually shake itself free from every such fascination, and must recognize that the ideal of man and of humanity, of the state and of all civil and social rights, duties, and relationships, which is presented by Christian civilization, is far higher than any ideal the world ever had before Christianity appeared on earth. To strive toward that ideal, no matter how laboriously, no matter how slowly and through how many difficulties, is the destiny of the world, and the duty of every nation, and every community, and every individual that goes to make up the world. Advance in its realization is advance in civilization. Without any intention of inordinate self-exaltation, and still less with any intention of disparaging any other nation, we may still venture to assert, in all thankfulness to God, and to the good and noble men who were His instruments in the formulation of our country and principles, that the American ideal comes closer to the ideal embodied in Christian civilization than does that of any other national organization that we know of. The American ideal of the relation between the citizen and the man is the truest ; therefore our ideals of civilization and of education should also be the truest. Other nations may show more of artistic genius and skill in bodying forth forms of beauty in marble, on canvas, or in artistic expression of lofty thoughts, whether in poetry or prose. None of these things do we undervalue ; we acknowledge that they are integral elements in the full development of civilization ; we are resolved not to neglect them ; nay, more, in as far as they belong to real advance THE RELATION OF COLLEGES TO CIVILIZATION. 163 in civilization — for sometimes, alas ! they assume forms which indicate its decay— thus far, and, please God, no farther, we are trustfully deter- mined, as our World's Fair sufficiently indicates, that we shall yet attain to such artistic excellence too. But meanwhile we are content to know that these are only the external vesture and adornments of civilization ; that its essence lies deeper and higher far than that ; and that essence we believe that we hold in our ideal of the citizen and the man. But we have lately heard a note of warning which no American who loves his country can afford to ignore. The warning I allude to came to us from Mr. Gladstone. Viewing the magnificent proportions which our country is sure to assume within the next century, and forecasting the tremendous influence which she must necessarily exert on the civilized world, he reminds us that this influence may be either a curse or a bless- ing to mankind, according to the spirit in which it is exerted. He asks which is it to be ? And he answers : " This depends not on what sort of a producer, but on what sort of a man, the American of the future is to be." His answer is not only a forcible assertion of all that has just been said about the true notion of civilization, but is also a solemn warning lest we overlook it ; perhaps, even, a friendly intimation of his dread lest, in our eager, almost feverish, endeavor to master and develop our country's won- drous resources, "we may have been intent on forming " producers" rather than on forming "men." This, we can easily recognize, would be the destruction of the civilization which is our country's birthright and des- tiny. As man means more than citizen, a fortiori man means more than producer. To forget this, to fall to so low an aim and ideal, would be not only to fall back to the insufficient Graeco-Roman ideal, but to fall far below it. Our civilization depends on our bearing this in mind, and shap- ing our ideal and system of education accordingly. What, then, does all this mean practically ? We have seen that the dif- ference in the systems of civilization arises from their different estimate of man — from a difference of philosophy concerning man. Human action is governed by ideas : a wrong philosophy must be the bane of a people ; a true philosophy, in as far as action is shaped by it, is the security of nobleness and prosperity. Hence the all-important thing is to make sure that we*hold the right philosophy concerning man, and that the rising generations be molded in it both as to their intellectual convictions and as to all their practical aims in life. But history and reason both show manifestly that the only such philosophy concerning man is that which is embodied in the Christian religion. Therefore, practically, the right molding of our people, the right shaping of our civilization, the right directing of our nation's energies, and the right attaining of her destiny depend on this, that our people's ideas should be shaped and their lives molded in the philosophy embodied in the Christian religion. If logic leads to any conclusion, it leads to this. 164 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. But now see the shape which this assumes for us college and university men. During the period of primary education, this molding of ideas and character, this shaping and directing of life, may largely be accomplished by the agencies of home and of Church. But in proportion as the youth advances to manhood, and not only learns to think for himself, but insists on thinking for himself, the result must largely, even chiefly, depend on the agencies which train him to think, which supply him with most of what he thinks about, which with almost irresistible, all-pervading influ- ence, gives shape and color and direction to his thinking ; and these agencies are, unquestionably, chiefly comprised in his college, his univer- sity. Nay, more, he who goes forth as the alumnus of a college or uni- versity of note must naturally be expected to be a man of more than ordinary influence in the community. Of him we must ask what Glad- stone asks about our country : What will be the manner of his influence on his fellow-men ? And we must likewise answer : That depends on the kind of a man his university has made him. And thus we are led, by step after step of inexorable logic, to the conclusion which so intimately con- cerns us, that the shaping of our civilization must very largely depend on our colleges and universities ; that the character of that shaping must depend on the character of the philosophy which prevails in them ; that no philosophy can rightly mold humanity, save the philosophy of the Christian religion ; and that, therefore, the sound development of our civilization must largely depend on the reign and influence of the Chris- tian religion — from which that philosophy is inseparable — in our colleges and universities. How to bring this into practical shape and working may often be ren- dered difficult by local circumstances. But there is a great advance toward the solution of the momentous problem if these truths themselves are clearly and strongly grasped. We must aim at forming skilful pro- ducers ; we must aim at forming worthy and loyal citizens ; but above all this, and as the means and condition for all this, we must aim at forming the truest type of men ; and the only efficient way for the attainment of this, the only way which, after all the experience of history, we ought to think it worth our while to try, is the way which God has taught the world through Jesus Christ. CLOSING ADDRESS. BY PRESIDENT JAMES B. ANGELL, OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN". The committee, in communicating the invitation with which they honored me, to occupy a few moments here to-day, intimated their desire that whatever should be spoken should have more or less direct connec- tion with the question of patriotism ; and it has seemed to me, especially CLOSING ADDRESS. 165 after hearing the paper of Bishop Keane, which has laid so broad a founda- tion of the general subject of education, that perhaps I could not do better, especially in this section devoted to higher education, than to drop two or three hints upon the points which especially concern us who are connected with college and university work. These hints have been stirred in my own mind by criticisms which I have often heard, and which I do not doubt you have all heard, upon the great liberality with which institu- tions of higher learning have been established and supported, whether by private munificence or the resources of the state. I have heard it inti- mated more than once, by those who are so justly zealous in the support of our great and free system of public education, which we all believe is destined to endure to the end of time, and in commendation of which no words can be too strong — I have heard it intimated more than once, that while it may be very wise for the states and for citizens to pour out their treasures in the support of these schools, which go to educate the great masses of the people, and to give them that necessary outfit for citizenship which we all believe every person should possess, that these institutions of higher education, if not an absolute luxury, have not that close relation with the great duties of citizenship or with the prosperity and welfare of our country, that we so gladly ascribe to the system of our lower schools. Now, it seems to me that that is a most injurious and incorrect view of the subject. I shall not attempt to discuss the points at length which I shall raise, because in this presence I am sure prolonged discussion of them is not at all needful. You are all well aware — we may say this at the outset to such critics — you are all well aware that, historically, the great institu- tions of higher learning have in all lands preceded the growth of public common education. These are the fountains from which the streams have flowed forth and irrigated and fertilized these humble schools. That state- ment, I think, cannot be challenged. I wish, also, in the next place, to call your attention to this fact, that there is a conception which seems to lie in many minds that the higher education is a gift made to certain elect men and women especially, and we might almost say it is viewed as though given solely for the help and elevation of these men and women, and that, therefore, this is not a bless- ing to the public in the same sense that an elementary education is. I say, I believe that this is a very erroneous conception. It is true that the men and women who have the good-fortune to secure a higher training them- selves are built up and edified thereby, but I believe it is true that no men and no women who have truly reaped the benefits of higher education fail to give to the communities in which they dwell far more than they have received themselves. They are benefactors of the public even more than they have been benefited by the public. Education, learning, scholarship, is a thing which one cannot hoard up like silver and gold. The more you ask, the more there will be to give. 166 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The more any one of us carries away from college or university, the more he is constantly bestowing on all those who are about us. And to come a little more particularly to our present condition, I think we may emphasize this statement with something more than ordinary force. One might well say there have been eras in the history of our country when everything went on as it were by routine, when a few leaders led the people upon great public questions. When we had the old-fashioned Whig and Democratic party, nobody ever thought of having any ideas, except those who had inherited them, upon political questions, and he was pretty safe in sticking to them. And so it was in respect to many ethical questions. So it was in respect to economic questions. Bat look out on the world to-day, and see what a caldron it is in respect to all these questions ; how all political questions are stirred to the very bottom ; how even ethical positions that have been standing by prescrip- tion and tradition almost from the foundation of the world, are to- day challenged and made to stand up and answer for themselves, and testify for themselves ; how the economic conditions which have come down to us from the past are to-day, we may say, in a state of unstable equilibrium. The air is full of these questions concerning every sort of problem, and if ever there was a time when we needed to have dissemi- nated in all parts of our communities men and women with disciplined minds, who can take up these questions, and study them for themselves, and guide their children in the study of them, this is the time. The nation is full of the wildest agitators, preaching every sort of heresy on every sort of theme. Where shall be found the sane, rational, and disci- plined men and women to guide the multitude who have not been accus- tomed to consider such questions ? Why, the very theory of our republi- can form of government is that every man shall know how to meet these questions that are thrown upon him. And therefore I say to you tp-day, as never before, is it true that not only in these great centres of popula- tion, but also in the smaller villages and in the hamlets, in the farming districts, which perhaps in some respects are particularly afflicted just now with troubles of this sort, everywhere, if this nation is to stand, prosper, and go forward with sanity and reason, we must have all the trained and disciplined men arid women we can possibly muster into the ranks to go among them and teach. Now, that is what higher education is trying to do. One more thought, and then I will relieve your patience. If there is any danger to this country, greater at this time than any other, if there could be a position more dangerous than any other, it would be one in which we should have a small class of rich and educated men and a great class of poor and uneducated men and women. The gap is wide enough between these people to-day. In that gap there are perils to-day greater than any of us can measure. There is not one of us here who lies CLOSING ADDRESS. 16? down at night without thinking, with solicitude and dread, of the possi- bilities that are before us in the presence of the great economic problems centred right here, of the rich growing richer and the poor growing poorer in this country. And now, if you are to keep this up forever, and if you are to widen this gulf by saving the higher education for the rich alone, and remand the poor boys and girls to the wilderness of ignorance, God have mercy on this land ! Who knows what is before us ? But if you can make it possible, as it is still possible to-day, if you can open the doors of the highest colleges and universities to a large number of poor boys and girls, as well as to the rich, you need not cherish longer this solicitude. The poor boy, with the brains under his hat and crutch under his arm, will soon vindicate his position and show that he is the equal of the boys beside him on the bench. He will go forth with his mind calm, and his colleagues and friends in life will be soothed and calmed by the reflection that to nearly every one this path is also clear and open. And here is one of the great justifications for making our higher education as free and open as it is possible to make it, to every boy and gfrl oh our soil. And when your rich friends are challenged because they are jstowing their millions in the endowment of colleges and universities, I think you need only call attention to this fact ; and when the states are challenged because they are taxing their citizens for the support of higher education, my answer is right there — it is for your poor boys and girls ; really, it is for the same boys and girls you are taxing yourselves to sup- port common schools, and that argument, in my judgment, is perfectly unanswerable. I fully respond to the words which my predecessor has uttered here to- day, about this large view of citizenship and manhood which is opened upon us in this Christian era, concerning education and concerning life. I believe that our public higher institutions of learning are doing their full part in maintaining it. I cannot, therefore, but believe that, firm as is my faith in the durability of our public-school system, I cannot but renewr my expression of the fullest faith that the day will never come when )ur people will be so blind to their highest interests, so blind to the high- est interests of our pu"blic schools themselves, as to cripple in any way our miversities and our colleges. CLOSING REMARKS, BY PRESIDENTS G1LMAN AND HARPER. President Gilman : It has been a most inspiring thing to attend the 3ongress, and see so many college presidents and so many college pro- fessors and so many representatives of the best seats of learning, the oldest and the newest, assembled to consider what is wisest and best for American education. I do not believe that such a gathering as has been held in this room for the last three days had ever been seen in this coun- try. There had been larger gatherings, there had been select gatherings, 168 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. but such a comprehensive representation of universities and colleges of the land had not been brought together. We are particularly indebted to Dr. Harris, Commissioner of Education at Washington, for the great pains he has taken. Let us also remember the fact that the city of Chicago, which had been engaged in endowing a great university, as well as organizing the magnificent exhibit of the Columbian Exposition, had included in that Exposition not only the industries and manufactures, but the results of human thought, of the liberal arts, and had also erected the beautiful building in which the congress has been held, as a home of art and cul- tivation for the future. President Harper, of the University of Chicago, said : I have enjoyed the discussions and papers of the congress greatly. The city of Chicago, which for the fifty years of its history had been doing educational work not only in schools, but in the school of life, had lately added to its achievements the founding of its university. One thought, speaking as a university man, I desire to express before the congress separates : In both the colleges and universities which comprise our higher education, although we lay emphasis in the college upon discipline of mind, and lay emphasis in the university upon investigation and research, still the greatest thing in both is character, and it is this in its strong sense that is to contribute to the progress of our civilization ; and college men, whether college presidents or college professors, must remember that it is only men who have character that can develop character. Should not all our institutions therefore see to it, above all things else, that there shall be in every man who occupies a professor's chair this thing which means so much and which is so hard to describe — this thing called character ? One of the greatest blessings to the city of Chicago in all its history has been this coming together of many congresses, and no congress has been more welcome or more successful than that on higher education. THE STUDY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN FRENCH UNIVERSITIES* BY M. ANDRE L. CHEVRILLON, PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN THE FACULTE DES LETTRES OF LILLE, AND DELEGATE FROM THE MINISTER OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, FRANCE. M. Compayre has given a short sketch of the work of reorganization which our French universities f have gone through during the past twenty years. In this work of reorganization, the study of foreign literatures * This paper, prepared for the Congress of Higher Education, was not read before that depp.rtment, by some misunderstanding as to the time of the sessions, but it has been secured for publication in this Report. t Though the word university is used for the sake of brevity throughout this paper, there are no universities, properly speaking, in France, but sixteen groups of faculties located in the chief towns, ENGLISH LITERATURE IN FRENCH UNIVERSITIES. 169 has not been forgotten, and perhaps in no other branch of the literary studies has such progress been achieved. The main function of the faculties of letters and sciences in our uni- versities has been hitherto to prepare masters for the government lycees, so that the courses of studies in these faculties are shaped to meet the requirements of our secondary education. Now the tendency of our secondary education, that is to say, in those schools which form the minds and intellects of hundreds of thousands of Frenchmen, is at present to develop the study of foreign languages at the expense of the classical languages. A new Bachelor's degree* has just been created for which no Greek is required, whilst both English and German have been made neces- sary. In the usual public school courses either English or German must be selected by the pupils. The tendency so far in those schools has been to select German, and among the men who have been through the lycees during the last fifteen years, you will find two who can wade their way through German to one who can read English. This, I believe, seems now to have been a mistake ; and I think we may anticipate a reaction in favor of English, both in the public schools and in the universities. Indeed, in the universities the balance is already in favor of English ; in Paris and at Lille the courses of English literature are now attended by a greater number of students than those of German, and I cannot help thinking that this is very fortunate. In the first place, the very process of think- ing is so different in a French and in a German mind, that for the French student too long a study of the German writers, too continuous an effort to adapt himself to the German habits of thought and of speech, may result — as in the famous case of Henri Frederic Amiel — in a fatal twist of the thinking faculties. The mental differences of the two races are so great, that a healthy intellectual cross between them is hardly possible. The old French art of writing and reasoning with method and accuracy, that of which a Pascal in his Provincial Letters, a Condillac in his Langue des Calculs, a Taine in his Philosophy of Art, have been masters nearly as perfect as the Greek, will always remain the ideal towards which a French literary student is striving ; and this art is something so peculiar, so delicate, that a foreigner can hardly realize what it is, and that a French student who for years — as a candidate to the Agregation iVAlle- mand has to do — lived in Germany, and has been attempting to reproduce in his own brains the German process of thinking, must give up all hope of attaining this French ideal. To a Frenchman, however great his respect for the great geniuses of Germany, a German sentence will always be like a railroad tunnel : there is light at the begiuning, and each group consisting of a faculty of letters, faculty of science, faculty of medicine, and faculty of law. The general council of the faculties is for each group the common bond between the lour faculties. Each of these groups is really a university, though the word is not used in Prance. * The " baccalaureat modtrne." 170 LMERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. there is light at the end, but in the middle there is nothing but darkness. Surely, every student must have been through a good many of those tunnels. He must have mastered German as a scientific instrument ; as a key to vast stores of historical and philological knowledge ; and in that sense German is required from our candidates to all the higher degrees in history, philology, or philosophy. But again, the structure of the French mental eye is such that it cannot live for a long, continuous period in those tunnels, make its usual abode in them, without danger to its own peculiar native faculties. On the contrary, between the average English process of thought and the French methods, the differences of thought are but slight. Whether this is due to the Celtic element in the English blood, or to the Norman conquest, or to the combined influences of the French writers in England at the end of the seventeenth century, and of the English writers in France in the middle of the eighteenth, is not a question which I can enter upon now. But such writers as Addison, Swift, Pope, Hume, Gib- bon, Eobertson, the best of the Edinburgh re-viewers, also Macaulay and Stuart Mill, belong to the classical and Latin type of thinkers. The build of their sentences, the frame of their paragraphs, their mental trains, constructions, and connections, are the same as ours. With these writers a young French mind can live for years without any distortion of his own national tendencies and personality. The other great reason why English literature is now and will become more and more in our universities the most important branch of foreign studies is its superiority as a great literature. Only two other literatures — the Greek and the French — have had the same range, the same width, the same variety, and, especially, the same continuity of development. Other literatures — the Latin, the German, the Italian — are broken by long gaps which stretch sometimes over several centuries. With a short eclipse in the fifteenth, the English literature from Beowulf to Eudyard Kipling covers an uninterrupted twelve hundred years, during which, in poetry, in philosophy, in the drama, in history, in theology, in romance and novel writing, through Langland, Chaucer, Ascham, Sidney, Spenser, Shakespeare, Bacon, Hobbes, Milton, Addison, Swift, Thomson, Fielding, Burke, Wordsworth, Shelley, Eliot, the Brownings, Carlyle, Tennyson, and let me add also the names of Longfellow, of Edgar Poe, of Haw- thorne, of Emerson, of Lowell, to mention only the great landmarks which are planted along the tide of centuries, the Anglo-Saxon mind has manifested itself and may be studied through all its variations, through all the stages of its development. To the philosopher and to the his- torian this is one of the most complete experiments which nature has carried on, and one of the fields which afford the best opportunities for minute and connected observation. ENGLISH LITERATURE IN FRENCH UNIVERSITIES. 171 II. Let me now briefly sketch the educational progress which has been made in our universities toward a more thorough understanding of English writers. As I said before, the movement is recent and quite unknown abroad. The Englishman, Avho does not see the beam in his own eye more often than we do in ours, looks upon us as outrageously ignorant of anything besides ourselves. I remember, a few years ago, reading an article in the great English Philistine paper — the" Daily Tele- graph " — in which it was said that the great majority of French people thought that Shakespeare was a lieutenant of Wellington, who had helped him to win the battle of Waterloo. Now, this was uufortunate, as not less than four plays of Shakespeare had just been performed in Paris. But the prejudice under which the writer in the " Daily Telegraph " was laboring is perfectly natural, when we notice that a nation never knows what its neighbor is, but what it was twenty years ago. Well, twenty or thirty years ago French boys and students wrote better Latin verse than they do now, but of English literature they knew nothing, ex- cept the names of Shakespeare, Milton, and Byron. Our great arch- critic, Sarcey, says that they made fun of Taine at the Flcole Normale because he was reading English. Foreign literatures were, indeed, sup- posed to be taught ; but any man who had graduated in classics, whether he knew English or not, was supposed to be good enough for that kind of work. When he left the Ecole Normale, after a course of studies in Plato and Aristotle, he would receive notice that he was appointed pro- fessor of foreign literatures, and had to begin work at once. One of these, I believe, it was who was complaining of the difficulties of his task. "What a language," he said, "English is to pronounce! They write Boz and they pronounce Dickens." M. Ernest Lavisse, who has seen this generation of professors of English literature, was telling me, the other day, the following authentic and typical fact : When he was a student at Nancy, at the faculty of letters, he heard a lecture on the literature of England in the sixteenth century. After three-quarters of an hour the professor had exhausted his subject, but his time was not up. I Gentlemen," he said, pulling out his watch, "we have a quarter of an •ur yet. We have time to do Shakespeare." Let us now go into some technical details that will allow us to realize e progress made in this department of literary studies. When a French uth leaves the lycee, after having passed his B.A., or baccalaureat lettres, for which one foreign language at least is demanded, and goes to the Itiversity, the first degree he has to face is that of licentiate, for which a urse of two years is necessary. At once he begins to specialize ; that is say, that side by side with the classics he may take up English or Ger- 172 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. man literature, philosophy, history, or classical philology. Every candi- date for the licence has to write a French essay on French literature, a Latin essay on Latin literature. Then, according to the specialty he has selected, he writes papers on historical or philosophical subjects, or trans- lations from French into English or German, or from English or German into French. The viva voce examination consists, for all candidates, in questions on French, Latin, and Greek literature, and extempore transla- tions from the classics ; and for those of the candidates who make English a special subject, in questions on English literature, and translations into English and French of the French and English authors on the pro- gramme. As I said, the course of studies for the licence, which would correspond to your A. M., and which is usually taken at the age of twenty-one or twenty-two, is of two years ; the first year consisting in study at the university, where the candidate attends the lectures of the professors of French, Latin, Greek, and English, if English is his special part. During this first year, the chief purpose of the English professor is not so much to acquaint him with the whole field of English literature as to give him an insight into the spirit, the genius, of English literature, and to make him feel the artistic element in the great writers. A French youth, fresh from his Tacitus, his Eacine, and his Voltaire, cannot, unless he has great natural talent, understand, or, rather, feel at once Carlyle or Tennyson. This is done through minute translations, the aim of which is not to acquaint the student with new words or new constructions, but to teach him how to find those French forms that will best express some- thing of the beauty peculiar to the original English text. The tendency is thus to develop the artistic sense in the student, and to give him a mastery of his own language. At the last examination for the licence, at Lille, the English translation being Milton's "II Penseroso," several candidates were dropped who had understood every word and the literal meaning of the text, but it was clear from their translations that they had not felt the spirit of Milton's poem, or had failed to express it. The second year, preparatory to the licence, is a special feature. An exhibition is given to the most meritorious students ; they are simply turned out of the univer- sity and sent to England for twelve months. They remain correspondents of the university ; that is to say, they have to seud papers to the professors of French, Greek, and Latin, thus preparing themselves for those general parts of the licence which are demanded of all candidates to the degree With the English professor they of course correspond also, and the main thing that he requires them to do is to steep themselves in English life — to go to the theatres, sermons, public meetings, to see English uni versity life, to make English friends, to think in English, to assume Eng lish forms of habit and prejudices — in short, for one year to throw off the Frenchman, to make themselves Englishmen, and to step out of the natural limits of the national mind and sensibility. After this experi ENGLISH LITERATURE IN FRENCH UNIVERSITIES. 173 ence, when they come back to France and settle into the old man again, they have become able to look at English writers from the English point of view. As you see, the licence is but a first step. During these two years the student has only began to specialize ; side by side with his English studies he has carried on his literary studies in French, Greek, and Latin. He has learnt English and developed a taste for English literature, but he is not an English scholar yet. This he becomes when he prepares for the agregation. The agregation is the degree which will entitle him to be appointed master, or, as we say, professeur, in one of the govern- ment's lycees for secondary education. The number of possible appoint- ments being, of course, limited, the agregation is more of a competition than of an examination, and the number of candidates increasing every year, it has developed into a very severe test indeed. We have several kinds of agregation in the literary department— one for history, one for philosophy, one for philology, one for helles-lettres and classics, one for German, and one for English. Each of these examinations is strictly special. Let us see what the agregation for English consists of. The course of studies is at least of two years after the licence, and often more, as such a limited number of students get through. The list of authors for the examination is changed every year, and as the lectures and papers during the terms bear on the authors appointed for the examination at the end of the year, every candidate, when he attempts the agregation, has gone through two of those lists. The following is the programme of authors for this year : William Langland. — "Piers the Plowman." The extracts given in Specimens of Early English, by the Rev. Richard Morris and the Rev. Walter W. Skeat. (Part II. From Robert of Gloucester to Gower.) Clarendon Press. Spenser. — "Epithalamion," " Prothalamion : " " Fowre Hymnes : An Hymne in Honour of Love ; An Hymne in Honour of Beauty ; An Hymne of Heavenly Love ; An Hymne of Heavenly Beauty." Greene. —"Honourable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay/' edited by A. W. Ward. Clarendon Press. Shakespeare. — "Much Ado about Nothing." Sir Thomas Browne. — " Hydriotaphia : A Letter to a Friend, upon occasion of the Death of his Intimate Friend." Pope.—" The Rape of the Lock." Cowper. — "Letters." (Golden Treasury Series.) Burke. — " Reflections on the Revolution in France." Byron. — " Cain. A Mystery." Walter Savage Landor. — "Imaginary Conversations." (The Camelot Classics.) 174 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION "The Lady of Shalott," " Mariana in the South," " Eleanore," "CEnone," " The Palace of Art," " The Lotos Eaters," "A Dream of Fair Women," "The Brook." George Meredith. — " The Ordeal of Kichard Feverel." As you see, this programme consists of representative authors, each of whom is taken as a specimen from a group of writers belonging to the same century and to the same literary species. Langland, for instance, belongs to a group composed of Langland, Chaucer, Gower. Greene belongs to a group composed of Marlowe, Peele, Greene ; Ford to a group composed of Webster, Massinger, Beaumont, Fletcher, etc. Near Smollett are Fielding, Sterne, Richardson ; near Byron are Shelley, Wordswort Keats, etc. Now, when a particular work of a particular writer is me tioned on the programme, it means that the candidate will be minutely examined on that work and that writer, and generally on the authors belonging to the same group. So that, when after two years the candi- date has gone through two of those lists, he may be said to have a thor- ough knowledge of representative writers studied from the historical, the grammatical, the artistic point of view, and a good general knowledge of the whole range of the literature. The examination consists (1) of an English essay on some point of English philology, for which seven hours are allowed ; (2) of a French essay on some point of English literature, seven hours ; (3) of a written translation from English into French, four hours ; (4) of a written translation from French into English, four hours. The viva voce part consists (1) of a lecture in English on some point of English philology connected with one of the authors on the programme ; (2) of a lecture in French on some point of literature connected with the programme ; (3) of translations into good French and good English ; (4) of an extempore translation from some German standard authors. The courses of studies at. the university for candidates preparing the degree consist of lectures in French and English on English literature and philology, both by the students and by the professor ; of English and French essays ; of translations ; of a careful philological study of the works on the programme. Some of the papers given this year at Lille were the following: In French, "Burke's Social Philosophy in his Reflections on the French Revolution," "Byron as a Dramatist," "The Psychologi- cal Development of Madness in King Lear." In English, "Langland',-; Grammar," " Method of Metrical Tests applied to Shakespeare," " Chief Characteristics of English Prose Writing from Lily to Dryden." Trans- lations were from Shakespeare, Ruskin, Tennyson, Carlyle, with a view to furthering the student's command of French. Such is the training given to students of English literature in the French universities, and we hope that it will have two great results. In the first place, most of those young masters who have gone through the ENGLISH LITERATURE IN FRENCH UNIVERSITIES. 175 agregation do not leave their English studies, but, taking up a particular point, write one of those careful, scholarly books which are the French theses for the doctor's degree. These theses are not students' work, nor ire they prepared at the university. They are the works of scholars who spend years over them, and who are not satisfied until they have exhausted their subject. Thus it is that my colleague at Lille, M. Angelier, has just issued his thesis, a book of twelve hundred thick pages, on the work, life, >nd surroundings of Robert Burns. M. Jusserand's book on English way- faring life in the fourteenth century is a thesis. So is Professor Beljame's The Public and the Men of Letters in England in the Eighteenth Cen- lry." In the second place, from this university teaching, as from a higher source, the knowledge of and the taste for English literature will spread through the secondary schools over the great reading middle class. Nothing could be more fortunate. In these days, when the study of the classics is threatened, what the study of German, upon which most of French boys have been thrown for the last twenty years, has failed to do, the knowledge of English literature will accomplish. It will open to them a vast field of interesting, often passionating, artistic literature, instinct with the loftiest ideals, with the deepest human sympathy; full of pathos, of feeling, of life ; full of the sense of the good, of the righteous, of religious earnestness, as ours is full with the sense of the true and of the beautiful — one of the most powerful to instill into a young mind the germs that will develop upwards. In France thousands of grown-up people of the average cast, who are neither poets nor scientists nor philologists, do not know what to do with what German they have painfully learned at school. They have an occasional look at their Faust, at their Schiller, at their Heine ; but the German novelists and essayists are not numerous or con- spicuous enough to tempt them to go on. But let the large public have a taste of the modern English novel, and through Dickens, through Charlotte Bronte, through Thackeray, through George Eliot, through Mrs. Gaskell, through Kingsley, through Mrs. H. Ward — through all these great artists and preachers, they will be enticed to read on. The demand for the English books of the Tauchnitz continental edition will become larger and larger. The modern novels of England, the pure, idealistic utterings of a Carlvle, of a Tennyson, of an Emerson, are among the greatest means of education of the present time. Of course, the first thing for a Frenchman — for every man — is to remain in contact with his own race ; to read those writers of the past that have molded the soul and mind of his own nation, and those writers of the present that discuss the problems which the people of his own blood have to solve in order to live on and to transmit to their posterity the national inheritance. But when he has done that, let him turn to those foreign books in which he finds an ideal, a philosophy, an aesthetics — views of life widely different from those that prevail in the French books of his own time. The national ideal will then cease to 176 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. appear to him as a central one toward which the whole universe ought to be moved. On that day when he becomes able to enjoy a novel of Eliot as well as a novel of Flaubert — nay, on that day when he enjoys the very difference between the two types of novel — let him be a business man or a bourgeois, he is a man of broader culture, in the true sense of the word, than the scholar who, as Dr. Harris was saying the other day, devotes his life to the study of the dative case. DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION. SECRETARY'S REPORT. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday, July 26, 1893. The Congress of Secondary Education met in Hall 22, at 10 o'clock a.m., Wed- lesday, July 26, 1893. The meeting was called to order by Ray Greene Huling, of Cambridge, Mass. He made an opening address, introducing the president of this lepartment, Dr. James C. Mackenzie, of Lawrenceville, N. J., who read a paper on " Supervision of Private Schools by the State or Municipal Authority." This subject was discussed by G. N. Carman, of Chicago, 111. ; by E. W. Coy, of Cincinnati, Ohio ; by Charles C. Ramsey, of Fall River, Mass ; by H. L. Boltwood, of Cvanston, 111. ; Miss Ziramern, of England ; Frank Plummer, of Des Moines, Iowa ; W. Poynter, Shelbyville, Ky. ; R. E. Cutler, of Chicago ; W. H. Bartholomew, of Louis- ille, Ky. ; and Charles E. Putney, of St. Johnsbury, Vt. Dr. W. T. Reid, Head Master of the Belmont School, Belmont, Cal. , read a paper on le following thesis : " The course of study in secondary schools designed simply to arepare pupils for life (or designed as a finishing school) : should it be different from that designed to prepare students for college or the professional school ? " This paper ras not furnished for publication. It was briefly discussed, and followed by a paper on " The Course of Study in Secondary Schools," by G. N. Carman, Dean of the Morgan ?ark Academy, of the University of Chicago ; after which the meeting adjourned to July 27th. SECOND SESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893. The second session of the Congress of Secondary Education was called to order by the president, Dr. James C. Mackenzie, at 9.30 a.m., Thursday, July 27, 1893. The irst paper was by Dr. C. F. P. Bancroft, of Andover, Mass., on the thesis : "Should the amount of time given to languages in our secondary schools (as they are) be dimin- shed, in order to make room for a more extended course in physics, botany, and chem- try ? " Dr. Bancroft was unable to be present, and his valuable paper was read by Ir. Huling. This was followed with a paper by Dr. D. W. Abercrombie, of Worcester, lass., on "Should Language Studies be limited in Secondary Schools, as they are, in le Interests of the Sciences ? " The subjects of the papers by Dr. Bancroft and Dr. Lbercrombie were discussed by W. T. Poynter, of Shelbyville, Ky. ; by Dr. Moses lerrill, Head Master of the Public Latin School of Boston, Mass. ; Mr. Boltwood, of Svanston, 111. ; by the chairman, Dr. Mackenzie ; by W. H. Snyder, of Worcester, Mass.; jy R. E. Cutler, of Chicago ; by Dr. Edward Osterburg, of Sweden ; by Miss Cordelia arkland, of San Francisco, Cal. A paper was read by Mile. Marie Dugard, of Paris, on " The Secondary Education of 12 178 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Girls in France." This paper was discussed by M. Buisson, of France ; by Dr. Mac- kenzie, of New Jersey ; and Will S. Monroe, of California. The meeting then adjourned until Friday morning, July 28th. THIRD SESSION— Thursday, July 28, 1893. The third session of the Congress of Secondary Education was called to order at 9.30 a.m., Friday, July 28, 1893, by the president, Dr. Mackenzie. The following thesis : " Should algebra or geometry come first in the course of study of secondary schools ?" was presented, and the discussion was opened by Superintendent W. N. Hartman, of La Porte, Ind. He was followed by AmyRayson, of New York ; by H. H. Spayd, of Minersville, Pa. ; by Edward G-. Howe, of Chicago ; by W. H. Bartholomew, of Louisville, Ky. ; W. T. Poynter, of Shelby ville, Ky. ; by Professor William E. Story, of Worcester, Mass. ; and by John H. Patrick, of Anderson, S. C. A paper prepared by Mary Gurney and Rose Kingsley, of England, on " High school for Girls in England," was read by Miss Zimmern. This paper was followed by a dis- cussion on the following thesis: "In cases where a choice should be made, which should come first, Latin or some modern language, in the course of study of secondary schools ? " This discussion was opened by Dr. C. W. Pearson, of Beloit College, Wis. W. Wil- berforee Smith, of Englewood, N. J., followed with a paper on "Which should come first, Latin or some modern language ? " This subject was further discussed by Ray Greene Huling, of Cambridge, Mass. ; by Dr. Mackenzie, of Lawrenceville, N. J. ; by Mr. Boltwood, of Evanston, 111.; by Mr. Poynter, of Shelbyville, Ky.; by Mr. Bartholomew, of Louisville, Ky., and by the Chairman. After which the session of the Congress of Secondary Education adjourned sine die. LIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONOR- ARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION. AUSTRIA. Dr. Ignaz Pokorny, Director State Gymnasium, Brunn. Dr. J. K. Hackspiel, Director of Gymnasium, Prague. CANADA. Rev. E. J. Rexford, B.A., Head Master High School of Montreal, Montreal. John Seath, Esq., B.A., High School Inspector, Toronto, Ontario. CUBA. Sefior Mannel Valdes Rodriguez, Manuel," Havana. Instituto San FINLAND. Froken Elisabeth Blomqvist, Principal of " Sven- ska Fruntimmers-Skolan ochFortbildungslaro- verket" (Principal of Swedish School for Wo- men and Continuation Schools), Helsingfor6. FRANCE. M. Georges Edon, Lycee Henri IV., Paris. M. M J. Gaufrcs, Member of Municipal Council of Paris. M. A. Godart, Director of " Ecole Monge." M. Delaunay Selleville, President Chamber of Commerce, Paris. M. Ernest Lourdelet, Member of Chamber of Com- merce, Paris. Dr. Gabriel Compayre, Rector Academy of Poi- tiers. Mile. M. Dugard, Prof. Lycee Moliere, Paris; Dele- gate of France. M. Gauthiot, Lycee Henri IV., Paris. GERMANY. Dr. Eitner, Director, Gymnasium, GOrlitz. Prof. Dr. Th.Hartwig, Director Royal Gymnasium, Frankfort. Dr. G. Holzmuller, Director Commercial School, Hagen. Prof. F. Horneman, Lyceum of Hanover. Dr. O. Jaeger, Director of Friedrich-Wilhelm Gym- nasium, Cologne. Prof. Dr. Otto Kaemmel, Rector Gymnasium, Leip- zig. Dr. W. Matthias, Director Real-Gymnasium, Diis- seldorf. Prof. Dr. G. E. Miiller, Councilor of Education, Univ. Gottingen. Dr. Oesterien, Rector Eberh. Ludw. Gymnasium, Stuttgart. Prof. Dr. Rehmke, University, Greifswald. LIST OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS. 179 E. Schanenbur^. Director Gymnasium, Coun- cilor, Crefeld. Dr Hermann Schiller, Giessen. Dr. Schlee, Director Real-Gymnasium, Altona. Dr. R. Schornstein, Director Girls' High School, Elberfeld. Dr. SchottmOller, Councilor, Berlin. Dr. Wilh. Schrader, State Councilor and Curator at Univ. Halle. Dr. Schumann. Rector Real-School, Stuttgart. Dr. Uellner, Director Girls' Hiyh School, Dtlssel- dorf. Prof. Dr. G. Uhlig, Director Gymnasium and Prof. in Univ. Heidelberg. Prof. Dr. D. Volkmann, Rector Public School, Pfort.i. Dr. G. Schulze, Director R. Franz-Gymnasium, Berlin. SWITZERLAND. Herr Pfarrer Jac. Christinger, School Inspector, Huttlingen. Herr Albert Lflscher, Rector Gymnasium, Berne. Prof. Dr. Chr. Vogel, Rector Real-School, Geneva. URUGUAY. SeSor Don Claudio Williman, Montevideo. UNITED STATES. ALABAMA. J. H. Riddle, Ashland College, Ashland. GREAT BRITAIN. ENGLAND. Mr. Victor Betis, London. Miss Frances Buss, North London Collegiate School for Girls. Rev. G. D. Mathews, D.D., London. Rev. H. W. Moss, M.A., Head Master Shrewsbury School, Shrewsbury. Edward Hale, Eton College. Rev. H. A. James, Principal The College, Chelten- ham. Rev. E. C. Selwyn, Uppingham. C. Smith, St. Thomas' Charterhouse School, Lon- don. T. J. Macnamara, Editor, Schoolmaster, London. Rev. Dr. R. B. Poole, Bedford Modern School, Bed- ford. Howard Swan, Richmond. Miss A. J. Cooper, Head Mistress Edgbarton High School for Girls, Birmingham. Rev. E. C. Wickham, M.A., Master Wellington College, near Workingham, Berkshire. Rev. Edmond Warre, D.D., Head Master Eton Col- lege, Eton. Rev. J. E. C. Welldon, M.A., Harrow School, Harrow. SCOTLAND. Colin George Macrae, School Board, Edinburgh. George R. Meny, High School, Dundee. IRELAND. Maurice C. Hine, Foyle College, Londonderry. HUNGARY. Prof. Dr. Johan Koacsala, Lyceum of Pozsony, Varos. Dr. J. H. Schwicker, Member Hungarian Parlia- ment, Budapest. ITALY. Prof. F. Drocco, Lodi. Prof. Enrico Mestica, Camerino. NETHERLANDS. Prof. Dr. G. van Overbeck de Meyer, Utrecht. RUSSIA. M. Alexandre Jilinski, Prof, de l'Ecole Reale, Moscow. SPAIN. Sefior F. Giner de los Rios, " Institucion Libre de Ensenanza," Madrid. Don Emilia Ribera, Institute of Secondary Instruc- tion, Valencia. ARKANSAS. T. A. Futrall, Marianna Male and Female Institnte, Marianna. CALIFORNIA. . W. T. Reid, Belmont School, Belmont. CONNECTICUT. Prof. E. H. Wilson, Preparatory School, Norwalk. Joseph Hall, Principal Public High School, Hart- ford. DELAWARE. Isaac Johnson, Wilmington. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. A. P. Montague, Ph.D., School of Latin, Colum- bian University, Washington. Dr. F. R. Lane, Principal High School, Washing- ton. GEORGIA. Rev. S. Graves, D.D., Atlanta. J. L. Stewart, Jr., Marietta. ILLINOIS. Ira W. Allen, Allen Academy, Englewood, Chicago. Prof. G. M. Carman, A.B., Dean of the Univer- sity Academy. Morgan Park. Miss H. N. Haskell, Monticello Seminary, Godfrey. Miss Rebecca S. Rice, Woman's Commissioner on Educational Congresses, Chicago. INDIANA. Mrs. May Wright Sewall, Girls" Classical School, Indianapolis. Mrs. Delphine B. Wells, Westminster Seminary, Ft. Wayne. IOWA. Frank E. Plummer, National League State Teach- er's Bureau, Des Moines. Rev. Jas. F. Zwemer, Orange City. LOUISIANA. Prof. James H. Dillard, Tulane University, New Orleans. MAINE. Rev. A. F. Chase, Ph.D., East Maine Conference Seminary, Bucksport. O. II . Drake, Principal Maine Central Institute, Pittsfleld. J. H. Hanson. Principal Coburn Classical Institute, Waterville. MARYLAND. R. W. Silvester, President Maryland Agricultural College, College Park. 180 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. MASSACHUSETTS. D. W. Abercrombie, A.M., Principal Worcester Academy, Worcester. B. T. Capen, Principal Classical School for Girls, Northampton. Julia A. Eastman, Principal Dana Hall, Wellesley. Albert Hale. Boston. Rev. Endicott Peabody, LL.M., Principal Groton School, Groton. J. B. Sewall, Principal Thayer Academy, South Braintree. J. B. Taylor, Principal Berkeley School, Boston. C. F. P. Bancroft, Ph.D., Phillips Academy, And- over. William C. Collar, Roxbury. Rev. William Gallagher, Ph.D., Williston Semi- nary, Easthampton. Arthur Gilman, M.A., The Cambridge School, Cambridge. Moses Merrill, Public Latin School, Boston. John Tetlow, Girls' High School, Boston. MICHIGAN. Col. J. Sumner Rogers, Michigan Military Acad- emy, Orchard Lake. MINNESOTA. Eugene D. Holmes, M.A., Minneapolis Academy, Minneapolis. MISSOURI. Denham Arnold, Rugby Academy, St. Louis. NEBRASKA. Robert Doherty, S.T.D., Principal Brownell Hall, Omahn. Alexis C.Hart, A.M., Principal Franklin Academy, Franklin. NEW HAMPSHIRE. J. A. Tufts, A.B., the Phillips Exeter Academy, Execer. NEW JERSEY. W. S. Eversole, Blair Presbyterial Academy, Blairstown. Rev. Joseph E. Perry, A.M., Ph.D., Peddie In- stitute, Hightstown. David . A. Kennedy, Ph.D., Principal Dearborn Morgan School, Orange. W. W. Smith, Principal Englewood School for Boys. Englewood. S. A. Farrand, Principal Newark Academy, Newark. Rev. George H. Whitney, D.D., Centenary Colle- giate Institute, Hacket.tstown. NEW YORK. W. L. Cushing, Head Master Westminster School, Dobbs Ferry. Rev. Arthur H. Flack, A.M., President Claverack College, Claverack. Caskie Harrison, Brooklyn Latin School, New York. Amy Ray son, New York. Prof. C. 11. Thurber, President Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y. W. McD. Halsey, Ph.D., Collegiate School, New York. J H. Morse, Principal Classical and English School, New York. John S. White, LL.D., Principal Berkeley School, New York. NORTH CAROLINA. W. E. Allen, Military School. Scotland Neck. Robert Bingham, Principal Bingham School, Ashe- ville. Edward E. Britton, Roxboro. OHIO. Joseph E. White, Franklin School, Cincinnati. J. S. Wilhelm, Fostoria Academy, Fostoria. Lawrence Rust, LL.D., Rector Kenyon Military Academy, Gambier. PENNSYLVANIA. Rev. Thomas W. Conn, Principal School of the Lackawanna, Scranton. George Eastburn, A.M., Ph.D., Principal Select School, Philadelphia. Mrs. Henrietta Kutz, Principal West Walnut St. Seminary, Philadelphia. Rev. R. L. Taylor, A.M., Ph.D., Principal Beaver College, Beaver. Miss N. J. Davis, Principal Mountain Seminary, Birmingham. William Kershaw, Ph.D., Principal Germantown Academy, Germantown. RHODE ISLAND. W. W. Curtis, Pawtucket High School, Pawtucket. D. W. Hoyt, Principal High School, Providence. SOUTH CAROLINA. Virgil C. Dibble, Principal High School, Charles- town. Edward S. Joynes, M.A., LL.D., South Carolina College, Columbia. TENNESSEE. A. M. Burney, A.M., President Howard Female College, Gallatin. W. R. J. M. Webb, Principal Webb School, Bell Buckle. TEXAS. Rev. Charles Carlton, President Carlton College, Bonham. VERMONT. C. E. Putney, Ph.D., St. Johnsbury. Henry II. Ross, Vermont Episcopal Institute, Bur- lington. WASHINGTON. Sister M. Perpetua, Academy of the Holy Cross, Seattle. SECONDARY EDUCATION. OPENING ADDRESS. JT RAT GREENE HULING, HEA.D MASTER OF THE CAMBRIDGE HIGH- SCHOOL, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. Ladies and Gentlemen : In behalf of the committee of arrangements, tnd as a member specially designated to take a particular interest in the Congress of Secondary Education, it gives me great pleasure to welcome you to this first meeting. The secondary teachers of this country are not a very large body, and their representation here naturally is not large at the opening. But we may be very sure that in this discussion of papers we are speaking to a much larger audience than can hear our words, and that whatever of value shall be presented here will have a far-reaching influence among those who shall read what they cannot hear. Secondary education in our own country, it seems to me, has passed through a transition. No department has arisen more in general appre- ciation within the last twenty-five years than our own. In no depart- ment has there been a greater widening than that among the secondary teachers' own department. It has received a stronger appreciation from above and from below. I can well remember, when I began to teach in a high-school, there seemed to be a wide, impassable gulf separating the teachers in that grade from the professors in the colleges. I have come to find the professors taking a deep interest in the secondary work, and declaring that their own work depeuds very largely upon the success of secondary teaching. I have come to see the professors and school- teachers, men and women, united in discussing secondary subjects, and find the men of colleges asking the opinions of those of the secondary schools concerning these difficult questions that relate to passages on one side or the other. I have seen teachers in high-schools and preparatory schools taking the heartiest interest in secondary education. The gentlemen from abroad must look upon oar system of secondary education with some degree of wonder. Accustomed to see orderly con- trol from the lowest step to the highest grade in education, they come here and find everything apparently fragmentary. The problems in secondary education that we are most interested in appear to be those growing out of local control of schools. I am in hopes that the discus- 182 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION sions in this department will contribute materially to making clear our paths and making stronger our work. Concerning the conduct of this department, the plan proposed is some- what different from most educational gatherings. There are prepared introductory papers ; simply that and nothing more. The greater time has been left free for discussion. If you do not discuss these papers, we shall sit after the manner of our friends the Quakers, and think over what the papers have suggested to us. We are fortunate to have with us this morning a goodly proportion of ladies, as ought to be the case in every congress of secondary education. I hope these ladies will be free in a conversational way to give us their thoughts. Allow me now to present, as president of this department, one whom the committee of arrangements were happily united in choosing ; one whose reputation is national, and more than national — international, I might say — Dr. James C. Mackenzie, of the Lawrenceville School, New Jersey. EEMARKS OF DR. MACKENZIE ON TAKING THE CHAIR. Ladies and Gentlemen, Fellotv- Teachers : I take great comfort from the remarks made by the general chairman of this series of congresses, who said yesterday that the duty of a chairman was not to make speeches, but simply to introduce those who are to make them. However, I have been put at some disadvantage by the request, which comes to me with the force and authority of United States Commissioner, Dr. Harris, that I would so far vary from this canon, laid down by Dr. Angell, as to make some opening remarks. We talked over the subject, and it is rather the joint choice of Dr. Harris and myself that the subject which you find as the initial subject was chosen. Let me say, by way of preface to what I shall say further on, that I am unable to discuss all the phases of this section of supervision of school work, including the high-schools and private day schools. I shall assume here that the high- schools are under sufficient supervision. I shall use the term "private school " as including both the strictly private school and endowed acad- emies. With these explanations I invite your attention to the subject of the paper. STATE OR MUNICIPAL SUPERVISION OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS. 183 SUPERVISION' OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS BY THE STATE OR MUNICIPAL AUTHORITIES.* BY EEV. JAMES C. MACKENZIE, PH.D., HEAD MASTER OF THE LAWRENCEVILLE SCHOOL, NEW JERSEY. In our zeal for the advancement of public school education it is to be feared that we have ignored two facts : first, that in increasingly large numbers everywhere, save in New England, our more prosperous citizens have been sending their children not to the public schools, but to schools and academies essentially private ; and, second, that up to this hour no organized movement has been made looking to the systematizing and supervising of these private and endowed schools, in which some two mill- ion American boys and girls are being educated. Change but a word here and there, and what Horace Mann said of public school education fifty years ago is true of a large part of American education to-day : "These schools are so many distinct, independent communities, each being governed by its own habits, traditions, and local customs. There is no common superintending power over them ; there is no bond of brotherhood or family between them. The teachers are, as it were, embedded each in his own district, and they are yet to be excavated and brought together, and to be established, each as a polished pillar of a holy temple. As the system is now administered, if any improvement in prin- ciples or modes of teaching is discovered by talent or accident in one school, instead of being published to the world it dies with the discoverer. No means exist for multiplying new truths, or even for preserving old ones." And that corypheus of our educational reform goes on to ask : "Do we not need some new and living institution, some animate organ- ization, which shall at least embody and diffuse all that is now known, and thereby save every year hundreds of children from being sacrificed to experiments which have been a hundred times exploded ?" We ask fur- ther : Must each generation of secondary schoolmasters, laying no tribute upon capitalized experience, begin its fortunes anew and exhaust all possible errors before arriving at the soundest principles of schoolwork ? Happily, America is the last of the highly civilized nations to give attention to this large department of the teaching work. Our friends here from Germany, France, Russia, and Sweden will tell us what state supervision has done for higher education in each of these countries, and representatives of the British schools will, from the mixed practice in vogue in the United Kingdom, further irradiate the subject from their point of view. * The term " private schools," as used in this paper, includes all schools not under the state control— i.e., endowed and proprietary schools. 184 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION To simplify our subject, nothing will be said in this paper of the strange and hurtful isolation of the private schools and academies from the public high-schools — two classes of schools that should, in the necessities of the case, have very much in common. They are both doing collegiate prepar- atory work, and pupils are constantly, in all parts of our land, being transferred from one to the other, and usually with considerable embar- rassment to both pupils and teachers. Looking at the question before us in its entirety, it concerns two hun- dred and fifty thousand pupils in our public high-schools and two hundred thousand in private schools of secondary grade. Our •' brief," then, is in the interests of nearly a half million boys and girls, many of whom are to swell the one hundred thousand enrollment of the five hundred American colleges! Surely this is a leading question in the education of the day. By necessary consequence, by unescapable implication, we are face to face with some of the deeper questions of education, such as the age of admis- sion, the contents of a course of secondary instruction, and the profes- sional training of teachers. But some one will say, directly you suggest supervision of what has been deemed private business : " This is a republic. Long ago we burst the bonds of a meddlesome paternalism. Intelligent individualism is the regulative principle, and we will not return to any of the forms of des- potism." But this is hasty speech, and ignores the many forms in which we voluntarily submit to authority in every relation of the citizen life. If republican institutions " do wake to life unexampled energies in the whole mass of the people, and bestow upon the people unexampled power to work out their will," these same institutions should induce the highest self-control and guidance. It were a strange folly to add to the impulsive forces of a people without also adding to their regulating forces. If it be indeed true that the next generation shall contain a larger percentage of men and women graduated from our higher institutions, men who in the nature of the case shall exert mighty influence in the affairs of the nation, it ill befits us to bandy words about private rights in a business that con- ditions so profoundly the welfare of the state. We create and maintain a national Congress, convening annually, at incredible expense, to regu- late the tariff, internal improvements, and currency ; we have State legis- latures to legislate about every conceivable subject ; we have courts, sitting and moving to adjudicate upon the rights of person and property of every degree of importance ; and yet here is a large section, in some respects the most important section of education, which has received literally nothing thus far in the way of organization and united effort. We grant freely the high character, skill, and devotion of many worthy private school-teachers and proprietors, but it is straining unduly our poor human nature to ask it to work as well without as with direction, supervision, and accountability. Nor does it meet the objection to say STATE OR MUNICIPAL SUPERVISION OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS. 185 that these private schools are under the supervision of parents, trustees, and the public. I know of a prominent private fitting school whose entire graduating class of some twenty-five members recently failed to secure a sufficient number of credits to admit it to one of our lower-grade colleges. This stunning disappointment was the first information parents or public had of the inferior instruction being given. The half-dozen larger academies of the country, receiving pupils from every State in the Union, know the deplorable standards that are tolerated all too generally in our private day- and boarding-schools. Unquestionably, some of these unsupervised schools are superior to the very best of our public schools ; md yet I heard a member of the committee appointed by Harvard Univer- sity to examine one of our most famous academies, say that if the report of his committee were to be published, it would make a great stir in the school world. It is passing strange that though you will not commit the care of your body to an unlicensed physician, the care of your property to an un- licensed attorney, or the care of your soul to an unlicensed clergyman, yet you send your son and daughter, not merely for five or six hours a day, >ut for months and years, to a schoolmaster whose best qualification may >e only that he has mastered the art of advertising. With the exception of Great Britain, I believe we are the only enlightened nation that com- lits such folly. Elsewhere the teacher — man or woman — must pass a prescribed examination, and thereafter his or her school must submit to some form of supervision and control. For a moment let us dwell upon a statement which may be made with- out fear of successful contradiction. It is this : Supervised education ias always and everywhere proved good education; education without such supervision has always proved inferior. I shall not detain you with the historic proofs of this proposition ; but many of you will recall the first movements by the Jesuits for better schools — a body of teachers whose glaring faults in some particulars are readily admitted, and yet no less an authority than Eobert Herbert Quick says : " No other school system has jeen built up by the united efforts of so many astute intellects ; no other has met with so great success, or attained such widespread influence. No body of men since the revival of learning has played so prominent a part in education. Their skill and capacity are attested by such high author- ities as Bacon and Descartes. For more than one hundred years, nearly all the prominent men throughout Christendom — both among laity and clergy — received the Jesuit training, and for life regarded their old mas- ters with reverence and affection." Now, the central excellence of this Jesuit training was in the word "system." The famous commission of 1584 formed a closely articulated and minutely supervised system of edu- cation, extending over the period of our own secondary courses. It could also be shown that the patronage and supervision of education under the 186 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. caliphs of Bagdad and Cordova contributed in no small measure to the remarkable success of the Mohammedan schools that flourished with such signal efficiency for fire centuries. In the schools of Bagdad, Damascus, Cordova, Salamanca, and Toledo, grammar, chemistry, algebra, trigo- nometry, and astronomy were made to assume new forms, and made very great advances. Coming to more recent times, the history of education in France and Germany is largely the history of organized, systematized, supervised work. The French Convention of 1793 prepared the way for the ample reforms and systems inaugurated thirteen years later by Napoleon, and it is worthy of note that the best impulses of reform in the French schools started from the lyceums, or secondary schools. I need not dwell on the fundamental characteristics of the German schools. Suffice it to say that we would almost accept the Army bill if thereby we could have the Ger- man gymnasia in our own land, or at least the capacity and efficiency of these schools. Before completing our hurried glance at organized educa- tion, reflect for a moment upon the condition of the English schools. Here so much has been left to individual effort and denominational zeal that the historian must record the verdict that education has made less progress in England than in any other European state. Her theory and practice closely resemble our own. In our country, may I not with all prudence say that our public school system, taken in its entirety — explain the fact as we may — is superior at every point to our haphazard, unsys- tematized private schools ? This is not due, as often charged, to the inability of some private school pupils to meet the demands of the public schools, for the vast majority of our private school pupils have at no time been connected with public schools. It has ceased to be a question in thousands of American homes whether or no the children shall attend the public schools. They are foreordained to the all too tender mercies of the "select school." If what I have been trying to say be admitted, it is idle to deprecate supervised schools because of the sure taint of politics. The genius and earnestness of our people may be trusted to stay the hand of this malign influence in the affairs of our schools. Enlarged responsibilities, includ- ing the care of the schools patronized by classes of citizens likely to be more exacting and more influential, would indeed induce a higher sense of duty and less meddlesome methods on the part of the custodians of our schools. It is quite germane to our subject, as it seems to me, to call attention to that other form of governmental control of our schools exemplified in the national academies at West Point and Annapolis. The director of the English Military School at Woolwich volunteered to me the statement that these two American schools were the best schools in the world. This I believe to be true as regards all matters of organization and method. Horace Mann's predictions have not been fulfilled. A way STATE OR MUNICIPAL SUPERVISION OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS. 187 ras fouud to supervise these national schools that made it possible to 3cure princely teachers and to produce the highest educational results fet attained in the scholastic world. And the hour is at hand when the >est interests of our collegiate education, as represented primarily in our )rivate schools, can no longer be left to unaccredited, unsupervised masters id schools. The foreign nations that are copying our system of public school education must be saved the present palpable defects in our unsys- jmatized private schools. Of course, with the open-minded members of the private school teaching force there would be every form of hospitality a proper board of supervision. In each State a number of schools would mve nothing to fear and much to gain by this public accrediting of their rork. A long stride forward would be made in the work of professionaliz- ing the teaching office, and, as one result, publishers, insurance companies, ind general trade would find it more difficult to lure teachers from their jhosen career. And another result of such a recognition of our work rould be the higher value and the greater permanency attaching to it. rhat anybody is able to do is not worth as much as that which only a limited number are able or permitted to do. There are now too many jgistered teachers at our agencies. There should be no employment )ureaus except for servants. Imagine a "Lawyers' Agency," a "Physi- cians' Bureau," or a " Ministers' Employment Club." I am well aware that laws cannot save us from any of the evils that may threaten. But with us — let us remember, for our comfort — the very idea of legislation is reversed. Once, the law prescribed the action and shaped the wills of the multitude ; with us the multitude prescribe and shape the iw. Legislators study the will of the people as philosophers study a volcano — not with any idea of doing aught to the volcano, but to see what the volcano is about to do to them. Therefore it is that we have no longer the dread of the olden time of lawmakers, and we are the more willing to reduce to operative and efficient forms the people's will. Let us lot hesitate to do this in the matter before us. An able lawyer of national mutation thinks that ample authority to make laws regulating education )f all kinds is given by the constitutional clause reading, " Congress has )ower to lay and collect taxes . . . and provide for the common iefense and general welfare of the United States." But this supreme work of education is left to the several States, and to them the appeal for )roper regulation of the secondary schools must be made. If I cannot sell sour bread or hawk decayed fish without the interference of the board of lealth, why should I fear the "paternalism" in government, State or tunicipal, that bars me from giving an inferior quality of instruction ? I do not care here to consider at length the ways by which this regula- tion should be achieved. It would be amazing if our people, in view of the manifold forms by which we now safely lay tribute upon national, State, id municipal authority, could not devise some amicable and effective 188 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. arrangement — derived, if need be, from the fish-market, the present school board, and the board of control of the West Point and Annapolis schools. I would not have the system of supervision by which our public schools are governed. Nor would I care to see another board of regents such as directs public education in New York, excellent as that system may be in some respects. There is at least one illustration of wbat might be done to justify the proposition of this paper. I venture to give it at some length, as set forth by William Allen Butler, Esq., in his plea before the legisla- ture of New York : In 1763 the Colonial legislature passed an act which organized the Board of Wardens for the port of New York, and gave them the power to license pilots, making it compulsory on masters of vessels to accept their services or pay half pilotage. Gradually a vicious element crept into the system. The Board of Wardens, appointed by the party in power in the State government, became infected with the virus of politics, which com- municated its bad influence to the pilots. The older pilots shirked their duty, and in the winter storms, instead of braving the dangers of the coast, toasted their toes in comfortable quarters, while incoming emigrant vessels were signaling in vain for their aid. The pilotage system became an intolerable monopoly. The Chamber of Commerce of New York, and the whole shipping interest, petitioned the legislature against it. The licensed pilots opposed the repeal or alteration of the law ; and in reply to a call from the legislature, the port wardens reported that "officially" they knew of no existing evils. The legislature rose without acting on the subject ; but a terrible lesson was in reserve. On Sunday morning, the 27th of November, 1836, at nine o'clock, the passenger ship Bristol lay at the entrance of the port, " with the usual signal flying for a New York pilot ; hut as none came out," she remained in the offing until about four o'clock, half an hour before night fell in, when she ' struck upon Rockaway Beach and was lost. On Sunday morning, January 1, 1837, the bark Mexico, another passenger vessel, lay off the bar, with about thirty other square-rigged vessels, all having signals flying for pilots. The Mexico continued standing off and on till midnight, and at night the whole fleet of ships displayed lanterns from their yards for pilots. Still no pilot came, and she was wrecked during the night. A fearful number of lives were lost by each of these disasters. On the ill-fated Mexico, one hundred and four passengers, two-thirds of their number being women and children, were frozen to death. A thrill of horror was caused by this awful sacrifice of life. Governor Marcy, in his annual message, three days subsequent to the loss of the Mexico, invited the attention of the legislature to the subject of the pilotage system. The legislature failed to act till 1845, when, in response to remonstrances and appeals, all pilotage laws then in existence in the STATE OR MUNICIPAL SUPERVISION OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS. 189 State were abolished, and Congress was petitioned by the State to make national laws to regulate all pilotage. Failing in this direction, in 1846, the merchants and underwriters of New York, under the pressure of loss of life and money, by voluntary cooperation organized a Board of Commis- sioners of Pilots — composed of five members, two of whom were elected by the Chamber of Commerce and two by the Board of Underwriters, and one appointed by the Secretary of the Navy — whose duty it was " to examine and issue certificates to as many persons to act as pilots for the port of New York as they may deem the navigation of the port requires/' This purely voluntary board gradually built up an efficient pilotage service whose benefits every transatlantic traveler still enjoys. And now follows the instructive paragraph in this incident in the legal history of New York. In 1853, when it was proposed to deal with the subject by legislation, the Chamber of Commerce and the leading marine underwriters dreaded a return to the old monopoly, and remonstrated against any legislative interference. But when the legislature's bill was matured, and when in JuDe, 1854, the act was passed, in one of those lucid intervals that come even to politicians and State legislators, it adopted the system devised by the merchants and underwriters, and created a hoard of five commis- sioners, to he elected, three by the Chamber of Commerce and two by the Board of Underwriters, identical with the then existing board, save as to a representative of the Navy Department. The commissioners of the volun- tary board were at once elected as members of the State board, and every me of them served in it until the day of his death. In this way, by adopting and legalizing the action of the merchants and mderwriters, the legislature of 1853 well and wTisely divorced the Sandy look pilotage service from politics and partisanship, and delegated to the two commercial bodies in the great metropolis best qualified for the trust, the selection of the State officers who should administer the system. The >mpulsory features of the law excited opposition, and it was denounced mconstitutional by reason of the method it provided for the election of the commissioners ; but the Court of Appeals held that it was a valid and constitutional act. I have dwelt at length upon this pilotage system of New York, because believe it shows clearly a safe and efficient solution of precisely such a problem as we have before us, and because it illustrates once more our imerican ingenuity in making the government our servant rather than appointing it as our master. A commission of six members in each itate could be named by the two or three leading colleges or universities. 'his commission could be legally approved by the legislature to pass upon the qualifications of all teachers in our private schools, and to examine these schools at stated times, as is the practice in France. Such visita- tion by college professors and distinguished citizens would be primarily 190 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. friendly, having in view the welfare of the schools and pupils. Worthy teachers would welcome such interest and the consequent cooperation of judicious educators. Each State would create its own standard of excel- lence in the teaching body and in the results to be attained, having regard to the conditions of education in its own locality. DISCUSSION. G. N. Carman, Dean of the Morgan Park Academy of the University of Chicago • Mr. President — The last part of the paper we listened to reminded me of a recent experi- ence. In considering the general question of qualifications of teachers in the State of Minnesota, during the past winter, and in endeavoring to determine the best way to bring about the desirable results to which our attention has been called this morn- ing, I remember, in a conversation with Dr. Kiehle, Superintendent of Instruction, that this question of supervision was considered. We were then told, by those in position to answer the question, that nothing of the kind could be done. The dilemma in which we are placed in reference to the necessity of supervision in our secondary schools makes it desirable that some means should be at hand by which they could be properly super- vised. All those who listened to the paper of President Eliot, at Saratoga, will remember it was right along the line of thought we have here this morning. In listening to the discussion of " what the schools should teach," I was particularly interested in the words of Colonel Parker, in which he mentioned to be encountered: difficulties due to the indifference of the people, due to work of politicians, and the failure of the teachers themselves to be influenced ; and it is just this last matter I wish to emphasize. If the teachers themselves will only realize the necessity of more supervision, more system, and more efficient work, it is reasonable to believe that they will accomplish better results through voluntary cooperation. E. W. Coy, Principal of the Hughes High School, Cincinnati, Ohio : I have been inter- ested in the paper just read. I think, as intimated in the paper, there are two sides to the question of supervision. I have been always connected with public schools that are subjected to supervision. I have, oftentimes, felt like congratulating private schools that are free from supervision, on the opportunities they may have to do things we cannot do on account of our supervision. There certainly is great room for improvement in the supervision of our public schools. Whether it is desirable that the system of supervision of our public schools should be extended so as to embrace private schools, is to me a some- what serious question. The attempt to provide any new system, as suggested, I don't think is hopeful. If 1 remember correctly, it took ninety years to establish that super- vision. I remember talking some years ago with a gentleman who has since become a very prominent bishop in the Methodist church. He told me that the public ought to have the supervision of all the private as well as the public schools. The difficulty is in the way of practically carrying on such a plan. We are very much wedded in this country to local control. When I lived in a town in Massachusetts where they had the old- fashioned school district system, it was proposed to abolish it and introduce the town sys- tem, and it was finally carried ; but it came very near causing a revolution. If you attempt to pass from local to national control, it would be an immense step, and it would take at least ninety years to take that step. Charles C. Ramsay, Master of the High School, Fall River, Mass. : It was not my privilege to listen to the whole of the paper which has been read, so it may be that I am laboring under some misapprehension. The point I have in mind was slightly touched upon by the last speaker. I have had some experience in both public and private school work, and with some of those representing the hostile local influence. It might be said, we each have something of that kind to contend with. The public high-schools have had far more hostile influence in the community immediately about them than would besup- Eosed by those who have taught exclusively in private schools. It takes many years, as as been suggested, to secure proper legislation ; and it will take many more years to secure the enforcement of that legislation. The centralizing of public schools was brought DISCUSSION. 191 out last night by Dr. Ross, of Ontario. It was plainly seen that the advantage he enjoys by the power of appointment of teachers is an enormous advantage. Until we can in some way obviate the necessity of consulting the opinions of persons not expert, and perhaps not educated, and in some cases unreasonable, we cannot hope for great advance- ment in this matter. H. L. Boltwood, Principal of the High School of Evanston, 111. : I regret that I didn't hear the paper, but the general subject of private schools and legislation calls to mind a little of my experience. I served the first seven years of my teaching life, after graduating from college, in what is known in New England as a one-horse academy, where there is a great deal of work done by the horse, and where the idea of individual instruction was carried to its maximum. But passing from that into the public high- school. 1 had a chance to contrast my experience. Now, as I look back to it. as a young teacher, full of experiments and conscious of the blunders that young teachers often make, I confess that the individuality of the private school accomplishes more in pro- portion than the carefully superintended work of the graded high-school. I remember in a little New Hampshire academy, where I had sixty-five pupils, who came to me from country homes, with the spirit of hard work, and I think perhaps ten of the sixty-five made a decided success. Passing into graded work, where the number of pupils was much larger, there was no such proportionate outcome. Of course I don't know the circumstances that went into those individual lives. When a school board is either directly elected by the people or is appointed by those who are chosen by the people, and when a course of study cannot be upset by newspaper criticism, and when the whole public sentiment is largely controlled by a certain element that is not well informed, there are some dangers of supervision. I have seen it work admirably in the hands of men who had the true idea of supervision ; that is, to conduct the general lines of work, and hold the teachers accountable for the results. When these things are combined with the presence of a public that has sense enough to keep the school board out of partisan politics, and allow the superintendent time to shape his school. The trouble of supervision generally is the failure not to allow the individuality of the teachers, nor the individuality of the community, in the course of study. As an example: a course of study prepared for a city like Chicago, which reaches out far into the coun- try, with communities inside of our city limits which are engaged in farming, in gar- dening, and manufacturing communities, and places where the wealth is concentrated, yet one uniform course is insisted upon. So supervision looks to me as one of those questionable things. Some of it is necessary ; too much supervision may entirely dis- regard the individuality of the teachers, and the wants of the local community, and, in a certain sense, the individuality of the children. The course of study and graded sys- tem which is carried with such minuteness that the teacher is rebuked for anything that he does which is not specified in the graded work, is of doubtful utility. Leroy Stevens, President of the Mount Pleasant Institute, Mount Pleasant, Pa. : 1 want to express my appreciation of the paper. I have a very high appreciation of it, indeed. There are people here who represent other countries. I would like to hear from abroad. Miss Zimmekn, of England : I don't know as I have very much to add to what has been said. I feel that I should like to say that we should be a great many years ahead of what we are in England if we had more supervision. You know, doubtless, in our elementary schools there are visitors. We have had supervision ; they call it inspec- tions We have inspectors who are extremely popular with the teachers. They visit them once a year, formally ; and informally oftener. In the country, they have little informal meetings to which the inspectors invite the teachers. Many of the teachers have told me how extremely valuable these meetings are. I teach what we call a high-school for girls. We have thirty-five schools, all under the same management. These schools were started to give education to the girls of rather the higher class — to give them an education which should begin at the very beginning, and carry them on till the time they want to go to college. These schools have a very slight supervision, but they have a substitute for it. Every year they are examined by a board from Oxford and Cambridge. Each year each school sends in an account of the work that has been done. We have occasionally visits every two or three years from those who technically are not called inspectors, but who occasionally call on the schools and give a little advice. I think, however, if they would come once in three months, instead of once in three years, it would be better ; because in many cases they are men of considerable learning. I really think I speak for many English teachers when I say if we could have more supervision we should be very much better 192 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. off. We have this attempted supervision, which is all right among the actual private schools. The schools started by one gentleman or one lady have no supervision at all, other than a voluntary submitting of their pupils to outside examination. They often choose to do that in order to have a little outside light thrown into the school We feel that that is not quite enough, and not quite the right thing, because it disturbs the school- work to have to send the pupils to an examination where some one else chooses the course of study. But more and more we are trying to get better graded work, and trying to lead pupils on from one class to another. 1 do think that instead of having to send the pupils to these outside examinations, if we could have a little more supervision in the school itself we should be benefited very much. Frank Plummer, of Des Moines, Iowa : In the main I desire to indorse the spirit of this paper. The fact that one of the leading educators, now our president, in connec- tion with the Commissioner of Education. Mr. Harris, has selected this subject for gen- eral discussion, shows that it has merit. That being true, I take the stand, because of my experience, to say that supervision is absolutely necessary. This is an age of combina- tions and supervision, and if anything needs it, it is our schools. But how to get it is another question. I wish to take exception to one remark in the paper. The speaker had something to say about teachers' bureaus not being necessary. I presume he meant at that ideal time when we should have proper supervision. Possibly then they will not be neces- sary, but teachers now get places in hap-hazard way. If bureaus can come in and sys- tematize things so that the teachers will get in the right place, then the bureaus may be useful. W. T. Poynter, Principal of Science Hill School. Shelbyville, Ky. : I am connected with a private school, entirely private. Nobody has any interest in it except my- self. I own the building and employ the teachers, and am responsible to nobody ; consequently it may be proper for some one just in that condition to speak at this moment. The whole paper resolves itself into one question, and that is, whether the government shall do all that is done in the question of education, or whether it shall not. That is the whole point in that paper. If you propose to say that the government com- missioners shall come to me and supervise my school, I say that is an impertinence. I say it is as much an impertinence as if you would send a commissioner to investigate the editorial of the newspaper. The only question is, Shall the government supervise over education or not, and shall private schools exist ? That is a question for the public schools and not for us. R. E. Cutler, of the Northwest Division High School, Chicago : There is one aspect of the question that has not been presented ; that is the influence of the people of the community. We have all heard of the influence that the New England town meeting has had on making the American citizen. If the people have become more intelligent and more interested in their own affairs, it is because they come out and take a part, at least once a year, in the legislation concerning their own local affairs ; they learn thus something of government. A part of my lifetime has been spent at work in the high-schools of Chicago. If municipal government, is the topic under consider- ation, I think we have it in Chicago, and I don't see how we could get alcng without it. Mr. Boltwood mentioned some of the evils that we were made to suffer in Chicago on account of the supervision of the schools being all under the same regulations, and yet not all of them being under the same conditions. A part of my lifetime has been in the charge of schools of a smaller town, and I have had a chance to study this question as presented there. I have had an opportunity to see how the people of a village take pride in their schools, or, as they call it, " our high-school," and how they have watched, with jealous interest, "our high school," and how they have looked to see whether the results were praiseworthy or not ; and how they considered what they wanted in their high-school in order to meet the wants of the young people who are growing up in their particular community. If we have State supervision, this thing will be taken out of the hands ot the people of the town or village, and, as a matter of course, they will lose some of their interest. This reflex influence by the school upon the people, causing the people to have an interest in the school, it seems to me would be lost by State super- vision, or anything outside of the village or town corporation supervision. W. H. Bartholomew, Principal of High School for Girls, Louisville, Ky. : I think there is a danger lying along certain lines, and that danger is this, a tendency to get THE COURSE OF STUDY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 193 the power away from the people. My conception of it is, that the nearer we keep the power within the hands of the people, the better it will be. I am in favor of municipal supervision. I believe in supervision, and it is not an argument against supervision to iy that A or B or C, who is a superintendent, has crushed the individuality of the school. It is an argument against a man who has administered the supervision. If you mean to say you are going to stand against that kind of supervision, I say, I stand with you. But supervision is a necessity ; an intelligent and wise supervision is a necessity. The man that has the skill that you cannot describe, of awakening the enthusiasm of a body of teachers, so that he brings out the maximum of their individual power, is the wisest supervisor. I believe we have many of that kind of men in this country. In the city I hail from, we have municipal supervision. You cannot defeat the tax for public schools in Louisville, Ky., to save your lives; if they would ask for seventy-five cents on the dollar (they are now giving thirty-three) the people would give it. Why ? Because supervision has brought them up to a state of efficiency. I feel we lust have supervision, but we must have men as supervisors who understand this want. Charles C. Putney, Principal of St. Johnsbury Academy, Vermont : One of the speakers said he spent his first years after graduating in a one-horse academy. My experience was similar to his ; but for twenty years it has been my privilege to work in a well-equipped academy. From my experience there, I have some convictions upon the general subject. I am in favor of supervision to a certain extent. I do not see how public schools, supported by the State, can be carried on except by supervision. But these private schools, under judicious management, can carry on their work without supervision from the State. At request of the teachers in our academy, the board of trustees appointed, among their number, a board of supervisors, the duty of which shall be to visit the school at least three times during the year, going through the various departments and getting their impressions of the work, then reporting to the board of trustees at the close of the year. I am looking forward with a great deal of interest to that kind of a supervision. But you will understand that that board is made up of membei's of the corporation and trustees. Every man is interested in having the school take the highest position in preparing the young men and women for the duties of life, as well as for college ; and they are interested in having it main- tain the very highest standard in the morale of the school. They will go into these recitation rooms and watch the work with feelings of the utmost sympathy, I am sure. THE COURSE OF STUDY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. BY G. N. CARMAN, DEAN OF THE MORGAN PARK ACADEMY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. Mr. Carman prefaced his paper essentially as follows : " Four years ago the city of St. Paul had a separate training-school. A building for a large municipal training- school was erected. Everything was ready for work except students. Two years ago the manual-training school was incorporated with the old high-school. The parents were unable to decide to which school they would send their children. This is what led the incorporation of the manual-training school with the high-school." Is there a course of study which is at the same time the best prepara- tion for life and for college? The answer one might give depends on what is meant by course of study. If it means, as it usually does, cer- tain studies taken in a prescribed order, the same in quantity and in time given to each, for all pupils, such a course is good for neither the fitting school nor the finishing school. If course of study means everything that is taught in the school, from which such studies may be selected for 13 194 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. the pupil at such times and in such quantities as are best suited tohii as an individual, and are best calculated to fit him to succeed in what he subsequently undertakes — such a course is good for the fitting school and good for the finishing school. With reference to their attitude toward this question, secondary schools may be classed, (1) as special schools, and (2) schools with special courses. Boston, with its Latin high-school, English high-school, and manual-training school, furnishes a good illustration of a city with spe- cial schools ; whereas most of the public high-schools, especially those of the West, are schools with special courses, each course being calculated to fit for a special course in college, or for a special vocation. Neither the special schools nor the schools with special courses meet all of the demands of the case ; for what is wanted is a school with a course of study in which there may be found what is best suited for each pupil, and from which selections may be made according to the chang- ing needs and capacity of each pupil. This is the school founded on what President Eliot designates as " the only truly democratic school principle — every grade to provide the best possible power-training for every pupil at his stage of progress, no matter at what stage of progress his education is to end.'" The academy or fitting school is the only special school that claims that its course is good as a preparation for life and for college. We are told in the announcement of one of these special fitting schools that the main object at which it aims is to fit its pupils for the various occupations in life which they may afterward select. It claims that " the subjects of study are so wide in their range as to interest all classes of minds, and prepare for many forms of more advanced work, but not so wide and mis- cellaneous as to produce distraction, superficiality, and impotence." The school referred to offers nine years' work in foreign languages (Latin, Greek, and German), three years in mathematics (algebra and geometry), one year in science (physics), one year in English, and one-half year in Greek and Eoman history. In this school a pupil will, on the average, give one-half his time to foreign languages, one-quarter to mathematics, and the remaining quarter will be divided between English, science, and history. As a finishing school, this lacks completeness in range of sub- jects, and the time given to some subjects is out of proportion to that given to others. In order to maintain its claim of being a finishing as well as a fitting school, such a school must make provision for more work in English, science, and history, and must add such other subjects as become necessary by reason of the changes that are taking place in the condition of society. Our public high-schools, with their several special courses, have many of the limitations of the special schools, and by trying to carry on paral- lel courses of study, representing as many special schools as there are THE COURSE OF STUDY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 195 courses, with a limited teaching force and equipment, usually fail to do as good work as the special school that confines itself to one set purpose. Their college preparatory work is apt to be inferior to that of the academy that fits for college, their scientific course inferior to the manual-train- ing or technical high-school, and their commercial course inferior to the business school. The pupil on entering the school faces the necessity of making a choice of courses, which means as much as selecting the kind of special school which he shall attend. The provision for several courses is right in the assumption that there is a difference in what is suited to pupils, but it makes the false assumption that pupils on enter- ing the school know just what is best for them, and may be grouped to correspond with the previously arranged courses of study with all of their imposed limitations and restrictions. Such a school should break down the artificial barriers between the several courses, and make as many combinations as there are pupils, if this becomes necessary in "the thorough exploration of all its pupils' capacities," to use another of President Eliot's expressive phrases. A school should know and acknowledge its limitations, and undertake to do no more than it can do, and do well. The distinctive character of a secondary school should depend on its equipment, the number of its pupils, and its location and constituency. All that can reasonably be expected in the way of uniformity, all that should be attempted, is that the common ground, the minimum requirement of all secondary schools, be made to include as much as possible, and be insisted on in all secondary schools. Every such school should do whatever is de- cided upon as a uniform minimum ; if it can do no more, let it stop there. A special secondary school should do the minimum, and so much more as is necessary for it to accomplish its set purpose. A complete second- ary school should do the minimum, and in addition offer anything that can be profitably undertaken by a pupil between the ages of fourteen and eighteen years, whatever his subsequent career may be. Thus we should have three classes of secondary schools, each class doing the same work, so far as the minimum is concerned, and distinctive by reason of the nature and quantity of the additional work offered. The question of what may reasonably be required as a minimum in every secondary school is a most important one for the consideration of those in charge of secondary and higher education. I submit the fol- lowing : Three years' work in a foreign language, preferably Latin ; two years in mathematics (algebra and geometry), and one year in science, preferably physics ; two years in English (reading selections, and compo- sition), and one year in general history. A complete secondary school should offer the following : Eleven years' work in foreign languages (four in Latin, three in Greek, two in German, and two in French); three years in mathematics (algebra, geom- 196 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. etry, and trigonometry) ; six years in science (botany, physiology, phys- ics, chemistry, zoology, geology, and astronomy); four years in English (reading selections, composition, rhetoric, and literature); three years in history (general, English, United States), civil government, and political economy ; four years in drawing, freehand and. mechanical ; four years in shopwork in wood and metal ; two years in commercial subjects (bookkeeping and commercial law). A city with not less than one hundred thousand inhabitants may main- tain a complete secondary school, and may conduct it in such a way as to prepare its pupils for life, for college, or for the professional school. SHOULD THE AMOUNT OF TIME GIVEN TO LANGUAGES IN OUR SECONDARY SCHOOLS (AS THEY ARE) BE DIMINISHED IN ORDER TO MAKE ROOM FOR A MORE EXTENDED COURSE IN PHYSICS, BOTANY, AND CHEMISTRY? BY DR. CECIL F. P. BANCROFT, PRINCIPAL OF PHILLIPS ACADEMY, ANDOVER, MASS. This question is subsidiary to the larger question of the better defini- tion of the field belonging to the secondary school. The tendency has been to give over to the secondary schools some subjects previously assigned to the higher education. The tendency to-day is to throw back upon the elementary schools some subjects heretofore assigned to the secondary schools. The former tendency has reached its limit, and the reaction has set in. The latter is a growing tendency, and has to do with the present discussion. Both have had one aim, and will reach one result — the improvement of all our education. The question as to the relative time due to languages on the one hand, and to natural sciences on the other, in the curriculum of the secondary school, is confused by the circumstance that, as a rule, the secondary school is providing for two separate groups of pupils, viz. : those who go up into the higher education, and those who do not. It is sometimes assumed, and sometimes elaborately argued, that one course of study cannot suit both. It is often forgotten that a compromise may be possible which is practically, and even theoretically, better for both than separate courses would be, and that possibly the course designed expressly for one group of pupils may be better for both than any attempt either at division or compromise. Once settle where the inevitable differentiation of studies should begin, and many questions are answered at once. Our particular problem is 'further confused by the circumstance that LANGUAGES IN OUR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 197 the higher education itself has been violently disrupted into two rival, not to say opposing, schools, in one of which the accent is laid upon the phenomena and laws of the natural world, and in the other on the nature, the phenomena, the history of mind. This opposition is happily passing away. But neither in the diversity of the upper education, nor in the fact that so few pupils go up from the secondary school to the university, is there sufficient reason for abridging the time usually given to languages in the secondary schools. The historic regard in which the languages have been held for immortal centuries has been reinforced of late by the prevailing enthusiasm for modern languages, especially for French and German, and most especially by the passion for our own noble but difficult tongue. There is no other expression of thought so comprehensive, so subtle and precise, so uni- versal, so euduring, as language. No other instrument answers so many ends ; no other is so fully employed in doing the work of the world. To study language, to master language, to use language, is to acquire a knowledge, to attain a discipline, to practice an art more effective, more vital, more human than have been reached by other agencies. We can- not displace or abridge our language study without a break with tradition, the sacrifice of experience to experiment, and the surrender of the true philosophy of education. Room has been made for the sciences by a surrender of time, and the languages have recovered the lost ground by an improved method. The demand of the sciences accomplished two things : it won its own cause, and it stimulated the teaching in all other subjects. It has been found possible to do in less time an equal amount of good work. Science teach- ing, and the spirit of the times which demanded time and recognition for the sciences in the secondary school programme, have made the language teaching more rational, intense, and progressive. The labora- tory has not excluded the lexicon ; on the other hand, the grammar and the lexicon have demanded for themselves a laboratory, and the languages have taken on methods as exact and scientific as botany, physics, and chemistry. It is now incumbent upon the sciences to make the most of the time already conceded, and to make a gain by an improved method equal to that which the languages have made. Language teaching is greatly indebted to the sciences for the scientific method, and it would be easy to show that the sciences, in turn, are greatly indebted to the languages, and to the methods of the language teachers. Opposition, accordingly, is developing itself into alliance. The classicists do not wish to deprive the scientists, nor do the sciences clamor for the whole field. Improvements in the teaching of certain sciences have been almost revo- lutionary. It is possible to get still larger results without an increase of hours. A new adjustment will be required by and by, no doubt ; but it 198 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. is not impossible that it will be not at the expense of hours now given to languages. The sciences are likely to find, as has been already hinted, additional room for themselves in the programme of the elementary school. The language work there has been diversified by the study of other languages than our own. The child mind has proved itself quick and capable also in apprehending the facts and using the methods of observation and experiment. It is plain that the child mind develops with more strength and symmetry when it has a well-ordered variety of occupation. The next victories of science teaching are to be sought and found in the elementary schools. The sciences must be content with the time they now have in the sec- ondary schools, on account of the large opportunity which they have when school days are over. Certain studies must be pursued in school, or not at all. Certain other studies are forced upon us by the exigencies of our occupations. The classics, and the related subjects which are denomi- nated classical, are seldom acquired except in schools and under the instruction of a teacher. The sciences, on the other hand, are more easily and more frequently acquired without a master, under the invita- tion or the compulsion of favoring circumstance. Science studies, in our material and practical age, have a great advantage over culture studies in this respect : Commerce and the arts are fostering the scientific studies. They are helping forward the culture studies also, but by no means so directly. It is the duty of the schools to give the larger place to those studies which are almost sure to find no room in the wider world — espe- cially those studies which lie at the basis of the best successes of the sciences themselves. The school is not, first of all, a workshop or a labora- tory, but the center of intellectual life. Its business is to train the mind by every means, but chiefly by the orderly appropriation of useful knowl- edge, for a wide range of possibilities, for the immediate duties of citizen- ship, for the sharp competitions of business and society, for personal happiness and self-realization ; but, above all and including all, for the full and free exercise of every moral and intellectual power. In arranging a school programme, as between the sciences and the literary studies, it is necessary to keep in view the largeness of life, and the worth of man apart from all he does and all the influence he exerts. It is hard to find any one versed in the new education who would at present displace an hour now devoted to the sciences ; and it is, I think, harder than ten years ago to find an advocate of the sciences, who is also versed in the science, the his- tory, and the art of education, who would withdraw from the secondary schools an hour of the time devoted to the languages. Time given at the outset grudgingly is now accorded willingly, and the disparagement of the old education has given place to a grateful recognition of its coordinate value in the training of the coming generation. LANGUAGE STUDIES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 199 SHOULD LANGUAGE STUDIES BE LIMITED IN SECOND- ARY SCHOOLS AS THEY ARE IN THE INTERESTS OF THE SCIENCES? BY DR. D. W. ABERCROMBIE, OF WORCESTER ACADEMY, WORCESTER, MASS. Great as has been the change in the courses of study of college prepara- tory schools in the last quarter of a century, all students of education would agree that the changes noted during this period are merely pro- phetic of a greater development that is at hand — an impulse beginning in the university, and working down through the lower strata of educational institutions. Such great awakenings are always from above, and when, more than twenty-five years ago, Harvard University promulgated its scheme of elective studies, a current of influence was started that was destined to revolutionize the conditions of education, not only in that ancient seat of learning, but in all other colleges and universities, and also in the secondary schools that feed the higher institutions. This most important incident in the history of higher education in this country dis- covered to the college one of its chief functions, and assured it of one of its highest prerogatives. To outline and develop courses of study, to exercise leadership and do pioneer service in educational movements, is one of the principal avenues whereby the college is to make returns to the community at large for its great endowments and opportunities. To experiment, to prove, and then disseminate sound educational doctrine is a far higher work for a great educational institution than merely to send forth each year a number of men who have completed its curriculum. So does it prove its wise stewardship of the large bounties it holds in trust. In this way is its duty to the nation honorably met and its essential rela- tion with lower institutions acknowledged. The high censorship in educa- tional matters, so necessary among a people where there is so little coherent power that commits institutions of similar and different grades to the same wise policy, belongs to the university. While the different members of our educational body have been far from ideal in their mutual relations, still there has been a sufficiently distinct articulation of the various parts to insure a marked response from all when the call came from Harvard summoning to a scheme of study that was wisely progressive and safely liberal, and that sought to harmonize educational methods to the actual needs and practical life of this great country, to the end that the college graduate might not become un-Ameri- can as a result of his college training, but that he might become a better citizen, a wiser guide in the solution of the great problems that are to be presented to us. The great propaganda, then, that was boldly put forth 200 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. by Harvard a generation ago not only ushered in the dawn of the new edu- cation in this country, but it definitely gave the leadership in education to the university and college, and forced secondary schools to follow in a large way the course marked out by the higher institutions. While the secondary school that has individuality — and to be excellent its personality must be vivid — will always have a curriculum that will mark its identity, still, from its very terminology and from its place in the scheme of educa- tion it is ever a preparatory school, following in a large degree the lines marked out by the higher institutions. To be preparatory it must do much of its work with full reference to that more advanced life of the scholar into which it seeks to introduce its pupils in the college and university. In other terms, the work of the college and university inevit- ably determines very largely the character of the work in the secondary school. With the intimate relation between the higher and lower institu- tion thus established, we draw near the statement of the first reason that compels a readjustment of the studies in preparatory schools. When the writer passed the entrance examinations to Harvard Univer- sity twenty-one years ago there was one prescribed way of admission, and only one. His preparation was gained in the Cambridge Latin School, confessedly as good a school as sent boys to Harvard at that time. The requirements were as follows : The merest smattering of physical geography, gathered from verbatim recitations from a little manual, the time for which was stolen from the first or last ten minutes of a three-quarter-hour recita- tion in Latin, Greek, or mathematics. This was the full extent of a boy's training in the sciences required for admission to Harvard twenty years ago. To complete the course there were four years' study of Latin, three of Greek, a year's work in the classical history of Greece and Eome, arithmetic through mensuration, algebra through quadratics, and plane geometry. No French, no German, no English, no science ; for the require- ment in physical geography, already referred to, cannot be mentioned seri- ously except to emphasize with a keen sarcasm the complete absence of all scientific training. This preparation admitted a boy to a college where the elective system was already sufficiently in operation to dominate all of the work of senior and junior years, and all but four hours a week of sophomore year, with the exception of three or four themes and forensics a year. Could the Cambridge High-School, which may be fairly regarded a type of the schools of its class, be reasonably called a preparatory school to Harvard University, in view of the meagre preparation it gave a boy to make a wise choice and selection of the rich volume of elective studies invitingly spread before him on the university schedule ? But it is to preparatory schools as they now are that our argument in behalf of an extension of science studies and a limiting of language studies is to be directed. It will be found, however, that this same dis- LANGUAGE STUDIES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 201 parity between preparation for scientific studies and the extensive field opened up to students on entering college, a disparity that amounts not to what is humorously called a "college fit," but to a most distinct misfit — this disparity, I say, that existed twenty years ago, has not yet been removed ; for while it is true that schools that pretend to give a boy a thorough preparation for college, a preparation that enables him to do the higher work with ease and profit — while such schools have undoubtedly made large additions to their courses of study in. the sciences, still the colleges and universities have vastly developed the area covered by them in these subjects. So that in reality the gap between the amount of science done in secondary schools and colleges to-day is as great as that which existed twenty years ago. The point urged is this, that in view of the extension of the elective system in the higher institutions, and the remarkable development that has been made and must continue in nature studies, the secondary school cannot be regarded a preparatory school unless it fits its pupils to enjoy the large privileges offered to them in the sciences by the elective system as it now holds in college and university. Preparation for the elective system, then, makes necessary a consider- able development of scientific rather than language study in the second- ary school. Language studies, the humanities, never to be discarded or ignored, have long held preeminent position in the curriculum of the schools. The enormous stimulus that all departments of knowledge have received in this century has been felt most sensibly in the sciences, not only vastly extending the range of human knowledge, but revolutionizing methods of study in all departments. The elective system, while greatly enlarging the lines along which men may push study and investigation, points for any one student in the direction of specialization. Specialization means centralization, the focus- ing and massing of the powers of the mind to the prosecution of mental work for which a man has special aptitude. It means to "note well wherein kind nature meant us to excel," and when we have caught the plain hint from nature, to call into operation all resources to develop this taste and follow this bent. It is the logical expansion, under the great increase of knowledge in these last days, of the wise dictum of Ascham : " Small area well cultivated." Again, a wisely ordered scheme of study will inevitably apply a divin- ing rod to the untouched and unsuspected mental resources of a pupil, because it will be inclusive, and from its very breadth will lie tangent to a greater variety of types of mind. This is not the folly of saying that any one course of study will create brains where none exist, or touch gross stupidity and warm it into mental life and activity. But it is the experience of every teacher that many a pupil's mind has lain barren and unproductive, though the virgin soil 202 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. was far from sterile, because the seed has not been sown to which the constitution of his mind was congenial. The elective system gives the boy the needed opportunity to meet the true nature of the student's mind, to touch its dormant powers, to awaken its sleeping life. To put the mind in motion is the teacher's first duty ; and is it not his highest art ? How inadequate has been the stereotyped curriculum of the past ! A just sen- tence lies against it for its procrustean rigidity and formal inflexibility. Ample, possibly, to furnish a man for the duties of the restricted and undiversified life of the days of monasticism and the cloister, but wofully deficient to equip him for these days of enormous energies. The unwisdom of the adjustment between secondary schools, and the higher institutions has been among the marked defects in our educational system. This ill-adjustment has been apparent nowhere so much as in the constant expansion of the elective system in the colleges, and the rigid holding to the old schemes of the secondary schools. The lack of coherence between the two kinds of institutions has been glaringly apparent. Latin and Greek have barred the way to a larger and wiser educational career, to a degree harmful to different types of mind, and to an extent not required for the retention and cultivation of these languages in school or in college. I instance these two languages because they have historically coerced other lines of study. No indict- ment can rest against French or German, and much less against our own mother tongue, for any such usurpation of the time due the prosecution of other subjects. I am among those lovers and teachers of the Greek language who feel that its place in any scheme of study that would lead to a liberal and elegant education rests on far more substantial foundations than mere tradition and prescription, and that it will continue for intrinsic reasons of the greatest value to educate and train the mind of man as long as studies are a delight and an honor. That a pupil, then, may be ready to make choice of the liberal provisions , of an elective system, he should be given a wider range for sympathy, taste, and aptitude in the preparatory years of his school life. This amounts to saying, in other words, because of the traditional curriculum of the secondary schools, that more room must be made for natural science. To bring this about there must be a pruning of the time devoted to lan- guage studies. This adaptation of the course of studies in the secondary school to the elective system has been seen to be attended by an advantage of very great value — the earlier opening up of a wider range of sympathy, taste, and aptitude to the young student, that a teacher may not always be "punishing nature in a scholar," as quaint Thomas Fuller phrases it, but that the pupil may have a better chance to discover what tastes are natural to his mind, and what acquired, through the larger variety of subjects presented to him. LANGUAGE STUDIES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 203 There is a third reason of great value why a larger study of the sciences should find its place in secondary schools at the expense of language studies. This reason is of special pedagogical interest. The curse of much of the effort in education, whether in secondary school or in college, has been in the past, and still is, that subjects have been so largely taught as mere matter of information. There can be no doubt that it is well to be informed on as many subjects as possible, but it is a truism in pedagogics that information is not training and power. Possibly the reason for this serious fault in educational methods is very largely found in the unpractical and theoretical character of the body of the subjects that have filled up the schemes of study so generally in the past. The recovery from this fault lies in the prosecution of nature studies. They at once present facts of a different order ; phenomena appear ; we see, handle, observe, infer, coordinate, classify, establish laws, generalize. Immediately we find how silly and inadequate would be any attempt to teach science and explore nature merely to see a fact. Facts present themselves ; we note them, and do well to remember them, but in the use we make of these facts lies great mental training. Attention, comparison, judgment are stimulated. The highest operations of the mind are called into play, and we find the chief value of facts thus gleaned to be, to our minds and to those of our pupils, their disciplinary value and not their worth as isolated, disconnected facts. Education is training, discipline. All that trains and disciplines educates. The great value of scientific study is that it induces and compels the alert and quickened sense. Per- ception is vivid. Language studies may be, can be — nay, more, should be — taught as disciplinary subjects, but they are not so susceptible of this as science studies are. So fully are we of the Worcester Academy convinced of the great importance of this fact, that we require a full year's work in laboratory physics of every pupil who would finish our course, whether going to col- lege or not, or to whatever college going. When fathers write us, asking whether we " coach " for this college or that, remarking that physics is not required for the college he wishes his son to enter, our uniform reply is that we "coach " for no college, and that as far as physics is concerned we are a law unto ourselves. But we discover power in many a boy where it had not been suspected, and equally we find limitations of mind where Latin and Greek had not revealed them. There should be, then, an enlarge- ment of the sciences as subjects that invite to disciplinary studies rather than to studies of mere information. Then what may have been difficult mental processes become easy and familiar ; " lines of least resistance " are established ; careful observation, logical deductions, and accurate gen- eralization become the habit of the mind by training. The power to observe carefully, to collect facts, make comparison, and infer general laws 204 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. is the highest work of the educated mind. President Hall, of Clark Uni- versity, once humorously spoke of the career of the ordinary college under- graduate as a " four years' exposure to the contagion of a liberal education." There has been a large basis of fact for this witty satire. Much of the occasion for it is due to the character of the studies that have so imperi- ously controlled the college and school curriculum in the past, and to the unwise methods of instruction that have prevailed, by which so many sub- jects have been taught as information rather than disciplinary subjects. The classics have exercised, leadership among the other studies of the schools, but this primacy is hereafter to be shared with other groups of subjects. There is a still further reason to be found in the very nature of the various sciences which should lead to the enlargement of their place in the schools. While it is broadly true that the training to which reference has been made should be sought very largely for itself, still there are other reasons that suggest and command training in the sciences, that lie outside of the resulting mental discipline, and. relate to the use to which specialized study is to be put when the days of student life in school and college are over. Election and specialization in college should be determined not only by the use to which the student may put his knowledge, in case he himself may in turn become an instructor in his chosen department, but also by the use which the student may make of his training in the commercial world. Trade, commerce, manufactures, inventions are more and. more to require the specialized training of the schools. Schools of technology and the scientific schools of the great universities mean this, and mean this alone ; and the secondary school should be in the line of promoting this application of a wise and thorough study of physical laws and forces to the improvement of the conditions of human life. In conclusion, the time needed for an expansion of the study of the sciences must come from the languages ; mathematics cannot supply it, for mathematics have received only moderate development in the second- ary schools during the past twenty years. Solid geometry is taught in some schools, as is plane trigonometry, but in only a few relatively. The time devoted to them cannot be curtailed, for instruction in the sciences, physics notably, requires all the mathematics a boy can get outside of college, as studies are now arranged. The languages must supply the needed time, and science study should be developed. DISCUSSION. 205 DISCUSSION. Mr. W. T. Poyxter, of Shelbyville, Ky. : I have another objection to the paper, eside its tendency to add another burden to the preparatory school, already overbur- iened, and incompetent to do its work thoroughly. Now we are told, in order to srepare for that wonderful elective system, that modern fad, we ought to take on a fhole lot of sciences in the preparatory school. Gentlemen, it cannot be done. That all there is about it. Down in my State I am known as rather progressive in reli- ion. but I am an old fogy in education. When you talk to me about your new edu- ition, I don't see it, and I don't believe it is there. I believe in this: The public 3hools lay the foundation of education: the preparatory schools take up that work and it the pupils for college, with Greek, Latin, and mathematics. The colleges take the pupil and fit him for something higher ; and when he gets through with the college, they let him go to the university, where he can make an election. But the tendency to-day, find out the affinities of the child of thirteen or fourteen years, and find out what lat child is going to be fitted for, is, and must be forever, a failure. Every practical icher knows that a pupil coming into a school will pick out the easiest course of tudy, in the age in which he comes. Did you ever see a pupil who came into a school There there were two or three courses of study, if left entirely to his own desires and lclinations, who would not take the easiest ? I have had hundreds of instances in my 3hool, where girls have cried for a week because I forced them to go into Latin. And fterwards they thanked me that I forced them to take that study. Down in my auntry, a few years ago, it was an almost unknown thing for a girl to study Latin. 7e have heard every year, — what good geometry is going to do a girl. And the idea of a girl studying Greek was not heard of. What we need in the primary and prepar- atory schools is fewer studies and more deference to those studies. 1 have heard more jut science since I came into this room than I have heard for years. Dr. Moses Merrill, Head Master of the Public Latin School of Boston : It is very brtunate for the last gentleman that he was not speaking in New England, or he would ,ve been called a heretic. But he does not care for that. I agree with him, although am from New England. I was quite comforted by the way in which this question as arranged, as to whether the amount of time given to languages in our secondary schools (as they are) should be diminished in order to make room for a more extended course in physics, botany, and chemistry. I don't think we have ever had the ques- tion put in that form before; it is a good sign. Heretofore it has been, Ought not these studies to be added to the course in the secondary school? I think the last gen- tleman is completely right. We cannot add; we must restrict. It seems to me, also, we must settle in our own minds what the degree of A.B. is to stand for. It has beep, until within a few years, supposed that it ought to stand for nothing but the linguistic preparation for college, with a continuance of the classical studies in the college. And that was true, especially with the Eastern section of this country. That is not the sentiment now. Therefore, what must be the preparation for college? It must be divided. The school or parent must settle early in life the course of study the child shall pursue to get a liberal education. I am very glad that things are getting ualized The boys in New England are dropping Latin and Greek, and the girls of e Mississippi Valley are taking them up. So we shall have more equality as time goes on. I believe thoroughly in the discipline that comes in the study of the lan- guages. I am as much of an old fogy as the last speaker. I think I would have the girls and boys begin their classical studies at eight or ten, and be prepared for enter- ing college at sixteen or seventeen, and know something about languages, and not try to know only very little or nothing about a great many things. I think I would have a prescribed course continuing in a large measure in the earliest part of the college course. Still all these other subjects are very important, and perhaps, when it comes to practical life, the most important. The number of those is comparatively very small who, on entering into life, take up their vocations on the preparation in colleges and secondary schools that comes from a study of the classics. Therefore there must be a division. Secondary schools must be founded and carried on on the plan of preparing children for college outside of the linguistic course. I have in New England, I think, obtained evidence that the study of the classical lan- guages, so called, is a very great advantage to boys and girls who are going to pursue a scientific course. It is certainly true in the institutes of technology. We have 206 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. obtained evidence that boys who enter the institute with a good knowledge of Latin are very much better prepared for the work than those who have none or very little knowl- edge of Latin. The study of Latin must continue to be an important factor for the preparation of any school above the secondary school. It seems to me we have got to change our reasoning in regard to this whole matter, and come back to the principle which I first laid down ; that is, that we must determine early in life what the child shall do, as far as we can. And I think we are committing another mistake in the present day in not insisting that the children shall do some work that they do not exactly like. That when we start them in a course of study we are not to judge at once that they may not make good scholars or do good work because they do not happen to like this study or that. I think one of the best things I ever heard is. " Why, if you don't like that study, that is the very reason why you should take it and pursue it." I don't mean that that should be carried to the extreme: but this pres- ent idea that we have, that every child shall only do the work for which he has an aptitude and liking, is a mistake in our system of education. I firmly believe that for the first sixteen or seventeen years in the life of the child, the study of the child, the instruction of the child, should be very disciplinary. I don't think we can pbssiby confine the work in secondary schools simply to preparing for college. That idea makes the question very much broader, and I will not go into that, because it would take too long to indicate the distinction between these schools. Mr. Boltwood, of Evanston, 111. : I have yet to know of a high-school that was not always thrusting its lack of scholarship on the grammar school. And I have yet to know of a college that did not excuse its work because of the manner in which the pre- paratory or secondary school did its work. It means this : We are impatient for certain results. We want to turn out good average scholarships for work. We want, as has been said, to work on the lines of the least resistance, and the teachers are just as lazy as the pupils. Why give Latin and Greek so great a prominence in the educational course ? Partly from their value — and I would not underrate their value — and partly because with these the teacher feels his foot is on a rock, away ahead of the pupil. And there is an- other reason. The apparatus of instruction is so simple. All it costs is to put into the hands of a child a grammar and a reader costing two dollars and twenty-five cents. If they are going to teach physics, they will need to have a good laboratory. Now, do you know, there is very little outcome from the study of physics and the sciences, largely for the want of time. We don't carry it far enough to produce educational value.. When we take up sciences, we give physics one year, and we give Latin four years. And when the pupils pass into the colleges they are compared in the same way; that is, one year for physics, with Latin four years. In other words, we are not working to an end. The. elective system has come into our colleges to stay. The question as to the time when the student shall elect is a very important one. Our friend from Boston says they might begin at nine or ten years. A great part of our primary education in the pre- paratory school is necessary that the teacher may find out what the child is fit for. I believe that pupils should take languages that they don't like. When the election is made at the end of the second year, 1 believe they make mistakes. In other wonl^. there must be in all our preparatory work a certain foundation of general culture. Now, in the preparatory school, suppose you take Latin four years, and take Greek two or three years; it leaves two years for mathematics. That must be, of course, some- what elective. 1 think it would be better to carry one longer. I notice in the German schools they very frequently carry a subject for six years, with only two recitations a week. For example, French is carried five years. That same subject is taken up with two subjects a week and carried six years. As it is in some of our schools the sub- ject is taken up early in the course, then dropped out entirely and forgotten when the pupil enters college. We talk a great deal about what pupils can do. I believe that requiring a pupil to carry three studies, and three only, is a mistake. I believe the average pupil can carry four, if they are judiciously taught. Our pupils are not overworked. The trouble is that there are so many outside influences which cut into the time, that the mind is not on the work as it ought to be. I notice in most schools whose courses I have exam- ined, that three studies are considered proper. In my own I have three and a half. I have a good deal of alternate work with drawing and English, so that the pupils carry four daily exercises. Now take physics. Except early manipulation, which is like manual training, t he maturity of the mind required to do much in physics is not to be found. I have been compelled ,to put physics later in the course in the second year. 1 found the pupils, DISCUSSION. 207 early in the second year, were not mature enough to do what was expected of them. I have put it later, that they may have algebra and chemistry. I believe time can be found in the school for more work. I do not know whether it is to be at the expense of Latin or Greek. I am not prepared to say that I have very positive convictions, but I do say that, by the present standard of the Chicago Univer- sity, we cannot spare one single lesson out of the year and do it as thoroughly as they expect it to be done. We must do it by educating the public to the idea that the pupil's time should be more thoroughly given to his work, and finding some place for four instead of three recitations. And if anything is to be let go, it is that which will not be required for an admission to college. In my own preparation for college I had one term in physics. That is more than many of my class had. I had one term of instruction in physics, with the advantage of attending a good course of lectures in college. I found it valuable to me. We cannot in many of our colleges spare the time for Latin and Greek. There is more demand for Greek in this region than there was three or four years ago. The Chicago schools threw out Greek, but they put it back again. In my own school many more now take Greek than a few months ago. The requirements of the colleges are rising constantly. I don't object to that if they balance it up, and if they don't insist very strongly on more English, and then only allow credit for one year. I think the remedy is that the work must be done by carrying more subjects and dis- tributing them over a longer length of time, so that the mind shall become more active on the subject. The Chairman: If Dr. Bancroft, of Andover, were here, I think he would follow his paper, in view of the discussion, with a single remark. He states distinctly that in his experience it has been found that better methods have enabled the teacher to cover the required ground in less time. I recall a quarter of a century ago, when I was at Phillips Academy, they had no sciences and no drawing. That same academy is fit- ting boys in the maximum requirements for the Harvard University on the new scheme, and they do more work, and still find time for physics and chemistry and drawing. It is very important that emphasis should be placed on the matter that Dr. Bancroft has so profitably presented, and a phase of the matter which has not been referred to by any person who has spoken. Let us emphasize the truths of the princely men who have been teaching the classes and have laid tribute on the best things in teaching ; who do their work better and in less time than those (thanks to the teachers of the sciences) who have put us on our mettle. Let us not, because these people are pressing for certain things, leel that we are necessarily compelled to surrender everything. Dr. Harris has an idea which, if you will pardon me, I will throw out in connection with this discussion. Speaking of the bifurcation that may be made in the courses of study, Dr. Harris insists that it should take place at the latest possible hour, because every mortal human soul may be regarded as possessing many windows, and it is the business of the school to open as many of these windows as possible ; and when you shut a boy off at nine or ten you have probably shut eternally a great many windows out of which that soul would like to look. W. H. Snyder, of the Worcester Academy, Worcester, Mass. : In our school two years ago we decided that physics should be taught in the classical part of the school. We decided that it was a study that ought to be taught regularly, and it was ingrafted ■upon the junior year, already somewhat crowded, as an extra study. It was placed in three afternoons of the week. During this time there was to be done the maximum amount of work required for Harvard College, which consisted of forty experiments and a great deal of text-book work. It consisted of a great deal of mathematical work to pass examination. This was placed on the junior year, nothing being taken off. At first the boys considered that they were overworked. They worked very hard, and had to. At the end of the year they concluded that they were not overworked, and they were glad that they had taken physics, because that opened for them entrance into any college in the United States. The next year we did the same thing, putting extra re- quirements of English on the boys. To make up for this, during the last part of one term we dropped out one recitation in Latin, and one recitation in Greek for the first part of another terra. At the end of the school year the boys in the course, who at first vehemently protested against the scheme, came to me and thanked me, saying they had enjoyed it and were not overworked. Now, as to the use of scientific studies in our secondary schools. Our language studies have been very much increased in the last ten years. To-day our best schools will take up as much Latin and Greek as»the colleges took up ten years ago. We take Caesar and 208 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. the five orations of Cicero, and Virgil. We take part of his Bucolics, and we take Solon. We take up in our first year the Iliad. It is read in the secondary schools now, where it wasn't read in the colleges ten years ago. Now, if there is asked a little retrenchment, it should come from the time which does not belong to the classical work. Principal Bancroft, in his paper, said that scientific work could be picked up afterward. Any teacher of science that has done anything in the sciences knows that this is a fallacy. A man may take up a smattering of the sciences, so that he may go out and expatiate on the beauties of nature ; but he will never get any accurate scientific knowledge himself unless he is an exceedingly scientific man. It is not the science we are trying to ingraft in the present schools, but it is simply the old text- books that somebody has discovered for you already. There is no doubt but the elective system in our colleges lias come to stay. It is being placed in all our colleges ; while a few years ago it was only in the larger colleges, tc-day it is in the smaller colleges as well. Now take a boy from the secondary school who goes to college without ever having known anything about the sciences. lie has no idea whether he has any capabilities for them or not. He knows he has passed the requirements in Greek and mathematics and Latin, and there he will continue, thinking he can carry them on, or else he will branch out for science, not knowing why he wants it. VVe call our school a preparatory school; yet we don't give them any preparation at all to judge of what they are best capable of doing. If young men are going to higher institutions, and choose those things in the institutions which will be the host adapted for them, they must have some preparation before. I had an experience along this very line, and you will pardon me for this personal reference, because it applies to this point. A young man came to me who had graduated from a classical department, standing very high ; who had taken both chemistry and physics. He was placed in the chemical laboratory, and given something to examine. tie got along while the experiments were described, but when he was put on qualitative work he totally failed. For the first six or eight years he did hardly anything. It wasn't a memory subject ; it was simply a subject he must absolutely observe. He could not do it. Suppose that boy had gone into college; he would have taken a high rank along one line, and an exceedingly low rank along another. Now, wasn't it far better that he should know what he would want, than to waste the time in his college course ? We must prepare for those things we are going to choose just before we go into college. Our time is wasting. Our boys enter college late enough ; they graduate late enough ; they enter life late enough ; if they are to choose rightly before they enter college they must know something before they enter college. It is not going to be a complete waste of time if physics and languages are taught right. For instance, take English, a sub- ject that is usually much talked of ; and we ought to know something about our own language. I contend that English can be better taken in a course of experimental physics than in any other way. The boy says, I have nothing to talk about; therefore 1 cannot write. In a course of chemistry and physics the boy describes the experiment in his note-book ; and if he has done that he has written a composition, and he has told something he knows about, and expressed it rightly. He has not been verbose about it, and he has got some fine training in English. He is taught to observe ; he is taught to note ; he is taught to reason ; what more will he bo taught by other subjects ? We shall not lose much even if we take time for this from Latin and Greek. It cannot be taken from mathematics. A boy must have mathematics in order to take up these sciences. It is utterly impossible for him to do the work of algebra and geometry without them. This little time we add in can be given to us by slightly shortening these courses, even if it cannot be ingrafted. B. E. Cutler, of the Northwest Division High School, Chicago: Mr. President and Fellow- Teachers — There has been one aspect of this subject that I was very anxious to see brought before this assembly : and, as the discussion seems to be passing with- out its being presented, I feel called upon to say a word. We have in most of our high-schools two courses — that is, in the larger high-schools. VVe have the college preparatory course, and the general course. Those high-schools that are n6t large enough to have the two courses usually have the general course, and dispense with the preparatory course. I want to say a word for the general course. It is an experience that comes to me every year of my life, having charge of the fourth high-school of this city. The students come to me for advice in regard to what they shall do without going to college after they have finished the high -school. Now, theorize as we may, the fact is before us that the ordinary student, before he enters the high-school, has not any idea whether he is going to college or not ; and usually it is the student who decides DISCUSSION. 209 this question and not the parent. I grant that there may be exceptions to this, in some of the Eastern cities, where the parent plans for his boy from the time the boy is four or Ive years old. I grant there may be exceptions to this where the parent is himself a allege man. The great majority are those who do not know whether they are going to lave a college education or are going to finish in the high-school. And this being the se, nine times out of ten they will take the general course. The question comes to most students, Shall I go out into life with the preparation I am getting in the high-school, or shall I go to the university, or to the college alone ? This juestion comes also : How will my high-school preparation fit me for another college ? ^nd then, for the first time, the student is brought face to face with the fact that he is only one language, and the college requires two. And usually not less than three (rears in each of the two languages. The college requires German and Latin, or French md Latin, or Greek and Latin ; and the student perhaps has had four years in German, or has had four years in Latin and has no Greek, or has only one language. Now, inder those circumstances, he has had his preparation of four years on one science or lother. And he has had his four years divided between mathematics and English, ind such studies as algebra, chemistry, history, literature, and so forth. Under these circumstances, if it is true, and I believe it is, that science is a culture study ; if it is rue that general history is a culture study, that the study of English authors is a culture study ; that it trains the mind and prepares one for the higher regions of thought and learning, why cannot the college accept the students as we make them in "le four-year school course, instead of sticking to the old-fashioned idea that no one lall enter their doors who does not have two languages ? It seems to me there should up a cry to the colleges that they should have at least one of their courses in which they would accept our ordinary high-school student. Now, I recall to mind two students who, during the last year, were freshmen in sloit College. They were good students. They said: " Let us go, and try to make up ehat is lacking." They were permitted to do so. They made up what was lacking, »nd they passed to the sophomore class in Beloit College. But you say that is a Western college. True. Probably that might not be done somewhere else. It is only remark- ible students who can undertake to make up the language when the colleges require two mguages. This question is under discussion among the college faculties themselves, our own University of Chicago the question is a burning question there. I had conversation with one of the professors of the University of Chicago, presenting rery much the same thoughts I have presented to you. He said to me : " Will you go pith me to President Harper, iu order that we may present this same idea to him ? " Lnd I found from that conversation that they were considering this question. I don't rant them to merely consider the question. I want them to yield to this demand; and ney certainly will be more apt to yield to this demand if that cry comes up from us. don't want to say there shall not be any Latin ; I don't want to say there shall not be iy Greek. I say, let them give our students a choice in some of those courses. The Chairman : We have still some time left for the discussion for this thesis. Mr. Boltwood : The Chicago University has made one move in the direction just idicated by Mr. Cutler. That is, they have in their last requirement thirteen credits, ind the pupil who can make up his thirteen may have a very wide range. He is equired to make up his thirteen credits in that way, and that has added to the possibil- ity of the pupil passing to the university from the high-school. The weak point is, that they allow but one year's credit for English, no matter how thorough the course has been ; and it is one year to general history, when ancient history has the credit for half a year. There is some objection to this schedule. Their plan is, whatever the pupil lacks of these requirements he should take up in college. The candidate has the option of the subject: he can make up anything that is on the list. I think the list takes eighteen, or even more than twenty; but the list does not cover most of the languages taught in the high-school, so the pupil could make his thirteen credits. I understand that is substantially the plan adopted by the Stanford University. Dr. Edward Osterburg, of Sweden : Ladies and Gentlemen — I rise with some hesi- tancy, because I am not sure that I shall be able to explain to you what I mean in a tongue that is not my own. It has been very interesting to listen to the discussions here, but at the same time I cannot deny that it has been somewhat disappointing. When I came from the other side, from the old country, and came here, I wanted to hear more advanced ideas than I have heard hitherto. Yesterday, for instance, there was a discus- sion about the specialization of the schools; and there were a great many who advocated 14 210 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION that in early years the parents of boys or girls should decide what course they should take. I think that is to forget that boys and girls are all of the same kind for fourteen or fifteen years of their life. It is not a question of what they shall be developed to ; it is a question of what is the girl and what is the boy to have. When a boy or girl is fourteen or fifteen, it is time to think of specialization. Until that time, I think, they ought to be educated almost in the same way. Then I come to the question that has been discussed to-day. There is the question about the subjects that ought to be taught in the secondary schools. Now, I have some difficulty to express my opinion in this respect, because we have no secondary schools in the same meaning that you have. It seems to be rather a conflicting system that you have when you divide the instruction into primary schools and grammar schools, and then you put in the high-school, and then the college, and thereafter the university. I think you might include in the secondary school two or three years of what you take in colleges. Thereafter I would recommend the destruction of all colleges, and begin university life. What should be taught in secondary schools ? I say, first of all you should teach young boys and girls to know their surroundings ; that is, the sciences. They should know the life of personality. They should study history ; they should study the languages. Of course, mathematics must be included. The study of language should be a very impor- tant part of the curriculum; and not language, but languages. 1 think the importance of a full study of the mother tongue cannot be exaggerated. It should be a study of the literature, so that the boys and girls, when they once leave the school, know their own tongue, and know their own literature, and feel it is a pleasure in their literature to know the great authors, and know the great characters of literature. They should be educated in good penmanship. If you give the boys and girls these you will give them something that will be of the most intrinsic value in their lives. You should not lay too much stress on teaching many languages. If you have learned one language, and by that been able to learn the great thoughts of great men, why should you learn them over again for year after year? It is necessary, of course, for us to know at any rate one of the foreign languages, so that we can communicate with other persons. It may not be so necessary for you Englishmen and Americans, whose language will become the language of all mankind. (Applause.) But, anyhow, it may be necessary even to you, in order to be able to study your own language the better, to study one language, at any rate, of a foreign country. What foreign language should that be ? If it is a question of what language should be taught in the school, I should certainly say not Latin and not Greek, but a modern language. We in our country are divided into two great parties, those who advocate Latin and Greek, and those who advocate the modern languages. I think of those who advocate Latin and Greek, the number has decreased. In fact, Greek is almost excluded from our schools, and Latin is beginning to retreat more and more. And so now I think there is a commission, in Sweden, to discuss whether Latin ought not to be delayed to the fifteenth or sixteenth year, so that only four years in our school should be given to the study of Latin. It lias been a very hard contest between these parties in Sweden, and I do not wish now to go into the details of that contest. I am sure that it will not hurt, but it will advance, the progress in our schools if we do not study too much of languages. I think that we should do well if we deferred the study of Latin and Greek to the later stages. But in the universities a great many say, Can you expect the university to teach the rudiments of Latin and Greek ? And I say, yes ; and I know there are some who have been successful. I think the same experiment has been made in England. I heard that Miss Bamsey had obtained the greatest honors in the university course, and she had actually not taken her study of Latin and Greek before her seventeenth year, if I remember rightly. Now I think that we, in Sweden, arc following the right course when we more and more delay the study of Latin and Greek, and defer them to the universities. By doing that, the study of Latin and Greek can be a really scientific study. But are you not cutting off the historical continuity ? one might ask me. That is preserved by studying history. And when you study history you ought to study history of the old nations, and the history of their institutions. Now I think the people who recommend the study of Latin and Greek have invented several reasons. First, that Latin and Greek are more proper to develop logic. Don't you think that the sciences and mathematics are more able to develop logic ? I think that the reasons that have been invented afterwards are to be compared with the fortification that the general makes when he is ready to surrender. He binds the fortifications around him, and he 'cannot come out from them without surrendering the place. THE SECONDARY EDUCATION OF GIRLS IN FRANCE. 211 .Miss Cordelta Kirkland, of San Francisco : I would like, as no woman has spoken, to put in one word. And that is, that we are Americans, in the first place ; that our language is English ; and, far more than the language of Sweden, our language comes from the Greek and the Latin. I don't believe we can ever leave them out of a first- class English course. I think in our methods of study we are trying to keep one foot on the new steam-engine and the other back on the old apple cart. Any one who has had Latin and Greek feels it to be an immense importance to his English to have Greek as well as Latin. But how do we study the Latin and Greek ? By grinding away at the old grammars that, I think, Erasmus left us. Why not change the pro- nunciation, instead of grinding away on the old Greek grammars, and make Greek a live language ? I am told that you can go with your knowledge of ancient Greek to Athens to-day and read the daily newspaper perfectly well, but that you cannot speak with the modern Greek, because your pronunciation is so different. Is it not very possible to study Greek as they speak it in Athens to-day ? THE SECONDARY EDUCATION OF GIRLS IN FRANCE!. BY MLLE. MARIE DUGARD, PROFESSOR AT THE LYCEE MOLIERE, PARIS, AND MEMBER OF THE FRENCH COMMISSION ON SECONDARY EDUCA- TION. I was honored with the request to give some account of the secondary- education of girls in France. This is a very large subject, so large that it is impossible to give a complete idea of it in a short discourse ; all that I can do is to present a general idea of the question. The secondary education of girls is quite new in France, though it has been desired for a long time ; it was formed in 1880. Before this year we had for our girls only primary schools, public and private. Some per- sons, feeling that girls have the right, as well as boys, to receive a higher education, and also that the best way of expanding civilization is to in- crease instruction among women, tried to remedy this state of things, and opened private schools where the education, if not quite secondary, was certainly above the primary teaching. In 18G7 Mr. Duruy, Minister of Public Instruction, went further in introducing public lectures for the secondary education of girls. These lectures met with a strong opposi- tion on the part of a certain class of people who hold to traditions and think that learning is not good for women, because it prevents them from fulfilling their duties as wives and mothers. In spite of this, the lectures succeeded ; but they did not prove to be sufficient to comply with the wants of the time, and their best result was to show that we were ready for a more thorough system of secondary education for girls. Another and decisive step was taken some time after, in 1880 ; the Parliament passed the Law Camille See — so called after the name of its promoter — to have lycees for girls ; and almost immediately after the first lycee was opened in Montpellier. Now we have about fifty lycees or colleges, and fifty " cours secondaires " which are to be turned into lycees in a short 212 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. time. Three of these lycees are in Paris,* and one of them is attended by some six hundred pupils. It was not sufficient to have lycees ; we wanted teachers. A normal school was opened in Sevres, for the training of teachers for girls' col- leges. To enter this normal school, young women must be at least eighteen years old, must possess either the higher grade of the primary education, viz. : the " Brevet Superieur " or the " Baccalaureat," and must undergo some severe examinations, for letters or sciences, according to their choice. They remain three years in the school ; after the first two years they have to pass an examination to obtain the " Certificat d'aptitude a l'Enseignement Secondaire," and if they succeed, they have to pass next year the " Agregation," which enables them to be appointed as professors in a lycee for girls. Let me remark that it is not absolutely necessary to enter the normal school to become a teacher in a girls' college ; the essen- tial condition is to have the " Agregation," and it is not at all impos- sible to take this grade without the preparation in the normal school. What this Agregation is would take too long to explain ; it will be suffi- cient to say that — though it requires no Greek and Latin — it is a higher grade than what is called here the B.A. We not only have women to teach in our girls' colleges ; we have men, who are generally teachers in lycees for boys at the same time. It is a question often discussed among us whether it is better for a girl's mind to be trained by men or women. And if she is to be trained by men, when must this training begin ? When a girl is twelve years old, younger or older ? The question is not quite solved, but we generally think, and we act accordingly, that when a girl is fifteen or sixteen years old it is good for her to be trained by both men and women ; b}r men, because she must acquire some of the strong qualities of man's mind, method, faculty of abstraction, power of grasping ideas and generalizing ; but not only by men, because she might lose some of the qualities of her sex. Some words about the time devoted to work and the division of studies seem necessary now. The girls have generally two lessons of an hour each in the morning, and two in the afternoon. After the lessons, they can return home or stay in the lycee, where they have grounds to play, dining- room for their lunch, and studying rooms where they can prepare their lessons under the supervision of special teachers. In the evening, at six or half-past, they must return home, for, as a rule, we do not admit any boarders into our lycees for girls. The course of secondary education lasts five years, from the age of twelve to seventeen. The children are in the "preparatory classes" connected with the lycee until they are twelve years old ; then they are admitted, after an examination, into the second- * Since this discourse was delivered, a fourth lycee— the Lycee Lamartiue— has been founded in Paris. THE SECONDARY EDUCATION OF G-IRLS IN FRANCE. 213 ary classes. These classes are divided in two periods ; after the end of the first, including three years, the pupils pass an examination which takes place in the lycee. The examining committee comprises teachers of the lycee itself, with teachers of other colleges : they deliver to the girls a diploma called " Certificat d'Etudes de Troisieme Ann6e." This cer- tificate gives them the right to enter into the class of the second period, which consists of two years. Here the instruction is, of course, higher, and the pupils may follow — not completely but in a certain measure — their own tastes and attend a more specially scientific or literary course. At the end of these two years they can gain a diploma, delivered by a committee formed in the same manner as mentioned above ; this diploma, called " Certificat d'Etudes de Cinquieme Annee," confers on its owner the same rights as the " Brevet Superieur " of the primary education. We have in many colleges a sixth class, attended generally by girls of eighteen or twenty years, who wish to continue their studies, many of them with the view of becoming teachers. Such is, very briefly, our organization. A question arises now, far more important : "What do we teach ?" Before answering this question I must speak of another, closely connected with it : " What is our aim in giving a sec- ondary education to our girls ? " This aim is not to train the girl's mind like a boy's ; not that we do not think her intelligent enough to go through the same course of study, but because we think her destiny being not quite the same in the present life, it is better not to train her quite in the same way. I know that many people — and among them remarkable phi- losophers— are of a different opinion. Who is right ? It does not behoove me to judge here. All that I can say is this : As long as a nation believes that women ought not to be educated like men, she would be wrong to act otherwise. Now, in France the majority think that women are made — I do not say only, but especially — for home life ; that they must be before all good wives, real companions to their husbands, ready to enter into his ideas, to interest themselves in his preoccupations and his tastes ; that they must also be mothers in the full meaning of the word, not only bringing children to physical existence, but to moral and intellectual life. To form such women is the main aim of our education, and to succeed it is not thought necessary to give them a thorough knowledge of sciences ; to cram them, as boys too often are, with things required only for examinations and soon after forgotten. But it is necessary to develop their minds and to give them, according to an expression of Moliere that we like to quote on the subject, " Des clartSs de tout" — that is to say, some knowledge of everything — and also a sound moral training. It is in this spirit that our programmes have been formed. To give a full account of them would be certainly useless ; it is sufficient to say that they embrace letters and science, French and general history, with a special study of the history of civ- 214 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. ilization, French and general geography, grammar, literature, ethics, psy- chology, law, modern languages, sometimes, but not always, the elements of Latin, mathematics, geometry, natural history, physics, chemistry, etc., and drawing, singing, sewing, and gymnastics. Without dwelling on each of these subjects, I must say, however, a word about some of them. The teaching of letters is in such a way as to develop and enlarge the minds of the girls, to stimulate their thought and form their judgment. With these views, the old methods of teaching have been put aside in our lycees. The teaching of history, for instance, is no more the study of chronology of kings, the enumeration of battles and dates, but the study of the great events of the life of nations, with their causes, their effects, and the lessons they give. The study of geography is no more the memorizing of a dry list of mountains, rivers, towns, etc., but, being connected with the study of the soil, climate, products, scenery, and char- acter of the inhabitants, it has become a living and interesting science, which calls less to memory than to reasoning and imagination. The same spirit has transformed the teaching of grammar. Instead of requiring from the pupils, as formerly, a lot of exercises on conjugation, parsing, and diagramming — without quite neglecting them, for they are useful in a way, we try to teach language chiefly by reading of classics, explanation of the most beautiful pages of prose or poetry, and lessons of historical grammar ; that is to say, the history of our language and of its transforma- tion through ages. They have also to translate some works of old French, as the "■ Chanson de Roland/' " La Conquete de Constantinople," by Villehardouin, " Les Memoires de Joinville," etc. This naturally leads me to the teaching of literature. We attach a great importance to it, not only because of all studies this has the greatest influence for development of the mind, but also because the best way to learn how to write is to learn to appreciate and love the works of the great writers. Literature is taught even in the primary classes, but is studied more thor- oughly in the secondary classes, when the girls are about twelve years old. Then they are given a general idea of our literary history; they read sketches and full works of the best authors, as " Telemaque," by Fenelon; the Fables of La Fontaine ; "Esther," " Iphigenie," " Les Plaideurs," of Racine, etc. In the third year they attend lectures on French litera- ture from its origin until the present day, read some of its chefs-d'oeuvre, deliver short lessons or commentaries on the principal authors that they study, and write compositions on literary subjects. They are also given a general outline of ancient literature. In the following period, from fifteen to seventeen years, they study again, but more thoroughly, French, Greek, and Latin literature ; also German or English, according to the modern language that they learn. So their literary training is almost com- plete. It must be well understood that the teacher does not try to make THE SECONDARY EDUCATION OF GIRLS IN FRANCE. 215 them remember the names of all the authors and of their works, and to cram them with formula on each ; but by his lectures, his explanations of texts, his counsels for their readings, he tries to awake their taste and their reasonings, sure that he develops more their minds when he makes them feel the beauty of a description of Homer, Milton, or Chateaubriand than if he taught them many details about these authors. Far more important than the teaching of literature is the teaching of morals. In a way, it can be said that morals are taught in all the classes. [ave not all good lessons, either of history or literature, a moral influence ? Jut besides this general teaching we have a special one. We give it in the third and fourth years, when the girls are about fifteen or sixteen pears old. In the third we teach practical morals — I mean duties of mn toward God, himself, his family, his brethren, his country, etc.. In the fourth we teach theoretical morals. We give an outline of the great ^sterns of ethics — systems based either on sympathy or on the research of jleasure or of utility — and we discuss them. This teaching is entirely jparated from religion, our lycees being quite independent from the 3hurch. We are often asked : " How can you teach ethics without sligion ? You cannot separate them." I will not enter here into so oft- liscussed a subject. I will say only that, according to my own experience, is well as that of others, it is possible to teach ethics without special jligious dogmas. " But what is the basis of your morals ?" ask some jople. It is the great ideas upon which all religions are founded — God, luty, spirituality and immortality of the soul. In developing these ideas tq carefully stop just at the point where our teaching would become sec- irian. Given in this way, I dare to say that our moral teaching is reli- ious ; however, it never hurts any peculiar feelings or any peculiar creed )f the girls, and has really proved attractive to them. So it is with )sychologv, which is said to be so hard to teach to boys. Are the girls lore interested in it because they are more fond of analysis and self- jxamination ? It is possible ; but whatever the cause may be, they feel a >;reat interest for this science. Though we do not go very deeply into it, re teach them the essential difference between mental and physiological phenomena, and some general notions about the processes of will, feeling, thought, reasoning, etc., always trying to draw practical advice for their >wn development and conduct, and for the training of children that most )f them will have to educate some day. I cannot leave the subject of letters without adding a word on the teach- ing of law and of modern languages. The teaching of law takes place in the last year, one hour a week for six months. Sometimes it is given by a jecial teacher — a lawyer.* The aim of this teaching is not to leave women * In all the lyc6es of Paris it is given by Mile. Jeanne Chauvin, the only woman in France who has sen the grade of " Docteur en Droit." 216 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. ignorant of all business questions; to make them understand the meaning of a contract, a sale, etc., and to enable them to manage their own prop- erty, if needed. Modern languages are taught sometimes in the preparatory classes, and always in the secondary classes ; there, during five years the girls have three hours a week of German, English, or both ; and in some parts of France, of Spanish or Italian. The pupils are accustomed not only to read and write, but also to speak ; the lessons are never delivered in French, and, as a rule, French talking is strictly forbidden. Very often the teachers ask the pupils to speak German or English during the time of recreation ; some of the girls do it willingly, and, after five years of this training, they speak English or German fairly well. Of our teaching of sciences much could be said, and ought, perhaps ; but, feeling not sufficiently entitled to speak about it, I will remark only that our aim is to make the girls acquainted with the great principles of abstract and concrete sciences, and to give them, especially in mathe- matics, natural history, physics, and chemistry, the amount of knowledge useful for a general development of mind and for practical life. I must conclude with the regret of saying nothing of drawing, which is taught three hours a week, always from the casts ; of the teaching of sewing and cutting, which enables the girls to make their own dresses if they choose ; of the teaching of singing and gymnastics. But I have already said too much. I will conclude these remarks about our second- ary education by saying that, when a girl leaves our colleges after the completion of her studies, her mind is alive to all the great ideas which can interest a human being ; and, if she wishes to pass special examina- tions, her general training is such that she easily gets the special knowl- edge required. You must not think, however, that we consider our lycees as perfect ; far from it. They have many defects that we know and try to amend. Among the many reasons which attracted us here this is even one of the strongest. We know that you have done for the education of women more than any nation in the world ; we think that we have much to learn from you. One of our writers, M. de Varigny, after having studied America, said that the American woman was the woman of the future, and would some day educate her European sisters. This day seems to have come now ; and certainly, when we return to our own country, after all we have heard in the World's Fair Educational Congress, all we have seen of American schools and of American society, we shall be more able to see and correct the imperfections of our girls' educa- tion, and we shall understand better what is the ideal type of woman. TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 217 DISCUSSION. M. Buisson, of France : I had not any idea of speaking on any question eon- lected with the secondary education system. I was very happy to hear the paper which ias just been read by Mile. Dugard. It has been a great advantage to send represent- atives to the World's Congresses, especially on this question of woman's education. 7e are surely learning a great deal here, and surely our attendance will not be fruitless, would like to say a word on the question of Latin and Greek in the secondary educa- tion of boys. I heard an American lady who advocated very much the adoption of the lodern Greek in the teaching of that language. I am quite in favor of adopting it. and try myself to conform to it, even now. I have found great pleasure in hearing Greek rentlemen talk of ancient Greek ideas in their own language, and I think we ought to idopt that in the schools. Dr. Mackenzie : I am very glad to hear from Mile. Dugard the statement that >me things in the French schools are taught in the hours of leisure. 1 try to give the jys a great deal to do in their leisure time, and so steal a very valuable march. This thesis as to the study of drawing, modeling, painting, and the like, suggests to me a rery much easier use which can be made of the leisure of the schoolboys and school- iris. Some of our children would be amused at thinking of learning such a language is English in the leisure time, but I am sure a great deal can be done in the leisure hours, [any a half hour can be used for drawing or modeling that would otherwise be abso- lutely lost ; and the modern schoolmaster or schoolmistress will show his or her skill jy arranging the work so as to save those half hours from the waste time of the pupil, low that is to be done must be left to the individual school and its individual circum- stances. But I am very glad we can thus very considerably enlarge the work-time of the pupil. One of the unsolved problems in our work is how to secure more intelligent oecu- ition of the rational thinking period of the day. I don't mean by that, adding more serious work to the pupil's schedule ; but I mean a friendly, fatherly, schoolmasterly ccupation of time that is now not controlled by teaching. I have no special suggestion make on this subject. There are people here who are specialists in this line of work ; but I can, from my own point of view, speak very earnestly, and very positively, of seeking to get time for art studies by some such device as the paper has suggested, as tsed in France. Will S. Monroe, of Leland Stanford Jr. University : The delightful paper which the lady from France has read to us I certainly have enjoyed. If there is one lesson we can learn from these congresses, it is the extreme and delightful modesty of our friends from across the water. There are a few things in which the sex line must drawn. I believe the note of warning which the lady sounds in her paper. It eems to me, in this matter of coeducation, we have not stopped to study certain scien- tific problems which nature has determined long before for us ; and we must take the word of warning to ourselves and investigate the problems. THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS* JY MISS E. P. HUGHES, PRINCIPAL OF THE CAMBRIDGE TRAINING COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, AT CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND. I wish I could assume that, because two of the eleven addresses on the programme for to-night deal with the training of secondary teachers, the Ltnerican educational world is fully convinced, first, that the training of secondary teachers is necessary, and, second, that the question is one of jcial importance. Optimist though T am, when I see that apparently * This paper was read ut the General Congress, but inasmuch as its theme relates to secondary educa- ion, it has been placed with the papers of that congress. 218 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION the public mind is more interested in kindergarten and primary education than in secondary, and when I remember how few of our university gradu- ate teachers have had any training except that which experience gives them, I cannot make this assumption. Practically, at present our secondary teachers in America and in Eng- land consist of classes of graduate and non-graduate teachers. Taking the former class, what equipment must a good teacher possess that it is unwarrantable to expect from the new graduate ? First, a fairly intimate knowledge of child-nature, based on study and actual contact with chil- dren. This, it is needless to say, is not included in a university course. Second, a considerable knowledge of the results of the experience of other teachers. We need not begin as if we had no predecessors and must learn everything from experience. Third, a clear idea of the object of educa- tion and a high ideal of the work of the educator. Fourth, a certain amount of skill and power in educating, which can only be gained experi- mentally. Our university course does not give this equipment. If a graduate is to become a good teacher, he must either, laboring slowly, gain it himself at the expense of the children, or gain it at a professional college, where I maintain it can be done quickly, with no damage to the children. If the graduate is not properly equipped, the non-graduate is deficient in additional directions. His knowledge and mental develop- ment are not on such a high level, which ought to cut him off from certain spheres of education — he has not enjoyed the education of college life. I would suggest that we really require at present two kinds of secondary training colleges ; one for graduates, giving a short course for one year, and a second for non-graduates, giving a rather longer course of profes- sional training, and also supplying the advantages of a college life. In certain particulars I think that all colleges would differ. I have only time to refer to a few points in connection with a college. for graduates. It seems unnecessary to emphasize the point that such a college should give only professional training. I have never heard it suggested that it should give post-graduate instruction in non-professional subjects. It seems also unnecessary to emphasize the desirability that such a college should be in intimate connection with some of our best universities. I should suggest that it should have a double connection : on the one hand with universities from which the students have passed, and on the other hand with practical teachers in the thick of teaching-life towards which students are passing. The profession of psychology could contribute to such a college some of the latest discoveries in that science, and the practical teacher could con- tribute psychical problems and difficulties, and solve problems. We have started a plan in Cambridge which seems likely to succeed. In addition to students learning to teach, we have something like Fellows, TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 219 teachers of considerable experience, who come to us for a short time, give us the benefit of their experience, help to keep us in touch with practical details, and in turn learn, themselves, of the newest thoughts and prac- tices in education. During the last seven years I have studied the plans of training colleges in England and in several other countries, and I have always felt that where we fail most is in the means we employ to enable the students to get practical skill in teaching and governing. We have been experiment- ing in Cambridge quite freely and have been obliged to experiment. Our conditions have been very special, and as our plans have been transplanted to other colleges, I venture to refer to some of them. I am strongly opposed to any system of training which is purely theoreti- cal. In order to learn how to teach, you must teach, as well as do several other things, besides learning some theory. I cannot enumerate some of our plans without emphasizing for a moment what appears to me to be the fundamental idea of teaching. If it is anything, it should be individual and original. If I give a good lesson, it must have enough of originality in it, so that no one else could have given it in the same way. We must all find out by experiment the best way for us to teach or to govern. I believe that imitation is more fatal in teaching than in anything else. There are, of course, fundamental principles which all good teachers follow ; but the applications of these principles are innumerable. To attempt to copy a good teacher is fatal ; the conditions are not the same. I do feel very strongly that the most important of all lessons to be taught young teachers is, Never imitate. Now, I find that young teachers are exceedingly apt to imitate, and one has to be on the alert to insist that they shall be individual ; that each student must find out for herself her own way of teaching. " Then what is the use of a training college ?" it may be asked. Largely to foster individuality of teaching, to develop it in every possible way, and especially to arrange the conditions, so that the teacher shall, as quickly as possible, find out her own way of teaching and governing, without any damage to the children. In consequence of hold- ing this view of teaching, I object strongly to model lessons and to model schools. I believe that when an experienced teacher hears a good lesson she learns much from it, but largely because she will not be inclined blindly to copy. There is a time when it is of the greatest importance to hear good teaching, but I do not think it comes early in the course. As far as we have reached at present in Cambridge, we maintain the following four stages in the practical work : First Stage. — The students begin their observation of children in school and out of school. We have organized a series of children's parties in order to provide for the latter. The observations for the schools are of two kinds ; first, observation of individual children ; second, observation of the whole class. The students are advised not to listen to the teacher, but to 220 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. sit in front of the class and watch the children ; not to add to the knowl- edge of child-nature, but to accustom students to observe children. Dur- ing this stage I arrange that the students shall come in contact with some of our fine specimens of English teachers, not to hear them teach, but to talk with them and catch their spirit. No model lessons, but a quiet talk with a great teacher is about all, I think, we want. Second Stage. — In the second stage the students continue to observe, and, in addition, have teaching exercises. The students now begin to teach, and each one begins where she is likely to find it easiest, as regards subject, class of schools, age of pupils, etc., and under the easiest conditions that we can arrange. Everything is done to make these first lessons a success, and during this stage we aim chiefly at enabling the student to get and keep control over a class under easy conditions — to succeed, in fact. As soon as she does succeed, something of the inspiring stimulus of success catches hold of the teacher's spirit ; she passes to the third stage. In the third stage no further observation of children is demanded, but it goes on, and many are the keen discussions among the students with reference to some of the children that we teach. The student having now begun to succeed, we give her teaching under as varied conditions as pos- sible, and her teaching and governing power is developed. In many schools she also has the opportunity of sometimes hearing lessons, espe- cially by fellow-students, towards whom she is naturally critical, and by no means inclined to copy them. In the fourth stage the teacher specializes in a direction. First, she teaches as far as possible*under those conditions under which she will teach when she leaves college. Second, she knows by this time in what directions she will best succeed, and will consequently to that end determine the kind of teaching that will best help her to develop power in those directions. Observation of classes and- observation of schools are now carried on, and the student can listen with impunity and with advantage to lessons from experienced teachers, because there is no longer any danger that she will make the fatal mistake of attempting to copy any one. At this point the student has acquired considerable teaching skill, and an individual way of teaching, and has learned to adjust herself to many conditions. She has learned to look critically at her own teaching, and to gain from her own experience and from the teaching of others ; in other words, she is now capable of continuing her own training, and that is all we aim at. I will venture to plead for one moment with teachers of all classes, from the presidents of colleges to the youngest teachers in the kindergarten. I would plead that every teacher is concerned in the satisfactory professional preparation of our graduate teachers. I believe in an aristocracy as a factor in rapid progress ; and by an aristocracy I mean the class who have privileges that at present cannot be enjoyed by all. All species of educa- DISCUSSION. 221 tion are connected. The kindergarten lays the foundation of school educa- tion, and, if it be well laid, a good structure can be built on it, which otherwise would have been impossible. Again, if the kindergarten has laid a good foundation, naturally the kindergarten teacher ought to be very much concerned as regards the structures erected, on it. But over and above this intimate connection there is a special relation between the best equipped teachers and all others. In England reforms speed more rapidly down the educational line than up it. Because the training was first given to our elementary teachers, it has been difficult to pass that reform to better educated teachers. It would have been better had the reform been in an opposite direction. Any reform that can be effected in our secondary teachers will pass quickly to our grammar, primary, and kindergarten teachers. It is worth while to spend much money on secondary education, which ought to be in many ways a model to primary education. I sympathize very strongly with the democratic tendencies of the age. But I fear that in matters educational we shall be in danger of thinking only of primary education as the educa- tion of many, and of secondary education as an education of a few, thereby giving primary education an undue importance. For the sake of all, many and few, it is of importance that our secondary education shall be excellent, and it seems most desirable that we should at once demand from our secondary teachers considerably stronger professional knowledge, with professional interests and stronger professional skill, than from other teachers. " To whom much has been given, of him much shall be required." At present normal colleges are not suitable for our best educated teachers. Other colleges must be provided. Our secondary teachers, with their better education, must come well to the front. I have suggested that individuality should be one of the watchwords of our training colleges. Let me suggest another — freedom ; freedom for the teacher of colleges and freedom for the students. No set methods, molds, ruts, and grooves, and the hackneyed phases that have become threadbare. Let us have new ways and new ideas, connected with old ones, and Avhere there are growth and rapid results we must have freedom. Freedom and individuality — excellent watchwords ! DISCUSSION. Thesis : " Should algebra or geometry come first in the course of study if secondary schools V* W. N. Hailmann, Superintendent of Schools, Laporte, Ind. : It will be impossible jr me to give a decisive answer on the subject which has been intrusted to me for the ake of opening the discussion. The only thing I can do, to settle you in giving your swn opinions, is to state the basis on which it seems to me the question should be solved ind discussed. Of course the question is largely influenced by the aim of the secondary 222 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. school in which these two subjects, algebra and geometry, are to be taught. If the aim of the school is to prepare for the college, then it seems to me that the college may, to a large extent, assume the responsibility of securing the organic union between tliese two subjects with the student, and of giving him full and practical control for life conduct of both these subjects. But if the aim of the secondary school, as is usually the case in our public high-schools, is to use the studies of algebra and geometry for what they are worth in securing a rounded education ; and when the secondary school does itself assume the responsibility, as it does in these high-schools, of dismissing the student with this organic union among the subjects well established, and with fairly good control of the connections with the subjects of general life conduct, then the ques- tion becomes a different one. I have placed myself rather upon the latter of these standpoints; and it has seemed to me of greater importance that we should examine this question with reference to the aim which affects the public at large. I think it is time that in this subject, as well as in regard to many others, the secondary public schools should abandon the practice of giving subjects in isolation to children, simply for their own sake. They should strive to give more of its subjects in organic connec- tion, one having necessarily a bearing upon the other. Now I would say the elementary school has to furnish, first of all, the conditions of apperceptional development at the hands of well-regulated experience. In the second place, it must enable the child to make orderly arrangement of all this experience in an approximately conventional and approximately scientific grouping. His mind must be set in the direction of order. The business of the secondary school. I should say, is to give him the experiences and sciences of the race ; to place him squarely and firmly, conscientiously and intelligently upon the basis of the past, and upon the basis of achievements already attained. Giving to the pupil that which the race possessed in conventional, scientific attainment, and with reference to life conduct, seems to me has to be the predominant task, almost specific task, of the secondary public high-school. The tertiary phase of education should then afford to the student an opportunity, on the basis of this historic and scientific grasp of knowledge, for independent research. With such a scheme of education no phase of it would be fragmentary. Wherever the scholar leaves the school, and leaves the scheme, he leaves it well rounded with reference to his stage of development. Does he leave the school at the elementary stage, he goes out with his mind and his habits clearly set toward an appreciation and love of the historical stage. Does he leave it at the historical stage, he leaves with his mind fully set toward the point of independent research, and in such a way that he can be helped to self-culture. Yet, again, if he leaves the elementary school, and has no opportunity to do schoolwork in the secondary school, the attitude of his mind is in that direction, and he will seek of his own accord to supply that which he has not obtained. What interests us to-day is to find what would be the natural place of algebra and geometry in such a scheme. The highest phases of life conduct are certainly self- expression, self-expression in benevolence, I say everything that is done must grow out of self-expression in benevolence. That which stimulates self-expression in the historic law of the race comes from literature and art. in its highest sense— technical arts as well as representative arts. History is an account of the development of the feelings of kinship among races. The knowledge of physics and chemistry is a closed book until it is opened by mathe- matical studies ; until we can view it in the light of mathematics, of quantity and number. The study of numbers is the route, and it furnishes the key for all else. The study of geometry and the study of form will become clear to us only in the study of the rules of quantity. Of course algebra is a high development of the quantitative mathematics. Algebra is not a study of principles. It is a study of the laws and the functions of the laws. It is through algebra, or through the study of the functions of number, that we are enabled to appreciate the marvels of mathematics. And these facts can be appreciated only at the hand of algebraic equation. Every form, every line, every surface has its equation, and quantity reveals it. It is through equation that we come to the soul of the form. If we have superficial geometry, which fills that external relation and only the external phases, then possibly we might not need this algebraic form. But to get at the soul of it, and that which can never be changed by any con- sideration whatever, it must be reached through algebraic formula. In every stage, form study must rest upon quantity study ; and, in a general way, geometry must work up on some corresponding phase of algebra, using this term in its very highest sense. We sometimes see the mechanical way of drawing a circle by making a six-sided form, and then an octagon, and a thirty-two-sided form ; and then we have some resemblance to a circle ; but the life of a circle is not there. The circle grows out from DISCUSSION. 223 the center, under pressure, and it develops in the direction of the diameter, and we will stick to that point. In the circle there is always a central force. I would then say that in the elementary school the child must learn to analyze these forms and show the rela- tion of these things to the creation of art. Then, at a subsequent stage, perhaps in the so-called grammar period, the child may well learn , as he learns the general laws of arithmetic, each form connected between special arithmetic and algebra. He may learn constructive geometry, a geometry in which he learns to discover certain inceptional laws ; and which, on the other hand, teaches him to make up in definite, accurate, exact ways, with the help of an instrument, if you choose, certain forms in which he may learn to draw the planes that are conceivable to him. If he then comes to the secondary school, it seems to me, this question of which shall we take first, algebra or geometry, will almost solve itself. We mil have to take them together. If we take geometry we must have quantitative knowledge. Let us take alway geometric study in that form in which it is open to us by the algebra phich the child possesses. Whether or not the Euclidian geometry would answer that jurpose I do not know. It seems to me it is a logical study rather than mathematical. It is conceivable that a student may go through all the books of Euclid without going form. There is a phase which I have found that makes the Euclidian geometry a particularly unfortunate form for the child to use. For instance, in drawing I have the children in the elementary departments draw the life of the plants, and the life of the animal, thus telling me what they see ; and they give me a living representation ot the animal. I leave the question as open as it was before, simply because I cannot solve it. I jave attempted to place before you certain considerations which should guide us in this jroblem, that for a long time must remain a problem for us all. Amy Rayson, of New York : I have had some experience in both methods of educa- ion, both in the United States and England. In the United States we always take, far as I have observed it, algebra for two years and geometry for one. In England, where for some nine or ten years I have been engaged in preparing pupils for the uni- versities, we study both together. In my own experience I am inclined to the idea that that is probably the most thorough plan, because it gives a longer time for the mathe- matical ideas to enter the pupil's mind. To get a due amount of theory distinctly it eems to me the time must be allowed. In a meeting in New York, about three months ago, after a paper by Professor Stafford was read, a great many of the mathematical eachers agreed that the preparation given to the pupils was not sufficient. The correc- tion for this was not that more subjects should be studied, but that a more thor- augh course should be taken. I think there should be a longer time. I would sug- gest three years. You might begin algebra before geometry. Take algebra first for the half year, or a whole year, and then begin geometry, and carry on the algebra, ^hat makes me incline to this opinion is that children's minds move so very slowly. Jut this would give them, taking the two together, more time for the ideas of both to jet into their heads. As Emerson says, " Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers." Professor H. H. Spa yd, Principal of Schools, Minersville, Pa. : I believe in the ind- ication of the studies in the schools of our country. Call it by whatever name you jlease. I have repeatedly asked teachers of geometry in the smaller towns in Pennsyl- vania whether their pupils comprehended what they were studying, or whether they simply memorized. Many of the teachers confessed to me, professionally, that a great leal of it was memory work. The pupils did not see the life and soul of that which they were studying. They saw merely the form, and they scarcely saw the form. They committed the demonstrations. I was pleased to hear from both speakers the idea of inventional geometry. I hope the day will come when we shall have unification on this subject ; when we shall draw from nature, and geometry will come hand in hand with other studies. I have noticed again and again that the drawing we taught in our public schools was entirely ignored when the boys went to college. Now, I hope some mathematician will take up this subject and give us a little book on the line of Spencer and Hill. I am waiting for that book. I am also waiting for a book on algebra that will more fully jver the subject and begin a little lower down. I think the day will come when we lall be compelled, not only in mathematics but in all our studies, to see them as a grand whole, and not ten or fifteen, in the school machinery. It is a sad confession Kit many of our pupils leave our schools who have been taught so much and know so ittle. I speak from sad experience — how much I was taught and how little I know ! 224 INTERNATIONAL CONGE ESS OF EDUCATION. Edward G. Howe, of Chicago : I have come here to learn and not to speak. But there is one thought that has come to me since these programmes were announced, and that is, as Professor Hailmann has said, we must consider what has gone before and what is to come after. The first tiling the child is taught is arithmetic. He gets overwhelm- ing numbers ; he finds how difficult they are to handle, and he wants some shorter method to handle those great numbers. It seems to me that algebra should precede geometry. Still I know so well, and was very glad to hear Herbert Spencer's book mentioned, that inventional method in geometry can be given very early. How much it should precede algebra I don't know. But let us not give these studies until we have brought our children where the study shall have a use. The Chairman : I will say, in my own school inventional geometry has been repeat- edly taught before taking algebra. I think we should all be glad to know if there is any one here who has ever attempted to teach logical — that is, Euclidian — geometry before taking up the algebra ; it would be a matter of considerable interest to us all. I have never heard of it in this country. W. H. Bartholomew, of Louisville, Ky.: I have a certain conception in my own mind, as I understand it, of where there is a strong line of demarcation between the secondary school and the grammar school. In other words, there is not anything in the secondary school that ought to be in the grammar school. The grammar school has its function, and the secondary school has its function. The grammar school is to prepare for the secondary school. Now, with this in view, I am decidedly of the opinion, though I say that very cautiously, that there must be a certain preparation in the ele- mentary schools, and this must be decided in some way or other before the student enters upon the work of the secondary school. Now, this question arises as this discus- sion has been mapped out for us : Which ought to precede the other ? We have been experimenting in our school somewhat along this line, and we have reached about this conclusion : that what is known as elementary work — that part which lies very directly with the study of arithmetic — should follow that first in order. And then, following that, comes plane geometry, and then the higher forms of algebra ; and, following that, analytical forms of geometry. I know the former plan was to take algebra for two years, and then geometry. But this failed to satisfy ; and with the experience we had last year, we find it is more satisfactory to carry these studies along together. W. B. Poynter, of Shelbyville, Ky. : I hope the gentleman who opened this discus- sion will not misunderstand me when I say I didn't understand anything he said. I get at questions from the practical side entirely, and then at the theories afterward. I liked him. But as to which subject should be taught first in the schools, I want to say from my own experience I have adhered to the old plan of letting algebra follow arith- metic— two years for algebra, and one for geometry. Never having tried any other, I could not say that is the better way. But my judgment is entirely on that side. After algebra, naturally following where arithmetic leaves off, and reviewing the principles of arithmetic, you are gradually developing the mind of the pupil. That is what we are after. All we want to do is to get pupils to think ; then have algebra come in between arithmetic and geometry, giving the mind a little more strength when it comes to geom- etry, the great logical study of the preparatory school. Dr. Hailmanx : You will permit me, perhaps, to say an additional word with refer- ence to a view of the subject which the gentleman who has just spoken takes. Of course, in the view he takes, I presume he is right. In the view I have taken of that subject, having for geometry an entirely different aim — in that view he wouldn't be right. Professor William E. Story, of Clark University, Worcester, Mass. : I should like to emphasize the importance of beginning algebra as early as possible. Algebra is not a subject of itself ; it is arithmetic, and should be taken up as a part of arithmetic, as soon as the child knows enough about the fundamental principle of numbers to under- stand what algebraic symbols mean. Where it is taken up in the course of arithmetic, with the same problems, it could be treated by the so-called arithmetical algebraical process. John B. Patrick, Superintendent of Patrick Military Institute, Anderson. S. C. : Mr. President and Fellow- Teachers — In my earlier days I taught a school where the curricu- lum was regulated by State authorities. There it was a rule to complete arithmetic ; then algebra was taken and completed, and then geometry was taken and completed. HIGH-SCHOOL FOR GIRLS IN ENGLAND. 225 Later in life I began to manage a school for myself, and I do not follow that rule. When the boy is learning elementary arithmetic, and has taken up the higher forms of percentage, he begins to get into matters that he does not comprehend ; then if we give him arithmetical algebra — that is, dealing with numbers in a different form — and lead him on to understand equations in the second degree, it may be well to let him discon- tinue the study of algebra and take up plane geometry. And when he has completed that, let him recur to algebra, and take it up with the higher form of geometry. My experience has not been in favor of alternating these studies. HIGH-SCHOOL FOR GIRL 8 IN ENGLAND. BY MARY GURNEY AND ROSE KINGSLEY, OF ENGLAND. [Bead by Miss Zimmekn, of the High-School at Tunbridge Wells, England.] " Knowledge is no moreafountain sealed/' These words are the motto of the Girls' Public Day School Company ; and to understand their full import we must glance at the history of a revolution which has taken place in England in the last twenty years. The low condition of education for girls of the upper and middle classes twenty-three years ago had long been known to persons who had studied the subject. So serious did it seem that at last the English gov- ernment took up the question, and by the report of the Schools Inquiry Commission, in 1870, revealed the full extent of the existing evils to the public. Among these evils, to quote from the report, we find " Want of thoroughness and foundation ; want of system ; slovenliness and showy superficiality ; inattention to rudiments ; undue time given to accom- plishments, and these not taught intelligently, or in any scientific man- ner ; want of organization." A serious indictment, truly. A remedy for this state of things was needed, and needed at once. But here government help ceased. Unlike the United States and Ger- many, the English government does not assume any responsibility over the education of children, except those attending the elementary schools. All public schools, whether for boys or girls, have been the result of private effort or of endowment. The work of reform in the education of our girls had therefore to be done, like so much other English work, by individual energy. After the report of the commissioners was published, Mrs. William Gray determined to inaugurate this reform. And, as a first step, she formed, with a little band of men and women equally in earnest with herself, the " National Union for Improving the Education of Women of All Classes," shortly known as the " Women's Educational Union." Among the objects which this union had in view, we find two specially mentioned. In Clause 2: "To promote the establishment of good and cheap day-schools for all classes above those attending the elementary 15 226 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. schools, with boarding-houses in connection with them, when necessary for pupils from a distance." And again, in Clause 3 : "To raise the social status of female teachers by encouraging women to make teaching a profession, and to qualify themselves for it by a sound and liberal educa- tion, and by thorough training in the art of teaching ; also to secure a test of the efficiency of teachers by examinations of recognized authority, and subsequent registration." We propose in this paper to show how far these objects have been attained ; how far England has succeeded in raising the education of its girls. The idea of such day-schools as those mentioned in Clause 2 did not originate with the National Union. The large proprietary school called Cheltenham College, also " Queen's College," London, already existed ; also the well-known North London Collegiate School, established in 1850, as a private enterprise, by Miss Frances M. Buss, and afterward turned by her into a public endowed school under trustees. This last was a model ready to hand ; an example which showed that it was not only possible and even profitable to maintain such schools at fees which were then considered absurdly low, but to obtain educational results which proved the excellence of the system of teaching. The central committee of the National Union extended this system by the foundation, in 1871, of the Girls' Public Day School Company. The management was vested in a council consisting of men and women inter- ested in education. The necessary capital was subscribed in shares of a limited liability company, and the first of the company's schools was opened in Chelsea, in 1880. At the present time the company has thirty-five schools, containing altogether seven thousand one hundred and forty-three pupils ; twelve schools are in the London district, and the remainder are distributed over England. It employs (besides. its thirty-five head mistresses) five hundred and fifty-eight staff mistresses, and one hundred and fifty-one teachers of extra subjects. In 1892 it spent £72,431 in teachers' salaries, and £1,325 in scholar- ships and prizes. It has also started a Provident Fund for the mistresses in its employ, which was said at a conference of the Teachers' Guild to approach as "nearly as possible to what might be called an ideal scheme." Into this the company paid £535 in 1892, in augmentation of subscriptions. And as a practical instance in the same year of the usefulness of this fund, two teachers, who ceased to teach for domestic reasons, were able to draw out together £825, saved in less than eleven years. The success of the first schools of the company showed that they supplied a want in the country. Local enterprise in various parts of England began to start similar schools, or existing establishments were HIGH-SCHOOL FOB GIRLS IN ENGLAND. 227 remodelled on the same system. In 1883 the Church Schools' Company was started by persons who wished for more distinctive church teaching. It has now twenty-five schools, with two thousand one hundred and eighty girls. High-schools on the model of the company's schools have been opened in India, Japan, Kew Zealand, and most of the Australian capi- tals, while nearly every large town in England has its high-school for girls. And although these schools vary infinitely in constitution, in man- agement, in rate of payment, etc., their principle is the same — low fees, efficient teachers, thorough, systematic work. So far as to numerical success. That is uncontested. The important point to consider is, What has been the effect of the high-school system on the moral, physical, and intellectual welfare of English girls ? For this it will be necessary to examine the system of teaching, the class of teachers, and the effect on the girls taught. Perhaps the most remarkable part of the higher education of English girls at the present time is that all prophecies with regard to the move- ment have failed. At the outset a storm of adverse criticism arose. For instance, among the many defects brought into prominence by the com- mission of 1870 was the fact that arithmetic was an almost unknown subject. The opponents of the movement assured us that girls' minds were so constituted that it was impossible for them ever to become accurate arithmeticians, and that mathematics were out of the question. Mathematics may now be considered the most popular and successful subject in the large public schools for girls which lead the education of the country. And in the report to the council of the Girls' Public Day School Company, by the Oxford and Cambridge Examination Board in 1887, the examiner says of arithmetic : "I may now say that I was very much astonished at the enormous improvement in the arithmetic of girls which has taken place in the last ten years. Their arithmetic is now as far in advance of the boys as to style and accuracy, I do not say as to power, as it was then behind." In literature, again — also in the board report of 1887 — " the examiner finds it hard to write, without apparent exaggeration, of the very high opinion he formed of the general excellence of the literature work of the schools. At least four schools sent up work superior to anything of its kind which the examiner has ever seen before, except occasionally in the university examination for adults, while quite a dozen schools followed close upon the excellence of these four, and in the opinion of some may have equalled them." We see, therefore, that as soon as the opportunity was given of direct and exact study, girls have eagerly grasped it, and have quickly worked up to the standard of the large public boys' schools of England. They have been enabled to do this by the gradual removal of the barriers between the education of boys and girls. 228 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. In 1871 the "Oxford" arid "Cambridge" local were the only exami- nations open to girls as well as boys, and were the only means of testing their proficiency and of establishing a proper standard. Then followed the "higher locals," and a long, uphill fight, which led to the opening of the university degree examinations to women, London leading the way in 1878 ; Cambridge in 1881. In 1882 some of the examinations at Oxford were opened to women ; since then further concessions have been made from time to time, and now Oxford and Cambridge are in almost exactly the same position as regards their women students, except that Oxford has not yet required residence as a condition of taking the exami- nation, although this matter, too, is now under consideration. The actual degree {i.e., the right to add the letters to their names) is still withheld at Oxford and Cambridge, though granted at London. In addition to the opening of degree examinations, the universities, and especially the University of Cambridge, have established special examinations for teachers, both men aud women, in the art of teaching. And in preparation for this examination (so usual in other countries) special women's colleges have been opened in London, Cambridge, and in Wales. These colleges have proved very valuable in preparing high- school mistresses, and many ladies spend a year in them after leaving other colleges at Cambridge, Oxford, or London. Most of the schools of the Girls' Public Day School Company, and many of the best local high-schools in England, are now examined by the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board, one of the only examining bodies in England undertaking to examine schools on their own work — being, therefore, a real test of the year's work — while the standard is undoubtedly the highest known for the examination of schools, and is accepted as such by Eugby, Harrow, and most of the great public schools for boys. The council of the Girls' Public Day School Company never tied their schools down to pass any outside examination. And only such are passed as are recommended by the head mistresses, especially those which facili- tate preparation for university training. For this end head mistresses have prepared pupils for the London matriculation, the Cambridge senior and higher local, and the Oxford women's first examination. But at the present time all these examinations — with exception of the London matriculation — are usually dispensed with, and the higher certificate granted by the joint board of Oxford and Cambridge is accepted in place. This has many special advantages. The work required is very thorough ; it may extend over two years, and it harmonizes with, and indeed forms a part of, the school examination by the board already alluded to, and adopted in the regular system of the Girls' Public Day School Company. The advance in the standard of girls' education is shown by the fact that the majority of girls from high-schools who go up to Oxford or HIGH-SVEOOL FOR GIRLS IN ENGLAND. 229 Cambridge have already passed examinations which "excuse'' them from the preliminary examinations imposed on all members of the universities who are proceeding to the ordinary degree or the degree in honors. Ten years ago it was the exception for the women students at Cam- bridge to complete the three parts of the "previous" or "Little Go" examination before the end of their second or third term of residence. "Now the majority beginning residence are either " excused " the three parts, or take them easily at the beginning or end of their first term. While our girls thus distinguish themselves by thorough and systematic work in those branches of education which until twenty-three years ago were considered almost exclusively the province of their brothers, the same system of thoroughness has had equally happy results in the subjects which were even then allotted to be suitable to women. Drawing and music have made an astonishing advance. The study of drawing in the schools of the company is now full of life, under Mr. T. R. Ablett, whose system — remarkable among other points for his insist- ence on memory drawing, cultivating thereby intelligent observation as well as mere mechanical accuracy — has been widely adopted in England with the happiest results. In his report on the company's schools for 1892, he says : " I am glad to be able to report a distinct improvement in the higher divisions. The memory drawing improves every year. The drawing of plants and casts reached a higher level of artistic merit than in previous years. The great improvement in the drawings from the head is a most encouraging sign." Some of the drawings sent out to Chicago by our schools will serve to illustrate these remarks. In music the revolution in the last twenty years is even more remarka- ble. Dances and other light and worthless music have given place to works of the greatest masters past and present, executed sometimes by highly trained string bands ; while almost every school has its choral or musical society. Mr. John Farmer, of the well-known Harrow Music School, is examiner and general musical director to the company's schools. And those who had the privilege of hearing a concert given under his leadership, by a selected choir from the company's London and suburban high-schools, at Grosvenor House last year, will not soon forget the real musical treat they then enjoyed. Even games have not been neglected. When the first schools of the company were opened, school play was almost unknown. Now there is probably no high-school without its tennis club or fives court ; and tennis and fives matches between schools are frequent in summer, some involving a railway journey. This systematized play, with its friendly rivalry, has an undoubted effect on the girls' character. For the powers of organiza- tion, the self-control, the "give and take," which are such happy charac- teristics of the English public-school boy, and are fostered by his life in 230 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. the playing fields, were too often conspicuous by their absence in the said boy's sisters. The system of teaching, briefly stated, is this : The school hours are from 9 or 9.15 A.M. to 1 or 1.30 p.m., with one or two short breaks of fifteen minutes for play and for physical exercises. There is no afternoon school ; but girls may return for an hour and a half or two hours in the afternoon, to prepare their lessons under the super- vision of a mistress. Saturday is Avhole holiday. The extra lessons, outside the regular curriculum — advanced drawing, music, dancing — are given in the afternoon. And in some schools a vol- untary afternoon class for plain needlework, on the admirable system of the " London Institute for the Advancement of Plain Needlework," has been started among the elder schools. In the lower forms this is one of the regular morning subjects. The hours for preparation vary according to the ages and classes of the girls. And a home paper is given, to be signed by the parent each week, on which the pupil is bound to put down the exact time she has devoted to each subject. This, if carefully and honestly adhered to, proves a guarantee against any tendency to overwork. The teaching is carried on in separate classrooms, properly warmed and ventilated. The classes, in the opinion of the most competent author- ities, should not exceed twenty to thirty girls. Each pupil has a separate desk, of one of the many improved "Swedish desk" patterns; and these are placed about two feet apart. We hope to see the day when every school (many have them now) will have its laboratory, its museum, and its botanic garden, as well as its gymnasium. On the absolute necessity of the physical exercises now taught in our schools it is impossible to insist too strongly. If girls are to do good mental work, their bodies must be thoroughly and wisely exercised and developed. And the trained experts who teach these exercises are able not only to do so without danger of overstraining the delicate organs of a girl's body, but in the case of a weak or crooked back, or a failure of powers in any limb, they are competent to give remedial exercises, or carry out the directions of a doctor with complete success. These exer- cises should always be done in a suitable dress, without stays, tight waists, or tight sleeves. And the gymnastic costume now in use in the com- pany's and other schools is the perfection of comfort. It is warm and light, and makes a pretty and useful school dress. Whether regular gymnasium work is desirable for growing girls, is a question on which very grave doubt has been thrown. But the musical drill is wholly good, not only developing muscles and giving strength to every limb, but teaching girls to move with ease and grace, and training them in quickness and accuracy of eye, ear, and hand, HIGH-SCHOOL FOR GIRLS IN ENGLAND. 231 as all the exercises are done in time and to music. There are few more charming sights than a couple of hundred girls, in the great hall — gay with plants and flowers and casts of fine statues — of one of our large schools, going through their ball and wand and light wooden dumb-bell or club exercises, with absolute precision. The moral effect of the high-school system is no less marked than its intellectual success. Its central principle is to combine the advantages of home life with the healthy stimulus of class teaching. During the most important years of a girl's life, when her body and her character alike are growing, and need ceaseless care and guidance, it is essential that she should receive much of that care and guidance from the natural guardian, her mother ; while at. the same time she is anxiously guarded and watched by her school- teachers, and her intelligence receives a thorough and healthful training in common with a number of children of her own age. We have personally known many a girl who at home with her gover- ness is bored into naughtiness and idleness by the dullness of solitary lessons, the monotony of the same voice and same face hour after hour. She goes to a high-school, and seems transformed. Her mind is stimu- lated and occupied by the bright, interesting teaching ; by the constant change of teachers from hour to hour ; by the kind yet very firm disci- pline, which makes punishments almost unknown in our schools ; while the high standard of honor, the strong esprit de corps of a good high- school make a child feel that she is not only bringing disgrace on herself but on the whole class if she gets into trouble. That this is not mere fancy is shown by the verdict of some of our most experienced head mistresses, who tell us that each year they are more and more impressed by the goodness, diligence, and tractability of their girls. Certainly the characteristic that strikes us most, after a considerable acquaintance with high-school girls, both in and out of school, is their exceeding happiness. On this point such an authority as Professor Max Miiller insisted with particular emphasis, when he opened the Leamington High School in 1884. Speaking of his experience with children of his own at the Oxford High School, he said : " Going to school became a real happiness ; a work, which before had often seemed tedious, became a real pleasure." Further, the effect of high-schools is, we venture to maintain, in spite of all that has been said to the contrary, beneficial to the bodily as well as to the mental and moral health of the girls. The danger of overwork — a I danger it is impossible to exaggerate — occurs almost exclusively among girls who are sent late to a high-school. A girl of fifteen or sixteen often finds that she has to begin by unlearning much that she has learned badly ; that she has to give valuable time to getting rid of want of system, slovenly habits of work. She takes a place far below her contemporary 232 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. because she is often ignorant of the very rudiments of a thorough educa- tion. Intelligent and ambitious, she tries to make up by undue exertion for previous neglect. Her mind has not been trained by long habit to steady, methodical work. Everything is new to her, even the form in which her work has to be put on paper. She sits up at night, unknown to her teachers. When an examination comes which the children who have been at schools six or eight years take as an everyday affair, she gets anxious, worried, flustered; cannot eat; will not play or take exercise for fear of losing precious time; breaks down; and the high-school system is blamed. Very close and constant observation for many years of more than one high-school has convinced us that if children are sent quite young, they take to the system like ducklings to water. Hence the great value of the kindergartens and preparatory classes, which now form a very successful feature in most of our best schools to which they are attached. Insensibly the little creatures assimilate habits of neatness, method, industry, which are of infinite service to them in after life. The delightful object lesson in the first form, for which a bright young mistress has been off to the great manufacturing town, and brought back steel pens, or glass, or cotton, in all stages of their manufacture ; the natural history lesson, with a live kitten, or guinea-pig, or hen, or jackdaw, brought by its proud possessor and kept in school all the morning ; the botany lesson, for which the teacher has ransacked every flower shop within reach to find illustrations, when the small girls make their little drawings of simple, cleft, and dentate leaves, and are told to bring a living specimen next time to show they understand what they have learned — such lessons give the little opening minds an appetite for learning, without undue strain. The regular hours and occupations are found — so the parents tell us — to keep the children in usually good health. They are early accustomed to kindly authority, to intelligent teaching, to pleasant faces succeeding each other every hour ; and grow up in an atmosphere of cheerful, earnest, pleasant work. And that curse of modern days, hysteria, is almost unknown among high-school girls. They are interested, they are satisfied. There- fore they are well and happy. We now come to the most important factors in the success of our high- schools — the teachers. The mere existence of such a class of women as the teachers in our high- schools is one of the most notable results of that great and peaceful revo- lution, which has been going on so quietly in England, and which we venture to think has shaken the old condition of things to its very foundations. When the first high-schools were opened, the difficulty of finding highly trained women, willing to work and capable of working on the lines laid down for them, was considerable. The Girls' Public Day School Com- HIGH-SCHOOL FOR GIRLS IN ENGLAND. 233 ' pany was exceedingly fortunate in the choice of its first head mistresses. The demand created the supply. Women of culture and power saw what a great future opened before them, if England responded to the appeal. Twenty years ago. the notion that a well-born and well-bred girl should give up a comfortable home and take to a profession, was highly repug- nant to most parents and relations. And the idea that a girl who need not work for her bread should take to the profession of teaching, seemed to the last degree impossible. Well might the National Union speak of raising the social status of female teachers/' There were brilliant exceptions to the general rule — women who by force of character, nobility of aims, and remarkable talents had overridden 11 prejudice, whose schools were centers of life, whose private pupils ere among the most cultivated and intelligent of their generation. But in the great majority of cases a woman usually taught because she could do nothing else ; not from conviction, not from enthusiasm. The "art of teaching " was unknown to her. The noblest profession a woman can take up, that of developing the minds and characters of our future women, brought a loss of caste to the greater part of those who adopted it. Happily, some few parents were wise enough to see that even pleasant ves, if idle ones, were utterly unsatisfying to girls touched by the eager modern spirit, and that the emptiness of such lives was fruitful of morbid views of life and religion, of discontent, of ill-health, of hysteria in all its insidious and fatal forms. They saw that what their daughters needed was occupation. They determined to brave the prejudice of gen- rations, and allow them to teach. All honor to such pioneers ! Their ath was not a smooth one. But parents and children have had their ward. The parents find their girls are no less devoted daughters, no ss refined women, because they have an honorable and satisfying calling, nd the public at large is beginning to see that it is not only possible for high-school mistress to keep her position in the best society in the land, ut to make for herself a very fine career. A really first-rate high-school a center of cultivation to its town. Its mistresses are welcome guests, ot only in the homes of their pupils, but in all houses where intelligence nd refinement are valued. One of the most delightful features of high-school life is the relation tween the girls and mistresses, who are at the same time teachers d friends. They throw themselves into the girls' lives with a devotion tnd enthusiasm which is beyond all praise. Graduates of one or other niversity, as many of them are — often old high-school girls themselves — hey know what high-school girls need. Their interest in their pupils xtends far beyond the walls of the classroom. It is they who help the girls to organize the school games ; they who, n the Saturday holiday, take their class far beyond the limits of the wn, to get primroses, or for field botany, or a tea-party in the woods. 234 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. It is they who set on foot the museum ; who help to edit the school magazine ; who encourage the " Old Girls' Clubs/' which keep the girls who have left in touch with their school and help them to carry on intel- lectual work at home. It is they who start the school " Kyrle Society/' for beautifying the classrooms with flowers and pictures ; they who spend hours for weeks beforehand over rehearsals for the Christmas play or tableaux. It is they who initiate the vast amount of charitable work now done in our high-schools out of school hours ; for they know how important it is to our children's characters to be made aware of the sorrow, suffering, and poverty about them. "We hope that enough has been said here to show that although the goal has not been and never can be reached, yet some of the high hopes of the Women's Educational Union in 1871 have been fulfilled. DISCUSSION. Thesis : "In cases where a choice should be made, which should come first, Latin or some modern language, in the course of study of secondary schools ? " Dr. C. W. Pearson, of Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. : There are two or three consider- ations that seem to lie at the very basis of this subject. I am unhappy when I find a young man presented for examination to enter college who has insufficient instruction in Latin, although his German may entitle him to a place in the class. I have a belief that the form of speech which we get in the study of languages is the most valuable part. In the Latin language we have a system of forms which are most complete — of cases and indexes. The child learns these forms, and they become fixed criteria for him. He expresses a certain thing for that particular form. Jf he learns modern lan- guage first, it may be an excellent thing for him afterwards, in conversation and in pronunciation, but he has not had the drill in form that he gets by a thorough knowl- edge of the Latin language. I have visited parts of Europe, and have been in families where German and French are spoken equally well, and I have not found in such families that they have thereby acquired that particular drill that our pupils get by a thorough study of the Latin lan- guage, in the secondary school. There is a great thing in that it is a part of the drill of the mind. It. causes the mind to fix upon a certain form, just as it is valuable for the child to learn to set type ; he becomes acquainted with the forms of the words. So with the Latin language. He becomes acquainted with the form of the particular word in a particular case ; and he learns that there are cases, and agreements, and correspondences and forces. That is a great thing. And for this reason I should say that the Latin language, according to the proposition set forth, should be chosen first. There is one consideration, however, in which the modern language would be very valuable. I believe it is generally understood that in the beginning of any modern language, very much of what we know to-day as the modern method should be the speech rather than the form. The pupils are taught also so much of the form in the course of grammar that they can begin to read, and they learn modern language by reading it and observing its form. A great many students take a modern language simply as an opening to the literature. To my mind it seems clear that Latin should come first, and then French naturally follows after the Latin. It is a Latin tongue, and it seems to me that French should naturally follow Latin. I might sum up by saying this, that the place of any study in the secondary course should not be fixed wholly for the information that is given. If you put in German before the Latin it will be possible for it to be taught scientifically. But if it be taught simply that so many words be learned and so much pronounced, it will not be so valuable. Latin can hardly be taught that way. It is taught by the form which is valuable to the student. SHOULD LATIN OR SOME MODERN LANGUAGE COME FLR8T ? 235 THIGH SHOULD GOME FIRST, LATIN, OR SOME MODERN LANGUAGE? BY W. WTLBERFORCE SMITH, ENGLEWOOD, N. J. " In cases where a choice should be made, which should come first, Latin or some lern language, in the course of study of secondary schools ?" The question is one of priority only. It assumes that both Latin and )me modern language are to be taught, and by this token it appears that we are to discuss the interests of that class of pupils who, more than others, enlist our glad and unsparing service, because their study aims not at immediate, material ends, but at that decent store of knowledge, discipline of mind, and elevation of sentiment, that make and mark scholarly men. In these pupils the schoolmaster finds grandest opportunity. Whether Latin or some modern language should come first, will be best determined if we remember that both are parts of a comprehensive scheme of study in which their place depends largely upon their natural relations to other parts. The education of these pupils will proceed mainly by means of mathe- matics, natural science, and language. In the department of language English is of paramount importance. It is to be studied for its own sake; Latin and French, German and Greek, partly for their own sake, partly for their contribution to a knowledge of English. The right point of view is had by putting the question third in a series. First, What is the best course of study in the secondary school, when highest culture is the aim ? Second, What part of this course belongs to language study ? Third, what place in the plan for language study shall be given to Latin and some modern language other than English ? Let us have the elements of our problem, the pupil and the subjects, correctly before us. The pupil has a lively faculty for observing and remembering what interests him ; has an eager appetite for things new, is a good worker when interested and conscious of making gains, but is decidedly averse to work which he doesn't see use in. He is already a proficient student of lan- guage by the " natural method," and has a knowledge of English quite adequate to his needs thus far. He can understand English, speak it, read it, write it, conforming in the main to conventional spelling, more readily and correctly than the school will enable him ever to speak any other tongue. Moreover, he will continue to learn English by the natu- ral method, whether the school make note of this or not. And what of language ? In it lies, consciously and unconsciously written, almost all we know of the men and deeds of history. It is almost 8 ! 236 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. our sole means of intercourse with our fellow-men. Without it the laws of evolution would work backward, and by involution we should become anthropoids. Language fixes our modes of thought and sets limits to thought. Its domain stretches across indeterminable boundaries into the realms of logic, psychology, ethics, and religion. Its phenomena are fruitful of curious truths and stimulating speculations, and are most intimately related to life. Therefore we shall not be content to know our scholar can use language well for practical purposes ; we shall make this instrument an object of his study until he knows something of its nature and history, until he feels wonder and love for the thing by which, intel- lectually, he lives. At what points the writer thinks Latin and a modern language should be introduced into the work of the seeondaiy school, will appear if he is permitted to outline a course of language study, whose operation he has had occasion to watch and admire. It was reached empirically, by con tinued selection of methods yielding best results, but is believed to rest on sound pedagogical principles reinforced by important practical considera- tions. It is a six years' course, of which the first two years precede the work commonly recognized as belonging to the secondary school. The work of these two years differs from the usual exercises in reading and spelling, in that there is a well-defined purpose and a continuous effort on the part of the teacher to make it a study in literature, and to awaken lively interest on the part of the class in the subject matter of what they read. What he finds in books the average child grasps less perfectly tha what he hears of or sees, because a considerable portion of his mental energy is spent in the labor of recognizing words and gathering in sen- tences. He has not yet skill to place interpretive emphasis, pause, and accent as he passes over new ground, and his rate of reading is so much slower than his ability to take in the same matter by ear, that reading is dull business. All boys like to have books read to them ; few will read for themselves when they can find anything else to do. The all-important thing is to develop interest, and this is done by dwelling less than is usual with classes at the age of ten or twelve upon the language itself, in order to dwell more than is usual upon what it contains. The books read are from standard authors who have a style and subject comprehensible by the pupils. The movement of the class is rapid, skipping freely and securing much volunteer reading of omitted portions. But there is a great deal of discussion, mostly by the class, of the scenes depicted, characters presented, actions and events narrated ; of the writer, and the plot and ethics of the story. It is the importance attached to this talk, the systematic nature of it, the time allowed to it, in the effort to make things in books interesting and real to the juveniles, that entitles what they call lessons in reading and spelling to be desig- nated as work in literature. SHOULD LATIN OR SOME MODERN LANGUAGE GOME FIRST? 237 After two years of this, and in what is usually the first year of the secondary school, the English class, while still reading under criticism as matters elocutionary, makes this advance, that there is less of com- lent upon the contents of their book than upon its language, attention )eing given mainly to rhetorical qualities. Of course this is rhetoric for :he boy; elementary, practical, found in what he reads and writes. Technical terms are introduced when their use is convenient, but no ittempt whatever is made to present all the chapters of a treatise on rhetoric, or observe their due proportions. Boys of thirteen naturally like poetry better than prose, impassioned oratory better than speech less rich in rhetorical features, and with a little encouragement and teaching they become bold and original and thoughtful critics. They have an ear for the melody of a line or the correctness of a rhyme, as they have an ear for music. They can appreciate the force and beauty of a simile or meta- )hor, are responsive to pathos and humor, are sensitive to differences of 3tyle, as a child is sensitive to the parent's tone and manner. They learn to pronounce upon questions of propriety, of clearness and force, of order in narration and argumentation. They will grasp the idea of paragraph- ing, of periodic and of loose sentence construction. Boys are, indeed, excessively fond of brilliant rhetoric, and are liable to be misled by florid writing ; and yet they learn to detect a line masquerading as poetry, which, stripped of its rhyme and restored to its natural order, is found to be ?heer commonplace. The language of poetry and passion is simple. The Jible, Shakespeare, Longfellow, and Charles Dudley Warner will furnish the right sort of material. There is no other part of the school course which affords such opportunity for use of the Socratic method. The jnthusiasm that can be aroused, and the high order of critical work that can be done, would astonish one who has not seen rhetoric taught at this stage and in this way. The work satisfies the teacher that he is calling into healthy and effective activity powers just ready for use, and that he is establishing friendship between his pupils and the masters of English literature. In the next year the pupils pass from the dynamics to the statics of language ; to formal grammar, with a text-book. They have learned to enjoy language in action, bringing them knowledge and entertain- ment, glowing with warmth and power of life. Now they are to take portions of its anatomy for dissection ; are to classify and describe the parts and their relations. But as part of their preparation for study of English grammar, the class for a year or more studied Latin. Now, the introduction of Latin a year or more before English grammar is regularly studied, or any other modern language attempted, is our answer to the question proposed to us, and calls for explanation and defense. 238 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Let me say in passing that the fifth year of the course described employs a text-book in rhetoric ; the sixth year attempts the study of half a dozen great writers, from whom a notion of the history of our literature may be gained ; also that the pupil is not wholly ignorant of formal gramma r when he begins to use a text-book, because it has been convenient to use some of its terms and rules in the work of the earlier years already described, and in the attention which all his teachers give the pupil'a English, remembering that he studies English under them all, after the " natural method." But, to explain why Latin comes first. Grammar is a science treating of phenomena and laws having their basis in the nature of things and the nature of mind. The grammars of different languages, at least of those so nearly related as the Indo-European, exhibit substantial identity, attended by much difference in detail. In all of them appear a classifica- tion of words into certain parts of speech, distinctions of number, case, tense, person, mode, with more or less inflection of words to correspond, the several concords, and other syntactical relations. It is important that when the pupil is of age to deal with these matters they be presented to him by the language which will give him the clearest and most sufficient notions of general grammar. Latin is chosen for the purpose, because, as compared with other languages the pupil will study, it is complete, is logical in its development of forms, consistent in observ- ance of its own laws, and is indexed throughout by a full inflection. An army of words wherein all ranks are in appropriate uniform, and all bodies are under suitable banners, shows its organization more plainly than does an army of words with banners and uniforms mostly lost. The effort in learning declensions and paradigms is well repaid by the fact that in Latin a noun looks like a noun, and a verb looks like a verb ; that subjects and objects are distinguishable not merely by their function, but also by their endings ; that, generally, where a distinction is to be made a differ- ence in form appears. Latin has other advantages, as compared with English, for the purpose of teaching grammar. It has higher disciplinary value. No school-book has so confused a notion of its own mission, and more regularly fails of usefulness, than the English grammar. It is usually given pupils whose previous study has not been wisely preparatory to it. They haven't the kind of interest and knowledge of language that lead one to care fcr grammatical details. They don't believe in its value ; their common sense telling them that the effect upon their habits of speech will be insig- nificant in view of the time consumed, and of other purposes in grammar they have scarcely any apprehension. A few lessons on " shall and will," formation of plurals, use of relative pronouns, and one or two other topics might include everything in the book which is put to practical use. English is unsuitable for disciplinary purposes because the child knows SHOULD LATIN OR SOME MODERN LANGUAGE COME FIRST? 239 too much about it. So much is obvious, familiar fact, that the things he is to learn are inconspicuous to him. As in review lessons, he rehearses nine-tenths that he knows, to get one-tenth that he doesn't know. That sort of study is not invigorating. The Latin has highest disciplinary value at this stage. It requires memory and carefulness. The pupil knows, and the teacher knows, as accurately as in spelling or arithmetic, whether the lesson is learned or not. The sum of knowledge of the subject which the pupil should have at any time is an exact quantity. Diligence is encouraged by manifest Idvance. The pupil gives close attention to forms and rules because he nds them useful ; without them he cannot make Latin yield up its leaning. All this means accuracy in work. It is a further advantage, in giving the foundational knowledge of gen- ral grammar, that we have English at hand for use in illustration and omparison. Indeed, more light may be thrown upon English, the origin of its idioms and derivation of its words, by its use in teaching Latin, than in teaching English directly. When later, with riper mind, the pupil re- turns to examine the grammarless tongue, he will be prepared to detect in this composite language the remnants of earlier inflectional systems, and to consider in the light of their history and the usage of another people, those forms of speech over which the writers of school grammars rever dispute. But why not use a modern language to teach general grammar ? Because, although French and German exhibit the subject more fully an English, they are, at nearly every point mentioned, inferior to Latin r this purpose. But the early introduction of a modern language is vocated on other grounds than those adduced in support of an early ginning in Latin, and chiefly by those persons who contend for what ey call a conversational or natural method of teaching. We must object to their claim; first, because the end they aim at — a nversational command of the language — is impracticable. The condi- ons of success are impossible in school. To accomplish anything worth ile in this direction, the pupil should, by foreign residence, be placed ere the language he is studying is the only one he hears. Conversation the classroom serves only to enliven the work. Conversational command of the foreign tongues, while an admirable complishment for those whose tastes, abilities, and circumstances enable em to acquire it readily, has for Americans no practical value. Except ong newly arrived immigrants, they rarely find an occasion when nglish will not serve their purpose best. If it were possible to so isolate an American boy from English sur- undings, and give him such use of foreign tongues that at length he ould speak several, we should thereby make him the peer of a continental 240 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. hotel porter or the cicerone of a Cook's tourist party, not an educated man. Glibness, in one tongue or many, may coexist with intellectual indigence. As to the method, it is by no means clear that the method of the child is the method natural for an adult. The man who has made $10,000 does not make the second $10,000 in the same way. The child has no other way to acquire than by imitation, and by units. But he who knows one language is a hundred per cent, better off than the infant, as regards learning another. Part of the new language needs only to be recognized as being part also of his own ; and in adding what is foreign he can profit, as a child cannot, by generalizations, and find in his study a far higher sort of mental exercise. The object of modern language study in our schools is mental discipline and reflex benefit to English, and such knowledge of German and French as all cultured people desire, satisfying the scholarly temper that would not willingly be ignorant of the speech, the history, or the institutions of those great nations. It is desirable and feasible to give such facility in reading these languages as will serve the needs of men who find the work of their professional brethren in France and Germany only in mono- graphs and periodicals never translated ; also, to furnish those who may desire to perfect their knowledge of these tongues with a good foundation for their study. Cultured Americans find such use for a reading knowl- edge of French and German, that their school attainments in this direc- tion less often than most other studies sink into utter desuetude. All our purposes will be served if Latin furnish the basis of grammati- cal science, and subsequent studies follow the comparative method. Narrative of the school course exemplifying these ideas stopped at the point where Latin had been taught a year or more, and English, Greek, German, or French might- be introduced, because then the question assigned was answered. But the shortening and enriching of the school course that results in the years following are the best justification of the plan. To read the Greek grammar with a class of beginners, marking one passage to be memorized or referred to, because it contains something peculiar to Greek; marking the next as already learned, inasmuch as it sets forth a principle familiar in English or Latin, discovers to them the gratifying truth, to which they are entitled, that even in beginning they know considerable Greek, and wonderfully adds to their zest. To show a class beginning German that, like Latin, it has grammatical gender and inflects its adjectives ; like English, it makes large use of auxiliaries, and relies much upon the order of words to express its meaning, is to employ pupils in a higher sort of thinking than characterizes the usual beginnings in languages. DISCUSSION. 241 DISCUSSION. Mr. Ray Geeene Huling : Are we to follow the historical method, and, because the Romans lived before the French, take Latin before the French in our school work ? Or are we to follow the system that is more truly pedagogical, and proceed from the known to the unknown ; that is, from the less difficult to the more difficult ? We have in English practically an uninflected language. The inflections are so slight, we can- not consider them in comparison with French and German. It would seem much more feasible that we should proceed first and fix that excellent basis of English, for which Mr. Smith has so eloquently given us a plea, and then take the modern language first which is the least difficult to those who have this preparation ; and that would seem to me to be French. I would plead a little more strongly than either of these gentlemen, Mr. Pearson and Mr. Smith, have for a conversational element in the modern lan- guages. Now the success of the conversational study depends very much, it seems to me. upon the early approach to these languages. We must take the child while he is in the imitative rather than the logical stage ; we must take him while his vocal organs are plastic. Dr. Mackenzie, the Chairman : 1 am not going to make a speech, but I want to felic- itate the congress on having had this admirable paper by Mr. Smith. It is one of the very thoughtful papers that have been presented, in my judgment. I am very glad that it is to be included in the public proceedings of this congress, and I think you will find that when you come to read it it will bear rich results. I cannot agree with Mr. Huling. If you will observe this question, you will notice that it is very carefully drawn : In secondary schools, where a choice should be made, which should come first, Latin, or some modern language ? I do not believe, first and last, that we have anything to do with the speaking or conversational use of the modern languages in the secondary school. And the sooner that heresy is banished from the secondary school the clearer the air will be. It is not only slaying its thousands but its tens of thou- sands. It is utterly impossible to achieve conversational results in French or German in secondary schools. If you take your boy before the organs of speech are set, as Mr. Collar has said, previous to twelve, and try by all means to get his organs of speech in good working order, he will learn to pronounce the language ; after that he can learn it as well at thirty. Mr. BoiiTWOOD, Evanston, 111. : I have never tried the experiment of giving modern languages first, and then following it by Latin ; but I have tried this experiment, in my course. Pupils were required to take Latin a year, and then they had their option to take German or Latin for three years. I tried Latin at the beginning, and at the end German. At the end of the year enough pupils elected German to take it up the second year. At the end of two years the section that had carried Latin one year was in advance of the section that had taken German three years. I had a very remarkable experience. A boy came to me once, at eighteen, who had spoken German, and only German, until he was nine years old. He was born in Germany, and brought to this country by his parents, who died. An American family brought him up. At eighteen he conceived the idea that he would like to study German ; and I never had a pupil in German who had to work so hard to learn German pronunciation. I am fully satisfied that Latin is the best of all things to secure the study of a language which calls for inflections in any way ; that the order of putting Latin before French is preferable. Mr. Poynter : I desire to say that the paper presented by Mr. Smith is the method pursued fifty years ago by the most successful teacher of secondary schools I have ever known in my life. So the old and new are meeting here to-day. Mr. Bartholomew, of Louisville, Ky. : I would like, if we could, in this discussion, to find some way or other that we could all agree upon, so that we might go back to our respective schools and test it, and come back next year and give our experiences in this line. 242 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The Chairman : That is what they attempted in the French Exposition ; but I fancy if we attempted it here we should never get back to our schools. Of course we must assume that English is a constant language in all these courses. The question is not between Latin and English ; it is between Latin and one of the common modern languages. I think the hour has arrived for the adjournment of this congress, and I desire to extend, in behalf of Mr. Huling and myself, our very cordial thanks to the members of the congress who have cooperated with us in making the work so suggestive and profitable. _ CONGRESS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. SECRETARY'S REPORT. The Congress of Elementary Education met in Hall of Washington, of Memorial Art Palace, Chicago. General John Eaton, ex-Commissioner of Education, presided. The Chairman called the congress to order at 9 30 a.m., and delivered the opening address. The first regular paper of the session was read by Joseph L. Pickard, LL.D., of Iowa City. Iowa. Subject : " Essentials in a Course of Study for Children between the Ages of Six and Fourteen Years." Superintendent L. H. Jones, of Indianapolis, Ind. , read a paper discussing the fol- lowing topics of the subject : " Should Morals, Language, Number, Geography, His- tory of the Country, Writing, and Drawing be considered the Essentials of the Course of Study for the Eight Years of Elementary Instruction, the Pupils being from Six to Fourteen Years of Age ?" The discussion was continued by Dr. B. A. Hinsdale, Pro- fessor of Pedagogy in the University of Michigan. A paper was read by B. Buisson, Delegate from the Ministry of Public Instruction in France, considering " Some Aspects of the Curriculum of Elementary Schools in France." Professor C. M. Woodward, of Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., read a paper on " What should be the Essential Branches of the Elementary Course of Study to meet the Industrial Needs of the Localities ?" I This subject was further considered in a paper by Albert P. Marble, Superintendent Schools, Worcester, Mass. The subject was discussed by G. W. Hicks, Inspector of Schools, Jamaica, West Indies, th reference to race characteristics. Th SECOND AND THIRD SESSIONS. These sessions of the Congress of Elementary Education were held under charge of the National Geographic Society. •The proceedings were reported, but not furnished for publication in this volume. FOURTH SESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893. The Congress of Elementary Education, General John Eaton presiding, assembled at 9.30 a.m., Friday, July 28th. Superintendent W. A. Mowry, of Salem, Mass., read a paper. Subject: "What Special Work should be undertaken in the Elementary Schools to prepare the Pupils for the Duties of Citizenship ? " Miss Catharine H. Spence, of Adelaide, South Australia, read a paper on " The Value 244 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. of Elementary Schools for the Social Virtues and for Training for the Right Exercise of the Duties of Citizens. " Mrs. Mary H. Peabody presented methods of " Teaching History to Children " which were very suggestive. " School Savings Banks in the United States" was the subject of a paper by J. H. Thiry, of Long Island City, N. Y. ; M. Gustave Serrurier, of Havre, Prance, gave an account of " School Savings Banks in France." The " Public Educational System of Sweden " was described in a paper by N. G. W. Lagerstedt, Ph.D., of Stockholm. Sweden. A paper on " Religion in the School " was read by Dr. E. E. White, of Columbus, Ohio. This subject was discussed by Z. Richards, of Washington, D. C, and by George P. Brown, of Bloomington, 111. " The Adaptation of Methods of Instruction to Special Conditions of the Child " was practically illustrated by the presence of Helen Keller — both blind and deaf — and her teacher, Miss Sullivan, who showed how her pupil had been taught to read with her fingers from the lips of her teacher, and also how to talk. Professor Ergraff Kovalevsky, of Russia, read a paper on " Should Rural Schools Introduce Agriculture, Chemistry, Agricultural Botany, or Arboriculture ?" A paper on " Confucius and his Educational Ideas " was read in German by Hidesa- buro Eudo, a delegate from the Royal Educational Society of Japan, and translated for publication. A paper on " The Use of Magic Lanterns in Schools " was read in French by Gustave Serrurier, of Havre, France, and translated for publication. The paper by James Stormont Small, of Auckland, New Zealand, on "Schools for Neglected Children," was not read before this Congress, but was submitted for publication. In closing the last session of the Congress of Elementary Education the Chairman said : " We are about to close our exercises, and I have no doubt that I express the sentiment of those present and of those who have been present at our different sessions, when I thank the speakers, and thank the officers who have provided this feast for us, and thank the secretaries and various assistants ; and now it remains for me to thank all who have in any way made efficient and interesting these gatherings, and to declare this department of the International Congress adjourned." LIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONOR- ARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CON- GRESS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. AFRICA. BELGIUM. Rev. D. D. Fraser, Inspector of Schools, Cape M. T. Luyssen, Inspector-General of Instruction, Town, Cape of Good Hope. ' Bruges. BERMUDA. George Simpson, Clerk to the Education Board. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Dr. Juan M. de Vedia, Inspector of Primary In- struction, Buenos Ayres. BRAZIL. AUSTRALASIA. Dr j B Silvado, School Inspector, Rio da James C. Dickenson, Inspector of Schools, Auck- Janeiro. land. New Zealand. Sra. Amelia Fernandes da Costa, Rio de Janeiro. William Fidler, M.A., Head Master North Cote Schools, Auckland, New Zealand. CANADA. Alfred Jackson, Inspector of Schools, Stawell, . Victoria. R. W.Doan, Secretary Ontario Educational Associa- E. Johnson, Esq., Under-Secretary Department Hon, Toronto, Ontario. __*_j Public Instruction, Sydney, New South Wales. Rev. J. Somerville, M.A., Owen Sound, Ontario. lliam Murray, Inspector of Schools, Taranaki, New Zealand. ory Shelton, Inspector of Schools, Ballarat, Vic- SetSor R. Espino toria. ti°ni Quito. LIST OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS. 245 EGYPT. M. Douglas Dunlop, Inspector of Public Instruc- tion, Cairo. FRANCE. M. Z. Bailliart, Inspector Academy of Besancon. M. P. L. Bianconi, Inspector Academy of Saint- Etienne. I. Oh. Plamand, Inspector Academy of Belfort. M. Fraissenet, Inspector Academy of Versailles. M. Robin, Orphelinat Prevost, Cempuis, Seine- Oise. He. Robin, Orphelinat Ptevost, Cempuis, Seine- Oise. M. Neel. Rueil, Seine-et-Oise. M. J. Poirier, Inspector Academy of Lyon. M. I. Pouillot, Inspector Academy of Montauban. A. Thermes, Inspector Academy d'Aix. FRENCH COLONIES. M. Champon. Director of Normal School, Basse- Terre, Guadeloupe. GERMANY. Herr Adler, Teacher, Nenfahrwasser, W. Pr. Herr K. Bast, Teacher, Hamburg. Herr Boettcher, Teacher Secondary School, Presi- dent Provincial Tenchers' Association, Posen. HerrM. Brodfiihrer, School Councilor, Coburg. Herr Wilh. Biilow, Head Master, Bochum, West- phalia. lerrG. Cabjolsky, Teacher, Gumbinnen. Rittmeister A. von Clausen-Kaas, Dresden. "lerr W. A. Fett, Teacher and Stenographer, Konigsberg, Pr. Herr Albert Fricke, Teacher, Braunschweig. Frl. Auguste Forster, Teacher, Cassel. Frl. A. Jungk, Principal of Girls' School, Karls- ruhe. Herr F. Konstmann, Teacher, Flensburg. Frl. Ida H. Klockow, Teacher, Berlin. Frl. Marie Krause, Directress Higher School and Seminary for Girls, KOnigsberg. Herr F. Kroeger, Headmaster, Flensbunr. Frl. Bertha von der Lage, Teacher, and Member Teachers' Association of Buenos Ayres, Berlin. Herr Wm. Meyer-Markau, Teacher, Duisburg. Frl. M. Paehlmann, Principal Higher School for Girls, Tilsit. Cantor Max Ueberschaer. Teacher and Editor. Frl. T. Willborn. Principal of Higher School for Girls, Schwerin. GREAT BRITAIN. ENGLAND. Rev. H. G. Alington, Inspector of Schools, Tun- bridge Wells. H. J. Barnaby, Esq., East Dereham. A. Cartwrigbt, Inspector of Schools, Harborough. C. G. Colson, H. M., Inspector of Schools, York. J. C. Colvill, Inspector of Schools, Shrewsbury. C. J. Cockburn, School Board, Leeds. T. Buxton Morris, Esq., Chairman of the Com- mittee* of the British and Foreign Society, Isleworth. •Tohn F. Moss, School Board, Sheffield. J. W. Munston, Head Master Alderman Newton's Higher Grade School, Leicester. George Ricks, London School Board, London. T. W. Dan by. Inspector of Schools. Rev. C. D. Du Port, H. M., Inspector of Schools, Metropolitan Division Educational Department, Whitehall. London. C. H. B. Elliott, Inspector of Schools, Clifton, Bristol. L. M. Field, Inspector of Schools, Ingatestone. A. B. Fisher, Inspector of Schools, Windermere. Arthur Fox, Broadway Board School, Burton-on- Trent. Albert Gill, Head Teacher Elementary School, Bradford. John James Graves, Endowed School, Northamp- ton. James Hanson, Chairman of Bradford School Board, Bradford. H. E. B. Harrison, Inspector of Schools, Liver- pool. J. B. Haslam, Inspector of Schools, Rugby. E. R. Hayter, Master of the Bruton National School, Brnton. John Charles Horobin, Training College, Homerton, N.E. E. M. Sneyd Kynnersley, Inspector of Schools, Chester. A. G. Legard, Inspector of Schools, Harrogate. J. Lomax, Inspector of Schools, Manchester. Henry Lynn, School Board of London, London. George MacDonald, Esq., H. M., Inspector of Schools, Metropolitan Division Educational Department, Whitehall, S.W., London. F. W. H. Myers, Inspector of Schools, Cambridge. William Oulton, Liverpool School Board, Liver- pool. Rev. C. H. Parez, Inspector of Schools, Stanwix, Carlisle. Frederick Peaker, Board School, Leeds. Dr. Benj. Ward Richardson, F.R.S., London. Alfred Richmond, Board School, Peckham. Arthur C. Rogers, President of the Voluntary Teachers' Association, Green-coat Schools, Camberwell, S.E. T. G. Hooper, Inspector of Schools, High Har- rogate . Rev. C. F. Routledge, Inspector of Schools, Can- terbury. William Sinclair, Lancasterian Board Schools, Sheffield. J. Tillard, Inspector of Schools, Norwich. W. P. Turnbull, Inspector of Schools, Wolver- hampton. William Wardale, Wesleyan School, Manchester. S. R. Wilson, Esq., Inspector of Schools, Saltburn- by- the -Sea. W. B. S. Yarde, Inspector of Schools, Stafford. Samuel Haley, Borough West School, Bradford. Isaac Pitman, Phonetic Institute, Bath. J. W. Rylance, Leicester. R. Sykes, Office Executive N. U. E. T., London. Richard Waddington, Office Executive N. U. E. T., London. SCOTLAND. Thomas Hector, School Board, Aberdeen. W. Bathgate, Inspector of Schools, Glasgow. Robert Calder, Inspector of Schools, Broughty Ferry, N. B. R. Harvev, Inspector of Schools, Ayr, N. B. William jolly, Inspector of Schools, Glasgow. A. E. Scougal, Esq., Inspector of Schools, 12 Blan- tyre Terrace, Edinburgh. J. W. Marshall, Inspector of Schools, Whitehall, Ayr, N. B. James Matthews, Esq., Corstorphine. Dr. James Smith, Inspector of Schools, Glasgow. Dr. T. N. Stewart, Chief Inspector of Schools, Aberdeen. W. J. Browne, Esq., District Inspector of Schools, Omagh. I. Gordon, Esq., District Inspector of Schools, Bel- fast. J. J. Hynes, Esq., District Inspector of Schools, Mallow. J. Moran, LL.D., District Inspector of Schools, Trim. S. E. Stronge, Esq., District Inspector of Schools, Waterford. Joseph Radley, Principal Friends' Ulster Provin- cial School, Lisburn. Philip Ward, Esq., Presidentof the Irish National Tes Poachers' Organization, Dublin. 246 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION HAWAII. Rev. A. Mackintosh, Principal Royal School, Hon- olulu. Rev. William B. Oleson, Principal Kamehameha School, Honolulu. Prof. Henry S. Townsend, Principal Lahainaluna Seminary, Lahaina. ITALY. Dr. M. de Cristoforis, Milan. JAMAICA. George Hicks, Assistant Inspector of Schools, Kingston. J. R. Williams, M.A., Assistant Inspector of Schools, Kingston. JAPAN. Mr. Higaki Naosuke, Inspector of Schools, Tokyo. Mr. Koba Sadataka, Councilor of Department of Education, Tokyo. Mr. lsawa Shuji, Director of Bureau of Compila- tion in Department of Education, Tokyo. Mr. Aoki Tamatsu, Secretary of Education, Tokyo. Mr. Kota Nakabara, Tortori-ken. MEXICO. Don Rodolfo Menendez, Director of Primary School, Merida de Yucatan. NETHERLANDS. Dr. F. G. Groneman, Director Higher State Bur- gher-School, Groningen. W. J. G. Baron van Oldeneel, Oosterhout. Dr. J. J. Le Roy, Director Burgher Evening School, Deventer. Mr. H. D. van Ketwich Verschuur, Inspector of Schools, Leeuwarden. SWITZERLAND. Dr. J. Nuesch, Teacher Real-School, Schaffhausen. Dr. Schirmer, Teacher, Enge. URUGUAY. Don Julian O. Miranda, Inspector of Schools, Mon- tevideo. Don Alberto Gomez Ruano, Director of Library and Pedagogical Musenm, and Delegate to the World's Columbian Exposition, Montevideo. UNITED STATES. ARKANSAS. Hon. R. H. Parbam, Principal Scott School, Little Rock. CALIFORNIA. M. Babcock, Deputy Superintendent Schools, San Francisco. Hamilton Wallace, Principal High-school, Stock- ton. COLORADO. , T. O. Baker, Superintendent Schools, Durango. CONNECTICUT. S. P. Willard, Agent State Board of Education, Colchester. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. N. P. Gage, Supervising Principal, Washington. A. T. Stuart, Supervising Principal, Washington. GEORGIA. D. Q. Abbott, Assistant Superintendent Schools, Macon. ILLINOIS. H. L. Boltwood, Evanston, Principal Evanston Township High-school. Orville T. Bright. Superintendent, Englewood. P. R. Walker, Superintendent Schools, Rockford. Miss Marv E. Burt, Chicago. Mrs. Ella F. Young, Chicago. Dr. Samuel Willard, Chicago. INDIANA R. I. Hamilton, Superintendent Schools, Hunting- ton. IOWA. Thomas Hardie, Secretary Board of Education, Dubuque. LOUISIANA. William Beer, Howard Memorial Library, New Orleans. Charles G. Gill, Tulane University, New Orleans. MAINE. Hon. R. E. Gould, Superintendent Schools, Biddo- ford. MARYLAND. O. H. Bruce, Principal Schools, Westernport. MASSACHUSETTS. T. W. Bicknell, Boston, Publisher. Rev. A. I). Mayo, Boston. Mrs. L. P. Hopkins, Supervisor Schools, Boston. George H. Martin, Agent State Board of Education, Lynn. Dr. W. A. Mowry, Superintendent Schools, Salem. James A. Page, Dwight School, Boston. Miss L. H. Pinpree, Supervisor Schools, Boston. Robert Swan, Winthrop School, Boston. B. F. Tweed, Cambridgeport. G. A. Walton, Agent State Board of Education, West Newton. MICHIGAN. J. M. Hall, Superintendent Bay View Educational Assembly, Flint. David Parsons, Ex-Superintendent Schools, De- troit. MINNESOTA. Hon. Robert L. Nix, Superintendent Schools, New Ulm. NEBRASKA. Hon. C. P. Cary, Superintendent Schools, Fair- bury. Grace Bibb Sudborough, Principal Training School, Omaha. NEW JERSEY. Hon. Frank O. Briggs, School Board, Trenton. John Terhune, County Superintendent, Hacken- NEW YORK. Col. George T. Balch, Board of Education, New- York. Calvin Patterson, Principal Central School, Brook- lyn. Edgar Dubs Shinier. School of Pedagogy. Mrs. Lilly Lord Tifft, School Examiner, Buffalo. NORTH CAROLINA. Miss Amy M. Bradley, Wilmington. OHIO. L. W. Day, Editor Push, Cleveland. PENNSYLVANIA. Hon. A. J. Morrison, Assistant Superintendent Schools, Philadelphia. Hon. J. F. C. Sickel, Assistant Superintendent Schools, Philadelphia. SOUTH CAROLINA. Hon. D. B. Johnson, Superintendent Schools, Columbia. TEXAS. J. B. Winn, Superintendent Schools, Austin. WASHINGTON. Prof. W. N. Hull, State Normal School, Ellens- burg. ■■ ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. THE CHAIRMAN'S OPENING ADDRESS. BY GEN. JOHN EATON, EX-COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Ladies and Gentlemen : — In the performance of the duty assigned me at this hour, you will not thank me if by extended remarks I delay the feast of wisdom gathered here from the four quarters of the educational world for your enjoyment. We are to address ourselves to elementary education. Any department of education is too important to be belittled by com- parison. We disparage none, but we must not fail to estimate at its true value that assigned us for our attention. All worthy education appeals to the sublimest considerations. How tremendous the consequence of y formative touch of man's nature, physical, mental, or moral ! All that may be said of education in general, bears upon elementary instruction, including, as it does, that which is imparted in the first eight years of school attendance, or in the ages from six to fourteen. All other divisions of educational work must be limited to a number less than the whole. They may deal with data more profound, complex, and difficult, and lead the student farther into specialties, trades, arts, sciences, or philosophy. But elementary education, though not occupied with the highest reaches of subjects taught, must direct their beginnings. How manifold are these sources of the profoundest currents of thought encountered in later life ! In the child are all the elements of the future man. Besides, the mind is less self-directed, and more dependent upon the teacher. Here the teacher must not only be master of his subjects, as elsewhere, he must have the power to simplify and adapt them. Moreover, there is no limitation to the number due to elementary instruction less than the total of child life ; it should be for all mankind. Here all must start ; through this door all must enter their specialties of toil of brain or hand. Even the blind, deaf, dumb, and feeble-minded — the exceptional by nature — are not excepted here. There must be adaptations to them. Here all roads are one; no child is too perfect or too defective to enter. Beyond, the paths are many, and open to choice, and less numbers travel them. Much is said of the effect of the " start upon the finish." The marks- man must get a "good ready," or expect to hit wide of the mark. The higher the object, the more distant the star to be reached by the eye, 248 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. the more need of accuracy of aim and method. But in education there is error at every step, error by nature, error in the home, community, school. Every grade of teaching is taxed with correction. However defective nature may be in substantially normal constitutions that survive the age of six, the errors acquired are too numerous and serious for description. Every higher grade of work is charging fault upon its predecessor. So imperfect are methods, that the very process of correction adds defects. Unfortunately, addition of mistakes does not diminish as the youth advances. Sometimes the highest instruction is chained to the worst methods. Not the power to educate, but the mastery of a subject, has been the prime test of the qualification of the teacher. The abstraction admis- sible for adult minds has been imposed upon the child when his mental action is most dependent upon the senses and sensibilities, and all things must be brought to him in the most concrete forms. Methods most tit in professional or superior instruction may be fatal in elementary stages. Here we meet, in a special form, the interdependence of all educational work. We are not only forced to see how difficult it is to set each division off by itself, but what care there must be in selection and adaptation. . What subjects are universal ? What are special ? What subjects and conditions belong to this age of the pupil ? How must they be modified to his nature, or race, or order of development, or environment, physical, social, political, or religious ? Every other grade is interested that elementary education should be universal ; that its principles and methods should be free from error. Every grade must share in promoting social, religious, and political opinions and actions to assure this result. All, in all grades, must unite against pernicious laws and customs which destroy or pervert childhood, that period of life so dependent upon maturity, and assigned by the Creator to preparation for responsibility, self-direction, and the assump- tion of the duties of life. More than this, all grades must have intimate acquaintance and sympathy with each other. Often they can aid each other in discovering and making improvements, and thus promote their own and each other's efficiency. Often the resistance to some essential change in one grade may be founded in another. There must be clear and comprehensive vision and wise action. Elementary education, we say, must share in all that is general ; must sympathize and must charge itself with the responsibility of enlarging attendance ; of promoting its pupils to advanced work as free as may be from defects in ideas, habits, and character. Again, however powerful in their effects other grades of instruction may be, none save this deals with the nature of man when it is as susceptible to impression as it is during the ages of six to fourteen. All educational literature accentuates the influence of the impressions THE CHAIRMAN'S OPENING ADDRESS. 249 of this period upon all future activities. The tinkling of a bell in the Alpine fastnesses may set in motion the avalanche ; and yet no figure of speech can set forth the sensitiveness of these years, or the tenacity of impressions, and consequently their far-reaching influence. Do men seek to perpetuate their memory in brass and stone ? When all these memori- es shall have perished, some words, some truth impressed on youthful linds, shall live immortal. In view of these responsibilities it is not surprising that great reforms in education have been concentrated upon elementary instruction, or that legislation and taxation expend their efforts upon it, or that educational literature and organization are occupied with it. Teachers' institutes and normal schools are provided for the prepara- tion of elementary teachers. Nor is it surprising that a revival of education in the past should have marked its supremacy by selecting its best teachers for elementary grades. But to gain a deep sense of the import of the rork we represent, we need make no comparison with other phases of education. According to the computations of Dr. Klemm of the United States Bureau of Education, directed by Commissioner Harris, where we all go for statistics of instruction, there are in the educational world to-day one hundred millions receiving the rudiments of knowledge. This responsi- bility, unmeasured in its vastness and accountability, is represented by this occasion. But, great as are these numbers, adopting as our standard the element- ary school attendance in Germany, or eighteen per cent, of the popula- tion, the present attendance should be more than doubled ; it should be idvanced from 100,000,000 up to 267,170,000, or by the addition of 167,- 170,000. When there is lack of this instruction, there is the absence of what is idequate in all that is special or higher. So benighted is our race, so great is the work before us to be accomplished ! Fortunately for us, our era awakens those interests that previously have been indifferent. The rudest labor finds greater profit in the skill imparted by intelligence. Trade, commerce, manufacture, and agriculture join themselves to science, and count their increase of profits by the light of learning. All the considerations of religion add their admonitions. Bearing our respective parts in this work, elsewhere and previously we may have had our local or national conferences. We may have marshalled all the history on our different lines. We may have sought by travel or by literature to reach over and gather the ripe fruit of experience from other races or nationali- ties. But now, these diverse spheres of experience, these varied conditions of current elementary education, bearing their best products from the ages that have past, are here present, by their competent representatives, to speak to us their wisdom from living lips. They will instruct us in what has 250 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. been done on other continents and the islands of the sea, and point to the results in actual life as seen in yonder unequalled exhibition of the world's progress. All other attempts at world-wide comparison are for our benefit. For our advantage there is not alone the increased facility for communication between peoples, making more manifest the brotherhood of man, but the characteristics of thought and inquiry in this epoch are also ours. History has always had its lessons for the peoples that would learn. Now treasures that have been buried for centuries are adding their correction's to what has been accepted as the public view. The world in its present vastness is before us as before no preceding generation. Hav- ing the advantage of studying all the past, in searching for averages, uni- formities, laws, types, we may, in a single survey, bring into view the millions, nay, tens of millions of peoples of the earth, of divers tongues, as the basis of our comparisons and conclusions. Not only have the methods of treating many subjects of thought improved, but even greater advance has been made in the study of man himself. The voice of the ages has been crying to him, " Know thyself." He has sought to obey by study- ing his own consciousness, the action of his own mental and moral powers. At maturity he has challenged memory to bring back what he thought, felt, and willed in childhood, the processes of his own inner growth, and thus to infer general laws for the guidance of the parent or teacher. He has added what he could from his observation of others, and tried to avail himself of any corrections thus suggested. On this basis of facts he has set his reason to work to develop rational theories. Thus many a folly has been exploded, many an evil prevented or removed. The instruments of precision needful for the most exact measurement of physical conditions indicative of vital force and action have never before existed. Nor has it been possible, as now, to mass in figures the annual experiences of mankind, to tell what is good and bad in results ; or, by vast averages, to discover the connection between intel- lectual and moral conditions and physical manifestations ; to approach the physical signs of persistent criminality or degradation of any kind, and thus to measure the causes which modify them, and impart their con- clusions for the direction of education. Every manifestation from the cradle to the grave may be recorded ; the experiences of one may be multiplied into hundreds, thousands, and mil- lions ; and all the modifications of heredity, of race, of the conditions of environment, the habitat, food, activities, occupation, taken into account. Thus the field of the purely conjectural is displaced by the known. Superstition gives place to intelligent faith ; imagination assists the ideal, but is not allowed to vitiate ; we hope for a resultant the best possible type for man. Yes, the voice of the ages has been crying to man, " Know thyself/' but never, never before has this been so possible as now. Every mind acts after law. These laws of many individual minds will help us ESSENTIALS IN A COURSE OF STUDY FOR CHILDREN. 251 towards the general laws common to all which the type obeys. Finding these laws, we can be assured of approaching the type. We are here with our differences of race, characteristics of material, civil, social, and religious environment. Each owes his patriotic duty, but we are all here to educate man, to produce character, to prepare for uni- versal brotherhood. However broad and various our ideas may previously have been, our very assemblage quickens and enlarges them. Towards this our labors are to contribute. If they accomplish this in any degree, each of us will have something of importance to himself and the type which he represents to carry away. Our work will fit into these vast congresses of which we are a part. We shall have reason to acknowledge, as we would here and now, our indebtedness to Hon. W. T. Harris, the Commissioner of the United States Bureau of Education, to-day the most influential man in education in the world. His profound philosophy and practical sagacity have given to these educational congresses their unity and their compre- hensiveness. His wisdom has brought the best things ; his skill has over- come all difficulties ; his patience, all trials and delays. We thank him and all those who have had the wisdom to place these responsibilities in his hands, and to work with him. May our task not come short of the place assigned it. It remains only for me to remark with pleasure and pardonable pride, that this conference is in a language specially growing in demand ; that it is held under a flag that stands for the vanguard of Christian civilization, and on a soil which guarantees the greatest freedom of speech and opinion yet accorded to men. In realizing that freedom, this conference, trusting itself to the sound judgment and good will of those present, is now open. ESSENTIALS IN A COURSE OF STUDY FOR CHILDREN. Shall morals, language, numbers, geography, history of the country, writing, and drawing be considered essentials in a course of study for children between the ages of six and fourteen years ? BY JOSEPH L. PICKARD, LL.D., IOWA CITY, IOWA. I. What is the child at six years of age ? Physically. — It is an organism perfect in its proportions. Its several parts are in miniature, and in some important particulars in embryo. It is capable of quick and varied movement, but with little effective force. The years of its life have been devoted to rapid growth with little tough- ening of fiber. No other period of equal length will witness such cease- less activity. 252 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Mentally. — The will is assertive, but not under control from within ; hence the motive power is neither steady nor constant. Desire is ever present, and pressing for immediate gratification. Curiosity is keen, and fastens upon that which most attracts through the outer senses. The imagination is vivid, and the greatest dramas are enacted upon the minia- ture stage. Tragedy is the favorite. Joys are intense, sorrows are keen, but both are evanescent. The names of things innumerable have been stored in the memory ; the value of things themselves is measured by the present gratification they afford. Present perception, which neither recalls the past nor forecasts the future, is all-absorbent. Reflection slumbers but shows signs of awaking. Morally. — In minor morals, or habits of outer movement, native grace holds its charm. Home freedom has not felt restraint, except where the kindergarten is established. In major morals, which touch the springs of outer action, faith is unwavering in mother or personal friend ; hope is bright, but will not bear long deferring ; charity is turned inward, though the hand be outstretched. Under neither of these cardinal virtues lies the abstract principle of duty toward God or toward his fellows. Right is what mother approves. The voice of the inward monitor is heard, but straightway forgotten. The sphere of the child's activity, thought, and feeling is very circumscribed. Its center may be expressed in one word — Now. II. What may be reasonably expected of a youth at fourteen years of age ? Physically. — Stature nearly complete ; a body well developed ; the crit- ical passage from childhood to youth is effected ; the trend of sex is deter- mined ; the incomprehensible force pertaining to this period assertive and controlling bodily movements ; all functions in healthy action, though not yet at their highest efficiency ; tempering of material well begun, but yet to be perfected by use. Intellectually. — Perceptions clear and quick, but not always sure ; reflec- tion awake ; with the growth of the reasoning faculties the present is less absorbent ; the past has its lessons and the future its inspiration ; the will is vigorous, but under control; self-activity is ascendant, and want of experience has induced an undue independence ; premature manhood is the natural result of immaturity ; the ardor of imagination has cooled ; play as a means takes the place of play as an end ; seeing, doing, feeling, become conscious seeing, doing, and feeling ; perception opens the way for apperception. Appetite for continued study is healthy and keen. Morally. — Upon the lower plane, movements, dress, and address are modeled after those of maturer years. Upon the upper plane, habits have crystallized into permanence. Prin- ciples cherished hold control. The man is seen in the youth. ESSENTIALS IN A COURSE OF STUDY FOR CHILDREN. 253 III. The eight years under review have been years of foundation laying. The framework of the superstructure is laid out, its form becomes appar- ent, but its use and its beauty are not yet fully displayed. The changes wrought, as they have been hinted at, are due to nature and to education. Education in its widest sense is the result of influences springing from the home; from society, the combination of homes ; from the church ; and from the school cooperative with the home and the church. The school, whether within the precincts of home, or in the church enclosure, or in edifices erected by the state, has the same end in view — the development of power for the production of manhood. The question before us is concerned with the essential means to be employed. Upon these there may not be absolute agreement as to the relative importance of each, or upon the order or extent of their use. All will agree to this statement — that the school curriculum is not an end in itself, but a means whose influence goes beyond the period of school-life into mature manhood. A wise selection of these means must therefore depend upon what is expected in mature life. Looking forward we shall see that power will be exercised along these lines : man over man, social power ; man over matter, industrial power ; man over the movements of his fellow-men, his co-laborers, civic power. The first has its root in man's nature ; the second, in his necessities ; the third, in the requirements of social order in the struggle incident to the relief of his necessities. These lines of exercise of power must be kept in view through the entire preparatory stage of an education, that there be no loss of energy when the time comes for the practical use of the power in society, in labor, in government. The field of education Mr. Harris at one time arranged in a series of concentric circles — the smaller requiring the same cultivation as the larger, but necessarily yielding less fruit in quantity, though by no means inferior in quality. I have thought of this figure as most apt in the cultivation of orchards. The inmost circle is the nursery — how apt the 3rm! The successive circles are filled with growing trees, not larger in number, but requiring more space for each. The fruitage of mature years will depend largely upon the care taken in the nursery. Even the process of grafting has its genesis in the nursery. Transplanting is essential, that the tree may be set in new conditions. The question under discussion recognizes the aptness of the figure. The six-year circle is that of the nursery. The fourteen-year circle is that of transplanting, training, pruning, and grafting. The outer circle is filled with sturdy fruit bearers if the inner circles have been properly cultivated. At the age of six years school life ordinarily begins. At the age of 254 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION fourteen in the vast majority of cases it is completed. In many coun- tries it is expected that the boy or girl will enter service at the age of fourteen and begin self-help. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, that the best training shall have been given the child, that he may enter upon the period of self-support as well equipped for effective service as possible. As already intimated, nature and education will furnish the equipment, and the latter will be the most effective when its service is rendered with due regard to the former. Choice fruits are produced from the native stock by continued cultivation. Plums will be plums still. Improve- ment in quality will follow close observance of the habits and needs of the tree. IV. Let me now recur to the three lines of influence. For the acquisition of social power the essentials are character, which gives the opportunity for its right exercise ; health of body, which insures its vigorous exercise ; ability to understand thoughts of others, and to express one's own thoughts, which makes the exercise of the power, both in giving and receiving, pleasant and profitable. Essential means are manners and morals, including the love of labor ; enough of physiology to impress upon the child the possibilities of the use and of the abuse of the body ; language in all its direct and indirect uses, speaking, singing, writing, and drawing. From the grouted trench to the corner-stone, throughout the entire foundation these should appear. Then, with or without school privileges after the fifteenth year, the desire and ability to cultivate the wider circle will remain a constant factor in self -education. The physical organism needs nourishment which depends upon food and its assimilation ; exercise which shall secure a harmonious development of the bodily powers ; control of -appetite, to which table talk as well as table food may contribute ; watch, care, regarding associations either in persons or in books, the influence of which is far more pervasive than that of per- sonal contact ; special care toward the close of the period under review, that there be normal development of bodily functions theretofore dormant. These suggest knowledge of physiology and hygiene upon the part of the parent and teacher at the outset, and upon the part of the child as his education progresses— physical training after a scientific method — and a knowledge of a proper course to be pursued in emergencies to the end of saving life. A healthy body, whose every movement brings pleasure, renders moral instruction easy and effective. From a recent editorial in the " Inter- Ocean " is taken this valuable statement : "In the eight years that form the average of public-school life, there is time to lead a child into the graces as well as into the practicalities of life. And it is most important . ESSENTIALS IN A COURSE OF STUDY FOB CHILDREN. 255 that the ethics and the aesthetics shall he taught in the public schools, for the children of most families end their education in their fifteenth year." Character in its original signification — the result of the graver's art — implies cultivated senses, a steady hand, and a noble ideal. Into this combination bodily actions enter. Is it not well to admit instruction in the laws of our physical system as an essential feature in moral instruction ? Morals essential ? Absolutely so, without intermission, but without formal intrusion. The entire atmosphere of the schoolroom and of the playground should be redolent with grace and truth. Schoolhouses and their surroundings, and school teachers, should make such an atmosphere certain. '* Sana mens in corpore sano," cannot be too often repeated. Bodily >owers are available only in absolute contact. The mind knows no limit )f its effectiveness if it has at command the most important instrument of influence — that of language, either by speech or by written characters, fords alone are barren things ; but springing from a mind richly stored nth thoughts gathered from, or born of, wide reading, study, and conver- sation, they will go forth enriching both those who hear and those who jtter them. To this end good literature must be made the soul of lan- guage study. Expression of thought increases the power of thinking ; power is pro- portionate to the clearness of expression. Familiarity with good literature jives ease and grace to expression, whether the channel of communica- tion be through the ear or the eye. I cannot separate from language study the art of reading. Writing is as essential as clear articulation. I'lain chirography is as important as clear enunciation. The use of the 3n, however, is not confined to the structure of words in collocation )f letters, but is applicable to presentation of forms of things, and so to the expression of many thoughts through a single form. Drawing is as ssential as writing, and, as allied to language, it has the advantage of >eing understood without the intervention of dictionary, glossary, or iterpreter, by people of all nationalities. There is a charm in the rhythmic utterance of thought, and in the melodious flow of words, which jmphasizes the value of music as allied to language. Eeading, writing, •awing, and music are such natural vehicles for thought as to proclaim them essentials to a proper course of study in language. Language, in its various forms of presentation, bears directly upon the )cial side of life. It must be remembered, as Cowper expresses himself, — "Talking is not always to converse ; Words learned by rote a parrot may rehearse ; Not more distinct from harmony divine The constant creaking of a country sign." Correct forms of speech are lifeless bodies until the spirit of a pure litera- ture is inbreathed. Social life will be enriched from both its aesthetic 256 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. and its ethic influences. Labor will be sweetened when the laborer bears into his daily tasks the scholarly spirit. Were I called upon to express the purpose of manual training, I should say familiarity with constructive processes before the pressure of necessity is felt, induces a love of labor for labor's sake. The charm of early accomplish- ment of something useful and beautiful is not lost when the work is a matter of necessity rather than of choice. To this end the kindergarten is an un- disguised blessing, and the working with tools in later years a delight. In the expressive dialect so frequently heard, Uncle Eben says : " You will allers notus dat er man dat hates work is not well enough acquainted wid it to form an opinion." To write intelligibly or to converse effectively implies acquaintance with subjects which are of general interest, and which bring children into a wider circle. Geography properly understood presents for study a com- pendium of knowledges. Huxley aptly styles "geography the peg upon which all knowledges are hung/' V. But another line is here interwined with that of social power. Indus- trial power finds food in the fields which geography opens. Nature forces, natural products, natural channels for the transfer of products, natural outlets for surplus products — these all are initiatory to the artifi- cial application of natural forces, the artificial water-ways and railways — the artificial outlets for surplus products. Greater facilities for exchange stimulate invention. Invention leads to more minute division of labor, and in the end to the substitution of machines for muscles. So he who would use industrial power must do it through directive exercise. Geot raphy and manual training are essentials on this line. Here is found place for mathematics. Dimensions cannot be ignored ; occupied space asserts itself, and we are brought face to face with a category not intel- ligible except in the use of numbers. No one lives by himself alone, but by a series of exchanges, whose relative values are determined by measure, by weight, or by tale. The exact science of numbers makes exact justice possible. Deferred settlements introduce the element of time with the varied problems of percentage. Accuracy in presentation of form, as in drawing, and nicety of fitting, as in all mechanical arts, involve knowledge of mathematical principles. Aside from these materialistic views, the mind is best trained to reason in accordance with the formulas of exact science. The eye which sees clearly, the hand which sketches accurately, and the head which makes prompt scientific classification possible, are the results of training in mathematics, in drawing, in elementary science, and in the elements of mechanical industry. DISCUSSION. 257 . VI. The foundation of good citizenship should be laid in the years under jview. The exercise of civic power, which will conduce to the weal of lie ^tate, makes the study of history aud of civil government essential. VII. By way of recapitulation : Eight years of school life are to be considered in relation to the entire fe, whether the fifteenth year close school work or be a stage in further progress. Three lines of power are opened to manhood, and they have their enesis in childhood and their strengthening in youth. For social power the essentials are morals, language, and literature; Writing, drawing, andmusic; a, healthy bodily condition; and an element- ary knowledge of nature's forces, of nature's products, and of nature's facilities for exchange — geography. For industrial power the essentials are knowledge of nature and of her ntrol by artificial agencies ; drawing, mathematics, and manual training; aud, still more important, morals and good literature. For civic power the essentials are history and civil government, with the still widening sphere for morals and pure literature. DISCUSSION. J L. H. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Indianapolis, Ind. : The subject proposed for discussion is " Should Morals, Language, Number, Geography, History of the Country, Writing, and Drawing be considered the essentials of the course of study for the eight ears of elementary instruction, the pupils being from six to fourteen years of age?" I have assumed that this list of branches is intended by the committee to express the inimum possibility ; and that, therefore, the burden of discussion is to be placed on the advisability or necessity of having still other subjects embraced in the curricu- lum of the elementary school. To this part of the theme then I address myself. In reasoning on a subject so complex as this, one is liable to be confused by the fact that a final conclusion has its major premise in one held of thought, and its minor premise in quite a different one ; while the final adjustment of the major and minor requires the consideration of many subsidiary conditions of each. In the present instance the major premise of the general argument is found in the answer to the question, "What is the true end of elementary education?" and while the minor premise is found in the right analysis of these enumerated studies, considered as instrumentalities toward such end, the subsidiary conditions will appear as one proceeds with his thinking. It is no easy problem to set and define the purpose of elementary education. The question is as old as the race, and yet as new and as fresh as the dawn of each new day. The newness, however, is dependent on the changeable element in life, the new phases of civilization which the race takes on in its progress ; 17 258 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. while its stabler elements belong to the permanent nature of man as human being. The former is the ever-present fact thrust upon our attention by each event of every passing hour, while the latter is found only in epoch-making periods of history. It takes a clear vision to discern in each new phase of human activity the human hope which inspires it, "the increasing purpose " which expresses the higher nature of man. But it is only through this insight that one can be protected from the assumption of evanescent ends in education. One who adopts a mere fad in education is little better in his profession than is the quack in the profession of medicine. It is impossible, then, to make prog- ress on this theme till one has set up an end in education equal in dignity with the nature of the beings whose education is involved. Abstractly I consider that the end of education is to develop into actual perfection the possibility of each human being, *'. e., to develop or bring into actual matured exist- ence the ideal human being. But since this can be done only through rational processes, and since these rational processes include all the necessary activities of this present life upon the earth, the fitting of one for these subsidiary pi-ocesses or practical activities is a legitimate end of educational effort. It is in this latter element of the educational idea that formal and so-called practical subjects find their validity. But since this element in the educational idea is so much more readily seen, and is really seen by so many more than ever get the vision of human perfection, it is likewise true that in our elementary education far greater attention has been given purely formal studies, or those which fit for practical life, than to those which tend to develop the human essence into the divine likeness which is its prerogative. I venture to state the end of education to be, then, the harmonious development in the pupil of the powers belonging to the human being by virtue of his ideal likeness to the divine, and the teaching to him of so much of the arts and sciences, history and liter- ature, as shall fit him to discharge acceptably the duties of life. At the age of fourteen the child will have accomplished only so much of this as his developing powers allow. Analyze powers and enumerate practical arts and sciences. My minor premise is to be found by an examination of the nature of the branches enumerated in the thesis : morals, language, number, geography, history of the country, writing, and drawing. A thorough analysis of each is out of the question in the time allowed me. I therefore examine them by groups, and look only at prominent charac- teristics. Of these subjects, then, language, writing, and drawing, considered in themselves, are purely arts, ». e., their end is skill, and the use of this skill, either in the further exten- sion of formal education, or in the ordinary forms of living. Writing, as generally taught in the schools, develops no esthetic sense ; language, whether for interpretation of the printed page or for dexterous use of words in composing, has no ennobling ideas in itself ; while drawing must reach some of its finer forms to touch anything more than the sensuous side of life. Only when these branches are used in the expression of ideas whose origin is in some other field of thought, do they become so charged in them- selves with thought or feeling or motive as to become an individual factor in spiritual development. Of geography and history it is to be said that in their lowest stages — that of time and place— of event and fact, they are of the same technical character. It is only when geography rises to consider physical forces joined to human motives as accounting in rational way for even the simplest phenomena that this subject takes its place among the branches which develop spirit ; and history is dry bones only till motive for action gives meaning to its events. Of the entire list morals is the only one that necessarily finds its subject-matter in spirit-nourishing ideas. Mathematics not treated. DISCUSSION. 259 =_ _ list in itself when viewed alone from the formal side. When this weakness is placed beside the ideal of education set up in the early part of this paper the deficiency is pain- ful. It is the deficiency in these branches of those ideas which nourish and thus develop the spirit into its heavenly likeness, and the prevalence in them of the technical, commonplace, temporary ideas, which at best prepare only for prosaic living. From this analysis we are driven to the conclusion, therefore, that they are inadequate to produce the desired education. They could but fit out the child with the armor and weapons of a giant and leave him a pygmy, unable to wear the one or wield the other. The course must be enriched by ideas which nourish and sustain the spiritual, which induce those mental processes which constitute healthful and strengthening activities for the spirit itself. We must find these ideas in other fields of thought, since the enumerated list does not contain them. Fortunately, we shall not have far to go. External nature and the humanities will furnish the needed ideas. It is not even necessary to bur- den our course of study with many new names. It is only necessary to read new meaning into the names already there. Observations, lessons on plants or animals, with reference to their structure, life, habits, and environment, will give ideas, de- lightfully interesting, elevating, and spiritually strengthening to a six-year-old child. These ideas, reproduced by the teacher on blackboard or chart, or on slips of paper by means of the school printing-press, form material for drill in learning to read, that never palls on the mental appetite, nor gives rise to soul-benumbing automatic repetition of forms without content, interest, or meaning. And, if the child thus learns to read by associating the letters and words with interesting and instructive ideas, words will, in reality, become the signs of ideas, and so, ever after, the interpretation of the printed page is a soul-inspiring process instead of the perfunctory, automatic process it so frequently becomes when prac- tised from its formal side only. Fairy story, poetry, and charming prose, real liter- ature, containing the ideals, customs, hopes, and achievements of institutional life, should then be used as an exercise ground for the child's spiritual nature, and I am sure little time need be spent on the formal teaching of inflections or gesture in order to make intelligent readers. Learning to read should be chiefly done within the first three years of school life ; in the remainder, the pupil should read and read much. In like manner, when the child is taught to compose, first orally and then in writing, and when his penmanship is judged by his original writing, then will he learn to write a free, rapid, and legible hand. Still again, if the child has his observation directed from the first day of his school life to those unions of physical forces and human motives which make of the earth's surface such a bewilderingly interesting theatre for the institutional life of man, if he has been led to accustom himself to find either in nature or man, or in the combination of both, the reasons which make the earth so dear a home for man, and if even after books, maps, and charts assist him, he is still led to look behind the present effect to the reasonable cause, there is little danger that he will spend his time in bounding the states or locating the capitals of African provinces. When the history of one's country is so taught as to lead one to love it because its institutions are worthy and its associations are sacred; when, besides its time and place category, history is seen to be the record of a progress towards freedom ; when each institution, the state included, is seen to be an instrumentality which the race creates and uses for its own advancement, the spirit will be nourished and strength- ened, and something higher than mere prudence will enter into the character of the learner and control his conduct. If the other subjects of the list be interpreted in this larger and more liberal way, and it seems to me they should be taught in this 260 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. spirit, I am ready to say that, with one exception, the list of subjects enumerated should constitute the curriculum of the elementary school. The omission of music from the list, it seems to me, is most unfortunate. There are ethical and esthetic needs in human nature that no other subject meets quite so well ; while the uses of music in the development of important social needs is so great as to make its absence from the elementary school nothing less than an educa- tional calamity. Dr. B. A. Hinsdale, Professor of Pedagogy in the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, said: Mr. President — I suppose that there is no difference of opinion on the part of those present that all of the subjects of consideration that are embraced in this thesis should certainly be embraced in an elementary school curriculum. 1 suppose we are all agreed that there is nothing contained in this thesis that should be struck out. Such differences of opinion as would arise, provided we were to have a careful individual comparison of views, or as might arise, would arise, no doubt, from the question of what branches of instruction should be introduced into the thesis that are not found in it. I am not going to discuss that question broadly, but wish, in the first place, to observe that Superintendent Jones is certainly within the truth when he observes that the answer to it must turn, to a very considerable extent, upon the breadth and the comprehension that we assign to some terms that are here employed. I may illustrate that remark very briefly. By the history of the country, for example, we may understand a collection of facts, more or less fragmentary, more or less isolated, and more or less innutritious. I fear that this description that I have now given is not an inadequate description of what sometimes passes for instruction in the history of the country in some of the schools of this country. Now, that is one thing ; but, on the other hand, I think by instruction in the history of the country we mean not merely the acquirement of a body of facts, but the acquirement of facts that have been wisely and discriminately chosen. If, in addition, we mean the mastery of these facts in accordance with the great associat- ing activities of the mind, if we mean the organization and the interpretation of these facts in such way as to make the history of the country yield up some of the great lessons which that history may be made to convey, then the history of the country becomes quite another thing, and we are all prepared to concede that it is a school, in a certain sense, of political wisdom, a school of patriotism, a school of civic duty and of civic virtue. It is a school of ethics and morality, and I may even say a school of religion in the very largest and in .a very proper acceptation of that term. In the second place, let me refer to the term ' ' language " itself. It must be clear to all of us that the committee that arranged the programme intended that this term should be taken comprehensively, for nothing is said about literature, and nothing is said about reading in the thesis ; and undoubtedly we are to understand that these things are included in the term "language " ; that is, the art of reading and the literature of the language. I was gratified, for one, that the Superintendent in his remarks called our attention, rather incidentally, to the fact that there are certain things in this thesis that, properly understood, are rather arts than studies. They are rather arts than studies, if by a study we mean a content study ; if by a study we mean something in correspondence to a science, a body of organized knowledge ; then manifestly reading, in the sense in which I use the expression, is an art and not a study, properly so-called, in the same sense that geography or science or history or any branch of mathematics is a study. Writing or penmanship is obviously an art. It is not an art of acquirement as reading is, but an art of representation. Either one of these arts brings one in relation with the minds of others ; but reading considered as an art brings one into relation with the mind of anotber, in the sense that he acquires something from him ; whereas writing, properly DISCUSSION. 261 understood, puts one in possession of an instrument or tool whereby he is able to convey to another his knowledge and feeling and volition. What is true under this category of reading and writing is manifestly just as true of drawing. That is an art and not a study, properly so-called ; certainly not a content study. Not only so, but I will add to that category, if you please, number, because number properly understood is not a science. Manifestly arithmetic, notation, and numeration are arts which we use in the prosecution of studies. Now, it appears to me that what has been said by way of characterizing these arts, and by way of discriminating them from the studies proper, is not without certain practical advantages. It seems to me if we could induce the educational people of the country, and especially the teachers of the country, to look upon these studies so-called as being arts, and could induce them to handle them as such, there are certain points of advantage which we should gain. I shall illustrate my meaning by reference to the subject of language. We were told, and very properly, that language is an art. I am not unaware of the fact that grammar and philology, under all the various divisions into which we divide language considered as a science, are content studies, and that they are proper sciences ; but that language considered as a medium of thought is palpably an art to be acquired, to be mastered, and to be used for communication in the first place orally, and afterward in written form of one's thought, feeling, and volition. There has been much discussion in the educational journals of the country as to the study of what we call technically grammar. I take it. for the most part, the distinction to which I have called your attention will enable us to answer the questions upon this subject. Technical grammar is a science. It is not an art. It is not a tool or instru- ment. I know full well that Lindley Murray, the father of English grammarians, defined English grammar as the art of using the English language. It is nothing of the kind ; and how so great a scholar ever could have conceived it as being such is one of the things that I have not been able to understand. Whatever grammar of any kind may be, it is certainly not the art of using language. One acquires the art of using a language by using it ; one learns to speak by speaking, to write by writing, to talk by talking, as he learns to think by thinking. Of course, there comes a time when the reflective or scientific and grammatical study of language may, in a subordinate sense, be a benefit to one in respect to his handling or mastery of language. What I mean is this : When I came to acquire certain formal rules of grammar, it proved of advantage to me in enabling me to eliminate from my speech certain inaccuracies and solecisms into which I had fallen, through what we call use and want. I never would have learned to speak it, had it not been for use and want. That person who is not allowed to acquire the mastery of language until he shall have learned it in a reflective sense, that is, from the grammatical side, will never acquire it at all, because the acquirement of all arts must come before the scientific or reflective or self-conscious stage of the handling of its topics. That is where the practical use of grammar comes in. The rules and pre- cepts of formal grammar in process of time may become a second nature, but they are never the first. All of this I think confirms and strengthens the proposition that in the first place we are to consider language as an art. The facts that I have stated explain two things that some people think very curious, which are not curious at all. I have heard men make fine speeches, using good language, who never studied a grammar lesson in their lives. I have known men who could write a fine letter, a good newspaper article, and possibly a good book, who had no knowl- edge of technical or formal grammar. I have known plenty of people who worked for months, and I might say for years, over technical or formal grammar, who could neither make a good speech, nor write a good letter, nor talk with ordinary decency. What con- clusions follow from these two facts ? First, that language, no matter whether oral or written, in the first instance is an art, as we have been told ; and secondly, considered 262 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. as a science, it can only be of use to us in a practical field, in a subordinate and second- ary degree. The practical application of all that I have been saying is merely this : That if we could get it into the heads of the educators of the country that language is an art, and that people learn it by way of imitation, and that the reflective study of grammar can only be of advantage in later years, and then only in a secondary and subsidiary sense, we should have made a very considerable stride in the direction of answering the ques- tion as to whether we should teach formal or technical grammar or not. My obser- vation is, that those people use good language, conversationally and in writing, who have been brought up in intelligent homes where good language is used, who have been taught to read good books, and who have moved in society where they have been early introduced to a liberal range of ideas, expressed in comely, vigorous, and measurably correct English. That is the beginning of the matter, and there is a lesson in it of practical import for the teachers of the country generally. WHAT SHOULD BE THE CURRICULUM IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS?— SOME ASPECTS OF THE QUESTION IN FRANCE. BY B. BUISSON, DELEGATE FROM THE MINISTRY OF PUBLIC INSTRUC- TION IN FRANCE, TO THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION AND THE EDUCATIONAL CONGRESSES. What shall be the plan of work for a common public school? In what shall the curriculum of primary instruction consist ? By the word primary, let it be remembered, we, in France, understand not merely the primary or lower grades of a common school, but also what you call here grammar grades, and even that side of the high school which is non- classical. (By the way, would it not be a proper thing at this international congress to try to come to some international understanding about the definition of such terms as those of primary and secondary instruction ; and is it not to be wished that we may adopt some common terminology about educa- tion as far as possible ?) But this is a parenthesis which I have rashly opened, and which I must promptly close, to come back to our purpose of this morning, the school curriculum of the primary, that is to say, the elementary, public school — the school destined for the great need of children between six and fourteen years of age. And yet if they would all stay at school until they are fully fourteen years old, the difficulty in providing them with a well-devised scheme of work would be more easily overcome. But unfortunately — at least such is not the case in France — many of them, having got their certif- icates of proficiency in elementary studies, leave the school before they are thirteen, and sometimes even as early as twelve years, and this hurry is a considerable cause of embarrassment to those who have to plan the WHAT SHOULD BE THE CURRICULUM IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS? 263 school work ; for you understand how hard it is to so arrange as to make a child evolve in six years, between the many circles of knowledge and suc- cessive occupations, which must be the most useful, the most formative, to bring about his physical, mental, and moral growth, according to a high ideal of the dignity of human nature. But even if we set aside that difficulty which must occur everywhere — though perhaps less here in America than in the old continent, even if we suppose, as the thesis of this morning does, that the school age will be six to fourteen — what shall we teach our pupils of the common public school during those eight years in which the state is to undertake to equip them — these one hundred million children — for life, and complete the education of family and church ? In theory the problem is, of course, comparatively an easy one. Let the school teach, we say, what is most likely to prepare the child to be a good citizen, an intelligent and active man. Let the school be satisfied to slowly but surely awaken his senses, his intellect, his faculties of observation, of reflection, of affection and action, and harmoniously build up his character, not by means of the three r's, but rather by means of the three Ji's, head, heart and hand, and make him fit for self-government, self-control, self-help, a living, a thinking being ; not a mere machine to become the tool of the ambitious and selfish politician, either despot or demagogue, or the dupe of a bigoted clergy. It is all right as far as theory is concerned, but when we come to prac- tice, what becomes of those beautiful schemes ? The kindergartner says : " You have only to go on with the kindergarten methods in the elementary school, and you will see how the child's faculties will bud and unfold themselves gradually, naturally, beautifully." Very well, let us try it, by all means ; the experiment is surely worthy of being made, but this answer tells us more how to teach than what to teach. The advocates of handicraft in school are also very eloquent about it, and say to us : " Just introduce it in the curriculum, and you will see what wonders, what complete metamorphosis it will work for good." So says the advocate of the teaching of citizenship and art of political economy and other pet branches. Reading is the thing, composition is the thing, agriculture is the thing, music is the thing ! Very likely there is something true in every one of those different views of the subject, though they are sometimes rather one-sided, not to say fanciful. But how to combine those new items with the old ones, and altogether arrange for the child a digestible menu ? Now, ladies and gentlemen, allow me to set aside generalities, and to submit to your consideration simply a particular example ; that is to say, our own example. Not that I mean that we have reached the ideal in France — far from it ; but to show you the fruit of our experience, and to bring a more solid element for discussion, namely, facts. 264 « INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Here is what has heen done in France about our school curriculum, or, as we call it, new programme d'etudes primaires. For time's sake, I shall not preface it by a short sketch of our educa- tional reforms in general, which I think are pretty well known. After the important bills which do so much honor to tbe republican government, and by which all necessary schoolhouses and training colleges, even of the higher order, were created, and education was made free, unsectarian, compulsory, after the example of America, our educators and school authorities had to face the theory problem of the curriculum. I must say that they took great pains over it ; and here I think it is not out of place to describe shortly, to tbose who are less familiar with our modern French institution, a most important one in regard to educational matters : I mean our Cornell Superieur de Vinstruction publique, a kind of semi-elective council of advisers of the Minister of Education, whose principal function is precisely to prepare or revise school programmes, school curricula of all grades. This assembly, which is unique, as far as I know, in the world, is most liberal and representative in its composition. It was created by a law (1880), and includes, besides nine high functionaries of the education department appointed by the head of the state, forty-five members elected by the universities, learned societies and schools and colleges of all grades. The elementary teachers themselves elect six representatives in the council, which is really a parliament of education, and perhaps the only one in Europe. Now, it is those gentlemen, presided over by the Education Minister, who sat together and slowly, carefully elaborated our curriculum, which is surely not perfect, but which was the object of much thinking and talking over. I need not say that it goes much beyond the three r's. The lucky phrase which the legend attributes to a well meaning, if not well spell- ing London alderman, is not known in France ; but we have also the equivalent, viz., reactionary advocates of the so-called strict minimum, which means the unprogressive school politicians of the type of those whose faces and secret motives Colonel Parker unmasked the other day with such power and eloquence. But happily their voice did not prevail in the Council Supreme. On the contrary, the programme they adopted was a very comprehen- sive— perhaps a too comprehensive — one. It embraces morals and civics, reading, language (with object lessons, of course), arithmetic, geometry, elements of natural science, elements of national history, geography, writing, drawing, singing, and gymnastics, with the addition of manual work graduated so as to continue what was already begun in kindergarten (cardboard, sloyd in small schools, bench and metal work in large ones) and also elements of commercial tuition and elements of agriculture. WHAT SHOULD BE THE CURRICULUM IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS? 265 The industrial and agricultural programme, which is entered upon even in the elementary schools, is, of course, much developed in the high school, which we call ecole primaire superieure, and which is quite different from the classical high school, or lycee, which in France belongs to what we call secondary instruction. As a fact, this scheme exists in France gener- alized by our centralization. As I said, the fault of this programme, it may he candidly admitted, is, perhaps, that it is too complete ; there is " surabondance de ricliesse." And of course it would be better to omit some branches than to flutter about every one butterfly-like. For if we avoid the danger of narrowness, we ought not to run into the opposite danger of overpressure and over- loading. But, in my opinion, this danger may be avoided if the teacher is well trained, and keeps to the spirit, not to the letter, of the programme. There are very good preambles explaining the curriculum, in the same way as those which many of your city and State superintendents, if I remember rightly, place before the school regulations issued by the Board. Here are, for instance, the instructions to teachers about the mental, or intellectual, part of the school curriculum, subdivided into the three studies, physical, intellectual, moral. In conclusion : if the school pro- gramme is thus understood, with its objective instructive character — less bookish, less scholarly and formal than in former times — and worked in that spirit by the teacher ; if the school time is not cut up into small sec- tions ; if reading is made the means by which a great portion of the sup- plementary subjects are introduced into the school routine; even an exten- sive curriculum may be carried out without confusion and overpressure. But, of course, the success depends a great deal on the teacher ; all will he easy if he or she carefully prepares a lesson on chemistry, physiology, or botany, for instance, by diagrams, pictures, and specimens. For this pur- pose school museums are invaluable, and can scarcely be dispensed with. As to manual work, either cardboard work, or wood work, or iron work, or modeling with clay, or gardening for boys ; and needlework, cooking, and ironing for girls ; let those occupations be advocated as most necessary whenever the school authorities can afford to supply the teacher with the necessary implements ; for even when this kind of occupations do not serve to turn the children's tastes towards adopting industry and trade as their avocations, they have a most beneficial influence, first, as derivative from overpressure in mental work ; secondly, from a social point of view, in enforcing respect for the dignity of handicraft and manual labor ; thirdly, on purely pedagogical grounds. But before the age of ten or twelve if they are added to the school curriculum, means must be devised so as to bring them partly before or after the regular school hours, or else the children's time for the most necessary branches, those which bear the examina- tion for the certificate of elementary studies in France, would be iusuf- 266 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. ficient. When parents leave their children at school until they reach four- teen years of age, manual work or scientific notions necessary to agricul- ture and gardening are most useful, for it is between twelve and fourteen that the children show a great fondness for those active occupations, and are capable of making some real progress in them ; and, besides, it is a critical age, a turning point in life, when they are likely to choose their avocation, and a well-ordained course in manual or agricultural work may have a very decisive influence over their destiny. In conclusion : Whilst it would be very advisable to simplify the programme and to lighten the burden of work both for the pupil and the teacher, yet it is to be wished that none of those essential subjects should be left out ; but if the teacher is really competent, carefully trained, so as to bring in harmoniously those different branches within the school curriculum ; and if governments, states, cities, or generous donators may grant the necessary apparatus, school museums, specimens, workshop fittings, tools, etc., it is possible and even advan- tageous to include in the school curriculum all the above said branches, and none of them may be considered as useless ballast to be thrown overboard. WHAT SHOULD BE ADDED TO THE ESSENTIAL BRANCHES OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY TO MEET THE INDUSTRIAL NEEDS OF THE LOCALITIES? BY PROFESSOR C. M. WOODWARD, Of WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, ST. LOUIS, MO. My first answer is : Very little, or nothing, should be added, at least in America, for the reasons stated. Elementary education should always be broad and general — non-professional, non-occupational — and hence there is no sufficient reason for the addition of local elements. My position being essentially a negative one, it would be better, perhaps, for me to wait till I hear some good arguments in favor of adding something to elementary schools to meet the demands of local industries. One easily finds such arguments in Europe, but not in America. Elementary education extends through the fifteenth year. I have no doubt but that in many European communities a large per cent, of the boys thirteen and fourteen years old, who are at school at all, receive special instruction in local industries. That is to say, the schools for boys of thirteen and fourteen are, to a certain extent, trade-schools. The schools of weaving, dyeing, paper-work, leather-work, lace-work, glass- work, toy-work, and light metal-work, fostered by the government, train the local children directly for local industries. They often begin earlier than the thirteenth year. There are many reasons for such instruction abroad, and such trade- COURSE OF STUDY AND INDUSTRIAL NEEDS. 267 schools are indorsed by most enlightened citizens. The government being somewhat paternal, the industries are permanent and characteristic. In a community devoted to a particular industry, everything centers and clusters around it. So long as the industry prospers, every boy and every girl too is in demand, and nearly every one takes the training, and goes to work, as expected, in the local establishments. An American is always astonished at the thoroughness with which (in a silk community, for instance) every detail of the processes of manu- facture is taught both to children and to adults, and how fully every scientific principle involved is set forth and illustrated. The result is sur- passing skill and finish in their work. The methods are often very con- servative, and hard labor enters more largely than would be the case under American management, and it is only by such thorough instruction that competition can be met. The traveler who visits such a community, and studies its life and work, finds it hard not to approve. Unless a boy is trained in the rudi- ments of the industry at school, he is left out in the cold, and there is no remunerative work for him to do, and he is starved into a most degraded life, or driven elsewhere. The way of the industry is the way of whatever comfort, culture, and success seems to be possible. There is no doubt in my mind that these industrial schools have been of great benefit to the people, industrially, socially, mentally, and morally. But there is a better way. I said that so long as the industry prospers, the community prospers; but when the industry fails, either because the product is no longer in demand, or because in some other and differently trained community the introduction of new labor-saving machinery brings in a fatal competition, so that the rewards of labor are no longer sufficient to sustain life comfort- ably and decently, then the community goes to pieces, and the narrowly trained workmen find it hard to make a living anywhere, and whatever of refinement they had before soon disappears. I believe the American plan is better, for several reasons. In the first place we have no state or municipal industries, and it will be along time before our factories get into the hands of government. In spite of Bellamy's vision, we shall draw the line at water-works, gas-works, tele- graphs, and railroads — for some time, at least. In the second place, I believe that there is a general training for our ele- mentary, and I may add our secondary, schools, which is more valuable in the end than any special training. As I have intimated, early trade train- ing is necessarily conservative. The processes appear to be arbitrary, the reasoning dogmatic, the range of vision narrow. " Thus did the fathers ; " "Do as I tell you ;" "Don't ask so many questions ; you want to know too much ; " — that is the atmosphere of a school where all are at last to be driven out through one door, into one occupation. Our American idea is to have a great many doors of exit from our 268 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION schools ; to look broadly and closely through the underlying principles and processes of many callings, and finally to focus upon one the light that shines from all others. Such a course prevents an unwise conserva- tism and stimulates invention. I have said, and I here repeat, that the age of invention is just dawning, that manual training is the very breath of its nostrils. Hence I have no fears for American industries, even though we have no trade training in our elementary schools. 3. A third objection to early instruction in special industries is found in the fact, that it necessarily ignores special tastes and aptitudes. I need not elaborate this point. 4. Early special training is at the expense of versatility. No one should hang all his chances for life and complete living on one thread. To change the figure : The properly trained boy or man — or woman — always comes down upon his feet — tariff or no tariff ; silver or gold, or both ; strike or suspension — it is all the same. 5. The plan for purely general instruction in elementary schools is the plan of freedom. The idea of predestination to a particular calling by external conditions — whether pattern-maker or preacher, baker, banker, or blacksmith — is obnoxious. First develop the individual boy ; then let him discover himself, and finally the demands, opportunities, and possi- bilities of the world around him. He then may choose his work advisedly. It is our duty to assume that every boy is going to make the most of him- self ; that he is to be a working factor ; that he is going to earn his own living ; build his own home ; buy his own books and pictures and pianos with the money he has himself earned. We must fit him most efficiently to earn his money as well as to spend it. I believe that the highest good to the individual always leads to the highest good to the State. It will be noted that I have not discussed the content of elementary educa- tion. That discussion comes at another time. I assume that it is harmo- nious and broad. I have only maintained that it should not, for local rea- sons, be narrowed and cramped by what may appear to be local demands. I also leave to others the discussion as regards race characteristics. WHAT SHOULD BE ADDED TO THE ELEMENTARY BRANCHES? BY ALBERT P. MARBLE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WORCESTER, MASS. (1) Thesis: "What should be added to the essential branches of the elementary course of study to meet the industrial needs of localities or race characteristics ? For example, should city schools introduce branches relating to commerce or manufactures, or should rural schools introduce agriculture, chemistry, and botany ? " (2) In this brief discussion it is assumed that the essential branches are those enumerated in the preceding thesis, namely: Morals, language WHAT SHOULD BE ADDED TO ELEMENTARY BRANCHES? 269 inmber, geography, history of the country, writing, and drawing ; the ige of pupils being from six to fourteen years. (3) Why these brandies should be regarded essential is a question by self, already discussed ; but the grounds for considering them essential mst be briefly stated. Morals include the relations of the individual to >ciety, and reverence for the supreme power. This branch of instruction ieed not be taught in formal lessons. It pervades all school exercises, and belongs to the very atmosphere of the school. Devotion to duty, self- jontrol, regard for the rights of others, love of truth in all its phases, rever- ence for the Creator — all this permeates every school exercise. Without lue attention to the moral side, all education is a failure. The study of lumber cultivates the power of exact reasoning. Geography teaches all the facts relating to the earth which we inhabit ; and as the dawning intelligence of the young child at the very first takes note of his surround- lgs, so the child in the elementary school should study the earth on which le lives. Language is the power of expressing thought ; and as the thought expands with the expression, and no faster. than the power of expression — is accuracy of expression is indispensable to accuracy of thought — this study is essential. Writing and drawing are forms of expression, and as ich they also are essential. They have a further use in cultivating the eye and in giving control of the hand. The history of the country is essential because this study connects the )ast with the present, and forecasts the future ; it invests the world with human interest ; it insidiously makes the child feel that, as one of the mman family, he has a vital and personal interest in the universal order — in all this vast concourse of things. These subjects are essential because they have been developed from long experience, because they have been instrumental in training generations of successful men, and because they ire agreed to by thoughtful men generally — by all except those whose supernal conceit leads them to think that whatever is, is wrong. The question here proposed is, What should be added to these essential )ranches to suit (a) the local industrial needs and (b) race characteris- tics ? (4) Involved in this question is the antecedent inquiry, What is the pur- )08e of public school education ? — for this discussion relates chiefly to >ublic schools. Should the education be specific, to fit the child in a larrow way for a particular calling, or should it be broad and general, develop manliness, good citizenship, self-control, and application — to >ut the child in possession of himself, of all his powers ? Undoubtedly lucation should be thus broad and general. (5) Public school education in this country has been an independent and, in some respects, unique growth. A brief reference to the history of this growth will throw light upon our theme, and the changing conditions 270 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. will indicate the modifications that may be demanded and wisely intro- duced. The first public bequest for education in the American colonies was made to Harvard University by the colony of Massachusetts Bay in the year 1636, " that learning may not be buried in the graves of our fathers in church and state/' Elementary schools were established later. Still later, and by degrees, these schools became universal and free; and with the growth of democracy and the establishment of the Republic, they came to be regarded as an essential factor of the national life, and they have extended to every State. It is to be observed, that in the early colonies and in the new States, among a rural population, the schools confined themselves to teaching the three r's — to book learning. All the industrial arts, the domestic virtues and duties, and religion were left to the family. On this plan there has been a long period of national prosperity and general intelligence. The country throve, the people were industrious, frugal, capable, and patriotic. With no special emphasis upon the flag in the teaching of the schools, there was no lack of patriotic devotion when the country called for service and sacrifice ; with no special attention to mechanical or other industries in the schools, business was prosperous, and there was no lack of intelli- gent artisans. Education was general and not specific. It was not the aim of the schools to assume the responsibility of the entire training of youth, intellectually, physically, and morally, after the manner of the ancient Spartans. With the invention of machinery, with the inauguration of vast com- mercial and manufacturing corporations, with the division and sub-division of labor, and with the rapid development of the country subsequent to the Civil War, through immigration, society has changed, and the problem of education has become more complex. The family is not now the political unit which it was. The fathers do not carry on a small, independent business where their sons can be employed ; the mothers do not conduct domestic industries to engage the labor of the daughters. Men have become mere cogs and wheels in the vast industrial machinery, in which the children frequently find no place, and the parents have no time left to work with the children. (6) In this state of society, which is far from the ideal state, shall the public school assume the responsibility of the entire education of the children ? Shall the school perform the function of the parent and of the church ? If so, shall the education be specific, to fit certain boys for certain trades and adapt them to the "local industries," and conform the schools to " race characteristics " ? In the Swiss city of Zurich the children in school are taught the chief industry of the place ; in China industrial occupations are thoroughly taught, and the inhabitants acquire wonderful deftness ; the aborigines of WHAT SHOULD BE ADDED TO ELEMENTARY BRANCHES? 271 this country were very skillful in certain kinds of handiwork. But the lian had no civilization for us to copy ; the Chinese civilization is not superior to ours ; and what American city has an industry which it would profitable for all the children of the city to learn ? At Waltham, Mass., ratches are made ; would it pay to teach all the children of Waltham the ratchmaking trade ? Could they all be employed in that business ? and loes any one there make a whole watch, or only a particular part of a ratch ? If the children of a farmer could all be taught farming in the schools, would they all become farmers, and would it be best to make farmers of them all ? And as to the "race characteristics," what pecu- ity of race is there which, imported into this country, should be propagated in the public schools ? If there is such a peculiarity, is not the very thing which should disappear in the American citizen ? )ahensleyism is the last thing which the public schools should encourage. The answer to tbe thesis, then, is that no study should be added to the elementary course because it meets the industrial needs of a locality, or favors the race characteristics of any people. Public education should aim at development and culture only; and the lanual and industrial, and any other element, should be adopted only so as it can be shown to contribute to this development and culture. The work in any one of these lines belongs to special schools, and for 3uch schools the need is a sufficient warrant. For the purposes of this development and culture, though not for local industrial needs, there are various branches of study which may profitably De added to, but which should not displace, the essentials already named, ^hese quite generally are objective and concrete. They are embraced mder the general terms Nature Studies, Physics, and Forces. They should be taught objectively, from the overflowing abundance of the eacher's knowledge, through a lively interest aroused in the child, and lot as tasks from dry text-books ; in this way they may supplement and vivify instead of supplanting the essential branches. There is a world of interest, pleasure, profit, in botany, in entomology, in zoology — the birds, the fishes — and in the rocks. The study of life in all its forms, in any of its forms that may be observed ; the noting of facts, the inferences, and recording of these facts and inferences — this study is unsurpassed as a means of culture. The mechanical powers are seen in every motion of daily life, and in all the business that goes on. The elements of physics are a branch of study equal to the one just named. The forces of nature -gravity, light, heat, electricity, chemical affinity, not in the theory so luch as in the practical manifestation — these should be added, in the incidental way already pointed out. This list is long enough to introduce the discussion, but it is not exhaustive, and the essential branches may be broadened indefinitely. For example, language may include literature ; but this enlarging and this 272 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. broadening may be ruinous if it is not judiciously handled. In watering growing plants, drowning may kill. All depends upon the skill of the teacher, and everything must be done for the single aim of developing the native power and putting the child in full possession of himself. DISCUSSION— RA CE CHAR A CTERISTICS. G. W. Hicks, Inspector of Schools, Jamaica, West Indies : Ladies and Gentlemen — When my friend General Eaton said to me that he would be glad if I would say some- thing here this morning I could not say nay, for I thought possibly I might say a word about our educational condition in Jamaica that might be of interest to you. The peo- ple of Jamaica have proceeded slowly but surely in the line of improvement, and I think that no one who knows what has been attempted in Jamaica and what is now being done in Jamaica can fail to form a very favorable opinion of the possibilities and prob- abilities of the future. In the thesis under discussion this morning my attention was specially attracted by the expression race characteristics ; and 1 have no doubt General Eaton had something of that in his mind when he asked me to speak upon this thesis. In Jamaica our people generally are of a race different from the Anglo-Saxon. They are a black people, and those whom we call the colored people, a mixed race, sometimes known as brown. They constitute the very great proportion of our population ; more than nine-tenths. I do not know that I can tell you what are their race characteristics. The people are different, but the differences may result from other causes than racial. The environment has been very different, and what shall finally be determined as racial characteristics I do not know. I have a very strong opinion that it will be found to be a difference in degree and not in kind. Certainly, so far as elementary education is concerned, that which is best for the boys and girls here in America or in England is found to be the best for the boys and girls in Jamaica. All boys and girls in all countries, of all races, need these three things : they need knowledge, power, and ability to do ; they also need aspiration, a high ideal, a reaching forward to something progressive. Now, the American boy in New England and in the Western States would find among his neighbors and in the community those influences, those educational agencies which would largely give him power or ability to do and give him aspiration. He would get much of that also in his school. Our boys and girls in Jamaica need to find in the school that which is found here out- side of the school. One English gentleman, who visited your schools a generation ago, and greatly admired what was done here in America — admired the American schools and the American people — gave it as his opinion that while there was in America an unusual amount of intelligence among the people, and especially among the laboring people, that we owed less of it to the schools and more of it to the environment than was generally supposed. The environment in Jamaica is not very healthful. The homes are not those which give the impulse and the training that the homes of the New England farmers and the Western farmers, and the New England mechanics and the Western mechanics, give here in America. Now, the improvement will be not so very much perhaps by addition to the curricu- lum as by the method of teaching the studies in the school. If the teaching can be so done as to develop along in every study an ability to do, the child, when he leaves school, will have power. That would be an improvement. The lack of power is exempli- fied among our people in the building of the churches. Those who are ministers of the people come to* them from England, Scotland, Germany, and some from America. They are continually adding to their church buildings. They are taking down the poor ones and building better ones. That is a sign of progress in Jamaica. They haven't much money ; almost invariably the schoolmaster superintends these buildings. He has had no training as a carpenter or mason, but he has a general education and is chosen to supervise. He has to watch continually the carpenter and the mason whom he employs, lest they make great blunders. They can do the work if they are told just what to do ; but many of them appear to have that sort of ability which was possessed by the man who made a large hole in his door for his cat to go through, and then made a smaller hole for his kitten to go through. Unless they are watched, if they want a short piece of lumber they will take the longest piece there is to cut it from, instead of taking one of the shorter pieces and cutting the short piece from that. g0< SPECIAL WORK TO PREP ABE PUPILS FOR CITIZENSHIP. 273 They need in the schools such a teaching as shall continually develop their mental power so that they shall not simply think, this will do ; but, is there anything better than this ? There is a lack of thinking power among the people which is due, to some extent, to defective methods of teaching the ordinary subjects of the schools. The introduction of agriculture among our people, an agricultural people, is about to take place under government authority, and 1 have no doubt if that is properly taught it will tend to develop that power of which I have spoken, and which is now greatly lacking, but it will no more develop it than the proper teaching of almost any other bject. Schools which I have inspected in Jamaica will give you as fine specimens of pen- manship as any that can be found in this marvelous exhibit in Jackson Park ; and in other things they will show as much knowledge as boys and girls of similar age in other hools ; but they lack power. They also lack aspiration. They are not lifted up to eking higher ideals, seeking for that progress which seems to be a characteristic of all e boys and girls of America, and I presume largely of every civilized country. In uring this aspiration Jamaica needs better teaching power, and it needs better text )ks. It makes a great deal of difference what sort of a reading book you put into e school. And it will make a great deal of difference what sort of a history you put to a school. I had occasion recently to send to America to place in the bands of me young men in Jamaica a history of the United States, which would show the uses of the great war, and I got a history in which every essential thing was elimi- ited, and there was nothing left there that would account for that unparalleled niggle on the part of the people of the North in which my friend General Eaton, and i which I myself, bore a part 1 trust I am uttering no discordant note when I say that I think that the history which you place in your schools should contain the essen- tial things which explain the great facts of the great struggle in which you took part, nd which has so greatly influenced the destinies not only of this land, but of all lands, read not long ago something from a gentleman who spoke of the great influence for ood which McGruffey's old readers had when he was a schoolboy. I read those readers, and I want to say Amen to all that he said. We want in our reading books a record of great deeds ; we want the great thoughts of great minds to lift up the boys and girls, and give them that aspiration and that spirit to which Superintendent Jones referred. e, in Jamaica, watch very carefully all that is being done in America, and take a at interest in all of the discussions in regard to the introduction of manual training. you can solve the problem of how that can be successfully introduced into our com- on schools with our ordinary teachers, you will have done us, in Jamaica, and the orld in general, a very great benefit. THAT SPECIAL WORK SHOULD BE UNDERTAKEN IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TO PREPARE THE PUPILS FOR THE DUTIES OF CITIZENSHIP? BY WM. A. MOWET, SUPEKINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SALEM, MASS. It is taken for granted that "elementary school" here referred to leans the elementary "public" school. By this term, public school, is leant in this country a school maintained at public expense ; that is, by ixation. The fundamental principle of the American public school is lat the property of the State is taxed to educate the children of the tate. The assumption, therefore, is clearly implied that the welfare of le State demands the education of all the children. 'These several tints are here assumed without discussion. The next important question which arises is, In what branches and ith what motive shall these children be educated ? It is not within the 18 274 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. province of this paper to discuss this question further than to point out the one fact, clearly to be inferred, that if the school is supported by taxation in order to maintain firmly republican institutions, the nature and char- acter of these institutions, the facts concerning our Government, and the duties of the citizen under it, should most assuredly be taught in such school. I shall take the ground that special provision ought to be made for inculcating patriotic sentiments, and preparing the pupils for their re- sponsibilities as citizens, in ail the grades of the public school. As this discussion, however, is confined to the elementary school, we shall have to deal only with what is usually comprehended under two grades ; that is, (1) the primary school, (2) the grammar school. THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. In the first place, it would be necessary for the teacher to have clearly in mind what is to be taught during the time the pupil is in her particu- lar grade. A clearly-defined plan is essential to intelligent teaching. I will here only indicate certain things that seem to me both feasible and desirable to be taught to the child in the lower grades of the primary school : 1. In what town or city he lives. 2. What are the adjoining towns or cities. 3. In what county he lives. 4. What are the towns or townships and cities in the county. 5. The name of the State in which he lives. 6. The name of the Governor of the State. 7. The name of the country in which he lives. 8. The name of the President of the United States. Some may contend that such teaching should be delayed until the pupil is old enough to comprehend' and appreciate more fully the nature of the facts and conditions dealt with. I am quite inclined to think, however, that the principle is a sound one, entirely defensible, philosophically and pedagogically, to teach in an elementary way facts which may not until later be fully comprehended in all their causes, conditions, and effects. When I was a small child at school, only five or six years of age, I learned the fact that Andrew Jackson was then the President of the United States. The learning of that single fact at that time has been of great service to me since. It has enabled me to fix dates, to associate related facts of that period, and has served in reality to mark an epoch not only in my own life, but in the history of State and nation. The great epochs of the world, like the Flood, the escape of the Israelites from Egypt, the Hegira, the founding of Rome, the birth of Christ, the . discovery of America, the Thirty Years' War, our Revolutionary War, our own Civil War, are dividing lines, to be used as starting points for the comparison SPECIAL WORK TO PREPARE PUPILS FOR CITIZENSHIP. 275 of events considered chronologically. So in the life of every individual, if his first schooldays are marked as being in the administration of Andrew Jackson, or James Buchanan, or Grover Cleveland, this forms a central date from which, in later years, he may go backward or forward in the history of the country. All previous events he learns historically ; all subsequent events come within the period of his remembrance. Nor is this matter of history of little importance in the patriotic view. The knowledge of the facts of one's country must be known before one can have love of country. What has been said, therefore, is sufficient to indicate that we must begin very early in the life of the pupil to teach him the essential facts of the history of this nation. 9. The learning of patriotic selections. 10. The singing of patriotic songs. 11. The observance of patriotic anniversaries, such as Independence Day, Memorial Day, the anniversary of the battle of New Orleans, and that of Bunker Hill, Washington's birthday, Lincoln's birthday, and so on. Of course, much more can be done under several of these heads in the years of the grammar school than in the primary grades, therefore they will be considered more fully later. . THE GRAMMAR SCHOOL. During the years included in what is usually called the grammar school course, much can be done both incidentally and by systematic study, in relation to the responsibilities of citizenship and the duties of the citizen. 1. The subject should pervade the atmosphere of the schoolroom. The teacher should constantly bear in mind that each pupil is an American citizen ; therefore, in all teaching, more especially in geography and history, the question of citizenship should be uppermost in the mind. I am aware that this is very indefinite. It is doubtless true that many teachers are not prepared, either naturally or by their previous training, for this sort of teaching, but the same thing is true in regard to other sub- jects ; both preparation and instinct must be present, or no great success can be secured. Nevertheless, it is true that every teacher can do much, if she has the will to prepare for this important work. 2. One of the most important means for inducing the spirit of patriot- ism and preparing pupils for the duties of citizenship is to be found in special work connected with the study of the history of our country. In the colonial history, the character of the first settlers, their strength of mind, intelligence, and earnestness of purpose may be dwelt upon with great advantage. The period of the American Eevolution and the formation of our national government gives fine opportunities to incul- cate a spirit of loyalty to our republican government, and of patriotism and appreciation of our peculiar political institutions and advantages. 276 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The history of the formation of the Federal Constitution, and an ac- count of its peculiar provisions embodying the genius of our government in its three distinct departments — legislative, executive, and judicial — should be carefully developed, and clearly impressed upon the pupil's mind. The growth of our country, its rapid progress in material re- sources, its increase in the variety and quality of its industries, its present relative strength among the nations of the earth, with its extent of terri- tory, its large population, and its great wealth — all these things are calcu- lated to stir the hearts of the pupils, and increase almost to a boundless extent their appreciation of, and a natural and legitimate love for, the great country which they can call their own. 3. In this connection it may be proper to call attention to the practical lessons of patriotism so easily given in the celebration of special anniver- sary days. Independence Day, Washington's Birthday, and the dates of important events like Lexington, Bunker Hill, the battle of New Orleans, Commodore Perry's victory on Lake Erie, Gettysburg, Appomattox, fur- nish opportunities for valuable lessons in patriotism. It is scarcely neces- sary at this late day to call attention to the importance of having the American flag float from the top of- every schoolhouse in the land. On all patriotic occasions that flag, which is at once an emblem of freedom and an epitome of our history, which indicates by its thirteen stripes and forty-four stars the autonomy of our government — this flag floating in the breeze inevitably conveys lessons of strong patriotic sentiment and love of country to the hearts of all children. On these occasions, too, if the les- sons from the historic page are enforced by recitations and readings culled from the vivid pictures and eloquent utterances of our great authors, such as Washington and Jefferson, Webster, Clay, and Lincoln, the mental effect is greatly strengthened. 4. In the lower grades of the grammar school, instruction should be given from time to time in the simpler elements of our governmental machinery. Almost every State publishes in some form a manual of the legislature. This manual generally contains the State Constitution, and frequently the Constitution of the United States ; a list of the State offi- cials, including the executive, legislative, and judicial departments ; the rules of the House and of the Senate ; a description of the several grades of State Courts, with the times and places where they are held : a list of counties and county institutions, and, in some cases, townships and their officers. This manual can usually be obtained by teachers who are inter- ested in this subject, and from it can be drawn most important lessons concerning the duties of citizens and the institutions and forms of our government. If it were in a New England State the first lesson would naturally be upon the township and its officers, mentioning the particular names of the officers in the town in which the school is located ; and the teacher can SPECIAL WORK TO PREP ABE PUPILS FOR CITIZENSHIP. 277 then discuss with the pupils the duties of the moderator of a town meet- ing, of the town clerk, the selectmen, the constable, assessors of taxes, overseers of the poor, school committee, and other officers. Wherever the township system is not made so prominent, the county system and county officers should be considered in like manner. Then the State officials and State institutions can be followed step by step, until by a series of carefully elaborated lessons and familiar talks by the teacher, taking up one thing at a time, the groundwork of our whole system of government may come to* be clearly understood by the children. 5. We come now to a consideration of what many believe to be the most important part of this discussion. There remains for us to consider the direct and specific study of civil government in the upper grades of the grammar school. I believe that in schools sustained by public taxation there should certainly be taught, as a definite subject, to 'all the scholars in the upper grades of the grammar schools, the government of our country — its principles, its genius, its institutions, its offices and officers, their duties and their responsibilities, and the duties and responsibilities of citi- zens. There are many elementary treatises on civil government prepared expressly for this use, and some one of them may be used as a text-book in the last year's work in every grammar school. Here can be systematic- ally unfolded the facts of our local government, whether township or county, the State government, its powers and limitations, and the pecu- liar province and characteristics of the National government. This study is not beyond the comprehension of grammar school pupils. It can be made of special interest to them, and is of the highest practical value to them in after life. In presenting this study before a class in the upper grades of grammar schools, great advantage will be found to accrue from acquainting the pupils directly with the doings of the citizens in town meetings, in county conventions, the State legislature, and the courts. Wherever it is possible, the class in civil government should at least once a year make a visit to the State capital and attend a session of the Senate and of the House. In like lanner, a visit should be made to some one of the State courts, so that the pupils can observe the forms by which a trial is conducted. 6. Another excellent practice is to carry on, in due form, an election by the pupils of the school on Election Day. If it is a town election, let the pupils carry out the form of electing the town officers. If it be a State election, let the political parties hold their caucuses, make their nomina- tions, and, on the day appointed, let the election take place in due form, in accordance with the State laws, with all the paraphernalia that is actually used, with a subsequent counting of votes and announcement of the result. If it be the day of the election of presidential electors, let that be carried on by the school in like manner. I am fully persuaded, from long experience and wide observation, that 278 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. this subject has not yet received the attention which it merits. I believe that it is a matter of the utmost importance for the perpetuity of our insti- tutions, the maintenance of our free government, and the general pros perity of our nation, that the study of civil government should be carrie on and carefully attended to in all of our grammar schools. I therefore recommend the subject, with great earnestness, to the thoughtful attention of all the distinguished educators who have honored this congress and this occasion with their presence. THE VALUE OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL FOR THE SOCIAL VIRTUES AND FOR TRAINING FOR THE RIGHT EXERCISE OF THE DUTIES OF CITI- ZENS. BY MISS CATHARINE H. SPENCE, OF ADELAIDE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA. There is little need, before an assembly like this, of spending time in defining what education has been and what it ought to be. We may presume that, as we have outgrown the old idea that education is merely learning what other people have told us, we ought to outgrow also the more recent idea that education is merely to give us tools for our own advancement and success. The value of the three K's has been enormous in a society where every one had not mastered them. Now it must take the negative form that, in our present circumstances, every child who does not know how to read and write and to cast accounts intelligently is handicapped in the race of life, and placed at a disadvantage at every turn of fortune's wheel; and all civilized nations are agreed that this minimum of school teaching shall be given to all children, and that school attend- ance shall be enforced by law. . But it depends on the use that is made of all knowledge, even of these barest and most elementary elements of edu- cation, whether their exercise is a bane or a blessing to himself or to the community in which he lives. If a man prefers to read bad books to good ones ; if he writes lies and slanders, or commits forgeries by means of elever penmanship, and if he uses his proficiency in figures to cheat other people not so clever as himself, his three E's are a curse and not a blessing. Therefore, I think more of the tone of the school than of the attain- ments of the pupils ; and the tone may be so individualistic as to atrophy the natural social instincts. And the desire to outstrip all competitors may be so encouraged by praise and rewards, that the seeds are sown in school which take root in after life and make self-advancement the whole duty of man. If we transcend the elementary three R's, we must see that we work toward the development of what our French fellow-educationist happily VALUE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL FOR THE SOCTAL VIRTUES. 279 called the three H's — the head, the heart, and the hand. For if our children study history, whether that of their own country or that of other countries, without admiring what is noble and generous and courageous md patriotic, and hating oppression and cruelty and deceit and cowardly selfishness and greed, they will make none the better citizens though they have the names and the dates of all the battles that ever were fought, at their finger ends, and could tell the succession of all the presidents of the United States and of all the sovereigns of Europe. If military glory is made paramount in the teaching, children imbibe the militant spirit. If material prosperity is held forth as the great object of life, the ideal which is in every child is starved ; and in both of these misdirections the social instincts have not got fair play. We must bear in mind that the common school is often the only civil- izing agency with which children from poor, rough homes in the cities and the country are brought into contact. The regularity of school hours, the serviceable pressure of school discipline, the requirement for personal cleanliness and civil and decent language while in the school- room and on the playground, the punishment of cruelty and rudeness among our younger citizens, are mighty forces whose value is apt to be underrated. The higher the attainments of our teachers, the more gentle and dignified are their manners ; the more these necessary rules are rein- forced by the respect and the appreciation which the individuals who carry them out win from their pupils, the lessons of courtesy, of mutual respect and mutual forbearance sink in the more deeply, and the tone of the school is elevated and sweetened all round. In spite of Herbert Spencer and his school, the trend of thought in our era is unmistakably social. And unless our future citizens — our future masters — are prepared for wisely handling the great problems of our day, their education is one-sided and defective. Jeremy Bentham made a great stride in ethics when he declared that the object of all legislation should be the greatest happiness of the great- est number ; but we have got beyond this. The greatest happiness, even of the greatest number, should not be pursued at the sacrifice of the hap- piness of the smaller number. How can these higher ethics be taught in the common schools ? Di- rectly, in the wise choice of the lessons which children read, and in the moral lessons which I believe are given in America and in Australia ; and indirectly by the influence of the teacher over the- tone of the school. And the lessons need not be namby-pamby, for the social virtues are not built on the foundation of charity and almsgiving, but on justice. It is because ambition and competition are so apt to be unjust, to take advan- tage of the weakness of others, to deal with others as they would resent being dealt with themselves, to climb on the fallen, to squeeze the hardest terms when the other party is at a disadvantage, that they are to be dis- 280 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. couraged. Many successful men are liberal in benefactions to hospitals Magdalen asylums, and colleges, and I do not quarrel witli them for tha but these things do not right the wrong they may have done by hard deal- ing with their employees, or by what is called rigging the market, so as to make timid people sell too cheaply to them, and sanguine people buy too dearly from them. The social virtues are not effeminate or weak virtues ; they are built on the strong foundations of justice. They carry out the highest and the best rule of life — the Golden Rule — to do to others as we would that they should do to us. And in every relation of life the broad principles of equity would prove sufficient for the individual as for the social organism. How are we to teach our future rulers, in the common schools which all of them attend, such principles as will make them prefer a good newi paper to a bad one, and will make them use their voting power intelli- gently and honestly ? A citizen in a free state ought to be educated to a feeling of public spirit. I believe that the children in the United States are educated to loyalty to the flag much more than children in England or Australia. All sing patriotic songs, and it thrilled me much at San Fran- cisco to find that a national song of America, "God Bless our Native Land/' is sung to the same tune as our "God Save our Gracious Queen/' It appears as if the tune were going round the globe, symbolizing loyalty to country. It surely is quite possible to teach children before they are fourteen years old the difference between public spirit and party spirit, and the relations which citizens in a free country hold with the government — municipal, state, and federal. Government in all these three forms is at once the master and the servant of the people. As our master, it must be obeyed, even although we may not believe all the laws of the land to be wise or just ; so long as they are the laws, we must respect and obey them. But as our servant, the municipal, the state, and the federal govern- ment must be watched and checked ; unjust laws must be opposed by all legitimate mean?, by free speech and a free press ; unworthy members of the city council, of the state legislature, or of the federal congress should be exposed, and, by the exercise of the suffrage, be replaced by better men. Boys and girls much younger than fourteen can be taught that it is wrong and contemptible to sell one's vote, and the collective conscience of the class educated toward purity of election. It is the duty of citizens of a free country to use the machinery of representation honestly, and if that machinery is defective, to work for its improvement. The first lesson I learned in politics was from the lips of my mother, when I was six years old, on the question of the English Keform Bill of 1832. She said she did not think anything was so good but that it might be made better ; nothing devised by man that man could not improve. That lesson was given at a very early age, and it was followed up by of s- VALUE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL FOR TEE SOCIAL VIRTUES. 281 others. It helped to the building of my character and to the shaping of my life. 1 am still learning it. I also learned much from the very intel- ligent woman who gave me all the school learning I have had, and that ceased at the age of thirteen, when I went to Australia with my parents. She had appreciation for the bright and patience with the dull. She preached to us all a sermon on the text, "Splendid talents are the lot of few, but our gracious God has put within the reach of all those qualities which insure respectability and usefulness in life " — industry, frugality, and sound principles ; and she made it very interesting. Therefore I maintain that it is quite possible to give education in the duties of a citizen in our elementary schools. I wrote a little book for the Education Department of South Australia ; the title was given to me — "The Laws we Live under" — but I did not confine myself to the actual laws of the statute book, but glanced at the economic and social laws on which our prosperity and well-being depend, and I also tried to explain such things as protection and free trade, friendly societies, trade unions, savings banks, insurance, newspapers and other organs of public opinion. A good teacher can make a lesson as interesting about the relations of land, labor, and capital as on any other subject he can choose. He can show the advantages of tools and of machinery, and can appeal to the common sense and to the experience of his pupils. And he can draw analogies between the law of the family, the social unit, and the law of the school, which is a collective unit, leading to the law of the land. As a good scholar would be ashamed to break the desks or make holes in the maps, or to injure any of the school property, so should a good citizen be ashamed to destroy government property, to waste government money, or to cheat the government revenue. Their fellow-citizens suffer by these things. There was one important point which I tried to make very clear, because in all the Australian colonies the government undertakes and executes so many public works that are left in older countries to private or associated capital. But still, I dare say, there are such things as appropriations even in the States. A good citizen should always study the best interests of the whole com- munity, and not let his private interests, his class interests, or his local interests come between him and what is best for every one. If he has a piece of land to sell, and asks twice as much for it from the government or from the municipality as he would accept from an ordinary buyer, he is trying to make all his fellow-citizens pay twice as much as its worth for the sake of his private interest. If he wants laws made to favor his trade or. business, so that people should pay more for what they want than with- out these laws — that is his class interest that is warping his judgment. If he wants government to lay out money in his district that is not needed, then it is his local interest that he opposes to the general good. 282 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The class and local interests need to be watched closely, because they are encouraged by those around us who are of the same class and who live in the same locality, and they are extolled by them as showing genuine public spirit. Selfishness pure and simple does not meet with this encouragement, because other people's private interests are different from our own. There are many points of detail in which a primer on the duties of a citizen written for American children would be different from what would suit Australia, but the broad principles might be the same. We have no such great issue as the election of the head of the state for four years, nor have we the bewildering number of officials to elect. But the responsi- bilities of citizens in America appear to me to be the greater because the country is so great, and because it stands out as the greatest permanent democratic government in the world. And the manner in which the best men keep out of politics seems to me to point toward the necessity of training all the young for citizenship, of inculcating from the earliest years the duty that every one owes to the land he lives in. And, whether girls are going to have the suffrage granted to them or not, they should not be excluded from such lessons. The word citizen should be understood in its widest sense, as one subject to the laws of the land and having an inter- est in all things which concern other fellow-citizens. It does not mean an inhabitant of a city ; it does not mean a voter at elections ; it means a member of a community. Although the girls in our public schools may never have to vote at elec- tions or to serve on juries, and cannot aspire to be representatives or con- gressmen or presidents of the United States, they have too much interest in good government and too much influence in the world to be left safely in ignorance of the great natural laws of Providence or of the law of the land. It has been by the advance of civilization and by the operation of just laws that women have been raised from being the drudges or the toys of men to be their companions, and in many respects their equals. The progress of the world in health and in wealth, in knowledge and in good- ness, depends on the character and conduct of its women as much as on those of its men, and there can be no greater mistake for girls to make than to suppose they have nothing to do with good citizenship and good government. The fact that so much of the work in your elementary schools is in the hands of women, and that these are not supposed to take any active part in political matters, ought not to tell against my argument. Many of our political methods are inherited from old militant ideals. The desire that our party should triumph, right or wrong, is a legacy from the desire that our country should triumph whether the cause of war was just or unjust. Women ought to build up from the social and not from the militant VALUE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL FOR THE SOCIAL VIRTUES. 283 Standpoint. And the tone and atmosphere around a bright, intelligent, kind-hearted woman foster the nascent civic virtues. If I am asked what school exercises are most valuable to educate for citizenship, I fear 1 should say that it is exercises out of school which are the best. Miss Wheelock, of New York, spoke this week at the Woman's Building about the civilizing and the humanizing effect of giving play- grounds to the children of the city slums as well as kindergarten training to them. I believe that it is in the games which children play that they learn most thoroughly the principles of justice and to yield to public opinion. All games have rules ; many games have a referee, in case of alleged infractions of rules. "Fair play" is the earliest conception of justice which enters into the mind of a child. And there are some good rules with regard to games which are not kept up in the great game of life, when the stakes are so much heavier. If a boy is a much better runner than his fellows, he is handicapped in the competition for victory in a race. In life, the man who has won the prize starts so many more yards ahead, instead of so many yards behind, for the next contest. But the scorn which is poured out on the boy who takes an unfair advantage in order to defeat others is the expression of a healthy and just public opinion, and I should like to see it retain its vigor and its efficacy all through life. Still, no doubt, there are school exercises which promote education for citizenship at present in use, and others might be devised. The most important at present are "music, in the shape of school songs, and drill and discipline. School singing is social ; each young voice lends its trib- ute, and different voices are allotted to part singing. The voice of each is subordinated to the general effect. Drill is also helpful to the social development. Step for step with regularity, without jostling or confu- sion, each takes his place and keeps it. These things are done uncon- sciously, as a matter of course ; but a teacher who wants to train citizens could show the social equality and the social value of the school singing and the school drill. Discipline saves much time and much tear and wear to teachers and to pupils, and no school prospers without its aid. But when discipline becomes the master and not the servant of true education, one sees it in the tone of the school. There is a want of elasticity and of spontaneity. The discipline ought to be such that the consensus of all the best pupils is on the side of law and order. And is not this the best training for citizenship in a free country ? The days of the autocratic schoolmaster are over, even in countries which we consider to be somewhat despoti- cally governed. And it seems to me to be the death-knell to absolutism when future citizens have their rights respected by the teachers. They are likely to demand them from the monarch. Good manners are the outward aud visible expression of good morals. 284 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. They cannot bo taught too early. The home is the first and the best school for them, but the school may supply the defects of many homes in a great measure. Our nursery for citizenship should have sweetness as well as light. There are social points in all branches of knowledge, but they are often hid- den. It is the duty of the true teacher to point them out and emphasize them. I heard yesterday in the Art Section, from Mr. Stimson, lessons for citizenship given by means of drawing. If the teacher has in his heart the feeling that to train worthy citizens is his prime duty, every subject which he presents to his pupils will be instinct with this convic- tion. If, on the contrary, he cares nothing for public duty, the best text- books that may be put in his hands will fall dead on the class. Let us first inspire the educators ; the inspiration will be communicated to the schools. METHODS OF TEACHING HISTORY TO CHILDREN. BY MRS. MARY H. PEABODY, OF NEW YORK. To make the briefest possible statement, I would say that I was led to this method of teaching history by the manifested needs of a class of children from eight to twelve years of age. I took them from a kinder- garten, and sought to carry into school the principles taught by Froebel. The subject of the children's study was truly man and his occupation of the earth. As all action is related to nature, I considered political geography as the results of the movements of man, and physical geography as the outward cause and guide of those movements ; the two therefore can be learned incidentally, not as separate lessons. In opening the work, I was led by the questions of the children to the beginnings, to the origins of things — to the sun, the earth as a planet, to its growth and geological construction, and the progress of life. The lessons were given round a table with globe and maps, and began with personal experience, and were intended to touch the child's natural relationships. There was the land to speak of, its boundaries, its name, and flag — all that they knew about it here and now; its present condition, people, and methods of life. These made a series of lessons, related intentionally to the history, yet with variety in the subject to awaken the child's consciousnesss of alliance to nature, to God, and to his fellows. Human life, like the earth, has its natural divisions. These are the family, the race, and the nation. The first two are opposites ; the third is the result of their union. The family is the near, close relationship which by birth gives name, position, and something of personal character. It is the unit of society. The race, using the word as in anthropology, is the largest relationship METHODS OF TEACHING HISTORY TO CHILDREN. 285 )f man, showing wide distribution of general physical characteristics and types of language. Out of these two elements, and by means of their combination, rises that supreme form of life, the nation. In the nation families of all races mingle more or less, as children see in their own country. Still, jach nation has been born into the world with a special character of its )wn, and upon its own land, out of the life first planted ; each nation has expressed a life entirely individual and characteristic, by virtue of which it stands apart from others, has its separate history and its own name. The earth is thus peopled by the nations ; the keynote of history is the )rinciple of nationality. The nation is the highest degree of existence, tt is the completion of society, the form of life dearest and most sacred, to rbich the family is sacrificed if necessary. Within the nations, as expressions of their character, arise every form )f human thought relative to government, religion, and life. The growth )f the nation is the following out of the natural law of organization. All force of life coming from God takes some organic form by which to represent itself. It uses nature as its support, moves even unconsciously ifter divine law, and offers at once the organic, consolidated growth of mmanity, with room for the individual in his protected personal life. The nations have arisen like seeds planted in the earth, moving after the plan of God from east to west. Each has left its life behind as an inheritance, or uses it organically, as a whole, in connection with others. ?hus to know the rise, progress, and decline of nations as a few great char- icters who have dwelt upon and now use this earth, is to know history. To know the great distinctions of anthropology enables us to separate md classify the nations, to comprehend the differences of physique, lan- lage, and general cast of mind. To keep the nations in contrast on this ground is the comparative method by which all minds seek to study and to know the progress of a few great thoughts and ideas in their move- ment from east to west ; is to see the divine plan of life worked out by uiman hands, as men have fought, built, governed, written, sung, and wrought their art work, each in the land that was given to it. To teach history, if we pass through the outer aspects of things and ike the natural history of man as the basis of his political history; if re use the personality of the nations, as America, or India, before we emphasize personal men and women, we teach history as the science — the order and progress of life — and have a scientific method. It may be objected that children cannot study in this way. In this brief moment I can only say that children are responsive to all their latural relationships. Nationality springs from the heart and soul of man. It belongs to the present as to the past; and children, by their questions, revealing their instincts and desires for unity and order, led me to my conclusions. 286 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS IN THE UNITED STATES. BY J. H. THIRY OF LONG ISLAND CITS', N. Y. In the sessions of the World's Congress Auxiliary from July 17 to Julj 26, the whole question of the education of the young seems to have been quite fully presented, and yet among all things that have been said, not a word has been mentioned in relation to the practical lessons of thrift and economy that may be inculcated during the early training of children. The aim of this paper is to make up this deficiency. In March, 1885, while I was the Commissioner of the Third Ward School of Long Island City, I introduced the European system of school savings banks as a trial to one school. That trial proved to be so com- plete a success that, one year later, about fifty other schools of different cities adopted the system with same results. Now, eight years later, what better evidence of the efficacy of the plan could be given than by laying before the public the following results of its application to three hundred and seventeen schools of seventy-eight cities and villages of America ? From a register of 82,072 pupils in these three hundred and seventeen schools of twelve different States of the Union, 33,810 have saved $315,- 631.52, which is deposited in banks in the respective names of those 33,810 scholars. This large amount would have been partially expended other- wise for worthless things. We have in this wide domain a large number of criminals, and of paupers, insane, bedridden, homeless, aged, infirm people ; we have also among us many that are needy, but who are not yet the wards of the public. With the increase of the population comes an increase in society's burden. The only way to put a check upon this alarming increase in our non-producing classes is to educate our children to become producers, contributors, and thrifty citizens. In our public schools we can supply the remedy. If frugality in grown-up people repairs the waste of our resources, in little people it accomplishes comparatively more. We have already learned that the school savings bank, when introduced harmoniously, fuses with every one of the other branches of school work. With our modern civiliza- tion, this new education is received as the purest expression of the social maturity. Our ancestors, in inaugurating and adopting the public school system, did not merely do so to prepare the children to buy, to sell, and to get gain in the active, material, business pursuits of life, but also to prepare them for good citizenship in the Eepublic. Animated with the same spirit, we must extend our school programme if we want to enable our children to face the difficulties of existence. A really progressive civilization, such as ours, demands and prompts us SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS IN FRANCE. 287 centralize every element which tends to its onward march. Certainly the lessons of thrift and economy taught our children in the schools are considered one of the most active agents. It is hoped that the trial ilready so successfully made will serve as a foundation to carry out more jompletely the plans for which the introducer has so earnestly worked for the past nine years. The following question has been asked me by a few skeptics : "By teaching children to save their pennies, are you not teach- ing them to become misers ?" My answer to such argument is, that every rood thing is open to abuse ; but should we, therefore, prohibit the child from praying to God for fear that he may become a bigot ? Must we pre- vent the little girl from wishing to be loved for fear of her becoming a 3oquette ? The surrounding aspect of the introduction of the school savings bank system into three hundred and seventeen schools of our country has de- veloped a great many good suggestions which have proved to be of incal- 3nlable value for the future welfare of our children and for society in general. I conclude by saying that in this world we all build upon some one 3lse's success. It is perfectly natural. Life is, after all, a sort of serious jame of "follow the leader," and what is already done or achieved is quite matter of course, that some one else tries. School savings banks of Lmerica have been built upon lines of their success in Europe. Any information relating to the school savings bank system will be gladly furnished to any applicant. SCHOOL 8 A VINGS BANKS IN FRANCE. BY M. GUSTAVE SERRURIER, OF HAVRE, FRANCE. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen: — I shall be glad to give you an idea of the development of the school savings banks in France, an enter- )rise which is of interest for all nations, and which has been promoted )y the well-known M. de Malarce. But I must restrict myself to telling fou what has been done in the elementary school of which I am the )rincipal. I will add that the beginning of the school savings bank dates )ack to March, 1876 ; that the school is situated in a workmen's district ; md that it has eleven classes and an average of five hundred and sixty mpils. In the first year I thought that it would be sufficient to receive the deposits only twice in the week, Monday and Friday ; but I soon learned that the pupils, especially the younger ones, had not always patience enough to wait for these days, and spent their sous for trifles. Besides, as the mmber of the depositors increased rapidly, the receiving of the sums took 288 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. too much time for one day. So at the beginning of 1877 I received the deposits each day, fifteen minutes before the entrance of the class in the afternoon. I very soon saw the advantage of the daily receipts, and I have continued it ever since. By regularity and by perseverance one is enabled to teach the children order and economy. I often recall to the children the purpose of the school savings bank and the simplicity of its functions, encouraging them not to waste their sous. I let them feel that the operations of the school savings bank do not deprive them of certain fancy articles which are suited to their age, but enable them to put aside things that are unnecessary and often injurious. I try to keep away from the children the evil which egotism and avarice would work in their hearts ; on the other side, I strive to make them com- prehend the good results of a just and reasonable economy. As nothing impresses the mind of a child so much as example, I avail myself of all opportunities in the life of the pupil, in his behavior, his work, and even in his plays, to make him acquire little by little, and almost unconsciously, all the virtues which belong to his age, and which will form the founda- tion of a regular and honest existence, satisfying all his needs. I have shown in different reports how great an influence the school savings banks have upon the behavior of the pupil. For this reason they ought to be encouraged and extended also in the poorest districts, because their principal purpose is to diminish misery by economy and foresight. Indeed, a pupil economical in his clothing and his school material acquires a spirit of order which is useful in his studies, while forming in him also the habit of saving. I will add that I keep to the spirit of the work, and that I seek only its educational effects, without desiring big deposits. The payments ai made often cent by cent ; and if parents will contribute to the account of their children, I advise them to bring the deposits themselves to the great savings bank. The means by which I try to make parents interested in the regular economical habits of their children are very simple : I receive all savings with the same interest, however small they be ; I keep the individual papers in order, and I give back the depositors' books very regularly. The individual papers and the depositors' books serve to control the savings of the children in the families. My deposits in the great savings banks are made weekly. I make them on Friday, and the books are given back to me the next Monday, before noon. Every Monday night they are distributed to the depositors, who keep them, so that the books are examined by the parents in a period of not more than eight days. I must say that I always have been satisfied with the earnestness of the persons employed in the school savings bank, and also with the care which is given to the depositors' books. THE PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 289 I am happy and proud to add, that in all my operations since March, 1876, I have not had any mistake, even to a penny, nor the least complaint from the parents. I could give you, ladies and gentlemen, my daily receipts since the beginning of the school savings bank, but I think you will be satisfied to see the following statements : Total number of the depositing children : in the years 1880, 789 ; 1885, 1,160 ; 1892, 1,607. Sums put in by the depositing : In the years 1880, $12,032 ; 1885, $21,400 ; 1892, $28,663. Total sum of the books delivered : In the years 1880, 729 ; 1885, 1,056 ; 1892, 1,543. These numbers are sufficient to give an idea of the sums which, without the institution of the school savings bank, would have been wasted in useless expenses. If, now, in view of the above proportions, you calculate what may be saved in every country in comparison with its wealth, you will see easily that the school savings bank is an important thing, worthy of the great- est encouragement. I am obliged to add, that the school savings bank is used in France in schools of every grade — infant schools and primary schools, elementary 3hools and colleges — and that it shows everywhere excellent results. THE PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. BY N. G. W. LAGERSTEDT, PH.D., TEACHER AT THE SECONDARY SCHOOL OF OSTERMALM, STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN. I wish to call your attention to some points of the public educational system of my native country, Sweden. Since the small space of time naturally allotted to each speaker does not allow much more than a very brief sketch of the chief features of this system, I shall confine myself to such a sketch and to a few points of more general interest. Education in Sweden is essentially a concern of the state. The state provides the principal pecuniary means for it from her treasury; the local communities, however, support their primary schools with the aid of a subvention from the state. The government has the supervision and guidance of the lower as well as of the higher schools. A feature common to all the institutions of education is, that the instruction is essentially gratuitous. In the lower schools it is absolutely free. The pupils of the ligher schools and the students of the universities have to pay some very small fees. The public educational system of Sweden chiefly comprises three species 19 290 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. of institutions, namely: (1) The primary, ox lower, schools, chiefly intended for the poorer classes. In these schools no foreign language is taught. (2) Hie intermediate, ox secondary, schools, preparatory to university educa- tion. These schools, especially in their lower classes, have also the func- tion of imparting the knowledge considered to be of use in practical life. In the lowest class of these schools one foreign language is taught. (3) The universities. The intermediate schools do not form a direct con- tinuation of the primary schools, as is the case in the United States of America. In Sweden, as will be understood from what has just been mentioned, they have different aims. The higher classes of the primary school may be said to run parallel with the lower classes of the secondary. The question has been raised, however, of bringing the lower and secondary schools of our country into a closer connection, by cutting out one, two, or three of the lower classes of the secondary schools, and making the lower school preparatory to the secondary school, thus shortening up, but allowing it at the same time to pursue special aims in its highest classes. In this way the lower school would become the ''common school " for all classes of the population, as is the case in this country, and the duplica- tion and overlapping of the two grades would be abolished. As for the result of the working of Sweden's lower schools, it may suffice to mention some figures that you may verify in the exhibit of the United States Bureau of Education in the government building of the World's Fair. The ratio of illiteracy in Sweden was in 1890 only four-tenths of one per cent. The lowest recorded percentage, that of Saxony, was two- tenths of one per cent. Sweden thus ranks among the countries occupy- ing the best place in this respect. For the sake of comparison, I mention that the ratios of illiteracy in England and France are respectively nine and nine and one-half per cent. In our primary schools coeducation of boys and girls is usual. It is only in some of the higher classes in larger towns that boys and girls are separately instructed. Teachers for these schools are trained in special schools called seminaries. A university education is not required of them. A large proportion of the teachers are women. The curriculum of the secondary or intermediate schools comprises nine years. The boys (boys only — no girls — are admitted into these schools) must have turned nine years of age before entering. During the first three years all the boys are instructed on the same plan. As just men- tioned, all the pupils are taught a foreign language from the first. This language is German, that being the only foreign language taught in these three years. At the beginning of the fourth year a bifurcation takes place. Some of the pupils begin to learn Latin, others English. The school is thus divided into a classical line and a modern line. Still, in all subjects other than Latin and English the instruction as a rule is common for the two following years. A third foreign language, French THE PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 291 enters in the fifth year into the curriculum, both on the modern and the classical side. The last four years, from the sixth to the ninth, the pupils of the modern and classical lines are taught quite separately. At the beginning of the sixth year, the first of the four-year period just men- tioned, a new division takes place on the classical side. Some of the boys thenceforth are taught Greek, others English. The classical line is thus divided into a full classical section and a half classical section. At the end of the curriculum of the intermediate schools a final examination takes place. This is called the maturity examination and is a rather serious ordeal. The boys who have belonged on the modern side — i.e., have not studied Latin — must give evidence at this examination of greater knowl- edge in mathematics, natural sciences, and modern languages than the boys on the classical side. The certificate or diploma of the maturity examination, successfully passed, confers the right of matriculation as a student of the university. It admits persons to such special schools as the military and forestry schools, and it qualifies for appointment to some of the lower positions in the gov- ernment service. You will understand from this that the maturity exam- ination is naturally considered a very important one. I may add here that not all the secondary schools of Sweden are complete in their organization. Some of them have only the five lowest classes, or a still less number of classes. But the teaching in these classes agrees precisely with that of the corresponding classes of the complete secondary schools. I come now to the third link of the public educational system of Sweden — the universities. The public universities of Sweden are two — the Univer- sity of Upsala and the University of Lund. Besides these there is a faculty of medicine, or a " medical college," in Stockholm. There are two other universities of Sweden, those of Stockholm and Goteborg. They are both only a few years old, and not yet public. They were founded and are maintained wholly by private means without aid from the State. But they will both, in all probability, soon be brought into the national system of education, in a way I shall shortly refer to. It is proper, therefore, that they be mentioned in this place. Each of the old state universities — the universities of Upsala and Lund — comprises four faculties or departments : the faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. The faculty or department of philosophy is divided into two sections : one for literature, history, philosophy, phi- lology, and allied branches of knowledge ; the other for mathematics and the natural and physical sciences. The original object and the chief object of a university is the promotion of knowledge. The teachers have to disclose and elucidate to the students the treasures of literature and the results of scientific investigation, as well as to direct the student's own study. It is also expected of professors 292 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION that they shall themselves contribute to the advancement of human knowl- edge by observation and research. The proficiency of students in Swedish universities is, as elsewhere, ascertained by examinations. These are of a twofold character, as I shall endeavor to explain. The universities of Europe generally have been placed under supervision by the state. The state requires from its officials, and from private citi- zens proposing to enter certain important vocations — that of medicine, for instance — that they give evidence of possessing the knowledge and skill necessary to their special calling. Now, in some cases the university teaching and the ordinary university examinations have been considered as serving this additional public end. In other cases the universities have had to undertake the organization of courses of instruction required by the state for the purpose just mentioned, and the testing of proficiency therein by special examinations — civic or state examinations, as they may be called. This part of university work naturally has a less scientific character ; it is more elementary, and the object of the examinations is to ascertain that the students have mastered certain fixed pensa of knowledge, rather than to ascertain the results of deep scientific study. The practical impor- tance of this part of the universities' work may sometimes offer tempta- tions to subordinate their strictly scientific work, and to make the higher examinations — the university examinations proper — by technicalities or regulation, too much like the civic or state examinations. It seems to me, however, that the present regulations and arrangements of the Swedish universities conspire in a very happy way to avoid this danger, as I hope to show you. The faculties of theology and of law have two kinds of examinations : scientific examinations and civic examinations. Most of the students of theology and of law pass the civic examinations only, and thus become entitled to enter the service of the state as judges or other officials, or that of the state church as ecclesiastics. Some, however, of the law and theo- logical students take the university examinations proper, success in which, in some cases, gives them a preference in the matter of appointments over those of their colleagues who have been content to take the civic examina- tions only. The department of medicine offers examinations of the higher grade only. As may be inferred from this, the studies of the Swedish medical students are very thorough. Generally it takes them eight to ten years of hard work after matriculation to complete their university studies. There are two examinations in the faculty of medicine ; the first is merely pre- paratory to the second. The fourth of the faculties or departments is that of philosophy. Like the faculty of medicine, this faculty has no civic examinations. Neglect- ing some minor preparatory examinations that are passed by students wishing to enter the other departments, there are two examinations in the 'i THE PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 293 faculty of philosophy ; namely, the examination for the rank of "candi- date of philosophy, " and that for "licentiate of philosophy." Let me add some particulars concerning these two examinations. To become a "candidate of philosophy" the aspirant must be examined in five differ- ent subjects at least. These subjects may be chosen quite freely among the branches of knowledge that belong to both sections of the department of philosophy. He must give proof of complete mastery of one of these subjects, or, if he so prefer, of excellent attainments in two. If a "candidate of philosophy" wishes to pass the examination for the rank of licentiate, he must be examined in at least two branches of knowl- edge, quite freely chosen from the curriculum of the department, and he must give evidence that he has acquired a deeper and scientific knowledge of them. A student is, however, not required to take the examination as candidate of philosophy before the licentiate, but may proceed immedi- ately to the latter degree, though, in this case, he has to give evidence of his scientific study of at least three sciences or branches of knowledge. A licentiate of philosophy wishing to become a doctor of philosophy, in lieu of further examination has to publish a scientific treatise based on his own independent researches, and to defend this treatise publicly. If the thesis and the defense of it are considered to be satisfactory, the licentiate is admitted to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Each of the two university examinations I have been treating of may be considered to demand, as a rule, three or four years of study in preparation. There are two points to which I specially wish to direct attention. The first is the absolutely unlimited choice of studies open to the students within the limits of the department. It is quite lately that the examina- tions now in question have been so arranged as to permit such choice. Formerly some subjects were optional, others remaining compulsory, and there were rather intricate regulations with regard to the combination of subjects; some might be combined, others not. The allowing of this unlimited choice of subjects has, in our country, generally been consid- ered as a decided instance of progress, and I trust that it will prove of great use in advancing deeper and true scientific study. The other point that I wish to accentuate is the regulation permitting students who have passed the entrance examination to the university with- out Latin, to be nevertheless admitted to the examinations for candidates and licentiates of philosophy, provided that the subjects they choose to be examined in are chiefly mathematics or natural sciences. With respect to this, the case is quite different from the state of things at the German universities, as many of you may have learned from the highly interesting address of Professor Watrots last week. But in our country Latin is still required of all who wish to pass other university examinations. Most of the students who pass the examinations for candidate or licen- 294 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. tiate of philosophy afterward become teachers in the secondary schools. There are two classes of such teachers, a higher and a lower one. The former class chiefly instruct the senior students in the secondary schools ; those belonging to the latter one teach the lower classes. The teachers of the higher order must be licentiates or doctors of philosophy ; those of the lower order at least candidates. It is required, moreover, of both that they have passed their examinations in such a way that a certain number of the school subjects — four or five — shall have been included, all accord- ing to special regulations, which need not now be specified. I beg to add a few words concerning the two youngest universities of Sweden, those of Stockholm and Goteborg. They will likely in a short time be allowed to hold examinations of the same kind as the old state universities, and students passing such examinations will have the same rights as if they had passed those of the old universities. No applicants but those who have passed the maturity examination will be admitted to these university examinations, just as is now the case in the other and older universities. There will, however, be an important difference between the old state universities and these new independent ones. While the former admit no other students than such as have passed the examination of maturity, the latter will also admit other students. You would call them in America, " special students." These must only give some proof — generally by a special examination — that they are capable of receiving the instruction in that subject or in those subjects which they propose to follow. After having completed such a special study at the university, the student, if he wishes so, is examined therein, and if successful receives a certificate of the result of his work. To this kind of examination, as a matter of course, every student of the universities may be admitted. From what I have said it may be seen that it is the aim of the young universities to compete with the old ones as centers of higher scientific teaching, and at the same time to make their instruction and resources accessible to wider circles of students. It will interest many of you to hear that women have been admitted to the Swedish universities for about twenty years. The number of stu- dents, however, has been and still is comparatively small, and only a very few — hardly ten — have left the universities after having passed a com- plete university course. I should be pleased to furnish later, for publication, if desired, the statistical items necessary to complete this sketch of our Swedish educa- tion, particularly those relating to universities, of which I have spoken at greatest length. I may add that the students of Upsala may be estimated at eighteen hundred to two thousand ; those of Lund at nine hundred to one thousand ; those of Stockholm and Goteborg at about two hundred and one hundred respectively. RELIGION IN THE SCHOOL. 295 RELIGION IN THE SCHOOL. BY DR. E. E. WHITE, OF COLUMBUS, OHIO. It will be assumed in this discussion that moral character is the supreme test of the school, and, hence, that effective moral training is its central duty. It will also be assumed that the right training of the will is the essen- tial element in moral training, and that this involves the use of the high- est motives that can be made effective. The higher the motives employed, the more valuable the resulting will -training. The first fact to be considered is that the religious motives are not only the highest, but that they transcend all other motives in their influence m the will. It is the high sense of obligation which they inspire that most effectively frees the will from bondage to selfish impulses aud desires, and makes its purposes imperative and abiding in conduct. Moreover, the religious motives are the correlates of all high ethical motives, and these religious correlates quicken and energize the ethical feelings to which they are related ; and it may be added that for the p-eat majority of men the religious feelings and sanctions are necessary to give desired efficiency to ethical motives. Indeed, we know of no thoughtful writer who denies this vital relation of religious sanctions to ethical motives and conduct. These facts show why it is that religion has been the strongest influ- ence in human conduct, and the mightiest of historic forces ; why the religious motives are fibred in modern civilization, and constitute, to most men, the most authoritative element of the moral law. There has never been a moral code that has secured the free obedience of men, that has not derived its highest authority from religion, and this is true in non- Christian as well as in Christian lands. Even the decay in Greek myth- ology was attended by a decline in Greek morals, such as they were. History fully warrants the statement that every attempt to ground moral obligation solely on human authority results in the weakening of the conscience, the enfeebling of the will, and the lowering of the moral life of the people. In the murky atmosphere of carnal and selfish appetites and desires, moral distinctions become obscured and confused ; virtue, for example, comes to be regarded as mere self-restraint, temperance as the prudent control of appetite, and honesty as merely the best policy. It may be true that a philosophic basis of obligation can be found in man's moral nature, but the obvious fact of human experience is that the appeal of these human-born motives to the will is weak when unsupported by religious sanctions aud influence. Their failure as barriers to vice is sad history. 296 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. It is thus seen that the practical question is not the origin of the moral law, but the vital relation of religion to moral obligation in conduct — the imperative need of religious sanctions and motives to sustain the authority of the moral law in human life. We must not shut our eyes to the fact that an essential condition of free and willing obedience to law is reverence for its authority ; and this in- volves a reverence for its source. Back of the authority of the family, the school, the state — back even of the conscience — is the Supreme Being, the final source of moral obligation. Human law has its surest ascend- ency over the heart and the will when it speaks, not simply as the voice of human nature, but by the supreme authority of the King of kings. It follows from the above facts that effective moral training demands the vitalizing influence of religious sanctions and motives; and it may be added that, in Christian civilizations, these sanctions and motives are derived from the religion of the Bible. They flow from a belief in a per- sonal God, not only as Creator but as the Moral Euler of the world ; in man's dependence on and accountability to God ; in man's obligation to love and serve Him; and especially from a belief in a future life — in im- mortality. These primary religious beliefs are the sources of those motives that so strongly support and enforce moral obligation in Christian lands ; and we cannot suppress the fear that any system of moral training in school that shuts out all recognition of the Supreme Being and man's immortality will not bear the decisive test of character and life. These religious motives pervade civil duties and obligations. Man's accountability to God is, for example, made the essential basis of the civil oath. How obviously is such a quickener of the conscience needed in moral training ! Take as an illustration the inspiring and restraining influence on human conduct that flows from the consciousness that there is in this universe an All-seeing Eye that is never closed ; that He who has said, " Thou shalt not," sees! There is no such vanquisher of temp- tation as the clear consciousness, "Thou, God, seest me!" The shut- ting out of all consciousness of that Omniscient Eye from moral training in school would be like the shutting out of the light of the sun. EXTENT AND PURPOSE OP RELIGION IN THE SCHOOL. But to what extent and for what purpose can religious motives and sanctions be used in the public school ? The general answer to this ques- tion is, So far as may be necessary to make moral training efficient, and for this purpose. The important fact to be kept in mind is that religion is not the end of the school, but only a means to an end ; that end, effective moral training. The function of the school is to prepare its pupils to live completely in the present life, and this involves right conduct in all personal, social, RELIGION IN THE SCHOOL. 297 id civil relations, and this involves moral character. Hence character is the end of school training ; religion only a means to this end. This distinction between religion as an end and as a means of the school not only important but fundamental. If religion be not the end of the jhool, it follows that the teaching of religion for religious ends is not its inction. The school may use religion to enforce and strengthen moral )bligation, just as the state uses it in administering the civil oath. The tate does not recognize religion as its end, but it uses religion to secure the ends of civilization and freedom. " With the individual," says Dr. Seelye, " religion is primary as an end ; with the state it is only secondary md a means." It follows that neither the state nor the school is an igency for the advancement of religion as an end, but each may use reli- ion for its own ends. In other words, while religion is not the end or inction of the school, it may use those religious means which are neces- iry to secure effective moral training — the highest end and central duty )f the school. To avoid this conclusion, those who take the extreme view that all religion must be excluded from the public school, consistently deny that moral training is its end or function ; but no objection can be urged gainst moral training in school that does not hold against the school itself. On the contrary, the assumption that religion is the end of the school involves the making of religion its chief concern and function — the iYanckean claim of the seventeenth century. Moreover, the duty to teach religion as an end involves the teaching of all religious truth essential to the welfare of the child's soul. No one who has any true conception of the importance of religion to the individual can be satisfied with anything less. It is obvious that such a test as this would condemn nearly all ihools, even those under the immediate direction and supervision of the church. The religious instruction and exercises in these schools fall far short if religion be the end and duty of the school. There is an increas- ing recognition of the fact that the family, the church, the Sunday-school, and other voluntary agencies must be depended upon to give our youth a saving knowledge of religion. Whatever may be true of schools under private management, the public school cannot make religion its end, or religious instruction and worship its necessary function. It must leave to other agencies that religious instruction and training that looks to the salvation of the soul. We are now brought face to face with the practical question, What reli- gious means are needed to make moral training in the school efficient, and how may they be used? It has already been shown that the ethical motives need to be quickened and supported by religious influence, and this fact suggests that in some practical way the school must use those religious sanctions and motives which quicken the conscience, strengthen moral obligation, and influence the will. But these religious sanctions and motives flow from certain 298 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. primary religious beliefs, and so the question is narrowed to the best method of securing the needed presence and influence of these religious means, and this can only be determined by experience. The American public school assumes that the family and the church have given some attention to the religious instruction of children, and that its pupils are not ignorant of the existence of God, of man's account- ability to Him, and other primary religious beliefs. Hence, it provides no formal instruction in religious knowledge, but uses such knowledge for moral ends, just as the state uses religious sanctions for its ends. When, for example, a witness appears in court to give testimony, he is not for- mally instructed in religious beliefs or knowledge, but his conscience is quickened and its authority reinforced by an oath that appeals to the Omniscient Searcher of hearts. A similar but less formal use of the common sanctions of religion is made by the school to quicken the moral sense of its pupils, and the opportunities for such use of religious sanc- tions in school are numerous. No conscientious teacher is shut up to an assigned place, time, or manner. These primary religious beliefs appear in the selections for reading, in the lessons in literature and history, in the music sung, etc., and often in most impressive forms. The writer once knew a principal who attempted to exclude religion from his school by marking for omission all selections and parts of selections in the reader that contained religious ideas and sentiments, thus despoiling the book of its literary treasures. But he stayed his hand when he came to the music-book, for the exclusion of reli- gion from it would not only despoil it of the best classical music, but would also strike out all national airs, as "America," "Hail Columbia," "Star Spangled Banner," etc. It is not possible to exclude religion from the school without mutilating its literature and doing violence to the religious nature of the pupils. Just as Christian civilization goes wherever modern commerce goes, so religion goes wherever Christian literature goes. It pervades the Ameri- can school, thrives in its atmosphere, and is easily made a vital element in its moral life. The one essential condition to this end is a teacher whose mind and heart quickly respond to religious truth or motives. Experience has widely shown that needed religious influence may pervade a school in the absence of formal religious exercises, and it is a serious mistake to suppose that a school is "godless" because it makes no provision for technical instruction in religion. The needed measure of religious influ- ence in a school may even be secured without the formal and stated read- ing of the Bible, there being other ways in which its vital influence may be brought to bear upon the conscience and heart of pupils, and one of these ways is its reverent recognition as the Word of God. It must, however, be freely conceded that the effectiveness of religious sanctions for moral ends depends much on the presence of religious feel- RELIGION IN THE SCHOOL. 299 ing, this being specially true in childhood, and so it becomes desirable in moral training to quicken religious emotion. Experience shows that the most effective means of awakening religious feeling include the reverent reading of the Bible, prayer (oral or silent), and singing; and one or more of these exercises have long had a place in American schools, and they are still permitted in the great majority of these schools, and the singing of sacred songs is nowhere forbidden. But whether desired religious feeling is awakened depends much on the spirit and manner in which the exercise is conducted. The reading of the Bible in a perfunctory and indifferent manner neither increases reverence for it in the pupils nor touches deeply their religious emotions. We have no hesitation in saying that it is much better to omit the exer- cise altogether than to conduct it in an irreverent manner. It must ever be kept in mind that what the school needs is not religious ceremony as such, but religious influence for moral ends. We are, however, far from conceding that these religious exercises, when properly conducted, have little or no moral value. A writer who assumes to know intuitively what is true in the experience of others, declares that " no boy or girl ever received a religious impression of the least value in the devotional exercises in school " ; but teachers who have thus impressed for good hundreds of pupils, know better, and hundreds of persons know that this was not true in their own experience as pupils. But all must concede that whatever may be the value of these religious exercises, it cannot be pleaded as an offset to a violation of the reli- gious scruples of pupils, when this is the result. It must, however, be admitted that it is easy to overestimate the moral influence of perfunctory religious exercises in school, and too much is often claimed for the moral yalue of the reciting of the catechism and other formal religious instruction. There is, certainly, no justification for the claim that the absence of such formal religious exercises in school leaves no basis for moral training. What is needed, that religion may serve the ends of the school, is not the formal teaching of the Bible, or the catechism, or other technical religious instruction; not formal religious services or worship, but the wise and reverent use of those common religious sanctions and motives which quicken the conscience and enforce moral obligation. And these may be made effective in school by the use of means that give no offense to the religious scruples of pupils or patrons. On the other hand, there is no justification of the demand that all religious truth and influence be excluded from the public school. The attempt to exorcise religion from the school would not only despoil its literature, its music, and its instruction, but would inevitably result in lowering its moral efficiency and seriously lessening its value to the pupils, to society, and to the state. 300 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The writer is aware that theoretical objections can be urged against the practicability of the golden mean above suggested, but happily there is no such difficulty in the actual practice of thousands of American teachers. The great majority of American schools are pervaded by a vital religious influence without being sectarian, and this fact should be more universally recognized. At least three avenues must always remain open for the introduction of needed religious truth and sanctions into all our schools. These are Christian literature, sacred song, and Christian teach- ers : and against these there is no law. DISCUSSION. Zalmon Eichabds, of Washington, D. C. : There are certain principles of right and wrong which everybody will acknowledge. These principles ought to be taught to our children. There are very few good people in the world who would say that there should be no moral teaching in the schools. There are people who object to the introduction of religious instruction, not exactly in the sense in which it has been brought out before us here to-day, but religious instruction as embracing denominationalism. I believe in introducing moral instruction and making it a positive portion of the curriculum of every school in the land. 1 was pleased with the thought that has been expressed so well by the reader of the paper. We must recognize a supreme God every- where, and I do not believe that we ought to have in any of our schools any instructor who will not feel at liberty to impress upon the mind of every pupil the idea that there is an All-seeing Eye ; that that Eye is the eye of his Creator, who preserves him, who keeps him, and who will hold him accountable. Now, the moral virtues begin with the first — recognition of the God who made us. George P. Brown, Normal, Illinois, on the Separation of Religious and Moral Instruc- tion, said : I do not favor making sharp distinctions between religious and moral instruction. I have never been able to determine for myself where morality ends or religion begins. There seems to be pretty good authority for declaring that pure and undefined religion consists in visiting the fatherless and the widow in affliction and in being unspotted in our lives. This would seem to be a very fair definition of morality also Indeed, the attempt to make sharp distinctions between morality and religion tends to formalism in both. Especially is this true in the early life of the religious consciousness. Now, the religious jconsciousness seems to differ from the moral con- sciousness in that there is involved in the former the consciousness of the relations of whatever is being considered to the Being of supreme worthiness as He is apprehended by the individual. This Being of supreme worthiness is to each one of us our highest ideal of worthiness, in so far as it is anything more than a mere verbal phrase. This ideal is a growing one in each of us. The soul as intellect seeks to discover the meaning of things, that is, to organize them into a unity of mutual relations. The Herbartians call this apperceiving. Suppose the object I am considering is apperceived with a limited num- ber of others. Its meaning is expressed by the word orange. When its relations are extended we discover a unity which we call fruit. Extend the range of relations further, and the unity is vegetable world. Let the limits of the relations be carried out still fur- ther, and the meaning of my object becomes product of nature. Nature is the supreme being or source. Give to the apperceiving powers a wider range, and the meaning is ex- pressed by "dependent beings." But "dependent being" is a meaningless term except as it is brought into the higher unity of independent or self-active being which it implies, whose source and cause is within itself — as the philosophers say, a being that is both sub- ject and object, or subject-object. Now, when the intellect thus binds back its objects to this creative source and thus seeks to explain them, we call the intellect religious. Dr. Harris spoke of it the other day as the piety of the intellect. What I wish to call your attention to is the fact that the race once stopped with nature as the ultimate explanation of things, and before it reached that conception it stopped with a narrower one. Shall we say there was not as much piety of intellect in tracing the explanation of ADAPTATION OF METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 301 things to nature in that former time, as there is now in tracing them to absolute self- 3tivity ? So, too, there is the religious will. It is when we determine our conduct by its har- lony with this highest ideal of worthiness that we have piety of will. And the soul as feeling may love, revere, and worship its highest ideal of worthiness. This is piety of feeling. The life is the unity of the activities of intellect, feeling, and will ; or, in differ- ent words, the self realizes its life in the unity of these activities. When the self lives in the consciousness of the relation of all that is, to the supreme unity, or ideal, or source, the life is to that extent religious. The proper teaching of every subject, as I see it, is a step toward the recognition of le supreme cause in that which is studied. It is an advance in the apprehension of rhat is truer and worthier and more to be revered. What is morality but the recognition of a worthier ideal that is to be realized in the life? Morality is the discharge of duty, luty presupposes a higher ideal than what now exists in my life. I must make this ideal , reality by the deed. The essential difference between religion and morality is in the supe- rior worthiness of the ideal. If what I have tried to show is true, then morality and religion lame merely different degrees of worthiness of the ideals. We see, too, that a religious duty in one period in the development of the race may become a moral duty in a later period. I am of the opinion that every child in its growth is repeating the experience of the race. In a child-like way it regards its parents or teacher very much as it comes to regard its highest ideal in subsequent life. It seems to me, therefore, that if we think of a child's life as we ought, the question of whether moral instruction should be separated from religious instruction could never arise. That it does arise with us is probably due to substituting theology for religion as a subject of instruction. Statements of doctrine and certain religious forms or sanctions are mistaken for religion. They become mere formalism to the child if it is required to learn them. A gentleman in another room a few days ago said that the attempt to teach children what they were not ready to receive produced intellectual dyspepsia. I fear that the teaching of doctrinal theology in the form commonly pursued in the teaching of so-called religion tends to produce religious dyspepsia in children. As those who teach come to know how children think and feel, with what ideas and ideals their world is filled, they will cease to discuss a question of this kind. They will find the moral and religious natures of the child so blended that it will not occur to them that the two should be dissected out and shut up in separate departments. They will see that the great thing to do is to stimulate the child's natural reverence for worthiness. When the feeling of reverence for what is conceived to be worthy is the habit of the mind, we may wait for time to develop the distinctively religious life in so far as it differs from the moral life. ADAPTATION OF METHODS OF INSTRUCTION TO SPECIAL CONDITIONS OF THE CHILD. The Chairman, General Eaton, on introducing this subject, stated: " Professor Graham Bell is unable to be present to-day, to speak to you upon the necessary adaptation of methods of instruction to meet special conditions of the child in overcoming defects of hearing, speech, etc. "Professor Bell's father and his grandfather made the human voice and hearing a special study. His father devised a plan for training in articulation, and for teaching the deaf and dumb to speak. Professor Graham Bell came to this country, and began to teach this subject. His study of the production of sound, and the means of hearing sound, led to the invention of the telephone. "Frequently pupils fail to make progress in school because of the imperfect condition of one or more of the organs of sense. Many of these pupils might be greatly benefited and advanced if their teachers understood the nature of the defects, and the proper steps to be taken toward overcoming them. " You know of Laura Bridgman, who could neither see, hear, nor speak. Her sense of feeling was the only perfect sense left her. She learned to read with her fingers, but she never learned to speak. 302 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. " In Tuscumbia, Alabama, there lived a little girl who lost her sight and her power of hearing, before she was two years old. She retained her power of feeling, and the use of the sense of smell and of touch. After a few years a statement of her case was sent to an institution in Boston, where similar defects received special attention. A young lady began, in that institution, a special course of study, with the purpose of teaching this little girl in Alabama. She commenced the instruction of her pupil just before she was seven years old ; she is now thirteen. That teacher, Miss Sullivan, and her pupil, Helen Keller, are with us to-day ; and they will be happy to show you some of the remarkable results of the adaptation of methods of instruction to defects under very difficult conditions. "Miss Keller is a great reader, a ready writer, and has begun the organization of a public library for the community at her home. " Miss Sullivan will show how she communicates with her pupil, and Helen Keller will speak to you.'" Miss Sullivan said : " Miss Keller does not know what she is to do; I will let her read from my lips." Placing Helen's fingers upon her lips, Miss Sullivan repeated slowly : " Will you recite a few phrases of the ' Psalm of Life' ? " Miss Keller answered promptly and distinctly, " Yes, with pleasure." Miss Sullivan then conducted her to the front of the platform and Helen recited the lines quite distinctly. The Chairman said: " You saw that Helen read from the lips of her teacher with her fingers. She has been trained to carefully observe by touch the movements of the lips in talking, and thus she understands what is said. She has also been taught to read movements of the hand. In answer to an inquiry, "How was the first communication made to Miss Keller ?" Miss Sullivan replied : " I did not begin by teaching her to speak. She had used a man- ual alphabet, and means of spelling by hand for three years before she learned to speak. I began by giving her an object — a doll that I had taken with me from Boston for the purpose. I thought I would begin with the word doll, for she seemed to be pleased with the doll. I took the doll up and made the motions d-o-1-1, in her hand, and showed her the doll. Then I got her to make those same motions herself. When she understood that word, I took other words, short ones of one syllable, nouns, one after the other. I worked with her in that way about sixteen days before she understood that everything had a name. That came to her suddenly. I had given her the word mug, and when- ever I spelled mug to her she would raise the mug to her mouth as when drinking. It occurred to me that she was confusing the word mug with what the mug might contain. The impression of the contents was stronger to her mind than the vessel. So I took her out to the pump one day, and had her hold her mug under the spout ; as the water gushed out I spelled water on my fingers, and she caught the idea, and raised herself up. The idea seemed to come to her suddenly, and she turned to the nurse, who was holding her little baby cousin, and put her hand on the baby with a little nervous action and said, " What is this ? " I spelled the word baby, and then she dropped to the ground and patted it, and I gave the word ground. On the way back to the house she wanted a name for everything, and I gave it to her; and she never forgot a word that she learned that day. The Chairman requested Miss Sullivan to name the books that Helen Keller has read, and to state those which she likes best. "I will ask her by reading from my lips," said Miss Sullivan. " Will you tell our friends what books you have read, and which you like best ?" Helen read the question with her fingers on Miss Sullivan's lips, and answered : " 1 have read many, many books, and it is rather hard to tell which books I like best. I think 1 like ' Little Lord Fauntleroy,' ' Little Women,' ' The Vicar of Wakefield.' and ' When the Ship Comes Home.' " ADAPTATION OF METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 303 In reply to the question, "How does Miss Keller read ?" she answered • " I read rith my fingers, and teacher reads to me." Miss Sullivan added : " She reads the raised letters herself, and I read the book." The inquiry was made : " Does she ever pronounce the word when she is reading with ler fingers ? " Miss Sullivan : " Yes, very often. She spent some time in Boston at the Institution >r the Blind, and in the evening the blind children would gather around her there rhile this deaf and blind child read to them for their pleasure." Question : " Has she sense of the vibrations of music ?" Miss Sullivan : "Yes." Question : " How did she gain the idea of goodness ?" Miss Sullivan : " It is very difficult to explain. She learned such words as goodness, eautiful, etc., chiefly by the constant use and repetition of the word when the occasion juired that word. If she brought in a beautiful flower, I would say to her, ' It is beau- tiful.' Of something that was disagreeable or unpleasant I would use a corresponding term, when I was positive that the object must appear so to her. I knew that the rose, with its beautiful petals, was pleasant to the sense of touch. It pleased her with its fra- grance, and 1 would say, ' It is beautiful.' Afterwards she would apply the word when something that especially pleased her came up." Question: " How long has she framed her own sentences and expressed her own ideas ? " Miss Sullivan : " She began immediately. Perhaps in three weeks she was making sentences." Question : " I should thiuk it would have taken her longer to get hold of verbs than of nouns. Did it ? " Miss Sullivan : " No ; verbs are very simple when the action can be illustrated. She began with such verbs as sit and stand, walk and run, and illustrated them herself. Those words were very easy to teach. Prepositions and words like ' if ' and ' when ' are the most difficult, but she learned them by constant repetition." Question : " I notice, when you address her, you try to talk in a perfectly natural manner ; but when you commenced to instruct her you had to greatly exaggerate the motion of the lips, did you not ? " Miss Sullivan : " At first we did. I think now it was a mistake. I think the natural movement of the mouth would have been a great deal better. I think her speech would be more perfect if she had followed the natural motions of the lips instead of an exaggerated motion. This peculiar voice is probably due to that very thing. The mouth of her instructor was strained at the time, and so she assumed those stiff atti- tudes. The tongue moves mechanically instead of moving naturally." Question : "Is her vocabulary limited still, or does she have a general one ? " Miss Sullivan : " She has a very large vocabulary. Very few people use the language as freely as she does in her conversation. She uses the language of books." The Chaibman: "I have no doubt but that I express the sentiments of all pres- ent when I tender to Miss Sullivan and to Helen Keller your hearty thanks." Miss Sullivan : " I am very glad indeed that we came here, and very glad to have you see this little girl, for her disposition is most beautiful. I have been with her seven years. From the first I have never found her impatient or angry, or to shrink from any living thing." 304 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. SHOULD RURAL SCHOOLS INTRODUCE AGRICULTURE, CHEMISTRY, AGRICULTURAL BOTANY OR ARBORI- CULTURE? BY ERGRAFF DE KOVALEVSKT, DELEGATE OF THE MINISTER OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION OF RUSSIA. The great agricultural crisis of these last years has forced the European governments to support the agriculturists by every means, and to propa- gate right notions as to gardening and farming among the rural popula- tions. The elementary schools have taken part too in this movement, and in certain countries instruction in agriculture has been introduced in the course of the rural schools. In Europe there are several types of primary elementary schools, which are distinguished from each other by the number of and duration of the courses. In the most of them the instruction continues from three to four years; these are the schools with an elementary and middle course. Their purpose is not to teach the pupils an independent branch of any science, considering that there are admitted only children from seven to eleven years of age ; it is enough that the pupil leaving the establishment is able to read well, to write without too many mistakes, and to perform the four operations of arithmetic. In the other elementary schools, with a course of five to six years, the pupils receive during the last two years — that is, in the superior course — some notions of geometry, history, and geography; to these are added lessons in. drawing, gymnastics, singing, and, at present, manual training. So there remain, at the utmost, two hours weekly for instruction in natural science and agriculture. We will only examine the primary elementary schools, without touching the superior primary schools. Several governments have introduced agri- culture in the programme of the primary schools as an obligatory subject. This information often gives very small results, which is in part due to this, that the instructors, too little familiar with their subject, give the pupils little hand-books or agricultural catechisms, which they learn almost by heart. This kind of instruction only overburdens the memory of the children without contributing to their intellectual development; so this method is anti-pedagogic. Reading the description of the tools and agricultural machines of rural operations, the enumerations of all sorts of varieties of plants and of animals, notions about zoology, in short, de- scriptions of objects or of agricultural processes which the pupils have no opportunity to see themselves — this is only to them a combination of words and numbers which does not leave behind lasting traces. What now must the system of the agricultural teaching in the element- SHOULD RURAL SCHOOLS INTRODUCE AGRICULTURE? 305 ary schools be ? Could we not combine it with the natural sciences, and what branch of the latter might be introduced in the school ? It is evident, that there must be a close connection between agriculture and the agricultural sciences ; nevertheless the latter cannot form an independent course in the elementary schools. Experience shows clearly that the knowledge taken from books is not valuable for the children ; it must be connected with practical and experimental instruction. This instruction should be limited to giving the pupils the first notions of physical and natural sciences, combined with agriculture, or only notions about agriculture. It is the task of the teacher to choose that branch which is the most suitable for the locality and the needs of the population ; many understand very well how to use the two methods mentioned above. An experienced teacher takes as the subject for lessons, compositions, dictations, etc., agricultural topics, and uses every occasion which is offered, in order to teach the children by the way, so to speak, elementary, indispensable truth. In one or two pages of these lectures in class, well chosen and repeated systematically, the pupils find answers to very impor- tant questions. In some schools of France the manual training is connected closely with the agricultural instruction ; the pupils themselves make little objects in wood — tools which are necessary in practice, and agricultural machines iu miniature. This is not all ; the tools, the planks, etc., may serve also as models for the drawing exercises. The teacher will also make use of the walks of the pupils, the rural work, local meetings, expositions, herbariums, collections of insects, and he will introduce agricultural principles in the general instruction, and contribute considerably to the intellectual development of the pupils ; on their part he demands diligent and conscientious work and great attention to personal observations. Practical work in the flower and kitchen gar- dens is also a very efficient means of reaching the desired end. Sometimes if the ground near the school is large enough, the teacher gives every one of the pupils a small plot upon which he cultivates vege- tables, flowers, and fruit trees. The teacher directs them in their tasks, and interests them by conversations and explanatory lectures. At the same time he attracts their attention to the different appearances of nature. Gardening, horticulture, the culture of trees aud forests, apiculture and silk culture, the culture of hops, and so on, have an importance for those countries in which, as in Russia, for instance, the vacations do not last less than three or four months. Outside of this country, in the regions of extensive fertile lands and an ignorant population, such teachers may be of great service. In Russia, in Austria-Hungary, and in other countries Ie see that the people who formerly did not know this or that branch of jriculture, now cultivate the land with great success. Thanks to the 20 306 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION impulse from the schools in Germany, arboriculture has been practiced for a long time. In the elementary schools this branch, without being obligatory, may be recommended the more, since all teachers coming from seminaries and normal schools possess gardens, which furnish the necessary means for the instruction in horticulture. School gardens are found in great number at the present time ; for instance, France possesses nearly tifty thousand ; Russia, eighteen thousand ; Austria, nine thousand ; Belgium, three thousand five hundred ; Switzerland, two thousand five hundred. In the schools with a superior course, instruction in physical and natural sciences related to agriculture may be introduced, as is done in several countries. The best method for such instruction is that of the celebrated French pedagogue Rene Leblanc — the experimental method. The adherents of this method say, that the teacher, without going beyond his province, should restrain himself to scientific, fundamental notions that are generally not known to farmers, illustrating them by means of easy experiments and demonstrations. The things observed, if they are to be well understood, must be simple, as must be also the practical experiments. To be generalized, they must be made with familiar objects which one easily finds everywhere. Lamp-shades, old bottles, corks, pieces of wood and iron wire — this is the indispensable material for most experiments. For the experimental culture one must have some flower-pots and a little mineral fat. There may be added some pipes of glass and chemical materials which do not cost much. By means of fifty simple experiments, according to the system of M. Leblanc, the pupils easily acquire in the course of two years invaluable knowledge ; besides, this method develops in them the spirit of observa- tion and accustoms them to independent work. The pupils see the whole life of a plant displayed before their eyes from the germination to the flower and fruit. In the winter season the pupils are not occupied in practical agriculture. The teacher, having explained to them the nature and the germination of the seed, passes over to the first principles of chemistry and physics, and explains the properties of the water and the air and the integral parts of these elements which enter into the composition of the plants. Finally, he speaks of combustion, the principal kinds of soil, and the different fats. The theoretical knowledge which is given to them in this part of the course, is always based upon experiments suited to the age of the children who take part themselves in all kinds of manipulations. In spring, when the experimental culture begins (of wheat, corn, beans, hemp), the pupils listen to the explanations of the process of growth in the most common vegetables, grafting, the necessity of the distribution of crops, etc. In the course of the second year the pupils are obliged to repeat all that has been learned in the first year, together with some notions of the SHOULD RURAL SCHOOLS INTRODUCE AGRICULTURE? 307 nature of and aid of domestic animals. This is the maximum that can be taught in an elementary school. Professor Grandeau rightly observes : " When the teacher succeeds in imparting to the greatest number of our children enough elementary knowledge to enable them later to read with profit a book of agricultural science, and when he awakes in them the taste for farming life and reluc- tance to leave it in order to become employees of any office, then he will have done an immense service to agriculture." M. Leblanc adds, on his side : "The teacher well performs his task if he succeeds in making the scientific expressions in current use convey pre- cise meaning to his pupils ; if the brighter ones among them furnish good recruits for the practical schools of agriculture. " To recapitulate what we have said above : (1) The instruction in the rural schools can and should have an agri- cultural bearing. (2) Independent and dogmatic courses of agriculture, or of any branch whatever of physical and natural sciences, are not suited to the primary elementary schools. (3) Agricultural instruction for children from seven to eleven years (elementary and middle course) must be restricted to the first notions of the life of vegetables, and to very elementary practical knowledge. (4) This instruction can be given by means of different school exercises, such as oral lectures, recitations, compositions, dictations, problems, and drawings. (5) In the superior course (ages eleven to thirteen years) the occasional instruction can be given in a more methodical way, and, if the time admits, it may be completed by reviews ; the agricultural studies must be closely combined with the instruction in physical and natural sciences. (6) The notions given in the primary school must be illustrated by objects of the school museums, and must be completed by excursions into the fields, visits to farms, and by work in the school garden. In the superior course, the elementary principles of physical and natural sciences relating to agriculture must be based as much as possible upon a series of experiments not very complicated, and upon interesting demonstra- tions of the growth of plants. (7) The students of the seminaries and normal schools should receive instruction which will enable them to give lessons under the conditions indicated in the above paragraphs. 308 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. CONFUCIUS AND HIS EDUCATIONAL IDEAS. BY DR. HIDESABUBO EUDO, DELEGATE FBOM THE ROYAL EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN. [Translation from his notes in German.] Ladies and Gentlemen : — I come from Japan, an old country, and in this new and flourishing country I have the honor to speak about an old one. Old as it is, its civiliza- tion is yet young. We expect you to guide and teach us in our civilization. I am sorry to say that I cannot speak in English on my subject. It is too difficult for me. Japan- ese is too strange for you. So I will speak in German. I think it is not so strange for you as Japanese. To avoid confusion I will read from my notes. Who was Confucius, about whom I shall speak ? He was a great philosopher of the Orient who has been revered as a teacher of virtue by unnumbered millions during a period of more than two thousand years. Professor v. d: Gabelentz gives this opinion about him : " Quite a unique position is held by Confucius, who was a teacher of his people unlike any other ; who became and remained, so to speak, a ruler of his people — a place unique not only in the history of philosophy, but also in the history of humanity. For no other man has embodied in his own person his whole nationality and all that is eternal in it, as he did. If we would measure the greatness of a historical personality, I see only one standard that can be used — the duration, extent, and intensity of his influence. " According to this standard Confucius was one of the greatest men ; for at this very time, after more than two thousand years, the moral, social, and political life of almost a third of mankind is under the full influence of his spirit." This judgment shows the whole greatness of Confucius. But what greatness is, it is difficult to determine ; some people see only a part of it, but, nevertheless, judge of the whole. I will quote here several judg- ments in order to get, by comparing them, as near as possible to the truth. One of the best pupils of Confucius, one who was intimately connected with him for a long time and by the strongest bonds, and who knew him the best, Tseu-Kung, says : "Confucius is gentle, just, affable, temper- ate, and modest." Mencius once quoted Yeu-yo's opinion concerning Confucius : "As the miraculous kilin belongs to the quadrupeds, the phoenix to the birds, large mountains are only a kind of hill, and rivers and oceans kinds of lakes — so the great sage belongs also to mankind, but how much is he elevated above all men ! Since the heavens and the earth were created, another man has not arisen like Confucius !" A great histo- rian, Ise-ma-tsien, says of Confucius : " There have been rulers who have CONFUCIUS AND HIS EDUCATIONAL IDEAS. 309 received the surname 'the wise,' and who were much celebrated in their times, but after their death they were quickly forgotten. But Confucius, ilthough not born of a prominent family, has been esteemed by all learned ien living after him as a source of wisdom. Everybody from the emperor to the lowest citizen honors him." These are the opinions of Chinese authorities. For the sake of compari- son the opinions of men of other nations should be considered. A Japanese scholar, Seigan Yanana, says : " The words of Confucius ire as mild as the horn of kilin, which hurts nobody, but his thoughts ire steadfast and powerful, and nobody can resist his words; even the lion, nth its horrible claws, will bend its head before Confucius/' Martin Haug writes : " The opinion passed by the late Chinese mission- ary Giitzlaff upon Confucius, which was published some years ago in Ger- lany, is almost a libel. Giitzlaff describes him as a man who deals in isdom and sells his goods to him who offers the highest price. But every attentive, impartial reader of the ' Analecta/ in which his charac- ter is put into the proper light, will immediately see how inexcusable it is attribute such base motives to the actions of the sage. Confucius was, at any rate, a man entirely honorable and sincere, and possessed of a firm and steady character." The English scholar, Professor Legge, says : "Confucius is thus, in the Empire of China, the one man by whom all possible lessons of social virtue and political wisdom are taught." Professor Dr. Douglas says : "That four Chinese emperors [who took Confucius as a model] had at different times restored the empire from a state of anarchy to a condition of peace and tranquillity by the force of their examples and the influence of their teachings ; and believing themselves to have a heaven-sent mission to repeat their reforms, they labored day and night to impress on their hardened contemporaries the evils of their ways." G. Alexander : " He has no claim to be considered in common with Zoroaster, Buddha, or Mahomet, for each and all these were, in a greater or less degree, destroyers of the social and religious systems which pre- ceded their advent, and the founders of the new ones upon their ruins ; whilst Confucius sought neither to destroy nor to create, but to preserve and restore. He was no law-giver like Moses ; Laoutze stands unques- tionably nearer to Pythagoras than he does ; and the comparison which might be drawn between him and Plato or Socrates, could only be within very narrow limits." These opinions of distinguished scholars will serve, I hope, to set forth the sublime philosopher in strong outlines. PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF CONFUCIUS. As Confucius has written no special pedagogical work, I am obliged to draw chiefly from the four books, the five classics, and " Kia-yu," and 310 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. gather the passages of pedagogical significance appearing here and there, scattered through these works, in order to throw the right light upon his principles. Liadner writes, in his "Encyclopsedical Compendium of Pedagogy": "The educational system of Confucius is comprehended in the so-called House Treasure ;" but as he indicates no source of his statement, it is altogether untenable. Carl Schmidt has also mentioned the House Treasure in his "History of Pedagogics," but without saying that its contents are the system of Confucius. I think I am right in saying, that, in spite of the many books written about Confucius in the Orient and Occident, no one has distinctly explained his pedagogics. Before I begin my further task, it is necessary to state the views of Confucius about human nature. Philosophers who lived shortly after Confucius have held very different opinions upon this subject. Mencius says : " Man is good by nature." Suntseu : " Man is bad by nature." Yan-yeu : "Man is both by nature; good and bad principles are com- bined in him." But if Tseu-hung says that he never heard Confucius speak about human nature and heaven ; it may be supposed, indeed, that the sage very seldom dwelt upon these questions. In Lun-yu it is said : " When man is born, he is sincere," and likewise in Ta-hio : "One must keep alive the inborn virtues." So Confucius believes that man is good by nature. Confucius's grandson, Tseu-see, an eager adherent of his doctrine, says : " Human nature is determined by the heavens, and to follow the way of nature is the first of all doctrines." And also Mencius, who again learned from Tseu-see, says : " Human nature is good." Confucius, however, knew .very well that man can be developed in different ways by education ; it is that which makes the great differences among men. After this short preface I now shall try to find out the aim of Confu- cius's education. MORAL EDUCATION". Confucius says to his pupil Tseng-tsen : " Piety is the foundation and the basis of a good education." Of course this piety is not restricted to the relation of parents to the children, to the life in the house. Outside the house, also, children and all younger persons must be respectful towards elder persons ; they must hate nobody, but especially be on friendly terms with the philanthropists ; besides, everybody must strive to obtain knowl- edge and skill. From this it can be seen that Confucius considered virtue first ; in CONFUCIUS AND HIS EDUCATIONAL IDEAS. 311 agreement with that a Japanese scholar, Minsan, says : " The doctrine of Confucius is not based upon any literary fame, but upon acquiring virtue." Not only did Confucius consider virtue the first principle, but we find the same view in modern pedagogues, as, for instance, in Locke, Greiling, Herbart, and others. If we ask what Confucius means by virtue, piety, as mentioned above, is the most important with him. From "Lun-yu " it appears that Confu- cius taught many things, as knowledge, decency, honesty, and faithful- ness. In another place Confucius says : " Always practice truth and honesty." Thus it appears that truth and honesty are additional virtues with Confucius. His pupil Tseu-Kung once asks if there be any word which could be considered as a moral principle for the whole life. Confucius answered : " To place one's self into the same situation as others ; " and lie adds : " What you do not desire to be done to you, that you may do to no other one." Also Tseng-tseu confirms this by saying : "The doctrine of Confucius commends honesty and the putting one's self into the situation of others.'' By the latter he sees that Confucius means the practice of humanity. This principle was greatly esteemed by Confucius ; it is very often men- tioned and emphatically enforced. In addition there are mentioned "sincerity, liberality, reverence, humility, fortitude, willingness, respect towards the elder brother, loyalty to friends, magnanimity." This very classification of virtues can be regarded as a proof that Confucius placed great value upon the establishment of morality. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION". As Confucius laid the greatest stress upon moral education, let us see what he thought about intellectual education. In Ta-hio we read: "The first step toward the growth and increase of the inborn gifts of the mind, consists in obliging one to acquire a distinct knowledge of things." More emphatically it is said in Lun-yu : "The most perfect man must acquire a comprehensive knowledge ; " and in a third place, where Confu- cius well recommends to his pupils the study of Shi-king (poems), he praises this among other merits, that from them knowledge of many animals and plants is to be gained. PHYSICAL EDUCATION. In Lun-yu it is said : " If cooked rice has become sour, or fish has be- come soft, Confucius does not eat such food ; also not if the meat has a bad color or disagreeable smell, or has not been entirely cooked, or if unripe fruits are offered to him. Wine he drinks as much as he is able without becoming intoxicated. But he does not drink wine nor eat 312 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. meat which have been bought on the street, because he is afraid that they might be unclean; and as in drinking, so in eating, he is always tem- perate/' How scrupulous he was about these things the following may show : Ki- hao-tseu had sent medicine to him, and Confucius had accepted it grate- fully, but had not taken it, because he did not know exactly the contents. In general, the educational method of Confucius did not consist only in giving his pupils theoretical explanations, but also and especially in teach- ing them by his own actions and examples. Thus the customs of Confucius, mentioned before, had also the effect to commend to his pupils the care of their diet. That he laid stress upon this, can be read in Hiao-king, where Confucius is said to have declared : " The body with skin and hairs we have received from our parents ; to preserve it is therefore a duty of piety." In the same sense he is said to have told Meu-wu-pe : " To be pious means to keep one's body healthy, in order that the parents, growing old, may not be consumed by sorrow for the life of sick children." Concerning real gymnastics, shooting with bow and arrows, and chariot- eering, which belonged also among the objects of education according to Confucius, might have had still another purpose, but they served espe- cially for strengthening the body. EDUCATION OF GIRLS. Before I treat of the method of education of Confucius, I will add some- thing about his views of the education of girls. It seems to me that Confucius taught about the female virtues, "coyness, taciturnity, obedi- ence, lack of jealousy," but nothing about the method and the depart- ments of instruction appropriate for girls. He once says to Ngai-kung: " The woman must follow the word of man, and work for men ; she has no right to work in an independent way ; on the contrary, there are three kinds of dependency for women : when she is a girl, she must follow her father or her elder brother; when she is married, she must obey her husband ; and when the husband has died, she must follow her son. Woman, therefore, never has to act independently, and her sphere is restricted to her room, and in that to prepare good food and beverages." From this is to be seen that Confucius estimates obedience as the first duty of woman, but lays little stress upon her talents and knowledge. He even seems to doubt her vocation as an educator of children. At least he once says : " Tseu-tschan is like a mother, who is able to nourish children, but not to educate them." After this low estimate of girls and mothers, we do not wonder that he said nothing about female education. There is a legend that Ta-yam, the mother of the old King Wan, had begun the education already with the ■ CONFUCIUS AND HIS EDUCATIONAL IDEAS. 313 embryonic life of her child ; such a mother would have certainly corres- ponded to the views of Confucius. This contempt and neglect of female education is a deplorable lack in the system of Confucius. METHOD OF EDUCATION. Confucius says : " I shall not teach before the scholars desire to know something, and I do not help before the scholars need my help ; if of the four corners of a thing I have shown and explained one corner, and the scholars do not find for themselves the three others, I do not explain further." This shows that Confucius laid much stress upon the self-activity of the scholars ; in so ancient a time (2,000 years ago) he used already the inventive method. Furthermore, he says : "If one learns only by memory, and does not think, all remains dark." But the teacher remains always a guide ; he is indeed the leader ; and if Yen-yen says : " The kind master leads me step by step," that means : "Leading upward from the easy things to the difficult ones." Confucius gave different answers to the questions which several persons asked him about humanity. He taught them humanity by different methods, a proof that he had regard for the faculties and talents of every- >ne. He also used comparison in a clever manner for purposes of edu- 3ation. When Tseu-kung asked Confucius how humanity could be exercised tactically, he replied : " If a mechanic will perform his task well, he is forced to sharpen well his tools. In which situation you may be, take wise men as guides, and make friendship with virtuous people." Numerous incidents in the life of Confucius prove that he used every occasion offering itself for the education of his pupils. Once he saw a sparrow catcher catching only young sparrows with beaks still yellow ; then he asked him : " Why do you not catch old sparrows ?" The man replied : " The old sparrow is very cunning, hence it is diffi- 3ult to catch him ; but the young sparrow is only greedy to seek food, and so it is easy to catch him. If young sparrows would follow the old ones, then it would be difficult to catch them ; but if old sparrows follow the young ones, then they can be caught." Then Confucius addressed his pupils : " Did you hear ? If the sparrow is cautious, he avoids destruc- tion ; but if he indulges in greediness, he forgets danger. Luck and ill- luck of the sparrow depend upon whom he follows. Therefore, wise men are cautious in choosing acquaintances. And if one follows the prudent thoughts of elder people, he is protected against every danger ; but if one follows the ideas of inexperienced youth, he easily runs into dangers." 314 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. THE USE OF MAGIC LANTERNS IN SCHOOLS.* BY GUSTAVE SERRURIER, OF HAVRE, FRANCE. I shall not dwell upon the use of luminous projections in the scientific courses of universities and academies, but show you simply how in France the magic lantern has been introduced into the primary school, and has become a means of popular instruction. In April, 1880, a conference of French teachers was organized by the Minister of Public Instruction, for the purpose of showing the use that might be made of the magic lantern in elementary education. This effort had an immediate practical outcome. In December follow- ing, a society was formed at Havre for the avowed purpose of bringing about the general adoption of the use of the magic lantern as an aid in teaching by observation. This method of instruction was introduced in Havre in the higher courses of the primary schools. All the pupils of these classes (boys and girls), to the number of twelve hundred, were assembled in two great halls twice a week for this exercise. The subjects treated were history, geography, travels, physical and natural science. M. F. Buisson, the Director-General of Primary Instruc- tion, testified that the notes made by the scholars showed good results and great attention on their part. The teachers gained great freedom in speaking in public, while the pupils, captivated with the views presented, profited on their part by all the explanations offered without any of the customary distractions. Two years later every school in Havre was supplied with the necessary apparatus, and thus the use of the magic lantern was extended without any disarrangement of the classes. This society did not stop with the work in the schools ; it organized at the same time public conferences for families subscribing to the funds. These exercises, conducted by men of ability, were very successful, and also brought in money, thus helping the society to extend the work, not only in the schools and in important centers, but even into the neighbor- ing districts. To achieve this result the society of Havre exerted itself to perfect the apparatus, and to increase its collection of views in order to meet all needs. The school apparatus recommended by the society costs only $24. A petroleum lamp is used ; this is simple and practical. It serves for an audience of from two to three hundred persons. This is the apparatus generally used in the country. The city societies nearly always employ a double apparatus suited to halls for from eight hundred to two thousand * This paper was read in French, and translated for publication. SCHOOLS FOR NEGLECTED CHILDREN. 315 persons. This costs $74, and is lighted by an oxyhydrogen lamp. It has the advantage of presenting the views without interruption and with doable effect, and can be used by day as well as by night. The Havre society has a triple apparatus with which scientific experi- ments can be illustrated and natural phenomena shown, such as volcanic eruptions, active geysers, etc. The price of this is $240. The Havre society has for its object the diffusion of knowledge by means of the magic lantern in connection both with school exercises and with popular lectures. All the conferences are free, and the views, which number eight thousand, are loaned gratuitously. The society fosters the work both in France and in foreign countries. In 1891 M. Buisson was delegated by the Minister of Public Instruction to preside over the annual distribution of prizes. This festival was a verit- able demonstration in favor of instruction by the magic lantern. It is a means of moral influence, for when the teacher sets up the apparatus the school is too small for the company and the saloon is deserted. The views are chosen also with a purpose of giving the scholars ideas of the good, the true, and the beautiful. The society has supporters among all the friends of public instruction, teachers, professors, inspectors, pastors, etc. In March, 1893, it had branches in sixty-two departments of France and in nearly all the French colonies. In foreign countries, also, several societies have been created under the auspices of that at Havre — in Belgium, in Switzerland, in Rus- sia, in Austria, and even in the New World, in Louisiana and in the Argentine Republic. In March last the number of free loans from the collections were four thousand one hundred and forty, each set comprising, on an average, twenty-five views. The annual contributions from members are, at the minimum, ten francs. The amount which had been received by the presi- dent of the society, M. H. Jardin, in subscriptions and in dues, up to December 31, 1892, was sixty-four thousand francs (about $12,800). SCHOOLS FOR NEGLECTED CHILDREN. BY JAMES STORMONT SMALL, TRUANT INSPECTOR, AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND. To attain a perfect system of education is a very difficult matter when the incongruous elements to be dealt with are considered, and no more difficult problem presents itself than that of the best course to adopt with regard to the education of the children of city slums ; and yet a thoroughly workable and successful system would prove the foundation of a noble structure. 316 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. When dealing with these neglected children there are two distinct classes to be considered ; namely, those of the very poor but honest, and those of the careless, dissolute, and criminal. With respect to the former, many young children, instead of attending school, are employed at various occupations wherein the school hours are taken up. Few will not admit that these young ones are entitled to the advantages of such education as is provided from the national funds for all. But humanity steps in and says: "These children are helps to their parents, who depend on them to work for bread for the support of the family, and if they are deprived of the aid of these child-workers, how is the necessary subsistence to be procured ? " To say that it is right that parents should, under any circumstances, be dependent on their young and tender offspring for food amounts to advo- cating a reversal of natural laws, which throughout the animal kingdom demand that the old must provide for its young ; and even in the lower orders of life, where the young are so constituted to look after them- selves, in no case do the old rely upon their own immature progeny as food procurers. When law-makers thoroughly grasp this position, and without exception apply it, then the unnatural claim of parents to ruin their children for- ever, to minister to present personal needs, will become a thing of the past. When it has been ascertained beyond doubt that parents cannot feed and clothe the children whom the law compels them to send to school, then both of these necessaries should be provided by the state ; for little education can be imparted to small, shivering bodies with hungry stomachs. But to ask that national funds for educational purposes should be used to subsidize parents for being deprived of services to which they have no right — to grant such a request would tend to increase paupers and turn educational departments into charitable aid boards. Surely deserving cases could be left to the benevolently disposed, and societies of that kind. For several years the writer has studied from exceptional vantage ground the application of compulsory educational laws, and after much experience and careful consideration has come to the conclusion that a large number of the parents appreciate education too highly to be a source of trouble in procuring regular attendance of their children at schools, so that stringent attendance measures, although applicable to all, do not affect these, as they already do what is required, without coercion ; but with respect to others, they more or less require constant watching. Every sort of pre- text is used to detain children from school, yet nearly all express the opin- ion that great stringency should be used in compelling their neighbors' children to be sent more regularly. This sort of thing varies in degree until the lower stratum is reached, when nothing short of fines and im- prisonment of parents will obtain any attendance whatever. SCHOOLS FOR NEGLECTED CHLLDREN. 317 Just here the writer would mention that in New Zealand he, as truant inspector and attendance officer, has, amongst a number of elementary public schools under his supervision, one school in the city of Auckland which specially deals with the children of the poorest and lowest classes. It is a small building, therefore the roll number is under two hundred, but the ordinary daily attendance is about one hundred and seventy boys and girls. The parents receive no aid in lieu of the services of their children, nor are the pupils supplied with food or clothes. Sometimes, in excep- tional cases, the head master privately will give a meal to one or more, when he is. satisfied it is needed, and sometimes persons will donate some clothing, which is presented to the most ragged in a quiet and kind manner. Self-respect is encouraged in the scholars, and every opportunity is given them which is consistent with reasonable attendance to earn money to keep their parents. The dinner-time is curtailed and the school dis- missed earlier in the afternoon, so that the newspaper boys may be in time to sell the evening papers, and others to attend to various offices required by their parents. No child is punished for coming late who has a genuine note to show that he or she was detained for some necessary purpose. And yet with all these drawbacks, this school, at the annual examinations, compares favorably with other schools. All school necessaries are sup- plied free, also the books, when the parent cannot pay for the same. It has been remarked that the pupils of this school are more respectful and polite than many of the scholars of the other schools. No parents are compelled to send their children to this particular school ; it is quite a voluntary matter. AH are compelled to send to some school ; therefore a large number of the worst of this class elect to send to other schools, and it requires frequent legal proceedings to procure the neces- sary attendance ; and in either case the majority of these people, directly the compulsory age (only thirteen) is passed, no matter how backward their children in education, take them away from school — some to go to work, others to run the streets and learn to steal, and many very promis- ing girls to a worse fate. From the foregoing it may be gathered that a school of the description named, properly conducted, does a good work, but that it does not reach far enough in many cases to render the good done as permanent as it would be under an improved system. This leads to the proposition that special schools should be established for taking entire charge of the neg- lected children of the nation. Some not, well informed on the subject will argue that there should be no distinction made between state elementary schools ; that the children under discussion should be distributed among the schools already in exist- ence, because, it is advanced, the association with better clothed, fed, and trained children will raise them to a higher level, such being the result of good example. This theory sounds well, but when reduced to practice 318 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. utterly fails, as from actual observation it has been proved that instead of the slum children being morally raised, the usual scholars are considerably lowered by the association with their more precocious brethren, so much so as often to produce lasting injury, as children are more ready to follow an evil example than a good one ; therefore the children of respectable parents have also a right to be considered in this matter. Another powerful reason against mixing the slum children with other children is that the teachers cannot do justice to the ordinary pupils and at the same time pay special attention to a particular class, the result to the latter being that when the compulsory age is passed they return more completely to their wallowing in the mire. Schools should be established to take entire charge of neglected children. When it has been ascertained by the truant officers (not the police) that the homes of children are unwholesome, through the bad character and associations of the parents or guardians — upon satisfactory evidence of the same being given before legally constituted authority — such children should be committed to schools specially provided for the purpose, there to have a home, receive a sound education, and then be taught agriculture, trades, or professions, as their several abilities may indicate; these pupils to become, de facto, the children of the state or nation, and not for one moment to be considered as prisoners or paupers, or treated as such. They should be endued, as far as possible, with a spirit of self-respect and self-reliance, and pride in their schools and country, and encouraged at a proper age to sign an agreement to recoup their cost to the country when able to do so. Of course when such children prove refractory, by running away or in other ways, they should be treated in a similar way to that in which good parents treat their offspring — i.e., " He that spares the rod spoils the child." Surely it will not require much argument to prove that the proposition is practicable, and would, if carried out, result in minimizing crime by laying the axe at its root. The children of the drunkards, prostitutes, poverty stricken, and crimi- nals should have the same chances in life from an educational standpoint as other children, so that an opportunity be given them of becoming respectable citizens, and so benefit both themselves and the world. It is not their fault that they are born with unfortunate environments ; there- fore it is not just that they should suffer through the neglect, misfortune, or vice of their natural protectors. Nor should the world be tormented through the wholesale manufacture of such pests to society, which, as a rule, neglected children become. The legislatures of the world have made enactments to punish law- breakers (who are caught). But in criminal cases the punishment seldom has a curative effect. But, as a rule, the culture and production of crimi- nals is allowed to proceed without restraint — i.e., the law only attempts to shut the door after the mischief is done, instead of taking effective meas- SCHOOLS FOR NEGLECTED CHILDREN. 319 ures to prevent the cause, and so to the same degree lessen the effect. This, it is claimed, would be the result of the government becoming the irent, and taking entire charge of neglected children. It is submitted that every child capable of receiving instruction is entitled to a sound education, no matter what the circumstances of the parent may be. Not unfrequently parents claim the right to the services of their young children (instead of sending them to school), because of their own (the parents') affliction, such as sickness, being cripples, blind, paralyzed, and so on. The benevolent who simply regard the surface will say, under these conditions children should be exempted from attendance at school. But these kind-hearted people support unwittingly the perpe- tration of gross cruelty ; they sacrifice the children for the exigencies of the parent, and so the children are ruined for life, for they can never compete on equal terms with the educated, unless educated themselves. Succor should certainly be forthcoming for those in need, but most decidedly not at the cost of the future of a single child. It may be urged that the already established reformatories, where the children convicted of crime are committed for a term, might also be util- ized for all neglected children. To adopt such a course would be mani- festly unjust to children who have not developed into criminals, and to associate them with those who have would be very unwise. The schools proposed for the slum or neglected children of the world are not reforma- tories, but (to coin a word) are formatories ; that is, not for the purpose of reforming character, but to form character. Lastly, from a financial standpoint it is submitted that although the outlay required for these schools would be considerable, yet the benefits following a marked decrease of crime, increased security to life and prop- erty, the reduction in the number of tramps and disorderly women, the lessened cost for the arrest, punishment, and detention of criminals, would not only amply repay the cost of the formatories, but would leave a sub- stantial balance to the credit of the nations, even without taking into account what is of much more importance — that is, that many of the would- have-been scourges of society would instead be incorporated into the army of respectable workers of the world, and thus further demonstrate that "prevention is better than cure." DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF KINDERGARTEN INSTRUCTION. SECRETARY'S REPORT. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday, July 26, 1893. The Congress of Kindergarten Instruction met in the Hall of Columbus in the Memo- rial Art Palace. The meeting was called to oi'der by Mrs. Eudora L. Hailmann at 9.30 a.m., Wednesday, July 26, who introduced Mrs. Ada M. Hughes, of Toronto, Ontario, as Chairman, who delivered the opening address. Miss Alice H. Putnam, of Chicago, read a paper on "Shall Reading and Writing be taught in the Kindergarten ? " Miss Sarah A. Stewart, of Philadelphia, read a paper on " Changes in Kindergarten Plays and Games." A paper was read by Miss Constance Mackenzie, Supervisor of Public School Kinder- gartens, Philadelphia, on " The Song in the Kindergarten — Its Place, Value, and the Dramatic Element." Mrs. Sarah B. Cooper, of San Francisco, Cal., read a paper on "The Organic Union of Kindergarten and Primary School." Mr. B. Pickman Mann, of Washington, D. C, presented a paper, opening a discussion on "Modifications in the Primary School." This subject was further discussed by Miss Mary C. McCulloch, Supervisor of Public School Kindergartens of St. Louis, Mo. The subject, " How the Primary School may be Connected with the Kindergarten," was discussed by Mr. W. N. Hailmann, of La Porte. His remarks in substance were as follows : "I have experimented for ten years at La Porte, Ind., a small town, where 1 have not met the untold obstacles of a larger city. The only possibility of securing an organic connection between the kindergarten and the primary is by infusing the same spirit into the latter which distinguishes the former. The aim and purpose of the school is always the child and the childs living growth. Conventionalities of life belong no more to the primary than to the kindergarten. Right feeling must first be aroused, out of which conventionalities may grow. New wine must not be put into old bottles. The machine can never be infused with life. Whatever of the primary school is dead remains lead. We cannot connect the living kindergarten with the mechanical school. The only organic connection is to give the child opportunity to express himself all along the line of his development, and never to express the teacher. The primary, like the kin- dergarten, must be a process of freeing the child." Mrs. Kate Douglas Wiggin, of New York City, was introduced by the Chairman, and warmly greeted. Having recently returned from London, she brought greetings from the following prominent workers of that city : Miss Lyschiske, Miss Emily Shirreff, Mr. Oscar Browning, M. Michalais, and Mr. Courthope Bowen. During this opening session of the kindergarten department the platform was occu- pied by the following distinguished educators : Mrs. Hughes, of Toronto ; Miss McCulloch, of St. Louis ; Mrs. Newcomb, of Hamilton, Ontario ; Mrs. Putman, of Chicago; Miss Mackenzie and Miss Stewart, of Philadelphia ; Mrs. Hailmann, of La 21 322 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION Porte ; Miss Brooks and Mrs. Kate Douglas Wiggin, of New York City ; Miss Nora Smith, of San Francisco, Cal. ; Mrs. Wiley, of Buffalo ; and Mrs. Cooper, of California. SECOND SESSION— July 27, 1893. The Congress of Kindergarten Instruction was called to order by Mrs. A. M. Hughes, the President, at 9.30 a.m., Thursday, July 27, 1893. Mr. W. N. Hailmann, of La Porte, Ind., reviewed the kindergarten situation in Ger- many and America, reporting upon the literature sent from abroad. The commission in charge of the German Educational Exhibit confessed that teachers and schoolmen are antagonistic to the work, stating that the necessity of handling large masses of children made it impracticable ; but little by little they are having their eyes opened. Angelika Hartmann, of Leipzig, has published a pamphlet on the relation of the kindergarten to the public school, dedicating the same to this congress. On motion it was voted that this Congress of Kindergarten Instruction forward greet- ings and thanks to the kindergarten workers in Europe for their cooperation. The valuable papers from other points of Europe were transferred to this section, that the same might be published in the report of the National Educational Association. Mrs. J. N. Crouse, of Chicago, opened the discussion on " Preparation of the Kinder- gartner for her Work," making an urgent plea for longer, higher, and wider training. Miss Annie Laws, of Cincinnati, spoke from her personal experiences, recommending stronger measures, and a plea for better and more adequate remuneration for work, and suggesting lines of broader experiences as tributary to a kindergartner's training, such as is gleaned by visiting other schools in other cities. Fraulein Annetta Schepel read a paper prepared by her co-worker, Frau Henrietta Schrader, of Berlin, on the topic, " The Kindergarten as a Basis for Life." Mrs. Louisa Parsons Hopkins, of the Boston Board of School Supervisors, presented a paper on the ' ' Preparation of the Kindergartner. " Mr. W. N. Hailmann closed the discussion by giving a most comprehensive sketch of the characteristic mental and physical conditions of the first seven years of childhood, which determine the special educative value of hand work in the kindergarten. THIRD SESSION— July 28, 1893. The Congress of Kindergarten Instruction was called to order Friday, July 28, 1893, by the Chairman. A paper was read by Mary T. Hotchkiss, of Milwaukee, Wis., on "Story-Telling in the Kindergarten." Professor Earl Barnes, of Leland Stanford University, read a paper on 'To what Extent is Symbolism Justifiable in the Kindergarten ? " A paper was read by Mrs. Eudora L. Hailmann, of La Porte, Ind., on "To what Extent is Symbolism Justifiable in the Kindergarten ? " in continuation of the discus- sion of symbolism. Miss Harrison, of Chicago, spoke of the parallelisms between the race development and that of the child, and drew clear conclusions as to methods of fitting the natural symbols to the child's comprehension. At the close of Miss Harrison's words the chair- man suggested that an informal greeting be sent to Miss Susan E. Blow ; also to Miss Emma Marwedel. The discussion of symbolism was continued by Miss Lucy Whitlock, of Boston, and Mr. Arnold H. Hinewah, of Chicago. The session was closed by the Chairman, expressing the hope that we might go to our homes to live out these great truths whose repeated utterances had warmed us into a keener appreciation of our individual possibilities. LIST OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS. 323 LIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF KINDERGARTEN INSTRUCTION. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Mrs. Sallie C. Eccleston, Instructress of Profes- sional Teachers, Parana. AUSTRIA. Fran Oitilie Bondy, Directress of Kindergarten, Vienna. Herr Franz Hertel, Teacher Burgcrschool and Direc- tor of Manual Training School, Vienna. Frl. Eleonore Kopper, Lady Principal of Primary Kindergarten, Gratz. Dr. H. Sonneck, President Froebel Association, Brunn. CANADA. 8. B. Sinclair, Hamilton. Mrs. Ada M. Hughes, Toronto. Mrs. L. T. Newcombe, Hamilton. Mrs. Mary E. Macintyre, Toronto Normal Kinder- garten, Toronto. FRANCE. M. Chas. Delon. Sevres. Mile. M. Loizillon, Paris. Mile. Marie Thomas, Paris. GERMANY. Herr Pfarrer Baehring, Minfeld. Frl. Hartmann. Principal of Seminary, Leipzig. Frl. E. Heerwart. Vice-President Froebel Associa- tion, Eisenach. Frl. Marg. Kroger. Hamburg. Frau Lina Morgenstera, Berlin. Herr Lorenz VDinir, Director Seminary for Kinder- gartners, Munich. GREAT BRITAIN. Alfred Bourne, Stockwell Training College, Lon- don, S. W. H. Courthope Bowen, Esq., M.A., London. Miss Catherine M. Condon, London. Mi.«s E. A. Manning, London. W. Jliss Emily A. E. Shirreff, President of the Froebel Society, London. W. Swan Sonuenschein, London. ITALY. Signora Fiancesca Petermann, Directress of the "Institute Vittorino da Feltra," Rome. signora Adela V. Portugnll, Directress of Kinder- garten and Normal School. Naples. Signora Amalia de Rosa. International Froebel Institute Vitt. Email. II., Naples. Signora Cecilia Tassis, General lnspectress of In- fant Schools, Genoa. SWITZERLAND. Herr Friedr. Beust, Director of Seminary, Zurich. Herr David Burgauer, St. Gallen. Dr. I. Hurliman. Unterageri near Zurich. Herr Pfarrer L. W. Kambli, St. Gallen. Herr Heinrich Wegnian, Lehrer, Zflrich. Prof. G. Zehnder, Olten. UNITED STATES. ALABAMA. Miss M. J. Moore, Directress Model School, Troy. CALIFORNIA. Mrs. E. I. Dodge. San Diego. Nellie Dunlap, Orphan Asylum Kindergarten, Sac- ramento. Helen Josslyn Le Beuf, Riverside. Miss M. J. Lyman, Private Kindergarten, River- side. Mrs. C. H. McGrew, School of Methods for Teach- ers and Kindergartners. San Jose. Mrs. Eva Mackenzie, Sarah B. Cooper Kindergar- ten, San Jose. Mrs. Nora D. Mayhew, Training School for Kinder- gartners, Los Angeles. Mrs. Annie S. Porter, Kindergarten Training School, San Diego. Miss Nora A. Smith, San Francisco. COLORADO. Miss Emily Collar, Aspen. Mrs. Charles Dickinson. Denver. Mrs. A. K. Holt Kelly, Durango. Mrs. Josephine P. Lee, Public School Kindergarten, Ft. Collins. CONNECTICUT. Miss Lucia M. Bower, Skinner Kindergarten, New Haven. Miss Clara W. Mineins, New Britain. Mrs. Fannie P. Brown, South Side School Kinder- garten, Bristol. Mrs. Fanniebelle Curtis, Normal School Kinder- garten, Willimantic. Mrs. Charlotte L. M.Murray, South School Kinder- garten, Hartford. Mrs. N. M. Strong, Private Kindergarten, North Woodbury. DELAWARE. Mrs. Sarah S. Rumford, Free W. C. T. U., Wil- mington. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Mrs. Margaret T. McPherson, St. John's Free Kin- dergarten, Georgetown. Mrs. Louise Pollock, Washington. Susan P. Pollock, Froebel Normal Institute and Kindergarten, Washington. Mr>. Mary F. van de Sai de. Elizabeth Peabody Kindergarten, Washington. Miss Anna Schmidt, Private Kindergarten, Wash- ington. Caroline M. Sterling, St. John's Orphanage, Wash- ington. FLORIDA. Mrs. M. E. Leak. Private Kindergarten, Myers. Mrs. Mary A. West, Private Kindergarten, Tampa. GEORGIA. Miss Willette Allen, Atlanta. Lawton B. Evans, Public School Kindergarten, Augusta. ILLINOIS. Mrs. Anne E. Allen, Cook County Normal School Kindergarten, Englewood. Mrs. Lilian Dale Archibald. Englewood. Mrs. Katharine Beebe, Wesley Avenue Kinder- garten, Evanston. 324 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. New Mrs. Fanny Chadband, Private Kindergarten, Rogers Park. Mrs. Rebecca C. Chester, Champaign. Mrs. Lydia A. Corbin, Buda High School Kinder- garten, Bnda. Mrs. J. N. Crouse, Chicago. Miss Laura Ebel, Kindergarten of Jewish Training School, Chicago. Mrs. B. S. Haas, Humboldt. Mrs. Bertha F. Hanks, Free Kindergarten, Free- port. Mrs. T. W. Harvey, Woman's Committee on Kin- dergarten Education, Chicago. Mrs. Mary M. Hazzard, Free Kindergarten, Gales- burg. Mrs. A. P. Kimball, Private Kindergarten, Congre- gational Church, Quincy. Mrs. Agnea E. Langworthy. Kewanee Kindergar- ten, Chicago. Mrs. Harriet J. Launder, Public School Kindergar- ten, Riverside. Mrs. Rosa Schroeder, Froebelscher Kindergarten, Chicago. Mrs. Henrietta Stoeckmann, King's Daughters' Free Kindergarten, Bloomington. Miss M. Evelyn Strong, Principal Kindergarten Normal, Galesburg. Miss Rose Saunders, Principal Kindergarten, Pana. Miss Elizabeth Harrison, Chicago. Mrs. Alice W. Putnam, Principal Froebel Training Class, Chicago. Miss Eva B. Whitmore, Superintendent Chicago Free Kindergarten Association, Chicago. INDIANA. Mrs. Ida L. Foster, Free Kindergarten, Valparaiso. Mrs. Jennie Goodman, Second Ward Kindergarten, La Porte. Mrs. Eleanor H. Lewis, Principal Plymouth Kin- dergarten, Ft. Wayne. Mrs. Laura B. Nash, Free Kindergarten No. 1, In- dianapolis. Miss Sal lie P. Shields, Private Kindergarten, La Fayette. Mrs. E. A. Blaker, Indianapolis. INDIAN TERRITORY. Mrs. Phoebe Riddell, Kindergarten of Presbyterian Mission, Muskogee. IOWA. Mrs. Elizabeth K. Matthews, Special Kindergarten Training Department, Highland Park, Des Moines. Mrs. Julia Morrison, Lincoln School Kindergarten, Des Moines. Mrs. Amelia Murdock, Private Kindergarten, El- kader. Mrs. E. K. Ogborn, Public School Kindergarten, Oskaloosa. Mrs. Frances Throop, Grinnell. Mrs. J. C. Trainer, Sibley. Mrs. Edith Grace Whiting, Private Kindergarten, Clarion. KANSAS. Mrs. Lucy A. Doolittle, Topeka. Mrs. Amelia L. Halsey, Kindergarten of Lewis Academy, Wichita. Mrs. Anna Oldfield, Private Kindergarten, Leaven- worth. Mrs. A. K. Vanghan, Private Kindergarten, Hutch- inson. KENTUCKY. Miss Anna E. Bryan, Louisville. Mrs. Laura P. Charles, Johnson School Kindergar- ten, Lexington. Mrs. Mamie R. Woodruff, Parkland Kindergarten, Parkland. LOUISIANA. Mrs. May Gyles, Daily Free Kindergarten, Orleans. Mrs. 3, E. Seaman, New Orleans. Mrs. Hattie Schuster, Private Kindergarten, Shreve port. MAINE. Mrs. Mary Crosby, President Kindergarten Asso- ciation, Bangor. MARYLAND. Mrs. Laura M Beatty, Froebel Normal Training Class, Baltimore. Mrs. Mannie Dausrherty, Clifton Kindergarten. M. E. Church, Baltimore. Mrs. Viola M. Ewers, Principal Kindergarten, Rich- mond, Va. Mrs. Marian Thompson Morse, Grace Church Free Kindergarten, Baltimore. Mrs. S. L. Welsh, President Baltimore Kindergarten Association, Baltimore. MASSACHUSETTS. Mrs. Ellen Burroughs Foster, Home and Day Kin- dergarten, Lowell. Miss Laura Fisher, Boston. Miss Anne L. Page, Danvers. Mrs. Annie Coolidge Rust, International Kindergar- ten Union, Boston. MissLucy Wheelock, Boston. Miss Sara E. Wiltse, Jamaica Plain. MICHIGAN. Mrs. Helen Case Adams, Normal Training School and Kindergarten, Y. W. C. A., Lansing. Mrs. S. Baldwin, Kindergarten Industrial School, Detroit. Miss Florence A. Brown, Detroit. Mrs. Maud E. Cannell, State Normal School Kin- dergarten, Ypsilanti. Mrs. Mary L. Clarke, Private Kindergarten. Kala- mazoo. Mrs. Elnora Cuddeback, Principal Kindergarten Training Department, Alma College. Alma. Mrs. Eliza Daugherty, Calvary Kindergarten No. 1, Detroit. Mrs. Hattie V. Hairband, Fifth Ward Public School Kindergarten, Ann Arbor. Miss Nelson Mosher, Private Kindergarten, Mount Pleasant. Mrs. Maud A. Reid, Principal Normal Training School, Detroit. Mrs. Susie T. Smith, Home Kindergarten, Saginaw, E. S. Mrs. Mary Williams, Free Kindergarten of King's Daughters. Grand Rapids. Mrs. Stella L. Wood, Superintendent of Kindergar- tens, Muskegon. MINNESOTA. Mrs. Mary P. Chamberlain, Principal Gethsemane Kindergarten, Minneapolis. Mrs. Mary S. Clarke, St. Paul. Miss Isabelle C. Deming, Duluth. Rev. E. C. Mitchell, President Free Kindergarten Association, St. Paul. Miss Anna Briscoe Selden, State Public School Kin- dergarten, Owatonna. Irwin Shepard, Winona. MISSOURI. Mrs. S. W. Davis, Richmond. Miss Cynthia P. Dozier, St. Louis. Mrs. Lillie Hammerstein, Director Charles Street Kindergarten, St. Louis. Miss Mary C. McCulloch, St. Louis. Mrs. S. S. Rector, Director Blow Kindergarten, Soutti St. Louis. Mrs. Lina G. Shirley, Director Public School Kin- dergarten, Fourth Ward, St. Louis. LIST OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS. 325 NEBRASKA. Mrs. Clara E. Baldwin, Private Kindergarten, Lin- coln. Mrs. Carrie M. Boutelle, Hanscom Park Kinder- garten, Omaha. Mrs. O. A. Whitman, Kindergarten Department, North Nebraska Normal College, Madison. NEW JERSEY. Mrs. Annie Lowrie, Kindergarten Normal Training School, Newark. Mrs. M. I. Stevens, Newton. Mrs. Katharine Trautwetter, Public Kindergarten, Carl 8 tad t. NEW YORK. Mrs. Alice J. C. Alcott, Port Chester. Mrs. SophiaS. Bixby, Kindergarten of High School, Norwich. Mrs. Annie C. Boardman, First Public Kindergar- ten, Utica. Miss Angeline Brooks, New York. Miss Hannah D. Mowry, Brooklyn. Mrs. Eliza M. Donovan, Kindergarten, Women's Educational and Industrial Union, Dunkirk. E. C. Elder, Buffalo. Katharine G. Fair, Principal Port Chester Kinder- garten, Port Chester. Miss Carolyn T. Haven, Kindergarten Working- men's School, New York. Mrs. Mary W. Hawley, Flatbush. Mrs. Marie C. Dietrich Hornsby, Kindergarten of Adelphi Academy, Brooklyn. Mrs. Ida M. Isdell, Kindergarten Department State Normal College, Albany. Mrs. Anna J. Rock, Public Kindergarten, Niagara Falls. Mr*. Antoinette Rogers, Private Kindergarten, Watertown. Miss Olive Smith, President Teachers' Association, Albany. Mrs. Edith J. Wadsworth, Kindergarten of Union Free School, Patchogue. Mrs. Chariot! e H. Weed, Kindergarten New York State Institute for the Blind. Batavia. Mrs. Emma W. White, New York. Mrs. Katherine Whitehead, St. Andrew's Kinder- garten and Training School, Rochester. Mrs. Mary J. B. Wylie, Buffalo. Mrs. Kate D. Wiggin, New York. NORTH CAROLINA. Anna T. Jones, Private Kindergarten, Greensboro. Mrs. O. M. Quayle, Asheville. OHIO. Mrs. F. D. M. Bratten, Principal Free Training Class for Kindergartners, Cincinnati. Mrs. A. E. II. Clark, Akron. Mrs. Viola R. Fox, Seminary Kindergarten, Spring- field. Miss Mary E. Law, Froebel Kindergarten, Toledo. Mrs. Mary S. Morgan, Principal Youngstown Free Kindergarten, Yonngstown. Mrs. Weltha M. Pinney, Columbus. Mrs. Louise B. Rawson, President Day Nursery and Kindergarten Association, Cleveland. Mrs. S. E. Roebuck, Lake Side. Mrs. Mary Chandler Salisbury, Principal Cleveland Kindergarten Training School and Kindergar- ten, Cleveland. OKLAHOMA. Mrs. Mary R. Pollock, Osage Agency. OREGON. Mrs. C. Dunlap, President Portland Free Kinder- garten Association, Portland. PENNSYLVANIA. Mrs. Blanche Hart, Froebel Kindergarten, Alle- gheny City. Miss Jennie E. Keau, Tyrone. Miss Constance Mackenzie, Superintendent Public Kindergarten, Philadelphia. Miss Sarah A. Stewart, Philadelphia. Mrs. M. S. Vankirk, Philadelphia. Mrs. L. P. Wilson, Principal Private Kindergarten and Training Class, Altoona. RHODE ISLAND. Mrs. C. M. N. Alden, Providence. Mrs. Mary E. Bliss, Willow Street Public Kinder- garten, Newport. Mrs. Cornelia Russell Wrigbt, Kindergarten of Free Kindergarten Association, Providence. TENNESSEE. Mrs. Elizabeth H. Baker, Kindergartner in charge Free Kindergarten, Nashville. Mrs. Sara E. Grigg, Principal Kindergarten King's Daughters, Knoxville. Mrs. Ella M. Wheatley, Memphis. TEXAS. Mrs. Janie R. Baker, Austin. Mrs. James S. Fitzhugh, Waco. Miss S. Rosella Kelley, Sherman. Mrs. Adda Woodson, Leonard. UTAH. Mrs. Marion Lewis, Salt Lake City. VERMONT. Mrs. Amy B. Fisk, Principal Kindergarten Train- ing School and Kindergarten, Montpelier. Mrs. Carrie M. Wheelock, Barre. VIRGINIA. Mrs. Lizzie Anderson, Martha Washington Kinder- garten, Abingdon. WASHINGTON. The Misses Daisy and Minnie Clark, Tacoma. WISCONSIN. Mrs. F. B. Dunning, Madison. Mrs. Alpha O. Goldsmith, Milwaukee. Mrs. Caroline C. M. Hart, Baltimore, Md. Mrs. Mary T. Hotchkiss, All Saints' Cathedral, Milwaukee. Mrs. Jane Lloyd Jones, Private Kindergarten, Hill- side Home School, Hillside. Miss Lida M. Kimball. Superior. Mrs. Dr. Charles Ottilie, President Kindergarten- verein. La Crosse. Mrs. Sara L. Severance, East End Kindergarten, Superior. Miss Nina Vandewalker, Whitewater. KINDERGARTEN INSTRUCTION. INTR OD UCTORY A DDRES8. BY MKS. ADA M. HUGHES, OF TORONTO, ONTARIO, PRESIDENT OF THE KINDERGARTEN CONGRESS. Less than half a century ago the name of the great apostle of the new education was one of derision. The old man who played with the little children was called by the villagers "the old fool." To-day we meet to honor that name as that of the prophet of a spiritual freedom which we have at last begun to realize. One of the most important of the many departments of the International Congress of Education is that of the conference of the followers of Froebel. In this New "World we have seen the light of that star in the east, and have followed reverently and earnestly to the birthplace of divine truth and divine childhood, and seek for more light and clearer insight. To-day we hold out both hands in welcome to all who gather here. It is a great joy to take the hand of those who have known the immediate followers of the great apostle — those who have wandered through the same paths in the fields, rested under the same skies, been surrounded by the same associations and local experiences. We say to them : Tell us of the everyday life and words of the master, that we may feel more deeply the inner life from which this great truth sprang into material expression. To those who have come from across the sea, who speak the same language as ourselves, as well as- to those of other tongues, we extend the welcome of members of one family, to sisters and brothers, separate in space, different in customs, but one in spirit and desire. We pray that this conference shall be a season like Pentecost of old, when each, whether of our own land or the dweller beyond the sea, shall hear iu his own lan- guage the things of the living spirit. Our German friends say of us in this country that we do not run or leap, we simply fly, and therefore we are in danger of losing sight of the solid foundation on which all permanent building must be based. We acknowl- edge our danger, and say, Give to us of your insight, and your wealth of personal expression of the great apostle, that our rapid action may still be rapid, and at the same time safe, because we have material landmarks to guide us. Mothers and little ones love the Mutter und Rose Lieder, but few educational people have felt all its marvelous power, or seen it as the wonderful interpretation of child growth and instructive mother-love. READING AND WRITING IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 327 His education of man has given wonderful insight into the growth of being as a whole, but it is in his personal letters to mothers and dear friends that we seem to come closer to the personality of the man. "We have given the kindergarten a hearty welcome in this broad republic ; and, as our foreign friends say, our progress in the last five years has been that of flight rather than touching earth. Obstacles vanish before us; friends receive the kindergarten with open arms ; enemies and doubters are reconciled and believe. The truth does make us free, and we need the strong, sure balance of insight into the eternal truth of principle to steady our movement and calm our enthusiasm, to keep us united in a conscious expression of that foundation truth — the highest unity is that of unity in variety. SHALL READING- AND WRITING BE TAUGHT IN THE KINDER GA R TEN ? BY MRS. ALICE H. PUTNAM, CHICAGO. While the word " growth " is the watchword now passing along the line of development from the nursery to the university, the fact that there are definite stages of growth, definite periods of life in which man may do certain things — nay, must work out certain problems which he cannot solve so well at any other time — is a fact not so fairly recognized. The tools of the kindergarten, its games, gifts, and occupations, we all know are the means of growth at this stage ; and it must be remembered that, while opening the doors of the child's mind to that which is external to him, they offer a theater for action or expression in which each child plays a leading part. Every sense is to be exercised and brought into rela- tion with every other sense, for upon clear sense perception will depend the clear concept which will be imperiously demanded in the later stages of growth. Whatever is arbitrary and conventional has a tendency to check rather than further this development. Reading and writing can never open up the young child's heart and mind to these truths as do nature's symbols, for even to the youngest child nature's truths are universal truths ; they are always true to themselves, and their relationships stand out boldly. Again, when the child gains thought from words, it is not his own thought in the sense that his use of typical objects is his. His discoveries of form, position, color, etc., are his experimentally. With the word he has had nothing to do ; it can bring him no message of the past, for, as has been said, to this child there is no past. He can use the word only along one line, while in the other case he is reaching out and applying successfully to all objects the elementary attributes gained from the one object. 328 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. We shall never have clear, strong thinking in the boys and girls in our schoolrooms until we have given them materials to make thought of. Words do not feed the whole being of the child ; and if this entity is not rightly nourished, the youth and maiden will find, when the day of reck- oning comes, that the bank account has been overdrawn. It is a common thing to hear parents say : "I want my child to learn to read early, so that he can amuse himself." I wonder if they realize what it means, in this day, to keep this reading wholesome ! Do you know how a child who loves to read devours everything that comes in his way ? His taste for good reading is often vitiated before we realize it. It is of vital importance, therefore, that our children have their eyes opened to nature and true art, that there may be some standard within by which to meas- ure the value of what is brought to them in books. So we return to the thought, as all of this experimental nature-study takes time, that in the first seven years plastic material shall be given through which the child can store up a fund of sense impressions — a power of imagination without which later study will be but an effort to make "bricks without straw." When the page is turned, and the child passes on to a stage in which the love of knowing, of investigating, is the ruling desire, we find the con- ventional symbols of written language a most helpful means of growth, and it is at this time that the art of reading can be acquired most readily. There is testimony enough to substantiate the claim that the child trained in the kindergarten loses no time, but rather gains a strength that words can never bring to him if they are presented too soon. I know per- fectly well that children can be taught, and easily taught, to read at the age of three or four years. That is not the question, but rather, What has been gained by the process ? I believe, nothing, for it only induces an earlier habit of thinking other people's thoughts instead of our own, when, at this age, our children need to be gathering first-hand the materi- als for thought. CHANGES IN KINDERGARTEN PLAYS AND GAMES. BY MISS SARAH A. STEWART, PHILADELPHIA, PA. (1) Should plays and games which Froebel invented be modified ? (2) Should substitutions be made for any of them ? (3) Should others be added ? Froebel was the first of the great educational innovators to base sys- tematic development upon the spontaneous activity of the child. Edu- cators of all times had acted upon the theory that suppression of physical activity was a necessary condition of mental growth. The instinct for CHANGES IN KINDERGARTEN PLA TS AND GAMES. 329 play, which allies the child to the young of all animals, was held to be an obstacle which must be overcome before there could be any spiritual and mental advance. Asceticism had done its work so completely in educa- tion that this primal law of childhood was in danger of effacement. To jize upon this rejected life principle and make it the corner-stone of a new education was the work of genius. A real distinction may be made between plays and games, although the terms are often used synonymously ; no hard and fast lines can be drawn between them. We shall take the first to mean all the undirected movements of children which come from their rich endowment in sponta- neous activity. In the kindergarten it shows itself in imitative play and work. Froebel early recognized this law, and to him alone is due the honor of inventing an abundant amount of material by which the native instincts of children for activity may be satisfied. The twenty gifts and occupations furnish a means for organized development, and serve to give an educative direction to the child's faculties and powers. On the playground the instinct for play shows itself in imitative actions, trials of strength and skill which minister to the early and simple emotion — love of power. Games are an outgrowth from this early stage, and the child delights in them when the intellectual powers are developed sufficiently to direct spon- taneous activity by well-established rules, and when an element of pleasure is added from the altruistic side, by comparison and competition with others. Both plays and games are an expression of the law of motion — the initial starting-point and measure of life. Froebel makes this development begin with the child in the cradle. The simple plays and exercises which the mother carries on with the child are types of a whole line of activities (pleasant) given for the health- ful and graceful development of the body. They are designed to show the spirit and method with which all early plays should be conducted, rather than as finished products to be imitated and reproduced by all mothers under all circumstances. A careful analysis of the games given by Froebel shows that they are based upon fundamental principles, and with modifications may have uni- versal application. He never makes the mistake of taking a purely local or unworthy subject. Every child needs to be taught the value of time ; his clock game and song typify this, but do not limit to those particular words and actions. It is essential that the child be taught to recognize the great law of change through that which he best understands, but is not necessary that this be illustrated in the especial way in which Froebel makes the type mother teach the game. Whatever a child imitates he begins to under- stand ; so Froebel makes games to call attention to the various activities of animal life. The bird games, the barnyard, the lizard, and the fishes, mirror the life which is nearest to the child, and become an inspiration 330 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. to later and wider study. It is significant that in the animal games which Froebel gives he presents types of the three kingdoms — earth, air, and water — and so suggests unity and completeness. The model for the teacher is evident. The lizard game played by the children in Froebel's kindergarten in the dear, sleepy old German village, with a brook running through it, with lizards basking upon its banks, becomes a type game for illustrating a method by sympathetically repre- senting the life which is nearest the child. The teacher in St. Mary's Street (our type street for the slums) would make a mistake if she teaches the game as it is simply because she finds it in Froebel's collection. She would be nearer to his teaching if she should take the grimy child who floats his miniature ship, represented by a chip, its rich cargo represented by bits of paper, on the surface water of the gutter, and substitute for him, for example, Mrs. Ormiston Chant's beautiful game, written with no less loving insight into child life, "Here we float in our golden boat, far away, far away." The judicious teacher could float the child out of the uncanny world in which he finds himself, into a truer conception of the life outside — the river, the ocean life ; or, to put it in the more beautiful language of Froebel : "The play and playing of the child must be in harmony with his surrounding, through outward things his inner life to rouse, to strengthen power and mind, and lead the child to trace inner meanings in the outer face. " Froebel remembers also that the child is a child of man ; that he must be linked in sympathy and understanding with the industrial activities of life ; he presents the most primeval ones, or those which stand closest to human needs — the farmer, the carpenter, the miller. Other industries may stand nearer to some children. Those should be taken which begin where they are and lead out directly into related life. The family, the source of all that is highest and best in human relations, is typified in the finger games.' The highest moral attributes are personi- fied in the game of the "Knights and the Good Child," while the evil is made unlovely in the same graphic way. As in the childhood of the race religious teaching is represented by the drama, so by plays and games Froebel voices aspiration in that direction, and teaches universal truths in this most pleasant form. He does not forget the artistic longings of the child, as shown in the game of the piano ; and he awakens the creative activity and aesthetic sense in the game of the little artist. From his deep sympathy with childhood he touches every spring of its nature, and seeks to put it in touch with every department of surrounding life. In this way he gives us an inspiration and a method, while leaving the details to be modified or changed as the external surroundings and the inner needs of the children suggest. It is the spirit, not the form, that is important. It is the subject matter and its relationships that he would emphasize. The accidental or unimpor- THE SONG IN THE KINDERGARTEN 331 tant drop out, or do not appear in his category. He has a strong grasp of the essentials, and presents them in their unity ; in short, he attempts a comprehensive scheme of human development. How nearly one can follow him, will depend upon how nearly one can put himself upon the same plane of mental and moral achievement. Many new and excellent plays and games have been invented since the time of Froebel ; these have followed very closely the lines laid down in his works. They have been substituted with great advantage for some of his. New ones have been invented to suit our new conditions, and with a musical setting entirely in harmony with sound principles, although dif- fering from FroebeFs. But the constant tendency is to make the exercises too difficult, and to lose the spirit of play in the outward form. The thought of the teacher is too often superimposed upon the child, and aim- less, unfruitful results follow. New games are multiplied, with the hope of creating more interest and life, until often the unnatural and grotesque take the place of early simplicity and power. Competition among kindergartners for something new and different from others often leads far astray from sound principles. The inability of the average mature mind to see things from the child's point of view, and the constant overlapping of methods of physical culture suitable for older children, makes it very difficult to attain and retain the standard set by Froebel. Other kindergartens neglect the plays and games for what they are pleased to call work, from purely conscientious motives. Their in- ability to sympathize with and express childish conceptions leads them to cling to parts of the kindergarten exercises that they can do best. Most kindergartens are noted for some one thing, which is practiced to the detriment of others ; and this not so much from ignorance or lack of conscience as from a lack of power. How is all this to be remedied ? With a large class of us — by being born again. With another large class — by training. We have already plays and games sufficient. The something new must be looked for from within, from the soul of the teacher and the child, rather than from the modification, substitution, or elimination of outward forms. THE SONG IN THE KINDERGARTEN— ITS PLACE, VALUE, AND THE DRAMATIC ELEMENT. BY MISS CONSTANCE MACKENZIE, DIRECTOR OF PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS, PHILADELPHIA. The song seems to claim a place for itself in every nook and corner of the kindergarten. It is appropriate almost everywhere. It welcomes the children into the morning ring, and accompanies, with delightful fresh- 332 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. ness, the subject of the morning talk. It leads them in the march and through the games, and follows them to the tables. It introduces the gift and closes it. It brightens and lightens the occupation, making the infor- mal busy time a glad union of voice and finger exercise. And its last friendly strain dies away only as the kindergarten is left empty of children at the session's ending. Other reasons aside, its place is assured because the children love to sing, and this love of song in childhood leads me directly to the question : What is the value of the song in the kinder- garten ? To start with reasons physical for the value of the kindergarten song, we may draw attention to the chest development induced by good singing. To achieve its best results, the physical training of young children should possess an interest to them entirely outside of the development of the body. Gymnastics, as such, have no place in the kindergarten. In the song this condition of good physical training is met to the extent of the song's possibility. The child learns to sit and stand with back straight and shoulders well back, not formally, but with the understanding that it is the song's requirement and preamble. The action at once tends to broaden and elevate the chest. So, also, does the habit of deep breath- ing which, as the children learn to sing well, they unconsciously adopt. There, too, is the development of the voice — a result not alone of depth of chest, but also of the interest of the children in interpreting the senti- ments of the song-story. And the children's interest in the story and the delight in the music form the foundation of all that is valuable in their singing. There are reasons manifold for the value of the song in the kinder- garten from the point of view of the child's unfolding intelligence. The song offers one of the most attractive means of emphasizing all that is received through the talk, story, game, gift, occupation. It is an ever- varying, ever-pleasing repetition of the child's knowledge, and an always popular means of following up new experiences. The rhyming, measured language impresses itself upon the childish mind as prose can seldom do. It is to him the language form most readily retained and most delighted in. It is, furthermore, when chosen as it should be chosen, with a due regard for its literary and artistic value, for the most fitting and the most exquisite in wording and music, a means of training in fine taste surpassed in opportunity by nothing else in the kindergarten. The child who has learned to appreciate beauty of word-language and of tone-language is, to the extent of his appreciation, both a poet and a musician, and in being both or either he is intellectually greater and morally greater than he was before the unfolding in him of the aesthetic sense. Bad music and paltry rhyme are dying out of our kindergarten song-books. It is hardly possible nowadays to hear, as I have heard, of Mary's lamb, that he — THE SONG IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 333 " Waited patientfee about, Lee about, lee about," in order to accommodate words, poor enough in themselves, to worse music. Moreover, the good song offers to the child a standard of expres- sion in language and music especially valuable while he stands on the threshold of expressive power, and is then permanently impressed by the earliest examples brought to his notice. The chief and inestimable value of the song lies not, however, in the physical or in the intellectual, but in the moral training it affords. The song is the uplifting of the spirit. Its effects are as various as the ever- changing childish moods. Well and judiciously used, it is a means in the hands of the kindergartner of creating moods. Harmful influences may be confronted and overcome, good ones strengthened, by the right song in the right place, sung as it should be sung. Weariness and irritation are changed into a sense of peace by the introduction, without preface or prep- aration, of a soothing song without action. Dullness and heaviness may be dissipated by an unexpected dash into a stirring bit of music. And many are the quietly pointed morals, not too evident, but sinking all the deeper because undisturbed by direct allusion, of which the song becomes the happy vehicle. Music is, as we know, essentially an appeal to feeling, and when we wed fitting words to fitting melody, so that between the motive of the one and the motive of the other there shall be no discrepancy, we shall have laid a direct avenue of approach to the child's sympathies, to his better and more refined instincts. The road to reverence lies through the feeling, and to it the song leads the way. It winds by way of sympathy and respect for the lower forms of life, lifting itself up to a tenderness for the human in life ; and in and through the human it sees and reaches the divine. Take a song like the following to observe how a child's reveren- tial feeling is first stirred : " The alder by the river shakes out her powdery curls ; The willow buds in silver for little boys and girls ; The little birds fly over, and oh ! how sweet they sing, To tell the happy children that once again 'tis spring." When a child shall have learned to feel the sentiment in such a bit of musical poetry, and to recognize a loving relationship between himself and the alder, the willow buds, and the little birds ; when he shall have begun to stretch out in friendly greeting to things and people not himself, he will have taken the first step in religion. And as he keeps on singing the song again and again, and adds others of the same uplifting tendency, with music that also elevates, the sentiment of reverence deepens and widens until, by and by, it embraces all that he can know of what is true and good and beautiful. 334 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION The answer to the question as to how far the dramatic element should enter into the song can be broadly stated in three propositions : The subdued song, with the thought turned inward, should be sung without further action than may be expressed by undisturbed attitude ; as in the " Winter Prayer" : " Loving Friend, oh, hear our prayer ! Take unto Thy tender care All the leaves and flowers that sleep In their wliite beds covered deep ; Shelter from the wintry storm All thy snow-birds ; keep them warm.'* Here the only unforced action is the lifting of the head in appeal. If further gesture be introduced, such as an imitation of the movement of the storm, or of the covering over of the flowers, the simplicity and unity of the song is marred ; the thought is distributed among the objects for which the appeal is made instead of being centered upon the One appealed to, and the intended effect of the little hymn is destroyed. The song that tends to project thought outward, the song of joyous, leaping action, needs action in its expression ; as in the well-known blue- bird song : " I know the song that the bluebird is singing Up in the apple-tree where he is swinging. Brave little fellow ! The skies may look dreary ; Nothing cares he while his heart is so cheery. Hark ! How the music leaps out of his throat ! Hark ! Was there ever so merry a note ? Listen a while, and you'll hear what he's saying Up in the apple-tree, swinging and swaying ! " In such a song as that, the child is living among things external ; " up in the apple-tree" lifts his hand with it. The listening attitude of the hand to the ear, or the finger lifted and the head turned, are almost instinctive, and the cradling movement, in time to the music, goes by itself as the bird tips the branch. The charm of the words, the swing of the rhythm, the catch of the music set him "swinging and swaying" until he is a bit of nature, at one with the rapture of the outburst of song. If we here separate gesture so instinctive from the singing, we check the child and spoil the song. It is in songs of such character that children most naturally select their own form of action, because they feel it so keenly in the blood. Let them choose. Encourage choice, and adopt the best they propose. Songs requiring movement so violent as to interfere with natural breathing action should be acted out only by those of the children who are not singing. This proposition should be laid down as a principle. There are many songs which in their suggestiveness call for quite violent THE SONG IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 335 movement; movement delightful to the children, and of great physical value. Such gestures may be employed by half of the class as a sort of a Greek chorus, illustrating objectively the story told in the song. In no other way is violent gesture for a moment to be considered, unless one would counteract all physical benefit derived from the act of singing. Every song, no matter how classified, calls for interpretation through the movement of the muscles of the face. The intention of the song should transfuse the countenance of the child ; its very spirit must shine through his eyes. But this expression is pernicious in the extreme if it be ''put on." The song-story and the music must be felt, or it ought not to be used at all ; for unfelt expression is utterly false and artificial. " Thanks to the sunshine, Thanks to the rain, Little White Lily is happy again," sing the children. It will not do to say to one dismal-faced little song- ster, "James, look happy." One cannot look happy to order; not hon- estly happy. And with feeling of any kind that is not honest we want nothing to do. But if one says for the class generally, for James to hear : " I can see that Mary is a happy little lily ; see how her face shines," then James forgets himself, ceases to be a child, and enters wholly into the fresh gladness of the flower. And at once the feeling will show in his face. While care should be taken that no song that does not suggest action should have action thrust upon it, one should be equally observant not to discard gesture which the very nature of the song almost compels. I have heard singing rendered lame and lagging, because the kindergartner missed the impulse in it, of striving to push outward into action. A sug- gestion from her would have animated the singers and have wakened the song into life. Finally, I would urge that, be the song what it may, no gesture be permitted that does not mean something, that does not add to the song's value as a means of expression, and that is not natural. I have seen songs so crowded with movement that not one gesture could be clearly and definitely finished. I have seen songs marred by gesture which would have been tenfold more effective had they been sung quietly, without action, as both words and music demanded. And I have seen songs made ridiculous by misfitting everyday words to gestures that the child would never use in like connection in everyday life ; as in some of the songs of greeting and of farewell : " Good-by, happy work ; Good-by, happy play ! " — with both hands outward thrown as each good-by was said, in farcical exaggeration of expression. 336 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. I have hardly begun to plead the cause of the song in the kindergarten, but it needs no special pleader. Other things have their place, but the song belongs to all times and places ; and at every time and in every place it has its special bundred-sided value. It is the very breath of the kinder- garten. And it behooves us all to see to it that our children breathe in only the fresh, pure air of the best we have in song. THE ORGANIC UNION OF KINDERGARTEN AND PRIMARY SCHOOL. BY MES. SAEAH B. COOPEE, OP SAN PEANCISCO. I must confine myself to twenty minutes, at the outside. I desire to occupy but fifteen, leaving every possible moment for discussion ; for discussion stirs the soil around the roots of truth and gives it a vigorous growth. Let us go straight to the heart of the matter. " We learn through doing" — that is the foundation principle on which the kindergarten rests. The highest type of humanity which education can produce is reached by the equal and simultaneous growth of every faculty. The kindergarten provides for the nourishment of every faculty in its earliest stage, on the ground that all are essential to a perfect growth. The epochs of educational growth follow the divinely ordained epochs of vegetable growth ; there is the root-life, the stem -life, and the blossom life. That the blossom will depend very largely upon the care and nurture given to the root, no one will deny. So, then, the germs of every faculty must have their appropriate nourishment at the earliest possible point of time, and there must be, also, simultaneous growth. True growth is the equal and constantly increasing development of every faculty. That is not genuine growth which is developed only on one side ; that is a bulg- ing and misshapen condition. In order to proper growth there must be freedom, coupled with obedience to the innate laws of life and being — exactly as it is in the vegetable kingdom. The child must learn to use his mental powers as he has learned to use his bodily powers, by patient, persistent training and effort ; he must use his faculties as he does his limbs. He must learn to climb the stairs of mental and moral difficulty as he learns to climb the household stairs. The art of training precedes the art of teaching. The pressing curriculum of daily school life leaves scanty time for this gradual development of all the faculties of a little child. I do not believe that we begin to understand what is included in that expression, "all the faculties of a little child." I believe, dear friends, there is avast range of "unmapped country" within us awaiting discovery ; a vast domain of unexplored territory, as yet unpreempted and uncultivated, toward which the eye of Frederick 1RGANIG UNION OF KINDERGARTEN AND PRIMARY SCHOOL. 337 iYoebel, that great educational Columbus, was directed with a clear, 3teady, and divining gaze. He was the discoverer of childhood. He saw with true spiritual insight what eternal continents of truth, what priceless stores of hidden-away possibilities there are in the human mind. He saw the rich loam of faculty, needing only the clearing away of underbrush md briers, the letting in of soft sunlight and gentle showers, to beckon forth the sleeping germs. Frederick Froebel saw it all with prophetic clearness of vision, and having consecrated himself to the heaven-inspired i^ork while he lived, with a perfect faith in its ultimate triumph, he bade brave farewell to the few true friends who stood by him in his work, mowing that " what is excellent, as God lives, is permanent." And so it las proved ; for to-day the great educational principles which he discovered md laid down are going forth in every direction, conquering and to con- quer. The kindergarten is his enduring monument. As Dr. William T. [arris says of it : "'The kindergarten is the grandest system of education jver devised by man." The kindergarten concerns itself more with the development of faculty than with the mere imparting of knowledge. It recognizes the fact that true education is learning transformed to faculty. It does not ask so mch, "What does the child know?" as "Has the child learned how to learn ? " It looks less to mere acquirements than to the capacity to icquire. It is teaching the little child to teach himself. It is controlling the little child that he may learn the art of self-control. It is the aim of the kindergarten to make men and women who will be self-governing, and thus be a law unto themselves ; the sovereign of their own facul- ties, the pope of their own senses ; men and women who will succeed by their own skill and industry. The education of the future must levelop the industrial capacity of the masses. Cultivate the powers for 3reating and organizing, and then the desire for doing and accomplishing will take the place of the insatiable desire for having and getting. How is this education to be accomplished ? The kindergarten winnows >ut the faculties and gives them scope. It gives the boy a chance to shoose his work according to his faculty. Every human being is a rolume worthy to be studied. Huxley says: "If the nation could jurchase a potential Davy, Watt, or Faraday at a cost of a hundred thousand pounds down, he would be dirt cheap at the money." This work of finding out what is in the child must be begun just as early in life as possible. Practice should go hand in hand with theory from the rery start. In the first place, the kindergarten looks vigilantly after the mvsical life ; this is the substratum, the soil out of which all other life must spring. Physical integrity is the very first condition of success and happiness. " On the broad and firm foundation of health alone can the loftiest and most enduring structure of life be reared." One defini- tion of a man is : "An intelligence served by organs" ; and to serve him 22 338 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. well these organs must be in good repair. A sound body is the best handmaid to a sound intellect. In the consentaneous cultivation of the physical, the mental, and the moral, the highest perfection is to be found. There must be a balanced progress in which no part profits or is fostered to the injury of the rest. Herbert Spencer insists that to develop the physical, play is better than gymnastics. The kindergarten in its work with little children has been called "organized play." Frederick Froebel saw that this universal instinct for play in little children had a deep meaning, and he set himself to discover and utilize this mighty enginery of power and purpose. The kindergarten is the best agency for setting in motion the physical, mental, and moral machinery of the little child, that it may do its own work in its own way. It is the rain and dew and sun to evoke the sleeping germ and bring it into self-activity and growth. It is teaching the little child to teach himself. The kindergarten devotes itself more to ideas than to words ; more to things than to books. Children are taught words too much, while they fail to catch ideas. Give a child ideas. The world does not need fine rhetoric — valuable as that is — half as much as it needs prac- tical, useful ideas. A famous inventor's counsel to a young man was : " Study to have ideas, my boy ; study to have ideas. I have always found if I had an idea I could express it on a shingle with a piece of chalk and let a draughtsman work it out handsomely and according to rule. I gen- erally had ideas enough to keep three or four draughtsmen busy. You can always hire draughtsmen, but you cannot hire ideas. Study to have ideas, my boy/' The man should be the master, not the slave, of his learning, and whether he is the one or the other depends very largely on the way his knowledge has been gained. It is better to be the master of a little knowledge, with the capacity to use it creatively, than to be the unproductive carrier of all the learning in the libraries. Study to have ideas! Life will give no end of opportunities for using them. That is exactly the aim of the kindergarten — to make the mind creative, to stimu- late thought, to beget ideas. Habits of observation are cultivated. Observ- ing is more than seeing. The child in the kindergarten is taught to observe — that is, to notice with attention, to see truly. What he learns in the schoolroom is calculated to make him keep his eyes wide open to the world about him. He is taught to think, and that is the primal thing. One of the most noted among the disciples of the great Froebel — Miss Emily Shirreff, of London — says : " The poor man suffers wrong when his education is so defective that he cannot use his faculties aright; when his senses are blunted, his observation and judgment insecure. This wrong to the poor may be avoided by early methodical training in the kindergar- ten, thus fitting him for industrial pursuits. As it is now," she goes on to say, "when boys and girls leave school to go to some trade, they go with hands and eyes absolutely uncultivated. They begin with clumsy fingers, ORGANIC UNION OF KINDERGARTEN AND r RIM ART SCHOOL. 339 with that untrue habit of vision which belongs to those who have never learned the difference between accurate and inaccurate impressions. Sup- pose these children had been first trained in the kindergarten, taught there to observe resemblances and differences of forms and colors, to repro- duce accurately what they have observed accurately, to have acquired a certain sureness and delicacy of handling, which would be further culti- vated by drawing at school — then these boys and girls would enter an industrial apprenticeship, or any technical school, in a very different con- dition. They would be able to grapple at once with ordinary difficulties, instead of beginning the education of their hands and senses, and would in consequence reach much sooner the degree of proficiency that insures pay- ment for work. When we withhold this cultivation of the senses and of manual dexterity, we actually maim children in the use of some of the most important faculties ; we rob them of what nature designed for them." It is a fact that too little thought is given to boys and girls who upon leaving school will enter industrial ranks. Too large a share of training is paid to mere intellectual development, too little to practical morality and manual training. It is charged by some that our public schools tend to unfit our boys and girls for good, honest work. Is the charge true ? I do not believe it is. It ought not to be so. A thoughtful observer and educator wisely says that four years of study without labor, wholly removed from sympathy with the laboring world during the period of life when tastes and habits are rapidly formed, will almost inevitably produce disinclination if not inability to perform the work and duties of the shop or farm. There must be something wrong where such a feeling exists. It is not necessary to be a drudge in order to be a workman. The kindergarten ennobles toil. It teaches the little child to work with his hand, but to control his work with his head. Let this purpose and spirit pervade industrial education until the child reaches to manhood's estate, and his labor will be full, not only of manly quality but of moral quality as well. The coordination of the workshop and the schoolhouse would be the emancipation of labor from present prejudices. Let all the children, rich and poor, have a chance to make the most of themselves ! Democracy means equitable opportunity. Liberty of growth and equality at the start is the law of all true democratic life. That is the glory of our common schools. And we could better afford to lose every college and university in the land than to lose our free common schools. The rich boy and the poor boy stand on a common level in the public school. If the rich man's lazy boy will not study, he must stand below the poor man's studious boy, and that is all there is of it. The public school is a germinant republic where all altitudes and elevations are brought down to a common starting-point, and where the word of command goes forth : "Now, boys, your feet must all stand on a com- mon level, but you may shoot your heads just as high as you please." 340 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Let us fit the young for the work of life ! Let ns equip them for main- taining themselves in honest independence ! I rejoice in the fact that private beneficence is doing so much in this direction. I have been studying the great work just about to be opened here in Chicago under the splendid beneficence of Philip D. Armour. I refer to that grandly equipped Tech- nical Institute, built from the foundation on the kindergarten, just as every technical school should be ; for the kindergarten is the only true foundation for the arts and trades. Wealth thus used is the poor man's providence. Wealth thus used keeps healthy, and it keeps the community healthy. Let us see if this is not so. What has been found in regard to several thousand prison convicts in two of the largest penitentiaries of the East ? The great, salient, flaming fact is not that they cannot read and write ; not that they had not been to Sunday-school ; not that they were intemperate ; but the most common, the most generic fact is that these convicts know no trade, most of them being entirely ignorant of all trade knowledge. Few if any of our large cities have ever expended a dollar to teach a boy a trade. How much does it cost for criminals ? Then, again, it has been carefully estimated that seven-tenths of the convicted criminals of the United States are persons who have never learned a trade or followed any industrial pursuit, and a very large pro- portion of these criminals are under twenty-five years of age. What a suggestive fact ! Does not public economy demand that something be done to provide facilities for teaching the young industrial pursuits ? They cannot become mechanics without the opportunities for learning handcraft ; and the training of the hand, as well as of the head and heart, should be begun in earliest years. Idleness is the devil's workshop. Children are not depraved. They need wise care and training. The prevention of crime is the duty of society. Society has no right to punish crime at one end if it does nothing to prevent it at the other end. Society's chief concern should be to remove the causes from which crime springs. We may be very eloquent in pleading that punishments may be quick, sharp, and decisive ; that the gallows may have every victim that it claims by law, and that eternal vigilance may be kept on evil-doers. But all this will not avail. Ruskin says truly : "Crime cannot be hindered by punishment. It will always find some shape and outlet unpunishable and unclosed. Crime can only be truly hindered by letting' no boy grow up to be a criminal ; by taking away the will to commit sin, not by the mere punishment of its commission. Formation, not reformation, should be the watchword. Crime, small and great, can only be stayed by formation — education ; not the education of the intellect merely, but the education of the head, heart, and hand, which is the education of the whole man." We may make laws and constitutions on paper, but character is a growth, and to all growth belongs the element of time. Let the kindergarten become an ORGANIC UNION OF KINDERGARTEN AND PRIMARY SCHOOL. 341 H-ganic part of the public school system. Get hold of the children that ro to make up our criminals at the earliest possible moment. (Out of line thousand trained in our free kindergartens in San Francisco, we found only one arrest.) Read the testimony of one of our oldest and most 3xperienced primary teachers in San Francisco. Superintendent Swett, in his last annual report, says : " The training received in the free kindergarten schools is having a marked effect on the children that enter the receiving classes of the public schools. I asked Miss Agnes tanning, principal of the Webster School, one of the largest primary schools in the 2ity, to give me a written opinion on this point, and received the following statement ■ Superintend knt Swett. Dear Sir : I wish to tell you why I am so strongly in favor of kindergartens. My school is in a crowded neighborhood. I have many children from tenement- houses, and from the narrow streets south of Market Street. Before the days of the kindergarten these children, as soon as they could crawl, spent their waking lives on the sidewalks. From the age of two to six years they pursued the education of the street. The consequences were that at six they came to us with a fund of information of the worst description, and a vocabulary that might excite the envy of the Barbary coast. At the commencement of each new year they tumbled over each other in their rude haste to take up the unexplored life of a school. They were in tens, fifties, hundreds, in our yards. The novelty being past, the hard struggle commenced of keeping them from joining the army of truants, and leading them into habits of work and cleanliness. When I made my appearance it was the signal for such asides as, ' Cheese it ! ' ' Lie low ! ' ' Here's the boss, kids ! ' A freckle-faced, blue-eyed, innocent-looking boy would shock and astound us by swearing as roundly as a Nevada mule-driver. He had four years of street training, and it was uphill work to uproot the ill weeds so rankly sown, and a slow task cultivat- ing a different and better crop. The kindergartens have changed all this. They have taken the babies that used to be consigned to the curbstone, trained and guided them along a path of development. They have wisely attempted no cramming of the infant brain with premature scholar- ship. They have surrounded the young lives with a fresh atmosphere. They have passed the hours in pleasant games, taught a purer language, and led the little feet into a new civilization. The children of tenement-houses and narrow streets still come in tens, fifties, and hundreds to begin life in a new school at the beginning of each school year. I hear no more, however, the wild phrases of the Barbary coast, or the mule-drivers' oaths. The little ones are clean, self-respecting, eager for knowledge. They have opinions of their own on many things, and are quite anxious to express them. They neither know how to read nor to write. They have been taught to see, to observe, to tell about what they see and hear. They have been taught to respect older people, to be honest, to tell the truth. It is a rare thing now to find a child that does not know it is wrong to steal. If you meet one you may be sure he has never been in a kindergarten. It used to be a common thing to find blase villains of six, who would steal anything on which they could lay their hands. They were always ' finding ' their neighbors' pencils, sponges, strings, pictures, books, or stray toys. When caught in the act, they would grin in your face and tell you, ' Them as finds, keeps.' I think you will now understand why I am so strongly in favor of kindergartens. Agnes M. Manning." Dear friends, I have tried to show why the kindergarten should be an organic part of our public school system. I have tried to outline the plan. Let me briefly summarize. Take the very little child into the kinder- garten, and there begin the work of physical, mental, and moral training. Put the child in the possession of his powers, develop his faculties, unfold 342 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. his moral nature ; cultivate mechanical skill in the use of the hands ; give him a sense of symmetry and harmony, a quick judgment of number, measure, and size; stimulate his inventive faculties; make him familiar with the customs and usages of well-ordered lives ; teach him to be kind, courteous, helpful, and unselfish ; inspire him to love whatsoever things are true and pure and right and kind and noble ; and thus equipped physically, mentally, and morally, send him forth to the wider range of study, which should include within its scope some sort of industrial training — that is, the putting of the boy or girl into the possession of the tools for technical employment, or for the cultivation of the arts of drawing and kindred employments ; and, still further on, the boy and girl should have a completed trade. Thus will they be prepared to solve the rugged problem of existence by earning their own living through honest, faithful work. MODIFICATIONS IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. Thesis : " What modifications in the primary school are necessary or desirable in order to adapt it to continue the work of the kindergarten and reap the advantages of the training already received ? " DISCUSSION. BY B. PICKMAN MANN, OF WASHINGTON, D. C. The most crying need of the primary school is the giving of an opportunity to the teachers to devote personal attention to the scholars individually. This need is to be met by confining the number of pupils under one teacher within such limits that there may be time to devote the needed attention to each. It is recognized that one kinder- gartner cannot properly take care of more than twenty-five children, and it would be better if she had not more than eighteen or twenty. It is widely recognized also that fifty or sixty children are too many to be cared for properly by one primary teacher, and that she could do much better with one-half of that number. In placing the employment of more teachers first as a modification needed in the con- duct of primary schools, I do not forget that quality is needed more than quantity. But I believe that the quality needed will come largely through the quantity. The teacher can do for each child more nearly what the child needs to have done for it. One of the important elements in the excellence of kindergartens is the ability of the kindergartner to give to each child the individual attention it needs. While I believe that the present teachers are capable in great measure of much better work than they are given an opportunity to perform, I believe the qualifications of teachers are capable of great improvement. The kindergarten method is more than a practice ; it is a philosophy. The greatest value of the kindergarten rests in the power the kindergarten has to develop the higher and nobler side of individual character and ability. This power comes from the conformity of the kindergarten practice to the methods of nature. Con- MODIFICATIONS IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 343 fortuity to nature is more and more recognized every day to be the path of wisdom and of right. If the kindergarten practice conforms to the method of nature, it should be continued so long as this conformity continues. As the child grows his needs and abilities grow ; but all growth is by degrees and not by leaps, so the transition from the kindergarten to the school should be gradual. The child in the kindergarten learns and grows as he plays. He grows physically, mentally, and morally, while he plays spontaneously. His play is at the same time seri- ous work, but it is not labor. It is good for him. It is healthful. After the child leaves the school his development does not stop. If he has a fondness for business, for medicine, for art, for science, he pursues those avocations or studies diligently, and, as those who do not sympathize with his tastes might say, laboriously ; but he pursues them for pleasure. His work is play. The art of pedagogy should be that which will adapt the supply of the needs of the child to the natural desires and disposition of the child. This necessitates the adapta- tion of the method to the individual, and the competency of the teacher to her task, and the liberty of action of the teacher in the execution of her task. The fault of all schooling has been and still is, for the most part, that the schooling has not been carried on for its own sake. Secondary motives have been substituted for primary ones as inducements to continue in school. The children of a well-conducted kindergarten are impatient to be in the kindergarten. They plead with their mothers not to let sickness or bad weather keep them from attendance, and they are sorry when they have to go home, and say they " wish the kindergarten could keep all the time." Is it so usually with the school ? There may be teachers who so keep school, but such is not the rule. It is not always, if generally, the fault of the teachers that such schools are not more numerous. It is in most cases because the teachers are driven to force upon their scholars tasks for which the scholars are not ready. The occupations of the kindergarten should be continued into the school until by gradual development the transition has been made from kindergarten work to school work. The essential modification needed in primary teaching is not the addition of one or the elimination of another subject of study. It is not the change, in any general way, of the methods of teaching, although these, especially in teaching to read, are capable of great improvement in most schools. It is the awaiting until the child is ready to take hold of specific kinds of work before giving him this work to do. Meanwhile his education should be conducted upon the lines and according to the methods already found suited to his nature, so that he may enjoy going to school, and shall develop in the needed directions while feeling that he is but playing. What are the daily and nightly labors of the physician who loves his profession, but play ? What is the reformer doing when he buffets against the waves of popular oppo- sition, and mayhap suffers obloquy or death in behalf of his beloved cause, but playing ? Play is but the gratification of desire to accomplish certain work, and all human activity will become play and a delight when it is adjusted to nature. The faults of our schools are largely the faults of our national life. There is too much hurry. Because children can be made to learn to read at five or six years of age they are driven to learn to read at that age, when they do not naturally develop to the stage at which learning to read is their need until they are seven or eight years old. When they should be filling their minds with observation of nature, they are driven to the acquisition of second-hand knowledge, which they are not compet«nt to digest. When Agassiz had his first class of students at his museum in Cambridge, he set before each student a pile of shells or a collection of fishes or some other subject of study, and told them to find out what they could about them by observation. He did 344 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. not give them text-books to read, with ready-made classifications, but set them to classi- fying for themselves. Their observations might be inadequate, their classifications might be crude ; but whatever the immediate practical outcome of the study, the habit was formed to see for one's self and to think for one's self. Each of these students became a distinguished naturalist. We know that some children have a natural fondness for numbers and measures — let us say for mathematics — from an early age ; some children have an equal fondness for stories, not only for what they are about but for the way in which they are told — let us say for history and literature ; others for form and color and their representations — let us say for art and architecture. Such children do not need to be driven, but only to be led in the direction in which they tend to go. If we are justified in our attempts to teach mathematics to those who do not naturally or at the outset love mathematics ; to teach history and a familiarity with literature to those who have no first taste for these studies, it is because we recognize, or at least believe, that the germs of love for these studies exist in every soul. If such germs exist, why should we not develop them naturally ? Would we make a bean plant grow by seizing its stem and pulling it until it reached the desired length, or would we sup- ply its roots with nourishment and its leaves with sunlight, and trust to the power within for the rest ? That our unnatural, unsympathetic method of schooling has not worse results than we observe, is due to the inherent power of the soul to resist distortion. The forces of nature prevail, as it is, to a great degree, over the artificial interferences of unnatural systems of instruction. The function of the teacher is to lead and not to drive. Those only should be teach- ers who can lead. Let us double or treble the numbers of our primary school teachers. Let us secure the best teachers for the youngest scholars, and promote teachers from the older to the younger classes. Let us give freedom to the natural teacher to carry out her own ideas, not aiming to run the schools as machines at the minimum of cost and the maxi- mum of gross material ground out of them. Then we may safely leave it to the practical teachers themselves to follow such methods as shall continue the work of the kindergarten in the schools, and reap the advantages of the training already received. PREPARATION OF THE KINDERGARTNER. BY MBS. LOUISA PAESONS HOPKINS, OF THE BOAED OF SCHOOL SUPEEVISOES, BOSTON, MASS. In" considering the preparation of the kindergartner for her work, we may regard the natural and unconscious preparation of temperament and organization, as well as the specific one of determination and training. Original gifts and organic constitution of mind and character are quite as important elements in the fitness of the teacher of little children as those superinduced by definite plans of education. The idealistic temperament with the practical habit, the clear mind and the sympathetic heart, com- bine to make up the best equipment of organization for the kindergartner. This condition of heart and mind seems to me the primary qualification PREPARATION OF TEE KINDERGARTNER. 345 of the kindergartner. Notwithstanding all the logic of heredity and en- vironment, to discern the essential coming of God into every life at its advent ; to hear God saying, " All souls are mine/' even amid the renewed assumptions of philosophy and the clamorous demands of the new science of evolution ; to be able to recognize every child as first the child of God, with a divine soul ready to germinate within him, while wise men are pro- claiming him not only the child of man merely, but the child of the beast, the child of protoplasm, the child of chaos — this is to prove one capable of knowing and helping the child in his onward growth. The divine relations of childhood should be clearly seen, and without shutting one's eyes to the complex relations into which his human descent places him. But in the whole commonwealth of childhood, repeat no more the proverb that humanity is evolved from what is below, and not from what is above. The spirit of God in its germinating force has been placed within all mat- ter, only to assimilate it to its growing uses and make it a temple of God. Whether this transcendent harmony of the whole nature be the result of training and experience, or the happy balance of native gifts and graces, it is the preparation which the kindergartner cannot do without, for it determines her essential attitude toward her work. It is the motherhood of the calling, and expresses the calling itself. It is the preparation of the spirit, and vastly more essential than that of the letter or the technical form in which it is embodied. Every normal school should be furnished with a kindergarten depart- ment, equipped with a model kindergarten, where the complete theory and practice may be taught by masters and mistresses of the subject. We must demand at the outset that no charlatans shall administer this profound philosophy, no ignoramus or superficial student shall presume to handle these vital elements of learning, and no mere wage-earner be allowed to conduct the little child to this freedom of development. Is it too sanguine a prophecy that the educational science of Froebel shall ere long be repre- sented by the university chair, and the study of the education of man be thought worthy of the highest degree in a professional training ? In considering the second point of the thesis, we may allow that all kindergarten teachers are not necessarily kindergartners. There may be much pleasant and useful help giveu by sympathetic persons of an ordinary degree of general culture. The plays and games are the brighter for the vivacious and intelligent participation of some young girl fond of children and not too far removed in age to be accepted as a playmate as well as di- rector of these exercises. A knowledge of the mechanical part of the games and occupations, with a spontaneous interest and sympathy, is a most val- uable qualification for a helper to the professional kindergartner. I think when the kindergartner is best fitted for oversight and not for too constant active participation in the games, such an assistant is quite necessary. I like to see the younger students of the normal class entering into the 346 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. active exercises of the kindergarten, which their graceful movements am spontaneous playfulness enliven, while their knowledge of the routine is shown only in their happy freedom with the children who look to them as leaders. This, too, is a part of the preparation of the kindergartner, and should be in the hands of intelligent and well-informed students. These teachers, not yet qualified as principals, may be in training for the general examination in secondary studies, and may be working as assistants while progressing in their preparation as principals ; or, if they aspire only to the position of helpers under the direction of a principal, they should be required to pass only an elementary examination in branches of study, provided they manifest the right spirit and a love of children. But for such as aspire to the charge of a kindergarten, the culture of the high-school course is not too much to require as the basis of professional training. The morning talks will tax the widest resources of learning; to answer a child's inquiries and lead him to ever opening vistas of obser- vation and discovery, calls for the highest culture in natural science as well as in all the relations of human activity. When we see Froebel sitting down with his treasures of university erudition to open the mental vision of twelve little children and feed them with the bread of life, we catch a glimmer of the light that he deemed the birthright of the poorest child. After such a glimpse of the measurements of the master, can we set up a narrow gauge for the kindergartner in either power or attain- ments ? KINDERGARTEN AS A BASIS FOR LIFE. BY FRAU HENRIETTA SCHRADER, OF BERLIN. [This Paper was translated for Publication by Amelia Hofer, of Chicago.] To my mind it is a vital mistake to consider the kindergarten, as is too frequently done, as a preliminary step toward the school, and to see its plan of work, its methods of occupation and development, merely as a preparation for primary instruction. Too great importance has been put upon school training in our time, which has been given a prominence far out of proportion to that accred- ited to the home training and to the family influence in public education, and this in spite of the unsatisfactory results so far attained. Indeed, the whole scheme and character which is commonly understood to comprise the kindergarten, does not seem to me to express Froebel's idea on this all-important subject of " How shall we train little children ?" However important Froebel considered the school in its totality and its influence upon the child, and although his sentiments in regard to educa- tion as expressed in the organized school and methods of teaching are KINDERGARTEN AS A BASIS FOR LIFE. 347 most impressive and earnest, as embodied in his great work, " Menschen Erziehung " (Education of Man), he still gives the foremost place in his educational theory and practice to the family thought as expressed in his book, "Mutter und Kose Lieder." The ever- increasing experience of Froebel, as he came in contact with many families, taught him that parents are far from fulfilling their obligations, and in his deeply significant paper, dated 183(5, called the " Renewing of Life," he calls out, full of spirit : " In the family environ- ment alone, man reaches that point which causes his soul to radiate and his life to be fulfilled ; but even then is this accomplished only as the family recognizes itself a medium of love, light, and life. The key- note for a higher plane of human development can only be sounded when man is seen as one member of an organized whole — a unity made up of many members." Once more Froebel deliberated, looking back over his accumulated experience and asking himself seriously this question : " Can family life, the home environment, satisfy the high demand of the present stage of human development, in order that it may reach unto and culminate in an ever renewing of life ? " Answering himself earnestly and conclusively, he said, "No." He turned aside in 1836 from his previous efforts in connection with schools and the training of boys ; he must search out new ways in order to reach a more certain and rational education. And now he comes upou his kindergarten. In a public call sent out in 1840, we find that he by no means considered this merely as an institute of learning, but that he demanded a complete development, fitted for all life, for those who were to lead little children. He demanded a union of practical power to do, with scientific knowl- edge, for the true development of the child. He looked to the womanhood of Germany to found his ideal institute, but they did not yet understand him. The essential means with which to establish a training-school for the guardians of children were not forthcoming, and he must needs be satisfied to open the work along its several lines rather than produce it at once as a complete organization. One of these lines was the kindergarten, and the training of worthy kindergarteners to be worthy assistants to the mother, as well as prepared to be the future mothers of children ; and in this way he determined, little by little, to elevate the entire family culture. Out of this struggle and ideal he produced the " Mutter und Kose Lieder." He spoke the inclusive words : "The family of the new time must behold itself a unit," and this thought still overflows with meaning for us all. It is emphasized and enlarged upon in his "Mother Play" songs. The very labor which provides physical comforts to the various members of the family, and which falls chiefly to the hand of woman, is 348 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. constantly bringing about right relationships. Even though the family circle be a limited oue, it is brought into contact with an ever-increasing larger circle by force of natural and mutual needs. Family consumption as well as production weaves many threads in and out between the various members and the head of the house, and again between the house-mother and the great outer world. Formerly it was customary to think of these relationships only from the standpoint of securing advantage to the family ; cheap labor for the home, close market- ing, even though at the sacrifice or suffering of others, was still recog- nized a mark of good housewifery. In the case of man's choice of occupation, the important consideration was whether it would bring safe provision. High wages were desirable, even though others struggled and suffered because of the discrimination. In the training of children, the most conspicuous principle was to preserve them from mistakes and trials, and, as was said, "care for them all as to their external needs." As a consequence, the ego of the individuals reached no further than the ego of the family ; and the latter entered into no living conscious interchange, such as giving and taking, with the other factors of human- ity. The entire social structure supported the tendency of the ties ; many families there were who remained forever untouched by outer social or political relationships. A change came, however, and Froebel clearly foresaw the coming condition. He recognized that the ever-increasing conflicts between classes and stations of humanity could not be remedied through external law. He saw that the bonds could only be released through spontaneous deeds of loving fellowship, to practice which the true family environment must be reinstated as a unity, serving best when seeing itself a member of a still larger circle. In the family relationship, with its varied and responsive duties, is found the embryo of all phases of later development. Wherefore it is a firm fact that all organic life, from the smallest beginning, unfolds itself to the greater, however magnificent it is to become ; and this law of nature must be applied to the individual human life as well as to that of the whole human family. The training of the power of will rests upon a gradual exercise of the same, beginning with the young child. It is for this reason that efforts along intellectual and industrial lines, however progressive, have failed to bring the joy and satisfaction which they should, and which they do bring when knowledge and ability to execute are joined hand in hand with man's ethical inclinations. Individual development must always be joined to an activity the fruit of which is consecrated to others. In this way only can be preserved to child-nature room for the interest of others. The child may begin early to mediate and bring together such warring factors as self-support, self- assertion, simultaneous with self-giving, and so establish a harmony and equality. KINDERGARTEN AS A BASIS FOR LIFE. 349 This can only be brought about in the family environment, or in insti- tutions where the home spirit prevails. The pivot of the family is nurture -the nurture which brings consideration to each individual member both for soul and body. There is no other condition than that of the well- )rdered home center which makes this possible — a home center, the soul ind heart of which, is the home-keeper, the mother. Her duties are by io means limited to housework, absorbing her full time and energy ; and still it were unnatural if she did not thoroughly understand all those many practical things which become the essentials of a true home. She should mow the ways and means in order to be free before her servants, in order influence all her co-laborers properly, and be able to fully satisfy the laily needs of her household. To properly fulfill every duty of a small home circle gives opportunity each child to contribute in some degree to the real comfort and value )f the home, and at the same time to supply scientific knowledge and mgender ethical power. Here the child is brought close to nature and true industry, not from the standpoint of intellectual gain, but through a spontaneous willing in accordance with ethical law. It is vital and essential that we should recognize the care for plants and minials as a part of the household environment, and in order that the educational opportunities and advantages of family surroundings may be fully appreciated. It was this for which Pestalozzi so earnestly pleaded, ^he natural standard for such environment in which to develop through lormal activity is the German family, which is neither in bondage through reat poverty, nor yet swept from its moorings by an overflow of riches. In a large establishment, with its mauy servants, where parents are )ledged to important social duties, the children should still be granted a small household circle of their own, with proper attendance, wherein the mother shall take part as much as is possible, and wherein the father may find a salutary resting place after exhausting service in the busy world. Let us but once recognize home activities as an important educational means, and proper surroundings to secure the same will be speedily provided. There is no more harmful movement in modern evolution than that socialism which demands the dissolution of the family, or which interferes with the organic necessity of man's truly living and expressing affection in the human family. By so doing, the very foundation upon which rests a unified development of the child's soul and body is destroyed, as well as the only means by which his spiritual power may be completely unfolded, and also that environment which is its best nourishment, since it provides spontaneous instinctive moral action. In the face of such statements it is sometimes argued that machinery is snatching the work out of man's hand, or is condensing the duties of the household to a minimum which could scarcely suffice to serve as an 350 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. educational factor. Machinery releases man more and more from the drudgery of labor ; but however wonderfully it be built to serve so won- derful a purpose, none has yet been found who can breathe into its wheel-work the spirit, the love which prompts care-taking for another and which satisfies the needs of fellow-men. Thus, in spite of all inven- tions, there still remains a remnant of noble duty which the individual human being must still fulfill. No school, no academy, however high it has reached into science or art, can provide mankind with the ethical nurture which is derived from daily participation in fellow-service, or in loving contact with nature, or the self-won fruits of true industry. By nature, by instinct, the physically and morally normal child is eager to be of service. But how little is this impulse within him fostered or nurtured ! The practical educator does not turn his face in the direction of this mellow soil, or of this fructifying environment wherein to truly cultivate the child. Long before Froebel, Pestalozzi, with all the might and impetus of his genius, pointed to this great fissure in school life ; and Froebel presented the same thought in his own way in the " Mother Play " book. In this book we find an illustration of the little gardener, to which he attaches this motto : ' ' Wouldst thou the childish heart unfold ? Close to the nurture of life him hold. Wouldst thou prepare him to cherish and love ? - Show him the joy which such nurture provides." In what other sphere than that of the family may the child find the soil for such growth, unless it be in institutions where the family training life is made the basic principle? The child is a complete being, and he must exercise his love, his interest/and his nurture among wholesome and satis- fying beings, and in a loving, personal companionship. This was Froebel's preeminent purpose in establishing the kindergarten, as he has clearly shown in the "Mother Play" book. The noble, nor- mal family was the type for his kindergarten, which, in turn, he would have become a living model for the true family ; and it was thus through him that womankind was awakened to the privileges of spiritual mother- hood, and nurtured and developed to a new sphere of activity in the family as well as in the community, the school, and state. Let us turn to the picture of the '"Flower Basket," where Froebel, agreeing fully with Pestalozzi, shows the inner relation between mother and child as the only true center and germinal point from which all human relationships radiate. The mother places the child in his right relationship to father, to sisters, to servants, to nature itself. The father of the house, whose business interests prevent his coming so closely in STORY-TELLING IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 351 contact with the family, seeks peace, pleasure, and happiness in the heart of the home, and here gathers new forces that he may fulfill the arduous labors and struggles of his professional life. Infinite is the power held in the hand of mother and child to provide him the joy and comfort of life, and send him out to carry into the great world of that precious store which has been garnered in the small family circle. The mother leads the children to appreciate the father's faithful labor for them, and to sympathize, in their own way, with the larger scope of his life. She directs them to contribute to his comfort in the home cir- cle ; even the smallest child that can do no definite work with its hands may still do great things for father. It may exert its full strength to fashion a basket which mother fills with fresh flowers for his delight. No man can do more than pour his whole strength into a loving deed. There- fore this child has accomplished the greatest. Froebel made his starting- point this exquisite sentiment : that childish doing for others must first and foremost be connected with the child's inner and natural impetus or inclination, so that in time the affection which prompts his deeds for others may become habit. STORY-TELLING IK THE KINDERGARTEN. BY MARY T. HOTCHKISS, OF MILWAUKEE, WIS. Thesis : What should be the character of the stories told in the kindergarten, and to what extent should stories be told ? Nature is the universal teacher of mankind. Her instruction has been at all ages, in every clime, at every period of the world's history. Her topic is the universe — the subject-matter, therefore, inexhaustible. Her books are found everywhere, her pages are always open, her instruction ever close at hand. Much of her teaching is given silently, though she speaks in the songs of birds, the sound of waters, and the roll of thun- der. As nearly every educational theory has its symbolic representation in nature, this one of story-telling is especially seen. In every aspect of nature, whoever is in harmony with her and " holds communion with her visible forms," to him "she speaks a various language." The dainty flower growing by the wayside tells its story of beauty and love, and is fragrant with the secret of its growth and brightness. The trees swaying in the breeze tell their story with a hundred tongues ; a tale of joy in liv- ing, a tale of sunshine and shadow, like our lives. The river smiling in the sunlight tells to listening ears, as it passes singing on its way, a tale of sun-kissed waves, of turbulence and peace, of ebb and flow. The stars, the "forget-me-nots of the angels," shine forth their story of wonder and mystery, of light and beauty, of divine power and love. The sunbeams 352 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. dancing gayly atonr feet tell to "hearts attuned " of renewed strength, of light and life. The silvery clouds sailing across the summer sky are speak- ing to us of shining raindrops, of shade from the noonday sun, of the love of the Creator in planning all things for our good. Froebel's mind grasped the story of the flowers. He says : " From the star-shaped blossoms I first learned to understand the law of all forma- tion, and it is no other than the reconciliation of opposites ; and a hum- ble little flower taught me divinely to interpret the secrets of existence, the mysterious laws of development." Besides this — a natural reason for stories — others are equally important. The early race was educated by myths and legends, and each child follows the development of the race. Every child loves stories, and what is loved by the universal child is necessary for his develoj)ment. " As the flower longs for sun and light and air, so the child longs for stories." Stories are the means of encouraging ideality, giving lofty aims, high aspirations, beautiful views of life and duty. As has been said: "Good stories well told are to children what excellent sermons are to their elders." All great truths can be told to the child in parable form. All scientific, philosophic, and moral truths can be taught. Many of our standard lit- erary works can be adapted for children's use. There is scarcely a topic in all this wide universe that cannot be introduced in simple story form. Still another reason for stories : Nothing more strongly exercises the imagination, that all-important faculty of the mind, doubly important in this our practical age and country. A writer has said : "I would rather have a child un alphabetical than unimaginative." The stories may be divided under two general heads ; those that are literally true, and those that are symbolic representations of the truth. Under the first would come stories illustrating moral truths, biographical or historical incidents, stories of changes in nature, stories of animal life. Under the second are found fairy tales, fables, myths, legends. Froebel thought that the child, as a member of the human family, should be told the stories of the various Christian holidays. The question is often asked, Are fairy tales good for children ? Most certainly they are. A love for the beautiful and wonderful is inborn in every heart ; and, to quote again, " to cultivate the imagination and poetry of the soul is one of the solemn duties of life." Those who fail to see the beauty and worth of fairy tales do not look beneath the surface for the deep truths contained in them. Fables are good for representing moral truths. Stories of animal life create a love for all lower animal creation ; teaching kindness and gentle- ness, subduing that cruelty which is occasionally seen in a small child (generally a boy), and which must be the inheritance from barbarous ancestors. Legends are valuable, for they form "a bridge which grad- ually leads the child to the real enjoyment of history, and puts him in STORY-TELLING IN THE KINDERGARTEN 353 sympathy with what is going on in the present.'' Following Mother Goose's example, occasional rhymes are enjoyable, and produce a greater effect. The following suggestions have been given regarding methods of telling stories. The younger the children, the greater the difficulty in telling the story, and the greater preparation required ; for them an easy plot and a short thread of circumstances are necessary. Be explicit ; give a name to everything. Use the tone of voice necessary to the circumstances, and change the tone to suit the occasion. Have the story as graphic as possible. Have clearly in your mind the object of your story ; then adorn with details. Let the story depict virtues to be emulated rather than vices to be shunned. Emphasize the positive rather than the negative. Tell the best stories repeatedly, rather than frequent poor ones. Take great care to repeat the facts the same each time ; otherwise we cannot estimate the confusion arising in the child-mind. Do not have the child feel too deeply over imaginary woes, for " overtaxed intellect brings on disease." Most important of all, be sure that your stories have a happy ending, for the child's moral being is largely affected by these endings. " Harmony in music is only attained when each individual instrument expresses its peculiar sound perfectly." So in a story ; the aim is reached only when each part receives due emphasis, and the relation of incidents is clearly seen. "No future can be interpreted, except in the light of the past." Stories must in some way be connected with the past life, that the child may realize their worth and take them to himself. Stories should be told in the purest English, with careful enunciation. With the child-mind in the receptive condition caused by joyful anticipation, the teacher cannot be too careful of all the details connected with his art. The beauties and possibilities of the language are shown to the child, representing to him the art of speech, and giving him a taste for good literature. Other qualifications of a good story-teller are "culture in its truest, broadest sense, meaning education, refinement, ideality ; to see ideally humdrum facts; fancy to embellish these facts, so that some principle may be impressed on the child ; to make common things beautiful with poetic ideas and symbolic truths; then, lastly, to have sufficient common sense to keep one from extravagance." One great danger of children is confounding the real and the fanciful, by which the whole aim of the story is lost. We must enter into the child- world, and become one with them ; must see with their eyes and hear with their ears. No story is effective if the child shows no enjoyment of it. This, however, may not be the fault of the story, nor of the child. Children are the severest critics, and the beauty of their criticism is its spontaneity, though it is sometimes too truthful to be flattering. Dramatic power is one of the most essential things in a good story-teller — who is a 354 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. "king among children." If there is a river in the story, see it flowing at your feet. If there are horsemen, watch them disappearing over the hilltop. If flowers are growing, look with pleasure in your face at the beautiful blossoms along your path. If birds are singing, incline your ear aud let the eye tell the happiness with which the song fills the heart. Eye, tongue, hand, must all express each emotion, and the children will be carried with you into unknown countries, to ramble with you among new wonders with never-failing delight. A new world is open to them, and each is a little Columbus, bent upon discovery. The unexplored realms they enter are as strange and varied as the new continent of the fifteenth century. The results of story-telling are so great and varied that they are beyond our comprehension. The child's three-fold duties are taught — to nature, to humanity, and to God. The feeling of unity with all creatures is impressed. It is not always necessary that a story should point a moral. Wholesome nonsense is essential to human nature, as is proved by the fact that Mother Goose rhymes have for so many years given unbounded de- light to children. " A little nonsense now and then " is very beneficial, and great men have felt the need of the humorous side of life to counter- act the many serious aspects which matters assume. Talleyrand said : " I find nonsense singularly refreshing." The chief danger of nonsense is its tendency to develop into grotesqueness, thus lowering our ideals anc making the good and the true ridiculous. Great care should be takei that the moral sense is in no respect blunted, nor ideas of right and wrong in any way perverted. The children must be taught indirectly to kno\ the pure, harmless fun which is the result of happiness of heart an< exuberance of spirit, from the spirit of ridicule which laughs at other mistakes and finds pleasure in others' misfortunes. As a nation we are criticised for our irreverence ; irreverence for sacred things, for tradition, for all that is best and highest in life. Prophets tell us that this alarming tendency of the present generation will do more than any other one thing toward undermining the foundations of society. The only remedy for this evil is to help little children to have a high regard for all that is above them — for their parents, for all religious truths, for every great and good action, for every beautiful thought. Stories incul- cating these ideas should be given, of great men, as of Columbus, Wash- ington, and Lincoln ; of noble deeds, as of Grace Darling ; stories of the wonders of the stars, telling of things above us and beyond us, calling forth our highest admiration and praise. Many of us walk through life like ghosts, as if we were in the world but not of it. " We have eyes, but see not " ; for " to look is much less easy than to overlook." We have no eye for the beauties around us, no ear for the harmonies of nature ; and so much of the real meaning of our lives hidden from our view because our early education was in so many ways SYMBOLISM IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 355 one-sided, and so much was left unexplained that we needed to know. Let us in our stories spread before the eyes of our children the scroll of nature, revealing some of her mysteries, showing her beauties, telling the secret of her operations, that their lives will be worthier of the high aims in view, that their knowledge of nature may lead them to truer self-knowledge. TO WHAT EXTENT IS THE USE OF SYMBOLISM JUSTIFIABLE IN THE KINDERGARTEN? BY EARL BARNES, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, LELAND STANFORD JR. UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA. The use of anything in the kindergarten would seem to be justifiable just so far as it is in accord with the nature of the children in the kindergarten. Those who approach the child through the medium of experimental psychology will always be tempted to dwell on his physical and sensuous activities, because these most easily admit of quan- titative expression. On the other hand, those who approach the child from some philo- sophical or theological standpoint will be always tempted to read into the child's simplest activities all that they have imagined or dreamed in their philosophy. All that can be done in this brief paper is to present in bald outline some of the ques- tions and suggestions that present themselves to the experimental psychologist. The most striking characteristic of a young child's subjective activity is the fragmen- tary and disintegrated quality of all his intellectual operations. His subjective world is a chaos. Instinctively he strives to unify and grasp this multiplex of sense-stuff that pours in upon him. One of the first steps in this unifying process consists in fastening names on to the things or impressions which crowd upon him, so that he can afterward recognize them as the same impressions already recognized. You will all recall Miss Sullivan's account of the eager delight of Helen Keller when she first found that things had names. At one stage of his development the child will weary every one about him with his reiterated demands : What is this ? What is that ? Is not this a natural seek- ing for a symbol which shall enable him to identify a particular impression, and so far enable him to unify his world ? The Chinese in their written characters go but little farther than this. The child, however, soon reaches out for larger groups. He feels the necessity of larger general terms, where the one term will grasp several objects, and he demands, Whose is this ? Where did it come from ? What is it for ? Is this a picture, too ? etc. In this search for symbols to identify and unify his manifold sense impressions, he accepts words, terms, and signs that are offered him, and invents many more for himself. One child uses "goo" for almost any movement, and with another, anything to eat is " to-to." In addition to this audible symbolism the child develops a visual symbolism for himself. At an early age a child simply rubs pencil on paper and tells you of men and houses and bears which the scratches represent. In his early school life he quickly accepts a visual symbol and applies it to everything. In a number class, one teacher made a simple figure in a sun-bonnet. In a few days the children drew their men and boys and girls all after the one pattern. They had simply accepted the symbol. Now this tendency on the part of children to accept a sign for a thing in order to unify their world, seems to me the basis of our work in symbolism. Another fact in the 356 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. child's subjective life emphasizes this. His images are so vague and indistinct that his fancy is wonderfully free. He can see a house in a picture of a fence, and he can hear singing birds when the frogs croak. This is not, I take it, because his soul is so won- derfully susceptible to singing birds, but because his ideas of singing birds and of croak- ing frogs are so vague and ill-defined that he cannot easily label the one or the other when it appears. Now a philosopher, or an imaginative and sympathetic teacher, can easily find in these imperfect subjective activities, due to the limitations of a child's mind, evidence that the young child sees in each little thing about him, or may see, a microcosm ; and so we work out elaborate systems of symbols that shall realize to the child the infinitely great in the little. He shall play with the ball, that he may quickly realize the perfection of the sphere. This seems to me a field that would yield valuable results if approached from the standpoint of the simple investigator. Could we not make lists of all the visual and audible symbols that the child develops for himself, and thus determine along what lines his symbol-developing tendency moves ? Could we not test the readiness with which he accepts even the most grotesque and ill- related symbols if we impose them upon him ? And could we not devise tests to show the extent to which the child grasps, for instance, the symbolism of the sphere ? Is it not an over-devotion to symbols on the part of us kindergartners which makes it possible for us to come together in this international congress to seriously discuss whether the plays and games which Proebel developed out of a German environment some decades ago should be modified for a California child who has never seen snow, and to whom much of the concrete detail in the setting of the German life must remain to him unexperienced for several years ? TO WHAT EXTENT IS SYMBOLISM JUSTIFIABLE IN THE KIND ERG A R TEN t BY MES. EUDORA L. HAILMANN, OF LA PORTE, INDIANA. Bear in mind that the kindergarten proper is for children from three to six years of age. Let us therefore consider the condition of the child at this age — some character- istics that mark this period. For a really scientific presentation of the subject, it would be necessary to follow closely the process in the development of the child during the three years preceding the age under consideration. We shall, however, be obliged to pass rapidly over the first three months of the babe's awakening into this spiritual world of natural law .; over the first year, during which he has been learning to adapt himself, in baby fashion, to the immutability of law ; over the first two years, when, a wee toddler at the beginning of a long journey, he longs with a passion worthy the scientist to investigate hot coffee urns, forks, scissors, and the like ; whence he has emerged serenely and undaunted, though perhaps battered and bruised, a wise and knowing baby ; on and on over the months of rapidly accumulating experiences and constant unfoldings of new and varied facts of individuality, to the period of first independent association with equals — usually placed at about three or four years of age. This is the period to which my subject, "To what extent is symbolism justifiable the kindergarten ? " refers. It gives me great pleasure, therefore, to introduce to you the child of three to six years of age ; the little child who is just emerging from uncon- scious, dependent babyhood, into conscious, independent self-assertion, in search SYMBOLISM IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 357 anything and everything that this world has to give him. He helps himself to every- thing without stint and without judgment ; the one consideration with him being that, at the moment, it be agreeable. From morn till night it is : " May I have some ? " — something, anything. " Mamma, what did you do that for ?" " Can I go and play with Harry and Bessy ?" Not only is he an interrogation point, as some one has said, but he is first, last, and always a potential workman in this busy life, a truth -seeker in embryo. Alas ! however, that his questions are so seldom answered as they should be, for in that measure in which ques- tions are answered will the child grow. The answer to a question contains both the germ and the food of the next immediate individual tendency. At this stage of development the whole being seems to be concentrated upon the one activity of getting experiences and gathering data out of which to draw conclusions and regulate his judgments in later life. This phase of his mental development seems to predominate. All phases are, it is true, potentially more or less manifest, but the eager, restless determination to accumulate facts, through personal experience and direct first-hand observation, predominates during the period from three to six. Again, it is a promi- nent characteristic of this stage of development to trust implicitly those who are older and occupy places of authority. When, therefore, a child asks questions of adults and receives no answer at all, or, what is worse than no answer, is told some grotesque false- hood or receives some fantastic reply, the seeds of moral deficiency of character are sown. Saddest of all, confidence in the genuineness and righteousness of mankind is broken and lost, for children see all people through the family and other immediate surroundings. It is only after many years of undoing that the ability comes to judge objectively and with approximate correctness. During these three specially sensitive years it is, therefore, of vital importance that all impressions be pure, clear, direct, and full of meaning. The brain is more suscept- ible, and, at the same time, much more active, hence much more intensely conscious, both instinctively and intentionally, clinching every new sensation and impression that comes to it, for the purpose of making use of it in giving expression to its own individ- uality, which has become so firmly rooted in the loves and lives of his environment. Especially, therefore, is it desirable that the thought-centers, for this period, be full of instruction and abound in beautiful sentiment, for — " Early lessons gently taught, Simple words with meaning fraught — These forgotten for a time, Will come back like a well-known rhyme." This is the time to begin to lay up treasures against the possible ennui and infirmities of old age. Normal, vigorous children of this age do not speculate, do not dream day-dreams, do not see sprites in the lily nor ogres in the dark, unless they have been put there by older if not wiser heads. Their eager, active, healthy minds and bodies are too much absorbed in the immediate interesting beautiful wonders that surround them. There is no need to stimulate their love and admiration for life by artificial means, and they have not reached the contemplative, speculative age of abstract thinking. To force this upon them at this period of development is to make them precocious, and precocity is degenerating. Children of this age will play all day with pet animals, observing and imitating every living thing that comes within their reach. Little boys will play store, street-car, etc. , dig. haul, push and pull ; while the little girls with hollyhocks for babies, nut-shells for cradles, daisies for grandmothers, and maple-leaves for parasols, will play at time-hon- ored " Lady come to see," with never-ceasing enthusiasm. These manifestations of the child's imaginative activity give us the cue to the kind of symbolism that is suitable for the child from three to six years of age. 358 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The child, if left to himself, will discover symbolism in nature. When it is given to him ready made, it has the tendency to render him superstitious, credulous, and super- ficial ; glib-tongued but not really intelligent, because, not having made use of the facul- ties whose special function it is to relate symbolism and natural phenomena at the time when these faculties were in their germinal stage of being, the power has gone by, and a pleasurable sensation is produced upon him, not so much at the symbols themselves as by the love he has for those who, in their impatient zeal to help the child realize God in nature, would stimulate the poetic sense innate in the breast of the human being by an arbitrary symbolism, thereby sacrificing the child's power to discover for himself the relation between symbolism and natural phenomena. Wherever the kindergarten makes its appearance, there we may expect to find among the children a tendency toward many words and few ideas, in strong contrast to the lines quoted : " Simple words with meaning fraught." I have in my mind a number of examples of this kind of teaching. I never visit kindergartens without being convinced of the injurious effects upon the children of an overdose of fairy stories and stories in which symbolism is overdrawn. That parents and kindergartners do not see the evil effects, is no sign that the harm is not being done. The result shows itself later on in life. I remember particularly one little girl, the daughter of literary and devoted parents, both of whom had made a study of the kindergarten. This child was a little more than four years of age when her mother brought her to me, saying : " My little girl is far in advance of children of her own age because we have always kept her with us. I should like sometime to have you hear her recite some poems which I have taught her. She will improvise by the hour most charming little fairy stories in which she will people the furniture, walls, and even the parts of the room with fantastic creations of her brain." The mother accounted for this by the fact that she had always tried to have her little daughter see the symbolism concealed in every concrete manifestation of the divine mind ; that in her conversations with her little girl she had always given her two mean- ings to words and natural objects, viz. : the commonly accepted name itself and its symbolic significance. The time came for me to hear the little girl recite. From beginning to end the little four-year-old recited, without one word of prompting, "Paul Revere's Ride," with as much expression as we might expect from the original reciter of the story. When she had finished she gave a little spasmodic sigh of nervous fatigue, and I detected an unnatural expression in her large brown eyes. This same child would sit at the kinder- garten table, with other children who were busy and happy at some creative and con- structive work, and with her hands folded and eyes vacantly staring into the distance, she would suddenly, to the amazement and consternation of children and kindergartner, sing out in a plaintive sort of tone a string of pretty words with no more logical connec- tion than there is between a rock and a butterfly. Another example will serve to illustrate my point. The following conversation took place between two kindergartners. While I took no direct part in the discussion, I listened with a great deal of interest, for the young lady who was defending a rational, natural method was the very embodiment of religious enthusiasm and had been remark- ably successful in leading many children through the material into a spiritual attitude of soul. First kindergartner : " Our games are different from all others. Our words are usually original with the kindergartner's ingenuity, assisted at times by the children. They are, for the most part, descriptive of natural phenomena, as, for instance, crystal- lization, evaporation, freezing, radiation, and so on The children, in these games, personate the particles of matter in their activities. They are in turn particles of snow, SYMBOLISM IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 359 the game being to form themselves into snow crystals ; or in portraying^evaporation, some of the children are clothes props, and stand with arms extended to support the drying clothes, while others are the dancing sun rays that kiss the particles of moisture and bear them away to the blue sky beyond." "But," said the second kindergartner, "while no objection should be made to a natural and agreeable way of scientific instruction, notably through plays involving sci- entific truths, still it is necessary that we should be absolutely true to fact. And it is not always possible to imitate natural phenomena with the movements of the body ; and if it were, it is a very clumsy and unpoetic representation of a marvelously exquisite phe- nomenon. In the case of evaporation the particles must fly upward, in order to be true to life. Sunlight does not dance but radiates. In regard to the kissing of the particles away, this may be a pretty poetical conception, but should not be taught as a scientific truth, nor along with a scientific truth. It endangers the child's intellectual integrity to confuse symbolism with scientific truth. In short, especially in intercourse with children, I believe in calling a spade, a spade." Greatly moved, the first kindergartner replied : "How different you are from us ! Now, when we speak of a frozen brook we say : ' The water is asleep ' ; when the wind blows the branches of the tree we say : ' It whispers to the leaves ' ; and when in autumn the leaves fall to the ground, we never say that they drop or are blown from the tree, but that ' Mother Earth calls them to cover her baby roots and help keep them warm while they are asleep in their little brown bed waiting for the brook to wake up again.' " (In other words, during the winter time.) " Oh, no," she added, with a sud- den burst of eloquence ; " we never call things by their real names." This is no effort of the imagination ; the conversation really took place. Another phase of the use of symbolism at this period is the practice of abnormally stimulating the imagination. For instance, the following highly wrought scheme for developing the Christmas idea was presented to an audience of teachers. " After lead- ing the children up. through innumerable carefully planned steps, to the Christmas thought, directing their minds, absorbing their sympathies in the one direction, the climax is reached when the children are about to be dismissed for the Christmas holi- days. They have listened to stories (and always thanked their teachers when stories were told them), and on this particular occasion they will hear the Christmas story that is told every year." It is not, however, the Biblical account of Christ, but a fairy story, intended, no doubt, by the writer to convey the essentials of the Christ story. The exercises take place in the afternoon. The room is darkened, save for the flickering firelight ; the children are gathered in a circle around the kindergartner, who in solemn and awe-inspiring tones now tells the story. Let us picture that scene. A large class of poor children, the offspring, in the majority of cases, of superstition and unreasoning fear, easily awed into any state of mind ; a darkened room, in itself unnatural in the day-time ; flickering firelight, sub- dued tones, fairy story. Age of subjects, three to six! And all this done for the sake of making a deep impression upon the children ! This in some lands might be called a species of voodooism, and reminds one of a spiritual seance. This matter of dealing blindly and recklessly with the young child's imagination is a serious thing, and we kindergartners should beware of entering in where angels fear to tread. A child is a delicate creature, and while it should have every care and tender nurture, still, just as in plant life sometimes a touch, though lovingly given, will destroy the delicate leaflet, in the child also there are some things which to touch is to destroy. They must be allowed to grow toward their Creator, until the fullness of their time. Regarding the question from the poetic side — should we cloak the manifestations of nature in language other than their own ? The symbol is beautiful, but so is the fact beautiful. Whispering winds, singing 360 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION brooks, sleeping waters, smiling sunshine, are pretty; but so are plain wind, flowing brooks, frozen waters, sunshine, in themselves beautiful, and children think so. What is more poetic than the " wind bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the sound thereof, but canst not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth " ? Not one word of figure ; the simple statement of a beautiful thing in nature is itself suggestive. The Great Teacher seemed willing to call things by their right names. " Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow ; they toil not, neither do they spin ; and yet even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these." And shall we paint these lilies before we show them to the children ? There is current a plausible doctrine, that in each child are repeated the characteris- tics of the race. This statement sounds very fine, and if not turned and twisted to mean more than a mere fact it would not be necessary to refer to it here. It is needless to deny or affirm a fact so well established as this, but it should be remembered that these earlier stages of development through which the child must needs pass are meant by the very laws of evolution to sink into rudimentary conditions — into innocuous desuetude, as it were. To emphasize them must result in arrested development and retard the progress of the race. If they are considered at all in educational work, this should be done in a way that may reduce to a minimum their influence in the life of the child, and assist him to use all his strength in living intelligently toward the ideals of the race. In other words, these rudimentary conditions should cease to be factors in the lives of the race as early as possible. ADDITIONAL PAPEES SUBMITTED TO THE KINDEKGARTI CONGRESS. FROEBEL'S EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES IN ENGLANl BY EMILY A. E. SHIRREFF, PRESIDENT OF THE FROEBEL SOCIETY, LONDON. I am asked to give to our American friends some account of the prog- ress of Froebel's educational principles in England. It is not an easy matter, and my answer will be a very imperfect one. One great reason of the difficulty is that much of the work has been desultory, and the knowledge of it confined, therefore, to scattered localities. Had the great hope of the Froebel Society been realized, and had efforts been combined and systematized under one central body, we should not only have made more advance and attained more influence, but the point gained would have been easy to realize and to present. This view, how- ever, was not popular, and only here and there had there been any com- bination ; consequently it is very difficult to learn what is going on and what has really been achieved. This is the first difficulty. The second is more serious, and would, I fear, be the same in every country, arising, as it does, from the danger of confounding the increase of kindergartens with the spread of Froebelian principles. But to this I must return later. FROEBEL'S EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES IN ENGLAND. 361 It may not be uninteresting, before speaking of the present condition of affairs, to cast a glance at the past, at the early beginning and the history of the movement in England, and I cannot do better than to quote a pas- sage from the preface to the interesting translation of Froebel's letters by Madame Michaelis and Mr. Keatley Moore, in which a slight review is given of the period since the first introduction of the system in England in 1854, just fourteen years after Eroebel opened his first kindergarten. u One generation only of Englishmen has passed away since that, and yet in this short time, with all the inertive force of insular and conservative England to strive against, hampered at the same time by a foreign name, foreign interpreters, and by much that was foreign in its actual working detail, the kindergarten has struck deep root in our land, and has already, bo to speak, acclimatized itself. Its foreign name has been adopted, and is now reckoned as very good English. Those who remain to us of its for- eign interpreters* — the ladies to whose enterprising exertions we owe so much — have also become as good Englishwomen as any others. Its foreign details have entirely disappeared, and we have now a vigorous and thor- oughly national English kindergarten." To return to the history of this change, we may begin by quoting a few words from Baroness von Mahrenholtz's account of her first visit to Eng- land. She came two years after Froebel's death, in 1854. "I found," she says, "the first kindergarten established in Hampstead, and during my stay in London several others were founded. In Manchester and in sundry other towns in England, as also at Dublin, kindergartens existed. During the six months of my sojourn in London, where I gave many lectures on Eroebel, proofs of sincere recognition of his merits were not wanting. Already some English writings on the kindergarten had appeared ; and also a practical manual or pamphlet, which I published in English in 1855 under the title of 'Infant Gardens,' was quickly taken up/' It is interesting, as I have remarked elsewhere, to be reminded that Dickens was one of those who gave an early welcome to the kindergarten among us, and that he wrote several articles upon it in Household Words. Following the very useful chronological abstract given by Madame Michaelis at the end of the book I have just quoted from, we find that Miss Heerwart and Madame de Portugal both came to England in 1861 to conduct different schools at Manchester, whence Miss Heerwart subse- quently went to Dublin ; that in 1866 Miss Doreck (afterward the first president of the Froebel Society) came to London and founded the admi- rable kindergarten and school where she remained till her death, a few years later ; while Miss Heerwart left Dublin to become principal of the Stockwell Training College. Again, it is recorded that the Froebel Society was founded in London m 1874 ; that it held its first examination for kindergarten teachers in 1876, Madame de Portugal having come over from Geneva for the purpose, as 362 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. chief examiner ; and that in 1877, after the lamented death of Miss Doreck, I had the honor of being elected president of the society, a post I have retained till now. The Froebel Society was founded for the purpose of making a more systematic endeavor than had yet been tried to spread the knowledge and practice of the master's views and method. A system of lectures, discus- sions, meetings, publications (including translations), training and registra- tion of teachers, and inspection of kindergartens, was laid down ; and had we been able, as we fondly hoped, to draw together the workers in various parts of the country, we should have been in a position to do much and to exercise considerable influence. Fortunately, in one branch, the most important by far, we have won real success ; namely, in the examination of teachers, on which depended the right scientific direction of the whole movement. To this the society set itself with patient determination from the first, laying down a curriculum of studies for the training of the young teachers in the theory and practice of FroebePs complete system of educa- tion, upholding a high standard of knowledge and efficiency, and giving the public the guarantee of a certificate granted on the award of examin- ers unconnected, as far as it is possible, with the training of the students. I say "as far as it is possible," because in the special and technical work of the kindergarten it has been sometimes unavoidable to call in the ser- vices of the few really versed in these matters, and who are, for the most part, engaged themselves in some training-college work. The certificate thus given has year by year gained repute, till its acceptance by the Edu- cation Department, in 1892, gave it public sanction ; and this year the candidates for certificates of various degrees number upward of four hun- dred, having risen from seventy-eight in 1887. Kindergarten methods were partially introduced into the elementary schools in London some years ago, but not in direct connection with us. Miss Lyschinska, who was the' first person employed by the school board to give this instruction, was at the time and long after on our council, but acted independently in this matter. In answer to inquiries from me, a lady well qualified to give an opinion writes that "progress in kindergarten methods in board schools had been steady during the last few years. The infant schools show more and more the results of a wiser and more efficient kind of teaching. The infant-school mistresses have a greater knowledge of child nature, and are more apt in utilizing the educational advantages of Froebel's system than the mistresses of the higher standards. "The movement in favor of technical education has awakened in many a sense that it would be as well to prepare the hand and eye in some meas- ure in the infant schools ; so there is a tendency for the one movement to meet the other. . . ** Many inspectors and members of the school board show a growing FRO EB EL'S EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES IN ENGLAND. 363 desire for more educational methods and wider training of the intelli- gence, and are prepared to welcome a thorough application of the sys- tem. . . . "The education code of 1892 and 1893 affords strong evidence of an appreciation of FroeheFs system, and the new circular lately issued by the department shows that the missionary work of the Froebel Society has made a deep impression." The circular here referred, to is one directing all inspectors to require kindergarten work in the infant schools, thus giving the fullest official recognition of the value of Froebel's method. It may be well to quote some of the forcible expressions in which the grounds of it are laid down. "Two leading principles should be regarded as a sound basis for the education of early childhood : "(1) The recognition of the child's spontaneous activity, and the stimulation of this activity in certain well-defined directions by the teachers. il (2) The harmonious and complete development of the whole of a child's faculties. The teacher should pay especial regard to the love of movement, which can alone secure healthy physical conditions ; to the observant use of the organs of sense, especially those of sight and touch ; and to that eager desire of questioning which intelligent children exhibit. All these should be encouraged under due limitation and should be developed simultaneously, so that each stage of development may be complete in itself. " It has been strongly urged that sufficient attention has not been paid in the past to these principles ; indeed, it is often found that the kindergarten occupations are treated as mere toys or amusing pastimes because they are attractive for children, and the intel- lectual character of the ' Gifts of Froebel ' is disregarded, whereas the main object of these lessons is to stimulate intelligent individual effort." This circular, which carries authority throughout the country, will not only produce a large measure of direct good, at this moment especially, when the number of little children in the schools is enormously increased owing to the free admission, but will, we may hope, tend to bring about that unity of action among various bodies of Froebel workers which we, as a private society, failed to obtain. It had been our great desire to have established a joint examining board, gathered from all the more important centers, but we were disappointed. In this, the work of supreme importance that we felt called upon to undertake, we were again baffled by local dislike to a combined systematic movement. Blind to the effect on the public mind of such harmonious action, provincial associations have preferred to keep their independence. Thus, although we have centers for examination in various parts of the country, it is not as members of one union that the workers in these dif- ferent localities call in our help. We are, indeed, moving toward the same object, but not hand in hand, which would greatly have iucreased our prestige and powers for good. One country association only, that of Bedford, has, in the matter of examination, completely joined the Froebel Society of England and Ireland (its full title), and agreed to form a joint board composed of members chosen from the councils of both societies ; and this board has been fortunate enousrh to secure as chairman Mr. H. 364 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Courthope Bowen, whoso valuable contributions to Froebelian literature are as well known in America as among ourselves. This want of combination makes, as I before remarked, one great diffi- culty in presenting anything like a satisfactory account of the progress of the Froebel system in England ; and yet we may safely affirm that it has spread widely. We see it in London and the neighborhood, and we know of much work done in Yorkshire, in Manchester, and other parts of the north ; in Cheltenham, under the auspices of the Ladies' College, whose distinguished principal, Miss Beale, is earnest in the cause; in the high- schools of the Girls' Public Day School Company, twenty-five of which have kindergarten preparatory classes ; and of the many schools set up independently under the same name in different large towns all over the country, several have adopted the same arrangements. In short, the kindergartens, good and bad, are to be numbered by hundreds, and even the bad bear at least witness to the growing popularity of this method of dealing with little children. There is, however, as I said before, a more serious question to answer with regard to the real progress of Froebel education, one which points to the second great difficulty of giving anything like a complete report of the existing condition, and this is, How far does the increase of kinder- gartens prove the spread of the Froebelian theory of education ? How far is his principle of development of faculty in young children, of the con- tinuity of education upon the same scientific lines, accepted by parents, or even by teachers in advanced schools ? In short, are we aiming only at making childhood happier and more healthily active, or are we really following more and more the teaching of the great master, and con- sciously striving to train another generation of better citizens, of men and women by whom the value of work shall be less measured in money gain or worldly success — the parents of the future, who shall feel more deeply their fathomless responsibility for the well-being, physical and mental, of the young creatures committed to their care ? This was Froebel's view as he labored for " the education of mankind." He could scarcely find words to express his sense of what we owe to children ; do we then, when we speak of the progress of his views among us, mean that we are more and more sharing in this feeling, with all it implies of new effort and higher aims ? Would that I could answer this question as easily as that which related to the spread of kindergartens ! A lady, whose own admirable work and long dealings among parents and ordinary teachers gives her authority to speak, sends me a discouraging account of her own experience : "Parents," she says, "as a rule expect a modern kind of education; but what they expect they cannot define. They see a large number of children happy and good ; they would like their own child to join the group. We take them round in every classroom, and explain some points FROEBEL'S EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES IN ENGLAND. 365 in each, and they get a general impression ; but on only the rarest occa- sion have I ever aroused sufficient interest to get a parent to read any educational work. I keep pamphlets and distribute them, but rarely hear a remark upon them. We get about five hundred visits annually — two hundred from parents, three hundred from strangers ; and of these, three or four people annually will ask for books on educational subjects. "With regard to definite appreciation of the kindergarten, the occupa- tions appeal to some (a) as amusement ; (b) as a means of training artistic faculty; and on the whole this is fairly well appreciated. "Parents are slowest to observe the value of the whole training as a means for the development of character. If they recognize at all that the kindergarten is a little miniature world, they argue that on the whole they would prefer it without the mixture of good and bad. They see no good in the games or stories, but they see that on the whole the children get on, and so they bring them, and so they leave them. "The question is still too frequently asked as to the utility of the objects made, not only in the kindergarten, but also all through the transition and manual-training classes. We have still to drive home the lesson that the real product is unseen and in the child ; the article made has been but a means of aiding this unseen development." We see from these remarks two facts which exercise a baneful influence — neglect of the study of Froebel by teachers of more advanced schools, so that the combination of the system that aims at developing the whole faculty of the child with that which aims principally at giving knowledge for more or less definite objects — i.e., the right continuity of education — is hindered ; and the neglect of that same study by parents, so that a child passes, so to speak, from one mental climate to another between the kin- dergarten and home. Parents here really mean mothers. Unspeakable ?ood would indeed be done did fathers study education, but there are ex- 3uses for them which do not exist for mothers, whose first duty to God mil to the nation is the right training of the young creatures given to their care. In summing up this report, this at least is certain : We have made con- siderable progress ; we are moving forward ; the means are abundant, both in schools and in teaching powers ; but the interest of the public, so in- dispensable in every modern undertaking, is lacking, as we may certify by the infallible money test. The position of Froebel as a reformer of educa- tion is not completely understood, save by a few, even among the serious educators of the day ; while mothers have not yet realized, as they should, that here is their own special guide and friend, the one among the teachers of men who turned from the pedantry of schools and called upon women to help him, and to vindicate their own position as the heaven-appointed educators of the race. 1 make no comparison between my own and other countries ; I have no 366 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. means of doing so. Whether the same causes operate to hinder Froebel's influence among them I know not. But I dare to trust that England will not, in the end, be found backward in the race ; that she will be neither lower in her ideals nor less zealous in pursuing them. THE KINDERGARTEN IN AUSTRIA. BY MRS. OTTILIA BONDY, OF VIENJSTA. Our kindergarten, like many good and great creations, took root in a simple work of charity, in the old system of day nurseries, the first of which was opened at Vienna, 1830, on the birthday of Emperor Francis I. Two noble-hearted men are to be mentioned as the promoters of this good work — one, an old Catholic priest, Reverend Lindrer ; the other, a young man in the prime of his years, one of those philanthropic pupils of Moses Mendelssohn, who knew how to extract the purest gems of philanthropy out of the Mosaic creed — Josef Wertheimer, who, in later years, was knighted by his sovereign, the present emperor. Wertheimer had learned to appreciate the infant schools for the poor two years before, on a tour through Great Britain, where he found three hundred schools established by the Infant Schools Society. It was a strange thing to bring home to his country for a young man of rich means, of high spirits and great personal gifts. When Wertheimer died, an octogenarian, almost his last words were about his creations, the kindergarten and the orphan's asylum. New ideas used to meet with opposition in all parts of the Old World. This was especially the case in Austria before the vivifying and invig- orating movement of 1798. The clergy, the bureaucracy, and the popu- lace itself were against the idea of the day nurseries. Wertheimer would not have succeeded in getting them sanctioned by government if be had not obtained for them the patronage of the Empress Karolina Augusta, the emperor's fourth wife, of whom the monarch used to say that in her he had at length found his life's greatest blessing— a true wife. This noble and truly pious lady helped to overcome all difficulties, and in a short time many day nurseries were opened in districts crowded by the poor, where the mothers, as breadwinners, have to be away from home the best part of the day. All these institutions had no higher aim than the one to keep children from getting into mischief. It was their purpose to keep — zu bewahren — as their name Bewahranstalten indicated. Their management was intrusted to elderly people, good for nothing else, with no pedagogic experience, with no insight into the wants of developing minds. Girls were taught to knit ; boys were left to their own devices as far as the first rule, to keep quiet, permitted it. They were taught some Bible verses. When the THE KINDERGARTEN IN AUSTRIA. 367 older ones got too unruly, their untaught teachers took to primers and arithmetic and spoiled them for school. Again it was Josef Wertheimer who came to the rescue. Assisted by his wife, he had found means to build the first Kinderbewahranstalt, which was established in its own house and dedicated to the rites of the Froebelian system. The empress undertook the patronage of it, and it was touching to hear her say to the wife of Joseph Wertheimer, a childless wife like herself : " We both, as well as your husband, have the mission to offer to other people's children the devotion which we were deprived of giving to our own ones." This Bewahranstalt, which celebrated its fiftieth anniversary this year, where I had my initiation in charity work, was built exactly to its purpose. In the midst of the Leopoldstadt, a densely populated district, it provides a spacious hall, large rooms, a well- kept garden with a vast lawn and shady grounds which are kept open from morning till evening. Two hundred and fifty to three hundred children are here taken in to get a wholesome dinner for a nominal price, and food for the poorest is dispensed. This Bewahranstalt was conducted from the, beginning on rational pedagogic notions, but its great importance as the first kindergarten in Austria dates from 1863, when its present principal, Mr. Fisher, and his wife took the management of it. This excellent pedagogue, who has had the distinction to be appointed honorary vice-president of the Educa- tional Congress, was the first to introduce the Froebelian system, and to change it into a real Volks-kindergarten — kindergarten for the people. Very soon some private kindergartens were opened in different Austrian towns, but all of them were sadly in want of assistance. We had the garden, but we had no gardeners except the few principals, most of them only book taught. To better this state of things, Wertheimer, after having celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of his foundation, went to Gotha to study the seminary and training-school under August Koehler. Before the end of 1868 he and the ladies' committee in charge had the satisfaction of opening the first seminary for kindergartners in Austria, with eight pupils, under the management of Mr. Fisher and his wife. Up to this date nearly seven hundred kindergartners and trainers have graduated from there, and have helped to propagate the system over the whole Austrian realm. The course of instruction is of one year's duration, and the applicants must be at least sixteen years old. I am happy to say that the standard for their graduation is a sufficiently high one, and that the ethical side of their vocation is duly impressed on them. A most important era for the kindergarten was in 1872, under the min- ister for public instruction, Stremayer, when a statute was elaborated by a committee of school authorities which regulated the management of kindergartens, Bcwahranstalten, aud seminaries for kindergartners under 368 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. the law, and which elevated the above-mentioned seminary to the rank of a state institution, and now its certificates have the value of public documents. In 1875 a second seminary was opened at Vienna, and five years later government itself annexed like institutions to the seminaries for female' teachers. I am sorry to say that neither public opinion nor the good will of our teachers kept pace with this satisfactory acknowledgment of the Froebelian system. Parents in better situated homes did not take kindly to an institution which they judged at best to be superfluous. Teachers at first thought it a hindrance to future serious work ; they were of the opinioi that the habit of symbolizing gave too large a scope to childish imagina- tion, that it was apt to make the little ones fanciful and dreamy. They would have it that being led from one occupation, from one play to another, took all self-reliance out of them, and that they had great trouble to accustom them to serious schoolwork. These prejudices are disap- pearing, as happily most prejudices do in the course of time. Not the least merit in dissipating them belongs to the "Association for Kinder- gartens " — Verein fur Kindergarten in Oesterreich — on the first board of which I had the honor to be the only lay woman, a link between kin- dergartners and mothers. I am very proud of having accomplished this mission. On this committee we had some teachers from public schools. They had occasion to study the system, to know its value better, and to promote a truer understanding between their colleagues and the kinder- gartners. This association, founded in 1879, undertook as its highest aim to prove that kindergarten teaching is an advantage to future teaching. It sent out a list of questions to the heads of the primary schools, asking what percentage of pupils who had had this kindergarten teaching gav< better and what gave less satisfaction to their teachers ? This inquiry is not yet closed. The association would open VolTcs-hindergartens, but their means are not sufficient. Its. work till now is more an ethical than a practical one ; it gives a nucleus to the kindergartners by meetings, read- ings ; by the publication of its organ, the Journal for Kindergartens, a most valuable source of information for kindergartners out of reach of direct communication with their colleagues. In 1879 there were one hundred and fifty-six kindergartens at work in Austria. The next year was of importance not only as to statistics, but for the dignity of the idea as a means of guarding the German element from being overrun in mixed districts, as we have so many in Bohemia and in other provinces of our polyglot empire. The Deutsche Schulverein was founded by a circle of German patriots. This noble institution endowed Austria not only with a great many German schools, but also with between fifty and sixty kindergartens. As far as I could procure the statistics, there are now between five hundred and six hundred kinder- gartens in Austria. They owe their subsistence to government, in case THE REAL NATURE OF EDUCATION. 369 >f being attached to training-schools at the seminaries ; or to the munici- palities in manufacturing towns, where the free kindergarten is a great lecessity. Some mill owners founded kindergartens for the children of their hands. Many are kept by women clubs. There are also a few private cindergartens for well-to-do people. If I am permitted to say a word about the working of the system with is, I must say that one meets with the same difference of opinion about it as I believe that you find here. Kindergartners of the old school, )rthodox Froebelians, use the gifts of the master as he intended them, or, better to say, as they grew out of his loving heart. In playing, they allow the little folk to symbolize without giving them utensils and implements. rounger kindergartners try to amplify the building-stones till they de- generate into ordinary toys ; they invent all sort of materials which at least are superfluous. I must say that I found the same difference of lanaging here, too. Pricking is tabooed with us, as with you, as hurting the eyesight. Bound games are performed in a more elaborate style here than with us. The reason of it may be that in Austria children are leaving the kindergarten at the age of six, when they are due in elementary jhools. You have them a year longer, so you can do more with them. In one class at St. Louis I was greatly impressed by the lesson on )bjects, given on flowers. If ever I met with the most perfect interpreta- tion of FroebePs grand purpose, to educate children as in a garden of God's creation, it was there under the vivifying influence of a highly gifted lady. [any samples of her work, and of that of other trainers, were kindly iven me. When I shall have the privilege of exhibiting these at a meet- ing of the Kindergarten Association at Vienna, as I intend to do, I shall ratefully remember the many proofs of the solidarity between the friends )f childhood which facilitated my way in your grand country. I shall sll my compatriots of the wonderful work you are doing here, as I )romised to do before leaving Vienna. I have no doubt that I shall 3tter succeed in these explanations where I shall not contend with so lany difficulties of diction in expressing my thoughts and feelings as I iave here. May I hope for your indulgence to a stranger, whose only lold on your patience is the solidarity of purposes aud of good wishes for the children in any part of the world ? THE REAL NATURE OF EDUCATION. BY HERMANN POE8CHE, EDUCATIONAL INSPECTOR OF THE ORPHAN ADMINISTRATION IN BERLIN. The aucient German school and system of teaching made no provision for children under school age. In the school itself the learning of words by heart and familiarity with more or less abstract ideas and a mechanical 24 370 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. faculty were fostered. Traditional science was imparted to the children and demanded back from them, just as linen stuff is mechanically put into a chest of drawers and taken out when needed. The ancient school was a mere word school — a one-sided institution for teaching and learning. In the course of this abstract and mechanical teaching no ideas were imparted, only dead representations. The powers of the children were not freely developed, but enveloped and maimed. Continual stuffing made the children lazy and apathetic ; the mere repetition and passive learning killed the inclination to self-activity, to self-finding, and self- inquiring. From school the children gained little or nothing for life, or they were not able to apply the acquired knowledge in the practical life. Then came ITenry Pestalozzi and his intuitive instruction. With infi- nite love and enthusiasm he cared for the children before school age. He wrote books for educating mothei's ; he created in his mother-books the ideal of an educating mother, " Gertrude." He gave a new foundation to the abstract system of word teaching in school. Instead of the dead word instruction of the ancient school, he offered, by means of his intui- tive instruction, intellectual alacrity, self -activity, inventive power, the real labor of the mind. Educators, in their enthusiasm for this new method, sought to make all things intuitive to the exterior or interior senses, and saw in the intuitive principles the true reform of all school- work. At the present time we see in intuition only a momentum — an important one, to be sure, but only a momentum— of school. The great pupil of Pestalozzi, Frederick Froebel, it is true, followed with fine sensibilities and great industry in the pathway of his teacher; but, with a deeper mind, he was able to create, on a new psychological basis, a higher and nobler edifice. Among his leading principles are the following : (1) Froebel desires for human education and instruction a developing method; that is, a progressive' method, which is closely related to the phy- siological and psychological laws of the development of human nature : "education according to nature's laws." (2) He wants an educational culture of men ; that is, a system which above all else takes hold of the will of the child. He rejects the one-sided scientific man, and the one-sided teaching and learning school. He will educate acting men, able to apply knowledge in acts and life. (3) He wants education of (the whole) man; that means that which takes hold equally on the three fundamental characteristics of man's nature : thinking, feeling, and willing, with the means offered by art, sci- ence, and the practical technical life. (4) He wants, as an end of human education, a life harmonious on all sides with God, men, and nature. In other words, he combines the essen- tial of the existing institutions of education : the religious element of the public school ; the realistic (mathematics, natural sciences, etc.) of the THE REAL NATURE OF EDUCATION. 371 real -gymnasia ; and ike humanistic (languages, history) of the gymnasia. He wants "living union with God, man, and nature"; that means not onlv that which consists in knowledge and the mastery of words, but in which, also, the sensible and active man is involved. Froebel wanted first, as mentioned above, the culture of men in all directions accord to nature's laws, with reference to nature, man, and God, as well as in respect to the three fundamental attributes of human nature, acting, thinking, and feeling. As a psychological basis he placed acting first. The child is to him first an acting and creating being, not first a learning and knowing being. Knowledge, perception, must, so to speak, grow out of action. He repeats this principle over and over again, always in new terms. We will here quote the most important of these expressions : " The education worthy of man, following the demands of nature, must place him early in such relations and actions that he, by creating and acting, may represent his own nature outwardly, and thus fully reveal himself." "The time of daily work and exercises of teachers and pupils must be divided with the time for labor — that is, working and acting — learning and instruction must alternate with labor." " This instruction — that is, learning and teaching of pupils and teachers — must proceed from their own acting and working; doctrines must be applied in life." "In public education acting must be supreme ; that is to say, teaching aud learning should proceed by and through things, through acting and through life. Thus the intelligence, reaching higher and higher, to the particular as well as to the general, and its creative power, working accord- ing to the faculties, the talents, and the inclinations of the pupils, are developed." According to this the representations — i.e., thoughts and ideas within the mind of the child — must not remain dormant, but they must come into life by the hand, by means of action and by creating. On the other side, the external works of art and nature must not remain external to the child, but they must be made internal, being brought into the mind. Froebel thus combines the two psychological contrasts of acting and thinking, art and science. This he expressed in a short formula, which runs thus : " The external must be made internal to the child, and the internal must be made external." The acting of the little child is represented by play. "With the play of the child," as Froebel says — " with the play, as with the child's inner- most nature," he connected the first education in family and kindergarten, and for the playing activity he sought and found "a whole in itself of play and occupations." To sketch this in its separate parts may be super- fluous, as it is represented in many American books, generally with good illustrations. 372 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Only this I will say, at last : As nature gives the young duck the ele- ment of water for swimming, so Froebel in his kindergarten provides the child with suitable material, so that he is enabled to give his ideas an ex- ternal form, a body by the work of his hand. Thus his mind is strength- ened through perception by the senses, through intuition and observatioi of good, beautiful, and true things. Froebel's kindergarten method con- sists in this, that the child, by means of forming and shaping in free self- activity, learns to seek, find, and invent, and is enabled to elaborate througt this activity, which corresponds to his nature, his individuality, and his peculiar character. Thus Froebel has become, through the representative idea, the true artist among pedagogues. The "ABC of activity," which Pestalozzi looked for but did not find, Froebel has added to the ancient German and to Pestalozzi's representative school. Thus for all the time in which children shall be educated, as long as learning and teaching survive, the intuitive learning and teaching will be maintained. Froebel's system of representation as a necessary completion makes possible an all-sided, har- monious, developing, educating human culture, and this will be in the future time the true aim of teachers and educators. PREVENTION OF CRIMINAL IDLENESS. BY MISS EMMA MARWEDEL.* It seems almost unnecessary to urge the educational value of labor before a body which has considered this problem for years. Philosophy, science, and experience force the educators of the nineteenth century to recognize the reciprocal relation existing between mental and bodily activity, a fact which brings bodily activity at once into the curric- ulum of the school, especially in a government by the people, for the people, which must rise or fall according to the mental and bodily condi- tion of the people. The work accomplished by the American nation shows gigantic concen- tration of cosmopolitan energies. What wonder that the children are born with the highest degree of bodily activity ? Yet, strange to say, in spite of this inborn activity, the American baby is very quiet. The rea- son for this seems to be that the first settlers having very little time to spare, the American baby was consecpiently more left without toys, and is * Miss Emm* Marwedel established an industrial art school for women at Hamburg, Germany, in 1867. She came to this country in 1872, and opened the first kindergarten in Washington, D. C. In 1876 she founded the first kindergarten normal school at Los Angeles, Cal. For several years past she had been engaged in kindergarten work in San Francisco, Cal., where she died November 17, 1893. Althoug' nearly seventy-five years old, she continued her active labors almost to ihe time of her death. " PREVENTION OF CRIMINAL IDLENESS. 373 still to-day less amused and less talked to than the European child in the cradle, and this affects its habits in its seemingly passive condition. But observing the large, wondering eyes of our children, comparing, seemingly, one object with another, though resting for hours in a peaceful md undisturbed condition, proves them quite active in thinking ; and while their plastic features indicate restful, harmonious bodily develop- ment, their gain of knowledge by means of silent observation and evident self-activity is surprising. But with the power to walk and speak its condition is suddenly changed, and the combined forces of its mental and physical activities break forth without limit. The child wants to know and to do everything at once. His faithful teacher's experimental activity and repetition of comparison and observation seem too slow now, and it is to the adult that he clings in his demands and expectations. What provision is in use to direct and satisfy these childish demands ? Our houses are not built with nurseries fitted to hold experimental toys ; as, for example, a rocking-horse, a nursery-swing, nursery gymnastic tools, Australian jumping-chairs, colored ellipsoids to sort and string, and, highly important, a sand-table. Neither, in most cases, are nurses often, and sometimes not even mothers, capable of answering the questions of the child. Our tenement-houses, our hotels, and our own single rooms preclude the child from running and jumping. There are very few clean, healthy, and attractive yards ; no near-by parks where a mother may sit to sew while the children play around her knees, as seen in Europe ; no private parks open to them ; no school-gardens ; no teachers engaged to take the truants, as in London, to the gymnastic apparatus found in the parks ; and to the museum or other places of learning and interest. There are only rare possibilities of excursions in field and forest, where teachers can make selections. What is the fate of these prevented activities ? The children are per- verted ; they are driven into those highways of juvenile crime, our streets and by-ways, where by eager, idle, practical observation, with a dime novel in each hand and a dime novel in each pocket, their wonderful gifts and activities are inch by inch turned into destructive activities, and gradually a contempt for labor grows into distorted views and vicious habits of life. How to regulate these inborn gifts, how to direct the efforts of the republic which is responsible for the prevention of crime as well as the cure of it, is the question that confronts us wherever we meet these unfor- tunate victims of indifference and neglect. Are there no helping hands for them ? Such hands have partly been found in our free kindergarten, and whoever doubts the educational value of labor should enter the embryo workshop in a well-regulated kindergarten. There is joy, no burden, as Professor Hall fears, in every movement of the muscles ; joy, and gradual success, and final mastery, and helpfulness and self-reliance, in control of 374 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. will and in patience ; joy in seeking, finding, and proving truth, in rea- son and judgment ; joy in knowing by doing for and with each other in seeing and touching; in ethics and aesthetics; joy in health an strength ; and joy — threefold joy — in the harmoniously rounded physical mental, moral, and religious development of the child. This picture is not overdrawn, and the question arises, Why do we not continue this edu- cation through labor ? Educational development by systematized labor is not new. The Eco nomical Society in Sweden has existed since 1813, and has reached fame and influence, especially since the so-called Slojd system lent its assist- ance. In France both compulsory education and the introduction of manual labor were established by law in May, 1882. The so-called Ecoles maternelles date from 1881. They began with some kindergarten work- shops in two classes fur children from two to five years, and from five to seven years. The higher elementary classes, devoting from two to three hours weekly to manual labor, result in the acquisition of skill, strength of body, integrity of character, and quickness of action, together with excellence in workmanship as the real aim, while the labor itself is treated partly as relaxation. Girls receive a theoretical and practical preparation for house- keeping, cutting and fitting of garments, and needlework. There is a regular manual training of four years' duration for the boys. This gives theoretical and practical instruction in a chosen trade, includ- ing drawing, art culture, singing, foreign languages, and gymnastics, demanding four hours a week, though the last year may require the whole time except ten hours weekly. Each school must furnish as many rooms for workshops as there are classes. Wherever manual-labor training has been connected with public schools, those teachers already familiar with the child, and able to instruct in one or two branches of manual labor, have had the greatest success. On this basis, and to save expense, France provides a very extensive work programme, including agriculture, horti- culture, and art culture, for the seminaries of preceptors, and they serve partially as models in Europe. The head of the Paris training-school is M. G. Salisis, whose name became known in 1872 by his connecting the first manual-labor class with a public school in Rue Turenne, Paris. Germany dates its first educa- tional labor movement as far back as 1GG3, when A. H. Franke connected it with his famous orphan -house at Halle. Basedow followed him with his celebrated Philanthropium, which, though making a great impression on some eminent educators, did not produce a lasting reform ; and it was not until 1829 that the kindergarten and a branch institute at Helba Switzerland, matured this idea, culminating in the present manual-labo schools, although labor has been constantly used as a means of develop- ment in Froebel's institutes. The wide-spread, powerful, and yet individually kept organization of 11 PREVENTION OF CRIMINAL IDLENESS. 375 manual dexterity brings us back to the consideration of our own condition in this respect. The school shops were discussed by the American Social Science Association as far back as 1877, in Boston, by a committee consist- ing of Wendell Phillips, S. P. Ruggles, Elizur Wright, Edward Everett Hale, and John Newell. In this discussion they say : " How shall we train for the wide field of responsibility that lies before them, the children and youth who are to succeed us in this world, so changed by science and inventions ? " Says Wendell Phillips : "Now idleness is one of the first temptations to vice. Children should be taught how to work, and, if possible, trained to love work. Seven out of ten who come out of our public schools would prefer a trade by which to make a living by the work of their hands, but hundreds leave school at fifteen years of age wholly unable to do anything for which any man would give them a dollar. And further, in my judgment, we have no right to take David Stowe, of whom mention was made yesterday, could hardly have foreseen the time when in Scotland the training-school of which he was the founder would place at the disposal of every parish a trained teacher, and yet it is interesting to learn that in a direct line through the influence of David Stowe the ideal which we have been discuss- ing has actually been realized. Yesterday I referred to the influence of Old Scotia on Nova Scotia through one of Stowe's pupils, the Rev. Dr. Forrester. He it was who founded the first normal school down by the Canadian provinces near the sea. and in his mind, when he orgauized that institution, there was no doubt the intention to supply DISCUSSION. 433 all the elementary schools and high-schools with trained teachers. Stowe did not live to see the ideal in Scotland, neither did Forrester live to realize his ideal ; but in the smallest of the provinces in the neighborhood of Nova Scotia there has been realized the full development of the training system, where no teacher can enter upon practical school-work without his normal school diploma. Every teacher in Prince Edward Island and in the sister province of New Brunswick is a trained teacher, and I need hardly say that the experiment has been so far successful that we may hope to see such a state of affairs in every district on this side of the Atlantic. The multiplying of the stages of training the various grades of teachers has no doubt been successful in large communities, but the expense of having various training depart- ments can never be realized in small communities. And as the consolidation of a school district must in the future be made round the district normal school as a civic educa- tional nucleus, the organizing of the training-school that shall have the principles of the science of education which are common to elementary school-work as to the higher work, directed toward the realization of an improved practice, is the most important consideration in a discussion of this kind. Every district must eventually have its normal school, and, as in the provinces of which I have made mention, then we may expect to see every teacher in the land a trained teacher. James M. Green, Ph.D., Principal State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.: The fun- damental principle of pedagogy is the study of the child mind. Instead of separate normal schools for the preparation of kindergarten, primary, and secondary teachers, we should have normal schools where the study of mind in its various stages of development and the application of subject matter to these stages of development form a part of the training. The normal school must adapt itself to its conditions. If the average appli- cant does not possess sufficient academic preparation for the pedagogical work, he must, ot necessity, be given some academic training, but only as a necessity. Edward T. Pierce, Principal State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal. : This question of academic training in normal schools is one for the future. We must look to the con- ditions of the present. One fact has been lost sight of. In all of the States of this country there is a system of examination for the certificating of teachers. Most of the examination questions are on scholastic subjects, very few on professional subjects. Now, until we have different grades of normal schools having different requirements for admission, we must have academic work. If we do not we shall not get students, for the graduates of the high-school and the university will pass an examination and go to teaching with no professional training. Then, too, the professional spirit acquired through a four years' course in a normal school is greater than that acquired by two years of work iu the same school. I prefer a teacher who has acquired his academic training in a normal school, to one who has acquired it in a high-school and only the purely professional work in the former. A professional spirit runs through the whole work, and this spirit must be a growth ; it cannot reach just proportions in a short time. It seems to me that we must have academic training in our normal schools in this country, and while we have an ideal for the future normal school, let us do the best, we can for the present training of teachers for the masses. President John Hull, of River Falls, Wis., cautioned normal school teachers and others against a misinterpretation of normal school statistics. The measure of the influence of a normal school is not determined by the number of its graduates. Its undergraduates are a potent factor in its final products. And the good produced in its students is multiplied many times in schools taught by pupils of those who have attended normal schools. For the present, academic work must be done in normal schools, and some good results are growing out of present practice in that respect. Dr. G. Stanley Hall, President of Clark University, believed that teachers should have a thorough knowledge of children, of their physical and mental natures. What would father or mother take in exchange for the good health of son or daughter ? The order of development of the bodily powers and of the means to use, to make them strong, aru not less important than is a like knowledge of the mental powers. The demand is strong, and it is growing stronger, that instructors of youth shall, like Jesus of old, take the child, set him in the midst, and after full study of him and of the conditions underlying his soundest development, shape all his environment in such fashion as will surely bring about the desired development. 28 ! 434 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. WHAT SHOULD BE REQUIRED OF AND UPON WHOM It TO BE CONFERRED THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR 0± PEDAGOGY? BY JEEOME ALLEN, PH.D., PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY, UNIVERSITY OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. It has been the custom for many years to confer upon those who have completed speci- fied courses of study some appropriate degree indicating the satisfactory completion of certain requirements. Whether these degrees are proper distinctions cannot here be discussed ; it is sufficient to recognize their use by all higher institutions of learning, and their almost universal acceptance by all to whom they are granted. During recent years a number of degrees have been added, and it is often puzzling to know just what certain letters mean, for all kinds of distinctions are published by various cabalistic letters, not only in language, science, and art, but in the common arts, as bookkeeping, typewriting, pharmacy, and surveying. Almost every young person who has attended an established school for a length of time is authorized to use certain letters after his name, indicating the possession of a degree. But, until recently, graduates of normal schools and teachers of eminence have nowhere been recognized by any degrees as marks of special excellence in educational study and teaching ability. Various efforts have been made to establish such degrees in education, the most recent of which was two years ago, when Professor Sully moved in the governing board of the University of London that degrees in education should be granted by that body. The motion received a tie vote, and only failed by the casting of the chairman's vote in the negative. In this country, three years ago, the University of the City of New York established a depart- ment of pedagogy, with courses of study leading to the degrees of Master of Pedagogj (Pd.M.), and Doctor of Pedagogy (Pd.D.). The highest degree in education must be the doctor's degree, and because of its emi- nence great pains should be taken to guard it so carefully that it shall not fall into contempt. What qualifications should a doctor of pedagogy possess ? It is evident that any one seeking this high degree should, first of all, possess a strong personality coupled with strong integrity and an elevated moral purpose and character, for without these qualities no amount of intellectual culture or scholastic attainment would result in other than doubtful success, if not absolute failure. Eminent teaching ability is an essential qualification, but in addition certain branches of study must be understood, of which the First is — THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. This stands at the vestibule of a pedagogical course of study, for it is obvious that without a knowledge of what other teachers have thought and done ; their successes and failures ; their theories, principles, and practices — no great advance can be made in the study of psychology and methodology. Educational psychology is the study of the workings of the cultured mind, both in its present manifestations and past char- acteristics. Each age must be studied for the purpose of finding out conditions of mental activity regulating the thought of that age. The study of the history of educa- tion is the study of the methods of training the immature mind, and it shows why these methods have changed, owing to race-forces, religious and governmental influences. The old Grecian was different from the old Roman education, and these differed from mediaeval education. No age has produced such schools as our own. because the cir- cumstances governing our civilization ere different from all other eras. The study of REQUIREM ENTS FOR DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PEDAGOGY. 435 the history of education shows the forces causing these changes. It is, in reality, a study of educational causes and effects. The thorough student, then, of this department is better able than any one else to answer the question, at this time more important than any other : " What kind of school training is most worth ? "—for he sees under what conditions success is attained, and in what ways failures have been caused. It is to-day as true as ever that we have but one lamp by which our feet are guided in the administration of school and governmental affairs, and that is the lamp of experience. What this experience is in education, can only be known by studying the pages of history. It is, then, essential that the student, before he receives the doctor's degree, should know thoroughly the history of education. Second. He must know psychology, and especially that part of this science that has been called, recently, educational psychology. The child is the center of all school work, and in prosecuting it so many questions press themselves upon the attention of the modern teacher that he is in some danger of being overwhelmed by their very number. How does each faculty unfold ? What promotes the healthy growth of the whole mind, and what of each of its activities ? What is the psychological value of the kindergarten? What is the effect of kindergarten training upon the maturing infant ? What is the psychology of early language teaching ? What is history teaching ? What is the mental effect of the marking system, and what does mind- study tell concerning the proper method of grading ? Psychology is ready to teach the student of education valuable lessons in ear-mindedness ; eye-mindedness in writing and spelling and reading; in literature-teaching, and in character building. It even touches gymnastics and the whole subject of physical education, and gives not valuable hints only, but lays down essential principles that must be followed. It touches morals, and shows how the mind can become influenced by right motives and how it may become the abode of foul birds of prey eating out its very vitals. Tliird. The doctor of pedagogy must know educational methodology. This is the most comprehensive of all the subjects the educational student is called upon to consider. Ways of doing things occupy the attention of many teachers' institutes and conferences as well as the pages of educational papers, but the science of method considers the prin- ciples underlying school economy. Education is a science, because there are funda- mental principles which can be followed with logical strictness. Many of these prin- ciples are now clearly formulated and generally accepted, others are soon to be received. There is now apparent a body of educational doctrine of sufficient magnitude to engage the serious attention of the student of method. The doctor of pedagogy must be able to give definite reasons for his ways of teaching. His devices come from his philosophy, and when he desires to know the proper method of procedure, his psychology and his philosophy of the history of education give him the needed information. Among the subjects occupying the attention of the candidate for the doctor's degree are educational values, coordination of studies, incentives, school hygiene, fatigue, school diseases, school organization and management, child study, adolescence, and manual training. Fourth. The doctor of pedagogy must know the educational literature of the ages, commencing with Plato's educational theories in his " Republic," Aristotle's in his " Politics "and " Ethics," andQuintilian's " Institutesof Oratory," followed by Ascham, Locke, Comenius, Milton, and closing with Arnold, Spencer, and Harris. He must also know Pestalozzi's " Leonard and Gertrude" and its antecedent, the "Emile." He will have studied Froebel's " Education of Man," Hosenkranz's '• Philosophy of Education," Kosmini's " Method in Education "; nor will he omit the reading of Page's " Theory and Practice of Teaching," Mann's "Reports," Hoone's " Education in the United States," and De Garmo's " Essentials of Method." He must be acquainted with the scientific investigations already made, as well as those now making in this country and in Europe. 436 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Fifth. The doctor of pedagogy must know the school systems of Europe and America, and in our own country the relation of education to the state, city, county, and district systems. The reconstruction of school systems in France, Germany, and England wil be studied for the purpose of showing what adaptations can safely be made in our country. In the progress of the years some educational practices are seen to be valu- able, others valueless, and others positively vicious. He must be able to discriminat between these classes, and know the conditions of the successes and failures of exper ments in education. Some of the best scholars in the Old World are studying the educa- tional question for the purpose of finding out how to better the condition of the laboring classes. These questions are to be the vital ones during the next twenty-five years in our country, and the doctor of pedagogy must be able to assist in answering them. Ot schools are to be much more, even in the future than in the past, factors in the civiliza- tion of the people. They will teach more directly the art of living, not only by giving necessary knowledge, but by instruction in such practical arts as will minister to the comfort and happiness of the family and community. The doctor of pedagogy will know how these needed applications can best be made. Sixth. The doctor of pedagogy must make original investigations in some branch of child study or experimental psychology for the purpose of determining the educational values of various branches of study in our schools. He will demonstrate what pays and what does not pay in teaching. The habit of making original investigations and the practice of basing statements on facts vvill make him a valuable worker in the educational field. He will learn to discard theories and accept nothing as truth that has not been subjected to actual trial. The candidate, before receiving his degree, must present a thesis of adequate length, consisting of an original investigation in some branch of educational study, either psychological, practical, or historical, showing his ability to make original research. No doctor's degree should be conferred until such a thesis has been accepted. The qualifications of the doctor of pedagogy as here outlined are not unattainable or Utopian ; on the other hand, they are within the reach of men and women who have acquired scholarly habits of study in our schools and colleges. If a large number of persons should master the work here mentioned, the result would be the creation of a class of students who would give a decided impetus to sound educational progress and prepare the way for the organization of a body of professional teachers. WHAT SHOULD BE REQUIRED OF A CANDIDATE FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PEDAGOGY? BY DR. EDWARD R. SHAW, OF THE SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, UNIVERSITY OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. It is auspicious for the cause of education that those interested in the professional training of teachers should deem it of interest and value to discuss what should be required for this degree. One thing, however, it is best for us at the outset to hold in mind, and that is that our discussion will have but little effect in setting up a standard for the colleges and universities now granting this degree, or those universities which intend soon to offer courses leading to this degree. Each institution will be a law unto itself, so far as the setting up of its standard is concerned. Requirements for the degree of doctor of medicine or ot doctor of philosophy differ in different institutions. It is, REQUIREMENTS FOR DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PEDAGOGY. 437 after all, not so much the course of study prescribed, but the training given and the man who takes that training, that makes each man's degree of worth. We must expect, then, that the degree of doctor of pedagogy will be given upon some- what different requirements. The main point, however, the gratifying point, is that we have reached a period when such degrees are beginning to be conferred as the result of higher and broader study than has heretofore existed for professional preparation. Of course there has been extended special preparation in pedagogy of here and there one. Hut we recognize in the offering of courses of study leading to this degree a distinctive movement in advance. It is not the special cases that may be cited, but the tendency of the rank and file, that gives the surest signs of progress. It is now about fifty years since the establishment of the first normal school in this country. Most excellent and valuable as is the work now being done by the well-nigh two hundred normal schools of the United States, something more is necessary if teach- ing is to become a profession. I believe that the next step is now being taken in the establishment of professional schools, of which already there are three or four, offering a course of study strictly professional, and granting as the highest degree upon the accomplishment of that course the degree of Pel. D., Doctor of Pedagogy. Unquestion- ably the requirements for this degree will advance with the increase of candidates who desire to study for it. The first thing to be considered in the requirements for this degree is the scholastic attainment necessary as a foundation in entering upon the course of study leading to this degree. Here is room for diversity of opinion. It ought not to be less than that, required by most of our colleges for the bachelor's degree. Whether this scholarship is acquired in college, in normal school supplemented by additional study, or from pri- vate instructors, does not signify ; but somewhere and somehow it must be acquired. One other qualification appears to me to be indispensable. Before one can enter upon a course of study for the degree of doctor of pedagogy with the greatest amount of profit to himself, there should be a preliminary experience in teaching extending through a term of years. I should say at least four years. With these qualifications he is ready to undertake a course of study leading to the degree the requirements for which are under discussion this morning. Among the requirements for this course of study my colleague put as the first the study of the history of education. I differ from hira in regard to the position of this subject in the course, and incline rather to agree with Dr. Harnack, of the Pedagogium of Vienna, in his view that the history of education should come last. As the first work in this course of study — the ground which the candidate should first cover — I would place rational psychology and physiological psychology, each a separate course. It is unnecessary to go into any detail as to these courses. They should cover both fields in a thorough manner. Each gives a different kind of training — the latter being quan- titative— but both kinds of training are most necessary for a doctor of pedagogy. The so-called educational psychology should have no place in this course. After a study of rational psychology and physiological psychology, the student should be left to make his own educational psychology. The third course should be upon the institutes of education. Under this course should come an examination of the commonly accepted principles and maxims of edu- cation, to determine their scope and the limitations of their application ; a study of the education values of the different subjects, and how this value is affected by mode of presentation ; the coordination or correlation of studies, with practical application to show how coordination might be secured ; an exhaustive examination of the doctrine of apperception and the Herbartian pedagogy ; a thorough study of all that is known of school hygiene and its application — one of the most important subjects, because so little regard is paid to what is commonly known of this subject ; the training of the 438 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. will ; child-study, and all discovered means of measuring the growth of intellectual and moral powers. " Should there be nothing upon methods of teaching ?" you ask. There should be no giving of specific methods of presentation, but there should be a critical examination of different methods in vogue. The philosophy of method is the adaptation of method to the needs of every individual. Method should be as various as the pupils taught, and the doctor of pedagogy must recognize the philosophy of this and seek to acquire the power of adaptation. After the three courses which I have enumerated, the study of the history of educa- tion should come. There are various ways of studying the history of education. Its educative value depends, as is true of any other subject of study, upon the way in which it is studied. If merely as an informational subject, its educative value is slight. Nar- rative work may be interesting, but it gives little training. It should be studied inductively, seeking cause and effect, drawing materials from intellectual, religious, and political history. These four courses should constitute the major courses. As minor courses — one or two of which should be required, but be at the same time elective — there should be offered a study of system of education in Europe and the different state systems here ; assthetics in its application to education ; a course in ethics, and one in the history of philosophy. Lastly, the candidate for the degree of doctor of pedagogy should be required to make original investigation along some professional line, either in experimental psychology, child-study, some phase of school hygiene, or whatever field his interests may lead him to explore. The result of this original investigation should be presented as his thesis — a thesis being the last requirement for the degree. One other point in conclusion. University work in pedagogy does not interfere in the least with the work of the normal schools, but supplements it. Higher and broader study than these can give, or are equipped to give, is necessary if teaching is to become a profession. Normal-school training is a most excellent basis, perhaps the best basis, for this higher study, but the higher work must be done by the universities, and it is most auspicious for the vocation of teaching in this country that universities are to-day offering courses in pedagogy leading to a professional degree. REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PEDAGOGY. BY DE. CHARLES A. M°MUBBY, ILLINOIS STATE NOEMAL UNIVERSITY. The requirements for the degree of Doctor of Pedagogy should not be confined to scholastic instruction, but should be extended much beyond these limits ; and at the same time certain results of scholastic instruction should be excluded. We want light, simple direct light, upon our educational problems. There is good reason why pedagogy is one of the last and least developed of the sciences. It includes everything else. We say this with some sense of the profound difficulties that lie before the thoughtful student of pedagogical science. When we consider the scope of education from infancy to maturity, including the complex and varied school systems, also the sciences of physiology, psychology, and government out of which it grows, it is appalling to find that pedagogy means the whole philosophy of human development along the best lines. The person who thinks that doctors in this field can be manufactured by any short process is dreaming. REQUIREMENTS FOR DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PEDAGOGY. 439 The work of developing a scientific pedagogue is quite different from that of special- ization in other lines. First of all he must be broadly educated ; then let him become a careful, thoughtful critic of the long process of training through which he has passed ; let him examine the history and development of school studies in his own and other lands ; let him critically survey the vast body of knowledge of which the school studies are. at the best, meager epitomes ; let him inquire what there is in literature, in science, in history, in art, and in home surroundings, most conducive to the best growth of a boy and girl ; let him learn to deal with children sympathetically and thoughtfully — then he will begin to realize how profound and many-sided is the work of education. The doctor of pedagogy should have a critical knowledge of knowledges, an appreci- ative insight into child psychology and growth. The person who believes that pedagog- ical doctors who master all these matters can be turned out easily, must be more than sanguine in his beliefs. In the second place, the study of psychology is a sheet anchor for the pedagogue. But we are opening our eyes to the fact that psychology for the educator means something quite different from what has long prevailed in the schools. The psychology which is purely introspective and contemplative has had its day. But what we want now is careful and sympathetic observers of children. We need now a sympathetic children's psychology all along the line from the kindergarten through the public school, and in connection with this a practical study of the physical wants and growth of children. The history of educational tendencies and movements, especially since the Reformation, and the revival of learning, is extremely helpful in giving an educator a relief map of the educational world of our own time. It will save him from many a one-sided opinion and exploded notion. It will give him a true practical view of the slow growth of educational ideas. Many ideas that are heralded to-day as recent discoveries in educa- tion will be found to have been the common property of educational thinkers from the time of Comenius. The biographies of distinguished teachers like Comenius, Franke, Luther, Arnold, Wolff, and Horace Mann, will give every receptive teacher a consciousness of the true spirit needed in his work. If there is to be such a person as a doctor of pedagogy, he should be first put through the severest of tests — the teaching of children in a practice school. There is nothing like a real school to show the distinction between theory and practice. It will tear away disguises, false theories, and reveal weakness and incapacity. There is only one good antidote to a broad study of theories and systems of education — i.e., actual teaching. In view of the immature status of pedagogical science, and of the extremely difficult and comprehensive problems that confront specialists in education, we feel a certain reluctance in admitting the right of any one to be called a doctor of pedagogy. Much as we believe that there is a body of educational doctrine which, if not strictly scientific, is still of great practical utility, and extremely helpful to teachers, we are still slow to recognize a course of instruction adequate to the training of doctors of pedagogy. Per- haps it is well to jump bravely in and swim toward the goal with one's best strength. Our universities are feeling their way cautiously into this largely unexplored field. No one with clear eyes and strong sympathies can fail to see that there is pressing need of pedagogical training for the many teachers who go out from our colleges and universities. Many of them need it all the more from the fact that they are not con- scious of their need. But university teachers and students are no longer so indifferent to the value of pedagogical science as they were a few years ago. The more exclusively absorbed teachers and students were in university pursuits, the less need they felt for pedagogical science. But now that the unity and mutual dependence of all parts of school education are keenly felt, the universities see the necessity of turning out well- equipped teachers and leaders of pedagogical thought. There is still another convincing proof that strong thinkers are needed in the peda- 440 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. gogical field. Learned specialists in different lines of study and investigation are slow to tell the pedagogical value of their subjects for children in the common schools. They are generally wise enough to limit their advice to their own academic field of instruc tion. It is the business of specialists to develop their particular fields. It is the speci province of the scientific pedagogue to see what use he can make of the fruits of lear ing in all fields in developing a child. It is his business to step in to the relief nc only of specialists but particularly of the common schools, to select the most important subjects, and to coordinate them in harmony with the needs of children. There is then a broad field which is the legitimate province of the pedagogue and unoccupied by any- one else. The school of pedagogy at Jena, under the direction of Dr. Wilhelm Rein, is a place where theory and practice are brought into the best wholesome union. Dr. Rein delivers lectures on psychology, history of education, and general and special methods ; and also is director of the practice school of three grades — second, fourth, and sixth. A skilled training teacher is at the head of each grade, who not only teaches but is critic of the practice teachers who labor in his grade. Each student who hears pedagogical lectures with Dr. Rein, also teaches from two to five hours a week in the practice school. Once, a week a test lesson is given by one of the practicing teachers, in the presence of all the teachers presided over by Dr. Rein. Three days later this test lesson is carefully discussed by the teacher conducting it and by others specially appointed, as well as bj the whole body of interested students The discussion of an hour and a half is con- cluded by Dr. Kein giving a summary of the arguments. Week by week throughout the year this careful mingling of theory and practice occurs, and the important ideas of educational science and practice gradually clear up. HIGHER ACADEMIC DEGREES IN PEDAGOGY. BY PROFESSOR S. G. WILLIAMS, CORNELL UNIVERSITY. At the outset, is it not very doubtful whether there is any fit place for special degree in pedagogy ? For pedagogy is merely a branch of the philosophic disciplines — at application of the principles of ethics and psychology to the training of children and youth. It has always been so considered since Kant, from his renowned chair of phi- losophy in Kfinigsberg, treated pedagogy as one of his proper subjects ; since Herbart inaugurated his illustrious career as a philosopher by a course on pedadogy in Gotting- en, and later, in the chair of Kant, made this a chief object in his courses, thus gain- ing an ever-growing influence in German education, which is likely to preserve the memory of his name when his philosophy, save in its relations to pedagogy, may be forgotten. But the degree of Ph.D. already exists for the philosophic disciplines in their wide sense, including language, history, and economics. What reason can be given for cre- ating a special degree in pedagogy which would not be equally good for giving special doctorates in history, in economics, and in language ? or for like degrees in mathemat- ics, chemistry, etc.? The same end would be attained, without a confusing multiplica- tion of degrees, by conferring the well-known M.A. for distinguished attainments in pedagogy and the history of education, and the already used Ph. D. for such attainments coupled with distinguished services in this branch of philosophy. It is to be feared that the proposal of special pedagogic degrees may be suspected to be inspired by a desire on the part of ambitious teachers to gain cheap doctorates. HIGHER ACADEMIC DECREES IN PEDAGOGY. 44) Such a suspicion, with even slight justification, would be likely to revive the contempt- uous meaning long attached to the term pedagogue and to its derivatives, but which in Jermany has now completely, and in the United States nearly, died out. If now, in the presence of such legitimate objections, we admit the expediency of cre- iting special pedagogic degrees, the question at once emerges. By whom and on what erms shall they be conferred ? It is obvious that this twofold question is of vital importance, if the danger is to be avoided of having pedagogic titles become at once larks for obloquy rather than for honor. With regard to the first branch of this question there would seem to be little room for a difference of opinion. No institution should assume to grant the higher degrees in pedagogy which has not ample facilities for affording the extended instruction which Ivanced pedagogy at present presupposes. But comparatively few such institutions ire now to be found on this continent, and these, with few exceptions if any, are con- ent with the existing higher degrees for their advanced students in pedagogy. Doubt- less no one will claim that normal schools, however respectable, should assume to grant master's degree or a doctorate in pedagogy, for their diploma of graduation is suffi- cient merely to admit to the lower classes of our best colleges. The real point where differences of opinion are likely to arise will probably be con- lected with the question of the terms on which the higher pedagogic degrees shail be conferred. And first, as higher degrees, they should, like all other advanced degrees, presuppose the completion of a thorough college course. On this point there would seem to be ?m for no serious difference of opinion, for without this requirement the danger that such degrees would be rendered contemptible by being cheapened would at once be converted into a reality. The question of resident study under the guidance of profes- sors at some higher seat of learning may here be left in abeyance, since, though highly expedient, it may be conceded that it is not absolutely essential. It should, how ever, be said that the general tendency among our higher institutions is to require such resident study for all advanced degrees aside from the too large list of mere honoraries. Taking for granted this preliminary requirement, it would not seem too much to expect from the candidate for the master's degree in pedagogy that he should have a sound acquaintance with the fundamentals of his subject, ethics and psychology ; that he should have such knowledge of the history of education as may be gained from the not numerous treatises on that subject now existing in English, supplemented by Laurie's Rise and Constitution of Mediaeval Universities." or Compayre's "Abelard"; the larger German works of Von liaumer, Karl Schmidt, and Paulsen being fitted for more advanced work ; that he should have such familiarity with the theory of education as may be obtained, for example, from Bain's somewhat one-sided " Education as a Science,'" supplemented by some easier German work on the same subject, like the second part of Dittes' " Schule der Padagogik " ; and that he should prove his mastery of these sub- jects cither by an examination, or by a thesis on some pedagogic subject succeeded by an examination. On such terms only, it should seem, would the master's degree in pedagogy be entitled to credit. The degree of doctor in pedagogy is obviously a more serious matter. It should be the highest honor that may be gained in a most important profession, and should there- fore be conferred only on approved superiority both in attainment and in original power. As regards attainments, the more elementary course just mentioned should be enlarged by some knowledge of the history of philosophy ; by such deeper knowledge of the history of education as may be gained from some one of the larger works recently named ; and by the mastery of some work like the " Pedagogische Schriften " of Pier- 442 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION bart, or the " Allgemeine P&dagogik" of the Herbartian, Waitz, or the " Erziehungs und Unterrichts Lehre " of Benecke. The thesis is the proper test of originality and power of research, and for this peda- gogy affords a wide range of profitable work. The history of education has rich fields, still but imperfectly explored. The question of the relative educational efficiency of groups of studies has not yet reached any generally accepted solution. The work so well begun by Preyer and Perez admits, under favorable circumstances, of a wide and profitable extension. The contents of the youthful intelligence at various stages of development will richly repay a systematic investigation, the best means for which still await the ingenuity of some explorer. More than eighty years ago Herbart clearly saw what the mass of teachers still but dimly apprehend — viz. : the difficulties arising from the inability of the mature mind to conceive and adapt itself to the child's point of view and mode of approaching subjects — and he proposed a curious expedient for obviating this difficulty in the special case of languages. Can a better and more general solution of this problem now be offered ? These are but hints, which need not be multiplied, of lines of investigation in which originality may be shown and a philosophical grasp of facts manifested. Whether theses for the doctor's degree in pedagogy should be required to be of such originality and excellence as to warrant their publication as contributions to pedagogic science, is a question that need not detain us here. The question of successful experience in teaching as a requisite for the doctorate pre- sents greater difficulties. It will doubtless seem to many that to confer it on merely literary requirements, such as have been proposed, would be to ignore the important fact that practical skill in applying pedagogical principles to the work of education and instruction is the chief reason for the study of pedagogy as a science, that ability to do as well as to know is here of paramount importance. Yet, useful as training classes unquestionably are when they are attainable by our universities, it is more than doubtful whether they afford any reliable test of the real educative efficiency of the candidate for the doctorate. Their exercises can at best do no more than afford some indication of probable skill in instruction. This question may rightfully demand the careful consid- eration of the congress. Meanwhile, it may not be amiss to suggest that where the aspirant for the doctor's degree is not already a person of approved experience in teach- ing, it might be expedient, when the literary requirements have been fulfilled, to delay the conferring of the degree until skill in the application of principles has been proved by the successful management of schools. Should the terms here proposed seem to any to be too stringent, they may at least suggest the care with which such new degrees need to be guarded, that they may not incur the risk of becoming at once contemptible. DISCUSSION. T. B. Stowell, Ph.D., Principal of the State Normal and Training School at Pots- dam, N. Y. : The discussion of these requirements for the doctorate of pedagogy admits of three modes of treatment — the historical, the philosophical, and the practical. In the historical mode, it would be proper to tabulate the courses of study which have led to the degree, or to a degree for whose attainment the requirements are chiefly or exclusively pedagogical. It is known to this body that in German and in English uni- versities the course in pedagogy is not yet differentiated from the courses in letters, and leads to the doctorate of philosophy, and is accessible to graduates of the gymnasium, or to juniors in a first-class American college with the standard of Yale. Among our American colleges, the University of Michigan, the first to introduce a course in pedagogics into the college curriculum, regards the course as it does any course in science which leads to the doctorate of philosophy. Columbia confers the 3 DISCUSSION. 443 baccalaureate and the master's degrees in pedagogy — Ped.B. and Ped.M. — but has not differentiated the doctorate. In its Circular of Information, 1893-94, part vi., pp. 5, 6, 7, 9, it gives details of studies to be pursued, etc. (q. v.). In the courses of graduate instruction of Yale University for 1893-94, p. 5, is found a special course for teachers leading to the doctorate of philosophy. The University of the City of New York, in its catalogue and announcements for 1892-93, p. 82, offers a graduate course leading to the doctorate of pedagogy (q. v.). In the philosophical mode of treatment at least three lines of inquiry are opened. First. The relation of a profession to the content of its highest degree. Second. The requisites for the judges of qualification — i.e., who shall confer the degree. Third. The eligibility of candidates. Ail members of a profession concur in every action to prevent any lowering of the standard of the profession, and to oppose every effort to detract from its recognized dig- nity. We cannot guard too jealously the doors which lead to the doctorate of pedagogy. The teachers of the country have themselves to blame for any lack of influence or recog- nition which attaches to the profession. If we by silence or by direct action bestow our laurels unworthily, we must not complain because of consequences. It is possible at this date to raise the standard of teaching, to place it in the van of the learned pro- fessions, by making its highest honors accessible to those only who have honored it, and who will continue so to do. Already the list of degrees is long, but it is none the less significant. AM., A.M , Ph.D., or Ph.B., Ph.M.. Ph.D., LL.B., LL.M., L.L.D., Ped.B., Ped.M., the proposed, now already existing Ped.D., and numorous other bac- calaureates, master's degrees, and doctorates are accessible. In the standard universities of the Old World, the theory obtains that a prescribed course of study and experience shall be a prerequisite to the doctorate, and that this distinction shall be conferred only by faculties of colleges, which faculties, by virtue of their distinguished attainments, are recognized as qualified judges of the merits of can- didates— i.e.. there is a consensus of judgment, if not written law, relative to the quali- fications of the conferring body. Thus, a candidate holding the baccalaureate in divinity is eligible to a prescribed course in theology, and upon examination is eligible to the doctorate. A corresponding course under the supervision of the faculty of law leads to the doctorate of law. A school of pedagogics should offer facilities for research along three cognate lines : (1) A department of historical and philosophical study, a seminary where the results already attained by all the students of the subject may be accessible. This is essential to intelligent as well as to economical research. (2) A department or laboratory for physiological and for psychical research. The Old World offers such laboratories, and several are established in our own country. (3) And most important, a department of practice, an actual school in which, under the most critical supervision, the hypotheses evolved from the courses alreadv named may be tested, and from which department theories, not hypotheses, of teaching may be promulgated. I am persuaded that the training of teachers should be predicated upon a more sure basis than the history and the current trend of education. Skill in the art of teaching should be differentiated from academic knowledge. The point is vital to the status of the profession as well as to results in the schoolroom. Eligibility. — To those, and those only, who possess the skill, based upon critical scholar- ship, of a nigh order, and upon well -authenticated experience as teachers, should the doctorate be accessible. To this should be added a thesis evincing original research in — (1) The master's degree in letters, in philosophy, or in science, as evidence of general scholarship. (2) Knowledge of the history of pedagogy, of the theories of eminent teachers, founders of schools or systems of teaching, as evidence of a department of technical scholarship. (3) Knowledge of contemporary systems of teaching, as evidence of progressive tech- nical scholarship. (4) Such contributions to pedagogical literature as will demonstrate grasp of the principles of soul growth and development, and a special thesis embodying the results °f original research of such character as to evidence originating power. (5) Five years' experience as a teacher in secondary or higher institutions of learning, academies, colleges, or professional schools. The foregoing provision excludes the conferring of honorary degrees. The writer dare not presume to discuss the practical phase of the question. In view of the great diversity in the requisites for existing degrees, it seems desirable that at least a minimum should be determined for the doctorate under consideration. Such Standards exist in theology, in medicine, and in law. 444 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. THE CANDIDATE FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR Oi PEDAGOGY SHOULD BE ABLE TO MAKE ORIGINAL INVESTIGATIONS IN EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY. BY EDGAR DUBS SHIMBR, SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, UNIVERSITY OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. Since pedagogy is one of the fields of applied psychology, it is reasonable to assume that a candidate for the degree of doctor of pedagogy can have no adequate grasp of his subject without an intimate laboratory knowledge in experimental psychological work. He should not only know all the chief methods of research, but also be able to observe for himself all the more important phenomena of mind, and to aid simple introspection, extrospection, and ejection by scientific variation of one condition after another until the definite influence of each factor in the problem has been traced. Psychology is not specially interested in pedagogy. It seeks to keep conditions nat- ural ; pedagogy seeks to superinduce new conditions in its efforts after an ethical ideal. The student of pedagogy must therefore go down to the fundamental science, and learn at first hand the facts of mental life, good, bad, and indifferent, before he can select those that are desirable, and contrive the means of reaching ends in the best and quick- est way ; or, in other words, establish educational values in school curricula. To know what psychical facts are, how to get at them, record and classify them, tc determine what is normal, how to study mental defect, and to make systematic measur ments so that the child mind may be studied as an object of natural science, are matters of more than simple introspection or commonplace observation. Our laboratories and journals show that exact methods have been applied to mental investigations. To know in the main what has been done and is doing in this direction, the candidate for the degree of doctor of pedagogy should be required to familiarize himself with the standards in the literature of the subject, to sift what is current, and to verify results experimentally. Slowly but surely the results of experimental physiological psychology have been carried over into pedagogy. Yet there are some teachers of prominence and of ac- knowledged success who see no profit for education in psychologic experiment. On every possible occasion they deny that the so-called new psychology has brought about any changes in education, or that it has anything of value to offer. Let us consider this. The play instinct has long been recognized as one of the strongest instincts of child- hood, but it has only lately been held that play is the most serious business of a child's life. As a direct outgrowth of the experimental study of the psychology of play, the kindergarten has come into existence with its multiform curriculum for training sense, refining the emotions, and regulating the will. The spirit of this new institution has permeated the higher schools ; corporal punishment has largely disappeared, and greater efforts are made to give the pupil opportunity for self-activity and self-regulation both as to curriculum and discipline. The experimental study of sense-perception, especially in the intuition of space, has developed a new theory of vision, and brought out the paramount use of touch in edu- cation, culminating through the handling of objects in natural science observation lessons, through plaiting, weaving, folding, modeling, making, painting, drawing, and the like, into full-fledged manual training, against the introduction of which into the curriculum conservatism has struggled and is yet struggling in vain. Modeling and : th REQUIREMENTS FOR DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PEDAGOGY. 445 making have taken their natural place. On the same basis inventional geometry has taken its proper precedence, though not a few of the secondary schools lag wofully in this matter, and still induct their pupils into the mysteries of algebra before even touch- ing upon the simpler and more concrete study of geometry. An experimental study of the psychology of expression has revealed the truth that expression by abstract symbols, or by words, is the latest and most difficult form of expression. In this matter experimental psychology has done for education what chrono-photography has done for the art of painting in the photography of the swim- ming of fish, the galloping of horses, the leaping of athletes, the flying of birds, and Other forms of vital action. No artist to-day draws zigzag lines for lightning. The order of psychological development, as determined by experimental psychology, has determined the contents and the logical order of procedure in a well-constructed curriculum. We may instance here the history of the study of foreign languages, and of the physical sciences in elementary and secondary schools. The methods of treating these subjects still vary according to the underlying principles of psychology. The psychological analysisof the mental operations employed in arithmetic has proven that the educational value of this branch of the curriculum is not so disproportionately great as to warrant the amount of time and attention bestowed upon it. Experiments in association have developed with startling vividness, for those who can see, the capital importance of coordination of studies, not only to save time and energy by following natural mental processes, but to secure truer mental development and firmer mental products. Experiments in the localization of cerebral function have revealed many memories instead of one, and instruction has accordingly been modified. Ear-minded, eye-minded, and tactile- or muscular-minded children are less frequently misunderstood, and are more readily and thoroughly aided. The old fashioned oral spelling lesson, however effica- cious for the ear-minded, has lost its vaunted prestige, and takes a more modest, though not unimportant, place. Experiments in motor ability have made manifest the function of the reflex muscle achine, and the resultant theory of the formation of compound reflexes has deter- mined the ruling distinction between the mechanical and the cultural branches of a curriculum. Patient, unvarying, persistent, and repeated drill in the one has given way in the other to large freedom for individual discrimination. A mechanical grind on lists of geographical names and bald annals in history finds no justification in educa- onal psychology. There has been no attempt to mark out in exhaustive detail all the tangential points hit ween psychology and education. Enough has been outlined to indicate the deter- ining influence of psychology. There is much that teachers are conscious of in them- Ives, and observe in one another, that yet eludes their own interpretation. Why should hey not admit the reasonableness of collating experimental evidence and generalizing definite laws that may serve as clues for escape from labyrinths of doubt ? Whatever else, therefore, it may be deemed wise to require of a candidate for the gree of doctor of pedagogy, there seems to be no doubt that he should be able to ake original investigation experimentally and scientifically in the study of mind so as reach fundamental laws by which to determine educational values. 446 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. SHOULD ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION BE REQUIRED IN SOME BRANCH OF CHILD-STUDY FOR THE DOCTOi OF PEDAGOGY DEGREE? BY EARL BARNES, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, LELAND STANFORD JR. UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA. Personally, the writer of this paper has no sympathy with academic degrees, and he laments their multiplication. But since we cannot yet abandon them, we must define the conditions under which they shall be granted. A debased academic degree, like a debased silver dollar, can breed only ruin. If the doctor's degree is to be given in pedagogy, it should be given for a grade of scholarship equal to that demanded for the doctor's degree in philosophy— that is, a good undergraduate course of four years plus a three years' post-graduate course— other- wise the degree will fall into deserved disgrace. The most of the post-graduate work, I should say, should be in the nature of origi- nal investigation, and the results of the investigation should be embodied in a thesis of merit. This thesis for the doctor of pedagogy degree might be on any subject connected with educational work. Teachers deal with children. In an ultimate analysis that is all they deal with. Buildings, organization, books, studies, and systems interest them only because of thei: possible application to children. To grant to a pedagogue the highest academic honor to which he can attain, without his knowing the materials with which he is to work, would seem to me utterly absurd. Hence I should say the candidate for the doctor's degree in pedagogy should pass an examination which would show that he was conver sant with the results of the latest and best studies made on children. But if we are to keep pace with other professions, more than this is necessary. The candidate for the highest honors in the medical profession to-day must not only have read the latest works on anatomy, physiology, medicine, and surgery, but he must ha\ actually worked with the real things with which his profession is concerned, in the dis secting-room, the chemical laboratory, and the hospital. The candidate for the degre of mechanical engineer must not only have studied the latest works on mechanics, but he must have worked with wood and iron in the workshops and with actual machines. The whole educational movement of our times is in the direction of demanding work with the realities which are being studied. Hence it would seem that a teacher who is a candidate for the highest degree known to his profession, should have studied in a scientific spirit the children, with which he is to work through life, under the direction of a competent professor. This demands an experimental school in connection with the department of educa- tion, which shall have the same relation to the department of education that the hos- pital has to the medical school. As the New York Evening Post said some years ago : " The time must soon come when it will be considered as absurd to have a department of education without children as it would now seem to have a department of chemistry without a chemical laboratory." The doctor of pedagogy should then, I should say, not only know what has been learned up to date in the scientific study of children, but he should have studied chil- dren himself under competent direction. These studies need not, I should say, be in the nature of original investigation, except in spirit. They need not necessarily add an increment to the sum of human knowledge, providing his thesis, dealing with the his- torical or administrative aspects of education shows a superior grasp of intellect, and the ability to stand alone and reach sound and independent conclusions. CHILD STUDY AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 447 CHILD STUDY IN CONNECTION WITH THE PROFES- SIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS. BY MARGARET K. SMITH, OSWEGO STATE NORMAL TRAINING SCHOOL. The teacher, as much as any other artist or artisan, is a workman. Foi the same reason that the painter or the carpenter must know the tools with which he works, the teacher must know the subjects of instruc- tion which are to be presented to his pupils. Besides knowing his tools, however, the painter or the carpenter must know the nature of the material to which he applies his tools ; and by carefully noting the effect of this application, he gains a knowledge, the use of which results in a skill in fashioning, which insures a great saving of time and energy, as well as a great increase in the value of his products. In a similar way the teacher, in addition to knowing the subjects of instruction, must know the nature of the material upon which he works, viz., mind in general, as well as the nature of the particular mind with which he has to deal. In addition to this, he must be able to observe accu- rately the effect of any subject of instruction, as well as the effect of the manner of its presentation upon the mind, of the pupil. Having knowledge of the subjects of instruction, knowledge of the nature of mind, and power to observe the effects of the application of these subjects to mind, together with the effects of the manner of present- ing them upon mental growth, the teacher is in possession of the condi- tions for gaining a skill that must result in a great saving of time and energy, in a constant renewal of interest in his work, as well as in a finer development on the part of his pupils. The effective skill of the artist or artisan is not to be gained incident- ally, however. It means years of work, of observation of results, and of renewed work to secure better results. It means training under the criti- cism of masters, as well as training under self-imposed criticism. It also leans training under the criticism of tyros, who, while they may know little or nothing of the subject under discussion, are yet very effective in keeping an expert up to the mark. For the work of his profession, just as truly does the teacher need a period of special training under the direction of masters, by whose criti- cism he learns to measure himself correctly, and to estimate accurately the value of his own work. The teacher in training needs to review the subjects of instruction with a view to presenting them. He needs a training in the observation of human beings, as well as a training in self-observation, with a view to discovering the laws of psychic action, and to recognizing the effect of motives under different conditions. Also, he needs training in the obser- 448 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. vation of children that will enable him to know the child, and to recog- nize the conditions that are affecting him for good or ill. Important as is the study of all human nature, the study of the child is of more importance than that of the adult, for the reason that the most important truths are more plainly manifested in the simple, immature mind, of which the purpose is single, than in the complex, matured mind, of which the emotions are always more or less involved, and, consequently, are manifested more or less indistinctly or indirectly. Another reason why the teacher in training should study the child is, that his work of teaching is to be connected with the child. His task is to develop the childish mind ; and, valuable as is the study of the adult mind, it will not afford the knowledge needed for dealing with children. Probably the chief reason why the psychology of the past, and even of the present, is not calculated to furnish a working basis for the teacher, was and is that it has been, as indeed it still is, a psychology of the mature, cultured mind, indicating the result of a complex education, and so does not indicate the mind before it was acted upon by intentional instruction. To the immature teacher such a psychology must be misleading, as it must lead him to expect more from the immature mind than can possibly be realized, and thus result in his working above the capacity of his pupil. This difficulty is constantly to be met with in English and Scotch psy- chology, and to a great extent in that of Germany. The one important exception is to be found in the Herbartian psychology, which system was evolved from the actual observations and experiments made by Herbar upon his own pupils. The aim of the teacher in training is to acquire skill in presenting the material for knowledge, the subjects of instruction, in such a way that the time and energy of both teacher and pupil may be saved ; in such a way that the best power of the pupil may be developed. To this end his work is a constant series of experiments with children, the effects of which must be carefully noted, and their desirable or undesirable feat- ures accounted for, so that the latter may be avoided, and the former secured again and again. It may be urged that the regular class-room instruction is sufficiently well calculated to afford opportunity for observation and experiment upon children. If teaching were what it ought to be, this would perhaps be true ; but that it is insufficient, as at present carried on, is perhaps proven by the fact, that, in the case of a great many teachers, the longer they teach, the more unobserving, the more unimpressionable, they become in regard to their work. As teaching is done at present, probably less of the real child is seen in the class-room than in any other place. We have all been in schools where automata would seem to serve the purpose of the teacher quite as CHILD STUDY AND PROFESSIONAL TRIANING OF TEACHERS. 449 well as, if not better than, real living, thinking children. This, of course, indicates something wrong, and this something is probably ignor- ance on the part of the teacher regarding the nature of the work in which he is engaged. A reform in teaching is certainly necessary, and this reform is only to be secured by first gaining a knowledge of the child as he is when actuated by that which is within himself rather than by exter- nal influences. In the class-room the child is usually so enveloped with the teacher's personality that there is no possible opportunity for an origi- nal manifestation. Before the teacher in training attempts formal instruction, and even before he attempts formal observation in the class-room, he will find it very profitable to occupy himself with individual children. He may watch them with a view to discovering what influences tend to arouse a desire to know ; and, this desire being active, how they inform themselves by their own unaided, undirected effort. At such a time as this the real child is to be seen. The teacher may watch the child in the family, when he is one of several, and in the playground, where he is one of many. There he will have an opportunity to observe the tendencies that show one child to be an originator and a leader, and another to be an imitator and a follower. He may frequent the haunts of the street urchin, and note how one lad succeeds in conveying an idea to another; note the way in which a motive impels an action ; the effort spent to achieve a purpose. He may mark the argument which carries conviction ; in brief, he may discover the way in which a live, natural boy perceives, reproduces, apperceives, cognizes, recognizes, interprets, creates. When these things have been discovered, we shall be better able, no doubt, to adjust our schools to the real needs of children. We shall be able to bring the child in contact with the subjects of instruction in such a way as to induce him to bring to bear upon them as much earnest- ness and energy as he manifests in a game of " shinny," or in the construc- tion of a water-wheel. Making such observations as have been indicated, the teacher in training will become more attentive to the manifestations of child-life in the class- room, and will be better able to turn his observations to account in the processes of instruction. The knowledge of the child, which is the fundamental knowledge of human nature, and I had almost said of Divine nature as well, must be gained by every teacher for himself. It cannot be acquired at second hand. The book will never give information that will apply to all cases. Hearsay evidence is not sufficiently reliable to base action upon. The teacher in training must himself work and watch and wait for results. Eternal vigilance is the price of knowledge in regard to the management of human beings. 29 450 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Here the statement regarding the necessity for observing children as individuals may be emphasized. At present attempts are being made to examine children in masses, to strike averages, and to make generaliza- tions that can hardly be reliable. Such work seems to me hardly practi- cable for the teacher in training, and if practicable, the results would perhaps be of doubtful value. I would not, however, wish to underrate the value of a certain kind of study of cbildren in masses. The measure- ment of school-children of certain age by the thousand, or by the twenty thousand, as well as other estimates of physical conditions, if reliable, may furnish a basis for certain important inferences that may warrant modifi- cation in the action of parents and teachers. I doubt, however, whether an attempt to get at an estimate of the interests or the truthfulness of children in the mass will be equally satisfactory. For such points as these, and indeed, in the very early work, for all points, I should recommend a very careful study of the individual child, and before venturing on general- izations, I should recommend a careful study of a great many individuals. A word may be said here regarding the necessity of the teacher in train- ing being trained how to see, before much importance can be attached to the results of the observations made. The observer must learn to dis- tinguish accurately between what he actually does observe and what he infers. If every teacher realized the importance of this one point, it seems to me that at least one-half the trouble in managing children would disappear. The tendency of the immature, superficial mind is to rush to conclusions before actual observations have been made. Another point may be made regarding the necessity of freeing the obser- vations made from sentiment of any kind. This is another vice of young, immature observers. The plain statement of a simple fact appears to them harsh and even insignificant. The garnish of fine words seems to give a flavor of originality, and is very tempting. Perhaps it may also be well to warn the observer against selecting as specimens those children that are generally regarded as remarkable. Pre- cocious or exceptional children are to be avoided as carefully as are freaks in any other department of natural history. The typical is to be sought for constantly, and it is to be found not very far removed from the com- monplace. The exception should follow, not precede, the rule. Having learned how to observe accurately, and how to state accurately the result of his observations, without any embellishment or retrenchment, the teacher in training may next be trained to think about what he has observed — to try to find a reason for a manifestation. This is, of course, a training in inference, and must not be allowed to degenerate into mere guess, and which must have a broad basis of actual fact. Having found the cause for certain manifestations, the next effort of the teacher in training will be to learn how to avoid this cause if it be undesirable, and how to secure it again if it be desirable. This involves a THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL. 451 further exercise of inference, viz. : theorizing. Theories must have a basis in actual experience, and can only be of value to the extent that they are verified by actual experiment. As an indication of the study of the child in a formal way, we may state that he first be studied as to what he is ; second, as to what he does ; third, as to what he says. First, as to physical condition, or state; second, as to physical movement, or action ; third, as to language ; fourth, con- ditions external to the child which may affect him in regard to any or all of the three points mentioned above. Last of all the history of the child, so far as affected by the nationality, lives, and occupations of his parents. I mention this last, as it is in its very nature supplementary evidence, which if gained first may prejudice the judgment of the observer. The child as he is, is the first object of study ; after this study, the observer should of course make use of all evi- dence that will be of use to him in forming a basis for inference. The study of the physical condition of the child implies the observation of the state of the body as a whole, and of its parts, with special reference to the condition of the senses, and the amount of strength or vitality pos- sessed by the child. The second point — viz. : the study of movement — is probably of the greatest importance of any. The study of movement implies the obser- vation of reflex actions, and of such movements as are caused by mental activity — i.e., by thinking. The study of the expression of the child is attended with much difficulty. The character of the vocabulary as well as the content of the expression must be carefully noted and accounted for. Here it is very important that the observer keep himself free from prepossessions for or against what the child says. He must also exercise great care in his inference regarding the motive which prompted the ex- pression. The definition of Talleyrand, that language is a means of con- cealing thought, applies not infrequently to the language of children as well as of adults. THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL. BY DR. EDWARD BROOKS, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The normal school problem resolves itself into two questions, that of organization and instruction. In both of these respects the normal schools of America present many diversities. This is readily accounted for by the history of their origin and growth. In the Old World a system of normal schools was carefully thought out by educational experts and established by state authority ; neither the people nor the teachers had any voice in the matter. In such a case an ideal system could be engrafted upon the educational organization of a country. In this country, however, no such ideal system was possible. Our normal schools were not established primarily as parts of 452 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION a great system of popular education, but grew up spontaneously to meet a public demand. They were not imposed upon the people by the state, but were established largely by the people themselves. Many of them were for a long time mere private institutions started by some progressive and enthusiastic teacher, and demonstrating by their success their right to existence and state support. Gradually a public sentiment was created in their favor, and by action of State legislatures they became an integral part of the public school system of the various States. Only in some of the newer States were they made an essential part of the State system from the beginning. Originating in such a way, it is clear that there must be great diversity in their organization and course of instruction. One peculiarity of most of them is that they are not strictly training-schools, but have two courses of study, a scholastic and a pro- fessional course. The scholastic course gives instruction in the different branches of study like an academy or seminary. Only in their professional course are they essen- tially different from these other institutions. This feature of a scholastic course has been a basis of criticism of the American normal schools. The ideal normal school, it was said, is a school in which professional training alone is given. An ideal normal school should not possess a course of instruction in the arts and sciences ; a knowledge of these should be acquired in the academy or college. The instruction in a normal school should be exclusively professional ; it should include only the science and art of teaching. Judged by this standard, our State normal schools are not ideal schools ; nearly all of them give instruction in the branches as well as in methods of teaching. But this was a necessity of their origin. They were established to meet an immediate want of popu- lar education. That want was teachers of our common schools, teaching a few months in the year at from twenty dollars to thirty dollars a month. Young men trained in academy or college were not willing to go to a normal school and spend a year or two in learning how to teach a public school with such remuneration in view. Hence the only way to obtain young people prepared in the branches of study as well as in methods was to teach these branches in the normal school. A so-called academic or scholastic course was thus a necessity in our normal schools as first established. And even to-day, with increased remuneration, the normal schools of the country could not depend on students trained in academy or college. And I go further and say that neither the academy nor college gives that training in the elementary branches needed by a teacher of the public school, and it would be outside of their legitimate purposes to do so. Besides, the graduates of these higher institutions aspire to something that pays better than teaching in a common country school. So that whatever may be said about the ideal normal school giving only professional instruction, the fact remains that to fit teachers for the common schools of the country, the normal schools are com- pelled to give academic instruction in the branches. While it might be well to have in each State a higher institution known as a normal university or college of pedagogy, where college graduates and other young men and women with advanced scholastic preparation could be prepared for the higher educational positions, yet the great mass of the teachers of our public schools must be trained in normal schools organized as at present with a scholastic as well as a professional course. That these schools should be under state control, and be thus an integral part of our public school system, is too evident to need argument. There is one place, however, where the so-called ideal normal school is possible in this country, and that is in our large cities, where the entire work of public education is under the control of one organization. Here a properly conducted high-school can prepare its pupils in the scholastic branches so that when they enter the normal school the instruction may be exclusively professional. Such a system I am now organ- izing in Philadelphia. There has been in this city for many years an institution known THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL. 453 as the Girls' High and Normal School, whose main object was the education of the women teachers of the city. It contained a scholastic and a professional course. These two departments are now to be separated, and the work done in two different institutions under separate control, one to be a girls' high-school, and the other a girls' normal school. The high-school is to contain three courses of study — a general course, a classi- cal course, and a business course. Pupils who desire to become teachers will take three years of the general course, and then pass into the normal school and have a two years' course in pedagogy. This course in pedagogy will be strictly professional. Con- nected with the normal school will be a school of observation and a school of practice in which the art of teaching is to be learned. The above remarks belong to the first part of the normal school problem — that of organization. A few words will also be added in respect to the course of professional instruction. The course of instruction should be based on the idea that teaching is a science and an art. The science of teaching is based on a correct conception of the teacher's will. First, the pupil has certain powers which are to be understood by the teacher and unfolded in the work of education. The work of unfolding these powers has been called culture, and the entire subject may be embraced under the head of Methods of Culture. Second, this work of culture is accomplished by the agency of knowledge, consisting of the arts and sciences. This knowledge has a certain relation to the mind ; its branches have relative values in education ; there are best methods of bringing it in proper relation to the mind — all of which may be embraced under the head of Methods of Instruction. This work of culture and instruction is to be done in a school, and this school is to be provided, organized, governed, etc. — all of which may properly be included under the head of School Economy. Then there is the History of Education, as of every other subject, and the Philosophy of Education, which embraces those broad and general principles of education that lie at the basis of educational growth and development. The science of teaching, it is thus seen, may be embraced under five distinct heads : (1) Methods of Culture. (2) Methods of Instruction. (3) School Economy. (4) History of Education. (5) The Philosophy of Education. Under methods of culture the entire nature of man should be studied and the best methods of unfolding his powers presented. It should include physical culture, intel- lectual culture, aesthetic culture, ethical culture, etc. The basis of physical culture is educational physiology ; the basis of intellectual, aesthetic, and ethical culture is edu- cational psychology. This psychology should embrace introspective, observational, experimental, and physiological psychology — indeed, every fact and principle that pertains to the development of the mental or spiritual nature of man. Under methods of instruc- tion the nature of the different branches of knowledge is to be discussed — their origin and development, their relation to the various faculties of the mind, their educational value, and the principles and methods of teaching them. Under school economy should be discussed school-buildings, school organization, school employments, school government, school authorities, etc. The history of education and the philosophy of education should embrace as much of the respective subjects as the character of the students and the grade of the school will admit. In addition to these formally stated branches there should be original reading and investigation on the part of the students independent of the text-book or the lectures of the classroom. The art of teaching is to be learned in two ways, by observation and by practice. There should therefore be connected with every normal school two distinct elementary schools — a school of observation and a school of practice. The school of observation should be taught by expert teachers, the most skillful and artistic that can be secured. "All the most approved methods in all the different grades should be employed in this school that it may represent the most advanced educational thought and practice of the day. The pupils of the normal schools, as soon as they are ready, should spend a certain time 454 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. each day in this school to observe the work of these expert teachers, taking notes of their work and preparing for a subsequent discussion of the same. In addition to this school of observation there should be a school of practice, in which the pupils of the normal school should be required to do actual teaching for a certain period each day. This school should also be in charge of skillful teachers familiar with the best methods of modern instruction. The work of the student-teachers should be under the constant supervision of regular teachers, who are to observe and direct their practice. In this way the student-teacher may learn to put in practice the principles of the science of teaching learned in the normal school, and thus become master of both the science and the art of his profession. In most of the State normal schools it will be found more convenient to unite these two schools in one organization called the model school ; in a large city it is possible to have them separate, which, as is obvious, possesses some special advantages. DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF ART INSTRUCTION. SECRETARY'S REPORT. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday, July 26, 1893. The Congress of Art Instruction met in Hall No. 8 of the Art Institute at 9.30 a.m., Wednesday, July 26, 1893. The Congress was called to order by Professor W. M. R. French, Director of the Art Institute, Chicago, who opened the session by a few remarks relative to the struggles which art schools have had to encounter at all times and places. There was no art instruction in the schools of Boston so late as 1873. Among the con- ditions which retard the progress of art schools are the irregularity of teacher and pupil, withdrawal of pupils, missing models, etc. All drawing is a training of hand and eye, even if the course has not been according to my system. The first paper was presented by Mr. Henry T. Bailey, Supervisor of Drawing for the State of Massachusetts, on the following subject : " Drawing from the Flat to learn the Technique of Representation." This subject was discussed by Professor J. Ward Stimson, of the Institute of Artist- Artisans, New York ; by Henry Talbot, Superintendent of Manual Training in the State Normal School, Montgomery, Ala. ; and Mr. Holmes Smith, Acting Director of the School of Fine Arts, St. Louis. Mo. The second paper was by L. W. Miller, of the School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia, Pa., on " Importance of the ^Esthetic Aim in Elementary Drawing." This paper was discussed by Professor W. S. Goodenough, Supervisor of Drawing in the Public Schools of Brooklyn, N. Y. ; and by Henry Talbot. SECOND SESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893. Professor W. M. R. French occupied the chair. A letter of regret was read from M. Levasseur, of the Academy of France. The Polytechnic Association of Paris was founded by the artist professors for the dissemina- tion of art and industrial principles. It is entirely gratuitous, no fees being paid or received. From the original center at Paris have radiated branches of the institution in many of the large cities. The first paper was by Professor J. Ward Stimson, of New York, on "Development of Art Instinct." This was followed by a discussion on "Studying Art," by E. F. Fenollosa, of the Boston Art Museum (late of Tokio). Professor George L Schreiber, of Armour Institute, and of the Art Institute, Chicago, continued the discussion on "Art Study." The third paper was by Dr. Alfred Emerson, Associate Professor of Classical Archae- ology at Cornell University ; subject, "How Pupils should study and analyze Works from the Great Masters." 456 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. THIRD SESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893. Professor French occupied the chair. The first paper of the morning was by Professor J. M. Hoppin, of Yale University. Mrs. Mary Dana Hicks, of Boston, presented a paper on "Does Art Study concern the Public Schools ? " Miss Josephine C. Locke, of Chicago, followed with a paper on " With what should Drawing begin ? " A discussion of this subject was continued by Mrs. Hannah Johnson Carter, Director Art Department, Drexel Institute. Miss Anna R. Osborne Moore, of England, presented a paper on " The Self -correcting System of Drawing," which system she also called " The Philographic Method." A paper was read by Professor W. M. R. French, Director of the Art Institute, Chi- cago, on "Painting and Sculpture." A general discussion on the subject of drawing was participated in by Anson K. Cross, of the Normal Art School and Museum of Fine Art School, Boston ; Miss Lulu McCoy, Art Teacher at the State Normal School, Huntsville, Ala. ; Miss Lucy Silke and Professor French, of Chicago ; Dr. James MacAlister, of the Drexel Institute, Philadel- phia ; Mrs. F. M. Holland and Mrs. Hicks, of Boston ; Mr. W. S. Goodenough and Miss Rounds, of Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Mr. Brown and Miss Selleck, of Indianapolis, Ind. ; Miss Pascall, of Iowa ; Mrs. Fuller, of Washington, D. C. A paper on "Should Pupils draw from the Flat ?" was presented by Helen Bondy, a graduated teacher, Vienna, Austria. The discussions in the Congress on Art Instruction were reported by the Secretary, Miss Gertrude C. English. LIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF ART INSTRUCTION. AUSTKALASIA. • GERMANY. Arthur D. Riley, Art Director, Wellington, New Prof. Ende, Privy Councilor and Teacher Tech- Zealand, nical High School, Berlin. David J. Hutton, Art Master Dunedin School of Prof. J. C. Raschdorff, Technical High School, Art, Dunedin, New Zealand. Berlin. Dr. Schoene, Director General Royal Museum, Berlin. BELGIUM. Prof. Dr. R. Siemering, Director Rauch Museum, Berlin. M. Cluysenaer, Drawing School, Brussels. CANADA. GREAT BRITAIN. T. H. McGuirl, B.A., Drawing Master Ottawa .. „ „ , „„ . , „ . . . ,, . . . ~ Normal School, Ottawa B Alan S; Colc; °ffic!al Examiner Art Divis.on, De- S. P. May, Esq.. Superintendent Mechanics' Insti- .,. partineiit of Science and Art London tutes Art Schools, etc., Education Department, Richard Glazier, Manchester School of Art, Man- Toronto Ontario cnester. George Harvey, Head Master Victoria School of A- W*lkin*on' }™*™to* in Drawing, London Art and Design, Halifax, Nova Scotia. Scnoo> Board- London. ITALY. FRANCE. prof_ g. de Bonis, Drawing Master Higher Normal . , r . ,. ... School for Women, Rome. M. Cougny, Principal Inspector of Instruction in Drawing, Paris. NETHERLANDS. M. Ottin, Inspector of Drawing, Pans. Mile. L. Robin. Professor of Drawing, Orphelinat J. D. Brinkgreve, Drawing Master Communal Prevost, Cempuis. Higher Burgher School, Dortrecht. LIST OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS. 457 W. B. G. Molkenboer, Director State Normal School for Drawing, Amsterdam. UNITED STATES. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Col. I. R. Clarke, Bureau of Education, Wash- ington. Mr?. Susan E. Fuller. Director of Drawing in the Public Schools, Washington. MARYLAND. Joseph M. Cushing, Baltimore. MASSACHUSETTS. John S. Clark, Boston. L. E. Fay, Supervisor of Drawing, Springfield. NEW YORK. Gen. L. P. di Cesnola, Director Metropolitan Mu- seum, New York. Walter S. Perry, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn. Edward A. Spring, New Dorp. Staten Island. Prof. J. Ward Stirason, Institute for Artist-Arti- sans, New York. Frank Waller, New York. OHIO. Gen. A. T. Goshom, Art Museum, Cincinnati. PENNSYLVANIA. Dalton Dorr, Philadelphia. L. W. Miller, Principal An School, Philadelphia. Samuel Wagner, Philadelphia. VIRGINIA. Miss C. E. Wills, Charlottesville. ART INSTRUCTION. DRAWING FROM THE FLAT TO LEARN THE TECHNIQUE OF REPRESENTATION. BY HENRY T. BAILEY, SUPERVISOR OF DRAWING FOR THE STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS. "Shall the pupil first take a course in drawing from the flat in order to learn the technique of representation ? " A piece of great representation — a work of art — has two elements : first, and of supreme importance, a motif, a spiritual essence or life of its own, born of the thoughts and feelings of the artist ; and, second, an embodiment, an expression of this spiritual life through forms appreciable by the senses. The end is the re-creation of the artist's thought and feel- ing in the mind of the observer. The means are sensuous forms and colors. The medium may be pencil, pen and ink, charcoal, water-color, oil-color, or pastel. And the technique is simply the way in which the artist handles his medium. Technique is largely the result of individual peculiarities and habi like a man's handwriting ; and just as an author's chirography is of little importance if legible, and his style of greater moment, and his message chief, so technique is of little importance compared with true form and color, and these in turn are subordinate to spirit. But there is another relation to be considered. Just as the author's command of language, his knowledge of grammatical construction and of the laws of rhetoric, condition his expression of thought or feeling, so upon the artist's power to embody his ideal in sensuous forms depends his power to re-create his ideal in another mind. In other words, the spirit finds its most complete expression and best secures its end only through adequate means. The ability to draw truthfully is therefore prerequisite to the complete and vivid representation of ideals, and technique assumes impor- tance in so far as it affects the truth of the drawing. While the final results of drawing in the public schools may not rise to the dignity of great art, if genuine and vital they will have the two essen- tial elements of such art; namely, spirit and adequate form. Our course in drawing will then make provision for two related lines of work: one whose end shall be to develop thought and feeling, the other whose end shall be to develop power to adequately express thought and feeling. he ts, DRAWING FROM THE FLAT. 459 hese two lines of work we may call, for convenience, (1) illustrative sketching and (2) pictorial drawing. In the past we have neglected illustrative sketching, but we are now beginning to realize its meaning and its value. In every crude line and misshapen form of these first sketches of little children we find thought and feeling — spirit forcibly expressed. Shall such work be suppressed because it is inaccurate and crude ? It has been suppressed, but we are slowly learning to see that the individuality which so manifests itself is a precious gift of God. Such expression must be fostered. The children should be encouraged to illustrate lessons in language and number, read- ing and nature study, geography and history. They should have sketch- books and use them constantly, the one aim being expression of life and motion, of thought and feeling. There is certainly no place here for opies ; the technique at this stage is not of the slightest consequence. But suppose this illustrative sketching to be continued. There will come a time when the spirit will demand a more complete expression. The diagrammatic sketches will no longer satisfy ; straightness must be expressed by a straight line, roundness by a circle ; boxes must look ollow, and houses must appear substantial ; we must be able to see down into a flower-cup and up under an umbrella ; a horse must look like a horse, and a man like a man. The power now demanded, that of truth- fully representing such objects to embody ideas, is acquired only through long-continued practice under guidance. Alongside the illustrative sketch- ing, then, should be a definite, logical, well-graded course in pictorial drawing, whose end shall be truthful expression of form. Now forms may be expressed in different degrees of completeness : in outline, in light and shade, and in color. But while color perfects the picture, in representation as such, it is of least importance. Its self tone seldom appears to the eye ; it changes in value with every change of light ; it appears different from different points of view and from different dis- tances. Light and shade are of more importance ; they reveal solid form, and express character of surface ; their effects are more constant. Given a light on the object, and its shadow may be determined scientifically. But outline is of chief importance ; it is an essential and permanent element in every object, fixing its form and character ; it is fundamental, condi- tioning all other effects. For this reason the wise Frenchmen say : " If a person can learn to draw in three years, he can learn to paint in three I months." Because of the value of linear drawing to express the under- lying truths of form, we find to-day a score of sketches and drawings, studies by the old masters, to one of their finished paintings. It now becomes evident that outline drawing should take precedence in the lower grades of schools, and that its end should be expression of truth. No glow of color, no effective chiaroscuro, can hide bad drawing. When — — - 460 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. till then is it time to think about teaching how to represent truths of light and shade and of color. A progressive course in pictorial drawing whose end is truthful expres- sion must, of necessity, commence with simple truths and pass to the more complex. The order will be : (1) Truth of movement (one dimen- sion) ; (2) truth of figure (two dimensions) ; (3) truth of solid form (three dimensions). Here technique is of some importance, for it may interfere with the expression of truth. Illustrative sketching and pictorial drawing will react upon each other; the expression will gradually improve in the one, and the spirit will gradu- ally jaermeate the correct forms of the other. To some of us this seems like too laborious and slow a process to secure the desired result, but sc far as experience goes it is the only sure process ; the result comes througl vital growth. "That is not first which is spiritual, but that which it natural, and afterward that which is spiritual." I have said that technique is largely the result of individual peculiarity and habits. This is true of bad technique when interpreted one way, and of good technique when interpreted another. In bad technique the indi- vidual peculiarities are almost always borrowed from another, and the habits are " tricks of the trade." In good technique the individual pecu- liarities are original and give charm to the work, and the habits are modes of thought. True technique has, then, a vital organic element. Can that be imitated, or obtained by copying ? Because French pupils draw with charcoal and so make broad gray lines, some have insisted on whittling away only the wood of a pencil, and then flattening one side of the lead to make a mark an eighth of an inch broad when " properly " held. Having thus produced a characterless and wholly artificial line, they have proceeded to apply it alike to the represen- tation of machine details and flower petals, potatoes and snow-flakes. Could anything be more deadly? Such technique is false ; it robs the drawing of truth, and annihilates individuality in the artist. The line should express character. Every object under heaven is not " all wool and a yard wide." But suppose we agree that difference in character shall mean difference inline. Will copying another's drawing lead to an appreciation of such differences ? How can it ? Will copying external form give internal spirit ? Any artist knows that it will not. He cannot make an accu- rate copy of one of his own sketches which shall have the fresh spirit of the original. The letter killeth — " it is the spirit that quickeneth ; the flesh profiteth nothing." In the work of pupils who have been bound to a drawing book, and in the productions of those who have learned " painting, in twelve lessons, for ten dollars," how often have we seen sick- ening proof of this ! No embodiment of thought, no feeling, no spirit ; only servile copying of external form. DRAWING FROM THE FLAT. 461 But how shall we teach the embodiment of spirit ? We haven't to teach it. We can't. Our business is to perfect the means for such em- bodiment as soon as possible, and if we do not hinder the mind and check its activity by insisting on conventionality and mannerism, its vital force will permeate the drawing as the Divine Mind permeates this universe. " There is no great and no small To the soul that maketh all. And where it cometh, all things are, And it cometh everywhere." " As a man thinketh, so is he." If the pupil feels the exquisite delicacy of the petal, he cannot draw a broad gray line to represent it ; if he feels the springing life in the leaf-stalk expanding into its glistening shield of green, his representation of it cannot be lifeless. If he thinks solidity when he represents an object — if while he draws the outline he sees the drawing as a reality in space, with its three dimensions — his pencil will somehow represent his thought (unless he is required to hold it three inches from the point, at right angles to the line, and at forty-five degrees with the paper !). If he thinks roughness as he draws the lemon, smooth- ness as he draws the apple ; brittleness, transparency as he draws the glass, softness as he draws the head of cotton-grass, his drawing will reveal it. The mind informs the hand. No one can think delicacy and draw massive- ness, nor think life and draw death. Nor can the artist draw life without thinking it. But shall copies never be used ? Shall not the pupil have the benefit of the experience of others before him ? Yes, by all means ; give him every scrap of help available. Life is too short and too precious for each to tread all the weary way traveled by the race, and repeat all its disheartening experiments. Give the pupil abun- dant illustration of technique, but let it be of the best — good reproduc- tions of the work of masters, not the cheap, inaccurate, and lifeless dia- grams by some lithographer's apprentice. Urge" the pupil to study them. He is not to copy line for line and dot for dot ; he is to seize their spirit ; he is to analyze them to discover the order in which the spirit unfolds its idea, and what forms it assumes. He may think the artist's thought, and, so far as he is able, may represent its successive stages of manifestation, reproducing if he can the same effect ; but never, never is he to copy touch by touch. Such copying will never lead to art. Unless we can lead pupils to see deeper than the surface, our work will be worthless. Without the spirit a simple sketch reveals only the poverty of death ; an elaborate drawing, only its endlessness. With the spirit, the merest outline glows with life, and a perfect drawing lives on when the cunning hand that made it is dust. The artist being dead yet speaketh. 462 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF 1 D C CATION. DISCUSSION. Professor J. Ward Stimson, of the Institute of Artist- Artisans, New York : The kingdom of art, like the kingdom of heaven, is within you. The individual poetry or sentiment of each student must be respected and expressed. Therefore, art must be vital, not mechanical or imitative. " First the blade, then the ear, then the full corn" — that is the order of vital growth. First, then, represent vital beauty in line and motion. Second, represent vital beauty in surface (leaves). Third, represent vital beauty in solids (fishes, insects, birds, etc.). The inner spirit and structure must be revealed through the material. In commercial materials represent, first, line in thread work — lace, etc. ; second, surface work — wall-paper, inlaying, etc.; third, solid — clay, sculpture, carving, etc. Henry Talbot. Superintendent of Manual Training in the State Normal School, Montgomery, Alabama, advocated the use of simple geometric figures for beginners. Mr. Holmes Smith, Acting Director of the School of Fine Arts, St. Louis, Mo. : In small classes, where individual attention can be given, drawing from familiar objects is best. The material should be that which is nearest at hand ; the flat work should be the study of the best works of the best artists. IMPORTANCE OF THE ESTHETIC AIM IN ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. BY L. W. MILLER, PRINCIPAL OF THE SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ART, PHILADELPHIA. Underlying all the creative ability that exists in us is the artistic sense, the sense that perceives and comprehends the essentials of the character of things — that is, their ideal nature. It is to this sense of what things ought to be, that the appeal for recognition and appreciation of all human production is made ; and if it is worth while to make the training of the doing power a part of elementary education at all, it is clearly, as it seems to me, the main thing to nourish this central fire which is the source of all our power. In demanding that the forms to be studied by the young draughtsman should be as beautiful as we can make them, I am claiming no more than this, that while the pupil is learning to represent things as they actually do appear, he should be cultivating the power of judging how they ought to appear, in order to have his sense of what is beautiful and fitting in the object itself refined and developed, as well as his eye trained to detect actual inaccuracies in his delineation of it. I know how easy it is to regard the plea for beauty as narrow and par- tial and likely to be urged mainly by those who attach a certain amount of importance to attractiveness in the drawing itself. Please notice, then, that I put my case on exactly the opposite ground. I do not expect the drawings made by the pupils of any elementary school to be things of beauty, but I would have every attempt to make one a step toward IMPORTANCE OF THE JE8THETIC AIM IN BRA WING. 463 realizing what beauty is ; and I put beauty first among the qualities which should distinguish the objects that are to serve as models, mainly, or at least largely, on this ground : — Its message is so direct and of such uni- versal interest, that I suppose its only competitor is fitness ; and without going into the old question as to whether fitness and beauty are identical or not, it may be urged that this appearance of being perfectly adapted to a given use or purpose is of more importance than anything else in the objects which are held up as models before the childish mind, and that recognition and appreciation of this fitness is the main thing. But appre- ciation of this kind is too much to expect of the child. It involves too much knowledge and too many considerations with which the young mind has not yet learned to deal. To know whether a member is too heavy or too light, too straight or too much curved, for the service it is expected to perform or the material in which it is made, is something which requires investigation and experience to determine; but to say whether it looks well or not, quite apart from these other considerations, is a comparatively simple matter, a matter mainly of feeling, something with which we are all fairly equipped at the start. And besides being simpler, this question of beauty is in- finitely more interesting. Everybody cares for, and will make an effort to master the secret of, beauty. The child will try his hardest to draw, as to master in any other form of study, the thing that interests him, and in the long run nothing interests us so much as that which is beautiful. But my plea touches other matters than these. To cultivate creative power is what we are after, whether the process is interesting to the pupil or not ; and I want to say in this place, as in all places, that the one word which stands for this original force, in what- ever form it expresses itself in the work of human hands, is art. We can- not keep too close to the study of what this means and of all that it im- plies. To leave this out of our plan is to try to produce bodies without souls. What does it mean, this little word that is on everybody's lips when- ever anything is done well ? For the story or the poem that is well written ; for the music that is well composed, or played, or sung ; for the play that moves or the address that thrills us, we have but the one expres- sion, the same that we apply to the picture or the statue or the building that realizes in some sort our ideal of what such things should be — " It is a work of art." It is not without deep significance that this is so, and we cannot do better than come back again and again and try to find out in what the essential purpose and spirit of art consists. It is an old ques- tion, I know, but the last answer has not been given, and as the point of view changes, the question itself becomes new for the time. What, then, is the secret of the charm that art imparts to so wide and varied a range of production ? Is it not simply and solely this — refinement ? Whatever refines our sensibilities and leads us to appreciate, and so to 4G4 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. demand, that material things should have a spiritual charm, this is wh; counts, and this is what art means. Let the child, then, from the first not only draw things that are as beautiful as you can make them, but let the beauty of the objects which he sees and tries to draw be the very first consideration. Not the last nor the only consideration, by any means- there are plenty of other things to be thought of by and by — but make this the first : to enlist his deepest interest and to quicken his most precious power. For myself, I even follow this principle so far as to believe that the unconscious influence of beautiful things which the pupil habitually sees, although he may not be able to draw them at all, may be and often is worth vastly more to him as a means of education than any amount of practice from objects, and by methods in which this artistic interest is wanting, could possibly be. But he should try to draw them, too, and in the right way, the way, namely, that leads him to get the most out of them. For this, of course, is what I mean by the artistic as distinguished from the mechanical method. You may study a given problem or draw a given model either Avay ; that is, you may go about it in the right way or in the wrong way. It is not altogether a matter of choice of materials or of the processes employed. So-called mechanical drawings, that coulc only have been made by the aid of instruments, are often thoroughly artistic, while those made without such aids are often enough dull an( mechanical to the last degree. No ; it is something deeper than this, something that concerns the point of view of the draughtsman himself. And here we touch, I think, the really serious difficulty that the teaching of elementary drawing has to encounter, the difficulty of providing the teachers and the environment that are likely to promote the aims that have indicated as essential. It is the difficulty of doing this that gives rise to the more or less ingenious substitutes with which the market is flooded. Never in my experience as a teacher have I encountered any- thing more pathetic than the eagerness of a constitutionally incapable person to acquire some trick of the trade, or some certificate of gradua- tion which may enable him to command a position in which he can appear as a teacher of the things he does not know. And the devices that have been invented to help him out by giving a semblance of reality to his claim : the paces he is put through in so many "normal" courses; the " results " he has to show at the end of them, and the " methods" which he learns to regard as of more importance than principles — all these are just what might be expected. It is not my purpose to criticise in this place any of these substitutes for the real thing in the teaching of drawing — substitutes which I am' afraid are far too common and occupy far too many hours that are supposed to be devoted to this subject ; but I think it is right and even important to remind my hearers of their existence, and, as it seems to to IMPORTANCE OF THE ESTHETIC AIM IN DRAWING. 465 me, of their danger. For the study of drawing is really a much simpler matter than we seem to think. There is an object or a pattern that is simple and interesting. Look at it, and see if you can make a drawing that will recall its appearance or convey some notion of its form and character, some idea of its proportions, some hint of the grace that is in its lines, if there is any grace there. Until you can do this, no matter how old you are or how long you have been at it, it will not be of much use to try to teach you the historical styles, or the making of working drawings or "geometric views," whatever that may mean ; you need not bother your head with perspective, and all the original designs you can make will amount to nothing at all, or next to nothing. To draw a thing well is to convey by means of a drawing a fair idea of the qualities that distinguish it from other things, to portray its character, to emphasize and celebrate, if you please, the essential truths on which its appearance depends. This means, I think, that the object studied should have a definite and distinct character to begin with ; that it should not be commonplace or uninteresting, but should be something whose appear- ance would seem to deserve this kind of perpetuation and celebration ; and, as I have already tried to show, it seems to me that the one quality whose embodiment in all sorts of available objects for study is freest from technical or other complications, and whose message to the mind of the student is likely to be most direct and most universally profitable, is beauty, and I believe there was never a time when the duty of proclaiming this kind of truth was greater than it is at present. The tendency to exalt the commonplace, to celebrate the insignificant, is one of the most striking faults of the art of to-day. It will bear repeating on all sorts of occasions that it is our duty to "love the highest," and that it is the business of art to help us cherish noble ideals. Now the opposite of all this in drawing, as in all sorts of craftsmanship, is the mechanical habit. It is this that is to be dreaded and discouraged. Please do not misunderstand me. I am not saying anything against echanical trades, against the use of tools and instruments of any kind. am speaking of that habit of mind which, for want of a better term, we 11 mechanical, because, like the work of a machine — however accurate, nd even delicate, it may be — it is not self -directed, and its product is not he embodiment of an original conception. If we abandon or neglect the art idea we are pretty sure to pin our ith to the mechanical one, to attach undue importance to mere accuracy d to qualities that can be tested by rule and level. This habit cramps he mind instead of expanding it ; tends to make it timid and dependent, to rely on precedent and authority instead of seeking original sources of terest and power. But if the merely exact and mechanical is to be bjected to, the merely natural is quite as carefully to be avoided ; and perhaps, on the whole, thegrossness of nature-worship is more to be dreaded 30 466 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. than the dullness of the mechanical habit. Moreover, natural objects are apt to present much greater difficulties to the young draughtsman than the severe and winnowed types that have come to be known as classic because the taste and experience of the ages have approved and accepted them'. I feel sure that the best models that we can possibly place before the young student of drawing are the well-defined forms of classic ornament and idealized nature which have constituted the treasures of art ever since it began to be, and which will remain the true standard of culture and refinement by which the product of the ages that are to come will certainly be tried. DISCUSSION. Professor W. S. Goodenough, Supervisor of Drawing, Public Schools of Brooklyn, N.Y. : The art education cannot commence too eai'ly. The most beautiful objects to In- obtained should be used — cabinets and collections, good etchings, autotypes, and even paintings should surround the pupils. Henry Talbot decried the practice of using any poor designs or styles because of the public demand. Professoi! Miller explained that it was necessary to effect a compromise between the ideal and the practical. The mind of the child is plastic and can be reached and molded. The mind of the manufacturer is biased by the public demand. Hence rococo design is his school. Mr. J. L. Tadd, of Philadelphia, asks whether we shall give the sphere, the cube, etc., or shall we give them the leaves, the flowers, the things which carry the message? He advocated the psychological methods, perception to be cultivated first. Action must precede thought. Professor Alfrkd Emerson, of Cornell University, said : Relatively all subjects are elementary, according to the advancement of the student. Some objects appeal to memories and are beautiful because of the memories. DEVELOPMENT OF ART INSTINCT. BY J. WARD STIMSON, EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR OF THE NEW YOl INSTITUTE FOR ARTIST- ARTISANS. That this epoch in our educational history is of supreme seriousness and dignity, relative to the great issues outcoming, no one doubts; bivt probably in no direction will the consequences be more momentous to the prosperity and happiness (not to say honor) of this country than in the development of its creative and appreciative (esthetics. However superficially the hurried youth of nations for a time prefer DEVELOPMENT OF ART INSTINCT. 46? the pursuit of business, war, science, or self -amusement, it is the supreme testimony of history that the destiny of all great civilization is decided not so much by belly or brain as by the profounder power of the emotions and higher sentiments ; in short, the ideality, poetry, imagination, and heart sensibilities of the race. So that the remark of Fletcher, "Let me make the ballads of a people, and I care not who make its laws," or the caution of Solomon to "keep the heart with all diligence, as out of it are the issues of life," comes home with force at this hour. When all cruder activities and competitions have faded, the great art instincts and inspirations of every noble people have infallibly rescued its record from vulgarity and oblivion, immortalizing while concentrating the vital genius of that nation, so that we may safely say, not only of a man but of each fraction of mankind, "as he thinketh in his heart, so is he," or, in scientific phrase, "according to its intellectual convictions relative to its emotional faculties," so assuredly must it measure in the standard of fame as well as the actual competitions of finer civilization. Art surveys her brilliant past, her growing present, and yet more glorious future, and, scorning apologists, exclaims of her spirit of beauty: "The Creator Himself is her defense, and the God of glory her reward." My remarks shall concern not the worth of art to our school systems, but the worth of our present school systems and conceptions to essential art education (according as over twenty years' professional experience at home and abroad compel my judgment). Indeed it seems to me that once to state the question of ''essential" art education vitally and fairly would almost be to answer it. For in the deep and true significance, "national art" was never the vast accumula- tion of promiscuous and borrowed splendor, as when Rome ravaged Greece for official pride and plunder (to the ruin of herself), but was ever and essentially that mysterious and magnificent evolution of aesthetic prin- ciples and divine methods of self-manifestation employed by nature in expressing her own poetry, and variously felt, comprehended, and re- applied by nations, as different as Greeks from Japanese, to express their own organic gdnius, their own inspirations, their own delights in nature and discoveries of her beauty. This was ever quickened and qualified by their own national aspirations, religious and social ideals, concomitant poetry, industry and experience, giving the unique flavor of "national" character, historic significance, and local charm, constituting genuinely organic "style." Now, this wonderful aesthetic life, that scintillates in every gem, unfolds from every shell, or bursts from every redolent flower ; is omnipresent to guide the oriole building its nest, the Polynesian carving his paddle, the Pueblo weaving his mat, the Japanese his silks ; and which has covered Ganges, Euphrates, Nile, and Rhine with miracles of national enthusiasm, was never the outcome of really borrowed or superficial culture, but flamed 4G8 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. from the fires of national and personal experience, as where, of Dante's ode, the poet writes : " Ah, from what agonies of heart and brain, What exultation trampling on despair, What tenderness, what tears, what hate of wrong, What passionate victory of a soul in pain, Uprose this poem of the earth and sky — This medieval miracle of song ! " And you have only to consult the lives of such professional leaders as Phidias, M. Angelo, Cellini, Palissy, Delacroix, Jean Francois Millet, etc., to find how essentially this is true of all vital art work and workers. Taine shows conclusively that far from art emanating as the product of servile imitation or speculative importation, the great arts of all ages sprang as the florescence of each nation's heroism ; as after Marathon in Greece, the new liberty of the Italian republics, the victories of Moors, the expulsion of Spaniards from the Netherlands, etc. So that while certaii data and devices are occasionally exchanged (as between neighbors), yet these were ever refined in the alembic of national life ; and we ourselves are never interested, nor is true art generated, by plausible reproductions but ever by what Goethe calls "reconquered pri nciples " freshly appre- hended, reassimilated, and reapplied to fresh, virile, organic conditions. I regret to say that on all sides, among candid minds (corroborated bj such able statements as John Lafarge's in the July Century, Charle DeKay's in the Cosmopolitan, and the New York Tribune letters fror the Fair), strong objection is expressed to present art methods of educj: tion, in that principles are not properly understood or applied, an organic "American" art is not being officially developed or expressed (beinjE left to isolated and sporadic struggle), while merely external and imitative methods intrude most injuriously into public and even professional schools, substituting sterile process for vital spark, veneer for reality, the bor- rowed plumes of other days, ideas, and even personalities, for the sincere expiression of the student's self; the tricks of trade, the pride and surprise of performance, the very process of photography (and, they add, ever " brutality and bravado " ) for fine artistic faculties and sensibilities proper, for subjective powers of originality, taste, ideality, and native feel- ing. In short, official systems are too mimetic, not germinal, and so mus beget monkeys and not men ! I will not stop to inquire how far such conditions may have moral causes in the exploitation of art instead of its sincere love and life, or of any social, official, and even professional barriers of self-interest that block the way of national education, but I do join my hearty regret with theirs at the ridicule put upon American art by foreigners, and the chidings of even the truest and most disinterested foreign artists, that America should affect their manner, not divine their souls ; Millet himself exclaim- DEVELOPMENT OF ART INSTINCT. 469 ing : " I am never more classic than when true to myself," and still another French critic adding : " We foreigners like you best for what is sincerely 'yours' — not second-hand 'ours/" While some teachers blame the students or the times for this superfi- ciality, and others excuse themselves by claiming "art cannot be taught, but technique alone can," yet all of us are doubtless conscious that art instincts are enormously influenced for good or ill by educational condi- tions and ideals, and should be sympathetically befriended (by parental teachers, not alien stepmothers) into wholesome consciousness and natural expansion before the media of expression can take proper meaning — just as we bring up our children into wholesome conditions of life, with legiti- mate motives and desires, before we expect of them perfection in speech or writing. These last are perfected into personal character by life-long practice, while the first are essential at the very start. So that the great Blake's warning seems true, that "inappropriate exe- cution is but nauseous foppery," as language when without inspiration, or words without thought ; and we are wisely reminded that feathers spring from birds, not birds from their feathers (much less other birds' feathers, which constantly change to environment). So that tons of imported obelisks and thousands of alien technicalities and technicians are not worth the self-respecting, self-consistent, and harmonious development of national genius in sympathy with universal nature and her universal prin- ciples of beauty. I think, therefore, that we can honestly claim that any art system which does not cultivate our artists primarily, and somebody else's "technicians" secondarily, is like Hamlet without Hamlet, or Christianity without Christians. Now, right here it is interesting to note the surprising charm and beauty of some of the more organic and instinctive work of our own Indians at the Exhibition, and the modest but magnificent art effects among Japanese, Javanese, and Arabian colonies in complete sympathy with themselves and nature, and, shall I add, the delightful suggestive- ness of much of our own unused material, relative to more pretentious foreign imitations. The earlier poems of Burns, when charged with the virility of his high- lands and redolent with mountain daisies as with the color of his native dialect, were incomparably purer poetry than his later more labored and artificial English ones ; even as the pith and point of Plato and Socrates were truer philosophy than the dialectics of the sophists. And even at this hour, when the divine spirit of old Japanese work is being broken and vulgarized by this very demon of cheap affectation and imitation, a sincere and faithful spirit lingers in the village schools, which during recess send the children to the river banks or carp pools, that on return they may draw from memory the fresh impressions of form, color, motion, and setting, before being taught traditional methods of adapting these 470 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. to specialties, so deeply do they feel the love of country and divine the principles that sustain "essential art." This at least is beginning "right end foremost/' and must be ever the directest as it is the sincerest method. My appeal would therefore be to turn at the start directly away from present mechanical, materialistic, and imitative processes, to the vital and evolutionary methods of nature, of all best art, and of the great and grow- ing spirit of Froebel in the kindergarten — that we divert not our scholars at the start from home to foreign gods or the dead forms of other days (no matter how good for those days), but protect their freshness of inspira- tion; quicken, not pervert, spontaneity; strengthen new observations at new fountains of a new national power; develop personal faculties in selection, measure, arrangement, etc., by contrast, proportion, control, bal- ance, harmony, etc., analyses and syntheses from our own superabundant and delightful nature ; at least t\\\ strong foundations are laid in fortified judgment and personality that must grow the tvings of creative genius far better than the mimetic or even coldly eclectic spirit. This vigorous development of faculties should come for art, as for other education, before they are enslaved to specialty or burdened with the incubus of endless precedent ; for so alone will later comparisons profit, that otherwise drop sterile upon suppressed and servile natures. With principle as a fulcrum and national genius as the power, students will readily open the nutshells of antiquated tradition and assimilate what of nutriment be within ; or, better far, discover new nuggets of beauty and surprise in native soil, the poetry and history of their own hearts and hearthstones. In closing, then, and specifically : As I find my children's home affec- tion (when worth much to me or themselves) must spring from genuine natures, colored, of course, by temperament, and needing encouragement without trammel (save from a few principles of home regimen, or domestic facilities for effecting good intentions), so we make our Institute for Artist- Artisans, at New York, an art family, not an art machine. All, on entrance, obtain a bird's-eye view of the field before them, so far as mere orderly and consecutive steps of growth are concerned, and the natural sequences or relations of thought in different departments (from central root to varied branches, leaving the trunk gradually, and kept in steady sympathy with all). For this we utilize much wall space for orderly examples, not of foreign productions, but graduated developments of student faculties and unfolded principles. These are accompanied by constant experiment, illustration, and reference to nature. The metric powers of the mind are exercised, and those constant equa- tions of number and measure studied that are so mysterious and universal. For this, every jointed reed, vine, or skeleton leaf maybe an excellent and interesting example ; the point relations and line divergencies in struct- DEVELOPMENT OF ART INSTINCT. 471 ural angles and inner axes, which constitute in space the abstract but essential framework of forms, and for which wire and glass, crystals, and even constructive models in cabinet-ware and architecture, help us. Now, optical effects are noted of implied motion, whether rectilineal, rhythmic, circular, spiral, or radial. Geometric ratios are freely gener- ated and played with for pattern (along the marvelous lines discovered by Japanese and Moors), in order to quicken student inventiveness and kindle fertility of imagination. After which prime forms, types, and standards are considered, with their derivatives, especially with reference to their inherent character and artistic influence in combination. Now the splendid world of vegetable life is enlisted to aid us, with its convenient beauties of line and surface, and the principles of association revealed by serial or surface repetition, reflection, alternation, contrast, balance, etc.; with laws of the mind in unity, variety, congruity, harmony, etc.; with methods of progression, sequence, parallelism, tangency, revolution, expansion, etc., so closely allying art with life. These foundational truths of natural beauty are assimilated by all, for the sake of subsequent individual power and freshness of observation, and to give time for the student's special tendencies or aptitudes to declare themselves, when they are differentiated gradually and pushed to maturity. The mind has already strength enough and capital sufficient now to enter the practical departments of line and surface design in wrought or twisted metals, jewelry, textiles, wall surfaces, and ceramics, till "low" and "high" relief is reached in clay decoration, casting, and carving. For the subsequent advanced sculpture, illustration, figure work, and gen- eral painting, the realm of higher animal organism becomes appropriate, and fuller comprehension of aerial perspective, anatomy, light, color, and cos- tume is reached, with subtler appreciation of posture, character, artistic selection, and sentiment in expression, till technical processes are fully intro- duced, with special treatments or comparisons of other lands and times. The art is shown to be in the character of nations themselves, and the aristocracy of art to be ever in the spirit and not in the mere material that conveys it. Professor Stimson supplemented his paper by the following remarks : Life in everything is the source of inspiration. Life manifests itself by internal plan ; the outer material is the embodiment of the spiritual plan. Each seed has its inner law of number, measure, form, motion, and color, which afterward may take texture from matter, and be affected by light and environment in setting. The principles revealed by nature are taken up by great art, and are always capable of reappreciation and reapplication by every nation, which colors again these principles by local character and feeling. 472 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. No method of art teaching avails which only copies the outside, without appreciation of the internal life and individual characters. Our American art must observe nature's principles, then freshly express through them its own thought and feeling, and put beauty and character into all materials. STUDYING ART— DISCUSSION. BY E. F. FENOLLOSA, OF THE BOSTON ART MUSEUM (LATE OF TOKIO). Should works of sculpture, after being studied analytically and reproduced in drawing, be modeled in clay ? and should works of painting, after such preliminaries, be copied in painting by the pupil ? The fundamental individuality of a work constitutes its greatness. Its belonging to a general class does not lift it into eminence. Beethoven's compositions are great because of some individual quality. Art training should begin, not in nature, but in art itself. As well send the untrained person into the British Museum without a guide, as turn the novice loose in nature and tell him to produce works #of art from contemplation of her beauties. It is a general principle that mind must be brought in vital contact with art before it can get anything vital from nature. Five years ago, when the Japanese founded their school of art. they agreed to this general principle. The pupils must be trained in an atmosphere of art before they are put to work. They should study the old masters analytically and synthetically, always remembering that art is individual and type an abomination. Flippancy in modern European art is caused by a cutting loose from the old masters. Materialistic, photo- graphic pictures, using any subject, no matter how inartistic, have resulted. Still, the best artists love the old masters. In studying art, there are three dangers against which the student should be guarded : (1) There is danger in the historic method of studying art, whether we consider painting, decoration, or architecture. If the young student is trained in each school — e.g., Greek or Gothic — as a school, he designs in that particular school. Instead, his attention should be drawn to the excellences of the work of any and all periods, Greek, Egyptian, Arabic, Japanese. Expect him to create as well as the best of these, but do not limit him to the achievements of the artists of those periods. (2) Do not study for the purpose of finding the most perfect works. The most instructive come just before the best. In the stage preceding the highest results we have all the elements, not worked out to their best. There is the greatest individuality in this stage. The world has a right to an inheritance of unlimited possibility, but the highest results limit this possibility. The work of the third stage, that of decadence, is the slave of the work of the second. The great works of the second stage cannot be vitally reproduced. Suppose we wish to study color, and go to Venetian art. We wish to know what has been done, how it was done, and what may be done. Shall we go to Titian or Veronese, even scraping their pictures, as some did, to ascertain the " How ?" No. Bellini was solving the problem. We will learn from him and not from Titian and Veronese, who had solved it. In like manner, Giotto and Fra Angelico precede Raphael. (3) Do not take either painting or sculpture by itself, leaving out decorative art. The artist should design industrials as well as pictures and statues. JohnL. Sargent draws inspiration from past decorative art as well as from other sources. We are not compelled to end our study of the old masters by copying them. We want to hold them and the possibilities antecedent to them in solution. Add to the discipline of copying, the discipline of thinking out the possibilities into a different result. It may be an inferior result, but the discipline is good. Try recasting the picture with regard to form, line, or light. Accept criticism upon the visible result, and strength will surely result. Professor George L. Schreiber, of Armour Institute and of the Art Institute, Chicago, congratulated Mr. Fenollosa upon having presented the speaker's views in a bolder manner than he himself might have done. STUDYING WORKS FROM THE GREAT MASTERS. 473 The fundamental principles of form and color which we would inculcate into the child exist in art. Art transcends science. In the history of art we naturally recognize the history of art education by its absence as such. Art progresses in guilds, with, at first, a few higli-priests and court artists. Art is the vocation of the freeman. Types enslave. .Raphael was the victim thereof ; De Vinci the spirit thereof. Everyone may be a painter or a sculptor, but no one can be an artist except he have the spirit. Gerome could never give us a rule by which to reproduce a condition. We see the long, strong lines in col- umns designed to support great weight. The caryatids seem strength itself. Cut them by flowing drapery, and the spirit is changed and weakness enters in. (Professor Schreiber illustrated by drawing some of the figures and columns used in the Exposition buildings.) The Diana on the Agricultural Building has spirit, the spirit of moving on. Better, in drawing it, get a few lines that indicate the spirit than a line- by-line copy which omits the spirit. Mr. Stimson said, in regard to a matter brought up by Mr. Fenollosa's remarks, that it is impossible to turn the wheels of time back so that we can place ourselves amid the possibilities of long ago. Our art is going on even if it is not recognized as art. Experi- ments had been made to ascertain whether pupils could recognize the effect of drapery cutting long lines, placing figures in the background. The results show that they detect weakness and distance from such concrete examples. In this line the use of the illustrations in the good magazines is valuable. Many of them are reproductions of the best works of old. HOW PUPILS SHOULD STUDY AND ANALYZE WORKS FROM THE GREAT MASTERS. BY DR. ALFRED EMERSON, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF CLASSICAL ARCHEOLOGY, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. Thesis : " The pupil shoidd study and analyze a series of works from the great masters, describing in language in the form of essays the general theme and the methods adopted of making the work of art tell its own story, the technical difficulties and suc- cessful devices of the artist in completing his work of art." The speaker began by describing his attitude toward the given thesis as one of quali- fied assent. However lofty a view we may take of the heart and the soul, it is absurd to lay upon these deeper centers of life burdens which the muscles and the senses are able and willing to bear. Hence, in view of the increasing complexity of modern life and education, the great importance of training what the short-sighted philosophy of the eighteenth century termed the lower faculties of mind and body. We daily see that the sense of hearing and the muscular skill of touch carry the mechanical burden of complicated musical performances, while the unloaded mind gives itself entire to the higher problems of musical expression. Let a boy bo accustomed, say, to bisect angles by eye, or to judge the trueness of straight and curved lines by thumb, and his geometry will not give him brain fever. The Prussian military system, so little understood in this country, is a splendid anti- dote to the over speculative habit of the German mind and the relatively sedentary pro- clivity of the young German body. Our newspapers have recently found out that for arresting attention and conveying accurate notions of material objects a single illustra- tion outweighs a ton of descriptive letter-press. The student of Greek who will memor- ize a hundred lines of Homer, the student of Latin who can remember and recite aloud ten odes of Horace, may safely reserve his study of classic metres until he reaches Sophocles and Terence. The recommendation that the student of art learn drawing, painting, and sculpture directly from nature or by imitation of good models is along this line of faith. Nevertheless, just as there are processes of thought and states of 474 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. feeling which words do not convey, or which the language of sensuous media conveys and carries home much more effectively, there are also forms of artistic thought which can be followed and set forth in language. We could go further and say there are artistic productions which require such exposition. The artist may have addressed a public supposed to know and feel facts and emotions not common to all mankind. Most of the famous sculptures of antiquity, many of the admirable religious paintings of the Italian Renaissance, have this quality ; pictures of historical personages and events commonly have it outside of narrow, local limits of information and patriotic tradition. Again, there is a legitimate field for exposition where an artist has struggled to express emotions, to depict occurrences to which the poetic muse has given a more intelligible form ; that is to say, a form more subject to step-by-step analysis. Some of the pictures of the English pre-Raphaelite school have this quality. Shall the pupil wait until he can copy all the masterpieces before even considering their import ? This road to the enjoyment and understanding of the more difficult and complex works of art is plain, but too Jong. The speaker here referred with feeling to his own early efforts in modeling the ordi- nary clay of the roadside into semblances of toothsome confectionery little appreciated by his elders, and in drawing upon his slate his own particular breed of horses, whose convenient virtue it was always to conceal their off legs behind their near, so that the artist was often compelled to deliver brief explanatory lectures to unintelligent onlook- ers ; pleading guilty also to leaving several "complete courses of drawing" uncom- pleted for the allurements of china painting, which the fact of the work being so erasable before and so indestructible after firing, with the additional circumstances of its being its own frame, and of the ease with which a large amount of it can be stowed out of sight after completion, stamps as the ideal artistic exercise for amateurs. The speaker ventured to suspect that his aggregate effort in practical art study exceeded the average record of the unprofessional student. Yet it was clear that but a minimum basis for critical studies, none for a critical judgment of masterpieces, and no faculty whatever for the successful reproduction of them, had been attained. The appreciation of the contemporary public being the postulate and only working basis of normal artistic production, it is of every importance to educate the actual and prospective public as well as the artists. The relatively untalented, the preoccupied, and the adult whose minds are more plastic and docile than their fingers, are not a neg- ligible quantity. Their artistic education must depend either entirely on their reading speculative discussions such as, for example, Schiller's series of essays "On Pathos," " On Charm and Dignity," "On the Sublime," " On Limitations in the Use of Beautiful Gowns," ' ' On the Cause of Pleasure in Tragic Subjects,'' " On Size and Space in ^Esthetic Estimation," " On the Esthetic Education of Mankind," together with the more popu- lar illustrated manuals, or on training under competent guidance in accordance with the idea of the proposition formulated in the thesis. For, in the words of Schiller himself, "works of the imagination have the peculiarity of not permitting idle enjoyment, but of stirring into activity the minds of those who contemplate them." In conclusion, and on the basis of his own experience as a teacher of aesthetic criti- cism, in its necessary conjunction with classical archaeology, the speaker contended that there was danger, through an excessive emphasis of the great masterpieces, of over- looking the immediate needs of beginners in critical study. To do justice to the great masterpieces passes the power both of language and of the untrained mind. There is an absurdity in commendation of Raphael or praise of Velas- quez from an immature critic. Also, the great masterpieces have been too much com- mented to serve as a natural basis for the formation of independent opinion. In his own work with advanced college students, of whom it is fair to expect some STUDYING WORKS FROM THE GREAT MASTERS. 475 knowledge of classical mythology and of Greek and Latin literature, the speaker prefers to use specimens of relatively inferior artistic perfection as the subjects both of viva voce interpretations and of carefully prepared essays by pupils. Not the frieze of the Par- thenon, but some Roman sarcophagus adorned with some exploit of Castor and Pollux. Not the painting of Helen of Troy by Zeuxis, even if it existed, but some episode of the legend of the Argonauts as figured on an Attic urn of terra cotta. Not the sculptured group of Laocoon and his sons in the toils of the serpents, but rather the Apotheosis of Homer by Archelaos of Priene, an elaborate bas-relief of small artistic merit, but a piece after the conscientious study of which the pupil will understand something of the Gre- cian system of allegory, and will recognize the figure of any one of the nine Muses at sight when he meets it elsewhere. Early productions of Greek art before it had outgrown the ungainly stage are often of great educational value on account of the presence even in them of a sound decorative instinct often missed in the most pretentious modern work, and by reason of the imagi- native quality infused into compositions sometimes very complex, which a dominant simplicity of idea saves from the reproach of confusedness. Of this the famous Francois vase in the Etruscan Museum of Florence, signed by two Athenian potters of the sixth century B.C., presents an excellent example. Its one hundred and forty one painted figures of gods and men, forty-nine of horses and mules, twelve of centaurs, eighteen cf pygmies, fourteen of cranes, sixteen of other animals and monsters, or two hundred and fifty in all, reduce themselves, aside from the decorations of the handles, to eight mytho- logical scenes and one ornamental band, disposed in six stories, one on the foot, three on the body, one on the neck, and one on the lip of the amphora or crater. When the attention has once been called to the symbolism of the tree of life guarded by griffins and the carnivorous animals devouring other wild and tame creatures in the ornamental strip, the mind acquainted with the rich store of Greek heroic legend readily disposes all the scenes — the escape of Theseus and his companions from the Minotaur, the destruc- tion of the centaurs, the slaying of the Calydonian boar, the funeral of Patroclus, the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, the parents of Achilles, the return of Hephaestus to Olympus, the murder of the Trojan prince Troilus by Achilles himself, ihe battle of the cranes and pygmies, and the sundry minor compositions on the two flat handles— under the fundamental opposition of Life and Death, so constantly and suggestively contrasted one with another in the vertical and horizon) al distribution of the painted scenes. And thus the lesson of simplicity even in complexity, which invariably characierizes the highest art, is inculcated. Many early Italian paintings may serve equally well to teach the compatibility of highly imaginative art with a low degree of technical proficiency, and this without ihe relatively costly processes of reproduction by which alone the finer artistic qualities of the great masterpieces are adequately reflected. But a generous use of the stereopticon, and, for less ephemeral illustration, of cheap but charmiug photographic blue-prints from standard pictures and sculptures, such as the speaker is beginning to prepare with the help of the photographic laboratory of Cornell University, does away for master- pieces also with the smallness and meanness of the trade woodcuts which were until recently, and are largely still, the agony of the teacher in the attempt to acquaint classes with the history of architectural, pictorial, plastic, industrial, or decorative art. 476 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. METHODS OF ART EDUCATION FOR THE CULTIVATION OF ARTISTIC TASTE. BY J. M. HOPPIN, PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ART, YALE UNIVERSITY. Although the forms of art are in the mind, it is their expression which makes them art. The artistic faculty itself lies undeveloped until it is called forth by effort and training like any other faculty. Very crude, indeed, are the beginnings of all knowledge, and so of art. It is inter- esting to observe, in the practical workings of an art-school where pupils of different sexes, tastes, and occupations are gathered, some of whom perhaps did not have, at first, the consciousness of possessing the artistic faculty at all, how by earnest and patient cultivation of their powers they develop skill in drawing. They find something inspiring in an effort directed to an artistic end, something in the way of freedom which makes it genial and joyful work leading to constant satisfactions. And no pupil seems to be utterly incapable of artistic improvement, so that I, for one, am inclined to the belief that though all cannot become artists in the best sense of the word, yet that the human mind possesses, to a greater or less degree, the artistic faculty, just as it possesses the moral faculty and the knowing faculty, and which only needs training to develop it ; and it is this which gives encouragement for the use of all proper means and methods of art education. I heard but recently of a person of fine artistic talent remarking that up to a certain period of her life she had no knowl- edge of art, no appreciation of art, no thought of art. But the artistic sense awoke in her while she was looking at paintings in the Dresden Gallery ; she was converted as in a moment to the love of art, and felt that she had a talent for it. The power was there, and it needed but some strong im- pression of outward objects, or of nature, to develop it. "Man is artistic in the constitution of his mind. The aesthetic power of the imagination, when acted upon by corresponding objects in nature that are sympathetic to man's spiritual conditions, seeks to reproduce the forms of these objects. The mind's susceptibility to be impressed by the world of nature through the organ of the imagination, which not only receives but imparts impres- sions of objects, since it is full of energy and creative power, is the mind's function of form ; and if the imagination works simply in order to body forth the form of things as an idealized imitation, to interpret nature in all its forms, it works artistically, and its products are what are termed art." * But, practically speaking, perfection in artistic production is rarely attained, and, if at all, it is attained through imperfection, as is * From an article on " The Philosophy of Art," by the writer. METHODS OF ART EDUCATION. 477 seen in the history of art with its slow evolution through the course of centuries. In Greek art there was a vast deal anterior to its best epoch, of unskilled effort following rude methods and false types ; although Greek art, while it had these incomplete periods, marked, in some sense, the perfection rather than the beginnings of art, and, in this respect, formed a standard of taste for all time ; as Goethe, whose authority in matters of art is almost infallible, said, that " we may take exceptions to some schools of art, but we are always debtors to Greek art/' Goethe felt the influence of his own words. He was, intellectually, a Greek, because he aimed at truth in art, the truth of his own experience, and in this he was a master of style. He said that the poet should be ideal or something above reality, but, at the same time, he should keep his feet on the real, on truth and nature. To illustrate this observation in regard to the undying vitality of Greek art, the architecture of the World's Fair might truly be considered as something original, or what could be called ideal architecture such as never before appeared, like the architecture that we see in Turner's picture of " The Building of Carthage" — a purely artistic creation ; and yet this World's Fair architecture was formed on old Greek lines as its basis, or its starting-point, of creative combination. It is well to have a good illustration of a subject or a theory. Art edu- cation in France presents to us an apt illustration, and affords a living example of some of the best results of aesthetic culture, in which, notwith- standing its recent impulse in the direction of extreme realism that might be made a subject of criticism, there are contained principles which render its study profitable for us in a new land, as constituting, with whatever faults, the most thorough training-school that exists. French art educa- tion is connected with state education, so that it is less the product of individual minds than of the combined traditions of a continuous system, and the fact of its being a governmental school has given it a stamp, consistency, and authority that make it, technically, the center of modern art studies, exerting decided influence on other schools and nations, since it has taught the youth of all nations ; and this influence is notably seen in the exhibition of pictures at the Columbian Exposition, in which the works of all the schools appear side by side, all of them being markedly pervaded by the spirit of the French school. The French, indeed, arrogate to themselves the name of modern Greeks, and justly so as regards artistic taste, though perhaps not so justly in other important respects of senti- ment and poetic power ; but the talent of the French for the organiza- tion of knowledge and for scientific system makes them admirable guides in matters of education. There has existed an academy of painting and sculpture in France since the year 1648, with but a temporary suppression of it at the beginning of the first republic ; and, indeed, nearly two centuries before that time a school of painting was founded by one of the French kings, which has 478 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. never been extinct under all changes, and which now bears the name of "The Institute of France," the immediate control of which is in the hands of the Minister of Public Instruction, and comprehends : (1) Established courses of lectures in all the departments of art. (2) The School of the Fine Arts (Ecole des Beaux Arts), distinctively so called, with its members, studies, competitive courses, publications, and prizes. (3) The studios to which pupils are admitted under the supervision of the school. (4) The collections of casts, architectural models, engravings, and paintings, for purposes of instruction in drawing and molding. (5) The library. This institution is subdivided into three grand sections, those of paint- ing, sculpture, and architecture, and to painting the art of engraving is attached. No one is admitted without having satisfied the examination tests, and each year, in March and July, there are held examination ses- sions, and I will mention the subjects for admission to one department, the department of painting : (1) A design in anatomy (osteologie) executed en loge, or in a room by one's self, in two hours. (2) A drawing in perspective, in four hours. (3) An examination in history, oral or written. (4) A figure drawn after nature at one session, and after the antique at another, executed in twelve hours. (5) A fragment of a clay figure modeled from the antique, executed in nine hours. (6) An elementary study of architecture, executed en loge in six hours. The curriculum of studies belonging to the entire course consists of history, anatomy, perspective confined to the needs of painters and architects, mathematics and ' mechanics, descriptive geometry, physics and chemistry, stereotomy and the drawing of plans, construction, the legislation of the building art, the history of architecture, ornamental design, decorative composition, literature, archaeology, the history of art and aesthetics. Instruction in these branches covers the term of at least three and usually four years, proceeding from elementary and technical to more philosophical studies, and looking to the full equip- ment of the student in artistic skill and scholarly knowledge. In this educational course the prize system acts as a powerful stimulus. Prizes are given to those who have made positive advance in each of the depart- ments, which prizes are adjudged by juries appointed by the governing board. The competitions for prizes in painting are open to all, and consist of a " concours" held each trimester in drawings after the antique, and a concours in composition and oil-painting, to take part in which competi- tions previous mention of good work is necessary. In addition to these METHODS OF ART EDUCATION. 479 special courses, there are simultaneous courses of study and competitions in all the departments, so that the student of painting, for instance, may become acquainted with the elements of other arts, such as sculpture and architecture, which is a great advantage to a painter as laying a founda- tion of knowledge resembling the culture of the old masters, though in their case it was of a more unconscious sort created by their felt aesthetic needs. The prize system culminates, as is known, in the " Grand Prize of Rome," that, in addition to the brilliant distinction which it confers on the possessor, gives him a five years' residence in Rome, with an oppor- tunity to travel in Italy and Greece, and six hundred dollars a year, with two hundred additional for traveling expenses ; and for three years after returning to France he receives six hundred dollars annually, and a government office of inspectorship in some public work. This secures a good subsistence and labor untroubled by care in the more studious time of the profession ; and the good fruit of it has been seen in the careers of many of the modern French painters such as Cabanel, Bouguereau, and Henner. Out of all the departments of the school, from thousands of scholars, an average number of two hundred and fifty, who have under- gone the tests, present themselves yearly to compete for the crowning prize. These are reduced by trial to forty, who for a hundred days toil en loge, without helps or books. The subject forcompetition, as a general rule, is historical, and the few best efforts, with the winning one, are publicly exhibited. A room in the Ecole des Beaux Arts has been devoted to the permanent exhibition of successful pictures since 1701, which, as may be imagined, is exceedingly interesting, not only as showing the productive power of the students at the close of their term of instruction, but the style of the period to which each student belongs. The Villa Medici on the Pincian Hill, where the French artists who have taken the prize reside, overlooks the city, and is surrounded by historic monuments, from the palace of the Caesars to the church of St. Peter's — in fact, three cities rich in art, the classic, the Renaissance, and the ecclesiastical. This prize is confined to those of French birth, but the privileges of the School of Paris, of which I now speak, are open freely to youths of all nations (it is to be regretted that women are not yet admitted to this school), and here students enter the strong current of artistic life, feel the influences of the great masters, and work according to the methods which have proved successful in so many cases; as, for example, drawing from the antique, one of the most approved methods of the French school. The drawings, whether from the antique or from the nude, undergo criticism by the instructors twice a week. The pupils sit crowded together in the studios of the school, or in studios scattered over the city, each group copying the same model ; and at certain times there take place more general " concours" which are presided over by the professors, assisted by outside artists of established reputation. This word " concours " describes tho 480 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. practical working of the French School of the Fine Arts. It is the competition, the striving of numbers together directed to the same object. This, of coarse, implies some previous knowledge of drawing ; but there is no instruction given at the moment, no one tells the student how to make lines or lay a shadow, and each pupil does the best he can, getting hints from one another, noting each other's progress, and struggling individu- ally with all the force he has. It is severe work. It is a rough brcaking- in process. But it is calculated to bring out what power there is. If a man have the making of an artist in him, it will surely find him. He is not to attempt anything pretty or elaborately finished in the " concours" but something real and strong. He is putting all the power he has into it under the tremendous pressure of competition. In addition to the courses which have been mentioned, there is also what is called " plein air" instruction in landscape drawing and painting, in which, outside of academic walls, nature is studied in the open air and fields. Light and atmosphere are studied. The artist carries the materials of his art along with him in his excursions into the country ; and this is a good supple- ment to studio-work, exercising eye and hand in the use of color, trans- mitting to the canvas instantaneous impressions of light, mist, cloud, and scenery, and is, in truth, the salvation of the academic system, not waiting till education in the grammar of art be completed before nature herself is sought, but making the study of the classic antique and of nature go along simultaneously, drawing from both, adding to still life the real world, joining accuracy of drawing to the atmosphere and living inspiration of nature. I have said enough to show that the French system is a broad one, that it is itself a liberal education, that art in France is on a high plane and is considered worthy of a place in national education, that it implies severe training and cultivation of the artistic taste to the most perfect degree, enlarging the pupil's mind and giving it symmetry in the develop- ment of all beauty. Still the art school, whether French or American, is, after all, but elementary, and subordinate to the individuality, culture, and character of the artist. The man is more than his art. Whenever in art education the hand has come to be the instrument of the brain, executing its behests with ready skill, and when the student can do what he likes without thinking of the means, then his principal lesson is learned. This is about all that the art school can do for him. He is henceforth free, and can work out his own ideas. The training of hand and eye in drawing is, however, the basis of everything in art, since paint- ing is but drawing in color. But to do this, to obtain the true image of objects, the copying of real forms with utmost truth and accuracy is neces- sary, and here long practice and careful instruction are required. Bad drawing is inexcusable. Gustave Dore, genius though he was, having despised the technique of the school, never could rise to first rank in his METHODS OF ART EDUCATION . 481 profession. So of Blake, with all his sublimity. An impressionist artist, like the tone-painter Cazin, who deals in vague and rapid color effects, must still know how to draw, how to use his pencil and brush, before he can be a true artist. Monets, Kenoirs, and Cazins are not made in a day, or by accident. The mastery of the tools of trade is the object of art instruction, for hereby the student is equipped for work. If he knows how to draw he will soon know how to paint, by a realizing act of the imagination in employing color as a means of more truthful representation in drawing ; but the value of technical skill cannot be overestimated, and without it all is vain. It is true that the means are simple, but, once acquired, the applications are varied. Art, like nature, has few laws, but these must be understood in order that art may become creative as nature is. At present especially, when there is so strong a tendency to minimize the worth of careful technique, and to trust almost wholly to rapid meth- ods of effect (although I gladly recognize in this a new power and a new epoch in art), it becomes highly important to emphasize the absolute need of thorough technique and to resist the temptation of wishing to be great without labor. Good artists are good draughtsmen. The great bulk, indeed, of Leonardo da Vinci's works consisted of drawings. This is true, too, of Albrecht Diirer. Burne-Jones's exquisite drawings, which are almost more lovely than his paintings, and which, like Raphael's crayon sketches, form the schemes of his pictures, are said to have cost him infinite toil ; and every artist has been an indescribable toiler. For the execution of the Titanic paintings of the Sistine Chapel, Michael Angelo was reported by his contemporaries to have "ground his own colors, prepared his own plaster, and completed with his own hand the whole work, after having conquered the obstacles of scaffolding and vault-painting by machines of his own invention, and that only twenty months were devoted to this vast labor of making these paintings, which were composed not only on a vast scale, but are of wonderful delicacy and finish of execution."* Now while this tradition is somewhat disproved by recent evidence that has come to light, which leads us to believe that he labored at intervals for nearly four years upon this gigantic work, and was helped more or less by other workmen, yet, in the main, the story is true that he conceived and executed the whole himself with his own hand. He was master of the whole technique of art, and could do this. Drawing has been called the alphabet of art, but it may almost be called its literature. The principles of drawing have reference not merely to scientific accuracy but to real life. They comprehend the law of perspec- tive entering into all actual objects viewed in space. They have regard also to chiaroscuro, by which the round is represented on a flat surface, so that the light is seen behind and beyond the object, as in nature, and to * Symonds's " Renaissance." 31 482 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. all those subtle refinements of light and shadow, line and touch, by which character is expressed, and, above all, the character of the human form, so as to bring out its life and its intellectual and spiritual beauty. Here drawing from the antique is especially useful to mold the taste under the influence of the best models, since Greek sculpture is the expression of the beauty in the Greek mind, and was, in this intellectual race, nothing more or less than its desire for perfection. Beauty was no weak sentiment at least in the best period of Greek art. The Greek line of beauty was a line of strength. It would be well if our students could draw from the original marbles instead of from plaster casts in whose white smoothness all life seems to die, though this is the next best thing; so that if the pupil, in addition to his drawing, could copy the statue in clay, analyzing the process step by step in the methods of the sculptor and following his lines, grasping his plastic thought, it were better still. No one can study a statue without pencil in hand, and how much more to the purpose if he can model it in clay, and thus be enabled to give an artistic critique of the sculpture before the class ! In this way he should familiarize himself with the Greek masterpieces, steeping himself in their spirit, studying the ethical relations which formed their style and which correspond to the same rela- tions in Greek literature, and discriminating clearly their historic epochs. At all events, nothing mediocre in sculpture and painting should be allowed in the art school, but only the best types, the masters of form and color, the great poets of art, to whom the beauty of nature was manifestly re- vealed. It is well, however, to remember that the training of the art school, though it may develop the artistic faculty, cultivate the taste, and confer skill of manipulation, does not make artists. This is something which belongs to mind more than hand. Andrea del Sarto, whose tech- nique was perfect and who " could teach Raphael to draw an arm," himself felt that a higher love was wanting to make him the unsurpassed artist. The inspiration of genius set on fire by divine feeling makes the artist. I know that the motto of " art for art's sake" has been extensively employed as a word for the encouragement of students, in order to save them from the delusive claims of " high art," but it may be pressed too far, and as it is only at best but half true, it may really become a misleading axiom. Art has a wider scope than a»rt for art's sake. It has a higher work than the mere skillful imitation, or representation, of any natural object in artistic form, in obedience to the mimetic instinct that is often slavishly serviceable to please men and flatter them, to decorate drawing-rooms, to make "counterfeit presentments" in por- traiture, and to pamper the senses. True art does not set up a booth in Vanity Fair. The artist doubtless wishes to please, and he ought to do so; but he should aim at something better — he should be a teacher. His divine gift has an object beyond itself. He is to humanize and cultivate men. He lifts them out of the commonplace into nature METHODS OF ART EDUCATION. 483 which is never dull, and into a world of new ideas. His personality- enters into his productions, and in this no one can teach him. All that he is, all his acquisitions, wisdom, experience, and life, flow into his art. The more of a man he is, the greater artist. The broader his culture, the truer his art. He should be a man of wide and various read- ing. His education should go on widening, not being confined to the material world, but entering the world of ideas, into his own soul, until he grow to be an interpreter of natural and spiritual things. He is a poet. He comes to a sympathetic knowledge of the inmost laws of nature and spirit in which dwell the types and the soul of the beautiful. He is, in fact, the priest of beauty. This is a high office. Beauty is always truth, but truth is not always beaut}*. Beauty, I know, has various types, higher or lower, but the beautiful, truly understood, in all ages and forms, remains the highest principle of art. It may change its modes of expres- sion. It may be earthly or heavenly. It may be realistic as Dutch, or idealistic as Italian, art. It may confine itself to form, or it may expand itself to embody color, atmosphere, light, until it grow spiritual, catching the most fleeting and delicate emotions of the soul. It may live in the joyous and nature-loving life of the ancients as in the lovely Neo-Greek art of the English painter, Albert Moore ; or it may flourish in the life of Christian sentiment as expressed in church music and Gothic archi- tecture, and exemplified by the solemn picture-frieze of the church of St. Vincent de Paul in Paris, painted by Hippolyte Flandrin ; or it may be homely and everyday as in Eastman Johnston's Yankee village scenes, Frith's English watering-places and horse-races, Courbet's butchers' shops, Millet's honest peasants and silly sheep of Barbazon, and the haystacks of Monet which he bought and set up in his lawn in order the better to study their light and shade. But when art loses the sense of beauty, of delight in beauty, of the interpretation of beauty, of the characteristic and typical, of the art of the artist's own soul through the touch of the imagination which opens to him the whole world of nature, then art loses its vocation, and it might as well be science at once, with, perhaps, a flourish of deco- ration to amuse the fancy, and give up the chase of the beautiful and spiritual, the search of the '-Holy Grail/' till it sink into the material, into, say, the literalism of photography. Technique itself may be pressed too far, to the loss of spirit and imagination, even as there is a tendency now in music to strive for key-effect and the brilliant, for hammer rather than harmony, for noise in which poetry and the ethereal essence of art exhales. To render the delicate compositions of Chopin with the bravura of a military band is an end to all artistic expression of musical sentiment. The greatest advance which I can perceive in the condition of art, theo- retically at least, at the present time, is the growth of freedom of senti- ment, and the recognition of merit in different and even dissimilar styles 484 INTERNATIONAL CONOR ESS OF EDUCATION. of artistic production, springing from different conceptions of beauty, and varying as widely as the English and Japanese schools. The compliment which has just been paid by England to our architect Richard M. Hunt, for his share in the fine and original architecture of the World's Fair, is one evidence of this progress in catholicity and appreciation of the identity of the artistic principle under its varied forms of expression and diversities of aesthetic taste. Another suggestion is, that art may be to a certain extent sloughing off its exclusive character and becoming more democratic ; and this is not a change for the worse, but in the right direction. It is, on the whole, a healthful tendency. The best illustration of this, in the past, is Dutch art. " Holland owed her preeminence in art, as well as in science and scholarship, not to an aristocracy, nor even to a moneyed class whose inherited wealth led them to abstain from business. The men who sus- tained the painters and musicians, who fostered also science and learning, were plain burghers in the cities, merchants and manufacturers, men whom Queen Elizabeth called ' base mechanicals/ who all worked with their own hands, and by example or by precept taught that labor alone is honorable."* The World's Fair again affords the best proof of tin's change. Everything beautiful here is not for kings or rich men, but for the people — for popular instruction, inspiration, and. delight. Seeds of thought are sown broadcast over the land. Millions of people walk these wide avenues as if in their own pleasure garden, and feast on the delight- ful fruits of intellect and genius. All branches of art are developed, and the more so because they have found their true aims and relations. Archi- tecture forms a base for sculpture. Sculpture stands not alone but grouped as part and parcel of architecture, as it once did in Greece when the great national temples arose ; and painting finds its right place in the common field of design and ornamentation. Large effects, as another has said, are gained, and there is an opportunity for great ideas to be carried out, for originality of artistic conception, and for adaptation to national type and character. Almost for the first time in our most modern civilization, the traditions of the medieval ages of conventional art have been broken into, and the art, especially the architecture, is democratic and in sympathy with the simplicity and breadth of republican ideas. Art is based on truth, and truth is as wide as the world. To confine it to a section, or to a set of ideas imposed upon it by a class, is to narrow its aim, wliich should be as broad as humanity. An English political writer says, " The things that are 'caviare to the general' often undoubtedly have much merit, but they lack quite as often the warm, generous, and immortal vitality which appeals alike to rich and poor, to the ignorant and to the learned." This is certainly true of art, or the truest art. It meets the highest culture, but * " The Puritan in Holland, England, and America." Campbell, v. i. p. 84. METHODS OF ART EDUCATION. 485 is based on the broadest humanity. I doubt, myself, if there be sucli a thing rightly as a school of art — the classic school, or the romantic school, or the impressionist school, or the German and French schools. Any form or type of art that is merely conventional, manneristic, learned, of a select school, party, or clique, and which does not appeal to the common emo- tions, reason and imagination, even though it may be the fruit of the highest and most exquisite thought, cannot last. It strikes no universal chord. It wants power. It is, for instance, wonderful that Benvenuto Cellini, creature of Pope and Caesar, though full of genius, could have been able to make so good a thing as his Perseus, which, if unclassical, has endured. The true artist must have faith in man if not in men. He should not limit his gift to the service of Lord Tomnoddy and Mr. Croesus. The crowds which fill the halls of art museums have eyes and souls, and they show this by their delight in, and appreciation of, good art. They can be educated, at least, to do so. Good work is not lost with the people, any more than in the middle ages. The beautiful public buildings of Orvieto, Florence, Cologne, and Bruges did not fail of their popular effect. But now new ideas have sprung up ; new faiths, governments, and civili- zations have come into being ; and these must and will have their art expression, so that there should be no want of harmony between the artist and the people. There should not be, at all events, in a democratic country like ours, a servile copying of Old World forms. Of course, there is an historic continuity in the evolution of art, but our art should spring mainly from our civilization. It should have faith in Americans and America. It should be honest, original, and pure, not essentially aristo- cratic in spirit, but popular, though at the same time independent, and above the people, in order to command their admiration and respect, in order to be able to raise them above themselves and bring them out of the low, vulgar, and commonplace, the unloving and unlovely, and to ennoble them by the sight of the beauty of the human soul, and of that divine nature which is the common heritage of all. While the Greeks and the Italians of the Renaissance " clothed every phase of their intellectual energy in the form of art, and it may be said that nothing that they produced did not bear the stamp and character of fine art," * we, on the contrary, of this age and land, regulate our modes of thought by methods of science. I will not discuss the question as to which is the higher mode, but evidently something vital is lacking when either mode becomes exclusive. The present tendency in our country is decidedly scientific, to the exclusion of art and to the benefit of trade ; and the art we have is, for the most part, foreign. Our architecture (though a great improvement is discernible) is Italian or French, and so is our painting and sculpture. The Genius of Liberty that lights foreign- * Symonds's "Renaissance.' 486 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATtON. ers ioto our chief gate of entrance is a French statue, grand for its size. But for anything like great art, or national art, "great ideas common to the nation are essential." Washington, though he has been called an " English country gentleman," was an American through and through, the first great American republican, who let out every drop of monarchi- cal blood in him. Our American heroic art has yet to be created, though its beginnings may be seen in the Trumbull gallery at Yale University, where Colonel John Trumbull, the painter of the Revolution, is better seen than at the Capitol in Washington. We have a heroic history as Hellas had ; and the canvas of American art must be a wide one, sufficient to take in our history, poetry, faith, American humanity in its full action, our industrial energies, our pioneer life and adventure, the vegetation, the climate, the grand as well as quiet and familiar features of our scenery, our autumn foliage and sunsets, the ideas of freedom and equality, the new spirit as contrasted with the spirit of Old World civilization. There should be a love of country and a pride in it. There should be an honest enthusiasm in this new life, movement, and coloring. It is not common- place. It is as nobly human as German or English humanity. It is bet- ter than the decayed Italian humanity that Michael Angelo had to mine in, for his models and thought. What were the contests of the G-nelphs and Ghibellines, the narrow struggles of Florence and Pisa and the other miniature republics of Italy, compared with ours ! We have had, and do now have, artists of fine genius, but no master has yet been born to reflect American history, American democratic thought, and American nature with force enough to originate a new school of American art, if that were possible or desirable. It is true that our standard of taste and life has been heretofore the useful rather than the poetic ; and that the useful has taken the precedence let us not regret, for it is healthful and right that it should do so. Art is grounded on the useful ; it exists in order to supply wants that are real, houses to live in, churches to worship in, costumes to wear, and also, above all, objects of the imagination and the affections to feed the higher nature. But American art will blossom when the aim of life for solely commercial ends is more lost sight of, and when the imagina- tion has leisure to work, when the poetic stir is felt, when the love of beauty is awaked through ennoblement of the mind by culture, so that it can rise above the material into the spiritual, where dwell the ideas of beauty and truth. HOES ART STUDY CONCERN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS? 487 DOES ART STUDY CONCERN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS? BY MRS. MARY DANA HICKS, BOSTON, MASS. " All art study should aim first to familiarize the pupil with the chief types of the great works of art, with a view to cultivating the artistic taste." -What I have to present on this topic will be mainly from the side of the public school. To all who are teachers in the public schools, or who are interested in the work of the public schools, this topic must have a great and abounding interest at this time. It brings us face to face with far-reaching questions. Does art study in any way concern the public schools ? If so, into whose hands should the study come, and under whose direction should it be carried out ? In endeavoring to contribute something toward answering these ques- tions, I would take this position : Art education is a legitimate subject for the public schools ; the supervisor of drawing should stand not merely for the promotion of drawing, whether industrial, educational, or aesthetic, but rather for the promotion of art. I wish to make at the outset a clear distinction between mere drawing and art, which in its great content is the subject of which drawing stands as a language. Art (I am speaking of formative art) — art has stood in the general mind as something quite transcending ordinary life, as something belonging only to the few, something to be purchased. The great and intrinsic value of art has in one way kept the masses apart from it. Those who have produced works of art have too often struggled against indifference and contempt ; too often they have given all that constituted the ordinary life, to attain art which is dearer than life. Thus art came to be considered as not belonging to the ordinary life, as something quite outside of and apart from the ordinary life, some- thing into which ordinary souls could not enter, something to which ordinary souls had no right. By slow degrees there arose in the minds of some a realization that as art productions had a money value, it might be that art could have a practical application ; industrial art was recognized, and industrial draw- ing was introduced into the schools of this broad land, on the industrial basis. Everywhere the work of supervisors of drawing was to direct the drawing, mainly toward industrial design, as a means of improving the industrial products of the country, increasing the wage-earning power of its people, and adding to its material prosperity. Then came the idea that drawing was a mode of expressing thought, and that hence it should be cultivated as a means of mental development. This was a great advance from the purely industrial view. The educa- tional value of drawing became a subject of earnest discussion, and finally 488 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. has come to be generally accepted. This recognition of the educational power of drawing has led to a demand for its exercise. Therefore, drawing now stands in the schools mainly on an educational basis, and is regarded by educators as a means of expression which deserves the highest rank. Its value industrially is more fully recognized than eyer before, while its value educationally is considered as far transcending its industrial value. It is recognized that the body of the child deserves to be clothed and fed and housed ; but it is still farther recognized that the mind of the child deserves recognition, and must be nurtured and given opportunity for expression. Supervisors of drawing are leading in this movement, and are develop- ing the child through his own observations and thought to free expression, and are, moreover, endeavoring to guide that freedom into well-recognized art methods. The hard, thin, black, wiry line, finished by the most painstaking effort to absolute uniformity of width and absolute want of expression, has given place to the broader, soft gray line — the true line of the pencil — varying in intensity, delicacy, strength, or emphasis, to meet the thought expressed, thus admitting the possibilities of the whole range of expression from light to dark. They are also leading more and more to the observation of the beautiful as the best means of elevating the expression of the children. Recognizing the great value of drawing in the whole educational field, I shared in the presentation of an exhibit of work in form study, drawing, and color, in connection with other studies, made at the meeting of the National Educational Association at Topeka about seven years since. It was, I think, the first exhibit of this sort ever made. The work had then, as it has now, a great amount of crudity. The regular work in drawing was not considered as bearing upon the drawing in connection with other studies. The two were entirely' divorced in the minds of the teachers, and one did not influence the other. This is a surprising result, but it finds its parallel in the fact that a student may be most carefully trained in the laws of perspective and the mechanical method of using them, and yet be helpless in the presence of a single object whose appearance to the eye he is required to draw. A student who had passed one hundred per cent, in instrumental perspective in a well-known art school came to me in great distress one day. She wanted to draw the interior of a barn, and she was very much puzzled to know whether she should make the beams overhead converge toward the upper edge of the picture or otherwise. Such things seem hardly credible to those who understand not only instru- mental perspective, but also its connection with the appearance of objects. I well remember with what a contemptuous dissent a modest suggestion to the principal of that school — that it would be better to lead the student to see the appearance of an object before studyiug the principles of per- DOES ART STUDY CONCERN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS? 489 spective theoretically — was received. But things have changed since then, and pupils in the public schools now learn to see for themselves how objects appear in different positions, long before they know anything of the laws of perspective. In our work of drawing we have passed through the industrial stage. We believe in the value of art as conducive to industry ; we recognize the money value of beauty, and that it pays in dollars and cents to be able to create a thing of beauty which shall be a joy forever. But we no longer look at this as the supreme end of our work. We recognize most earnestly the value of drawing as a means of mental development, and we endeavor to promote its use in every possible way, at the same time surrounding the pupil with those influences from great works of art which will lead to the cultivation of artistic taste. But we should have a still higher and broader end in view. We should stand for art. We should stand not for drawing as primal (for drawing is simply a means of expressing thought), but we should stand for obser- vation of the beautiful, for thought induced by the beautiful, which shall lead to the expression of the beautiful according to the best known modes of expression. Industrial drawing ministers to the outward needs, educational drawing ministers to mental development, while art education adds to these the aesthetic element (which is in its highest sense ethical), and ministers to the spirit, permeating and uplifting all life. Art is the highest expression of the highest thought, and works of art are the outcome of that aspiration toward the best, and that creative impulse which longs to make the aspiration manifest, which belong to every human soul. Art education should, then, make distinct recognition of the art possibilities that lie not only in the artist but in every little child. Each little one that comes under our care longs for the beautiful and desires to express it. How can we show to him the beautiful, and how can we help him to express it ? This is our great problem. First, I would say, direct his observation toward beautiful things. Hold fast to the appeal of psychology, to give the child things which will interest him, but be careful to select from the things which interest him those which are of the highest nature. Selection — choosing the good — is one of the constants of development, whether in organism, in art, or in life, and the child himself will not only respond to but will promote this selection. The following thesis indicates a proper course to be pursued with the pupil : Thesis : The pupil should copy or make a drawing of the work of art which he has learned to analyze, and his exercise should be criticised by fellow-pupils and teacher, making clear the respects wherein he has failed to seize the motive of the artist, or to reproduce his (the artist's) device of representation. 490 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. At the same time that we lead the pupil to a selection of the type by appeal to his own love of the beautiful, we will help him all that we car in modes of expression. We will not leave him to blunder and stumble, neither will we put him in harness and drive him forward, but we will lead him by pleasant guidance to such better things as we may know, and we will not be content to give him our limited individual knowledge, but we will place before him, as far as is in our power, the best that the world has done in art. In looking through the field of graphic art we find that thought has found expression in three different directions, that there are in graphic art three different subjects which are to be made the basis of these lines of instruction — the subject of construction, which has as its highest phase the training of the imagination ; the subject of representation, which has as its highest phase expression by pictorial art ; and the subject of decora- tion, which has as its highest phase the expression of beauty in ornament. In all these subjects we have again to remember that drawing is merely a means of expression ; that back of the drawing must lie the study of and instruction in the subjects themselves ; but also that, having given the thought, we must help the pupils to the best method of expression. In the subject of construction the mode of expression is purely mechani- cal and is unvarying ; in flat decoration this is largely the case. In rep- resentation, however, this mode of expression varies, and there is large scope for individuality. The pupil may here stumble and blunder along until his eagerness and strength are exhausted, or the wise teacher may guide him to a better mode of expression. One of the ways of guidance would be for the teacher to tell the student that by emphasis here and by restraint there, corresponding to the qualities and relations of things rep- resented, a better effect could be produced. Another way would be for the teacher to show by a few touches here and there — that is, by an exam- ple of her own work ; this is a living demonstration that in many times is of great help. These two ways are of only limited use in the large classes of public schools. Another way is to give to pupils good examples of rendering, that they may see how others have translated thought into expression by the pen, pencil, or brush. This is admirable because it brings the pupil into the presence of what others who have attained the control of their materials have done. Still another way is to give pupils to copy good examples of rendering, that they may be carried still farther into the thought as well into the means of expression. It must be remembered that the purpose of drawing from an object is essentially different from that of drawing from a copy, and that they do not at all subserve the same end. The purpose of drawing from an object is that the pupil may express his own thought concerning the object. WITH WHAT SHOULD DRAWING BEGIN? 491 Drawing from an object should not, therefore, be made a purely external and mechanical thing of seeing from a proportion, but should be made a means of leading first to thought about the object, and then expression. The purpose of drawing from a copy is that the pupil may learn the thought of a more cultivated mind and spirit concerning the object, and afterward the way by which he expressed it. Drawing from a copy, there- fore, like drawing from an object, should not be a purely external and mechanical thing of seeing form and proportion, but should be made a means of broadening the horizon of the pupil and leading him onward and upward by contact with a broader and higher mind. All this will apply to pictorial composition as well as to rendering. We cannot afford to lose any of these ways of guiding the pupil ; we must hold to those which will cultivate his powers by leading him to know what others, with greater powers than he, have done, as well as by leading him to express his own thought in his own way. We cannot rightfully deny him the culture to be obtained through the endeavor to learn the thought of others. Sir Joshua Reynolds was of the opinion that copying the work of a mas- ter in no way limited the original power of expression of a student, but rather led him to more individual expression and doing. In historic orna- ment the same will hold good as in the subject of representation, with this difference, that in historic ornament we are endeavoring to enter into the spirit of a nation rather than that of an individual. In every curve there is expressed the life of the nation and the striving after beauty — the reaching up and out to the aesthetic. So here more than ever is needed that realization of curvature and proportion which can be attained only through the endeavor to approach by drawing near to the thought and character of the nation. In pictorial art we deal with the individual ; in historic ornament we approach the universal, and attain, at some degree, to types. Just one word in conclusion : Art is not mere drawing ; art includes and implies the thoughts back of the drawing. WITH WHAT SHOULD DRAWING BEGIN? BY MISS JOSEPHINE C. LOCKE, CHICAGO, ILL. " Should drawing begin with light and shade, or should it be outline drawing for the first year or more ? I shall present both sides. Outline drawing is a necessity for the sake of recording the facts and exact data of form, of geography, of history, and of science ; it deals with the definite limitation of surface, and is essential to the expression of all construction. There is no other medium so useful for interpreting the details of parto and their rela- 492 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. tion to the general whole. It is the fundamental language of the industrial and ornamental arts. There are two aspects of outline drawing. These are commonly spoken of as geo- metrical and freehand drawing. Geometrical drawing includes not only geometric problems, but projection drawing, linear perspective, and all line drawing that depends upon the use of instruments. Freehand drawing may be and is rightly used for a great deal of work that is not dependent for expression upon light and shade. All rendering of surface forms, such as decorative arrangements, copies of historic orna- ment from the flat, and the drawing of the several geometric views from objects, belong properly to the sphere of outline drawing ; and where such subjects are used to begin the study of drawing, the only method that can be employed is outline drawing. The question is still being agitated, Shall the study of drawing begin with the making of lines, the estimating of distances, and from flat copies, or shall it begin with the study of things by drawing the several geometric views and appearances of objects ? If the first method be adopted, then arises a second division : " Shall the work begin with the ruler, or the free hand ?" I quote from Colonel Charles Larned, of West Point, who is probably one of the ablest and most disinterested exponents of the first method. He says: " Because the line is an arbitrary convention, I am of opinion that first instruction should never be freehand from the object ; the translation of form by the line is an artifice more difficult in freehand work, and more laboriously acquired. The young pupil should first be introduced to his medium and some of its meanings before undertaking to interpret with it. As a matter of Gaining, I value the clean, well- defined line of the pencil or pen for beginners. The large charcoal or crayon line in the hands of the very young is uncertain and dirty ; it condones inexactness of observation and result, at a formative period when habits are born." Colonel Larned, it will he observed, speaks as a soldier, and from the standpoint of the technical or academic school, where the pupils are usually over fourteen years of age, when the period of childhood's emotions and instincts is past and the intellectual life of the individual is seeking to assert itself; in fact, Colonel Larned 's instruction begins where the work of the primary and grammar schools ceases. He continues : "The line is wholly a convention, the symbol of direction, extension, and limit ; but in objective form there is properly no line, only the contrast of the different values of light and shade. The edges of intersecting planes of exterior and interior contours are not seen as lines, but as sharply defined contrasts of one value of shade against another. This is true of all form ; an apprehension of it is purely a perception of contrast of light and shade. But line drawing exists, and is used for the purpose of expressing abstract thought ; of measuring geometric relations and quan- tative analysis of space ; for the rendering of all that involves exactitude, precision, and accuracy of detailed feeling. This all must admit. It compels attention as no other means of expression does to correctness of principle, to accuracy of results, to habits of neatness and order, to forethought and forehandedness, to exactness of method ; and it forces the realization of concepts with relentless precision." While the geometrical line of construction has these well-defined advantages in clear thinking, it also has its limitations as an educational medium. Colonel Larned is care- ful to tell us that it does not stimulate to any great extent the faculties of vision, such as "form apprehension, form judgment, form memory, and form sensibility." Picture writing or hieroglyphs is the earliest and most significant use of line drawing. Historically, with all nations and in all epochs of an art development, expression by line has preceded expression by light and shade. All primitive drawing simplifies and detaches objects, copying them in their own way, isolating and giving each its person- ality without any conception of pictorial relations. The study of chiaroscuro has up to the past few years been limited to the special school, with a professional trained teacher, WITH WHAT SHOULD DRAWING BEGIN? 493 under artificial and not unfrequently strained conditions. In the world of art the Rem- brandt school is a notable illustration. Says Mr. Gilbert Hamerton, in his "Graphic Arts": "Practice in outline drawing involves a special danger to the student which ought not to be passed in silence. It con- centrates his attention so much upon the contour of things that he ceases to perceive what is within them, and then he becomes the victim of a peculiar delusion. He fan- cies that because he knows the coast, he knows the country ; the draughtsman is fre- quently innocently persuaded that the flat white spaces which his lines inclose actually contain the modeling which he vainly imagines for them." Now truth of linear drawing is not the truth of expression by light and shade, any more than the truth of the fact is the truth of the appearance of an object. Expression by outline drawing is independent of the thickness or quality of the line employed; there may be all varieties used, from the poetic and artistic that suggests rather than formu- lates, to the most prosaic and exquisitely fine hair line such as is found in the drawing of pieces of delicate machinery. Giotto's celebrated line with which he astonished the Vatican, it is now universally accepted, was a broad, soft line drawn with the brush, similar to what one continually finds in Japanese art. Mr. Hamerton continues: "The value of outline drawing has been variously esti- mated by artists. Painters hardly ever use it in its purity ; they occasionally have recourse to it, but they do not keep to it. In this they are guided by a sure instinct, for outline drawing belongs to an essential, early stage in art, and is not compatible with those habits of sight and thought which are or ought to be the habits of painters ; yet outline drawing may be practiced with advantage as part of every artist's education." As to ruled lines, Mr. Hammerton notes the curious fact that while they are the basis of every architectural drawing, yet they are so disagreeable to the eye that a ruled line is inadmissible in any pictorial view of a building or street, for it destroys the pict- uresque effect. Yet the ruled line as a literal fact is the truer of the two; but it is sug- gest! veness, not literalism, that in this instance the mind requires; hence its discontent with the exact, prosaic line. In "Modern Painters," vol. i., Mr. Ruskin sustains Colonel Larned's position by saying: " No form can be known to the eye without its chiaroscuro. In all observation of land- scape, nature tells her story as plainly by her light and shade as by her form. Hun- dreds of people talk for one who can think, but thousands think for one who can see; to see clearly is poetry, prophecy, and religion all in one." Nature is the mother and nourisher of the imagination ; and when we see nature through the eyes of the imagination, we see her not in facts and bare outlines, but transformed and mediated by an infinite play of light and shade. Observation of mass is not observation of detail and limit ; neither can expression of mass be rendered in the same way as expression of detail and limit. The real question is, Should not both methods of observation and expression be culti- vated side by side from the earliest beginnings to study drawing ? Will not continual practice in a one-sided observation and expression leave the individual biassed and prejudiced ? There are degrees of seeing ; there is a seeing that is purely physical, that sees only processes, operations, and limitations. To begin with expression by outline drawing is such seeing. But there is a seeing that is internal as well as external, that pierces behind the phenomena, the world of effects and operations, and feels the movement of the celestial order. Such seeing is directly dependent upon contact with nature, and seeks expression not by outline drawing, but by a feeling for the mass as the whole. Upon this observation of nature in masses of light and shade and shadow, and power to express the same, depends the art feeling of a people. Indeed, there can be no fine observation of color in nature apart from observation of 494 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. light and shade, for all local color changes and varies as it receives the play of sunlight — now brilliant and intense ; again gray, cool, and semi-distant. The confusing and blending of the tints of color is a light and shade effect. A child who tries to paint a green leaf fails to get the effect if he does not introduce some reddish-brown or other pigment to indicate the play of light and shade. From the above generalizations 1 am led to the following inferences : (1) That man's geographical notions seem to have affected his artistic seeing ; so long as he thought the earth was flat, he imagined objects to be cut out of some flat material. The notion of modulation of surface, of elevation and depression, and ils expression by light and shade, developed itself slowly. (2) As man began to observe the mystery and variedness of nature, he thought to represent this by the introduction of light and shade. (3) In art history the study and practice of chiaroscuro divides itself into two dis- tinct epochs : first, as used in classic art and in the Renaissance ; second, as practiced in modern landscape art. The latter is based on direct observation of nature, and sees things more in a diffused sunlight, while the former was more artificial, and involved special and different conditions. (4) A complete observation of form implies not. only the seeing of outlines, but also the seeing of surfaces as possessing elevations and depressions, as rounding, nearing, and receding. (5) Constant drawing in outline is quite capable of prejudicing mind and vision, and is only one degree removed in its danger from continuous drawing from flat copies ; it is very apt to leave the impression that the earth is " flat as a pancake." (6) The child mind and child vision under twelve or fourteen are more akin to the artist mind and the artist vision than is the mind of the intervening years ; both possess that innocence of the eye that depends for its doing upon intuitive knowing and instinct rather than on intellectual information or the acquisition of technical skill. The only difference between the true child nature and the artist nature is that the child sees, moves, and does unconsciously, according to instinct, while the mature artist works and moves consciously according to insight. (7) A determination of the question, " Should drawing commence from the begin- ning with light and shade, or should it be outline drawing for the first year or more ? " depends on the age of the pupils, the aim of the instruction, the conditions under which it is taught, and whether the work begins with first acquainting the child with his medium, or with form study from objects. Under the age of the pupil, one must consider which comes first in order of develop- ment, the period of the intellect or the period of the instinct — the age of knowing or the age of feeling. Methods all right with adults and pupils over fourteen, may be dwarfing and repressing, not to say mutilating, to children from six to twelve. How do children see ? how do they feel ? What is their imagination busy with ? In what fairy- land do they wander ? It seems to me these are the questions that must determine how they are to be approached in any subject. From the concrete to the abstract, from the simple to the complex, cannot be true of mathematics and not true in other work also. Under the aim of the instruction, one is led to consider if the object be to nourish and feed the general intelligence of the pupil, to help him find himself and his powers, or to impart information and train for specific ends. Is learning to draw the chief end of teaching drawing, or is it only a means to an end — the end lying outside and beyond, in the power to observe form, to recognize three dimensions in space, in the cultivation of the imagination, in the bringing one into close, vital contact with nature, and in developing an appreciation of the beautiful ? If we put power to observe and perceive form as fundamental and first, the question is. Can there be any perception of form apart from observation of light and shade ? Certainly not in an observation of nature. DISCUSSION OF THE SUBJECT CONTINUED. 495 where shadow is often more conspicuous than outline. Because chiaroscuro exists everywhere in nature, and because contact with and observation of nature is a necessity to the nourishing of sweet childhood's dreams, this question becomes a larger oue than the mere learning to draw or make lines. Shall we cultivate in the child an all-sided, all-round observation of nature as she is, in her dreaminess and mystery, or shall we limit him to a conventional, partial, and one-sided observation ? Shall we put nourishment of feeling before acquaintance with the medium, and the enlargement of idea before exactness of expression ? Now, the imagination is not analytical, it works in wholes ; first, a dreamy vision of an entirety, of an indefinite something, frequently vague and chaotic. Only as it seeks to formu- late itself does it become aware of details and fragments. Knowing of rules and the exertion of the analytical faculty with a child has a tendency to confuse his fancy in its flow. Dreams cannot be ruled or legislated for ; they must be caught as they come, and caught each in its own particular way. This power to catch dreams is the art quality ; it is the faculty to both see and feel. The dream itself is the true art idea, for dream of poet, despair of artist, and child- hood's visions are one in essence. We use the terms "art instruction," "art education" — indeed, the word art in all its applications — very vaguely and loosely. We need to re-create the word in its ancient sense, when it stood for the expression of the inherent genius of humanity ; when it really meant lee-way for intuitional feeling and emotion, and the material with the tool was but the vehicle for the thought. Were there no catching power in the indi- vidual to recognize a vision of beauty, or to glimpse the infinite, or to rearrange, invent, and adapt means to ends, then where would be the art ? Did government or art-school knowledge of Maxwell's disks, or familiarity with the proportions of the Corinthian column, ever weave a Cashmere shawl or produce a Japanese vase ? No ! For both are born of an ignorance of light theories and of an absence of mathematical rules, but of an instinct so pure and subtle that all the technical teaching and skilled labor of modern civilization fails to do more than reproduce them. A careful consideration of this subject must resolve itself into, Wrhat are we going to do while waiting for children to become intellectually fit for the special or technical school ? Is it safe to continue leaving the period of childhood's dreams and emotions unfed and uncultivated ? What can be done to inspire the masses, the children of the common people, with an interest in and an appreciation of nature, and of those works of art which embody the highest truths of spirit as comprehended by man, and so make life better worth living to every citizen ? Is not this very much more than mere learn- ing to draw and make lines ? DISCUSSION OF THE SUBJECT CONTINUED. BY MRS. HANNAH JOHNSON CARTER, DIRECTOR ART DEPARTMENT, DREXEL INSTITUTE, PHILADELPHIA. In answering this question we are forced at once to consider conditions, age of children, and the object sought. I was much impressed by General Walker's statement that the American people are essentially forced to a state of compromise to meet the pecul- iar situation thrust upon them at the present time — an enormous and increasing inflow of a foreign element, untrained and unskilled, and which presents a most serious problem to be dealt with, especially in our public schools. It is not. then, by many roads that we will reach Rome, but by one broad highway, where small differences of opinion, petty jealousies, and personal ambitions shall be thrown aside in the desire to do the best 496 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. possible toward the development of the child, and to overcome the materialistic ten- dency of the time. If we take the matter up from the standpoint of the young child in the public schools, which is perhaps the best way to begin, we must admit that the most advanced thought and experience will demand little in the way of accurate expression for the first two years of a young child's life in school. Observation, thoughtful yet happy and free, should be encouraged, and expression in the way of drawing should be in a medium best adapted to the child's ability to control. I have tried various free-flowing materials, such as charcoal, paint, and even colored chalk, and found that the pleasure of daub- ing and scratching was of much more interest than the thoughtful rendering of sense impressions ; to my mind productive of the same danger that one meets in science teach- ing, when elaborate scientific instruments are more fascinating than the experiment to be performed. While I cannot see the desirability in this brief life of passing through the barbarism of the race to find the child, 1 do believe that these first years are most important to start him on the road as a free individual. Plenty of form study, a wealth of color, and a happy expression of himself, even in a crude way, upon blackboard and paper, will surely lead to this. And I am equally sure that even in these early days a wise teacher may begin to guide toward definite and thoughtful expression even in the child's freedom. Therefore art training in the public schools should stand primarily on an educational basis, and secondarily for technique. I said "wise teacher," and here I sigh ; for the average teacher of the present day is supposed to be wise in all the studies pertaining to her work — and where has she been trained ? Our country to-day needs hundreds of teachers' colleges, that the wise teacher may be possible. Given moi*e favorable conditions in the schoolroom — one direct light and not con- flicting lights — a teacher capable of judging values and effects, and the rendering of objects in light and shade might be desirable at an earlier age than now seems possible. You know the bad effects of incorrect or coarse speech when not led as soon as possible into refinement and good method before such bad habits become fixed. For this reason I feel that license in the use of any material will thwart the very end sought. In a technical school I would balance the outline, in which there might be an expres- sion of the student's own conception of light and shade carried out to a greater or less degree, with the freest treatment in charcoal, presenting all the values seen. Here it is more possible to consider the individuality of the students, and if one has a hard, tight way of expressing, sees line in everything, with a strong tendency to the mechanical, losing sight of the poetic quality of effect, then that student needs a minimum of out- line and thorough training in light and shade as expressed in values, using charcoal as the freest working material. On the other hand, a student who is inclined always to see masses, and looks at things from the painter's standpoint rather than the draughts- man's, is much helped to completeness of thought and vision to express in the purest outline with the fewest possible number of lines that will tell the story. The telling power of a really good outline drawing is not, half appreciated. There is a lot of nonsense connected with the life of art students and even artists, and their ideas of what art is. A person is none the more aesthetic or artistic (I am very tired of that word) for having a coat covered with paint, a soiled necktie, or a dirty pai- ette. I remember a fellow-student who appeared one day, in our set of workers, when we were all ready to leave the studios, with paint on her bonnet strings. 1 protested that the turpentine bottle should be appealed to. But no ; she marched forth more than ever satisfied that she wore the insignia of high art. That student was really directly drifting away from beauty, order, and fitness, the three essentials of true art. I fol- lowed her work later, and it never went beyond the mediocre — never beyond the bonnet strings. The beautiful, then, should be our ideal and as far as possible made a part of us — in life, character, and environment. Every unlovely thought, word, or deed has a reflex action more productive of harm to the source of its creation than to those whom it may be intended to harm or wound. Forced back, as we are constantly, to present conditions in public schools, with child- ren the pencil seems to be the most available means of expression, and a great deal more can be done with it than is often realized. Much, very much, depends upon the teach- ing whether rendering is really artistic and individual. For objects I like myself a basis of geometric form from which other work may lead out. These simple forms can be made interesting to the child and productive of much benefit. Through them the simple laws of perspective may be apprehended, and in a more natural way than by theory. The broad gray line is far more agreeable than a hard wiry one, and seems to lend itself pleasantly to the contour of geometric form, or simple objects. By broad gray line I do not ineau an exaggeration of breadth or absolutely unvarying in width, but PAINTING AND SCULPTURE— DISCUSSION. 497 - the soft effect produced by drawing upon the side of a blunt pencil, the result being a transparency of effect somewhat in texture like a delicate charcoal line. Outline draw- ing is also valuable as a means of expression upon the blackboard, and the crudest work done in this way by the children is of far more value than ever so elaborate drawing by the teacher. With the best intentions possible, teachers entertain the children nearly to their mental death ; certainly to the dulling of their honest effort to work for them- selves. A teacher can get through simple outline drawings more expression of the child's mental standing, capacity, and growth, than in any other way. Not only in the regular drawing lesson, but by using drawing in the other studies. Pencil lends itself also to the schoolroom better than charcoal, because its conventions are already accepted. The freehand working drawing is a direct help in manual training, and aside from its possible industrial value, dealing as it does with foreshortening and not perspective, it ■ emphasizes the facts of things as an offset to the delusion of appearance. If suggestive effect can be obtained in light and shade with pencil, beyond the first years it undoubtedly would add to the interest of outline drawing ; but there is definite danger here, dealing with such large numbers in a class, of too conventional rendering of the light and shade, and the recording of the teacher's observation rather than that of the child. Charcoal is not pleasing for line work unless handled with consummate skill, but is especially delightful in the rendering of full values. In the high-school ■ light and shade should be a prominent feature of art training, and here as well as in the technical school I would balance the study of masses of effect in light and shade, with pencil, the latter leading to pen and ink. In the early teaching of drawing to the child or adult we should not demand imme- diately accurate results, but rather, first, careful observation of proportion and relation, and the recording of ideas of beauty of proportion and relation, as far as possible in an individual way. If we could have a skillful and trained teacher to every ten or even twenty children in the public schools, how everything would simplify and our path clear ! Then we could have the most delightfully naive expression of each child's thought given in his own way, and yet guided to the best technique as well. But how to really build the basis for even an appreciation of what real art is. with these masses of children forced upon us, and the untrained, overstrained teachers who are held responsible for so much — this is the problem upon which we talk in circles and fail to solve. The public must be educated to feel our good intentions, our struggles, and our needs. Boards of Education need educating, and we may yet be forced to put upon them some of the tasks of the ordinary teacher. Why do the artists have such a hard time to sell their pictures ? It is because even the moneyed people have not gone much beyond the gilded rolling-pin and the decorated milking-stool. The better the training of American children in true art principles, the better for the future of American art and artists. Above all should we try to realize that art education is something more than utility drawing of any sort, or even fine art training. To the great public it is training the child to see beauty in common things, not vulgar common things, but the beauty about him, above and beyond him — the beauty of nature and of art. Tinkling devices that please for the hour will not do this; but it should come by unfolding the latent power of the child and the opening of his eyes to the glory of this world as well as the life beyond. The influence of direct art teaching should go beyond the schoolroom as a beneficent presence in the child's thought, his view of life and things. PAINTING AND SCULPTURE— DISCUSSION. BY PROFESSOR W. M. R. FRENCH, DIRECTOR OF THE ART INSTITUTE OF CHICAGO. The thesis upon which I am invited to give my ideas is as follows : Connected with the learning to model in clay, wax, or other material, the pupil should have a series of lessons on the limitations belonging to the arts of painting and sculp- ture, and discuss what subjects can properly be treated in sculpture, and what more properly belong to painting. Upon the propositions that there are differences between the practice of the painter and the practice of the sculptor, and that it is necessary for the sculptor to regard these 32 498 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. differences, there can scarcely be more than one opinion. But as to how a knowledge these differences shall be conveyed to the pupil, and at what stage in his career, are questions upon which there may well be a wide divergence of opinion. Upon this sul ject, as upon many others, I find my theories much hampered by the necessity of putting them into practice. If I were not connected with the school of the Art Institute, open to the gaze of all men, I might, perhaps, work out a successful theoretical view. As it is, I find myself in the predicament of the Pharisees of old when they were asked to pronounce upon the baptism of John. If I say that there ought to be stated instruction upon the limitations of painting and sculpture, you will all say : " Why, then, have you not established such lessons in the Art Institute 1 " But if I say there is no need of such instruction, shall I not be despised and scorned of all advanced educators ? I may say, frankly, that the idea of regular lessons or lectures upon this subject had never so much as occurred to me. Our art schools are conducted upon an atelier system, in which the teachers are in immediate and frequent contact with all the students; and it is expected that in the course of actual practice the various problems of art will arise and be discussed, and receive such solution as the teachers may be able to give. Such questions as those pro- posed in our subject will not arise early in the student's course. He may begin model- ing in the kindergarten, and must begin with very elementary practice, which has no relation to composition, but is directed simply to acquainting him with his material, and giving him mechanical control over it. The elements of technique must precede com- position, and it would only introduce confusion to discuss advanced problems too early. In the present period of realism, however, there is a very possible danger that the stu- dents may be kept too exclusively upon the true rendering of the subjects before them and upon the technical treatment of the mediums, to the neglect of the more general, perhaps I might say of the more intellectual, qualities of the work. Everybody who has to do with schools of academic art must be aware how much more willing the student is to remain before his easel and try to fix in charcoal or in oil the appearance of the statue, the living head, or the nude model before him, than to attend any kind of verbal lessons or lectures, however closely related to his profession. He thinks he is wasting time if he is not actually drawing, and I think this idea is rather encouraged by most of the artist-teachers. In our own school I despair of getting our students to lectures excepting at times when the models are not posing ; and as the sit- tings are continuous from nine to twelve and from one to four (with sketch classes after four), it is difficult to find a time for lectures. In fact, we have held our lectures from half-past twelve to half-past one, and from four to five. I have sometimes seriously considered holding the class sessions from nine to half-past two or three, and devoting the rest of the day to class instruction, as is done in the Boston school. The aversion of students to instruction of literary form I attribute to two causes first, that named above, the extreme stress laid upon execution by the teachers ; and second, the general dislike of mankind, in his native state, to intellectual exertion. Your ordinary art student will do anything to get away from exerting his head. He does not know it, and he fancies he is working very hard when he tries to fix the exact drawing and color of his study. And to do them justice, the better students do put themselves into their work. It is my opinion, however, that in most art schools we are in danger of falling into narrow lines of study, of confining ourselves to particular treatments and mediums, even particular points of view and sizes of studies, to the neglect of the more general study of composition. Hence, although I do not know of any art school in which there is distinct, stated instruction in the distinctions to be observed between sculpture and painting, it is easily conceivable that there might well be such instruction. It would no doubt best be given by the actual teacher of model- PAINTING AND SCULPTURE-DISCUSSION. 499 ing, if he could be induced to do it. Ah, there's the rub ! It often happens that the man who models is wholly averse to lecturing. A sculptor of my acquaintance said : " I draw the line at lecturing." But if he had the subject distinctly in mind, he could easily tell his class all they needed to know. And this I suppose is what actually happens with the more favored pupils, if not with whole classes. However the knowledge were conveyed, it could do a student of sculpture no harm to have his attention called to the fact that sculpture cannot do much with landscape or large accessories of any kind, and must be contented for the most part with the repre- sentation of animated nature, chiefly the human figure. That there is something in the character of sculpture that prompts simplicity, so that numerous accessories, even if small and natural to the subject, are usually un- acceptable, and the most effective sculptures have always been made up of very few figures, usually not more than two or three ; that the sculptor will do well to yield gracefully and cheerfully to the limitations of his material, and acknowledge that things possible in paint are not possible in bronze, still less in marble ; that the out- line, or sky line, of the work of sculpture is of vastly more importance than it is in painting ; and especially that an immense difference between the conditions of sculpture and painting is introduced by the circumstance that the sculptor's work must look well from various points of view — must indeed compose well all the way round, if possible: all these things might very easily and quickly be communicated to a class by lecture or lesson, accompanied, of course, as all art lectures should be, by abundant illustra- tration and exemplification. If it be said that most of our students are in too elementary a stage to profit by such instruction, and that all their time ought to be given to acquiring respectable technical skill, I should be inclined to recall the fact that at least six of the young women in the modeling class in the Art Institute have been called upon in the last year and a half to produce ideal statues in connection with the Columbian Exposition, and it is proposed to put some of these figures into marble. Art educators, and perhaps teachers of all kinds, have reason to be shy of fixed rules. The practice of the fine arts does not brook much definition and limitation, and it is dangerous to inculcate the principles even of Lessing or Winckelmann, because all theories go down before facts, and we no sooner get our rules well established than some clever fellow comes along and executes charming things in direct violation of them all. A few years ago, for example, I suppose we should all have said that the dignity and elevation of sculpture made color inadmissible ; that the student would do well to follow those exemplars of all succeeding ages, the ancient Greeks, and leave the marble in its unsullied purity ; and we should very likely have suggested that the nudity of sculpture was, as it were, veiled and chastened by the absence of color. But the recent studies of the archaeologists seem to establish that color was used in ancient sculpture much more widely than has heretofore been supposed, and some authorities think that all nations, the ancient Greeks included, who have used sculpture freely, have habitu- ally polychromed their statues. This subject has raised anew in my own mind the whole question how far ought lessons and lectures upon the theory and history of art and other scholastic subjects to be joined with art practice in our art schools. My own predilections are for a good deal of literary training, but I have not felt warranted in carrying out ideas, not founded upon experience, very fully and hastily into practice. It has long been my wish that a student who spends three or four or five years in the Art Institute should carry away not only some technical dexterity, but something which would stand for an education, some cultivation of mind and taste which should answer in some degree to a liberal education. At present we are able to offer oppor- 500 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. tunities, but not to compel the use of them. The school lectures relate to artistic anatomy, perspective, the history of art and art education, the construction and draw- ing of the face and figure, and a variety of themes connected with architecture and decoration. The general lectures of the Art Institute, open to all students, relate to all manner of artistic subjects. The library I regard as perhaps the best means of intellectual cultivation we are able to put before our students. It is wide open to them at all times, and already covers pretty well the ground of the theory, history, and practice of the fine arts. This year we add an immense collection of photographs, the whole publication of Braun & Co., of Paris, of carbon photographs or autotypes, which include reproductions of the important paintings, drawings, and sculptures of the principal museums of Europe. Dr. Holmes' remark that it is "great good fortune to a child to tumble round in a good library when he is little," is equally applicable to an art student young in his art. The students also move constantly among the permanent and changing collections of the museum and the city. With these opportunities, and with daily intercourse with a score of accomplished teachers, a student must be stupid, indeed, who does not in four years acquire some kind of culture. THE SELF-CORRECTING SYSTEM OF DRA WING. BY MISS ANNIE R. OSBORNE MOORE, OF ENGLAND. The question, What do we mean by drawing ? seems to me to have received so many and such various answers during the discussions of this Congress that it becomes necessary, for clearness' sake, to come back to it once more. And I therefore propose to read a few lines, the value of which, I presume, no one will call in question, as they are translated from the own words of Michael Angelo di Buonarotti. These words seem to unite, and by implication to contain, all that is best in the various apprecia- tions that have been laid before you, and they do away with the need of any further definition. " The science of drawing or of outline is the essence of painting and of all the fine arts, and the root of all the sciences. He who can raise himself to the point of master- ing it possesses a great treasure The power of drawing is so great that the artist can express whatever he wishes if he know how to draw. Art is herein sublime, that by it all the works of God may be represented, whether it be a bird of the air or a prophet. Thereto neither gold, silver, nor precious stones are needful, only a pen or a pencil. Perfectly to copy every object according to its kind — is not this, to some extent, to imitate God in His works ? " That painter only can be truly accomplished who has a knowledge of all the other liberal arts, also of all the other manual trades in the world ; so much so, that 1 some- times think that there is only one art amongst men — that of drawing — from which all other human arts proceed, or of which they form a part. "Examine all that is done in life, and you will see that even unconsciously every one draws, whether it be in the invention of new styles of dress or of building, or in draw- ing plans of vessels and of weapons of war. Drawing embraces everything from writing to the most remote origins of history; it is used for machines, for plans, for building bridges, for the ordering of battles and in strategy ; to make evident the differ- ence between nations by means of their various flags and standards, and to distinguish families by their escutcheons ; so that in looking at all varieties of human work you will find each to consist wholly or in part of drawing." It has been our aim to establish a simplified, practical way of studying drawing, by which we mean the truthful, graphic representation of form, with all its variations of perspective and of foreshortening of life and movement. Our attitude with regard to THE SELF-CORRECTING SYSTEM OF DRAWING. 501 beauty is that we desire to find both absolute beauty, if such exist, and the beauty of fitness and life by means of studying the living forms themselves. This study is difficult, undeniably, but it is so chiefly because it has not been placed on such a basis of science and certainty as are most or all other kindred subjects. Let me say at once, as our excuse, if one be needed, for suggesting yet another method (for I know in what aversion the term is held by many here), that in spite of all that is said and written about the usefulness, the need, the educational value of drawing — amongst the numerous and often opposite systems advocated for the teaching of young children, we have not heard of one fitted to definitely, practically help the full-grown, intelligent student, be he nominally teacher, art student, or, in the good sense, amateur, to study intelligently and so to master the elementary difficulties of this subject. Is it not fitting that, however much of art theory we may indulge in, we should find more satisfactory means of putting art practice in its simplest forms, above alluded to, on a rather better, surer footing ? Would it not be well to begin by doing something for the teacher, and for all those who have neither time nor opportunity to go through the complete courses of study offered in the large educational centers ? The self-correcting system was formulated with this idea in view. It suggests no substitute for study, no royal road, and especially no easy way of learning to draw, though I well know that it is apt to call forth at first sight some amount of prejudice on the part of art teachers. 1 have to ask now, not whether such a method has a right to exist and be recognized, but rather whether there be not, as seems to many, pressing need of such an one, founded on simple scientific fact. I must confine myself to a few words concerning how far the suggestion of a method of this sort is likely to meet with that consideration and absence of prejudice on the part of the distinguished educators here assembled, which may fairly be claimed for it on the several grounds I have already in part enumerated. These are chiefly two : The value of drawing, both educationally and practically, which has come at last to be generally admitted, brings with it the desirability, the need of a method making it feasible for anyone of ordinary intelligence or capacity to master its elements. In the second place, there is in this direction a danger none the less real, to which something practical must be opposed. I allude to photography. Photography is unquestionably one of the greatest of modern inventions, and is absolutely without a rival in the help it lias given to education, to industry, to science, and in certain ways to art. Indeed, it seems impossible to overrate the services rendered by photography in each of these branches, 4sut we must not let gratitude for all these good things blind us to the fact that photography has been, and still is, a stumbling-block in the way of artists and of art-draughtsmen, all the more to be noted that it is so often hidden from view. THE PHILOGEAPHIC METHOD. The full importance of drawing as an essential educational subject being once recog- nized, and the need of such systematizing that it may be taught to one and all admitted, we have aimed, in formulating the philographic method, at establishing a simple, direct, intelligible system of study, equally helpful to the teacher and pupil, who by it becomes to a great extent his own master, thus realizing the sub-title of self-correcting method. This principle of self-teaching, which so distinctly underlies all the precepts and sug- gestion in Leonardo da Vinci's " Treatise on Painting," addressed to young artists, is what we have endeavored to carry out practically, and still more according to the spirit than the letter of the great master's teaching — so to guide the pupil that in the very 502 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. earliest stages not only no time be lost, but that every morsel of time and energy be turned to good effect, and no bad habits of half-seeing and half-doing be contracted. Now from the very title of my subject it will have impressed you that mechanical help is to come in somewhere, and I may as well say at once that we do believe in the intelligent use of simple, mechanical test-instruments suited to the needs of each class or stage of work. Leonardo appears to favor the use of any practical help, mechan- ical or other, in view of learning thoroughly the true perspective of form, including organic or living forms ; gaining the science of " right seeing." which we may take to be the nearest equivalent of the ancient and true meaning of the term perspective as used by the old masters. If such things were allowable in his time, surely it were vain now, in our own days of rapidity and accuracy, of scientific testing, weighing, probing, and studying, to insist tbat in this one difficult and generally proclaimed indispensable branch of work alone no kind of test should be adopted, the use of no outside means permitted for strengthening and quickening the powers of observation and judgment as to pro- portion, form, and space. Whether we like and admit it or not, it is very clear that machinery, in the shape of photography, has been doing its very best during the last fifty years, even in the so-called arts of design, to replace human handiwork— far worse, to supersede the human eye. It is very strange to remark how those people who cry out against anything mechanical in learning to draw, to the extent sometimes of objecting to a pencil being held in the outstretched hand for measuring the general pro- portions of subject or model, do not perceive how frequent a thing it is becoming for the painter, the well-established, full-grown artist, to discredit his own God-given power of sight in favor of the glass eye of the camera. Yet so far is this the case that many of the most modern and fashionable painters of the day, much more glaringly in France than elsewhere, give us in their pictures neither more nor less than the disturbed pre- sentment obtained by what photographers term a " wide-angle " lens, thus completely renouncing their own natural human sight in favor of the distorted production of pho- tography. Such cases are, of course, extreme ; still, anyone who thinks the statement exaggerated should make sure for himself by visiting and carefully examining exhi- bitions held in London. Paris, and doubtless in this country, and there is no question but he will discover some few choice examples of such inhuman perspective. If the pro- fessional artist can be so misled, and is so ready to mislead others, it is not too soon to make mention of this dangerous tendency, and to seek means of opposing it. It has seemed to us upholders of the philographic system that the very simple, elementary suggestion proffered by Leonardo in the work above alluded to might be taken as the basis of an instrument constructed on precisely the same principle as the human eye, that, namely, of obtaining the immediate projection of forms ©n a transparent plane, forming a section of the visual cone, and necessarily at right angles to the axis of that cone, which would give us the help we require. As auxiliary to this, and in conjunction with it, we adopt the principle of that most useful invention of one Dillingen, known in modern times as the pantograph. Add to the above the study of the oblique line or axis, forming the basis of a simple graphic lan- guage or alphabet corresponding to the systems of names and notation used in the study of color tones, numbers, etc., and you have the whole substructure of this method, which I will now explain more in detail. Let us suppose a pupil is possessed of the ordinary amount of intelligence, wishing to learn, but ignorant of any knowledge of drawing whatever — whether the freehand copy or the pretty little view sort, or even, if you wish it, of plane geometry. We count two principal means of acting on this pupil; the first, well expressed by the French word " entrainement," rests on the immense power for good of well-directed repetition (force of habit). Produce from the very beginning true and correct represen- tations of forms by what means soever, you must soon learn to see those forms correctly, THE SELF-CORRECTING SYSTEM OF DRA WING. 503 and your mind will become fitted for learning the theories relating to their appearances, just as by similar practice of repetition and imitation you learn the true pronunciation of a foreign word or the true sound of a note in music. Whether one may become good by doing good actions generally, is a question we do not pretend to answer, but we do affirm that tracing and seeing from the first the real, solid forms before us as they appear when translated on to the transparent plane, is a great help toward being able to draw them on paper. So much for repetition. Next comes self-criticism, called also autogonism, or combat against one's self — putting into useful form the undeniable fact that (all ungenerous and carping criticism apart) we can judge more sanely of the truth and error of a work not our own than of a similar work on which we have expended to the full our own time and energy. To have our own work so presented to us that we can criticise it with the same inci- siveness that we bring to bear on that of another, is, in a word, to act out with a home- directed application the parable of the mote in our neighbor's eye. This is what we are enabled to do by the combination of Leonardo's transparent plane with the pantographic principle discovered by Dillingen, demonstrated by means of an elastic thread and a movable indicator. The simple mechanical appliances of which we recommend the use are the separable parts of the typical philograph, which being simply a register of the human optical instrument, contains neither lens, prism, nor reflector. We use these instruments chiefly as tests of freely done drawings, and because it is not reasonable to expect the hand and eye which did a certain work to have the further accuracy neces- sary for immediately judging and testing that work ; and we maintain that the use of such helps, by enabling the beginner to attack much more difficult subjects than he could do otherwise — namely, the drawing of irregular organic forms, etc. — prevents his being himself a machine, as he is apt to be when tied down to the constant repetition of inorganic geometrical forms which we have seen strongly advocated in the generally approved text-books of " form study." With regard to the oblique line or axis (the basis of that graphic alphabet by which we cultivate the habit of describing to ourself the portrait to be made, before putting down one stroke with brush or chalk), several things must be taken into consideration. Most people are ready to admit, on due reflec- tion, that the oblique line is the line of life and movement. Careful observation will show that all organic movements are founded on the co-relation of angles, or that the move- ments of living bodies may be and are represented by oblique lines (giving the axis of each part), forming angles more or less acute in proportion as the movements are more or less violent. Only where there is no movement, no sign of active life, are there no oblique, but merely vertical or horizontal lines to be noticed. Is not this sufficient reason, when we are bent on drawing forms representing life and action — any forms whatever other than architectural or geometrical — for setting aside the eternal plumb- line and squaring methods, or at least for preferring before them the oblique or diagonal line, otherwise called the axis, and which we find to be the simplest expression of the characteristic direction or movement of every organic body or form ? . . . We think so. Hence comes it that the first of our mechanical aids are made chiefly on the plan of utilizing the transparent vertical plane. From what has been said I assume it is evident that whilst in the case of the beginner practice is intentionally put before and above theory, the general tendency of the method is far more to call forth and develop the individual thought and effort of each worker than to lessen these, although this objection is generally made at the first suggestion of mechanical means. Finally, with regard to the oft-evoked artistic indi- viduality of the student, although, as I venture to remind my hearers, it was of a method intended to help forward the study of drawing as an educational subject that I undertook to speak, I can only ask whether a reasonable study of the perspective, not only of lines and planes but chiefly of organic and living forms, can possibly interfere 504 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. with the artistic, or, better, the poetic and imaginative, faculties of any person on earth ? Is it not rather the one thing which the vast majority of competent critics admit to be most needful in modern art ? In this sense, is not the adoption of some such system worthy the consideration of this august Congress ? GENERAL DISCUSSION. Mr. Anson K. Cross, of the Normal Art School and Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass. : In his industrial work he finds pupils who have drawn in the public schools and high-schools, unable to draw the forms of simple objects. When they can do this, the art schools may teach them art. He quoted Ruskin in regard to the small propor- tion of people who see correctly. He feels that ability to give facts must precede artistic work. He criticised the statement made by Mr. Talbot at a previous session, that drawing from an object is no more drawing than writing with a copy before one is composing. The pupil must learn to spell in art as well as in language. Professor W. M. R. French, of Chicago Art Institute, said that pupils had come to the Art Institute, and after drawing a human figure from the antique, had been unable to put a plinth under it correctly. He has, in consequence, introduced the drawing of objects involving the ordinary principles of perspective. Miss Lucy Silke, of Chicago, favored training in the beautiful at an early age. As pupils use good language without knowing the rules of language, so pupils may uncon- sciously acquire good habits in art from the contemplation of good examples. The children's art is the highest kind of art. Dr. James MacAlister. of the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, said : But one col- lege in this country requires any knowledge or skill in drawing for the bachelor's degree. This is a great thing, that one college of the first rank, Johns Hopkins, requires drawing for its B.A. The appreciation of art is far in advance of the skill in draw- ing. In the London Board Schools the pupils are surrounded with copies of good works. Why should not all schools surround their pupils with casts and pictures, copies of the best ? Any school can import casts duty free. So far as the speaker's experi- ence goes, he considers drawing from the object the only valuable exercise. Tin cans and earthen jars- correctly drawn are subjects for art instruction. A teacher in the Drexel Institute solved the problem of how to get the objects before the members of the class by giving each pupil a group of small models at his desk. Give the pupils all the good masterpieces possible, but require them to draw from objects. Mrs. F. M. Holland, of Boston, said that the pupils in good schools had found great benefit from copying, and even tracing, works of good masters. Mrs. Hicks, of Boston, said that it is rumored that young men who enter Harvard are said to be deficient in writing English. It is said that their deficiency is because of a lack of reading. We are trying to get the pupil to become familiar with art even as he should be familiar with good reading. Football and kindred exercises may have kept him from English. Perhaps, sometime, nothing will keep him from either. In relation to light and shade, she thought that young children can hardly see light and shade for themselves. If uniform renderings result from work, pupils are taking the impressions of some one else. She would not begin light and shade until the pupils are about twelve years old, unless they can be removed from the vicinity and influence of their mates. Mr. Goodenough, of Brooklyn, N. Y. , believes in light and shade, and that it should be put in as far down as possible. Mr. Brown, of Indianapolis, said that pupils can see shadow if the light is allowed to enter at one side of the room. A child cannot learn to draw as he learns to write or to spell. His drawing must be the expression of his spirit. Even though the ellipses are imperfect and the lines do not converge perfectly, the drawings are glorified and finished. SHOULD PUPILS DRAW FROM THE FLAT? 505 Miss Selleck, of Indianapolis, said that in many meetings we have looked for method. We ought to depart with a feeling of joy that at last we are searching for principles. Mrs Hicks said that in order to help the children glorify their drawings we must give them the medium which will produce the most refinement. Miss Pascal, of Iowa, questioned the possibility of good light and shade before correct outline has been attained. Mrs. Fuller, of Washington, gave the results of an experiment with light and shade below the high-school. First and second grade pupils did not see light and shade. Third and fourth grade pupils were delighted with it. From there up they seemed inspired by the opportunity to use light and shade. Their perspective was greatly improved by the work in light and shade. SHOULD PUPILS DRAW FROM THE FLAT? BY HELEN BONDY, A GRADUATED TEACHER, VIENNA, AUSTRIA. In drawing, two stages of teaching must be distinguished ; the first must be devoted entirely to the acquiring of sufficient skill in the drawing of straight and curved lines in all situations, and to attain a just eye for measures and distances on the flat. This purpose is best served by copying of flat ornaments either in the same or in other given proportions. But this drawing from the flat must be strictly limited to these exercises, and ought not to be extended to the copying of flowers, trees, and human figures from the flat. When the pupil is able to copy a somewhat complicated ornament with the least possible use of his india-rubber, in an exact outline which may be sometimes drawn out in china-ink, he is sufficiently prepared to be promoted from the drawing from the flat to that from models. This transition from the flat to the corporeal objects in space must be prepared for by practical hints on the most important laws of perspective. In our Austrian schools the first objects drawn from nature are revolv- ing models of thick iron wire, representing the straight line and various straight-lined figures that can be set up in different angles to the observer, and which afford opportunity to explain how the same line or figure can pre- sent different effects to the eye by the slightest change of position. Follow- ing, later on, are large wooden cubes, prisms, pyramids, etc., taken singly and in groups, which suggest to the children's observation not only the changes in outline an object suffers by the laws of perspective, but also the different degrees of light and shade, shadows projected and reflected light. It is easy to proceed from these geometrical models to the drawing of sim- pler pieces of furniture, as a chest, a table, a chair, an open door (the last giving a particularly valuable piece of instruction ) ; or to the copying from plaster casts of architectural and ornamental details, as well as of parts of the human body. It is most desirable that public schools should awaken in young minds 506 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. artistic feeling. But it is only in secondary education that works of art should be introduced into the schoolroom. For, with the rare exceptions of prominent talent, it is only after the fourteenth or fifteenth year that young people are mature enough really to appreciate such works. Yet in elementary education the foundation can be laid successfully for the understanding and enjoying of art in later years, when we adhere to the following principles : Any picture or model that is brought before the pupils in ohject-lessons should not only serve to enlarge material knowledge, but should be agreeable to the eye by its harmony of form ; and sometimes, when the scientific part of the object is talked over, the teacher should not neglect to direct the attention of the children to cer- tain beauties in outline, color, and grouping. Of course such remarks must not become monotonous and pedantic. But it is not necessary to specialize the manner in which such occasional remarks should be made ; the practical teacher will know how to proceed. When engraved or colored landscapes, the showing of which should always be an integral part of geographical lessons, are brought forth, or pictures representing important historical events, they ought not only to be utilized for the culture of reason, but for the nurturing of artistic feeling. A teacher who himself has taste for beauty in nature will neglect no fit opportunity to point out the beauties of outward appearance, too, in animals, plants, and minerals. In all these cases, also, the opinions of the children should be drawn forth by fitting questions from time to time. When minds have been thus prepared in earlier childhood, we can intro- duce at the secondary stage of education reproductions of works of art — that is, photographs and engravings from pictures and sculptures. This should be done in the form of a history of art that can easily be connected with universal history. When the teacher attains in his courses the close of a historical period, a characterizing outline of the contemporary movement in art should follow, illustrated by the above-mentioned copies of masterpieces. This survey of the evolution of art can, of course, be rendered the more interesting in larger cities, where galleries and museums are easily accessible. By following such a course we may hope to approximate at least our ideal aim in this branch of education : the awakening of taste and of the appreciation of the beautiful that has so large a share in human happiness. DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF INSTRUCTION IN VOCAL MUSIC. SECRETARY'S REPORT. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday, July 26, 1893. The Congress of Instruction in Vocal Music, held in Hall 31, Art Palace, was called to order at 9:30 a.m., Wednesday, July 26, by the Chairman, Professor F. W. Root, of Chicago. After a few introductory remarks by the Chairman, a paper was read by Mr. Charles H. Greene, of Peoria, 111., on "Learning to read Musical Notation." This subject was discussed by Mr. Blackman and W. E. Watt, of Chicago ; N. L. Glover, Akron, O. ; Mrs. Liska Brachvogel, of Nashville, Tenn. ; Mrs. J. S. Din- woodie, Dulnth, Minn. The subject, "Harmony in Music," was discussed by E. H. Norse, Mr. Blackman, and Mrs. Rose Gleason, of Chicago ; Mrs. Love, Muncie, Ind. ; Mrs. Rice, of California ; J. L. Barron, Ontario, Canada; Mr. Greene and Miss Hofer, of Illinois. 3. What music is especially adapted to children from five to ten, and what from ten to fifteen years ? 4. The feasibility of forming a library of pieces of music of permanent value for the different ages of youth — say, for example, selections from such composers as Nageli for pupils from five to ten years, and from such as Mendelssohn for pupils from eleven to fifteen years. The subjects of the above theses were discussed by Mr. Blackman, Mr. Watt, and Mrs. Roper, of Chicago ; Mr. Mueller, Spokane Falls, Wash. 5. The danger of confining the course of study in music for a too long period to read- ing and singing mere mechanical exercises devoid of artistic merit and empty of all thought and feeling. This subject was discussed by W. A. McAndrews, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Mr. Grigg, Den- ver, Colo. ; Mr. Watt and Miss Hofer, of Chicago ; Mr. Glover, of Ohio ; Mr. Lawrence. SECOND SESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893. The Congress of Instruction in Vocal Music was called to order by the Chairman at 10 o'clock a.m., Thursday. The first paper of this session was read by Mr. John Howard, of New York, on "The Physiology and Hygiene of the Vocal Organs." The discussion following this paper was participated in by Mr. Watt and Mr. Norse, of Chicago ; Mr Glover, of Ohio : Mr. Howard, of New York ; and Mr. Holt, of Hoston. The discussion was continued on "the vocal teacher's use of some instrument, as the piano or violin ; and also of classical music." 508 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION Remarks were made by Mr. Marshall, of Newark, 0. ; Mr Root, Mr. Cady, Mrs. Roper, and Mr. Lawrence, of Chicago ; Mr. Holt, of Boston; and Mr. J. H. Kappes. The session adjourned by singing, ' ' Blest be the tie. " THIRD SESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893. The third session of the Congress of Instruction iu Vocal Music was called to order by the Chairman at 9.30 a.m., Friday. The first paper was read by J. E. Lightuer, of Sharpsburg, Pa., on " The Respective Functions of the Regular Class Teacher and the Special Teacher of Vocal Music." The discussion following this paper was participated in by Mr. Kappes, Mrs. J. P. Rice, of California ; Mr. N. Coe Stewart ; Mr. De Coate, of St. Louis ; Miss Hofer and George F. Root, of Chicago ; United States Commissioner Harris ; H. E. Holt, of Boston ; Mr. Grigg, of Denver ; S. W. Straub. The discussion was suspended, and the following resolutions were presented : Resolved, That this Department of Instruction in Vocal Music heartily indorse the appointing of a committee, to be composed of one from each State and Territory, to take measures to influence the several State legislatures to take such action as will place the study of music in the curriculum of required branches of study in all schools of the State, and that we earnestly cooperate in efforts to this end. The resolution was adopted, after which the Congress adjourned to meet at 2.30 p. m. FOURTH SESSION— Friday, p.m., July 28, 1893. The fourth session of the Congress of Instruction in Vocal Music was called to order by N. Coe Stewart, he having been invited by the regular chairman to preside at this session. " The Systems of Musical Notation " was the principal subject of discussion during the fourth session. The following persons took part in the discussion : E. W. Norse, Mr. Montz, and Mr. Watt, of Chicago ; Mr. Glover, of Ohio ; Mr. Holt, of Boston ; Mr. Barron, of Canada. The subject of excusing pupils from singing was also considered by Mr. Howard, of New York ; H. H. Johnson, of Mansfield, 0., and Mr. Lightner, of Pennsylvania. The discussion of this session was closed by remarks of Regina M. Carlin, Supervisor of Music in Public Schools, St. Louis. • LIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF INSTRUCTION IN VOCAL MUSIC. AUSTRIA. PRANCE. Dr. H. Von Billing, Vice-President Conservatory of Monsieur S. Guilhot, Orphelinat Prevost, Cempuis, Music. Seine-Oise. Prof. Edward Hanslick, University of Vienna. Monsieur A. Panraux, Inspector of Singing, Paris. Herr Jos. Heluiesberger, Director of Court Orches- tra, Vienna GERMANY. Herr Anton Sruka, Secretary Conservatory of Music in Prague. Prof. Waldemar Bargiel, Director Section of Com- position, Conservatory of Music, Berlin. CANADA Prof. Max Bruch, Composer and Director of Music, Berlin. Edward Fisher, Toronto. - Prof. A. Schulze, Director of Singing, Conservatory W. G. Workman, Music Teacher, Ottawa Normal of Music, Berlin. School, Ottawa, Ontario. Prof. Dr. Spitta, Privy Councilor, Berlin. LIST OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS. 509 GREAT BRITAIN. ENGLAND. John Evans, Instructor in Singing, London School Board, London. UNITED STATES. ARKANSAS. Mrs. L. Heei wagen, Little Rock. CONNECTICUT. B. Jepson, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, New Haven. DELAWARE. C. B. Rhoades, Wilmington. FLORIDA. Mrs. Ankie Green Parker, Ocala. GEORGIA. B. C. Davis, Musical Director, Public Schools, Atlanta. ILLINOIS. Albert R. Sabin, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Chicago. IOWA. J. W. Ruggles, Fayette. KANSAS. George C. Young, Wichita. MAINE. Henry F. Roy, Lewiston. MASSACHUSETTS. Junius W. Hill. Director Wellesley College School of Music, Wellesley. Hosea E. Holt, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, Boston. J. B. Kimball, President Musical Association, Oxford. MICHIGAN. A. A. Stanley, Ann Arbor. Mrs. E. A. Thomas, Detroit. MINNESOTA. O. E. McFadon, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, Minneapolis. MISSOURI. Mrs. Regina M. Carlin, St. Louis. NEW HAMPSHIRE. E. T. Baldwin, Manchester. NEW JERSEY. T. L. Roberts, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, Jersey City. NEW YORK. Edward Dickinson, A.M.. Director of Music De- partment, Elmira College, Elmira. Mrs. L.M. Henriques, Professor of Music and Vocal Culture. New York. Sigismund Lasar, Professor of Music, Baker Col- lege Institute, Brooklyn. OHIO. W. H. Lott, Supervisor of Music, Public School, Columbus. OREGON. E. Cook, Poi Hand. PENNSYLVANIA. Charles W. Leander, Music Publisher, Philadel- phia. Theodore Presser, Secretary Music Teachers' National Association, Philadelphia. E. E Rinehart, Supervisor of Music, Pittsburg. TENNESSEE. J. E. Bailey, Supervisor of Music, Nashville. WASHINGTON. F. Mueller, Spokane Falls. WEST VIRGINIA. Miss Lillie E. Church, Parkereburg. INSTRUCTION IN VOCAL MUSIC. OPENING REMARKS BY THE CHAIRMAN, PEOFESSOE F. W. BOOT, OF CHICAGO. Although not directly in this line of work, I am greatly in sympathy with school-music teaching, believing, as I do, that this department is the most potent of all in making ours a musical nation ; and believing, more- over, that the school-music teachers are availing themselves of the best thought of our time to improve their methods and do their important work conscientiously and effectively. School-music work is not as conspicuously honored as it deserves. The finishing teachers often get credit for results which have been made pos- sible only by the long-continued, patient, systematic work during the pupils' formative years at school. School-music teachers do for musical authors what parents and home influences do for character — the most im- portant because fundamental part. And so, although some of us musicians have no direct contact with this department of work, we must be blind indeed if we do not appreciate how dependent we are upon it, and what a debt of gratitude we owe to you who are working effectively in that field. LEARNING TO READ MUSICAL NOTATION BY CHABLES H. GBEENE, PEOBIA, ILL. " In what grades should children commence learning to read musical notation ? " Upon entering a primary schoolroom at the beginning of the school year, 1 feel it my duty to be able to determine almost instantly the capac- ity of the teacher to govern her class, and to determine as quickly how I can do my work so that the room will, when I leave it, be in a better condition than when I entered it. What is a good lesson in one room may be a very poor lesson in the room across the hall ; and experienced teachers will tell you that classes vary a great deal from year to year. Three years ago I found a class in a district where the best work or the best talent could not be expected, yet they did very good work. The intelligent lady teacher seemed sur- prised^ their progress. The next year all was changed. The class, to put it mildly, was very stupid, as far as singing was concerned. LEARNING TO READ MUSICAL NOTATION. 511 And now we come to consider the question, '• In what grades should children commence to learn to read musical notation ?" I wish to say here that children can learn to read music, and not see any notes or other signs used by musicians. I will imagine that I have taught my class to sing three musical sounds. I have taught them to distinguish between a musical sound and a noise, and now I need some signs to represent musical souls, and I take what is nearest to me. The desk represents " one," the book " two," and the chair "three." I have taught them that the names of the tones are taken from the names of numbers, one, two, three ; and I say, You may sing as I point, and the lesson is, One, one, two, two, three, three, two, two, three, three, two, two, one, one, one, one. Any other signs near us will do as well at this time. Now we will go back to the class, the first week in September ; I found the teacher very much discouraged. She had enjoyed the singing of the previous class, but to her mind the outlook was gloomy for the class before us. I sang a tone many times with the syllable " la," at a convenient pitch for the children to sing. At first they paid but little attention. I varied my lesson by singing other syllables, all to the same pitch, and also intoning familiar words. I saw that I was gaining ground ; nearly every child in the room was looking at me, and I asked them to sing " la " with me. Only a few sang, but I kept at work on this line for fif- teen minutes, and gave up the fight for a week. I was tired, but not discouraged. The next week I commenced where we left off, and at the close of the lesson a majority of the children could sing a lesson with two tones and eight measures. I followed up the work from week to week until the class could sing some good songs by rote — for I believe in teaching some songs by rote in the first (lowest) grade — could sing the scale quite well, and could sing many exercises from the blackboard, in good time, with- out the teacher pointing. Now my point is, by commencing from the first lesson to teach notation I awakened more thought and interest and secured closer attention than I could have done by trying to teach them songs by rote, or trying to teach them the entire scale before anything else was done. If this is true of children with but little talent, how much pleasure and profit will come to those with more talent ! My experience tells me that notation can be and should be commenced very early with the youngest children. Unless notation is commenced in the first and second grades, many children will never learn to read music. Often at this early age some children have developed such a distinctive talent for music that it has shaped and colored their whole lives. How much time would I take for notation from a lesson of fifteen minutes long? Perhaps three or four minutes, and it maybe possible that the whole lesson can profitably be given up to the teaching of notation, and the next lesson given up to the teaching of songs by rote. Special teachers 512 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. should have good judgment, and use it continually ; no wise teacher will continue a lesson the moment children show signs of fatigue. The work can be made so pleasant to the children and to the teachers in the different rooms that " singing day" will be looked forward to with great delight. DISCUSSION. Principal W. E. Watt, of Chicago : Singing by means of notation should be put off to the third year. At first, begin with rote singing, to instill songs of home, love, friendship, and patriotism into the minds and hearts of the children. The teaching of these songs should not, as a rule, be left to the regular teacher, for many of these do not know how to teach them in the proper manner; the special teacher should teach all rote songs in an artistic manner. If many leave school before they enter the higher grades, they will carry away much more that will be of real value to them by learning beautiful songs, having words of good sentiment, than any ability they may gain in music reading. Mr. Blackman, of Chicago : The teaching which leads to music reading should begin with the first lesson. For instance, if the teacher should make regular motions with the hand, the children imitating, she would be teaching them to compute time. Couple with this the singing of two or three tones of the scale, while the children are led to unite these tones to such words as they can appreciate, and the work of education in music teaching is begun. Children should be taught rote songs also, and I hope the United States Commission of Education will secure a classified list of suitable rote songs for the use of the schools of our country. Mr. N. L. Glover, of Akron. Ohio : I am surprised that there should be any diver- sity of opinion on the time of beginning to read music. Rote songs should be continued through all the primary grades, provided the example given by the teacher is worthy of imitation ; but music reading should commence at first and should be continued until the pupil is able to sing new music from the notation without any aid. The gentleman who read the paper had trouble in teaching a tone of one given pitch, at first, to some beginners, while others learned it more readily. Some could imitate better than others. My experience has been that pupils can imitate more easily when several tones of the scale are used in short musical phrases than when only one tone at a time is used. Mrs. J. S. Dinwoodie, of Duluth, Minnesota: I advise dwelling upon the scale about three weeks, then taking up such notation as is necessary to represent what has been learned. Harmony. Miss Liska Beachvogel, of Nashville, Tennessee : I think the feeling of time should come first. Mb. E. H. Norse, of Chicago : In what grades should pupils be required to take up part singing ? I think they should be taught to sing chords as early as the third year. Let the pupil hear these beautiful combinations of tones. They will take great delight in this kind of work. It will train their ears, and they will be able to produce a tone of better quality. When they can sing chords, let them reach out, a little at a time, in two-part singing, and they will gradually grow into part singing. Mrs. Love, of Muncie, Indiana : I advise that harmony should be commenced the first year. The time will come when vocal harmony will be taught from the start. Mrs. Rice, of Los Angeles, California : I think the study of harmony should begin the first year. We do it on the Pacific Coast, but it may be the children there are brighter than others. Mr. Blackman : The intervals of the scale should be thoroughly fixed before har- mony is begun, and a good tone should be first formed, or the harmony produced would be discord. 1 think the fifth grade is soon enough for two-part singing. DISCUSSION. 513 Miss Rose Gleason, of Chicago : Teachers should sing one part while the children sing another, even in the first grade. Mr. J. L. Barron, of Ontario, Canada : I think as alto is not so tuneful, children do not like to sing that part. What can we do to make them like to sing alto ? Parents always object to having their children sing alto. What can we do ? Mr. Greene : I have the same difficulty, and it even extends into the high-school. Only a small number can be persuaded to sing alto, while many should sing that part who insist on singing soprano. Mrs. Love : The difficulty might be obviated with the younger children by not call- ing it alto, but have the school sing in divisions alternately, thus giving all an oppor- tunity to sing a lower as well as a higher part. Miss Rice : Are we trying to make alto and soprano singers or independent singers ? (Many voices : ' ' Independent singers.") Miss Hofer : Every part is a melody if the music is properly made. Only such a class of music should be taught. [The following topics were discussed together.] " What music is adapted to children from five to ten, and what from ten to fifteen years f" and " The feasibility of forming a library of pieces of music of perma- nent value for the different ages of youth, as the songs of Ndgeli for pupils from five to ten, and Mendelssohn for pupils from ten to fifteen years.'1 Mr. Blackman : The Commissioner of Education would like to have a list of songs incorporated in his report, which should be taught in the different grades of public schools, and we should take steps to aid in this matter. Mrs. Roper, of Chicago : I think the folk-songs of the nation, as well as patriotic songs, should be included in the list ; indeed, even the native wild melodies of the different nations should be collected for this purpose. Mr. Watt : 1 wish to protest against the songs of Nageli for children from five to ten years, and Mendelssohn for pupils from ten to fifteen years, and so would these composers if they were present to-day. Both of these masters have written songs suit- able for all ages. I would not rule out Mendelssohn's songs for the very young, and Nageli's for the older, but use the songs of both which are suitable to the age of the child. Mr. Mueller, of Spokane Palls, Wash. : Only a few of the songs of these authors are suitable for the young singer. I found that Carl Keinecke was the most prolific song-writer for the young. His songs are tuneful. Children love them. They are of a high order and contain much artistic merit, and are nearly as easy to learn as much so-called music which is worthless to the pupil when learned. Many of Liszt's tran- scriptions are the folk-songs of different nations, treated in a masterly way ; and this accounts largely for their popularity. Music may be very simple, yet contain many elements of artistic value. Concerning the folk-songs of our own nation, some one has said that " America's only folk-songs are the songs of the colored people." " The danger of confining the course of study too long to singing mechanical exercises devoid of artistic merit and empty of all thought and feeling." Mb. W. A. McAndrews. of Brooklyn, N. Y. : Too much notation, in my case, has led me to form a dislike for music, and it took four or five years' association with musicians to bring me back. We must reach the high-school pupils by singing music that will amuse the pupils, even humorous songs, and give them such music as they shall delight in, as college songs, in order to get them interested, and then we can " slip in " some of the better class of songs when we have them in the proper condition to receive them. We must reach them through the aesthetic side rather than from the intellectual side, if we would do them good. We must do more singing and less mechanical, dry study. If possible, a good solo singer or two should be introduced occa- 33 514 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION sionally, a person as near as possible to the age of the high-school pupils, who shall sing for them. This example will help to create a desire for singing which will make the work easier for the teacher and more fruitful to the learner. Mb. Grigg, Denver, Colorado : 1 supposed music was an intellectual exercise as well, and thought it should not be employed merely to amuse ; that if this method had to be employed to interest the older pupils, there was something radically wrong in their ear- lier teaching, or they had had none at all. In order to learn to sing from notation, there must be mental work, and that of a vigorous kind, for it requires sharp, quick, active thinking to make an expert singer, or even an average reader of music. There is of necessity some rather dry, laborious work to be done, and it must be done, or failure is the result. Children have to learn the multiplication table and think it dry and distasteful, but later on they see its use ; so it is in learning to read music. We must teach the mechanical along with the aesthetic, but not let the former take the place of the latter and thus deaden the love of music. Miss Hofer, of Chicago : We must begin where it pleases the child and work from this point. We must lay our theories aside if we see that they are a hindrance to the proper development of the musical feelings of the child. Mr. Watt : No mechanical exercises devoid of artistic merit, empty of all thought and feeling, should be used at all ; and only artistic exercises should be used from the beginning. Mr. Glover : There is too little importance given in the child's music to popular songs of a permanent character. Too little attention has been paid especially to the proper teaching of patriotic songs and the words that go along with them. No other nation is so slack in this matter as ours. I am glad that of iate there is more of this teaching of patriotic songs being done, and 1 encourage the teachers to see that it is kept up. It has been said that on a steamer crossing the Atlantic there were several nations represented, and the representatives of each nation one evening engaged in singing their respective national airs, and when our nation's turn came not a single American could remember all the words of " America," " Star-spangled Banner," or any other national air. I now ask all in the room to rise who can remember all the verses of " Star-spangled Banner." [Three persons only arose.] Mr. Lawrence : Americans are not equal to foreigners in the matter of words, nor in music either. The tune belongs to the words ; words are characteristically national, music not so much so. Lyric loses its beauty by translation, and cannot be translated. Music preserves its peculiar characteristic when adapted to words of another language. We sing " My Country, 'tis of Thee," in our tune " America " ; the English sing " God save the Queen " to the same tune. American songs should be made which are truly American. All songs worth learning at all should be committed to memory so that no books are needed when singing. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. BY JOHN HOWARD, OF NEW YOEK. The voice-teacher's knowledge of the physiology and hygiene of the vocal organs. The degree of strain the vocal cords can endure without injury, at the periods of growth from five years to fifteen years. Cektainly the more of vocal physiology the teacher knows, the better is he qualified to teach, even though his knowledge is confined to that furnished by the ordinary text-books used in the public school. He would be less likely to commit many more current errors, harmless enough in themselves, but ruinous when solidified into exercises to be given to the implicitly obedient pupil. Were there known and established laws even for the positions of the vocal PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 515 parts, an immense advantage would be gained. These principal parts are easily enumerated. But even in this comparatively easy matter there is extreme disagreement. Nearly all teachers advise a widely opened mouth. But was Scalchi taught to protrude the lower jaw ? HaydenTilla grandly proclaims that the secret of singing is to protrude the upper jaw — an ex- periment I hope no friend of mine will succeed in performing. Nearly all maestri advocate a smiling position of the lips ; jet Weiss, a better authority than the average, wrote a little brochure antedating his larger work, and declared that the secret of tone lay in the pressure of the lower lip against the teeth. Many teachers spread the corners of the mouth for ee and e (met) ; others do not. A great many, like Chater in England, say that the vocal tube must be shortened for higher notes and lengthened for lower ones, by the rising and falling of the larynx ; closing his eyes to the fact that single diatonic intervals on the flute shorten or lengthen its tube about an inch, while the whole possible movement of the larynx is, according to Meskel, only an inch and a half. Of course, there are other views ; one of a fixed, immovable larynx, which I myself advise, because there is only one hard spot on the front of the spine, and at its natural position the larynx is really opposite this spot, from contact with which it gains resonance. Dr. Wyllie, of Edinburgh, a careful student, produced tones at the same degrees of pitch whether he applied his weights to the front of the hyoid bone, or to the front of the larynx itself ; and, in further illustration, it has long been suspected by some physiologists that the muscles which take the place of Wyllie's weights and pull down on these parts are essential agents in stretching the vocal cords for both higher and more powerful tones. This experiment suggests the fact that vocal physiology treats not only of the true positions of the vocal parts mentioned, but also of the efforts of the muscles which can pull upon these parts, and also of those muscles which themselves constitute the parts — as, for instance, the muscles which form the major part of the vocal cords themselves, or of the tongue itself. Positions easy, efforts difficult. Were vocal physiology simply a ques- tion of positions, how simple the subject would be, comparatively! Yet even on this question there seem to exist irreconcilable differences of opin- ion. Nearly all amicably agree that the mouth should be widely opened ; yet how opened ? All this is strictly appropriate for the discussion of the voice-teacher's knowledge of vocal physiology. The question concerns his qualifications, and surely implies a request for advice as to his best chances to qualify himself. It seems that there is little agreement even as to positions, and nearly all this agreement appears to me to be misleading. Perhaps there is a nearer approach to unanimity in the two following points ; the one, that the throat must be open ; the other, that it must be relaxed. 516 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. To speak in the first person, as now seems necessary, I appear to have proved to myself that these two opinions are diametrically opposed to the truth. All phonation, all vocal production, seems to me to be a refined evolution of that constriction in closing effort which is the function of the alimentary canal in the lower orders of animals ; while the advice to relax I supplant by the instruction to make positively the effort of contraction ; and it may be added that, with the exception of the tongue muscles (those constituting the tongue itself) and of one other muscle, the stronger the efforts the more beautiful the tones, both soft and loud. Now the query naturally arises : If I, for one, have studied faithfully nearly all methods in recent or earlier vogue, and have arrived at such dif- ferent conclusions, how can I best advise the teacher to qualify himself physiologically to study and experiment with any chance of success ? My counsel would be to learn by dissection — for the clearest diagrams are misleading — the actual shape, substance, and relative position of the vocal parts, just as the physician or laryngologist does. Next, the teacher should study the standard physiologies, especially the German, Houle and Luschka, both of whom describe the anatomy of the vocal parts and append the single office or probable office of each separate muscle. He should not confine himself to the muscles of the larynx itself, but give especial attention to all those which extend from the larynx and its inseparable companion, the hyoid bone (just above the larynx), to other parts. He should see how these extrinsic muscles pull upon the Adam's apple directly or indirectly; should learn how different combinations of these muscles pull ; what effect they have upon the consistency of the different parts of the throat, and in what ways they conflict with each other. Then should come the application : Since these muscles are all of them voluntary, the teacher should get each one under separate, voluntary con- trol, so that he could contract one at a time or put two together at the instant of starting the voice. The different effects produced, the changes of quality or power, would suggest further and more valuable combina- tions, new and easier modes of gaining this separate muscle government, and soon really valuable exercises might be evolved. There is absolutely no other mode of investigation upon which full reliance can be placed. So greatly do the muscular habits of throat vary with different vocalists, that there cannot possibly be any little knacks of universal application. There is the vocal function, possessed by every one. There is the beautiful tone of artistic singing, which is an enlarge- ment of the natural function, and is possessed, practically, by no one. This enlargement of tone, extension of compass, and unnaturally beauti- ful quality are the result of additional muscular efforts made by the large extrinsic muscles of the throat, nearly all of which may be either felt or seen — such as the palate muscles, those of the tongue, cheek, lips, and even of the lower throat. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 517 The department of acoustics also needs attention. Suppose the muscu- lar efforts are at ready command, of what use can it be unless it is known or at least suspected to what acoustic law a vocal gain is due ? In acous- tic respects, all the later writers have run riot. Chater^s absurd compari- son of the throat to a wind instrument, like the flute, is only equalled by Myers' theory of vocal reinforcement, by Lunn's reckless assertion that the little tiny ventricles compress or press back the stream of vocal breath issuing from between the vocal cords, and thus decide the tone. As well might one expect to compress the air in a foot-ball when half its circum- ference had been blown away. There is. in this statement no twilight suspicion of professional jealousy. I have experimented with Koenig's resonators, imported from Paris. The very smallest of them, the one which is pitched to reinforce the very highest audible overtone of the human voice, is a hundred times as large as the largest existing ventricle in men. As for advice concerning the recent works on voice — I mean the spe- cial ones, written usually by voice-teachers — I am reminded of Beecher's famous specific for a cold : " Put together a little camphor, chlorate of potash, turpentine, alum, and aconite ; shake the mixture thoroughly, then open the window, throw glass and all as far as you can ; go to bed and keep your feet warm ! " I am not at all sure, though, that such fiercely antagonistic and monstrous views as these later works exhibit may not lead the teacher to more independence of his own. Such discrepan- cies might save him from the warping influence of supposed authority, since there is no universal authority, and might therefore allow original thoughts of ultimate value to arise in freedom. For a most valuable instance of the worth of even the ordinary text- books, let me mention that nearly all the standard works declare, unmis- takably, that soft tones require more muscular effort than loud ones. Try for yourself ; notice at home how strongly you will be tempted to scowl a little when you endeavor to soften a high note to an artistic finish, as Patti does so exquisitely. Though somewhat hoarse from a vanishing cold, and, of course, somewhat unsettled by so much talking, I will try to illustrate. Parenthetically let me remark that the singer should never talk just before singing. He should give himself time to establish anew that impostor, as Marcini called it ; that setting of the throat in ringing rigidity which must displace the looser state even of public addresses. The question regarding the endurance of the vocal cords is easily answered. It is practically unlimited. Children shout, scream, and laugh an entire afternoon with no vocal distress, though the cords are In constant and even violent action. The opinion prevails that there is possible some injurious friction of the cords which can irritate them and eventually engender disease. On the decided contrary, they may actually be rubbed against each other for hours without harm. Kanlitz, 518 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. of the German Opera, probably the best mime dwarf who appeared in Siegfried, practised the day through a crackling sound which really was made by the mutual friction of the vocal cords. Dr. Clarence E. Rice, one of our most expert laryngologists, examined my own vocal cords while I produced this sound. He said that the oxyhydrogen gas. which we employed, made the cords as distinct as though he held them in his hand close to his eyes, and that they were distinctly seen to l'ub against each other to cause the grating sound. The singing voice is not possible until this rubbing together is stopped and the cords are allowed to swing freely. The sudden coughing which often follows harsh or unnatural singing is due to the friction of the back of the larynx upon the muscle which separates it from the spine, not to the cords, unless they are in a state of actual disease. Let me close by describing a most wonderful experiment, made by Harless, more than sixty years ago. At midnight, this time being chosen to avoid disturbing noises, with two trained assistants, and employing machinery of his own invention, far more complicated than a sewing-machine, with mpst ingenious devices to mark the slightest changes of temperature and smallest divisions of weight, he first stretched freshly exsected vocal cords till they were torn asunder, thus learning how far he could safely try them. Then, by gradually increasing the weights in the exactly graduated scale, he noted down the exact added weight which would produce the ascending notes of a scale of one octave and a half ; now taking a fresh specimen and stopping just short of rupture. After one hour and a half of constant strain in various severe experiments, he repeated, with the very same speci- men, his first experiment, with the amazing result of finding that pre- cisely the same weights brought precisely the same tones, with one trifling exception, which he thought must be charged to the awkwardness of his assistants. Now, it is impossible to strain any muscle, during its contraction, anywhere near any danger of being torn asunder. Long before that point has arrived, the utmost lengthening possible will have been reached. This is a strict answer to the mooted question. If one asks how long can a muscle be contracted without injury, he asks an entirely different ques- tion. The vocal muscles will become tired like all others, and it is true that exceptional use will make them painful and temporarily weaken them. But no case has yet come to my notice where a few days' rest, or, in extreme cases, a fortnight, has not fully restored their natural force. DISCUSSION. 519 DISCUSSION. The qualifications of a teacher of vocal music. Me. Watt : Nearly all well-trained voices use a soft, pleasant voice in speaking. Mr. Glover : In taking breath to produce a tone, where does the expansion begin ? Mr. Howard : The expansion to produce a tone begins at the fourth rib ; at least the sensation is at this point. Nearly all great singers breathe in this way, but there are a few exceptions, and these persons sing very well. President Root : I think a little knowledge is a dangerous thing on this point. If you do not. know thoroughly how to answer, do not answer. It doesn't make so much dif- ference how you take breath, but how to manage it when you have taken it is the serious question. Go slowly on any new theory you may come across ; you may be mistaken and then do harm. In regard to the position of the larynx, which Mr. Glover asked about, I would say that there is a certain place where it gives more resonance to the voice. Its position would depend on whether you wished the orotund voice or the thin, sentimental voice. Hold the larynx nearly at one point if you wish ease without much shading ; move it for color of tone. Mr. Howard : There is great power in a fixed larynx, and it should be, in all singing, almost fixed ; but I have heard very beautiful tones made by a movable larynx. Mr. Watt : The larynx is attached to the spinal column, but merely tilted in front, and we have the privilege of letting it play a little. Mr. Norse : I would like to know what we can say to the boys and girls next September. Mr. H. E. Holt, of Boston : I would not talk to them about these things. How much study of the eye do the painters give in order to paint ? These are interesting points for us to study as teachers, but if the pupil's attention is directed to these things he is made self-conscious, and his mind is directed to the mechanical process. He should think of the music ; the voice is but the natural way of expressing the musical feelings of the soul. In teaching children, if perfect intonation is secured nine-tenths of the work is done, so far as using the voice properly is concerned. No rote singing should be done. More interest is awakened by teaching the intervals of the scale and naming them, and thus training the mind to think. Mr. Glover : There should be no strain of the vocal cords, and as little tension as possible. A good example should be given, and nothing should be said about the throat and its anatomy. If you talk about the anatomy of the throat, you confuse the pupils as well as yourself. The vocal teacher's use of some instrument, as the piano or violin ; also of classical music. Mr. Marshall, of Newark, Ohio : 1 should not use an instrument to lead in teach- ing. It is an advantage to have a piano or organ to give the correct example in teaching chromatic tones, and in illustrating certain harmonious progressions. Mr. Root : There is much diversity of opinion as to what constitutes classic music ; each one will have to speak according to his notion of the term. Mrs. Roper : Classic music is the music which has stood the best test of the artists and musicians. It may be very simple, as " Heavenly Father," by Beethoven. Mr. Lawrence : The element of time must enter before music can be called classic. No modern music can be truly called classic, although it may become so if it endures long enough. The teacher should use as much of this kind of music as is easy enough for the children to appreciate, and such as the children like. 520 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Mr. Holt : In our discussion we are soaring above the more practical things in teach- ing. Music must be put on such a basis that the everyday teacher can do the work, and she does not have the time to study music in its higher forms. We must understand the universal law of teaching music. When we shall truly observe these laws, there will be far more progress than there is now. Mr. J. H. Kappes : To be a successful teacher you must feel it. There is too much talk about the different systems. If you do not feel what you teach, these systems will be of no use to you. While a boy I was in company with Mendelssohn and other musi- cians. Mendelssohn said there was a good deal of nonsense in the five-finger exercises and meaningless eludes then in vogue. Why not use the music of Mozart. Hink, and good old Father Haydn ? In regard to what classic music is, Mendelssohn said it was the kind that the more you heard it, the better you liked it ; and the kind that was not classic was the kind that the less you hear it, the better you liked it. Mendelssohn and Silcher wrote the folk-songs for the masses. They were not conscious that they were writing classic music at the time, but they felt what they were writing. Be an enthusiast in your work if you would succeed. The primary teacher should not be satisfied with a little knowledge of her subject. Mr. C. B. Cady, of Chicago : What musical studies in the great masters should the teacher keep up for the sake of his own improvement ? Each specialist must get out of his specialty a part of the time, and practice in other lines. We must not think of instrumental music alone, nor vocal, but music. We should learn to play different instruments, we should sing alone, and with others, and especially in chorus, to keep up our education and keep in touch with the various departments of music. We ought to study the works of all the masters and take up the whole field of art, and be educators as well as musicians. There must be preparation if we would accomplish anything. THE FUNCTIONS OF TEACHERS OF VOCAL MUSIC. BY J. E. LIGHTNER, SHAKPSBURG, PA. Thesis : "What are the respective functions of the regular class teacher, and the special teacher of vocal music ? What are the respective functions of the fingers and the hand ? Of the pinions and the wing ? As a nail is not driven and clinched with one stroke, so is a lesson not grounded in the pupil's mind with one presenta- tion. The nail, to properly perform its functions, must be started aright ; must be of proportionate length to the thickness and density of the tim- ber ; must have the right slant ; must be a good nail. But a good nail, only of right proportions and started properly, will not hold the timbers together. It must have successive strokes, intelligently and persistently applied, until it is clinched, before it will hold. What the successive strokes are to the nail, the regular class teacher is to the pupil — driving, clinching the ideas, while the selection and starting of the nail corresponds to the special teacher's function. Where both the regulars and the specialists are keenly alive to the situa- tion, and truly realize the responsibility of their callings, the discussion of this question is useless. But such conditions frequently are lacking ; hence the discussion of this topic becomes essential. Of course the special teacher should have a thorough knowledge of his specialty, and the discussion of that point ought not to consume time. DISCUSSION. 521 But, knowing how to teach, how to present his subject ; " having knowledge of methods of instruction ; " having tact, and ability to concentrate and hold attention till a lasting impression be made, are of vital importance. Music in the public schools has been brought into disrepute many times because musicians of more or less prominence were selected to supervise it, with no regard whatever to their qualifications as teachers — using a spike where a shingle nail is needed, or a shingle nail where a spike was neces- sary. To be a successful supervisor of music, much more depends upon ability to teach than extensive knowledge. The great majority of success- ful directors of public-school music have first been successful as regular teachers, graduating from the ranks of regulars to the advanced position of specialist. He must not alone have the ability to teach, but must also be able to do normal work, to instruct his regular teachers, and to direct and inspire them with a love for their work. Having now a good nail, of requisite proportions, and rightly started, we come to the work of the regular class teacher. It is essential that she should have such devotion to her chosen profession that the direction of and the inspiration from the special teacher may not fall as " seed in stony ground." To be a good teacher she must be a good student, care- fully noting the lessons by her superior, have a clear conception of his idea and method ; then by intelligent and persistent drilling of pupils, individually, in groups, and in concert, so impress the point in hand as to make it clear and lasting. The pupils must become independent music readers ; the teacher must see to it that they do. The tendency is toward too much class drill and not enough individual work. Through class drill pupils necessarily become dependent. Rapid individual tests, at sight or first effort drill, are necessary, and the regular teacher must be a good manager, must have almost unlimited resources to secure it. A very common mistake made by surface teachers is to help pupils, instead of directing them to intelligently master it 'themselves, making them thereby dependent in place of independent. She should be able to sing melodies for pupils to represent — original melodies, generally — and be able to tell at a glance whether correctly or incorrectly represented; sing for, not with, the pupils. Summing up, she must have a clear con- ception of what to teach, and know how to teach it. DISCUSSION. Mr. Kappes : I do not believe in specialists in music. I would compel every teacher to become a thorough musician. Martin Luther was a musician as well as theologian ; he would have no man preach the Gospel unless he was skilled in music. Pestalozzi would have every teacher trained in music. The normal schools of Europe make music compulsory. The government will not issue a diploma unless the teacher has passed the proper examination in music. Music is now regarded as a more substantial study than formerly, and this country will finally become the leader of music in the world. 522 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Mrs. J. Powell Kick, Los Angeles : California has a law making music a regular study in the schools, and the State normal schools require their teachers to pass an examination in music before they can get a certificate to teach. Mr. N. Coe Stewart : I think the regular teacher should do the work. The super- visor must visit, see that the work is done properly, and encourage and instruct teachers where necessary. Every pupil should be able to sing alone. If he has been instructed properly, and has tried to do the required work, he will be able to sing intelligently. Mr. De Coate, of St. Louis : All cannot learn to sing ; neither can all teachers learn to teach music. Mr. Stewart : I know a lady who could not tell one tone from another, who finally became a splendid teacher ; and I knew a boy who for several years sang the same tone all the time, who finally learned to sing solos well in public. Miss M. Hofer spoke of the danger of laying too much stress on the mechanical part of singing, to the neglect of musical expression. Mr. Holt : Too much teaching of songs has been done, and the elements have been neglected. Commissioner Wm. T. Harris : 1 have seen too much notation taught to young children. The child should be taught beautiful airs at first. Mr. Holt : Dr. Harris has evidently seen poor teaching. At first there should be no mechanical exercises used. We must establish the tones as they exist in nature. We must teach the real things in music before we teach the characters which represent them. There is a better way than the old way of teaching a lot of " signs " which are meaningless to the pupil before the things they represent are first taught. Dr. Harris : I am in sympathy with this matter of teaching music in schools. And although it is often poorly taught, it is doing a vast amount of good. Miss Hofeii : The artistic singing of songs is often neglected for the ordinary work of reading music. Dr. Geo. F. Root : Music is largely an imitative art, but to build up a system of teaching on this basis is wrong. Mr. GrRiGG : We cannot make artists of our pupils. It is not so much a question whether the pupil enjoys it, but whether he is able to do the necessary mechanical work in order to learn to sing from the notation. Mr. S. W. Straub : There are different departments in music. Pleasing the pupils is one thing, and teaching them to understand the higher class of music is another, but the mind must be trained to recognize the tones and their relationship, and this requires mechanical work. Systems of musical notation. Mr. E. W. Norse, of Chicago: I have tried the tonic-sol system, in a quiet way, but I did not call it by that name. The teachers fell in line and liked it. We used it in Englewood in the first four grades. The pupils who had spent four years on sol-fa did more work in the fifth year on staff than those in Chicago who had been brought up on staff alone. Mr. Montz, of Chicago : I am in favor of the sol fa system. We can teach better by using tonic sol-fa first, and afterward teaching the staff. Mr. Glover : The aim seems to be, by the sol-fa-ists, to read from the staff in the end. To use the tonic sol-fa to aid in this, is what I cannot understand. To be able to cultivate the ear in music, no notation can assist. If the staff cannot be used as a means to learn, I would like to have the objections of the staff pointed out. DISCUSSION. 523 Mr. Holt : We will have no need for a new notation if we only investigate the sub- ject according to the established pedagogical laws of teaching other branches, and teach music according to these laws. 1 have great respect for tonic sol-fa methods, for they are the same as used by the movable-do teachers, but we do not need its written characters. Music is the same whether sol-fa, or buckwheat notes, or the staff is used. Mr. Barron, of Canada : The tonic sol-fa is the most scientific system, and the time will come when many of you will change your minds and use the sol-fa notation. " What pupils, if any, should be excused from the musical exercises of the schoolroom ?" Mr. Watt: Some pupils come from homes where they have private instruction, and are able to sing artistically alone. These should be excused where the singing in school is poor and out of tune. Mr. Howard : I do not object to having my children sing in schools where they sing out of tune, it does them no harm, for they have the scale so well fixed in their minds that it does no serious harm. Mr. H. H. Johnson, Mansfield, Ohio : Sometimes, when the voices of boys are changing, I have excused them. Mr. Howard : It would not harm the voice to sing while undergoing a change, if the boy would sing within his proper compass, and not try to sing too high or too low. Mr. Stewart : I would not excuse from singing except on account of sickness. Mr. S. H. Lightner : If a physician said it would be injurious for the pupil to sing on account of throat difficulty, he should be excused until the physician considered it safe for him to sing. If the pupil has formed a love for singing, he usually wants to sing at such times, and is proud to be able to sing bass. If the teacher would occa- sionally express in school a desire for bass singing, and hope that some of the boys will soon have new voices that can sing a real bass, then when the change of voice comes the boys will be anxious to sing this part, and no one will want to be excused, if this matter is treated intelligently by the teacher. Regina M. Carlin, Supervisor of Music in Public Schools, St. Louis, Mo. : My experience in teaching and in attending musical conventions leads me to the conclusion that too much stress is laid upon methods and systems for instruction in vocal music. The successful teacher carries good methods unconsciously into his teaching. He brings his subject clearly within the understanding of his pupils, and uses such means as are suited to the condition of his pupils ; and by sensible exercises leads them step by step until they are able to sing with others, or alone. Faulty steps are pointed out and corrected, until the pupils learn to avoid them through good habits. A good founda- tion for musical knowledge is laid, and upon this may be built a permanent and harmonious structure. As the art of breathing well is fundamental to good singing, the pupils should receive due training in this matter, especially as it is also important for sanitary effects. The lungs in singing have to furnish the air necessary to produce tones, as the bellows furnishes the wind to organ pipes, without which there could be no musical sounds pro- duced by the keyboard. Children should be trained to take the tone desired before the breath is expelled from the lungs, and taught how to hold or prolong the same sound, also different sounds in succession. The lungs and throat must be made to grow strong gradually, as the voice is developed into good singing tones. The children should be led to express feelings in their singing tones. Vocal music should occupy an important place in the school exercises. It is the grand medium for developing the moral and religious feelings, and of communicating happiness to others. DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF TECHNOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. SECRETARY'S REPORT. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday, July 26, 1893. The Department Congress of Technological Instruction was held in Hall 24 of Memo- rial Art Palace. The first session was called to order by General Francis A. Walker, Chairman of the department, at 9.30 a.m., Wednesday, July 26. The business of the Congress was begun with an opening address by the Chairman. Professor Robert H. Thurston, Director Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., followed with a paper on "Technological Schools : Their Purpose and its Accomplishment." This paper was followed by a discussion in which the following persons took part : Professor R. H. Richards, Boston; President Henry T. Eddy, Terre Haute, Ind. ; Mrs. Charles Henrotin, of Chicago ; Professor Waterman, of the University of Chicago ; also by Professors Allen, Thurston, Woodbury, and F. 0. Marvin, Lawrence, Kan. ; and Mr. Boos-Jegher, from Switzerland. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday, July 27, 1893. The department assembled at 9.30 a.m. Professor John M. Ordway, Tulane University, New Orleans, presented a paper on the " Training for Scientific Professions," which was read by Professor George F. Swain. President D. C. Gilman, of Johns Hopkins University, on being called upon by the Chairman, gave a brief historical account of the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University. The next paper, " Educational Value of Exact Measurement," was by Professor Alfred M. Mayer, of Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J. A paper was presented on " The Educational Value of Applied Mathematics, includ- ing Engineering," by F. R. Hutton, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, School of Mines, Columbia College, New York. This subject was discussed by Professor Robert H. Thurston, of Sibley College, Cor- nell University. United States Commissioner Hon. W. T. Harris followed, speaking upon the import- ance of the discussions upon the educational values of subjects taught in the techno- logical schools. THIRD SESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893. The meeting of this department was called to order by the Chairman at 9.30 A.m., Friday morning. The first paper was by Professor R. H. Kichards, of Boston, Mass., on "Shop- Work and Drawing as Means, of Developing Slow Pupils." 526 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. This subject was discussed by Professors Woodward, St. Louis ; Baker, of the Uni- versity of Illinois ; and General P. A. Walker. Professor G. Lanza, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, presented a paper, in which he considered "The Educational Process of Training an Engineer' for the several departments of engineering. This subject was discussed by Professor C. M. Woodward, of St. Louis ; Professor Shattuck, of University of Illinois ; Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, and others. Henry T. Eddy, President of Rose Polytechnic Institute, Terre Haute, Ind., read a paper on " The Educational Value of Applied Mathematics, and Engineering." This subject was discussed by Professor G. Lanza, of Massachusetts, and Professor Woodward, of St. Louis. Professor De Volson Wood, of Stevens Institute, followed with remarks on the same subject. LIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF TECHNOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. FINLAND. Prof. Ernst Qvist, Director of Polytechnic Insti- tute, Helsingfors. FRANCE. M. le Colonel Laussedat, Director of the School of Arts and Trades. Paris. M. Charles Lucas, Architect, Paris. M. L. Masson, Engineer School of Arts and Trades, Paris. M. Paul Melon, Paris. M. Haton de la Gonpilliere, Inspector- General of Mines, National Superior School of Mining, Paris. GREAT BRITAIN. ARIZONA. Dr. Merrill P. Freeman, President University of Arizona, Tucson. ARKANSAS. Dr. E. H. Murfee, President Industrial University, Fayetteville. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Prof. Cleveland Abbe, Weather Bureau, Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington. GEORGIA. Dr. H. C. White, President Georgia State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, Athens. A. H. Gilke, Master Dulwich College, London. J. H. Reynolds, Secretary of the Manchester Tech- nical School, London. J. C. L. Sparkes, City and Guilds South London Technical Arr School, London. J. Wertheimer, B.Sc. Hend Master Bristol Mer- chant Ventnress Technical School, Bristol. Thomas R. Ashenhurst, Head Master of Textile Department, Bradford Technical School, Brad- ford. H. S. Hele-Shaw, University College, Liverpool. SCOTLAND. Henry Dyer, C.E., M.A., D.Sc, Glasgow. Prof. Ewing. F.R.S., Dundee and District Associa- tion for Promotion of Technical and Secondary Education, Dundee. JAPAN. Mr. Koyama Kenzo, Tokyo. UNITED STATES. ALABAMA. Dr. William LeRoy Brown, President Alabama Poly- technic Institute, Auburn. W. H. Council!. President State Normal andlndus- irial School, Normal. INDIANA. Dr. Henry T. Eddy. President Rose Polytechnic Institute. Terre Haute. Dr. James H. Smart, President Purdue University, Lafayette. IOWA. Dr. W. M. Beardshear, President Iowa Agricultural College, Ames. KENTUCKY. Dr. James K. Patterson, President Agricultural and Mechanical College, Lexington. LOUISIANA. Dr. Brown Ayres, Professor Tulane University, New Orleans. H. A. Hill, President Southern University, New Orleans. MAINE. Dr. M. C. Fernald, State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Orono. MARYLAND. Major H. E Alvord, President Maryland Agricul- tural College, College Park. LIST OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS. 527 MASSACHUSETTS. Dr. Homer T. Fuller, President Worcester Poly- tfchnic Institute, Worcester. Dr. H. H. Goodell, President Agricultural College, Amherst. Dr. N. 8. Shaler, Dean Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard University, Cambridge. MICHIGAN. Dr. Oscar Clute, President State Agricultural Col- lege, Lansing. Dr. M. E. Wadsworth, President Michigan Mining School, Houghton. MISSISSIPPI. John H. Burma, A.M., President Alcorn Agricul- tural and Mechanical College, Rodney. Gen. S. D. Lee, President Agricultural and Me- chanical College, Agricultural College. R. S. McCulloch, Pass Christian. MISSOURI. Inman E. Page, President Lincoln Institute, Jef- ferson City. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Dr. R. Fletcher, Director Thayer School of Civil Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover. NEW MEXICO. Hiram Hadley, A.M., President Agricultural Col- lege, Las Cruces. NEW YORK. Prof. A. S. Bickmore, American Museum of Natural History, New York. Dr. John H. Peck, President Rensselaer Institute, Troy. NORTH CAROLINA. Alexander Q. Holladay, President Agricultural Col- lege, Raleigh. OHIO. Dr. William H. Scott, President State University, Columbus. Dr. (.,'ady Staley, President Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland. OKLAHOMA. R. J. Barker, C.E., President Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater. PENNSYLVANIA. Dr. George W. Atherton, President State College, State College. SOUTH DAKOTA. Dr. Lewis McLouth, President Agricultural College, Brookings. UTAH. J. W. Sanborn, B.S., President Agricultural Col- lege, Logan. VIRGINIA. Dr. John W. Mallet, Professor University of Vir- ginia, Charlottesville. Dr. J. M. McBryde, President Agricultural and Mechanical College, Blacksbnrg. Gen. Scott Shipp, Superintendent Virginia Military Institute, Lexington. WASHINGTON. George Lilley, President State Agricultural College and School of Science, Pullman. WEST VIRGINIA. J. E. Campbell, Ph.B., Principal West Virginia Institute, Farm. TECHNOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. OPENING ADDRESS OF THE CHAIRMAN, GENERAL FRANCIS A. WALKER, PRESIDENT OF MASSACHUSETTS INSTI- TUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, BOSTON. This, so far as I am aware, is the first general conference ever called to discuss the whole subject of technological education. Delegates from the "Colleges of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts" established in the United States under the act of 1862, have for some years met in annual convention to consider matters of common interest ; but in these con- ventions agriculture has been so far the predominant topic as to throw other departments of instruction into the shade. It was well that this present conference should be called. It was high time that the friends of technological education should assemble, to com- pare their experiences, to inquire what is lacking or what has been ill-done in the remarkable development that has taken place during the last twenty- five }7ears, and to take counsel together regarding the means for completing, for perfecting, for strengthening this system of public instruction. The representatives of the classical culture long ago recognized the importance of mutual conference, and many and earnest have been the deliberations and debates in which delegates from colleges and universities have sought to find out the way by which they might do greater good to the commu- nity and the world, in their devoted and self-sacrificing exertions on behalf of education. Technological instruction, from its newness, from the spo- radic character of the enterprises with which it has been connected, from the inherent gravity and complexity of its problems, has even greater need of consultation and conference among its teachers and its friends. It is said that nearly or quite one hundred institutions, in America alone, are now offering instruction in the applications of the sciences to the useful arts. In Great Britain, if my information is correct, the number of science schools and technical colleges is not much smaller. With but a few excep- tions, this vast body of educational agencies represents the developments of only a quarter of a century. Some of these schools have been founded under the protection and patronage of great universities ; others have been the outcome of independent effort. Some have sought to cover the whole ground of technological instruction ; others have confined themselves to comparatively limited fields. Some have from the first achieved a decided success ; others are still struggling with poverty of means, with embar- OPENING ADDRESS OF THE CHAIRMAN. 529 rassments due perhaps to a false start, or with the inherent difficulties of their respective problems. Surely, in such a situation, it is eminently wise that the representatives of technological education should assemble in general convention, to deliberate upon the means of advancing their com- mon object; to inquire what restrictions, if any, should be placed around the field of their activity ; to learn, each from others, what measures may be taken to promote the efficiency with which these schools shall prepare their pupils for the severe trials of professional practice ; and, last of all, and most of all, to search deeply into the question how technical instruc- tion and training may be made truly educational, in the largest and best sense of that word, so that the schools shall render the greatest possible service, not merely to industry and the arts, but also to character and citizenship, to mind and manhood. So strongly has the importance of this subject, in view of the recent very remarkable extension of the class of schools referred to, pressed upon those who have framed the plans for this general conference of education, that it has been decided to allot three morning sessions to the subject of technological education. Of these, the first, the present session, has been assigned to the discussion of the question, how far the technological instruc- tion of to-day answers its primary requirement, the preparation of young men to enter upon the practice of the scientific professions ; what failures or deficiencies have been discovered as the result of an experience wide if not long ; what are the causes of any failures or deficiencies which may be found to exist ; and what measures should be taken to complete and perfect these schools upon their purely professional side. The two remaining sessions are to be devoted, to the consideration of the actual and the pos- sible work of technical schools as instruments of general education. For the purposes of the proposed discussion regarding technical education, the present occasion is most felicitous, not merely in the presence of so large a number of distinguished educators, attracted hither by the wonders and the glories of the Columbian Exposition; not merely in the inspiration afforded by this great object-lesson of industrial art, the greatest which has ever been devised by the ingenuity of man, ordered and arranged by his taste and skill, and executed by his enterprise and energy ; but also, and perhaps even most of all, by the presence here, in the courts of the department of liberal arts, of the large and comprehensive exhibits made by the technical schools of our own and foreign lands. All that may be said here must be taken in connection with the work of students, the schemes of courses, the apparatus of instruction, shown in the galleries of the main building of the Exposition. Whether in their professional or their edu- cational aspects, these exhibits should be deeply and carefully studied by every educator who would form an intelligent and candid opinion as to what the schools of this class are really doing. In the preparation of the programme for these sessions, it has not been 34 530 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. sought to secure a series of elaborate and exhaustive papers which should occupy the time available for the consideration of the topics proposed. It has been the wish of the management that the papers read should be comparatively brief theses, presenting the several topics in a suggestive rather than in a comprehensive manner, with a view to invite oral discus- sion and to promote the face-to-face comparison of individual views anc experiences. In such a conference as this, the most that is to be expected of the pre- siding officer is that he shall from day to day arrange and provide for the presence and the participation of the largest number of those whose posi- tions and services in the cause of education, technical or general, qualify them to add to the interest and to the value of the discussion. Yet, in this first conference on the subject of technological education, I cannot forbear to avail myself of my privilege as chairman to mention certain questions which press for consideration in connection with this department of instruction. First. How far those who control and conduct schools of technology are bound to qualify and modify their courses of instruction with refer- ence to the fact that their students are, as a rule, not the graduates of colleges, and that the training they receive in these schools must, there- fore, be the only training, within the college grade both as to age and as to mental development, which they are to enjoy before entering upon the serious duties of life. The fact which has been alluded to was clearly not in contemplation of those who first founded our schools of technology, if, indeed, it is not in flat contradiction of what they then anticipated. It seems plain from Mr. Abbott Lawrence's deed of gift to Harvard College, for the endowment of the scientific school which bears his name, that it was his expectation that the students would be largely college graduates ; yet, in the latest catalogue of that school which I have seen, among one hundred and eighty-one students only two are graduates of colleges, only one of a classical college. At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology the number of college graduates ranges between forty and fifty. These students, therefore, form only between four and five per cent, of the total membership of the school. A slightly larger proportion, I believe, is main- tained at the Sheffield School at New Haven. In view of this develop- ment of schools of technology, we are bound to inquire whether their curriculum should not be more or less qualified and modified to meet the fact that their pupils are to receive no further and no other college training. Second. The second question I would venture to suggest is, how far the judgment of practitioners of technical professions should conclude or should influence the teachers and administrators of technical schools. Probably the first thought in any man's mind would be to the effect that the best advice in regard to technical education would come from those OPENING ADDRESS OF TEE CHAIRMAN. 531 engaged in the practice of the corresponding scientific professions. Yet it appears to me that this is a subject which should be carefully discussed, and that it is not a matter of course that the first thought on the presen- tation of the question is correct. Let us make the issue a little more specific. Engineering education, for example — is it primarily and principally an engineering or an educational problem ? Is the engineer, who is not and has never been a teacher, neces- sarily a better judge than a teacher who has never been an engineer ? Of course it is not intended here to intimate that the opinions of practicing engineers regarding engineering education may not be of great value ; that, in any case, they are not evidence which should be carefully consid- ered by those who are to judge of any question which concerns engineering education. But who is to be the judge — the engineer or the educator? Whatever the professional standing of any engineer, are his views conclu- sive upon the faculty of an engineering school ? My own opinion is that engineering education is primarily and princi- pally an educational and not an engineering problem ; and that the judg- ment of a strong and experienced teacher who has studied that problem is more likely to be right than that of any engineer without experience as a teacher, however eminent he may be in his profession. Third. A third question of importance in the development of technical education is whether or not a substantial connection with a university constitutes an advantage. Much might be said on both sides of this ques- tion. Admirable examples are offered us of technical schools under the protection and patronage of great universities, and of detached technical schools which have steadily and successfully pursued their way, alike with- out hindrance and without help from a corporation or a faculty having other interests as well as their own in charge. Without undertaking to discuss this question in full, I will venture to make two remarks which it seems to me should be considered at the very outset of such a discussion. No advantage which a technical school can derive from association with a university, through the ability, experience, and comprehensive views of the corporation of such a body, will compensate for any lack of moral and intellectual sympathy with the purposes of technical education, any lack of respeGt for the studies and exercises of the technical school. Unless the members of the corporation of a university thoroughly believe in technical education, unless they are devoted to its objects, unless they entertain a hearty and unaffected respect for the kind of man who is to teach and the kind of man who is to receive the teaching, a technical school will derive only damage from such an association. Again, no advantage which the students of a technical school might conceivably derive from the large and varied endowment and equipment of a great university, and from compan- ionship with bodies of students in other pursuits than their own, will com- pensate for the loss of scholarly impulse and the injury to self-respect 532 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. which will inevitably be sustained, unless the general spirit of the univer- sity be high, manly, and devoid of snobbishness. If the technical stu- dents, through association with a university, are to come habitually in contact with young men who have not seriously taken up the work of their lives, who regard college merely as a place in which to have a good time or to indulge in sport or dissipation, who have no settled purpose and no manly aims, and especially if the technical students are to come habitu- ally in contact with young men who regard labor as degrading, who look upon the rough clothes and the stained fingers of the laboratory and the workshop as badges of inferiority in character or in social standing, then a technical school will derive harm, and only harm, from such an asso- ciation. Fourth. A fourth question which needs to be very carefully considered by all friends of technological education is, how far immediate profes- sional success is to be weighed against ultimate professional success. It is, of course, an immense advantage to the pupils of technical schools, and to their parents and friends, that the young graduate should be able at once to earn his livelihood, even if it be an humble one. In this day, when social necessities are so grinding, and when it is so hard to start a son in life, that advantage is not to be despised or neglected. Yet there is always a wide field of choice open to those who control technical schools, as to the degree in which they will offer to their pupils studies and exer- cises the value of which will be most fully realized in the first few years after graduation, or studies and exercises whose value will be increasingly felt through the whole course of their professional career, and which will qualify them, in larger and ever larger measure, for positions of responsi- bility and trust with advancing years. It would be strange, indeed, if in the infancy of technological education many mistakes had not been made in this matter, predominantly on the side of assigning too much value to studies and exercises of immediate utility. I cannot but believe that with larger experience, and with more of conference among those who administer technological education, there will be a decided movement in the direction of subordinating the acquisition of the knacks of a trade and mere technical devices to the study of principles ; and that, even in the applications of principles, valuable and invaluable as these are, refer- ence will be had rather to their effect in giving a greater mastery of the principles themselves, than to their immediate utility in professional practice. Nay, more, I confidently believe that, even in the study of scientific principles, a continually increasing regard will be paid to their influence in expanding the mind, enlarging the views, elevating the aims, and strengthening the character of the pupil. Fifth. An important question presenting itself to those administering technological education is in regard to the expediency of introducing some so-called liberal studies into all technical courses. I have already OPENING ADDRESS OF THE CHAIRMAN. 533 adverted to the fact that the great majority of students of technology are not graduates of colleges. But aside from this, and even although all such students were college graduates, it would still fairly be a question whether some degree of philosophical study, especially in history and political economy, should not mingle day by day with the scientific studies and exercises which form the primary subjects of instruction and training in a technical school. For myself, I am much disposed to believe that that technical school will best discharge its duty to its pupils and to the state which gives to its students, in addition to those studies and exercises which will make them exact and strong, some measure, also, of those studies and exercises which will tend to make them, at the same time, broad and fine. Sixth. The last question which I would suggest has regard to the desirability and feasibility of securing uniform requirements for admis- sion to schools of technology. The classical colleges within New England, and perhaps over a wider region, have long been working toward the end of common rules and conditions as to entrance ; and their efforts have met with a high degree of success, not only in a loyal support, by all the colleges, of the scheme of examinations adopted, but also in the manifest and marked improvement of the preparatory schools most largely con- tributing to their membership. It is fairly a question whether the time has not come for associated action by the schools of technology in the same direction. I will only protract these remarks by referring to a single subject, and that is the spirit in which it behooves the representatives of technological education to meet and to answer the accusation of certain critics that the technical applications of science are incompatible with that disinterested- ness which it is said, and truly said, is essential to the highest results in education. Those who indulge in flings regarding the lack of disinter- estedness in technological education are generally the persons who have withstood at every step the introduction of chemistry, physics, and natu- ral history as substitutes for the older studies of the college curriculum. Beaten at all points in their futile opposition to the spirit of the times, and overwhelmed by the abundant testimony offered as to the effects of science study in making young men as modest, loyal, fine, and pure as the best products of the classical culture, and withal more exact, resolute, and strong, these gentlemen are making their last stand against the movement of the age by denouncing the technical applications of science as interested and mercenary, and therefore as unsuited to be the means of promoting true scholarship. They are compelled to admit that the pursuit of technology is useful to the community in a degree which makes it not less than absolutely necessary that hundreds and thousands of young men shall be trained in science and in the applications of science to the useful arts ; but they are unwilling that these young men should 534 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. be considered as scholars in the same sense and of the same degree of merit as graduates of schools whose studies and exercises are not subject to the imputation of being of any direct or immediate use. It would please those gentlemen more if, while the college graduate receives his scholarship medal of pure gold, the graduate of the school of technology should have his testimonial stamped upon a circlet of some baser metal. Now, it seems to me, we are bound to resent and repel this imputation, without terms and without ceremony. We assert that the disinterested- ness of study does not depend upon the immediate usefulness or useless- ness of the subject matter, but upon the spirit with which the student takes up and pursues his work. If there be zeal in investigation, if there be delight in discovery, if there be fidelity to the truth as it is discerned, nothing more can be asked by the educator of highest aims. A young man who is earnestly laboring to prepare himself for an honorable and beneficent career in life may be disinterested in every sense in which that term can be used with approbation. Our critics have been driven to a pretty pass, indeed, when the only ground upon which they can make a stand is the practical usefulness of technical studies. These gentlemen appear to have the same unnecessary fear of fruit which Macaulay, in one of his famous essays, attributes, probably with some exaggeration, as his custom was, to the old philosophers. Their concern is needless. So long as the students of technology bear themselves with the same earnestness and scholarly devotion which has characterized them as a body since this system of instruction was inaugurated, the cause of education will suffer no harm. There is a wonderful virtue in science to make and keep its disciples truthful and faithful ; and at no distant time it will be fully recognized by all teachers that the technical applications of science directly add to the value of science study by giving a more direct object to effort, and by heightening the pleasure which the pupil feels at each step of his scholarly progress. TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS: THEIR PURPOSE AND ITS A CCOMPLISHMENT. BY ROBERT H. THURSTON, DIRECTOR SIBLEY COLLEGE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. The purpose of any institution of learning, whether of high or of low degree, is, if I understand it aright, to contribute an exactly defined amount to the education of the boy or girl, man or woman, who may enter its doors. It should have a prescribed plane and area of work ; it should have a settled method ; it should be expected to apply this method, within its own field, to the presentation, by the best of known processes, TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 535 of the most important facts and principles of those branches of learning which constitute its special province. The education of the boy or the girl, of the man or the woman, may be said to consist of so much of knowledge of the sciences, the literatures, and the arts as the individual finds it practicable to obtain by the appli- cation of time and thought and study, in hours set apart from those of toil and compulsory occupation. Its purpose is two-fold : to so exercise the mental faculties and powers as to confer upon the mind capacity for easy and extensive gain of both culture and knowledge ; and to endow it with learning and wisdom — for these are not the same. Culture and wisdom are the highest fruits of education, grafted upon natural talent and power, and, well developed, constituting such character as has been respected and admired in every age of the world. Knowledge is needful and learning is admirable and desirable to make life successful and to yield substance for enjoyment ; but apart from culture and wisdom, they fail of their purpose, and life falls short of its aim. From university to primary school and kindergarten, throughout the whole range of human knowledge and of systematically given instruction, every element of the educational structure has its own special place and purpose, contributing to the final and complete result ; but the plan and the scope of these elements may differ widely. The university, if it be a real university, must present to its students the opportunity to become acquainted with the elements, at least, of all the sciences, all the litera- tures, and all the arts which contemporary life and modern civilization rest upon or imply familiarity with. The primary school usually only makes a beginning, as do all the elementary schools, in teaching the child how to begin to learn by study, and furnishes the first necessary tools for that trade. The kindergarten teaches the child how to learn by observa- tion and direct experiment; it is the child's laboratory of applied science. But every school and every college and all universities should combine the methods of the conventional primary school with those of the kinder- garten. Study, observation, experimental processes and methods must all unite to produce the most perfect work, in primary school, secondary school, college, and university alike, and whether giving the elements and the tools of education, the mental exercise required for higher work, or the facts and data and principles of the sciences be the purpose of the school. But the man must be educated for his coming life, and the lives of men differ. Education, therefore, while having the same general object with all — the cultivation of the powers of the individual and the communica- tion of knowledge and culture — must be given somewhat different direc- tions, and must cover somewhat different fields, for different men, if it is to do its most perfect work on every individual. The man who is inde- pendent of compulsory labor, and who may, with reasonable confidence, 536 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION look forward to a life of his own choice and making, will desire culture, learning, and accomplishments. The youth growing up in the home of the workingman, without fortune or reasonable expectation of ever secur- ing even a competence, compelled to look forward to a life of constant and perhaps arduous labor, subject to a competition from neighbors, or, often, from workingmen thousands of miles away, needs, first of all, that knowledge and training which will enable him to hold his own and make sure of subsistence and freedom from privation for his family and himself. The average citizen, with such capital as a generation or two of industry and skill may have laid aside for him, free to give time and money for such education as can be given him before the approach of manhood brings with it the cares and responsibilities of his later working life, seeks, if he be wise, first the insurance against failure in his vocation, next such culture and such knowledge as he may gain therewith, as a part of or in connection with his preparation for his life's work. Finally, the well-to- do citizen possessing competence, though not wealth, seeks for his son or his daughter a scientific training for a profession, and a culture befitting his station in life ; the first the essential, the last the most desired. Every citizen asks the privilege and claims the right to secure as much of the necessary preparation for the future of his life, and as much of that culture which is life, as time, means, and natural capacity may permit him to fairly demand. It was long ago recognized by statesmen and men of mind that one of the first duties of the state is to make sure of the fitting education of the people of the state by providing elementary schools for all who choose to avail themselves of them. It was also early admitted that a system of useful elementary education presupposes higher institutions of learning in which the teachers of those schools may be prepared for their work, aud in which all the learning of the time may be preserved and given full- est opportunity for extension and expansion. It is now well understood by all intelligent men that the state must, to insure the highest prosperity and enlightenment of its people, directly or indirectly, by legislation or through the stimulated or spontaneous liberality of its wealthy men, superpose secondary schools upon primary, colleges upon the schools, and place universities at the apex of the structure. The great States of the West have their State universities; the old States of the East have their Harvard and Yale and Brown and Amherst and Williams, at once monu- ments to great and statesmanlike citizens among the wealthy classes, and capsheaves of their educational systems. No State so poor and sparsely populated, no statesman so weak and narrow, as to refuse to build to the very peak of the pyramid. In fact, it is often asserted that the true statesman, like Washington and Jefferson, Madison and the Adamses, makes the university the foundation, the secondary schools the body, and the primary schools the supported apex of the system ; the whole resting TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 537 safely and firmly, if properly constructed, upon a solid and broad founda- tion of deepest wisdom and greatest learning. The state must build foundation as well as superstructure, and every part of each, if completeness and solidity and permanence are to be made sure. Only the state, as it seems to me, can maintain permanently, certainly, and in efficient, continuous, and steady operation, any single element of this organism ; and only the state can construct and maintain it in symmetry and completeness, and build solidly and durably the whole great structure. Private contributions to this purpose and object are too uncertain, irregular in amount, and sporadic in time and distribution, to give that regularity of income, or that certainty of any income at all, which is an essential element of steady and productive work. Regularity and sufficiency of income, assured by a fixed taxation, as illustrated in our Western States, in many instances, is probably the best insurance of life, of continuous growth, and of uninterrupted usefulness of the educational system. Private endowments are usually either unequal to their purpose at the start, or are promptly overburdened if the enterprise is successful, and almost never permanently reliable and regularly useful. At the present time, also, the continuously decreasing rate of interest on good securities, and the constantly increasing difficulty of finding safe invest- ments, make the duties of the committees on finance of our endowed insti- tutions continually more and more arduous and unproductive. The steady fall from the seven per cent, of a few years ago to the six per cent, of later years, and to the five per cent, and less of to-day, and the resulting anxieties and financial difficulties, simply indicate the beginning of a continuous reduction in value of invested funds, and the fact that the time must come — perhaps soon — when returns on invested capital will become so small as to make it hardly wise to rely on such sources of income, and such as to compel the use of the principal in such cases, and reliance upon con- tinual additions of capital through the liberality of capitalists to whom the same cause makes it less and less desirable to hold a surplus. But every institution doing good work will very possibly find it necessary to its own existence and permanent usefulness to become in some way incorporated into the system of the state, and to secure safe support from the state treasury, or, as the only alternative, to rely mainly on tuition fees exacted from its own students, thus competing at a great disadvantage with the state-supported institutions charging little or nothing for the same grade of education.* In fact, nearly every large and strong school, college, or * The following facts give some idea of the magnitude of the task to be assumed and of the imprac- ticability of securing its performance by private effort, even were it possible that private liberality and private activity could give the system form and coherent and symmetrical growth : The United States constitute a nation of about 65 000,000 <>f people. Of these, three-fifths— about 40,000,- 000— are minors, and a largo fraction of them demand or need instruction in schools of higher and of lower degree. In their education, 300.000 teachers are enlaced in 200,000 schools, and about $100,000,000 per annum paid for the work. The States usually expeml about S25 per capita, and some of the cities above 538 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. university famous for good work, and especially among the technical institutions, is coming to be State-supported in greater or less degree. Some of the most successful and famous of all are exceptions to this rule ; but whether this can be said a generation hence may be gravely doubted. Contributions to this noblest of philanthropic works will undoubtedly be larger and more numerous than now ; but interest will probably fall to two per cent., or perhaps lower, and a million of dollars will do but little in the support of higher education. Culture, and Scientific Training for a practical end, are the two purposes of all schemes of education of the individual citizen. But their order and extent, and their relative importance and magnitude, must depend upon the position in life of the individual ; rather, upon his choice or their natural and logical sequence. The proper and logical order would be, first culture, then professional training ; first the awakening and strengthening of the mind, next its application to the purposes of culture, then its practical employment in acquiring and practicing the chosen vocation, whether that of the engineer who builds, the artist who adorns, the man of letters who entertains and enlightens, the jurist who inter- prets the law, or the physician or the clergyman who ministers to bodies or to minds diseased, or even that of the man of leisure whose profession is that of the accomplished man of a society of culture. Every intelligent citizen desires for his children so much of culture as his time and means permit him to give them ; his means determine to what extent he must abridge the culture studies and compulsorily antedate the best time for entrance upon the studies having practical application in the life of the bread-winner. For people of wealth, twenty years of culture, five of pro- fessional study, may be none too extensive a course ; but the citizen of $35, for elementary instruction alone. The Federal government has given over 150,000,000 of acres of public lands to this object, and the States have often assigned their first and largest apportionments of their own public lands to their departments of education. In some cases single institutions have greatly profited by this policy ; but, as a rule, education is conducted, in the higher departments, with a most frugal hand. Private liberality has as yet done more for individual endowments, generally, than the public. For exam- ple, in New York the State university— Cornell— receives as the share of the State under the Morrill Act about $20,000 a year from the half-million and lees obtained by sale of land scrip ; it receives from the Cornell Endowment, which was produced by the discreet holding and sale of the lands obtained on the same scrip— bought by Ezra Cornell and given to the university— over $300,000 per annum from the $5,000,- 000 or more privately given it ; and it has still enough land for sale to make about 6,000 good farms. Har- vard, Columbia, Yale, and Princeton and Johns Hopkins have larger incomes from private endowments than have the institutions supported by the States. The governments of Europe are wiser and more liberal than our own States. Prussia has erected at Charlottenburg the graudest technical institution in the world, at a cost of about $4,000,000. Saxony haa erected a whole system of trade and polytechnic schools; and Zurich has invested, safely nnd profitably, some millions in her great university, of which the laboratories alone have cost about a half-million dollars. With a taxed valuation of $0,500,000,000, the State of New York has contributed— and only within the year — just $50,000 to its university, under the shadow of the millions given it by its private benefactors. Michigan has given about $2,000,000 to her university and technical schools ; she also gives a regular tax levy of large amount. Wisconsin gives a half-million in buildings and a tax levy of about $75,000 per annum. Minnesota has given to the same cause about $750,000 and a tax levy of about $50,000 ; Cali- fornia about.$l, 000,000, and a perpetual State tax of one-tenth of a mill, now yielding $100,000 a year ; and other States, in a similar manner, are just beginning the work which has been going on in Europe for a century. TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 539 moderate means must at least terminate his son's studies at twenty-one, and if he is to have a professional training, it must commence at sixteen or seveuteen ; while the so-called "industrial classes" must send their off- spring out into the world to earn their own living while still children. It thus happens that the education of the people must, in the main, be such as will give them technological training, with, incidentally, so much of culture as can be offered without detriment to their preparation for the work that must probably be theirs for life. We have here the reason at once for a complete and perfect system of education by the state, and for the organization of special manual-training, trade, and professional schools. The conditions here discussed probably do not indicate a neces- sity for support by the state, of the distinctively so-called "professional schools" of the as distinctively so-called "learned professions." They will probably be always overcrowded and well supported ; unless, indeed, they should some time cease to be looked upon as specially desirable voca- tions by the most ambitious of young men. The education of the people of the State by the State will presumably include mainly the culture studies and the economically important branches of technical education. John Scott Russell thus defines technical education : " What I call technical education is that kind of training which will make the new generation of Englishmen excel the new generation of foreigners in this coming rivalry of race and nation. The English live in the midst of an energetic rivalry of competing nations. The aim of our national life should be to do the work of the world better, more ably, more honestly, more skillfully, and less wastefully than the skilled men of other countries. If we are less skilled or less honest than others, we are beaten in the race of life. To the national welfare and success, it is therefore necessary that the race of young men who are to do the work of England, . . . shall in their own special profession, occupation, trade, or calling know more thoroughly its fundamental prin- ciples, wield more adroitly its special weapons, be able to apply more skillfully its refined artifices, and to achieve more quickly, perfectly, and economically the aims of their life, whether it be commerce, manufactures, public works, agriculture, navigation, or architecture." The same remarks are true as applied to the United States ; for the Atlantic Ocean has ceased to be, to any important extent, a wall of defense against foreign competition in the refined industries, those which bring wealth to the worker and diversification of industries to the nation. Our school and college curricula have hitherto been, and are still, in fact, vastly too exclusively literary to meet the needs of the people and of the country. We have made hardly a beginning in the building of that great system of industrial training, supplementing education, which must, if we are to survive in the industrial rivalry of nations, soon be made to constitute an important and extensive division of the state and of the national educational structure.* It is this aspect of the case which makes the introduction and perfec- tion of technical education in our own country, and its development as a * " Technical Education," by the writer. Trans. A. S. M. E., 1893. 540 INTERNATIONAL C0N0BE88 OF EDUCATION. part of a state and national system, matters of supreme importance to the people and to the nation. Unless our people are at once more intelligent and better trained in their productive vocations than those of other nations, they must be content to settle to a lower level and there remain. Technical education and technological schools thus constitute for us the most important of all current topics and subjects in connection with educational work and development in this country. The foundation of technical schools of all grades, from the kindergarten and purely manual- training school, to the special trade schools and the higher schools of engi- neering, agriculture, architecture, and art, is the essential and pressing duty of the hour. Their organization and their incorporation into the great educational system of state and nation constitutes the grandest problem of the time, for educator, patriotic citizen, and statesman alike; and the questions : To what extent and in what form should our educa- tional system include technical schools ? How should they be united with the schools of culture ? How shall their distribution among the various vocations and professions be symmetrically effected ? To what extent and in what manner should the state sustain them ? And what are the deficiencies in number, curriculum, and method of the schools already established ? — these questions are those of the hour. These con- stitute the great problems of the citizen, the educator, the legislator, and the statesman of our time. Such questions as these demand discussion and action, imperatively and continuously. They are more pressing and vital than those of tariff or currency, annexation of adjacent provinces, or choice of gold or silver, iron or copper, for our coinage. Economical errors of the latter sort may isolate us from the rest of the world, but errors in the moral and intellectual or the technical training of the people will make home life less satisfying. The Magnitude of the Demand for technical instruction in the United States is greater than is usually supposed, and the real need — which vastly exceeds the demand — is far beyond the ordinary estimates of even the educator engaged in this special work. The writer has esti- mated that were the United States, as a whole, to provide as liberally for the technical education of the people as do some of the provinces of France, and of Germany, especially, there would be established : Twenty technical universities, having in their schools of engineering and higher technics 50 instructors and 500 pupils, each. Fifty trade schools and colleges, of 20 instructors and 300 students, each. Two thousand technical high-schools, or manual-training schools, of 10 instructors and 200 pupils, each. That is to say, there should be in the United States, to-day, 1,000 university profes- sors and instructors, and 10,000 students under their tuition studying the highest branches of technical work; there should be 1.000 college professors and 15,000 pupils in trade schools, studying for superior positions in the arts; 20.000 teachers engaged in trade and manual -training schools instructing pupils, 400,000 in number, proposing to become skilled workmen. We have in this country 10,000,000 families, among which are at least 1,000,000 boys who should be in the latter class of schools. The cost of TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 541 such education would be, per annum, about 50 cents per inhabitant additional to the present school tax. and in the shops of these schools something less than $100 per student, and under $300 per annum per student, for total costs of higher education. The actual number of schools of the highest class in this country, schools which are neither technical universities nor colleges, but, usually, either schools of restricted curricula, as engineering schools, or single and narrowly limited departments of colleges of general and mainly liberal learning, is about fifty. The number of real trade schools, prepared to give proper training, scientific and practical, in any one trade, is un- known to* statisticians, but they are exceedingly rare, and a thoroughly representative trade school, like hundreds of those scattered all over Europe, is unknown. We have perhaps a dozen good manual-training schools in the larger cities ; but we have no system of carefully organized, complete, and well-sustained schools of either class, supported by nation, by state, by city, or by any form of public or private permanent, system- atic effort. "Such is the intimidating comparison, also, of the con- dition of our country, and the more enterprising and wisely governed countries of Europe. The latter have had two generations the start of us, and only the extraordinary natural advantages of our country, and the more extraordinary general intelligence and enterprise of its citizens, can possibly prevent this disadvantage under which we labor telling fatally against us in the course of time, when the inevitable competition of the world shall affect us." * On the other hand, every State is doing more, and seeing more each year of the duty before it and its importance, and the State universities and the independent colleges and schools are feeling their way constantly, though slowly, toward the solution of this tremendous problem. Our people are peculiarly well fitted to benefit by the opportunities which may be thus offered, and to secure, in the interim, those kinds of training and those forms of knowledge which are the essential basis of the as yet in- complete technical system, and to compete with other nations at this dis- advantage. The freedom of our institutions has engendered freedom of will and of intellectual action ; and the free action of a thousand minds, untrammeled though untrained, preserves us against dangerous rivalry from the better schooled but intellectually enslaved masses of the world outside. What will be the final outcome of the changes which are uow slowly evolving an educational system in this country, and at the same time giving freedom and stimulus to European peoples, no one can pre- dict. It can only be hoped that we may, in good time, have our own, and an ample and efficient, "complete and perfect," system of education of our people for the life and the work of our people. At the moment, we have no system of suitable education of the nation; but we are making some progress toward the production of what is needed. * Reports of the Director of Sibley College. 542 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The character of our technical schools remains as yet as unsettled and various as their independent and far-separated points of origin permit. The State universities usually offer a few fairly well-defined courses in engineering and architecture and in the science and art of agriculture, and a few of the independent colleges stand beside them. The larger and older literary colleges usually do but little in this field, and do that only under pressure and rarely well. The independent schools have as many standards of work as they have foundations. Some demand a good high- school preparation; others only a few selected preparatory studies, and they, often, very elementary. Of the endowed schools, some, as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, are able to offer numerous courses in science and in the constructive work of applied science; others, as the Rensselaer Polytechnic and the Stevens Institute of Technology, elect to offer a single but strong course. Some approximate the technical uni- versity in their magnitude, extent, and variety of work; the others, often denominating themselves engineering colleges, give a nondescript trade- school course. A few, like the Pratt Institute of Brooklyn, the Cooper Institute of New York, aid thousands of artisans ; others give costly instruction to the wealthy few. We need in every State a technical university, or a technical-school side to a university, in which the highest possible grade of professional school shall be maintained, and for all the professions based upon learn- ing. Law and engineering, medicine and architecture, theology and agri- culture— all have their scientific basis, and their highest provinces and grandest fields lie where only the highest scientific training and widest knowledge can make them satisfactorily productive of good. Their courses should be precisely adapted to the presentation of all modern science and the best of contemporary practice, to educated and well-pre- pared disciples, by the great leaders of each. That only can be rightly called a learned profession which demands of all its practitioners a thor- ough familiarity with the science as well as with the art of that voca- tion. The planning of the courses taught in professional schools should be capable of being very exactly defined and adjusted to the needs of the profession. The courses of the now more common mixed schools are less easily prescribed. We need a trade school, or a technical college embracing trade schools, in every large city in the country. We should have at least one in each of the smaller States, and from two to four in each of the larger and more densely populated States. The East needs weaving schools and schools of industrial art to serve as a foundation for her manufacturing system and her decorative work ; the West is in especial need of similar schools to stimulate the introduction of manufactures among her agricultural dis- tricts. The South is in want of technical and trade schools to give her material to introduce into her cotton mills and metallurgical works. All TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 543 parts of the United States need many such schools where at the moment one exists. Manual-training schools are required wherever boys and girls are growing up to lives in which industry and skill are their only ways to competence, or even to security from an old age of poverty and suffering. There should be not less than ten of these schools to every congressional district in the country, and they should be open to the poorest, offering instruction in all the trades to the boys, in all the domestic arts to the girls. The Curricula of the Schools furnish a subject for constant dis- cussion, not only among educators, but among parents and pupils. In relation to those of the ''culture schools," those of the scholastic char- acter which have grown into shape from the monastic period in which they originated, and under the influences of that form of culture which they are intended mainly to perpetuate, there is little question. The purpose and method of the classical education are well defined and settled from primary school to university; but the later scientific and mixed schools, and the technical schools, have a less well-defined form, as they have a less exactly prescribed purpose. Were we permitted to organize the ideal school and system of education, the task would be comparatively easy, and we should lead the pupil of the primary through the secondary school into the college and the university, finally giving him his profes- sional training after he had acquired as good an education as time and means may permit. But, even at this advanced period, we find, often, less than one-half the students in our law schools holding college diplomas and already well educated. The young man seeking to enter a profes- sion must very often, if not usually, either secure his professional train- ing before entering upon a college course, or not at all ; and we cannot shut out the best youth of the country from the professions because, not hav- ing inherited wealth, they cannot first secure a liberal education. If this proposition be correct, we find a reason for the fact that the professional schools, as a rule, demand of their entering students only that preparation which is essential for the successful prosecution of the professional studies. It is, at the same time, well understood by all that the possession of a liberal education is in the highest degree desirable, and every young man of sense and ability seeks as much of this great good as his circum- stances permit. The great problem which confronts the educators of this country is thus to so organize their school- systems that the sous and daughters of well-to-do people may pass by a regularly graded course from primary to secondary school and on into college, and, if they choose, into the higher work of the university ; while the children of parents less favored by for- tune may similarly pass from secondary school into the professional or the trade school, and even, in the case of the poorest, from primary into trade school ; the latter, in this case, becoming the secondary or high school, 544 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. beyond which these pupils cannot afford to go. In eacli school the ideal method and plan is marred by the practical conditions of life. In each school two, if not three, classes of pupils are to be cared for. The pri- mary school, only, prepares all alike ; the secondary school completes the education of the poorer, and gives the children of the wealthy only the first step in their preparation for the higher education which they are to be given later. Its work may even be that of a trade school as well. The college, similarly, may be required to educate the youth, in one case for a professional school, in another for the world, in another for the work of the university in the highest fields of research, in science, in literature, in art. The professional school, of whatever kind, obviously can do its best work when it makes professional instruction its whole purpose and work. "This one thing I do," is the motto, in education as in business ; both because it is by concentration that most is accomplished, and because it presupposes the best preparation that the student can give time and means to secure. That law school, that school of medicine or of engi- neering which gives its whole time to professional work, and employs specialists for the whole list of studies thus given, will be able, as a matter of course, to do the most and best work in the time allowed it. It will, other things equal, have the best prepared and most mature students, and be thus able to cover most ground with its special curriculum. This is one notable feature of progress during the generation in our representa- tive scientific and professional schools. All are moving their requirements upward and eliminating the elementary and non-professional work, and offering a larger and larger proportion of the purely professional and characteristic branches. With the engineering schools, this progress is accelerated and compelled by the need of higher and higher mathematical preparation ; and, with each step in this direction, the student gains in his whole range, the additional time demanded for the increased mathe- matical preparation being also certain to insure more attention to the languages and the literatures, as well as to the scientific studies of the preparatory schools, which, in turn, are by this pressure continually raised to a higher grade. The demand of the school of engineering for higher algebra brings in students familiar with French ; the call for solid geometry insures the offering of chemistry or of physics ; and the require- ment of trigonometry brings in students who have studied, very likely, two modern languages. But a large class of students desiring to enter the professional engineer- ing or other schools cannot give time and money to a course of eight years duration, dating from the termination of their elementary studies at, say, eighteen, taking first a liberal education and then a professional training. These will seek the school which offers the more essential professional studies, and so much of general education as can be crowded with them TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 545 into four years. The majority of our schools at present supply this demand, and rarely approximate the ideal type above alluded to. This must probably long remain the fact with most technical schools. Preparation for the technical school, or for those which are attaining the rank of professional schools, at least, is settled as to character and extent by the demands of those schools ; and they, in turn, are governed and controlled by the conditions of their environment. They require as complete preparation as they can secure from the schools which feed them ; the latter give as good a preparation as the circumstances and age of their pupils and their own facilities permit. In neither case is it a matter of choice, purely. Each is continually demanding more of the schools below, and forcing, as fast as practicable, schools and pupils alike to higher levels of scholarship. Every influence tends to compel the more and more care- ful and judicious selection of the work of the whole series of schools, more systematic work in instruction, specialization on the part of school and teacher, and of pupil, and higher efficiency in the work of both, as well. The separation of the technical from the purely educational schools has been by many, especially by foreign educators, considered essential to the prosperity of both, and especially in the higher grades, where the curriculum of each is forced to receive much, and to reject more, of the continually and rapidly widening and deepening current of human knowl- edge. That their coordinate, and even mutually helpful, operation may be possible is now coming to be seen in the United States, as never before or elsewhere, in the workings of the State universities ; but the existence of and the reputation attained by a number of our independent technical schools — higher, in fact, usually, perhaps, than has been reached by the average adjunct university school — indicates that independence is not necessarily dangerous to success ; and the lesser distractions of the latter and the broadening influence of the former may perhaps be by many set off against each other as fairly compensating circumstances.* * There exists among the members of the professions, even, a somewhat strong impression — one which, it must be confessed, has some justification in the experience of the past, throughout the world— that a technical school cannot be made to succeed, fully and satisfactorily, as a part of an organization includ- ing academic schools ; but that, in the presence of these apparently conflicting interests, the school of engineering must suffer, if not absolutely fail. This conviction has been expressed very strongly by President Eliot of Harvard, and still more so by the German educator. Professor Rouleaux, the head of the great technical university at Berlin, and who is by many regarded as the leader in the profession in Europe. In his address entitled " Cultur und Tecnik,'" he says that, "notwithstanding their intended pursuit of a strictly scientific aim, the technical schools have not concluded their peace with the universi- ties. Even with the best of good will, none of our efforts toward a real amalgamation of the two has ever been successful." He quotes Professor Koechly, who says : "And if not side by side, at least we can fight back to back," in the great contest with ignorance and barbarism. He considers this unfortu- nate difference as arising from inherent differences in aim, and goes on to say that a blending of the two movements has been tried in the United States, our universities being both classic and technic, but that " the experiences hitherto gathered have not shown, so far as observation permits a judgment, that the union can be permanently maintained, or that it has furthered the interests of education in the way that legislators had anticipated." " It is a great pleasure to be able to testify that, although the influences tending to produce such dif- 35 546 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. In studying the history of the rise and progress of technical schools — not only in this country hut in Europe, and not only in our generation but in the earlier generations of European history — we may note that, as Gen- eral Walker once remarked, " the schools of technology illustrate in an eminent degree the law of human progress which I have stated. These schools have not come into existence in obedience to a demand for them. They were created through the foresight, the unselfish devotion, the stren- uous endeavors of a few rich men, and of very many poor men, known as professors of mathematics, chemistry, physics, and geology." They have now become, as he goes on to say, an essential part of the educational system, and he adds : " They are to-day doing a work in the intellectual development of our people which is not surpassed, if indeed it is equalled, by that of the classical colleges." And, further : " In the schools of applied science and technology, as they are carried on to-day in the United States, involving the most thorough and most scholarly study of principles directed immediately upon the useful arts, and rising, in their higher grades, into original investigation and research, is to be found almost the perfec- tion of education for young men." And, again : " That all the essentials of intellect and character are one whit less fully or less happily achieved through such a course of study, let no man connected with such an insti- tution for one moment concede." Ik conclusion, and in direct reference to the queries which form the basis of the discussion of the Educational Congress of 1893, at Chicago, the writer may be permitted to submit the following, not as criticisms of existing schools, but as indicating what seem to him the lines of improve- ment and advancement of our schools and of our systems of education for the immediate future : (1) Progress is visible toward the organization of one "complete and perfect " system of education in every State, from primary school to State university, which shall be so organized as to offer every citizen, as Huxley puts it, "a ladder from the gutter to the university," and entrance into any one of the existing and of the rising learned professions, into the trades, or into any vocation of work, of leisure, or of self-improvement, that he may be able and willing to choose, and with, perhaps, a national university over all. ferences as are here referred to, do and must, as I think, necessarily, and probably should, exist at Cor- nell University, there is as yet no evidence that they are to be apprehended as likely to produce perma- nent effect for ev^l. It seems more than probable that— every officer of the university understanding clearly its aims, and, as must be evident from the fact of his acceptance of duties in connection with it, approving those aims— the presence of representatives of such a variety of phases of educational work must exercise a conservative and beneficial effect in the development of a university planned, as is Cor- nell, with the object of adding to its 'leading' departments every adjunct necessary to enable the stu- dent to acquire a thoroughly liberal as well as practical education. To the technical student, frequent contact with liberally educated men and familiarity with a variety of non-technical work must bring great advantages, aside from the other general liberalizing influences of his university life."— Report of the Director of Sibley College, 1886. TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 547 (2) The technical schools, from kindergarten to the technical school of the university or the great independent professional school, are coming to have more definite curricula, to adapt themselves more perfectly, on the one hand, to the needs of the people ; on the other, to the great educational system of which they are to form a part. The higher schools are develop- ing into professional schools ; the intermediate grades into trade and mixed schools; the lower into manual-training and primary schools, with the manual-training element descending, in the form of the kindergarten system, into the primary schools. Whether, ultimately, the representa- tive school will have a purely technical or a mixed curriculum is, of course, as yet indeterminable ; but the forces of economical change are working strongly in the direction of steady rise, with tendency toward concentration and specialization, from kindergarten to professional school. Yet, as President Walker has suggested : " Possibly some ultimate form for institutions of the higher learning may yet be developed which shall embody much of both the modern school of technology and of the old- fashioned college, with, perhaps, something- taken from neither, but originating in the larger, fuller, riper life of a happier and richer future." For the present, the independent schools will probably continue to offer a curriculum containing extra-professional studies. The universities will probably more and more restrict their professional schools to professional work, leaving the student the privilege of either taking bis educational course in advance, or as contemporary elective work in other departments.* (3) The universities are establishing, continually, more and more defi- nitely separated schools of culture and of the applied sciences and of the professions ; each having its strictly defined place, purpose, and curricu- lum, its exactly prescribed conditions of admission to its courses, and employing a staff of specialists to give the instruction which it offers as * It is a curious fact that while the whole tendency, in the United States and in other countries, is obviously toward the organization of a system of state-supported schools, with a state university at the head, and toward a constantly more and more completely hierarchic form, there has arisen in France, at the very fountain-head of this movement, a sentiment favoring the destruction of the whole system, the breaking up of the state organization and replacement by local and limited organizations. The system now in operation, as established in 1808, by the first Napoleon, constitutes the Minister of Public Instruc- tion the hvad of the national organization. He provides for the inspection of the schools and colleges, the conferring of degrees, on recommendation by the proper authorities, and the appointment of profes- eors and teachers, and thus controls the whole educational machinery of Prance. The country is divided into academic districts, each having its special faculty, with a rector at its head, who is assisted by a corps of inspectors ; the scheme being in some respects like that of the University of the State of New York, but endowed with larger scope of operation and greater powers. In each district an academic council has charge of matters of discipline ; a faculty of letters attends to the curriculum in its field, and another of science takes charge of that branch. Faculties of law, medicine, theology supervise the work of the professional schools in each of those departments. Of late, Jules Simon, Jules Ferry, Taine. and others have proposed the reconstruction of the system in such manner as to produce a considerable number of local systems, corresponding somewhat to our own separate State systems, each with its own local uni- versity and underlying secondary and primary schools ; breaking up the University of France, as the whole is now called, into a collection of independent but very similar smaller provincial universities. One reason urged for this change is that the Academy of Paris secures too large a proportion of stu- dents ; another is thai greater independence is thought desirable in the provincial sections and in the large cities outside Paris. 548 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. its peculiar work. The college is confining itself more and more closely to its work of education of the graduate passing into business life or of the man going upward into the university. The schools are similarly tak- ing defined places in the general system, and complying more fully with the demand of the college and the university for good preparation of their entering classes, and with the demand of the people for a fitting prepara- tion of the youth passing out from them into the common vocations of life. The independent schools are choosing their work, concentrating their strength and energies, and better and better performing a more and more precisely defined part of the great work. Organization, systematization, concentration, specialization, union of distinctly separated and different elements into an orderly and complete whole, are the striking characteristics of the changes now progressing in our whole educational system. The outcome will probably be the forma- tion of complete State organizations of schools, constructed with reference to the needs of a people, from kindergarten and primary school to college and university and professional school, including manual -training and trade schools, properly distributed as above indicated to be desirable, and, cooperating with this organic whole, here and there a special school inde- pendently doing its chosen work and serving as a stimulus and example to the official school. Washington's great hope — the Washington na- tional university — may, perhaps, ere long take form and assume as its province that of preparation of strong men, of refitting learned teachers and professors for the universities and colleges of the States, and, espe- cially, of carrying on and promoting research in every field of human knowledge. We have had no real university since the days of the Ptole- mies and the foundation of the Alexandrian school. The monastic and scholastic element gave us but a narrow and fragmentary education. The introduction of the sciences during the years since Newton and Gilbert, of the applied sciences since Lavoisier, of the arts since Vaucanson, and of instruction in the constructive professions, beside that offered the older "learned" professions — these have reconstituted the university; and now, as never before for two thousand years past, we have looming up before us the outlines of an all-enclosing educational structure which comprehends the learning and the principles of the whole range of the lit- eratures, the arts, and the sciences of contemporary human development. Of this horizon and zenith reaching arch, perfect and complete as it soon may be, culture and learning are the voussoirs, and technical educa- tion is the keystone which sustains the whole and its superincumbent bur- den, the higher life of a people. Those hundred " prophetic voices concerning America," preserved by Charles Sumner in his remarkable little book under that title, unite in predicting marvelous growtli and a wonderful future for the people of the United States — which means, at a not distant future time, at least the DISCFSSIOK 549 continent of North America ; but this can only prove true prophecy when the people of the United States and of every State shall have performed their greatest work and their noblest duty by insuring to all their succes- sors the lofty privilege of education, each for his own life, and of system- atic training, each for his own chosen work in life. De Tocqueville says : " The Americans of the United States, whatever they do, will become one of the greatest nations of the earth." * We may confidently hope and believe that his prophecy will be ultimately fulfilled ; but it will come of highest statecraft, not of politics ; of real wisdom, not of policy ; and only when the " complete and perfect education "of a great people for the life and work of a great people shall have fitted it for its final destiny. It is the steady and rapid evolution of this great system of preparation for a grand destiny that we see now progressing throughout the country, and which will soon result in a combination of private, State, and national support of this most substantial of all possible foundations for nationality and life such as will make safe the accomplishment of that most remark- able of all these predictions : " Westward the course of empire takes its way; The first four acts already past, A fifth shall close the drama with the day ; Time's nob'est offspring is the last." f DISCUSSION. Professor R. H. Richards, of Boston : I would like to say a word in regard to my experience in three points that have been brought up by the speakers : (1) Who is the best judge, the engineer or the teacher? (2) Is the immediate or ultimate success to be sought? (3) Is it better to seek first for culture and then professional training, or to seek culture by and with professional training? In regard to the question, Who is the best judge, the engineer or the teacher? we have had recently a very interesting point come up. A very prominent engineering paper in one of our large cities had articles upon the different professional schools, coming out in successive numbers, and among other subjects was taking up the mining schools of the United States. I am to be connected with one of the mining schools, and am particularly interested in these papers. The editor was an engineer ; he was a teacher. Therefore his opinions come directly within this question, Who is the best judge, the engineer or the teacher? He looked up statistics for his opinions, and quoted statistics, ami from these he found that there was a lower percentage of mining engineers, of students who had been trained as mining engineers, than in any other profession. He argues that because there are a lower number of mining engineers, therefore the schools of mining engineering are not doing their work as well as the schools in the other engineering lines. This set me thinking a little, and I began to look at our own experience in the school with which I am connected. He also argues that our schools are too general ; our mining course too general. They do not differentiate sufficiently. We happened three or four years ago to put in a set of differentiations in our mining course. We divided it into a course of steam engine and power, and a course in chem- istry, and so on. We made a third course, in which students took a very much larger proportion of civil engineering, and we still gave them the title, upon graduation, of mining engineers. The first result of this differentiation was that one-third of our * " De la Democratic en Amerique," 1864, t. ii. cliap. x. p. 399. t Bishop Berkeley, " Works," vol. ii. p. 443. 550 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. students who had been given a thorough professional education, with the very minimum of chemistry — went into steel-works, the very works that needed the highest educa- tion in chemistry. The second year following 1 have one instance of a student who followed chemistry to the greatest degree that was given, and he immediately went into mining engineering without any call, or very little call, for chemistry. Now the ques- tion comes up, Are we correct in saying that we can differentiate ? 1 think the answer comes from practice; and, so far as it appears, we cannot. In our school we have a general course, a general mining engineer course, and that is the course which I advise the students at the present time to take unless they are sure of some definite opportunity that is coming to them. The second point of which I would like to speak is the immediate professional suc- cess or the ultimate professional success. The functional method, the older collegiate method, points to no profession at all during the four years of college life. This leaves the matter entirely with the pupil to take his profession when the time comes. The earlier course in the technical schools pointed, to be sure, toward the professional course, but did not put the pupils into position where they were ready to enter those courses. I remember many instances in our own school. In one of the departments the professor was particularly good in mathematics, and we thought there was no need whatever of introducing the pupils to that profession, but simply to give them a thorough mathematical training in the mathematical sides of that profession without giving them any introductions. This teacher was not particularly enjoyed by the pupils during their course in the school. He was not looked up to during the first three or four years of their professional training. The pupils in leaving school met with a great many impediments in finding their positions in professions. They went right back and changed their minds, from which it appeared that they had had a good course, and the only objection that one could see was that during the course the stu- dents were not introduced to their profession. They might have been shown many things at the school. Now the later technical schools have profited by this experience, and they now put in a certain amount of work and training in the school which enables them to launch successfully in the world in their profession. We, at the present time, in our engineei'- ing schools, believe that the three great branches, chemistry, physics, and mathematics, stand at the bottom of success in the engineering professions; that we must in addition to this give some culture training, and some training to start the pupil in life without necessitating his banging his head against the obstacles and obstructions that are in his way; and that is, as 1 understand it, the key of the modern technical schools to-day. Third, culture training, then professional training. I do not wish to go into a dis- cussion of this. I know a man who went through one of our leading universities, took the four years' collegiate course, and took it standing at the foot of his class all the way, and he was practically struggling, as the faculty said, with another man for the bottom of the class. After leaving college he went to his professional school, and then he began to work, and he began to show that he had a very fine mind and a very good intellect, and he has since taken a place equal to the first in his line. Now, what good did those four years at the foot of the' class do him ? He is to-day standing at the very front rank of his profession. President Henry T. Eddy, Terre Haute, Ind. : In relation to our scientific and mining schools, we recall at once that the greatest impulse this country ever received in that direction was due to the land grant of the United States which has set up so many scientific schools. The great land grant which was the outcome of the war, which was a patriotic impulse, and which had in the hope of the framers thereof an increase of patriotic feeling throughout the country, it seems to me lies at the bottom of it. Now the thought which came to us in the address of Dr. Weishold last evening, was that the classical study, the study of Greek and Roman literature and the classical course of our own colleges, was of such a nature and had such an effect upon the human spirit as in a certain sense to undermine something really valuable in our present civilization. We are on this continent, the dominant power, asserting ourselves. It is not necessary to assert ourselves over against surrounding nations, as the German or French nation finds it necessary to assert its nationality, at all. I think we leave that in the background, and do not feel it and assert it in the way we should. These technical schools are uncon- sciously a stronger assertion of our individuality than any old classical colleges which had their roots far back in the past while we were provinces of Great Britain. I merely touch upon this thought, believing that it is already in your minds, and that it relates to the discussion in connection with the two very interesting and valuable papers that have already been presented. DISCUSSION. 551 Mrs. Charles Henrotin, of Chicago : Mr. Chairman— I have been very much inter- ested in the feeling in this country toward technical schools, having sons, and 1 am very much surprised to notice that the education given by technical schools is usually con- sidered only adapted to perhaps what we may call the middle classes. I don't know any class in this country that seems to suffer so much from their lack of specialization as very rich classes. I notice that Professor Thurston spoke as if, first, you were to give the general culture to the rich and then the special culture. Now, in my experience in life I should reverse that entirely. I should be inclined to give to the very rich the special and then the general. I have watched the children of some very rich people, and I have found that when the children are young and show pronounced taste for specialization in study, parents often try to insist on the pure culture and education. I have in my mind the sons of several men who had made a mark for themselves in rail- roading, and their sons have shown the same tendency ; and their parents have dis- couraged it as soon as they reached the age of ten or twelve years, and have insisted, in spite of the manifest disposition of those boys for technical education, to throw them to the universities of strictly literary and classical training. Now, as I look about the world I see that the men who are leading great financial enterprises, and enterprises especially that have to do with specialization, as engineering, suffer largely from the lack that their view of life was not broad enough, that their early training was not suf- ficiently along the lines of specialization to enable them to seize with advantage the tremendous future of the country. I am greatly interested in this subject, because I see this great tendency among people who can easily afford it to discourage this special course of education. I think manual and scientific training are the most interesting signs of the times. Professor Waterman, of the University of Chicago : I have just a few words in regard to one of the points which were raised in the paper, and that is the relation of broad culture training to the curriculum of a higher technological school. It was my privilege to take the broadest culture course which was offered in the Institute of Tech- nology in Boston ; to get all of the methods of scientific investigation and applications to natural sciences, to political and economical sciences, and to get at them without any of the professional work which goes in preparing the man directly for a single profes- sion, during the four years which I spent in the Institute of Technology. 1 now feel that the training which was offered in that course prepared for almost any life work by putting the men who took the course closely in touch with what was going on about them, and giving them thoroughness in what they did. It seems to me that what has been said regarding the classics putting a man in touch with what has been rather than what is, is very much to the point ; and that by giving emphasis to the present rather than the past a man is best prepared to live completely, and to be an effective citizen and member of society. Professor Allen : The first point that I had specially in mind to speak about was the matter brought out in the first paper by President Walker in relation to the view of the engineer, the practical engineer, as compared with the teacher, and I desire to express my opinion in favor of the value of the teacher's opinion. Being a teacher myself, I should do that with some reluctance, except for the fact that perhaps more of my time has been spent as an engineer than as a teacher, and for that reason I am able through memory to gauge my opinion both as an engineer and as a teacher. I am quite sure that an educator can far better gauge the requirements for an engineer's education than can the engineer himself. We as members of the faculty find that it is not altogether safe to allow the pupil or his parents to decide as to individual and separate studies, and wha't sequence of work shall be carried out. In the colleges the elective system is carried to such an extent as to allow any selection of isolated studies, while in technological schools we decide what subjects necessarily depend upon others, what studies can be carried on to advantage in connection with other studies. I know that students of our own who have afterward been in colleges where the elective system was in full force, have experienced difficulties of that kind. It seems to me the progress we have made in that way does have its significance. Professor Thurston : Taking up the points as they come in order, I would like to say, in reference to the example cited by Professor Richards, of the young man who became good afterward, that I think it is extremely possible, and is extremely likely, that in the case where the young man takes the college course and graduates regularly with his A.B., he may get and probably would get a large amount of culture and a less 552 INTERNATIONAL CONGliESS OF EDUCATION amount of learning. I think 1 should have proposed to the young man to give up that course and go to the institute and obtain a grand, good course, in which he certainly would have a good professional training and just as much of culture as could be intro- duced with it. You must train young men as you find them. You must take the block as it is formed. If you attempt to cut an Adonis out of a Hercules, you would be dis- appointed, especially if you attempted it the other way round. One of the extremely hard cases is how to treat a gentleman of wealth. He comes to me with his son and wants to put his boy in the engineering school. He says : "That boy has no interest except in dynamos and things of that sort ; he has gone through the high-school, and I don't think it is worth while to send him to school any longer." If I can get hold of the boy I can generally settle that question pretty promptly. As a general rule. I tell the father to keep the boy in college just as long as possible, keep him there until he has had a good liberal education ; keep him at that for two reasons — it will give him the kind of work that he needs to make his character a little more sym- metrical, and the boy who sat at the foot of the class for lour years needed most the training that he wasn't able to get. As to the question of preparation for rich or for poor or for the middle class, I should say the schools have nothing to do witli that. The problem of our schools and system of education is to prepare a course of education of which our pupils may avail themselves. Give them that selection, election, and grada- tion of courses which would allow any man to attain the aim that he ultimately seeks. As between the rich man and his son, and the man in moderate circumstances and his son, 1 should presume that in either case the same preparatory work would apply. He wants a general acquaintance with literature and sciences in their development, and the arts so far as they have been developed, as time and means will permit. Now if a man is rich enough to give his boy eight years of continuous study, he may take one of two methods. He may send him to a good technical school, if the boy's taste leads that way, and then he may undertake to give him a liberal education beyond that. Or he may send the boy from the preparatory school into college. Give him a course in college, for there is a wide range in college now. Let him complete his course in the college, let him acquire that knowledge of history, of literature, of the arts, that the true university course ought to give : then send him to his professional school. I am so situated as to be able to make many observations. We have, as some of you know, in the institution with which I am connected, a set of courses laid out in the uni- versity, each one of which embodies a large line of elective work. We also have courses laid out in engineering, and other courses which make a man a professional man so far as training may do so. The great mass of our students come directly from preparatory schools and enter the technological school ; come there and go right on into business Here and there a young man comes into the university, takes up a course in science and letters — so-called arts course — and continues that until he is ready to pass out of the uni- versity into a professional school. If he has come from the engineering school his taste and opportunities combine to make his two years of study largely of pure and applied science. When he graduates and enters the technological school he then will have had all your mathematics and applied mathematics and physics and chemistry, and even a large amount of applied science working in the laboratory, so he has practically com- pleted two years of work in the technical school, and so he goes and gives two further years in the technical school, and finally graduates at the end of six years. If this boy attempts the other system, and goes into the technical school, and later applies for entrance into the university, he usually finds that he is required to know ancient and modern languages, perhaps more than he is able to obtain, and be has to go back into the preparatory school first, and then to the technical school. The pro- portion of young men who are taking advanced work in these schools increases, and is in larger proportion made up of the young men who have had their general training before they have had their special training. If the young man cannot find time or means to take a good general course first, in which he shall be made acquainted with what in modern times is termed culture, and then takes his professional course, he then has no alternative. He must go into the professional school as soon as he can. It is not a discrimination between rich and poor. That is made by nature, and the school cannot control it. The question is raised whether the educator or the professional man should determine the choice. I think the educator should have the majority vote or veto power over all propositions relating to this matter, but I think if he is wise he will keep himself in touch both with the man of the profession and the pupils of the classes from which that support is drawn. A wise general listens with great interest and care and candidness to those who con- stitute his council of war. In the engineering business that council of war is composed DISCUSSION. 553 largely of those who are the leaders of the profession, and I think there is no difficulty in having the subjects cut and carved if the educator holds the control with due regard to all who have any interest, even to the student himself. Professor Woodbury: If I had with me the address that was made by President Walker before the convocation at Albany, I could give you just such an address as I would like to give. Of all the literature that we have had upon the subject of the sciences for truly educating the man, I have seen nothing like it. and if you have not seen it, I wish you would look it up and study it. We have lived to see this subject grow up in our day. 1 remember with great distinctness the position that was taken by classical men in the study of the sciences in the place of classics. That prejudice was strong, and I think in a great measure natural, for the men who opposed the study of the sciences had not themselves studied them. They were brought up in another line, educated in another line, and they really feared, it seemed, that it was going to over- throw their cherished notions, and that will rouse men to opposition in any day, if any- thing will. And this address of President Walker, showing what might be done and what ought to be done, and what might be expected in training the mind by the use of the sciences, was opportune. It is not many years since, it is true, but I have heard no ridicule thrown upon scientific studies and courses of scientific studies since. The point I wish to make is this, that the professor pives to the men under him a part of himself. If he is a true man, he is educating the men under him in a way that will be felt not only for the three or four years that he is there, but he carries it with him as he goes forth from the school. It is that zeal, that earnestness for truth, earnestness for investigation, earnestness to cultivate a love of study that is of greater benefit to the young man than any particularly well-designed course. Not that I cast any reflection on well-balanced courses, but if a man stands before his class well prepared, and with the earnestness to call out the thoughts, the ideas, the energies of the men, he is invaluable. F. 0. Marvin, State University, Lawrence. Kansas : As to the value of general training, I simply want to add my belief to" what has been said heretofore, that general training should precede specialization. That comes from my own experience and from my own observation. Of course 1 am speaking from the standpoint of an instructor in a higher technological school. As to what weight the opinion of a practicing engineer should have. I have this to say, talking from the standpoint both of a teacher and an engineer, to a limited extent. I believe that the teacher should have the casting vote, but we should look into the profession outside, and we should look into our constituency to see what we can do for them ; and what may be true in Massachusetts may not be true at the Mississippi River, for the time being, at any rate. You cannot establish a stand- ard that will be true from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. Out West we have to serve our people, and you have to serve your people, and yet we should all strive toward a common standard of admission for all preparatory schools. As to the weight that should be given to those things which prepare for immediate success, I want to say just a word. I don't believe there is a school in this country that can turn out an engineer. Engineering, if I understand it, in its practice, is the appli- cation of the higher sciences to definite special problems that come up from day to day, and I believe that only judgment and experience will teach a young man or a practi- tioner how to solve those problems. I believe it is the province of the schools to build the foundations on which the practicing engineer can build this structure which we call engineering. I would like to emphasize just one other point. After all, the best things that come in an engineering course for a young man are those things which he acquires impercep- tibly rather than through his text-book — the influence of the atmosphere in which he lives, the personality of the men with whom he comes in contact, and particularly of the personality of his instructor. It is the influence of the man on men. I believe that is of the first value, and in those schools that contain that class of men you find that they gradually are turned out into the world, and become men among men, as well as specialists among specialists. They are good citizens. Mr. Boos-Jegher, Official Representative from Switzerland : Our system differs in a great many points from yours ; that makes it more difficult still. I think there is a great difference between our country and your country, but we have a system of apprenticeship that you do not know of at all, and our children are generally trained a couple of years practically before they study theoretically. The schools we have are divided into middle and upper grades, and perhaps you know of the high technical school 554 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. at Zurich, which has about one thousand pupils and one hundred and twenty profes- sors, special departments for engineers, architects, chemists ; and we have a second grade, which is supposed to educate young men who have heen practicing in some industrial work for several years. Then it takes them three years of theoretical training, and then so much manual training as you have is not perhaps wanted. The lower grades we have not at all. We have got only an apprenticeship board. We have the general instruc- tion, which has no such manual training as you have. TRAINING FOR SCIENTIFIC PROFESSIONS. BY PROFESSOR JOHN M. ORDWAY, TULANE UNIVERSITY, NEW ORLEANS. How far do the technological schools, as they are at present organized, accomplish the training of men for the scientific professions, and how far and for what reasons do they fail to accomplish their primary purpose ? Could we gather a mass of frank, unbiased testimony showing how far the graduates of our technological schools have really satisfied the require- ments of the situations to which they have been called, it would be of great service in the discussion of the subject before us. But a just census of the good, the unfit, and the indifferent men is out of the question, and we must fall back on the indirect evidence afforded by the fact that those who are sent out into the world by these institutions readily find good places, and the demand exceeds the yearly supply. And it may be observed that those who have employed one well-trained student have not uucommonly found places for more. It is fair to infer, then, that the managers of industrial enterprises are finding out that mere so-called practical men are not always to be preferred to such as have studied the principles on which their work is based. Time was when men laughed at theorists, and not without reason ; for many a one has made egregious failures because he knew not his own limitations and the limitations which real matter imposes on abstract science. And though for this a fostered self-conceit was largely responsi- ble, the schools were not wholly blameless. In the instruction of former years the abstract and the concrete were kept too far apart. Teachers were content if their pupils crammed so much that they, could pass the set examinations, relying more on memory than reason. They did not see to it that the knowledge was thoroughly ingrained so that it could re- appear in works as well as in words. But nowadays the student is expected to materialize his ideas and thus rectify his crude conceptions, and get such a grasp of facts and deduc- tions that they become really his own. Now, in all well-appointed schools, laboratory work comes in as the mediator between thoughts and things. Formulas are not to be accepted until they are squared with the actual realities. It is true that in times past exceptional men have become well educated in spite of defective instruction. But our institutions of learn- ing exist not for the brightest only. They should make good men out of TRAINING FOR SCIENTIFIC PROFESSIONS. 555 average students, of students who need to be encouraged and strengthened, and yet should be firmly weaned before they leave their alma mater. For such are needed all the exercises which can help to break them of leaning on their teachers, leaning on their books, and leaning on their fellows, and to build up habits of wise self-reliance. The tyro in arithmetic looks at a question in the book, and minds only the figures. He adds them, and finds that the result is far out of the way. Then he subtracts, and is still wrong. Then he multiplies, and per- chance gets the required number. Now he can do the sum in recitation, but can give no other reason except that multiplying gives the answer in the book. Alas ! too often in the higher mathematics the student is sat- isfied if by various tentative combinations he at last obtains the figures or the algebraic expression that the author gives. It is but a temporary cor- rection of such mechanical floundering to point out, or by Socratic ques- tioning to draw out, the explanation. Put the young man in the laboratory or in the field, give him the proper instruments, and let him use his own eyes, his own hands, his own wits, and make and solve real questions. By so doing you will inspire the dry bones of science with the breath of life ; you will take the listless learner out of the land of dim shadows into the region of stirring realities. If you would make interest interest- ing, instead of asking the boy in so many words to find how much a dol- lars will earn in o years and c days, lay before him a real note of hand and let him calculate its present value. One who has actually done so much domestic engineering as is involved in buying and laying a carpet, will not try to solve a similar problem, as we have known a score of teachers to do, by reducing the floor area to square inches and dividing by the num- ber of square inches in a yard of the fabric, regardless of the distinctly specified size of the pattern. To make theoretical instruction effective it should be carried along side by side with practical applications. In other words, text-books and lec- tures need to be supplemented by laboratory work in all branches. Some who will not understand school methods have said that there can be no real application till the fledgling engineer has found a place and has before him the apparatus that is actually used on the large scale. It is true he has much to learn, but he should have learned in school how to teach himself. The superintendent and the master workman nowadays cannot spend time to instruct him. No busy man wants an assistant who is con- stantly asking what he must do next and how he must do it. Apprentice- ship is obsolete, and instruction is tacitly relegated to the schools, for there it can be given most economically. It is by no means necessary that one should have the largest operations to learn from. The chemist cannot, indeed, safely go at once from working with centigrams in a platinum cru- cible to tons in a reverberatory furnace. But the metallurgical labora- tory should bridge over the gap by affording him the experimental rever- 556 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. beratory wherein he may use kilograms, and vary his trials at will with little cost. But when a blast furnace is turning out a hundred tons of iron in a day, to supply pressing orders, it will not do to change at pleas- ure the charges and the blast. It is not strange that owners and managers of large works hare a horror of what they call experiments, for experi- ments have too often been made at once with the large apparatus, without first testing, at little risk, in the working laboratory. But, in fact, with- out rightly conducted experiments there can be but little learned and but little progress made in the arts. Experiments should be encouraged, but not on the ruinous scale. But it is hardly necessary at this late day to bring forward many illus- trations and labored arguments to show the advantages of object teach- ing, and laboratory practice, and shop-work, and field exercises. For it seems to be very generally felt now that besides the long-established labor- atories of analytical chemistry, those of physics, and biology, and me- chanical engineering, and civil engineering, and metallurgy, and indus- trial chemistry, are essential for the professional schools. Certainly those that have in faith provided themselves with these most fully are having the largest attendance and are otherwise the most successful. The development of laboratories and the evolution of the best possible courses of instruction require much money and thought and time. It is but thirty years since ways were first devised for class work in physics. Metallurgical laboratories are hardly twenty years old. The mechanical are of very recent origin, and industrial chemistry has not got far beyond the beginning. There has been rapid and highly commendable progress in some lines, but even our best-furnished institutions cannot claim that their equipment is full, or that their instruction approaches very closely to the ideal. By far the larger part of our schools are quite insufficiently endowed, and the newer methods of instruction have vastly increased their wants. They heroically do all they can with their means, and accomplish much, but are forced to send out their students into the world without having reached the highest standard. Capitalists who are to draw leaders of industries from the technological schools should see to it that these schools are furnished with all needed facilities for instruction. They should lend a helping hand and a help- ing purse, and not stand aside and expect perfect men to be made with imperfect means. Eespecting schemes of study there is great diversity of opinions, so that it is impossible to make out one that will fully satisfy everybody. Those that are actually followed are the results of many compromises. What proportion should general studies bear to the special, professional branches ? What subjects can be abridged or omitted with the just expec- tation that the student will of himself take them up in after life ? How many studies can the average student carry on advantageously at one TRAINING FOR SCIENTIFIC PROFESSIONS. 557 time ? How far should the higher mathematics be carried in the differ- ent courses ? Should any studies be pursued with chief reference to mental discipline, or cannot real work in applied science be made to give as good a setting up as mere intellectual gymnastics ? Shall French and German be taught with reference to anything more than reading scien- tific books and papers ? Can anything be done to give scientific students a better command of the English language than they now show ? To enlarge on these topics would provoke more discussion than the present occasion will allow. Suffice it to say that the student should become a man as- well as an engineer, and it is not right to let the youth confine himself to a narrow groove for the sake of saving time and intel- lectual labor. If he is to carry much sail he must lay in much ballast. He must make up his mind to study hard, to study much that is not at first attractive, and to study always, or else fall behind his more indus- trious fellows in the race of life. The sciences are so intertwined that no one can be understandingly pursued by itself alone. The young man should lay broad foundations while he can, for all too soon will the constraining duties of life force him to specialize, to merge the full-souled man in the automatic machine. Yet, as the courses are now arranged in many of the technological institu- tions, the average student does not and cannot obtain a mastery of the many subjects which are crowded into the four years. Much time is taken up in making up the deficiencies of the preparatory schools. A partial remedy might be effected by cutting out some things of least importance. And here it may be said, at the risk of touching some tender spots, that it were well if more of the professors were men who had spent some years in professional life, so as to have gained a fair appreciation of what the world of action requires. Real business can best correct one's mental perspective and show him what properly belongs in the foreground. The higher institutions would gain much by confining themselves more closely to their proper work, and throwing back some of the general stud- ies into the lower schools. Of course the preparatory schools should be raised to the highest efficiency by adopting all the modern methods and aids of education, and these schools should be properly coordinated with those above them. The standard for graduation can be most surely raised by having greater and more rigid requirements for admission. Of course this involves some lengthening of the previous years of schooling, and a slight advance of the age for graduation, and such reforms can only be brought about slowly. But looking back twenty years, we can see that there has been already some improvement, and we may reasonably hope for more. If any institution would gain a high reputation in the industrial world, its faculty must fight strenuously against the desire to make a show of numbers ; they must look out for quality rather than quantity. A 558 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. rigid and relentless exclusion of unfit applicants for admission, a thor- ough sifting of the undergraduates every year, are for the good of the school, the students themselves, and the world. A pupil who proves to be lacking in mathematical ability can never become a civil engineer, and, as soon as he is found out, it is a merciful thing for all parties to turu him aside to something adapted to his powers. That institution is entitled to the most credit which makes the best showing of graduates in places of trust and power, rather than a long catalogue of undergraduates. We have tried to view the subject from without as well as from within the school, and in summing up can say : The graduates of our best technological schools have shown themselves to be fairly qualified for their work. The number of well-furnished institutions is still very limited, and we must not consider every one who has a degree of B.S. as necessarily a fair representative of all who are really entitled to the degree. There is room for improvement in all the schools. One of the indis- pensable means of increasing the efficiency of schools of technology is to provide well-equipped laboratories of all kinds. The schools should also keep in touch with the industrial world by arranging frequent visits and excursions to manufactories, mines, engi- neering works, and specimens of architectural skill. The courses of study might well be revised, but this work must neces- sarily be left to the faculties of the respective institutions. The higher schools cannot do their best until the preparatory schools are much improved. EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF EXACT MEASUREMENT. BY PROFESSOR ALFRED M. MAYER, OF STEVENS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, HOBOKEN, N. J. Modern physical science may be defined and distinguished from the knowledge of the ancients, as knowledge founded on exact measurements. It had its birth about the time Newton was born, toward the middle of the seventeenth century. At that period two notable inventions were made: one, the vernier, the invention of Pierre Vernier, of France, who described it in "La construction, V usage et les proprietes du Cadran Nou- vean," 1631 ; the other was the application of the screw to exact measures, first made in 1640 by William Gascoigne, who died at the fiarly age of twenty-four, on the field of Marston Moor, while fighting for Charles I. Gascoigne placed in the eyepiece of the telescope a screw micrometer, and then attaching the telescope to a divided circle, he presented to science an instrument capable of making the exact measurements which subse- EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF EXACT MEASUREMENT. 559 quently furnished Newton the data on which to frame his theory of the lunar motions and to show that they were conformable to his law of gravi- tation. Also, by measures made with the micrometer eyepiece, Flam- steed gave Newton and Halley the data which enabled them to compute the orbit of the comet of 1680. The micrometer screw was subsequently used by Ramsden in his machines for dividing the straight line and the circle. Ramsden's inven- tion, improved by our distinguished countrymen Rutherfurd and Row- land, has in their hands done noble work in ruling diffraction plates with great precision, and in giving the most exact measures yet made of the wave-lengths of light. The vernier I need not describe. It is familiar to all educated persons. Suffice it to say that its immediate adoption as a means of subdividing the smallest divisions of a scale, either linear or circular, introduced a degree of precision in measurement not thought of before the middle of the seventeenth century. Precise science is not older than two hundred and fifty years, only five times the length of the fifty years which to one of the age of sixty is looked back upon as a short period, in which but little can be accomplished by individual effort. The effects on the formation of modern science of the two notable inven- tions I have referred to are undeniable, and it will be noted by all students of physical science that in every addition to our means of exact measure- ment, whether of geometric magnitudes or of the units used in light, heat, or electricity, sudden advances are made in knowledge ; for to meas- ure the connected parts of phenomena is the first and indispensable step to the advance to the knowledge of the law which connects the associated facts of the phenomena. Such advances are recalled by all of you. After the invention of the revolving mirror by our countryman, Joseph Saxton, in 1830, it was applied by Wheatstone in 1834 to the measurement of the velocity of electricity ; and its subsequent use by Arago, Foucault, and Michelson to exact measurements of the velocity of light marks a notable progress in" measures of precision. Rood, of New York, using the same invention, succeeded in measuring precisely a fraction of time as small as the ?Woooo of a second. Similar advances in our knowledge of the radiant euergy of the sun, moon, and stars, and of the distribution of heat in the solar spectrum, fol- lowed the invention of the holometer in 1881 by Professor Langley, the present secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. To enumerate all the advances due to the invention of new instruments for exact measurements would be to give a good part of the history of modern physi-cs and astronomy. If exact measurements, as I have attempted to show, permeate all the 560 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. laws and doctrines of modern physical science, I need hardly add that students of science must make themselves familiar with the instruments and methods used in exact measurements, to have an intelligent apprecia- tion of modern science and to have confidence in the truth of its state- ments, which, without that knowledge, are to many " a stumbling-block and foolishness." Now, it seems to me that the study and use of the instruments used in exact measurements, and of the methods used in combining these measures to arrive at the most exact measure possible, are, from an educational point of view, highly important. The student thus has his mind opened to the view of things and the workings of nature where the minutia, generally disregarded as unimportant, appears of the greatest importance in the correct interpretation of nature. Working with the instruments used in exact measurements gives, in an eminent degree, control of the hand, and training of the eye to minute and careful vision ; and after the measures are made, the plotting of them in a curve in which the correctness or incorrectness of the measures made is shown to the eye at a glance, cannot fail to further the appreciation of careful and exact work on which often depends success in the practice of a profession or of an art. THE ED UCA TIONA L VALUE OF A P PLIED MA THEM A TICS, INCLUDING ENGINEERING. BY F. B. HUTTON, C.E., PH.D., PBOFESSOB OF MECHANICAL ENGINEEBIXG, SCHOOL OF MIXES, COLUMBIA. The committee on programme for the Department Congress of Tech- nological Instruction has requested the writer, through Commissioner W. T. Harris, to prepare a brief paper on the above subject in order to open the debate upon it. The compliment is accepted in the hope that, while securing agreement in the main, there may yet be additional light and confirmation thrown upon the subject by those who will participate in the discussion. Assuming at the outset that the important work of the lower and pre- paratory schools is well done, to fit the student for his technical course of training, there would appear to lie behind the course of instruction in the technical schools two fundamental starting points. The first of these is that which has for its object the familiarizing of the student with those principles of pure science and knowledge which the engineering student must have as the foundation of all his later work. If we receive that definition of engineering which represents it as aiming to bring to human- ity, for the progress of civilization, the utilization of those laws and forces THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF APPLIED MATHEMATICS. 561 which have been provided by a wise and loving Creator for the progress of the race onward and upward, then it is impossible to lay too much stress upon this solid groundwork of scientific principles and laws. These prin- ciples, in themselves, are valuable as means of education where they are derived either by deduction from accepted axioms, or from foundation principles intuitively apprehended, as well as by induction from the obser- vation of phenomena. The educational value of this class of instruction is even most consider- able in the domains of mathematics and what is called natural science. In these we get that mental training which comes from deduction and induction in their most rigid and exacting forms. After a certain point, however, it becomes rarely possible to take the time to compel each student to convince himself of the existence of a particular law or principle, and the instruction takes the form of the predication of law and principle by authority, and the familiarity of the student with the law becomes a ques- tion of his exact memory of what he has read or heard. While it is of course helpful and convincing to know that a certain theorem is accepted as true because it has been proved to be so by some one whom the student respects, yet is it not possible for a man with a good memory to pass suc- cessfully through the requirements of this part of his course in a condition of mental Nirvana, where he is satisfied with the exalted plane of achieve- ment in the text-book or lecture-room atmosphere, while the other facul- ties of his mind, which education must bring out and strengthen, lie com- fortably and lazily undisturbed so far as the course of study is concerned ? The second starting point in technical instruction is that from which the paths lead to the application of these scientific principles and natural laws to the problems of civilization and industry as they come to the engineer. This is instruction in applied mathematics, applied physics, or applied chemistry, as distinguished from the study of these as pure sciences, and is an instruction which is deemed of paramount importance. It begins, perhaps, at the middle of the school life of the student, but it ends only with the end of his natural or active life. It forms that part of a man's education which is never completed, and possibly does not stop with the end of existence upon this planet. It is difference in ability to apply successfully his knowledge of principles in the conduct of prac- tical affairs, which differentiates the successful practitioner of engineering from him who is professionally but a cumberer of the ground, for whom no one has any use. This instruction in applied science or engineering will, of necessity, be given along two lines. Every formula of practical value must have its theoretical expression which is deduced a priori, modified by coefficients of experience and practice, which shall take account of variable conditions or factors which the exact theoretical formula cannot, from the nature of the case, embrace. The two lines of instruction in this field will there- 36 562 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. fore involve, first, descriptive and explanatory instruction, which shall discuss these conditions of service, shall record successful achievement, and shall present and explain empirical formulas. The second line, based somewhat on the first, but having its own spe- cial peculiarities, must aim at a broad and far-reaching training which shall make a man competent not only to repeat the achievement of a pioneer, but competent to predict, on the basis of past performance, what, will be the action and result of new combinations in advance of experience. It is a man with this latter capacity who is the engineer. There is no question that this second division is the most important. The first division is most admirably provided for by the engineers' pocketbooks and handbooks of formulae, but we are unwilling at this date to say that a knowledge of pure science and a shelf-full of hand- books will make an engineer. We have a safe and conservative plodder and subordinate, but we have not a man of resources, nor have we the best man that could be made. Permit the digression to say that by the foregoing it is not intended to undervalue the pocketbooks. The engineering student should be taught to use them wisely and accurately, as a part of his school training in the drawing-room. But exactly as his knowledge of the use of the slide rule cannot be permitted to take the place of drill in the use of logarithms, so the handbook cannot be used exclusively, to the exclusion of individual responsibility and thought, without a tendency narrowing and belittling in its character so far as the man himself is concerned. The thesis of this paper, then, is that the applied mathematics, includ- ing engineering, is as efficient a means of educating a man as any study of the curriculum ; and the reason for this is that the study of engineering gives a scope and an occasion for the development of the reasoning powers, of the critical faculty, and of the power of intelligent and wise choice, and that the development of these powers will result in a stronger man, a more reliable and firm character, and a broader grasp of the sig- nificance of professional opportunity. It has been conceded that a fundamental defect attaching to the study of languages, either classic or modern, is their tendency to overtrain the memory for verbal forms and syntactical peculiarities at the expense of those mental capacities of judgment, criticism, or selection which have most to do with the affairs of everyday life. It is this which lies at the bottom of satire upon the unworldly helplessness of merely literary pro- fessors and others, and which has again given sting to the valuelessness of a scholar's training as it used to be, as a fitting school for technical affairs and business. If our principle is right, it explains why, under a system of marks, in a purely classical course, the man who ranked first in a class graded upon ability to cope with the intricacies of grammar should rarely have been as successful in winning reputation as some less con- THE ED UCA TIONA L VALUE OF APPLIED MA THEM A TICS. 563 spicuous wight further down the roll. The valedictorian had an excellent memory and extensive vocabulary. Down the class, however, were those who had more reluctance to yield themselves to the guidance of recorded rule, and yet had in compensation the faculty of perception, of wise deduction, and even of origination. In engineering, when properly taught, from the very fact that it is not an exact science, like the pure mathematics, there is an opportunity given to bring out this most impor- tant principle, that successful mastery over circumstances means success and reputation, which these faculties bring, if other things are equal. To a pure mathematical problem there is either no solution, the solu- tion is indeterminate, or there is a fixed number of solutions. In engi- neering this is not so. He is easily discouraged who says there is no solution to a problem in engineering. The whole history of this century repeats over and over again the solution of that which was formerly said to be impossible, even by high authority. In engineering, the problem cannot be indeterminate when its solution, as in a manufactured article or in an achievement, is presented in a concrete form. It is a most important consideration of any which can be impressed upon a young man, that in engineering problems there are many prac- ticable solutions to every one ; and (here mark the essential kernel of the whole matter) that it is left for him to make the choice of the most suit- able solution under the special circumstances in which that particular problem comes to him. It is this exercise of a trained, critical, or judicial faculty, called by whatever name — common sense, horse sense, shrewdness, acumen, or what not — which engineering, more than any of the other professions, medicine alone perhaps excepted, demands from its successful representatives. It is to be noted further that the considerations which are to be guiding factors in the exercise of this judgment, or critical faculty, or common sense, are not to be found in the school text-books nor in the pocket- books usually, nor from an authority calling down the vista of even an honored past. The choice has to be guided from the conditions of the day and the hour. The achievement of to-morrow must be built upon the success of to-day, the discovery of the last new combination, and even the commercial environment of the district where the solution is to be realized. It therefore comes back upon the teacher of engineering so to shape his instruction in this field that the men under his instruction shall be able to make the most of themselves, he standing by to help all in his power. How shall this be done ? First. Teachers of engineering should be engineers possessing this ele- ment of sense, judgment, and critical faculty, rather than scientists only, competent authorities in pure science, but nothing more. Second. Teachers of engineering should be practitioners in touch with the competition of the day, familiar with achievement of colleagues and 564 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. rivals, and with their critical and judicial faculty cultivated and in active use. They should be able to exhibit the action of the trained mind before the student, and not merely to theorize about its action. They should not be compelled to follow too far behind the lead of those who are at the head of their specialty. This is the great difficulty connected with the promotion to responsible professorships of young men who are put into subordinate positions in the schools immediately upon graduation, with- out an opportunity for contact with the competitive conditions of profes- sional practice. Third. Teachers of engineering should have some capacity as adminis- trators and business men. Here at once a difficulty is presented ; a com- paratively small number of our professors can be the executive head of their institution, although American technical education exhibits notable instances of success along these lines. On the other hand, business exi- gency demands that the head of a corporation or firm shall give his entire time to its business, which the professor of engineering is, of course, debarred from doing. The most practical solution of this difficulty has been reached where it has been possible for the teacher of engineering to have his work supple- mented by lectures, isolated or in course, by successful practitioners who have made a name for themselves in their specialty. This procedure is not without its difficulties in spite of its obvious advantages. The advan- tages are the contact with student and practitioner, which is stimulat- ing to the former in the highest degree, and he feels sure that the point of view of the lecturer is that of the competitive conditions of the day. The disadvantage is the danger lest these very competitive conditions prevent the lecturer from giving due recognition to the excellence of rival achievements. There is the further danger of disagreement between the lecturer and the regular professor, while both may be right. The student is likely to suspect errancy on the part of him who disagrees with a spe- cialist, and the taint of errancy in one subject may extend so as to seriously affect the efficiency of the regular instructor in all subjects, which is, of course, unfortunate. There is the further difficulty that the lecturer may pass over the heads of his auditors, and the difficulty of finding time in a crowded course for much of this sort of additional work. It would take us too far afield to pursue this discussion in detail, but it is the opinion of the writer that the advantages overweigh the disadvan- tages, and that instruction by such lecturers is desirable when practicable. Fourth. So far as the student himself is concerned, his fundamental training in science should begin back in the preparatory. schools, so that the latter part of the curriculum in the professional school can be spe- cially devoted to this advanced training of the man, and the strengthen- ing of his faculties by devotion to the applications of law and principle, and the strengthening of the mental powers in this direction. DISCUSSION. 565 Fifth. There should be symmetrical culture of the body, both muscle and skill and perceptive capacity, no less than training of the mind. How capable soever the mind may be as a tool, the handle by which it is directed by the will must yet remain the body and its ability to carry out the directions which the intelligence gives. Finally, if it be the object of education to lead out and develop the God-given capacities of a man, to give him a kit of sharpened tools and a trained capacity to use them to make him more the master of unfriendly environment, to make him more capable of lending a hand to help upward those about him less favored than he, to teach him the basis on which to decide between that which is wise and unwise, between right and wrong, then the contention of this paper is that there is no training in education superior to engineering, when properly carried out, to pro- duce self-reliant, independent, creative thinkers — to produce God-like men. DISCUSSION. Professor Robert H. Thurston, of Sibley College, Ithaca, N. Y. : The edu- cational value of applied mathematics and of engineering has, I think, always been more or less recognized from the earliest times. The fact has been that applied mathe- matics have not, until these later days, been looked upon as of sufficient importance, educationally, to secure for them a very important place in the curricula of the schools. The only university giving instruction in all the literatures, arts, and sciences of its time was that of Alexandria, the home of Euclid ; and Hero the Younger, Archimedes, and their kind were teachers of applied mathematics, even though they, like all Greeks and all learned men of every nationality of that time, took no great interest in their practical employment. But their value as a discipline was recognized and utilized. During the succeeding centuries, up to recent times, the arts progressed and science made great strides, and, more important than all, science found application in the arts ; but for a thousand years the schools remained under the influence and direction of the cloisters, and only literature had real interest for them. The natural sciences made slow progress ; mathematics gained little until the times of Newton and Descartes ; and applied science, of whatever department, remained unrecognized by the schoolmen. To-day for the first time, and in the United States mainly, we find this attempt made deliberately and earnestly — usually by the State governments of the West and of the Middle States ; while the independent schools, having for their main purpose the pro- motion of professional training in the constructive arts — in engineering, as we have come to call them — are taking a more complete form as educational institutions than the older schools ever approached. It is these schools which have done most to illustrate the educational value of the applied sciences, and especially of applied mathematics. These studies, given as a matter of business and for a business purpose, have shown themselves to have extraordinary educational value in ways which make them helpful in every department of a " complete and perfect education." The peculiar discipline afforded by the mathematics, pure or applied, is that of the reasoning and logical faculties. The study of pure mathematics gives power of starting from precisely defined premises, with quantities of exactly measured value, and of pro- ceeding step by step, with absolute accuracy and quantitatively precise measures to a result which is as exact and certain as the premises upon which it is based. Precision of definition and measure, accuracy of process, and exactness of each operation become, under this drill, intuitive and habitual. No qualities of mind are of greater importance, either to the development of character or to the acquirement of those qualities which give life success and value. Engineering and the applied mathematics do still more. Engineering consists in the application of all available scientific knowledge, of applied science in every field, to the arts of construction. The purpose and outcome of the education given by these profes- 566 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. sional schools is business ; but an inevitable result of this course of intellectual applica- tion is the training of the reasoning and constructive faculties, and the production of a certain combination which no other course of instruction ever yet gave or could give. Here the judgment comes in as an element of education, and is itself a product of educa- tion ; and the man inevitably acquires wisdom where he before too often attained only to cyclopedic knowledge, and that of the most unavailable and valueless kind. The qualities acquired by the gymnastic training of the older curriculum were only the cul- tivation and strengthening of the faculties, as the gymnast in the ring or in his boat builds up and symmetrizes his muscles. It does not follow that he is more useful to him- self or to his fellows for the possession of a better disciplined mind or body. He is simply prepared to make himself a more useful member of society, and to get more out of life for himself and others. Engineering, in its applications of science to specific ends, to the solution of problems exactly defined in advance, fits the man to make direct and productive application of his faculties, to conquer the world for himself, and to help his neighbor and the race. Engineering, more than any other, is a profession based upon applied mathematics. It affords the mind that combination of exercise and discipline, that power of doing, and that knowledge of the ways of doing, which best trains the man and best prepares him for life and work. 1 should say that applied mathematics, as a study, may be relied upon to give the mind apprehension of exact and clear thinking, and of absolute, chain-like logic, such as no other intellectual exercise can give ; that the study of the sciences generally gives the habit and the power of precise observation and accurate statement ; that the application of the sciences to the constructive arts, in the higher departments of engineering, trains the mind, and the character as well, and gives judg- ment, and the habit of using it with discretion and with fruitfulness of result. I would, in view of these well-established facts, go even further than the writer of the paper under discussion, and would uphold the thesis that, in the most important branches of education, engineering and its preliminary studies give the man a better training in the most important elements of the perfect character, intellectually, than any other known element of the curriculum ; and I would assert that they give development in directions in which the old curriculum was comparatively useless and ineffective. The older schools gave knowledge; these give wisdom. The older gave a leading- stri ng ; these give the power and the confidence needed to go alone. Those gave every oppor- tunity to develop the weaknesses of human vanity, to make a pedant, or an intellectual '•dude" ; these prune out every such folly, and teach the man to stand upon a real foundation of knowledge and power, or, if unequal to his task, to fairly judge, to admire, and to respect those who can and will. Pedantry in engineering is even more nearly unknown than in medicine. It flourishes only among half-trained or unsym metrically trained minds, and then only when the experiences of practical life do not come in to discipline the callow brain. The applied mathematics, the professions, engineering even, do not give a complete and perfect education, nevertheless ; and I am only the more earnest in advocacy of the value of the "liberal education," after long observation of the effect of an education restricted to professional studies, whether in law, medicine, theology, or engineering, A truly " liberal " education is one which embodies in the curriculum the elements of all the literatures, all the sciences, and all the arts which make the life of the time. The older schools, especially those of a century and more ago, did not and could not give a liberal education in the true sense ; such, for example, as could the school at Alexandria in its time. Nor could the professional schools of any time, so far as they restricted themselves to professional work and the preparation for it, provide an educa- tion in any proper sense liberal. The classical education of the Latin schools is as far from a liberal education as is the modern education of the professional schools. The "complete and perfect education" of Milton involves and insists upon the whole basis of intellectual life : literature, the applied as well as the pure sciences, and the intellec- tual substance of the arts of the time. All these unite and constitute essential elements of the whole. Give the boy and the girl as broad and liberal an education as time and means permit ; send the youth into the higher schools and the colleges to obtain from the great masters in all the departments of real education such know ledge and discipline as they can provide ; then semi the matured and trained mind into the professional school to secure familiarity with the arts of doing as well as the knowledge and judg- ment required for successful doing. Only then will the character and the faculties of the individual have become all that can be made of them in the morning of life. Thence- forward the soul must travel its own path, in its own way, and by its own light. MEANS OF DEVELOPING SLOW PUPILS. 567 SHOP-WORK AND DRA WING AS MEANS OF DEVELOPING SLOW PUPILS. BY PROFESSOR R. H. RICHARDS, OF BOSTON, MASS. We shall all agree that a teacher should have in his possession as many means or tools as he can, in order that he may meet the needs of as many varieties of mind as possible. The analytical or mathematical method stands at the head of the list, and always will do so. There are minds, however, which have difficulty in accepting the dictum of pure mathe- matics, while a graphical representation or solution quickly removes their doubts and they go forward with renewed confidence. We might allude to the graphical method as the perspective of mathematics. Simple illus- tration : A student is to compute from the number of cart-loads of pota- toes the number of bushels to the load, and the cost per bushel and the total cost of the lot. If he is to do the same for a lot of carrots, the bright boy will see through it at a glance. The slow boy may get mixed up and multiply his potatoes by his carrots, and lose his way. If the problem is shown him in the form of a parallelopipedon, with the number of loads scaled off on one edge, the number of bushels to the load on a second, and the price per bushel on the third, he gets the perspective or compre- hensive view of the whole, and sees the value of the areas as well as the solid, and the foolishness of multiplying potatoes by carrots. The graphical method always helps to clear the mind when it is in doubt. The bright, quick minds see at once. The doubting Thomases have to try in order to see. Shall we condemn the doubters and tell them they are not worthy of an engineering education, or shall we help them ? There are easily ten places waiting for this class to one for the bright class ; and in some instances the plodding fellows will fill those ten places more satisfactorily than the bright, quick fellows who are hurrying to the lead, even while the latter are en route. Now graphical methods run through everything in physics, chemistry, and mathematics, and the engineering applications thereof. We have graphical statics, showing the relations of stresses in structures, telling us how strong the various beams, posts, ties, and struts should be in bridges, roofs, and other structures ; making a complete check upon mathematical computations, and a completely new and different side of attack for the mind which has trouble with the analytic method. We have graphical dynamics, if I may use the phrase, giving the rela- tions of time-space-force which go together to constitute power. We have graphical hydrostatics, showing pressures and columns. We have graphical hydrodynamics, showing columns pressures, deliveries, velocity of motor, velocity of wheel, velocity ratio for best economical results. 568 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. In plotting results we have, for instance, Thurston's triangle of the copper-zinc-tin alloys, combined with their tensible strength, showing at a glance where the highest and where the lowest result is to be found, with the percentage compositions thereof. In slag calculation we have the five- line problem, designed by myself, of solving at a glance the computation for mixing two compounds in such a proportion as to produce a desired compound. When a young man reaches the point that he asks for paper and pencil in order to answer your question, then you may know he is going to give you some real information and is not going to talk generalities. Need I say anything more in favor of drawing ? I think not. How, then, are we to get this result ? We must teach him drawing — free-hand drawing, mechanical drawing, projections, descriptive geom- etry— so that he may draw the rear side of a cube or any regular solid without going round to see it, so that his imagination carries him through the solution of intricate problems in points, lines, planes, surfaces, and solids. These studies will be found to greatly help his analytical studies, explaining and clearing them up at every point. So far I have only spoken of drawing. Now I will speak of shop-work, and will begin by saying that just as drawing is a means of explaining and clearing the intricate parts of mathematics, of analytical and applied mechanics, and of the study and design of structure and of machinery, just so also is shop-work upon the use of materials. No engineering course can afford the time for a great deal of shop-work. The time required to make elaborate work is quite foreign to a school of engineering. But a course should be given of sufficient length that the student shall feel at home in the use of wood, cast-iron, wrought-iron, and steel ; and he should reach the point where he would feel as great a shock to see a material misused — for instance, cast-iron used as a tie-rod — as he would if he saw a horse harnessed up with his face toward the cart. I have now mentioned drawing and shop-work independently ; it remains for me to speak of them in their relation to each other. Mechanical drawing and shop-work are each independent forms of language. Drawing is an expression of thought upon a flat surface. Shop- work is an expression of thought occupying space. The making of a drawing from an object is a good mental exercise, as is also the making of an object from a drawing. But when a student has made a drawing from an object, and, without further reference to the object, has made a repro- duction of it from his own drawing, he has felt and understood that most useful of modern appliances — the working drawing. Now, am I taking too radical a position if I — after lamenting, as we have all lamented, our inability to take from the brain of the departing octo- genarian something which can be mechanically given to the rising youth, whereby he may start in life with a distinct advantage over what we had EDUCATIONAL PROCESS OF TRAINING AN ENGINEER. 569 when we began, starting on a higher plane, higher by the amount that he has received mechanically from the brain of the dying man — am I taking too radical a position if I say, Let us use to a certain safe extent rapid methods of acquiring experience ? Let us not take off from or diminish one iota from our mathematic and analytical methods of teach- ing ; but if we can enlarge our student's sphere to some extent by the use of graphical methods, may we not safely do so ? Must he be required to plod through every single thing without a short cut anywhere ? I think not, and I think there is no place where shortened methods can be more easily found, adapted, and used, than in graphics. The danger of too free a use of them must, however, be kept constantly present. I believe a judicious use of shortened methods will enable us to increase somewhat the training and experience as well as the culture of our pupils. THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS OF TRAINING AN ENGINEER. BY PROFESSOR G. LANZA, OF MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY. In order that I may be able to do justice to the main portion of my subject in the time at my disposal, I shall begin by laying down a few fundamental propositions, without stopping to prove them. (1) In order to impart to any individual the best mental training, and hence the best education, the course to be pursued should depend upon his natural aptitude. (2) Scientific study, and the study of science as applied to the industrial work of the world, is fully capable of giving the very best mental training to those whose aptitude lies in that direction. (3) The development of the technological schools of the country during the last twenty-five years has been phenomenal, whether we consider the number of the schools, the number of the pupils, or the character of the courses of instruction, and the facilities offered for scientific and industrial education. (4) An engineering course should aim to fit the student to become an engineer in the best and most thorough manner ; and it is mainly on the scientific and practical work of the course that reliance should be placed to impart mental power, and hence mental training. (5) The training of the hand and eye should form an important factor in all education, and especially in a scientific and technical education. (6) The recognition of the foregoing statement has led to the introduc- tion of laboratory work in chemistry and in physics, of laboratory and field work in natural history, of manual training in the use of tools, and 570 INTERNATIONAL C0NGHES8 OF EDUCATION. finally of laboratory work on a practical scale in the various kinds of engineering. (7) Those who carry on industrial establishments in this country find that it pays them best to have as assistants young men who understand scientific principles, and who are consequently able to take a certain amount of responsibility and who can grapple with an emergency ; for in a live industrial business emergencies are constantly arising, and the heads of these establishments have less and less use for men who are merely drilled in performing one operation. In England the above stated condition of things is not yet realized, but the facilities for an engineering education are increasing, and there is a growing sentiment in favor of it. Moreover, the influences at work are such as cannot fail to bring about, before very long, a condition of things similar to that which exists in America. If we analyze carefully the work to be done in the different kinds of en- gineering, commonly known as civil engineering, mechanical engineering, mining and metallurgical engineering, electrical engineering, and chem- ical engineering, and perhaps some other industrial pursuits which are not usually called engineering, we shall find that, in many of them, and I might almost say in all, there are, first, certain processes to be carried out, and, sec- ond, attention must be given to devising and preparing the means of carrying out these processes efficiently and cheaply; to the best kinds of machinery to be used for all the steps in the process, including a consideration of their efficiency, durability, first cost, the expenses necessary for attend- ance, also for their maintenance and repair, etc.; to the construction and arrangement of the power plant, whether water or steam ; the system of transmission ; the design and construction of the buildings adapted for the work, including foundations, water supply, drainage, heating and venti- lation, light, lighting, fire protection, and a large number of questions of a similar character, all of which are generally recognized as engineering questions. In the infancy of manufactures the processes are liable to be the all-absorbing problems ; but as any one of these manufacturing interests develops, the processes become more or less settled. When this state of things is reached, the manufacturer who would succeed is forced to pay attention to the engineering problems that arise in his business. Hence the mining, the metallurgical, the electrical, or the chemical engineer must be primarily an engineer, but he must also be sufficiently versed in the special mining, metallurgical, electrical, or chemical processes, to be able to adapt his engineering work to their needs. When we come to the terms civil engineering and mechanical engineer- ing, which have both been used in different senses at different times, it is impossible to draw a line of distinction, and to assert that any one set of engineering operations belongs exclusively to the civil or to the median- EDUCATIONAL PROCESS OF TRAINING AN ENGINEER. 571 ical engineering profession. Indeed, the term civil engineer has been used, at different times, to denote all grades from a thoroughly equipped engineer to a mere surveyor who knows no engineering at all. Hence we may properly consider what is the education which a young man needs to fit him for the profession of engineering, whatever be the special line of engineering which he is to enter. Naturally, we wish, as far as any edu- cation can accomplish it, to put him in the best condition to meet and grapple with the duties, the problems, and the responsibilities of his pro- fession as they arise. Now there are two things which are absolutely necessary for a success- ful engineer ; first, a knowledge of scientific principles and of the experi- ence of the past ; and, second, his own experience. The latter cannot be imparted in a school, and each man must acquire it for himself subse- quently. The man who is not familiar with the scientific principles which con- cern the work he has in hand, is not a safe man to trust with responsi- bility ; for scientific principles are merely the laws of nature as far as known, as shown by the experience of the past. Hence it is that the first and most important thing to be done for the student is to give him a thorough drill in the scientific principles which find their application in his profession, for these are the things that should be acquired in school, since it is only with great difficulty and very imperfectly that they can be mastered after the young man begins practice ; and this view is borne out by those engineers who have been successful, and who have had to acquire their scientific principles, little by little, during the practice of their pro- fession. Too much cannot be said by way of insisting that a thorough mastery of such scientific principles far outweighs in importance anything else that can be done for the student ; and this is so true that it is a decided mistake to neglect this part of his training in order to impart to him greater skill in such processes as will probably engage his attention the first year after he goes to work. The two fundamental sciences upon which the scientific principles of engineering are especially dependent are mathematics and physics. The function of mathematics is to draw necessary conclusions from the assumed data. Mathematics has nothing to do with the correctness or incorrectness of the data. No natural law can be discovered by mathe- matics alone ; the discovery or proof of natural law requires experiment and observation in all cases. The engineer should have a thorough working knowledge of whatever portions of pure mathematics he needs to make the calculations that are liable to arise in his work, and also to draw the necessary conclusions which concern the engineering and scientific subjects with which he must deal in his profession ; and this latter is an all-important matter. We may say that arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, analytical 572 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. geometry, descriptive geometry, and the differential and integral calculus are an absolute necessity for our prospective engineer ; and differential equations is very desirable. The special work to be done in each of these subjects is a matter of judgment with the one who lays out the course. The student should acquire the ability to use his mathematics as a tool, not only for making computations, but also for drawing necessary conclu- sions of the kinds that apply to his engineering work ; and this last is the feature that is most frequently lacking in the mathematical instruction given to engineering students. An important matter to be attended to throughout the engineering course is that the student should be taught to distinguish between the mathematics of his work and the assumptions made at the beginning or in the course of the work of the proposition he is dealing with. The student is too prone not to draw this distinction, and to consider things that are pure assumptions as being the deductions of the pure mathe- matics, and hence as conclusively proved. Such a course is fraught with danger and leads to all sorts of errors, often very serious. In order to avoid it, the student must be taught to think. The other fundamental science which I have mentioned is physics. Practically, a course in physics is the suitable preparation for a proper understanding of the scientific principles of most of the engineering work with which the student will come in contact. Mechanics, light, sound, heat, and electricity are all matters that concern the profession of the engineer so intimately that he cannot afford to neglect a careful study of their first principles. A certain amount of work in the physical laboratory is of great impor- tance for the student, since it teaches him how to ask questions of nature and how to obtain correct answers ; in other words, how to make careful and accurate experiments. It is 'true that the greater part of the experi- mental work of the engineer will have to be performed on a considerably larger scale than that of the physical laboratory ; but, on the other hand, some of his most important and delicate work involves the doing of just such experimental work as he is taught to perform in a well-organized and well-equipped physical laboratory. Next, as to chemistry. I cannot claim for it a similar position of funda- mental importance in the engineering part of an engineering course that belongs to mathematics and physics. Nevertheless, a certain amount of chemical knowledge is of great importance to all engineers ; but when this amount has been acquired, although a further knowledge would be useful, it is not one of the most important things. Chemistry, however, when given in the freshman year, fulfills another important function ; viz. : it introduces the student at the very threshold of his course to a character of scientific work that obliges him to think, and to think in EDUCATIONAL PROCESS OF TRAINING AN ENGINEER. 573 a direction in which, as a rule, he has not been trained in the preparatory schools. Especially is this true of the laboratory work, since chemistry, unlike mathematics, is an experimental science; and we often find that it trains the thinking powers of the student even more than do algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. Turning next to the subject of drawing, there are two objects to be accomplished : first, the execution ; and, second, the power to express ideas by means of drawing, and power to read the ideas of others when expressed by the same means. Of course a certain amount of time will have to be employed at the outset to teach the use of instruments, and to enable the student to perform the actual work of drawing. As soon, however, as he begins to do his work with a fair degree of accuracy and neatness, the attempt should be made to teach him the language of drawing, so that he can readily translate ideas into drawing, and vice versa. Now the mathematical theory of drawing is descriptive geometry ; hence he should at once be taught descriptive geometry thoroughly, so that he may have a thorough grasp of this subject. Free-hand drawing and lettering are both very important matters — i.e., free-hand drawing to such an extent as will enable the student to sketch easily and readily any part of a machine or structure, and to make neat and plain letters and figures. Next comes mechanism, which is, I suppose, the most elementary of the subjects that are commonly considered strictly professional work of a mechanical engineer. It deals with the combination of the means by which each of the machines of the world is enabled to accomplish its own special functions when the power has been furnished to it. It aims to make the student familiar with the methods by which these results are to be accomplished, and to teach him the principles governing them, so that he may undertake intelligently the devising of new arrangements, and avoid making impossible or undesirable combinations. The mathematics prin- cipally needed are algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and descriptive geom- etry ; but it will often save work and enable one to reach results more easily to have a knowledge of analytic geometry and calculus. After he has had his systematic study of mechanism, it seems to me that he ought to become familiar with the usual machine tools in general use ; and, besides this, that he should make a study of some machines involving examples of decidedly complicated mechanism by actually examining and handling them. Then, again, we have a special class of problems in mechanism which concern machines that furnish power, as the mechanism of the steam engine ; but the one portion of the mechanism of the steam engine that requires special attention is the valve gear. Hence the student must have thorough instruction in valve gears and link motions, which shall drill him in the mathematical principles for working out valve gears in all their details ; and also he should be taught the different 574 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. ways of designing and making those in use to-day, the ways of construct- ing them, and their adjustments. The next course of which I shall speak is one which vitally concerns the engineer at every turn, and therefore one in which it is absolutely necessary that he should be very thoroughly drilled— I refer to theoretical and applied mechanics. This term has been used in different senses at differ- ent times and in different places, but, in the sense in which I shall use it, it includes a general and mathematical discussion of the action of forces upon bodies at rest or in motion, and also a full treatment of the strength and elasticity of the materials used in construction, both from a mathe- matical and from an experimental point of view. To speak more in detail, it includes such subjects as the following, viz. : Composition and resolution of forces, condition of equilibrium, determination of the centers of gravity of lines, of areas, and of solid bodies ; the general laws of dynamics, as a treatment of uniform and varying motion ; the pendulum ; determination of moments of inertia and of centers of percussion ; the laws of friction, determination of the work used up in friction, both by mathematical calculation and by actual experiment, etc. Then come the determinations of the stresses in the different members of trusses of all sorts ; and then a study of the mathematical discussion of the theories of the strength and elasticity of materials — i.e., study of the distribution of the stresses acting in tension rods, struts, or compression pieces, beams or other pieces bearing a transverse load ; also in all sorts of pieces that are subjected to shearing, including, of course, riveted joints, shafting, and beams, as well as in other pieces ; the distribution of the stresses acting in a hook or in any tension or compression that has to bear an eccentric load ; the modes of determining the deflections of beams, the angle of twist of shafts, or the amount of yielding of pieces generally under load ; theories and modes of calculation of the stresses at different parts of continuous girders ; determinations of the stability of, and of the stresses acting in, arches which bear a load, whether of stone or of iron ; stability of domes, and a study of the theory of elasticity. Then, turning to the experimental side, the student should be made familiar with what experiments have been made, and with what results they have shown as to the strength and the stiffness of such pieces as are used in construction to bear a load. Moreover, the account of these experiments should be brought up to date, and special emphasis should be laid on the results of those experiments where the conditions of practice as to size, manner of loading, and treatment generally have been exactly, or at least approxi- mately, copied. The student should be made to study carefully the actual results that have been obtained in these experiments ; to collate and com- pare, and to draw from them such conclusions as are warranted ; to see how far and in what ways they may modify the ordinary mathematical calculations and the ordinary ideas in regard to the action of such pieces EDUCATIONAL PROCESS OF TRAINING AN ENGINEER 575 in bearing loads; in short, to put himself as nearly as possible in such a condition that he knows what is the extent of our knowledge of the facts, as shown by experiment, in regard to the behavior of the materials of construction — wood, iron, steel, stone, cement, concrete, etc. — when subjected to such loads as they have to bear in practice. There are a good many cases where some people, who think they are calculating everything with all due care, neglect to determine correctly the forces acting on a piece, or the stresses produced by those forces. A few examples will serve to illustrate. Take the case of one of the columns of a building. When the greatest load per square foot covers the entire floor above, the resultant of the load on that floor acts along the center line of the column, and the stress per square inch due to this load is uni- formly distributed over the section. When, on the other hand, the floor on one side is fully loaded and the floor on the other side is not loaded, then the total load is less than it was in the other case ; but its resultant does not act along the center line of the column, but is eccentric, and the consequence is a tendency to bend the column. When a column in a building is to be calculated, we should determine what is the greatest stress on one side due to having as great an eccentri- city of load as is possible to be attained in the use of the building, and we should see that the dimensions of the column are such that this greatest stress should not exceed safe limits. Another illustration is to be found in the matter of fly-wheels of steam engines. Every once in a while we hear that some fly-wheel has burst ; the pieces have, in consequence of the breakage, been hurled in all direc- tions, carrying death and destruction in their paths ; people are killed, buildings demolished, and property destroyed. In several cases of wheels which I have examined, the stresses in the bolts uniting the separate por- tions of the rim and the stresses in the separate portions of the rim near the joints were greater than a proper regard for safety would allow, and greater than the designers of the wheels would have allowed had they realized their existence. The difficulty was that the designers had neglected to make allowance in their computations for the fact that the bolts were not placed in the line of direction of the resultant tension, but on one side of that line. Another case where the disaster came about in consequence of having neglected to consider the effect of an eccentric load is to be found in the Bussey bridge accident which occurred a few years ago, where one of the hangers had a very eccentric pull upon it, while it was only strong enough to bear the load if it had been central. This disaster caused heavy destruction of property and large loss of life. From the foregoing it is evident that the man who trusts to formulae derived from some handbook to make his calculations for the strength of materials, while he does not know the principles upon which those formulas 576 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. are based and is unable to deduce his own formula?, is a dangerous man to be trusted with responsible work, and that just as there is no royal road to learning, so there is no means by which formulae can be substituted for a knowledge of principles. Turning now to a consideration of the constants to be used, the fact is that it is only within the last fifteen years that a great deal of activity has been displayed in testing the strength of pieces of practical size, and under conditions imitating closely those of practice, and that a flood of light has been thrown on the question as to what are and what are not reliable constants to use in practice. Of course, calculations based upon incorrect constants cannot give rise to safe structures and machines. What I have said is enough to show how very important it is that the study of strength of materials, both the mathematical and experimental portions, should be very thorough and in detail. The next course to receive our attention is thermodynamics and steam engineering. It might be assumed by some that this was peculiarly the province of the so-called mechanical engineer ; but that it is the province of every engineer of whatever name, becomes evident when we consider that steam is the principal source of power, and that without power all the works would have to shut down. Now, let us consider how such a course should be laid out — assuming, of course, that the student is already familiar with valve gears and with the mechanism of the steam engine ; also assuming that he has had a course of heat in his course in physics, and that, in this course, he has been taught thermometry, calorimetry, and the laws of the transferrence of heat. He should then be taught the nature and construction of the steam- engine indicator, how it is to be used, how the indicator card is taken, and what it means, and he should acquire some familiarity with inter- preting the characteristic and also some of the peculiar features of indi- cator cards; and then he should know the general characteristics — i.e., outward characteristics — of the different types of steam engines. Next he should receive a thorough drill in the principles of thermo- dynamics. What is thermodynamics, and what kind of a course should our prospective engineer have in the subject ? Thermodynamics is sim- ply the mechanical theory of heat, or, in other words, the science of heat with special reference to the production of motion. The subject was originally developed from the standpoint of the mathematical physi- cist, and books have been written from this point of view by such men as Clausius and others. Besides the fundamental principles of the science, they take up elaborate discussions of the nature of heat, and a large mass of applications and developments in the direction of pure science rather than in the direction of what we need in the study of the steam engine, or of other heat engines, as the gas engine, the hot-air engine, etc. EDUCATIONAL PROCESS OF TRAINING AN ENGINEER. 577 Now, in the course to be given we must include a thorough treatment of the fundamental principles of the subject, a study of the laws of thermodynamics, Carnot's function, and the whole set of fundamental equations and their interpretations. Then come the applications of these fundamental principles to the gases and vapors used in practice for pro- ducing power, especially steam, and also gas and air. Then a study of the experiments that have been made, and the results of the experiments on the properties of vapors and gases ; experimental determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat ; tables of the properties of saturated steam as pressure, temperature, density, specific heat, latent heat, entropy, etc.; also the same for other vapors, and a study of the laws governing the flow of fluids, both gases and vapors, through orifices and in pipes, including a consideration of the resistances. The . steam injector comes next ; and then the student is prepared for a study of the behavior of steam in the cylinder of a steam engine. In this connection he should be taught the modern methods of analyz- ing and separating the various actions of the steam that passes through the engine, and of giving to each its proper consideration, both in the case of single and in that of multiple expansion engines ; and (in the cases of the latter) the effects of different sizes and arrangements of receivers, the methods of proportioning the cylinders, etc. Next he should learn how to make a proper engine test, both when it is for commercial purposes and also when it is to be made in a thoroughly complete and scientific manner for the purpose of obtaining definite knowledge as how to produce the best results by means of a steam engine. The day when the taking of a few indicator cards from an engine, or the making of tests in which scientific principles and scientific accuracy are not attended to, and claiming that such tests can furnish information as to what are the real effects of different arrangements, is rapidly passing away, the advocates of such a course confounding themselves by reaching too many contradictory conclusions by means of their tests. The student should have presented to him, in a carefully systematized form, an account of the experiments that have been made with such degree of accuracy and such regard for scientific principles as to render them worthy of study ; and he should thus become familiar with what is the extent of our knowledge of the subject up to date. He should then have a good course in steam boilers, their characteristics, construction, operation, and accessories, including chimneys, economizers, etc. Parallel with this course of steam engineering in the classroom, the student should begin work in the laboratory by making steam-engine tests, alternating his duties at each successive test until he has been drilled in performing all the different parts of the work, and in making all the calculations necessary. For this purpose it is much better for the education of the student if his work can be done upon an engine large enough to work 37 578 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION with an economy comparable with that found in such engines as are used in large and well-designed modern plants. In these tests all the work should be performed with the greatest accuracy possible, and this accuracy should be such as to render the test thoroughly reliable. This can be accomplished,, provided the instructor sees to every detail. Later on the student should make accurate and carefully conducted boiler tests on some large boilers. The whole idea of such a course in steam as I have mapped out is to give the student a thorough drill in the fundamental principles of the sub- ject, and then to teach him how these principles apply to the work of the engineer, the deductions and developments from the fundamental prin- ciples being made in the direction of engineering work instead of pure science ; and also, by teaching him where we stand to-day in regard to reliable experimental results, to fit him to appreciate and take part in the best and most scientific engineering work of the present time, and of the future. Another fundamental subject is hydraulics. Our prospective engineer should study the principles of hydraulics, or the laws governing the pres- sure of water, and the flow of water in pipes, in open channels, through orifices, or over weirs. He should also become familiar with the character and results of such experiments as have been made upon these subjects, and should know how to conduct such experimental work. In whatever special line of engineering he is subsequently engaged, he may have to establish a water supply or a system of sewerage, or the necessary works for a water-power plant, or river or harbor works, or at least a dock, a wharf, or a quay, if his works are on the water's edge. Unless his spe- cialty is to be hydraulic work, he cannot in his four years' course study in detail all these things, but he should become familiar in any case with the principles stated above, and then, either by means of an option in the course, or after graduation, he can make a special study of a part or all of these subjects, if he has occasion to do so. As to how far electricity ought to be accounted as a fundamental sub- ject, and consequently required of all engineering students whatever their special lines, it is customary now to require some electricity in connec- tion with the general physics, any further study of the subject being reserved for those who take the electrical engineering course. Whether a considerably larger amount should be put in the list of funda- mental studies will depend upon how far electrical appliances associate themselves with the everyday work of the engineer, whatever his special line. The probabilities are that in the future we shall have to insert a much larger amount of electricity in the work required of all engineering students, whatever their specialty. The subjects thus far enumerated are fundamental, and our prospective engineer cannot afford to do without them, whatever be the special line of EDUCATIONAL PROCESS OF TRAINING AN ENGINEER. 579 engineering to which he is to devote himself. In laying out, therefore, any engineering course, of whatever name — whether civil, mechanical, mining, metallurgical, electrical, or chemical engineering — we should arrange first to give good courses in the fundamental subjects already enumerated ; and thorough instruction in these should not be sacrificed to any other subjects, whether of an engineering or of a general character. When this has been done, we must next consider what other subjects should be added, and they may be classified as follows : (1) Those of a professional nature, bearing on the work of an engineer in general, what- ever his specialty. (2) Those of a professional nature bearing on the special line of engineering the course is intended to teach. (3) Those of a general character suited to impart general information. (4) Those which fulfill partly one of these functions, and partly another. In the first class I should place (a) machine design, (b) dynamics of machinery, (c) metallurgy of iron, (d) heating and ventilation, (e) stereotomy, (/) surveying, (g) shop-work. How many and which of these subjects can be added will depend upon circumstances. Under the term, dynamics of machinery, I include such subjects as governors, fly-wheels, dynamometers, the action of the reciprocating parts of the steam engine, etc. The mere mention of these subjects will make plain their importance, and the same is true of metallurgy of iron and heat- ing and ventilation. Stereotomy is merely a species of advanced descrip- tive geometry, and can easily be acquired by one familiar with the latter. Next as to surveying and topographical drawing. Of course, every engi- neer ought to know some, but the principles of surveying are easily learned by any one having a scientific training and some skill in handling measur- ing instruments ; and nicety of execution can only be attained by long continued practice, which can be acquired after leaving school. Survey- ing has sometimes been assumed to be the chief function of the civil engi- neer, and frequently a man who was merely a surveyor would call himself a civil engineer; but the progress of the world is sweeping this away, and a mere surveyor is no longer considered to be an engineer any more than a machinist is an engineer. When we come to geodesy, it requires a thorough training, but it is a subject by itself and does not form a part of engineering. Next, as to shop-work, remarks might be made very similar to those already made in regard to surveying. It is a matter in which every engineer ought to have some practice, but which should not be allowed to crowd out more important engineering work. Indeed, it would be well if this could be acquired at a manual-training school before the student enters the engineering school. Next, as to the studies of the second class, we may make two sub- divisions : First, those requisite for such specialties as can be developed 580 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. by a suitable addition of certain lines of work, and where these lines of work depend upon the previous training that has been given ; and, second, those where a considerable knowledge of and hence a drill in chemistry are necessary. In the first subdivision I should place bridges, hydraulic engineering, railroad engineering, with special reference to permanent way ; railroad engineering, with special reference to motive power and rolling stock ; marine engineering, mill engineering, naval architecture, electrical engineering, and others as they may arise. In the second subdivision I should place mining, metallurgical, and chemical engineering, and others as they may arise. The essential difference between these two subdivisions is that in the latter a certain amount of chemistry becomes one of the essential fundamental studies, and must be so treated in planning the course, though we must bear in mind that these are engineering courses, and are intended to fit men to become engineers and not analytical chemists. Let us assume, now, that we have fixed upon the fundamental subjects and the time that must be given to each ; we are then prepared to map out the course to be pursued in what I have called the second class, or special line of studies, including whatever of the first class we deem best to insert in the list. I shall only mention a few geueral rules to be observed in making the selection : (1) To drill the student in all the details of his profession, or to impart to him experience, is not possible in a school. (Experience can only be gained after he leaves school and enters upon his profession.) (2) To attempt to perfect him in those things that he will have to do when he first goes to work, at the expense of his later success, is a very short-sighted policy. (3) The work in these special lines should be so laid out as to fit him as thoroughly as possible to grapple with the classes of problems that he is likely to meet in the practice of his profession, in a thoroughly scientific manner, and thus to teach him the relations of his scientific study to the practical problems he will meet later in life. As to the third class of subjects, or those intended for general informa- tion, it is desirable to insert as much as is possible without sacrificing the accomplishment of the main objects for which the course exists. Such subjects are mainly linguistic and literary studies. The first, however, if confined to the modern languages, are also to a certain extent professional, for without modern languages some of our most valuable engineering literature would be closed to the student. Having thus marked out the character and the scope of the studies that should enter into an engineering course of one or another kind, there remains for me to speak of the graduating thesis, and the extent to which laboratory practice should enter into the course. First, as to the graduating thesis, we ought, in determining what should EDUCATIONAL PROCESS OF TRAINING AN ENGINEER. 581 be its nature, to refuse to consider any possible functions tbat it may fulfill as a method of ascertaining tbe amount of progress the student has made, or his capability, and it should be planned solely with reference to the part it will play in imparting instruction of the kinds necessary to prepare the student to make a success in his professional life in the long run. Its special feature should be original investigation, and its chief object to teach the student how to carry on scientific research. . Next, as to laboratory work, I will first say that in giving the instruc- tion I have outlined, it should not be merely classroom instruction that is- given, but also laboratory work. Of course, the student will have, in addition, laboratory work in his own special line, as in the mining labora- tory, electrical laboratory, industrial-chemistry laboratory, etc., besides work in the chemical and physical laboratories. But, leaving on one side any consideration of these special laboratories, and confining our attention to what are understood by the term engineering laboratories — i.e., those bearing upon the work common to all kinds of engineering, such as laboratories for testing the strength of materials, steam-engineering labora- tories, hydraulic laboratories, etc. — we may say that the three principal objects to be accomplished by them are : (1) To give the students practice in such experimental work as an engineer is constantly liable to be called upon to perform in the practice of his profession, as tests of the strength of materials, evaporative tests of steam boilers, steam-engine tests, calorimetric tests, valve setting, etc., teaching him to carry on his work with accuracy, and to take all proper precautions to avoid error. (2) To give the students opportunity to carry on original investigation in the engineering line, as investigations in strength of materials, in steam engineering, etc. (3) Another important function of such laboratories, which is entirely consistent with the other two, is that of taking up and carrying on sys- tematic investigations of engineering problems ; and this can be done in a laboratory, whereas it is only with very great difficulty that it can be done in a machine shop or in a manufacturing establishment. By publishing these results from time to time the laboratory will serve to add gradually to the common stock of knowledge. Original researches should also be carried on by means of the graduating thesis, and, in this case also, some one of the teachers should take so large a part in the thesis, by way of aiding the student, and making suggestions and guiding him, and exercising the proper supervision over him, as to insure that the work shall be well done, and that the results may be of real value. In closing, I will say that the introduction of laboratory work into our engineering courses and the work done by the laboratories have exerted a very great influence toward bringing closer together the engineering courses of the schools and the actual work of the engineer in practice. 582 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. DISCUSSION. Professor C. M. Woodward, Dean of the Polytechnic Department of Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. : The scheme mapped out by Professor Lanza may seem very extensive, but I do not see that it can be cut down without serious loss. I am glad to indorse the view that the last year of the course should be spent on profound study of those principles of mathematics, physics, and mechanics which are true for all time and for every place, instead of attempting to become familiar with prices and mechanical methods of making estimates, the former of which change with both time and place, and an educated man may learn the latter readily enough when he goes to work. Washington University has adopted two features in her course of training an engi- neer which insure an abundance of time for the work as laid down by Professor Lanza, and which provide for a fuller preparation. First. The greater proportion of its engineering students are graduates of the Man- ual Training School. They have, therefore, fairly mastered the rudiments of instru- mental drawing and brush-work, and may. at the start, be considered as proficient in mere drawing. Hence the drawing required in descriptive geometry, surveying, and engineering is done rapidly and accurately, with no waste of time. Second. They are familiar with the use of tools and materials and the elementary processes of construction ; consequently they do not have to stop to learn "shop-work." Washington University expects soon to require this manual training as a condition of admission to its Freshman class in the Polytechnic School. Thirdly. The "thesis" or "professional report" is not required till the fifth or graduate year. The degree of bachelor of science in some branch of engineering is granted at the end of the fourth year, while the professional degree is deferred till the elaborate thesis has been presented during a post-graduate year, or years of pro- fessional practice. In my judgment the student is not fit to begin his thesis till the end of the fourth year's work. If he begin earlier, he is handicapped in the higher applications, and he spends time over his thesis that should be spent in the study of what is already well known and established. Our students generally select the subjects of their theses on consultation with the heads of the departments, but they write and elaborate their theses by themselves in their own way. Of course they are faulty, and as a rule they ought not to be published, yet they may admirably serve the purpose intended — i.e., they show the would-be engineer some of the difficulties that he will meet with, and how he may overcome them, while yet he is shielded from the pecuniary consequences of failure. I am constrained to add a word of warning. Is there not danger of our neglecting the thorough study and grasp of general principles and general methods as illustrated in what is already well known and well established, in our feverish haste to push our students into original work and to publish the discovery of something new ? Is that not getting to be the unfortunate ambition of colleges, technical schools, and universities ? I think it would be possible to point out whole faculties who appear to be more anxious to build the fifth, sixth, and seventh stories of scholarly attainment than they are to properly finish the first four. Professor G. Lanza, of Boston : In reference to the remarks of Professor Wood- ward, I will say that the thesis should be performed under the direction and supervision of the teacher; hence that residence should be required during its preparation. The object of the thesis is to teach the student how to make investigation, and, in order to accomplish this object properly, it must be under the immediate supervision of some one of the instructors who must see that it is properly carried on ; and hence the thesis is really the joint production of the teacher and student; the teacher generally having had the greater part in the ideas. Then, when the thesis is deemed worthy of publica- tion, it should be published with the name of the teacher attached, and no thesis should be allowed to be published without it. VALUE OF APPLIED MATHEMATICS AND ENGINEERING. 583 ED UCA TIONA L VALUE OF A P PLIED MA THE MA TIC 8 AND ENGINEERING. BY HENRY T. EDDY, C.E., PH.D., PRESIDENT OF ROSE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, TERRE HAUTE, INDIANA. The general object of this session to-day is to attempt to estimate how the educational value of the various branches pursued in our technical colleges is affected by the fact that they, in such institutions, are essential yet strictly subordinate parts of general courses of professional study. , The fact that applied mathematics, for example, is an essential part of all our engineering courses, requires the student to master an amount and kind of mathematics which he otherwise would usually have no thought of taking ; while the fact that this study is subordinate in its character imposes certain limitations otherwise not thought of. It shall be our object to discuss for a few minutes the manner in which the stream of mathematical culture is affected, and, as it seems to me, rendered educationally more valuable, by what the engineer would call its canalization — by erecting dams, impound- ing reservoirs, and gates, in order to make its whole flow as useful as possible and let none of it run to waste at its own sweet will. Perhaps the first and most evident consideration which forces itself upon our attention in regard to this study, is the precarious foothold mathematics had in this country until its study in connection with its applications lent vitality to it, and, in fact, made it an indispensable part of the outfit of the professional engineer. Since the establish- ment of the technical colleges — and I think we can unhesitatingly say because of their establishment — the study of mathematics has increased many-fold. Not only has the number of students pursuing it as a serious part of their course of study greatly increased, relatively as well as actually, but the extent to which it is pursued by the average student has been greatly enlarged. It is self-evident that this enlargement has necessarily multiplied its educational value, simply from the fact that it is more used. The facts respecting the spread of the mathematical culture in this country within the quarter of a century of my own experience are so far beyond what anyone would imagine who has not investigated them as to be well-nigh incredible ; and this has been almost exclusively due to the cultivation of the field of applied mathematics by the technical colleges. The designing of bridges and other engineering structures, of steam engines, of hoisting apparatus, of pumping machinery for water supply and sewerage ; the designing of dynamos and motors, of blowers, rock crushers, stamps, and rolling- mills, together with the ever-increasing demands of public transportation in its protean requirements, have constantly called for and rewarded the increasing mathematical knowledge brought to the solution of its problems. The discussion of these problems in the engineering societies and college classrooms has constantly added to the stream of common mathematical knowledge. It is as if the application of mathematics to its legitimate and necessary uses had transformed it and enlarged it, much as the river Clyde was transformed and enlarged by canalizing it from Glasgow to the sea. It was thereby changed from a creek which at certain stages of the tide might with difficulty be used for large craft, to a broad and deep waterway, such that the largest ship- building industries of the world use it at their convenience. I dare say a Ruskin laments the transformation. I do not. Trade and commerce the world over, and so humanity in general, have been benefited by the improvement of this stream ; and so it is with the improved mathematical culture in our technical schools. Its proved utility and importance have reacted upon the study 584 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. itself so as to enhance the esteem in which it is held and thereby greatly increase the care and attention bestowed upon it by the faculties of those schools— all of which has continually increased its educational value. One of the results of the careful consideration thus given to the mathematical part of our technical courses, is that its relative demands for time are duly weighed. Its defi- nite relationship to other work demands that the time allotted to it shall be very sharply defined and conscientiously accounted for, because the student must, within the allotted time, cover a predetermined amount of a given branch of the subject. A due sense of responsibility for time spent is perhaps one of the most difficult things to enforce in higher mathematical study, yet one of whose educational value there can be no question. Now, as I am pointing out, the control exercised over the study of applied mathematics in our technical courses is perhaps quite as effective as that exercised over any other study. Having now called your attention to the increased vogue of mathematics in this country, as having been largely due to the fact that it meets a real need now brought to the consciousness of the professional engineer, and having noticed the improved quality of the instruction following upon fixing responsibility and focusing attention upon a matter to be of so great practical importance, we may profitably discuss for a moment the distinctive scope and character of applied mathematics as affected by its subject matter. It seems to me that the distinction to be drawn between this study and that of pure mathematics, is like that existing between the literary culture of the poet or imaginative writer, and that of the logician or writer upon scientific subjects. The one strives to develop his sense of the artistic and harmonious, of rhythm and cadence, of proportion and form, of sound as well as sense ; while the other must first of all have regard to the facts of the external world, and to truth as it exists in nature apart from suggested ideal relationships. I think this evident distinction in the nature of the work done in the higher parts of undergraduate or professional work in pure and applied mathematics, carries with it on the part of the student an attitude of sustained attention and interest toward applied mathematics which is very largely wanting in the average student of pure mathe- matics. I am tempted to the utterance of very strong statements as to the educational value of serious, attentive study of this kind, which has behind it the powerful stimulus arising from the student's consciousness that it is the pathway to a successfid profes- sional career. Attention and sustained interest form the keystone of the educational arch ; without them, educational values cannot be said to exist. Just consider the case a moment. Here is this study of applied mathematics in its various ramifications built upon a solid foundation of descriptive geometry, calculus, and analytical mechanics. Its difficulties (as all admit) are more serious than those of any or all other studies in the student's technical course. He cannot expect to gain the advantages of the course until he shall have mastered the grammar and vocabulary of this new language — until, in fact, he is able to think and express himself in the mathe- matical forms which are the accepted medium of technical intercourse. What element of educational value is here lacking that can be attributed to mathe- matical study in general ? In the study of applied mathematics the impelling motive on the part of the average technical student is not, it must be confessed, his interest in the subject itself. He regards it as a means to an end ; but he must, and he does, patiently exert his powers for a long period to master this means to reach the end sought. Has not that a great educational value of itself ? All will accord great value to effort like this, yet its effect upon the mind of the student is not so great, I am convinced, as if he had an overmastering interest in the subject itself. Its effect upon the formation of character may, however, be quite as great and VALUE OF APPLIED MATHEMATICS AND ENGINEERING. 585 quite as salutary as the more absorbed study of mathematics for its own sake. That this attitude of willing study for valuable ends prevails largely in the study of applied mathematics will, I think, be generally conceded. It may further be said that in the course of such study many a student finds his very highest interest and intellectual ambition aroused as to the subject matter of the mathe- matics under consideration. Such students, as it seems to me, reap the greatest advan- tage to be gained from this study. I think it but just to assert that no higher educational advantage can be gained from mathematical study in any of its fields than is gained by these students of applied mathematics. This last proposition, however, is one from which some might be inclined to withhold their assent. They would be inclined to think, perhaps, that some of the educational virtue of mathematical study is sacrificed when its subject matter is largely restricted to the range of subjects lying at the basis of the constructive arts. On the contrary, however, I am convinced that the gain in definiteness and clearness of conception as to the precise purport of the discussions brought to the attention of the student, more than compensate him for any loss he may possibly experience in their lack of breadth or generality. The very fact that the mathematics is applied, within clearly understood limitations, to problems many of which are capable of experimental verification, in no way detracts from its educational value or vitiates it as a discipline. Putting aside all consideration of accidental circumstances which render applied mathematics of such great disciplinary and educational value in our technical colleges, I think it can be made clear that it is in itself as valuable educationally as pure mathe- matics by a brief analysis of the educational value of mathematics as compared to that of language, which is perhaps the only other study that in range and importance can be properly compared with it. As has been well remarked by Mr. Todhunter, the celebrated Cambridge mathema- tician, "it is the prerogative of mathematics especially, to supply from the earliest period exercise for the reason as well as for the memory." The manner in which this exercise for the reason is supplied by mathematical study deserves our brief consideration. A mathematical symbol of any kind, be it a numeral, a letter, a line, a sign of an operation or an equation, is of such a clearly defined nature that the ideas intended to be expressed by it may be fully grasped by the mind. Usually each symbol stands for but a single property or relation of simple character. This is in striking contrast with language, where the elements used are words. Those in most ordinary use have such a multitude of modifications of sense, and such a bewildering entourage of subtle sugges- tions and relationships, that before they can be used for any exact reasoning, the sense in which they are to be used must be carefully defined. Is it strange, then, that the immature mind of the student finds that language, with its infinitude of suggestions and hazy indeterminateness, is but a quicksand when he attempts to use it as a basis for his first attempts at reasoning ? He needs something simpler and more precise in its nature, and something whose laws are capable of being more explicitly stated. He finds this in mathematics. To quote again from Todhunter : " There is no study which can call forth the faculty of original thought and combination of known truths, like the problems and exercises of the mathematics." Now is it not this ability to form ideas and distinguish relations with precision which is the supreme intellectual value of education ? It seems to me that in the earlier part of education this can be accomplished by no study so surely and rapidly as by mathematics. It alone is sufficiently simple in its subject matter and relations. Later, when the mind is able to carry the more com- plex relationships, and deal with the probable conclusions of practical life, language 586 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. may be the vehicle of equally valuable educational work ; but the crudity of all youthful literary efforts gives ample evidence that the young mind is unable to firmly grasp the complicated relations involved in the definitions of words. Mathematics rightly taught is more suited to this stage of mental development. To return to the educational position of applied mathematics. There is no question but that its complexity and range is sufficiently great to tax the best efforts of the student at the time he meets it, and there is no question, also, but that by reason of the fact of its application to design it powerfully stimulates that inventive mind-building process which is one of the highest kinds of mental culture to be attained at the average college age. We are led, then, to reassert emphatically, not only that mathematics, in our techni- cal and engineering courses, has lost none of its educational value from the fact of its study along the lines of its applications, but that, on the contrary, this value has been enhanced from this very cause, as well as from the several other practical circumstances before enumerated. DISCUSSION. Professor Gr. Lanza, of Boston : There are a few thoughts that present themselves to my mind to which, I believe, Professor Eddy has not referred in his paper. In any engineering course, one of the principal objects to be accomplished is to teach the student to think for himself ; and a constant struggle is required on the part of the teacher throughout the four years of the course. The earlier the attempt to make the student, think is begun, the better. Whereas the study of natural and experimental sciences plays an all-important part in teaching the student to think, the study of mathematics, if suitably conducted, would be one of the most efficient agencies to accomplish this result. There are two functions to be fulfilled by the instruction in pure mathematics which is given to engineering students, viz.: (1) To enable them to perform the calculations necessary in their engineering work. (2) To enable them to draw the necessary conclusions from the assumed data. Both these functions are all-important, and neither should be neglected, but it is the latter that involves the development of the power of thinking in the student. There is one method, often pursued, where the whole aim is to make the student as good a calculating machine as is possible in the time at command, and where but little attention is paid to the latter function ; in that case the study of mathematics does not develop the thinking powers of the student, and its educational value is not at all what it should be. Another method, often pursued, is to exercise the student's ingenuity in performing a variety of (sometimes puzzling) problems, which are of purely abstract interest, and are not so planned as to bear upon engineering work. This course tends probably to make the student do more thinking, but does not direct his thinking in the channel most suitable for his engineering work. I do not think that enough has yet been done by way of adapting the courses of pure mathematics taught in engineering schools to the objects which they ought to accom- plish. Then, in the subsequent teaching of the engineering subjects, care should be taken to make the student distinguish between the mathematics of the work and the assumptions made at the beginning or in the course of the work of the proposition in hand. A failure to draw this distinction renders the student liable to consider as demonstrated, things which are only proved to hold provided certain assumptions are true, whether they are true or not being left for experiment to determine ; and hence he is liable to draw erroneous conclusions. What I have said is a plea for so arranging the courses in mathematics given in our engineering schools as to develop the power of thinking, thus causing them to fulfill their legitimate purposes, and therefore to endow these courses with their full educa- tional value. Professor De Volson Wood, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J. : I once heard General Walker deliver an address in which he showed the advantages of DISCUSSION. 587 scientific studies over the classics for the development of the true man. I do not antici- pate that any particular study will make an untruthful man true. Over and above the use of books or of science is the impression made by the instructor upon the student. The manner of the instructor, the impressions given out, his zeal in his subject, the ability to excite an interest in problems for study, will be remembered by the student long after books are forgotten. These impressions may be useful in forming his char- acter after the instructor has passed away. Many of us remember the growth of scientific and technical subjects almost from the first. Early in the history of the subject, one of the first great movements was the establishment of scientific courses in colleges, which consisted chiefly of mathematical and scientific studies already in the old classical courses, and made a three years' course. Now the literature is so extensive, and text-books on science so numerous, there is a temptation and tendency to " cram." This process is to be deprecated. Each professor desires that the student shall learn so much ; he too often assigns vastly more than it is possible for him to digest or even absorb. A less number of pages, or even of topics, with more thoroughness in attainments, is desirable. DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL AND MANUAL INSTRUCTION. SECRETARY'S REPORT. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday, July 26, 1893. The Department Congress of Industrial and Manual Instruction met in Hall No. 6, Art Palace. Chicago. The first session was called to order by the Chairman, Professor J. D. Runkle, of the Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass., who made the opening address. Professor C. M. Woodward, of Washington University, St. Louis, read a paper on " The New Demands made by the World's Industries upon the Elementary Schools." The next subject considered was embodied in the "Thesis: A shorter course in the arts, and then a specialization with reference to some definite industrial pursuit, as in the French schools." M. Eugene Martin, Director of the Primary and Higher Elementary Schools of Paris, gave an interesting account of the French system of industrial and manual training schools as it now exists. This subject was discussed by Professor Deatrick, of the Keystone Normal School, Penn.; Mr. Grant, of Rhode Island; Mr. George B. Kilbourn, of Springfield, Mass. ; and Professor C. M. Woodward, of St. Louis. The only part of the proceedings pertaining to industrial pursuits and manual train- ing in the French system secured for publication is that contained in the discussion by Professor Woodward. SECOND SESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893. The second session of the Department Congress of Industrial and Manual Instruction was called to order by the Chairman at 9.30 a.m., Thursday. Professor Gustaf Larsson, Principal of the Sloyd Training School, Boston, Mass., read a paper on " The Sloyd or Swedish System compared with the Russian System of Manual Training." Professor Larsson exhibited samples of sloyd work in illustration of his subject. The official delegate from Russia, E. Kovalevsky, read a paper on "Manual Training in Russia." Dr. H. H. Belfield, Director of the Chicago Manual Training School, discussed the merits of the Swedish system. Professor C. M. Woodward, of St. Louis, followed, comparing the sloyd system with the Russian, as used in manual-training schools. Dr. James MacAlister, of Drexel Institute, gave a brief account of the introduction of manual -training work in Philadelphia. The small attendance in the high-schools first induced its trial. The attendance soon increased in the high-schools from five hundred to fourteen hundred. It did not seem to work so well in the other schools. The discussion of this subject was continued, and participated in by Dr. Paul Hoffman, 590 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools, New York City ; Professor Woodward, of St. Louis ; Professor Richards, of Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Professor Bennett, of the College for Training of Teachers, New York. THIRD SESSION— Fkiday, July 28, 1893. President Ruukle, of Boston, in the chair. A paper was read by \Y. B. Powell, Superintendent of Public Schools. Washington, D. C, on '• Should Boys and Girls have the same Industrial and Manual Training Instruction in all the Grades ?" This subject was discussed by Edward Boos-Jegher, of Switzerland ; Dr. Paul Hoff- man and Professor Charles A. Bennett, of New York, and others. After farewell remarks by President Runkle, the congress adjourned. LIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONOR- ARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL AND MANUAL INSTRUCTION. AUSTRALASIA. Dr. J. H. Maiden, Curator of Technical Museum, Sydney, New South Wales. AUSTRIA. Herr R. Petzel, Principal Manual Training School, Vienna. BELGIUM. M. Adrien Kcelhoff, Professor, Industrial School, Anver6. M. Eugene Rombaut, Inspector-General of Indus- trial and Professional Schools in Belgium, Brussels. M. C. Van Sweevelt, Professor in Manual Training, Saint-Gilles, Brnssels. M. H. Van Kalken, Brussels. M. Eugene Monseur, Professor, University of Brussels, Brussels. CHILI. 8efior Jose1 Maria Muiioz, Santiago. Sefiora Enriqueta Courbis de Valencia, Santiago. FRANCE. M. Hunsicker, Under-Inspector for Instruction in Manual Training, Paris. M. Baudrillard, Director of the National Profes- sional School of Vierzon. M. Berthuin, Director National Professional School of Voiron. Mile. Elise Luquin, Inspectress of Special Courses for Commercial Instruction, Lyon. M. Felix Mnrtel, Inspector of Primary, Superior and Professional Schools, Paris. M. Denis Poulot, Municipal Councillor, Paris. GERMANY. Professor Biedermann, Professor, University of Berlin. Dr. Woldemar Goetze, Director Manual Training College, Leipzig. GREAT BRITAIN. F. K. I. Shenton, Head of Educational Department, Crystal Palace, London. The Hon. Mrs. R. E. Colbourne, Directress of Needle- work, Canada Buildings, London. William Mather, M. P., London. Arthur Monteflore, London. C. G. Holyoake, Member National Association for Promotion of Technical and Secondary Educa- tion, London. Miss Emily Robinson, Honorable Secretary of the Yorkshire Ladies' Council of Education, Leeds. SCOTLAND. John G. Kerr, M.A., Head Master Allan Glen's School, Glasgow. ITALY. Professor Luigi Sutto, Ascoli-Piceno. JAPAN. Mr. Koyama Kenzo, Tokyo Technical School, Tokyo. NORWAY. Herre K. Kjennerud, School Inspector, Christiania. RUSSIA. M. A. de Nebolsine, St. Petersburg. SWEDEN. Herre Augusto Abrahamson, Naas, Floda Station. Dr. Ambrosius, School Inspector, Gothenburg. FrOken Hulda Lundin, Superintendent of Needle- work in the National Schools of Stockholm Professor K. E. Palm<;ren, Practical Industrial School for Boys and Girls, Stockholm. Frtiken Eva ltodhe, Gothenburg. Herre Otto Salomon, Principal of the Seminary for Sloyd-Teacheis, Naas, Floda Station. UNITED STATES. CALIFORNIA. Mrs. S B. Cooper, San Francisco. Paul Garin, Principal or Drawing, Public Schools, Oakland. Miss Emma Marwedel, Berkeley. CONNECTICUT. L. L. Camp, Principal Dwight School, New Haven. LIST OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS. 591 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. W. B. Powell, City Snperintendent, Washington. ILLINOIS. Albert R. Robinson, Principal English High and Maniiiil Training School, Chicago. H. H. Belfleld, Director Manual Training School, Chicago. Augustus Jacobson, Chicago. Miss Josephine Locke, Board of Education,Chicago. KANSAS. John D. Walters, Manhattan. LOUISIANA. William C. Stuhbs, Sugar Experiment Station, New Orleans. Prof. William Woodward, Tulane University, New Orleans. MARYLAND. Duncan C. Lyle, McDonogh School, McDonogh. John W. Saville, Principal Manual Training School, Baltimore. Dr. Richard Grady. Baltimore. Hon. John T. Morris, Baltimore. MASSACHUSETTS. Charles H. Ames, Boston. C. H. Balch, Teacher of Drawing, High School, Roxbnry. T. M. Balliet, Superintendent Schools, Springfield. General A. Hun Berry, Boston. Mrs. Mary Dana Hicks, Boston. Professor George B. Kilbon, Principal Manual Training School, Springfield. Albert P. Marble, Superintendent City Schools, Worcester. Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw, Boston. MINNESOTA. W. F. Decker, Supervisor of Manual Training, Minneapolis. Miss Fannie S. Guptill. Minneapolis. C. M. Jordan, Superintendent Public Schools, Minneapolis. MISSISSIPPI. Dr. Robert Frazer, President Industrial Institute and College of Mississippi, Columbus. MISSOURI. Professor C. M. Woodward, Director Manual Train- ing School, St. Louis. NEW YORK. Professor F. W. Hooper, Brooklyn Institute, Brooklyn. Dr. Felix Adler, Society for Ethical Culture, New York. Miss Grace H. Dodge, New York. W. S. Goodenough, Board of Education. Brooklyn. Hon. Charles H. Ham. United States General Appraiser, New York. Dr. Paul Hoffman, New York. Samuel G. Love, James Pendergast Free Library, Jamestown. F. B. Pratt, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn. Professor Charles R. Richards, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn. OHIO. Frank Aborn, Drawing Master, Public Schools, Cleveland. Professor Newton M. Anderson, Principal Manual Training School, Cleveland. Professor H. W. Compton, Principal Manual Train- ing School, Toledo. Miss Annie Laws, Cincinnati. PENNSYLVANIA. F. Mason Mitchell, Manual Training Department Girard College, Philadelphia. R. D. Crawford, A.M., Principal of Schools, Tidi- oute. Dr. A. H. Fetterolf, President Girard College, Phila- delphia. H. C. Missemer, Superintendent Public Schools, Erie. Professor J. Liberty Tadd, Principal Industrial Art School, Philadelphia. TENNESSEE. Olin H. Landreth, Engineering Department, Van- derbilt University, Nashville. VIRGINIA. C. E. Vawter, Miller Manual Training School, Crozet, Washington. George R. Carothers. Manual Training Department Public Schools, Tacoma. INDUSTRIAL AND MANUAL INSTRUCTION. INTR OD UCTOR Y A DDRESS. BY PROFESSOR JOHN D. RUNKLE, OF THE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, BOSTON, AND PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT. The proper introductory word on this occasion is one of rejoicing. I heartily congratulate you that it is possible for the subject of industrial and manual instruction to get a hearing in so public a place as this Inter- national Congress of Education. Only a few years ago, as you well remember, it would have been deemed questionable, if not an imperti- nence, to ask a large body of educators to discuss its merits seriously ; and the fact that, to-day, advocates of the cause are not simply tolerated, but cordially invited to present its claims in your presence, marks a long step in the general recognition of this department of public education. It is obvious that the social and economic conditions of a country not only suggest, but must ultimately determine, its system of public educa- tion. What to teach, and how to teach it, must mainly depend upon the demand which will be made upon the rising generations when they leave the school and enter upon the duties of active life; All history pronounces this a trustworthy test. If the empire of Confucius accented the old in education rather than the new, it was because the groundwork of the Chinese civilization was laid in tradition and not in science and the industrial arts. If the ancient Romans trained their youth for politics and war to the neglect of the arts of peace, it was because there was not then'a demand for skilled productive labor. Did the men of the middle ages think hand-work degrading ? That contempt for honest toil had its source in the low social and economic conditions of the times. To-day science and the useful arts are the large, if not the controlling factors of our civilization, and it is in these direc- tions that the tide of greatest activity is constantly flowing. The World's Fairs, as they are called, of the past fifty years, have been great public object-lessons in proof of our proposition. In every one of these interna- tional expositions the products of the world's industries have largely pre- dominated, showing that a correspondingly large proportion of the world's workers must be engaged in industrial pursuits, and therefore need an education in which industrial considerations and ends shall not be entirely ignored. INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS. 593 Nor should we overlook in this connection the great educational value of these expositions. It will be sufficient simply to refer to the artistic revolution which the porcelain and textile industries of Great Britain have undergone since the exposition of 1851 ; and to the further fact, that industrial and manual instruction, in the public and higher schools of the United States, is largely the result of our Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876. - It is also certain that the great Columbian Exposition of 1892 will not fail, in still larger measure, to produce like results, and to convince the most skeptical that the future prosperity of the nations is bound up and made one with the development of industrial and manual skill through properly arranged systems of education. Japan has already broken through her centuries of isolation and adopted the forms and spirit of our modern civilization ; but, in so doing, she has also recast her ancient educational system in line with modern industrial developments and needs, that the rising generations of her children may grow up in the spirit of their new environment. When China shall sub- stitute the forces of steam and electricity for human muscle, and introduce the railroad and the telegraph, with all the useful arts which minister to modern needs, then will the old education be fouud useless and meaning- less, and the new will take its place, as in Japan. The duties of children in all their family relations may well be left to the parents, and in all their religious and spiritual relations to the home and the Church ; but it is the bounden duty of the State to so educate all its children, that, when they come to assume the duties of citizenship, each shall find the place in the body politic which it is best adapted to fill. This means that all should be educated in the language of the State, that they may best grow up in harmony with its laws and institutions ; and so educated both bodily and mentally that they may enter upon the duties of active life imbued with its spirit, and best prepared to meet all its demands and responsibilities. The truest unity in the body politic consists in the broadest develop- ment and widest activity of each individual member. Feudalism, slavery, and all forms of serfdom, have been passing away with the advent and progress of the useful industrial arts. Even Indian savagery is yielding more readily to the arts of peace than to brute force. What other proof do we need of their civilizing and refining agency than the work of the sainted Armstrong and Hampton ? If the United States Government would coverall the waste fields of our illiteracy with such schools, the millennium of our highest hopes would soon dawn upon the new world given to us by Columbus. When the social and economic relations, in even the best centers of our civilization, have been fully and rightfully adjusted to the new industrial 38 594 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. conditions, we shall find that industrial and manual instruction has had the great, if not the greatest, effect in producing this beneficent result. An eloquent writer has well said : " The discovery of America was the crowning act of man's emancipation. In sweeping away the last vestige of the theory on which patristic geography was based, Columbus freed mankind. In the cry of 'Land ho !' with which he greeted the new continent, he sounded the death-knell of intellectual slavery. " The discovery of another continent startled the people of Europe from the deep sleep of a thousand years, and sent a fresh current of blood surging through their veins. A new world having been discovered by one man, it was natural that all men should be put upon inquiry ; hence the era of investigation, the resulting discoveries of science, and their innumerable applications, through the useful arts, to the fast-multiplying needs of man." NEW DEMANDS UPON SCHOOLS BY THE WORLD'S INDUSTRLES. BY PROFESSOR C. M. WOODWARD, OF WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, ST. LOUIS, MO. Thesis : The new demands which the world's industries make upon the elementary schools. This question will be considered under the heads of Ethics, Education, Economics. Dr. Samuel Johnson thought that the chief aim of education was to cultivate high ideals and enable one to enjoy educated society. He thought one rarely needed science, but was perpetually a moralist. He said the orators and poets and historians furnished the most maxims of prudence and the best materials for conversation. According to his view, if a boy was to make knives at Sheffield, ships at Glasgow, or engines at Manchester, he had no need of education beyond such as he would pick up while learning his trade. He had no idea of educating more than one boy out of ten. As a rule, these selected boys went through the great endowed schools to the universities, and became the leading scholars, statesmen, and gentlemen of leisure in England. Elementary education, as the term is used in our thesis, deals chiefly with the other nine boys. What demands do the world's industries make upon them ? The purpose of this question could be got at equally well by asking : "In view of the world's industries, what new demands do the children make for elementary training?" The children have rights, and they make demands. What are they ? First, they have the right to be harmoniously educated. They are to live in a broad community, one with many interests, many activities, many kinds of culture ; it is their NEW DEMANDS UPON SCHOOLS. 595 right to prepare for all, to come in contact with all, to participate in all finally. The children have a right to ask for any kind of real culture. I have said that there are many kinds. Let me expand that statement. There is a culture that comes from a knowledge of Latin and Greek. No one familiar with it doubts its value. There is a culture even more profound in the study of mathematics and its application to the whole domain of physics and mechanics. There is a culture in history and literature, wherein all of us share, though no one can absorb it all. There is a cul- ture in art and architecture, another in zoology, another in chemistry and its applications to industry, and still another in the theories of construc- tion and the processes of mechanism — and I know not how many more. These cultures are not only possible, but real, and I am persuaded that their influences upon character and life are more nearly equal than is commonly supposed. You may find pure, high-minded, useful men and women in eveiy field of culture. If we consult the needs of society we shall find that we need them all, and that the more highly each is developed, the better for society. Beyond question our children have a right to all these cultures. Now, what do they demand ? They demand equal preparation for all. The head cannot say to the hand, I have no need of thee ; the feet cannot say to the body, We have no need of you. For all are necessary to each, and each to all. This demand is not fully met in the elementary school. Let us lay aside pride and call things by their right names. Don't shut the book in my face and declare that I am an enemy, when I am only a friend who loves the schools and who would do them good. They are not perfect ; they can be improved. New elements are demanded. Let us see what the schools do, and what they fail to do. 1. They teach reading and something of composition and literature. Good. I will only ask that with their writing and reading they cultivate the art of talking, so that one may not, as now, write one language and talk another. 2. They teach the rudiments of mathematics. Good again. Every one needs'them. Our thesis directs us to consider ethical, educational, and economic values : i. e., we are to consider how a culture affects morals and conduct ; how it develops and invigorates the intellectual powers ; and how it shall ultimately enable one to earn his bread, build his home, and fill it with comforts and luxuries, the arts and refinements of good living. These three aspects of elementary education are all to be considered separately, as well as in their interdependence. They are mutually dependent, for true economy comports only with intellectual power ; and without mate- rial prosperity there can be neither morals nor art. The points already named cover the three R's, but it is clear that not 596 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. more than half the demands are met. Even when you introduce the study of geography with maps and models, and the history of the race as given in books, you have covered not more than half the ground. Thus far the schoolroom might as well have closed walls, with light from the sky, so that not a glimpse of the world of to-day, its life and activities, is possible. I have been in scores of such schools, and so have you. Half the people in America never were in any other. Some people defend such schools. They admit that the child's total education should be much broader, but that school education does not, and ought not to, attempt to cover the whole ground. School education is mainly concerned with books, they say : all else is outside. The study of the life and activities that surround us ; the use of hands and eyes and executive powers; the formation of habits of close observation, exact expression, and precise doing ; the cultivation of systematic thinking and planning ; of stimulating a love for what is beautiful, and a respect for what is useful — all these things lie beyond the domain of the school. That claim I deny. Doubtless schools were first organized to teach reading and writing, and little else ; but their function to-day is broader, and it is our duty to make them broader still. I care very little for what they were two hundred, or twenty years ago. I am concerned with what they should be to-day. The children, society, and the world's industries make these new demands, and they must be met. Let me specify exactly what I mean. The children are between six and fourteen years of age. 1. One hour per day should be spent in the study of biology — insects, animals, birds, plants, trees, and flowers. I am ashamed to say that I am almost as ignorant of birds and insects as though I had been born blind, yet nothing would have delighted or stimulated me more when I was a boy at school. How easily, with a competent teacher and few appliances, I might have studied the forms, growth, characteristics, habitats, and functions of living things ! One bird, one insect, one plant, or one animal per week ! Why, I should have been a different man in many ways, with such a culture. But no ; for nearly half the hours I was in school, so far as sharp intellectual activity was concerned, I was industriously doing nothing — just killing time. I venture to doubt even the moral value of that self-control which comes from compelling one's self to sit still and do nothing. [Color versus form.] 2. Another hour per day should be devoted to the culture of the execu- tive powers, an appreciation of what is beautiful and useful, and a mastery of some few instruments and materials. I got nothing of all that in my elementary schooling — my early education was fearfully neglected. If I got anything on those lines among the hills of New England, I owe no thanks to the school for it. These elements are not difficult to teach, and they are easily provided for. The materials most convenient are paper, DISCUSSION. 59? paints, textiles, clay, and soft woods ; the instruments are knives, pencils, brushes, scissors, needles, and for the oldest classes, small saws, planes, chisels, gouges, bits, hammers, etc. I do not wish to specify this work in detail any more than I would what stories the teacher shall tell, or what birds shall be studied during the natural history hour. It is important that whatever is done be done deliberately, on a clearly defined plan, and for the purpose of illustrating a definite process, showing the correct use of a tool, or effecting a definite result. My emphatic warning is that the teacher be modest and not at- tempt too much. Be careful not to mistake the shadow for the substance. By attempting too much, you will secure less. No special industrial work should be thought of in elementary schools ; but let the work look broadly and equally in the direction of language, science, art, and industry. You will thus secure harmonious develop- ment and culture, aud at the age of fourteen your pupils will be in the best possible condition to enter upon secondary education. Thus my answer to the thesis is : The world's industries, the well- being of the commonwealth, and, above all, the conditions of harmonious development, demand that the study of natural history by the laboratory method, and that an elementary form of manual training, each occupying from forty to sixty minutes, according to grade, should enter into the daily program of every elementary school. To gain time for this work, I would extend the school sessions a total of from forty to sixty minutes, and I would shorten the time given to arithmetic, definitions of words, and remote geography by an equal amount, unless, as in many cases, there are idle hours which may be filled with this work. T submit these views without further argument. THE FRENCH SYSTEM OF INDUSTRIAL AND MANUAL INSTRUCTION. [This subject was presented in a paper by M. Eugene Martin, director of a primary and higher elementary school in Paris. The paper was not secured for publication. The following discussion of this subject, by Professor Woodward, will enable the reader to understand the main features of the French system of industrial and manual instruc- tion, including the changes recently adopted.] DISCUSSION. Professor C. M. Woodward, of the Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. I was glad to learn from Mr. Martin that the plan of " a shorter course in the arts, and then a specialization with reference to some definite industrial pursuit," is no longer their only system ; that general manual training schools, much like our own, now exist in Prance. Several years ago I visited the school on the Boulevard de Villette in Paris. It was of the type referred to in the thesis. Some four trades were taught. The " shorter course in the arts" consisted of a rapid tour through the four departments, with a 598 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. view to finding out what each was like, and how the work would suit one's taste or fancy, or outside opportunity ; then came a choice, and a devotion of all the rest of the time to one course. The school did commercial work, having several skilled workmen who had charge of the apprentices and helped them in their work. Tn another con- gress (elementary education) I have spoken against trade schools in public education. They doubtless have a proper place in private institutions, but not in the schools we are here considering. Accordingly I shall here confine myself to a comparison of the methods (a) and (6). (a) A series of graded models embracing the fundamental principles of the art. (b) A series of completed, and more or less useful, articles. No particular art is here referred to. It is presumed to be one where special materials are wrought, and special tools are used. The object of the training is supposed to be to master both tools and materials. By the mastery of a tool a good deal is meant. The forms of tools are not matters of caprice or accident. They have been evolved from the brains of the most skillful users, and no one can use an important tool correctly without teaching and practice, any more than he can a sword, or a rifle, or a tennis racket. Take a joiner's chisel. It has two functions, mortising and paring. Its use is mastered by mortising and paring under the instruction of a skillful user. The wood may be hard or soft ; it may split easily or with difficulty ; the mortise maybe " open" or " blind." Now, what is the educational method for mastering the use of the chisel on different woods ? The " points " in a good mortise are. that it shall be exactly to the line on every side ; that it shall be sunk in exactly the right direction ; that the material shall not be split or jammed on either side, or at the end ; that the inner faces shall be smooth and true ; and, finally, it must be made with the least possible expenditure of time and energy. Now, shall the pupil make several doors, or window-sashes, or toy carts (one in each kind of wood), or shall he practice on small pieces of wood of different kinds, making mortises in each, till he is reasonably perfect in his work — not covering the mortise by a great deal of other work that he has no need to do ? How does your man with a rifle ? Does he go about shooting at cats, and dogs, and thieves, and other ' ' useful articles," till he has learned to use his gun correctly, or does he shoot at a target at different distances till he is a good shot before he shoots at game ? Shall a child at the piano or violin learn difficult movements by practicing those move- ments by themselves, or only as they occur in regular " pieces "? I am convinced that the demand for "complete" articles is based on a misconception of the object in view, and a failure to see where " completion " and perfection lie. If the object is a perfect mortise, then nothing but a perfect mortise can " complete " the task. But you ask, Where is the tenon which is to fit the mortise ? Should that not always be made too ? I answer, There is no educational need of it. The tenon is another step, a different exercise ; requires different tools and different methods. The tenon is not going to determine the quality of the mortise. The possible fact that one fits the other does not prove that either is correct, for both may be wrong. There is an absolute standard in every case, and nothing should be allowed to obscure it. The fact that in the construction of a useful article a mortise and tenon do fit is apt to cover up a multitude of sins. Your maker of useful articles will often continue to be a poor workman, because he will never stop to learn. He gets a certain amount of exterior form-study, but he masters nothing. He gets excessive practice where he does not need it, and too little on difficult points. From what I have said, it is evident that in a manual-training school — I am not speaking of the elementary grades, but of boys of from fourteen to eighteen years of age — time is too precious to be spent in construction. A skilled and educated teacher can cull out the principles, the essential processes, and devise exercises which shall SLOYD AND RUSSIAN SYSTEM OF MANUAL TRAINING. 599 embody them logically with the least amount of waste material. I hold that the mak- ing of a bureau by a boy who is aiming at educational growth is wasteful in the extreme. A thing is educational which increases the range of our vision or the strength of our grasp. Repetitions of familiar steps profit little and consume time. I was told the other day of four boys who spent all their shop-time for twenty weeks making a desk to bring to the Fair. To permit such a thing was an educational crime. As well stop your class in arithmetic, and have them add the census tables, or extract the square root of two to a hundred places. Finally, why this feverish anxiety to produce something useful ? Is the economic bearing of manual training less evident than in science and literature ? Is it not suffi- ciently useful if one masters tools and materials, learns to make and read exact draw- ings, and acquires the ability to analyze a construction into steps which he knows he can take if he wishes ? The school is to fit one to be useful ; it is not a factory, nor a place for manual labor. To get the greatest educational result from manual training we must extend as much as possible the range of rational study of the arts which under- lie constructions, applying those arts only when it is necessary to illustrate its economic bearing. In the St. Louis Manual Training School it is our custom to require of each student a single example of synthetic work at the end of each series of elementary prin- ciples. For instance, the alphabet of iron and steel forging, where the ever-present agency is that of heat, consists of a very few letters. The number of applications in a score of industries is very great, but one can count the fundamental processes on his fingers. We study these processes separately, unmixed with foreign elements, till each is clearly seen in its nakedness ; and at the end of the series, each pupil by himself — not the whole class together — designs or selects a synthetic exercise, embodying as many elements as possible, and yet lying within his easy range, and constructs it. These composite pieces are technically known as " finals." These " finals" are chiefly useful in showing the pupils how all-embracing the elements are. A child who has learned to write correctly the twenty-six letters can copy a play of Shakespeare or an oration of Webster if he will but be patient. These ''finals" differ with different pupils and from year to year, and they make an interesting display at our June exhibi- tions ; but if too freely used at a World's Fair they are in danger of misleading, for they do not reveal — they rather hide — their mission. I am clearly in favor of the graded series of exercises, embodying as nakedly as possible the fundamental principles, with a single "final " at the end. Please bear in mind I have not been speaking of primary grades, where the pupils are quite too young to be able to sustain an interest in details and abstractions. They want things, not parts of things. Neither have I spoken of grammar grades, where great care must be exercised that one does not philosophize too much. In every case the end in view must be wholly in view, not only to the teacher but to the pupil. SLOYD FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS CONTRASTED WITH THE RUSSIAN SYSTEM OF MANUAL TRAINING. BY GUSTAF LARSSON, PRINCIPAL OF SLOYD TRAINING SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. The sloyd system had its origin in Sweden, where it has been practiced for over twenty years ; the word sloyd at once suggests its history, gives credit where credit is due, and, being an unusual word, it attracts attention and stimulates inquiry. 600 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The word sloyd means manual training for the sake of general develop- ment, physical, mental, and moral ; and it also means that kind of hand- work which will best stimulate the right kind of head-work ; and as this word alone sets forth the true aim of this system, it seems desirable that it be retained. The general aim of sloyd, then, is the moral, mental, and physical development of the pupil, the mental development being secured by help of the physical. In other words, a definite effort is made to pro- vide such manual work as will arouse a mental enthusiasm, the value of which will be felt in all the intellectual work of the school. I am aware of the fact that this is the aim of all truly educational manual training. The difference is found here in means and methods. The methods of the Swedish sloyd system are based upon the following ideas : (1) The exercises should follow in a progressive order, from the easy to the difficult, from the simple to the complex, without any injurious break, and with such carefully graded demands on the powers of both mind and hand that the development of the two shall be equal and simultaneous. This duality of progression is an essential feature of sloyd. It cannot be shown in any course of manual work ; nothing but careful observation of the child's gain of power in many directions will show the result aimed at in manual training. (2) The exercises should admit of the greatest possible variety ; they must avoid any tendency either to too great mental tension, confusion, or physical strain. There is a danger here not always recognized, for it takes a careful observer and a true teacher to discover that a model may be at the same time too easy for the hand and too difficult for the mind ; or, in other words, the hand may be well trained by a model which gives the mind little or nothing to do. (3) The exercises should result in the making of a useful article from the very outset ; that is to say, the use of which is appreciated by the child. This arouses and sustains the child's interest in his work, helps him to understand the reason for every step, for he can see to what these steps lead. It makes him careful in his work, for he soon learns that poor work will spoil a model which is worth something. The child's self- respect and pride are also aroused ; he is not only learning to make, but is actually making. He has joined the great army of producers, and he has before him tangible proofs of his progress. If the child is encouraged to make these things for others, it helps to develop unselfishness. Much of the moral value of sloyd inheres in this " useful " model. Some per- sons, ignorant of its true purpose, have thought it owed its place in this system to its industrial value only. But the truth is that the useful model is valued above all for the mental and moral development secured by exercise of the creative faculty. (4) Sloyd seeks also to cultivate the aesthetic sense by combining in the SLOTD AND RUSSIAN SYSTEM OF MANUAL TRAINING. 601 models beauty of form and proportion with utility.* Throughout this system, as in the kindergarten, the love of beauty is regarded as an impor- tant factor in education, while an eye for symmetry and grace, although a rare possession, has been proved to have great practical value even for an artisan. (5) Every model should be so constructed that it can be drawn by the pupils themselves, not copied or traced. Drawing is an essential feature of sloyd as applied in Boston, and should always be preliminary to the making of the model. (6) For children who are old enough for the regular sloyd, it is believed that the knife should be the first and fundamental tool. There are several reasons for this which will be mentioned later. A radical difference between the Russian and the Swedish systems is that the Russian methods are based upon the idea of teaching the use of certain tools by making incomplete articles, with the belief that out of such teaching will come good educational results, even without much attention to the special needs and capacity of the growing child, either by the choice or the sequence of tools or exercises. The Swedish system, on the other hand, is based upon the Froebelian idea of the harmonious development of all the powers of the child ; tools and exercises being chosen with reference to this end, and all merely mechanical methods being carefully avoided. The sloyd teacher does not say, " Now I will teach this boy to saw, and he shall continue to saw until he can saw well," regardless of monotony or the too prolonged use of the same muscles. The problem of the sloyd teacher is to find the tool, whether knife or saw or plane, and also the series of exercises, best adapted to the present need, not of man, but of the average pupil ; and also to vary or alternate the tools and to graduate the exercises with con- stant reference to the growing capacity, the formative age, and to the various activities of body and mind. It should be said right here that while the methods of sloyd are less like those of the mechanic than those of the Russian system, not aiming at immediate technical skill, there is abundant proof that the results of a thorough sloyd training will be found to include all that is gained even mechanically by the Russian methods, plus a far more generous general development, including greater delicacy of observation and of manipulation. The sloyd course now being used in Boston calls for the use of forty- five different tools in seventy-two exercises applied in thirty-one models. Among these exercises are fifteen different joints. Another important difference is seen in the importance which sloyd * It has been said by one interested in manual training that " the pupil must be led to see and feel the simple beauty of proportion, of harmony of parts, as well as grace of outline : elements of beauty which are a direct outgrowth of the useful, as well as the beauty of mere ornament, which is sometimes more or less externally added. For this reason sloyd attaches much importance to the free-hand modeling in wood of solid forms." 602 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. attaches to the use of the knife as the first tool given to the child ; regard- ing it as the most familiar and least mechanical of tools, which gives a development of the muscles of hand and wrist peculiar to itself, a develop- ment which modern psychologists teach us is also conducive to the physi- cal development of the brain; the familiarity of the tool, as well as its danger, making it possible to secure constant concentration of thought upon the exercise at the outset. Sloyd methods are unlike Russian methods in giving great prominence to form study, and in the method by which all form work is made — methods which are quite unlike those of the carpenter, because the first care of the sloyd teacher is that the muscular sense of form be developed in the child rather than that the curves be accomplished in the quickest and easiest way. . Again, the exercises of sloyd furnish greater variety than those of the Russian system, and the fact that small models can be finished in a reason- ably short space of time helps to increase and maintain a healthy interest and to train the sense of completeness which is so unfortunately wanting in many educational processes. Sloyd methods provide more carefully than is true of some others for the physical development by a judicious choice and sequence of tools, posi- tions, and exercises. Finally, and most prominent of all differences between the systems, is the insistence of sloyd upon the nse of the completed model, in place of the prevalent Russian exercise with tools. The reasons for this faith in the educational value of the completed useful model are identical with those which have so largely influenced modern pedagogical methods in other departments of education, that the phrase has now driven the spell- ing-book out of school, and the writing-lesson is no longer confined to the copy-book. Sloyd demands a trained teacher. It is easily seen that the successful carrying out of these ideas depends upon the teacher's comprehension of the object of the teaching, and of the capacity and needs of the child, as well as upon his ability to impart-the knowledge he has acquired. A good teacher is not necessarily possessed of the great manual skill of an expert, but he must understand childish intelligence and know how to lead the child in his work. I am happy to state that a large number of Boston teachers are now studying the subject of manual training, and that over ninety-five are taking a normal course in sloyd. It is not always enough that a child should be told how to use a tool. The teacher must oversee the work of each child, to make sure he has a clear idea of what he has to do. Sloyd puts much emphasis on the value of individual instruction, but it must not be supposed that by individual instruction is meant a constant watchfulness of each pupil, much less SLOYD AND RUSSIAN SYSTEM OF MANUAL TRAINING. 603 that the teacher shall take the work into his own hands and give the pupil too much help. A good teacher will not teach too much, even if he has but one pupil. Class instruction can be given as regards much of the manual work, drawing, positions at the bench, the use, adjustment, and care of tools, etc. ; but the best results of sloyd will not be attained unless a teacher is able also to oversee individual work enough to satisfy himself that his pupil has a clear idea of what he is to do, that he understands the reasons for it, and is not working without thought, mechanically fol- lowing half-understood directions, and so losing the intellectual value of the exercises. To do this it will be seen that classes must not be too large. Allowance must be made for difference in physical and mental capacity. It is no matter if two-thirds of the class is in advance of the other third, provided that each pupil receive as much as he can digest. This is not a lesson in memorizing, a test of which is easily applied ; here is an attempt to appeal to the perception, the judgment, the ingenuity, the reason, by means of the hand and eye— the visible results of which may be good, while the unseen object of it all is unattained. Special individual care, therefore, is necessary to make sure that the intellectual development of the child is secured, and teachers must be constantly warned against the danger of satisfaction with mere manual skill. True slovd is taught only when by the exercise of many faculties the mind is led, step by step, to careful and accurate thinking. Sloyd, like the kindergarten, has suffered much from inadequate presentation, and the public have been made more or less familiar with its outward form while wholly ignorant of the aims and psychological basis of its methods. It is for this reason that while a certain number of persons are always to be found who are attached to the sloyd models merely because they are use- ful, others, equally unthinking, are suspicious of the same models because they are not those of the carpenter's shop, for which reason they are characterized as impractical. Neither of these classes of persons is in a position to do justice to the subject, because neither of them understand the aim of the system or the significance of the exercises embodied in the models, each one of which holds its place in a progressive course of work for a definite reason and as an essential step in the ladder. It will be seen, although sloyd models may be adapted to the differing needs of times and places, they must not be taken bodily out of the course, trans- ported, and even arbitrarily combined with other systems and methods whereby they at once lose all their educational value. It is by such rough handling of its outward symbols that sloyd has suffered, as its mother, the kindergarten, did before it. Let us hope that a better understanding of its methods and of the principles upon which they rest may commend it to students of the philosophy of education. 604 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. MANUAL TRAINING IN RUSSIA. BY E. KOVALEVSKY, OFFICIAL DELEGATE FROM RUSSTA. Having been apprised only yesterday evening that my name had been placed in the programme of to-day, I had not time enough to prepare a more important report, and beg therefore to be excused if I confine myself to a short answer to the questions tbat have been asked concerning tbe claims of the two systems of manual training, the Russian and the sloyd. Manual training, according to the opinion of the Russian pedagogue, must be : (1) Taught in a thoroughly systematic manner. (2) Awaken the interest of the children for physical exercise. (3) Give certain practical results. (4) Develop some amount of dexterity of the hands. (5) Accustom the children to order, punctuality, and cleanliness. (6) Correspond to the physical and intellectual powers of children. (7) Develop the cesthetic feeling. (8) Serve as recreation for children when they are tired by the intel- lectual work. We consider manual training entirely as an object of general education, but not as one of a special professional character. Manual training was much thought of in Russia as early as the twelfth century; somewhat later in the Moscow period of Russian history it was tbought advisable to teach it to children. Our great reformer, the Emperor Peter the First, himself gave an example of manual exercises by his carpentering and other kinds of work. He introduced manual training into the military schools. This sort of training, abandoned in the second half of the eighteenth century, was once more introduced in the year 1856, in the Finland primary schools, according to the project of the Rev. Unos Signeus, and some years later it was put into the normal schools. In Russia, on the proposition of the Permanent Commission of Technical Instruction, it was organized in 1880 ; lectures upon this subject were given during six weeks of the summer season of the normal school for the rural teachers. In 1884 tbe regular occupation in manual training took place in the teachers' college at St. Petersburg. The system of manual training at this college was accepted later in all the schools where that branch is taught. Now it is taught in four teachers' colleges, fifteen seminaries for teachers, six civil gymnasiums and schools ; in eighteen military colleges, in eleven places of temporary manual-training courses for teachers, and in about one hundred and fifty town schools and elementary village schools. DISCUSSION. 605 The difference between the Russian system and the Swedish sloyd is that in Russia the instruction in manual work is connected, as it is in France, with the teaching of drawing and geometry, the course being formed of series of successive lessons of woodwork. Any one interested in this ques- tion is kindly invited to visit the Russian section of the Liberal Arts Building, where can be seen an album treating of this subject. DISCUSSION. Dr. H. H. Belfield, Director of the Chicago Manual Training School : I do not regard sloyd as a rival of the system of woodwork practiced in the schools known as "manual-training schools"; on the contrary, I welcome it as a possible means for fill- ing the gap between the kindergarten and the manual-training schools, since it is designed for younger pupils than those found in the last-named training-schools. The system just presented to us by Mr. Larsson is a great departure from the Swedish sloyd which came to us several years ago. In common with many others, I had no hesitation in condemning that system as not adapted to American ideas and conditions. Mr. Larsson has shown courage and pedagogical knowledge in introducing the Swedish models, and in insisting upon drawing and in adding to the tools supplied to the pupils. I welcome Mr. Larsson's system, therefore, as an earnest effort to solve a problem which has occupied our attention for years. One of the fundamental principles of sloyd, as I understand it, is the presentation of models and exercises that will develop and retain the interest of the pupils. As Mr. Larsson puts it : "That system is best which creates the most interest in the pupil." This is also one of the strong features of the kindergarten, and is at once both a strength and a weakness. In the training of young children this development of the child's interest is essential toisuccess. I think the American child, with his acute perceptions, is on the alert, like the old Athenians, for something new, and his attention will be attracted to other things than the matter in hand unless the teacher succeeds in fixing his mind upon the lesson. But as the child advances in years he should cultivate the faculty of concentration, even upon uninteresting subjects, sustained by the thought that the present tedious work will find its reward in the future. It is wise, therefore, I think, that the sloyd work should consist of useful articles or toys, deferring system- atic instruction in the elements of joinery, etc., till a more advanced age. Professor C. M. Woodward, of St. Louis : As to these contrasted systems, two things should be said. First, the " sloyd '' system as presented by Mr. Larsson is not the Swed- ish sloyd in any proper sense. Sloyd involves very few tools, chiefly the knife ; Mr. Larsson uses the whole kit of joiner's tools. Sloyd used no drawings ; Mr. Larsson uses drawings continuously. (Drawing has recently been imported into Sweden.) Sloyd models, as I knew them freshly imported several years ago, were typical of the useful tools and implements found in a peasant's home in Sweden. Mr. Larsson has retained only the single idea of use with complete change of forms. This work pre- sented by Mr. Larsson is four parts American to one from Sweden. Secondly, the distance between this system and what is known as the Russian sys- tem is exceedingly small. Take, for instance, this tool -rack model of Mr. Larsson. Its construction involves three elementary processes, namely : (1) The exact use of the try-square and gauge for determining where to saw and bore ; (2) sawing to lines ; (3) the use of bits or augers of several sizes. Mr. Larsson does all these Ihings on one 606 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. piece. The Russian plan would teach these processes on three or more separate pieces as is here shown in three exercises. Mr. Larsson insists that it is best to teach a process or the use of a tool only in the construction of a model which shows one way in which it may be applied. The Rus- sian plan assumes that the pupil's entire attention and aim is directed to the mastery of the processes one by one. Now it is evident to all that Mr. Larsson does analyze his processes into elements, and that he teaches those elements separately, albeit on one piece of wood. On the other hand, it is equally evident to every teacher of the other method that, having mas- tered the elements of construction, the pupil sees around him countless illustrations of their use. In every frame, door, bureau, box, or chest ; in every staircase, mantel, carriage, and car, he sees the elements he has mastered and the evidence of skill. While with young pupils in early stages Mr. Larsson's plan may have the preference, it seems to me that with older and more observing pupils the elements may be learned more completely, and may be taken up in a more logical order when no special combina- tion is insisted on. Again, the ulterior object may have the effect of covering up the steps and of dull- ing the edge of precision. For instance, if this rack is merely to hold tools, dropped into these holes, the pupil does not see any necessity for sawing the ends so carefully just half-way across, nor does he see why it is so very necessary to box the holes exactly square to the surface. Of course the teacher insists upon the utmost care and accuracy, but it is easier to secure it if accuracy and correct methods are the only things aimed at. Finally, it may be said that the particular model introduced to illustrate the use of a process or tool imposes a limitation which is unnecessary. When Mr. Larsson's pupil thinks of a dove-tailed joint, he thinks of the bracket which uses it, and he may stop there. The other boy, who has mastered the abstract joint, is directly led to see its use in a dozen constructions which lie all around him. He is the more truly free. Still, as I have already intimated, the interval between these different systems, which to day are more American than anything else, is so narrow that any one may step across, and I hope we shall not hesitate to step over and help ourselves to the best there is on either side. Pardon one word more. I have frequently protested against the "prematurity" of putting fourteen-year-old work into the hands of eleven -year-old boys, and 1 have doubted the propriety of putting joiners' tools (saws, chisels, planes, etc.) into sixth -grade classes (counting from the kindergarten). I still urge extreme caution, but I have seen and heard enough during the past week -to convince me that it is entirely proper to put edge-tools into the sixth and higher grades. I make this confession with great pleasure, and I desire to say that it has been brought about by the thoughtful reports of Mr. Lars- son, the work of the charming little class he has organized in the Children's Building, and the exhibits from Massachusetts, New York City, and Loudon. INDUSTRIAL AND MANUAL TRAINING IN THE SCHOOL COURSE. BY W. B. POWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C. Thesis : " Should boys and girls have the same industrial and manual training in all grades ? " In planning for manual training, which it is assumed is an integral part of the school course, it is first of all uecessary to consider the relation that it bears to the other work of the school. INDUSTRIAL AND MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOL COURSE. 607 (1) The child must learn to read. Every consideration of good teach- ing demands that he shall seek information first-hand by contact with things before he is required to learn symbols. The child's first effort in learning to read must be to recognize his own words representing his own knowing, his own feeling, his own willing. It is all-important that these words represent correct and exact ideas. .Knowing by perception from original channels gives to the mind its nuclei, its standards of comparison. Much of this kind of knowledge makes apperception varied and valuable, and insures an ability to know broadly and easily by reception through symbolic channels. The testi- mony of eye and hand must be compared many times before each becomes independently reliable. Touch, movement, muscular effort are neces- sary factors in the training of the eye. This contact with things involves handling them, involves preparation of them, adjusting, making ; this is manual training, whose early steps must precede, and whose later steps should accompany, every effort in learning to read. (2) The child must learn number and quantity, the beginnings of which must be learned, if learned properly, by dealing with things. The fundamental conceptions of square and cubic measure are learned by dealing with things, conceptions that make work in these departments of reckoning in later study comparatively easy. The fundamental concep- tions of plane surfaces are learned best by making, transforming, and measuring them. This sensuous primary learning renders it not only possible but easy to give the child the elements of plane geometry before he leaves the grammar school. Involution, evolution, and plane and solid geometry are learned first by hand, so to speak. Without the use of the hand in learning these subjects, it is doubtful whether they are ever thoroughly understood. Much of this manual work is for the purpose of preparing the child for future study, for a correct and adequate conception of what he is to learn later. An appreciation of sensible objects, their manifold conditions and various relations, cannot be neglected in learning mathematics without inevitable loss and even the possibility of failure. We must begin with things, however free from and independent of them we think our way afterward. These things must be handled, must be separated, must be put together, must be divided by measurement, must be compared by measurement with and without instruments — all of ivhich is manual training of the best possible character. (3) The child is expected to learn the elements of science. To do this he must handle and examine nature forms, and must adjust them for pur- poses of accurate examination. He must experiment, must project ; then he must estimate and determine quantitatively, requiring close and accu- rate work with the hand ; he must make and adjust his apparatus. The primary study of plants, to be profitable, includes an investigation of them 608 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. as living organisms. A correct examination of seeds and buds, to learn with what care they are protected, and the provision that is made for their life and development before they become independent food -seekers, in- volves dissection, which, to be valuable, requires much close and accurate exercise of the eye and hand. Then the child must give much care to the preservation of specimens. This is all manual training. (4) The child must learn geography. To start in this work he must come in contact with things ; these he must learn to represent in sand and other plastic materials. He must cause steam to be created and to be condensed again, creating rivulets for transporting substances, that he may learn of the carving of mountains and of the creation of valleys ; for without an appreciation of the wonderful work of the sun with water, he will never know and understand the chief cause of geographic phenomena. This is manual training, than which there is no better. (5) The child must learn history. The learning of beautiful and use- ful forms made by man are the beginnings of the study of the humanities, the beginnings of a knowledge of man's influence in the world and of its influence on him ; his dependence on, his control of his environment. This is a part of the child's preparation for the study of history. The early steps of this work are essentially exercises in manual training. (6) The child must learn to draw, which is one important branch of manual training. But the early steps of learning to draw are exercises in handling things in numberless ways, to learn of the facts of form and of the texture of things, and of the facts that are the causes of form and of the texture of things. This is accomplished only by muscular effort in testing, adjusting, and arranging; making or transforming by manual effort, intelligently directed and carefully executed. Efforts at learning nature forms and other facts of natural phenomena are the first steps in learning geography, for these forms and facts are all geographic phenomena, whether plant or animal, whether biological or physical. Learning the same nature forms and talking about them is the best possible beginning in getting something definitely known to talk about, which, in turn, is the first step in the work of learning to read. So, while accomplishing the many purposes of a varied curriculum, the child, is really engaged in but one thing : putting himself in condition to learn most profitably. The primary purpose of manual training is at least two-fold : first, it is to train the eye and hand to do the bidding of the will, thus securing a more equable development of the person ; second, it is to give the learner increased power and adaptability in getting correct information at every step. Of these two purposes, the latter is of the greater importance in the earlier stages of growth and development. Information received without the use of eye and hand is in many instances unreliable, because not full or complete, and is consequently ofttimes misleading. It is therefore INDUSTRIAL AND MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOL COURSE. 609 desirable that the training of eye and hand should begin early., that they may help in the work of getting information ; and since this training is not only possible, but is desirable or necessary in the pursuit of all otber purposes of elementary instruction, it is left for us only to adjust such training to the conditions of the schoolroom, to properly grade it, and to allot to it its proportional time, and to assign its various kinds of work to the appropriate seasons of the year respectively. To do this, the superintendent or director of work must know by what instrumentalities and by what processes the child can best learn and can best be trained and cultivated ; he must know each subject in its entirety, must be able to select from each subject that which the child can learn, and must know its relation to all other things he is expected to learn in the grade. With this knowledge and power on the part of the instructor, it will not be difficult to give the child all the eye and hand training it is desir- able for him to get, during the first five or six years of his school life, as a part of the study of such subjects as are now generally agreed should be taught in the primary school. The exercises of manual training con- nected with the teaching of these subjects, that are assigned to the ele- mentary school curriculum, mast not be regarded, therefore, as an extra training, as something that may be given if there is time, but that may be omitted if there is not. It is not so regarded by him who knows what correct teaching is, who knows how the child learns properly. But it must be regarded as a necessary part of correct teaching, as a part which cannot be omitted if the child is to do intelligent work and is to be put in a correct learning attitude toward the work he is trying to do. Now, since the boys and girls who are to learn the use of their mother tongue, learn to read, learn arithmetic and geography, learn the elements of science, learn the elements of humanistic phenomena or the beginnings of history, must learn them in the same way ; and since manual training is a fundamental part of the learning of the beginnings of all the branches enumerated, it follows that the manual training for boys and girls during the first five or six years of school life not only may be but should be the same. It will be observed that in what I have said I make no plea for manual training for its own sake, its value having been assumed, but that I con- tend that all the manual training it is desirable to give the child during the first five or six years of school life is a necessary part of teaching him properly the various branches of knowledge he is expected to acquire; and that it is a necessary part of the training that will put him in a cor- rect intellectual attitude toward the world he is trying to know. This is not the time or place to give a detailed course of work. It must be enough to say that such a course as is here shown to be neces- sary involves work in selecting, isolating, comparing, and determining 39 610 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. nature forms ; work with laying sticks and fastening them ; work with folding, measuring, dividing paper, and pasting it ; work with measur- ing and dividing lengths, surfaces, and volume ; work with comparing by measuring and adjusting sizes with respect to length and breadth and volume ; work with paper in measuring, marking, cutting, folding, and pasting, which involves accuracy in details of fitting and matching of parts ; work in representing, in plastic materials, nature forms and con- ventional forms ; work in handling, and in many cases in the preparation of, tools by means of which it is possible to do all this — it involves the rep- resentation of the nature forms that have been made and of parts thereof by means of the pencil and brush. Every part of this work requires exact seeing of forms, of texture, of position, of use, of change, and demands exact work of the hand in measuring, adjusting, arranging, making, representing, coloring, and otherwise decorating. It is thus seen that no inconsiderable part of a rational and correct teaching of the beginnings of arithmetic, reading, language, geography, science, human- istic phenomena, may be made at once a natural, thoroughly systematic, and an efficient means of manual training. It may be said further that all this manual training is possible in, and is very appropriate work for, the ordinary schoolroom, which is another reason for giving it to boys and girls in the same grades and at the same time. It is difficult to say how much time should be given to this work, as it is so connected with and related to other work as not easily to be consid- ered apart from it ; but it is safe to say that the manual part of element- ary learning need not occupy more than two or two and a half hours of the week of twenty-five hours, including all the time spent in drawing. While doing this Avork the child, if taught rightly, learns the value of exactness in making forms and getting size ; he learns to be exact in all he does ; his eye and hand learn to do the bidding of his will. He learns the use of some tools ; he uses the square and compass, the rule and marker, the knife and scissors, the pencil and brush. He learns to use his fingers and the entire face of his hand in determining and making forms of plastic materials ; he learns the care necessary in the use of hand and tool in arrangement of plastic materials for the representation of deli- cate or frail parts ; he learns the use of hand for the care and preservation of materials, and thus trains it to be provident ; he learns to estimate values in length, surface, volume, and strength, and learns the relation of his own powers to each and all of these. As I believe that the elements of the physical and biological sciences will never go into the elementary schools as a permanency unless they are taught in their relations as helps to or parts of other requirements of school work ; that their supplementary or complementary values as sources of information or as means of discipline or culture, as seen even INDUSTRIAL AND MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOL COURSE. 611 by the most sanguine, will not alone secure for them a permanent place in elementary school work : so I believe that the iutrinsic value of man- ual training will not soon secure for it a permanent place in the ele- mentary schools below the seventh or eighth grade as a separate branch of school work. Fortunately, as there are more potent pedagogical reasons for the intro- duction of science study, than that the pupils may learn the facts of sci- ence, so there are stronger pedagogical reasons for employing manual exercises in learning the elements of the various branches of the school curriculum than that the children may become skilled in the use of their hands. If the different lines of manual exercises made necessary by the char- acter of work suggested in the foregoing were detailed for our inspection, we should be able to see many schemes of systematically arranged employ- ments for hand training, any one of which would delight the heart of the devotee of industrial education. We should see " courses of training" with sticks, with tablets, with colored paper, with cardboard, with clay, with physical apparatus, as well as with other things. But we are not arranging work to interest or satisfy this person. We are seeking to do all the work of the school as it should be done ; nothing more. In our presentation of exercises so far, the boys and girls have worked together. AVe have, however, yet to state that the girls have been giving one hour a week to sewing, for two or three years, in which the boys have had no part. While the girls have been sewing or cutting and fitting, the boys have given attention to numerous exercises in details of work in which they had fallen behind their sisters, such as neatness of penman- ship, care with spelling, and style in expression ; while the loss in manual training occasioned by not taking the sewing has been made good by play with playthings requiring skill in their management, such as bicycles, tennis racquets, and other things. There is much manual training in modern play of which the girls, however, do not get their share. The extra work made necessary by the sewing makes good this loss to some extent, and gives opportunity to make good the loss in care and accu- racy occasioned by too mucli interest in games on the part of the boys. Baseball is the cause of the misplacement or omission of many a capital letter or punctuation mark, the cause of many a misspelled word. Opportunity for correcting these two inequalities is needed in mixed schools, which the sewing lessons give. Up to this time the child has done most of his hand work without tools. His hand has been trained to help in discovering an infinite variety of texture, and almost as great a variety of causes of texture. Nerves, having their end-organs in muscles, have cooperated with dermal end- organs of nerves, and the two with nerve end-organs of the special senses, to identify and correlate qualities of texture or appearance with weight 612 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. and toughness and other like qualities ; so that the eye sees and the naked palm feels weight or toughness, or the absence of the one and the opposite of the other ; and, according to the care and thorough- ness with which the training has been carried on, shades or degrees of qualities can be seen and felt without muscular effort. The ear, too, has been so trained that it hears density, brittleness, and other like qualities. Facts have been learned by hand, in conjunction with the special sense organs, until information given by the latter may be relied on as correct. It is largely for the accomplishment of this end that the work has been done at all, and for the accomplisbment of it in the shortest time and by the most economical means, that it has been largely done witbout tools. Without the assistance of muscles and dermal sur- faces the special sense organs are not trained. The special sense organs, particularly those of sight and hearing, are labor-saving machines ; but their testimony, their registerings, are not reliable unless the organs have been trained. The eye cannot be made to register distance or size with any degree of accuracy except by measuring and looking in con- junction many times. For the purpose of giving to these labor-saving machines the training they should have, manual-training exercises with few tools must be a part of all truly scientific primary and intermediate school work. I have never advocated manual training in the lower-grade schools for any other purpose than that of securing a correct cultivation of those organs through which information and pleasure must chiefly come through life. This hand training, which has been shown to be advisable or necessary in the beginnings of all elementary work, is also required as a preparation for a training in the use of tools. Tools are artificial media whose use is acquired with great difficulty. If a knowledge of the reciprocal values of muscle, dermal, and special sense impressions is not secured before the tools are put into the child's hand, his disadvantage will be great. The learner's first effort with tools is to learn to appreciate values through them. If these values are not pre- viously known, but are to be acquired now for the first time, he will not only be trying to do two things at once, but will be attempting to secure information and training through artificial media, which of course will be a slow and laborious process, and which may never be done properly. The values of the correlated instruction of nature's media are best and most economically secured free-hand. There comes a time in the development of manual training when, to secure for it a permanent place in the school curriculum, reliance must be had on its intrinsic value as a distinct acquisition of educative effort. I have tried to show that such time does not come before the sixth or sev- enth year of school life above the kindergarten. In my own practice I have assumed that it comes at the beginning of the seventh year. DISCUSSION. 613 From this time on the work shows two marked changes, although both changes have been anticipated to some extent ; the one by attempts at artistic effects, the other by the use of a few simple tools. The work with hands, without tools, continues, but becomes more cre- ative than before, being less imitative ; or, if imitative, attempts are made to represent what creative minds have seen in and derived from nature forms. The hand becomes a producer now instead of a learner, the work -with clay and paper and with pencil and brush being continued. As this is all done in the schoolroom, the boys and girls work together. The second change alluded to involves the use of tools for the chief purpose of learning their use. For this, workshops and more elaborate outfits of tools are required. Since the conventionalities of our civilization decree that women are not to do the heavy mechanical labor of our industries, and that men are not to do the skilled work of domestic affairs, it has been found desirable to separate the boys and girls at this point. The girls go to shops to learn cutting, fitting, and trimming, and to laboratories to learn cooking, while the boys go to other shops to learn the use of tools and machines. This separation, which continues through the grammar and high schools, is made necessary not only because of the character of tools used, but also because of the character of the materials they work with or upon. The children are getting manual training now for its own sake, and not as before as a part of their academic training. As they are trained for different purposes, with differeut materials and different kinds of tools or instruments, they must have separate shops and different teachers. DISC US SI OK Edward Boos-Jegher, Director of the School of Art and Female Education, Zurich, Switzerland : In relation to industrial and manual instruction for boys and girls, when made a method of training and combined with other lessons, as advocated in the paper just read, there can be hardly any difference of opinion as to whether the pupils of both sexes should receive essentially the same instruction But before this question — whether boys and girls should have the same manual training — can be answered, another ques- tion must first be answered : Shall any difference at all be made in the education of the two sexes ? The opinions about this will differ in different countries. 1 think all civil- ized people now tend toward the views common in republican countries — that the same opportunities for general education should be provided for both boys and girls. In Switzerland we believe that men and women have different duties to fulfill in society, and that the education for both boys and girls should develop mind, intelli- gence, morals, character, and physical culture, that the men and women may become useful members of society. We do not educate for the sake of education alone, but to secure practical results for the individual and for the general public. Therefore our government pays all the expenses of the schools, including the materials used in them, and school attendance is made compulsory up to the ages of twelve and fourteen. We give the girls a good training in female hand work — sewing, a little of dress- making, embroidery, pattern drawing and cutting, and needlework — and think the results show good manual training. I do not object to girls learning how to use the 614 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. different tools used by boys in manual-training classes. In general education we have reading, writing, arithmetic, natural science, and gymnastics in all the grammar grades, and two languages in the higher grades. We do not have the time to give the girls the same manual training as the boys have ; besides, we should not like to give up any of the hand work for the girls to make room for the hand work for the boys. In any school that provides instruction only in the three R's for the girls, the girls should have an opportunity to learn the manual training in paper and cardboard work, and in carv- ing, etc. ; but 1 do not like to see a girl or a young woman at work with a plane in school. I do not want a woman to work in a blacksmith's shop, as 1 saw it in England ; nor work at bricklaying, as I saw in towns in the south of Germany ; nor with a girdle around her waist, drawing a ship, as may be seen in Holland. Dr. Paul Hoffman, Assistant Superintendent New York Public Schools : Much manual training can be given in school without the use of tools ; the first three books of Euclid can be demonstrated by manual work. [He illustrated this statement by folding papers, demonstrating several propositions, and thus showing one phase of manual-training work in the New York public schools.] Mr. Charles Bennett, of New York, believed that manual training was a distinct subject of instruction, not a method ; and that the material instruction should go hand in hand with the intellectual. DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION. SECRETARY'S REPORT. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday, July 26, 1893. The Department Congress of Physical Education meet in Hall No. 26 of Art Palace. Dr. E. M. Hartwell, Director of Physical Training, Public Schools of Boston, presided. This session was called to order at 9.30 a.m., July 26th. The Chairman made the opening address. The first paper read was by Dr. T. D. Wood, Professor of Hygiene and Physical Train- ing, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Palo Alto, Cal., on " Some Unsolved Problems in Physical Education. " An abstract of a paper on " Training of the Human Body," by Dr. Angelo Mosso, Professor of Physiology, University of Turin, Italy, was read by Dr. Luther Gulick, of Springfield, Mass. This paper was discussed by Bergman Oesterberg. Dr. George W. Fitz said the inves- tigations of Dr. Lombard oppose the conclusions of Dr. Mosso. Dr. Sargent empha- sized the necessity for gymnastic experiments to corroborate or disprove the results of physiological investigations in the laboratory. Dr. George W. Fitz, Instructor in Physiology and Hygiene, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., read a paper on " The Psychological Aspect of Exercises with and without Apparatus " This paper was discussed by Baron Nils Posse, Boston ; Mrs. M. A. Harper, of Texas. Dr. J. Gardner Smith, Special Instructor Physical Training in Public Schools, New York City, read a paper on "Physical Exercises for School Purposes — How Selected and Graded." A paper by Dr. Tait McKenzie, director of McGill University Gymnasium. Montreal, Canada, on "The Regulation of Athletic Sports in Colleges," the writer being absent, was not read, but was presented for publication. | SECOND SESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893. The session was called to order by the Chairman, Dr. E. M. Hartwell, at 9.30 a.m., July 27, 1893. " English Experience in Providing the Poor of Cities with Parks, Gardens, Gym- nasia, and Playgrounds," by the Earl of Meath, London. In the absence of the author, this paper was read by Miss Mary Willetts, of Wilmington, Del. "Physical Training of Criminals," by Hamilton D. Wey, M.D., State Reformatory, Elmira, N. Y., was read by the Secretary, the writer not being present. It was discussed by Dr. Sai-gent, by Baron Nils Posse, and Dr. E. M. Schaeffer. "The North American Turner- Bund —Its History, Aims, and Achievements," by 616 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Hugo Muench, ex-president of the organization, St. Louis, Mo. This paper was discussed by Miss Le Garde, of Providence, R. I. " The Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm — Its Aims and Work," is the subject of a paper by Professor L. M. Torngren, Director of the Institute, in Stock- holm, Sweden. "History of Physical Education in Denmark" was presented by Joakim Larsen, Superintendent of the Fredrichberg School, Copenhagen. This paper was read l>y Baron Nils Posse. Following the paper, Professor Torngren spoke of the Danish commission appointed to draw up a gymnastic code for public schools. THIRD SESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893. Dr. Hartwell in the chair. " Gymnastics in the Kingdom of Saxony — A Historical Review," is the subject of a paper furnished by Professor Moritz Zettler, of Chemnitz, Saxony. " The Physical Training of Deaf-Mutes," by Dr. A. Gutzman, Instructor in Institute for Deaf and Dumb, Berlin, Prussia. A few other papers were presented during the sessions of the Congress of Physical Education, but not furnished for publication. The large number of papers presented precluded lengthy discussion. LIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION. AUSTRIA. Dr. Leo Burgeretein, Professor in Vienna. Prof. Jaro Pawel, University of Vienna. GERMANY. Herr W. Bier, Director R. Training School for Gym- nastic Teachers. Dresden, Saxony. Dr. Ferd. Gotz, Manager German Turner Associa- tion, Lindenau Leipzig. Saxony. Herr A. C. Gntzman, Teacher City School for Deaf and Dumb, Berlin. Prof. Dr. J. Hermann, Berlin. Dr. J. C. Lion, Director City School Gymnastics, Leipzig. Dr. F. A. Schmidt, Bonn. GREAT BRITAIN. ENGLAND. The Earl of Meath, London. Charles Roberts, F.R.C.S., London. Madame Bergmen Osterberg, Hampstead, N. W. SPAIN. Dr. Alfredo Serrano Fatigati, Director Normal School of Gymnastics, Madrid. SWEDEN. Capt. C. Silow, Royal Central Gymnastic Institute, Stockholm. UNITED STATES. CALIFORNIA. F. H. Payne, M.D., Director of Physical Culture, University of California, Berkeley. Thoma9 D. Wood. A.M., M.D., Professor of Physi- cal Training, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Palo Alto. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. J. W. Sims, Physical Director Y. M. C. A., Wash- ington. ILLINOIS. George W. Ehler, Y. M. C. A., Chicago. Philip Greiner, Instructor in Physical Culture, Northwestern University, Evanston. E. L. Hayford, M.D., Physical Director Madison Street Y. M. C. A., Chicago. A. Alonzo Stagg. A.B., Directorof Physical Culture, University of Chicago, Chicago. INDIANA. Mrs. Harriet Colburn Saunderson, Director of Women's Gymnasium, Indiana University, Bloomington. LOUISIANA. Clara G. Baer, Instructor in Gymnasium, Tnlane University, New Orleans. MAINE. Frank N. Whittier, A.M., M.D . Director of Gym- nasium, Bowdoin College, Brunswick. MARYLAND. Gulli J. Oberg, Instructor in Gymnastics, Woman's College of Baltimore, Baltimore. H. a. Watson, Director of Gymnasium for Men, Western Maryland College, Westminster. LIST OF HO NOR ART VICE-PRESIDENTS. 617 MASSACHUSETTS. Thomas G. Adams, A.B , Director of Gymnasium, Williams College. Williamstown. Eliza S. Clark, Instructor in Physical Culture, Mt. Holyoke College, South Hadley. Frank W. Dnrkee, A.M., Director of Gymnasium, Tufts College, Tufts College. C. W. Emerson, M.D., Boston. Claes J. Enebuske, Boston Normal School of Gym- nasium, Boston. Luther Gulick, M.D., Director Training School of Y. M. C. A.. Springfield. Lucile E. Hall, Director in Gymnasium, Wellesley College, Wellesley. Edward Hitchcock, A.M., M.D., Professor of Phys- ical Education, Amherst College, Amherst. Miss Amy M. Homans, Director "Boston Normal School Gymnasium, Buston. Major Hobart Moore, Boston School Regiment, Boston. Haitvig Nissen, Instructor in Physical Training, Public Schools, Boston. Baron Nils Posse, Director Posse Gymnasium, Boston. MISSOURI. Carl Betz. Director of Physical Training, Public Schools, Kansas City. Henry Braun, President Vorort National Turner- bund, St. Louis. August H. Muegge, Instructor in Gymnastics, Washington University, St. Louis. W. T. Porter, M.D., Investigator of Physical Con- dition of School Children, St. Louis. NEW JERSEY. Isaac J. Turner. Superintendent of Gymnasium, College of New Jersey, Princeton. NEW YORK. Harriet I. Ballintine, Director of Gymnasium, Vas- sar College, Poughkeepsie. Edward Hitchcock, Jr., A.M., M.D., Director of Gymnasium, Cornell University, Ithaca. Heinrich Metzner, Principal of School of the New York Turnverein, New York. J. Gardner Smith, M.D., Physical Director Harlem Branch Y. M. C. A., New York. Hamilton D. Wey. M.D., New York State Reform- atory, Elmira. OHIO. Mary E. Carr. Ph.M., Mt. Union College, Alliance. Anton Leibold, Superintendent Physical Culture, Public Schools, Columbus. Mrs. Francis W. Leiter, National Superintendent Physical Culture W. C. T. U., Mansfield. Prof. Henry C. Myers, University of Woostcr, Wooster. PENNSYLVANIA. Blanche Best, Allegheny College, Meadville. Winfleld S. Hall, M.S.. M.D., Haverford College, Haverford College. Prof. Anna D. McNair, A.B., Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr. Oscar Scheer, Western University of Pennsylvania, Allegheny. Prof. J. K. Shell, M.D., Swarthmore College, Swarthmore. Prof. George D. Stahley, A.M., M.D., Pennsylvania College, Gettysburg. TENNESSEE. Prof. J. T. Gwathmey, Vanderbilt University, Nashville. VIRGINIA. W. A. Lambeth, University of Virginia, Char- lottesville. Ed. M. Schaeffer, M.D., Washington and Lee Uni- versity, Lexington. PHYSICAL EDUCATION. OPENING ADDRESS OF THE CHAIRMAN, DR. EDWARD M. HARTWELL, DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL TRAINING, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASS. Despite the printed announcement of an address, it is not my intention to make any extended remarks on this occasion, which marks the formal opening of the section on physical training, as our programme, which is a full one, has been arranged with a view to giving appropriate prominence to addresses and papers from eminent European workers in the field of physical education. It is manifestly fitting, however, that I should call your attention to the significant and representative character of this conference, and that I should attempt to express the grateful apprecia- tion felt by the promoters of this congress on account of the hearty and generous manner in which our requests for contributions from abroad have been met. Thanks to the cooperation of many distinguished collaborators on the other side of the Atlantic (some of whom, I am happy to say, are to grace our meetings by their presence), our programme is much more varied and representative than any hitherto presented in this country to an audience specially gathered to consider topics pertaining to the physical side of education. We may well congratulate ourselves on securing such a variety of papers from Canadian, English, Danish, German, Italian, and Swedish, as well as American writers, for consideration at this time. So far as I am aware, this conference is more broadly and truly international in its char- acter than any meeting which has yet been held, on either side of the ocean, to discuss the historical, theoretical, and practical aspects of physi- cal training. May it have many and illustrious successors ! To those of us who have studied and labored in various parts of the country to promote the recognition and serious consideration of the just claims of physical training, the organization of this section has an especial significance. It marks, we hope, the opening of a new chapter in the his- tory of physical training in America. We have watched and mayhap pro- moted the expanding and diversified interest in athletics and gymnastics which has developed since the close of the war, and especially during the last ten years, but we have waited in vain hitherto for the cordial recogni- tion and substantial help of the leading educational association of America, the National Educational Association. But now, for the first time in its OPENING ADDRESS OF THE CHAIRMAN. 619 history, I believe, the National Educational Association has a section on physical training, and this is its first meeting. Is it too much to hope that the meetings in this hall and the publica- tion of this congress shall arrest and awaken the attention of school superintendents, school boards, and the trustees of secondary schools and colleges throughout the country, to the fact that physical education is more highly developed, more thoroughly and effectively organized, more intelligently and generously supported in most of the leading countries of Europe, than they have ever dreamed it could be ? It may be folly to expect the immediate or brilliant fruition of our hopes, but hope we must and shall for wide and permanent results from such gatherings as this. The teachings of science, of the best experience, favor our contention that physical training is an indispensable and effectual element toward securing the health, increasing the intelligence, and strengthening and fortifying the character of the rising generation ;. and in the end these teachings will prevail over apathy and ignorance. Progress in our cause has been materially impeded by the preposses- sions and prejudices of the teaching class, which, like the general public, is still largely ruled by ancient and traditional conceptions of mind and body, and has so feeble a comprehension of the new physiology and the new psychology that it is unprepared to acknowledge the just claims of physical education. Progress there has been during the past half century, but for the most part it has been sporadic, fitful, and retarded. Too often the experiments in our field of endeavor have been characterized by furor, hurry, and failure. We are still prone to rash experiment and to uncritical imitation. It is in the comparatively rude and primitive field of athletics that our greatest triumphs have been won. Our origi- nality has been chiefly shown in the improvement of buildings and the invention of apparatus. In the field of superior education, the interest of faculties and trustees in physical training is most usually manifested by costly offerings of buildings or other plant to the unappeasable "animal spirits" of their students and younger alumni. In the field of elementary education, though cheapness is a sine qua non, we have succeeded in initiating a num- ber of tentative schemes, a few of which are decidedly promising. In the professional training of the teaching class, bodily training is commonly considered superfluous ; and it is only here and there that public normal schools have taken any measures to provide for ifc. A large proportion of those who are rushing forward to fill the role of apostles and teachers of physical education are self-educated or insufficiently trained. Since physical training, on its theoretical side, belongs to a class of questions that fascinate doctrinaires and dabblers, it has suffered much at the hands of its vociferous friends. Agitation, discussion, crude and short-lived experiment, have been the dominant factors in the growth of 620 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. the American physical education movement hitherto. We cannot pass to the stage of constructive development, unless respect for experience, accurate knowledge, clear ideas, definite aims, thorough training, and the capacity for sustained effort shall become much more general within our ranks and among our allies than is yet the case. But our prospect is not wholly dark. I am constrained to believe that there are gleams of promise in the sky. It is a significant and encourag- ing fact, that the question of bodily training is like Banquo's ghost, and will not down. In one form or another it rises and shall rise before every generation of civilized men. For us and our successors it has assumed portentous proportions, by reason of the untoward influences of city life upon the rising generation. Never before have the teachings of medical science been so clear and authoritative as they are to-day regarding the necessity and the means of securing and conserving the health of the stu- dent class. Physiology and psychology have been revolutionized within sixty years, and the critics of our educational aims and methods are begin- ning to use the weapons thus furnished to their hands. The existing sys- tems of physical education and "culture" are largely empirical in their nature ; but the time is at hand when they shall be subjected to the scrutiny and tests of disinterested scientists, and shall have judgment passed upon them by men who are able to. distinguish between claims and proof, be- tween shadow and substance. Our present fashion of lauding apparatus and of multiplying gymnasia, club-houses, and grounds is, after all, some- what of a blessing in disguise, as it tends to force the question as to the real purpose of such appliances and the best means of securing their proper use. That our educational authorities as a class shall continue much longer both deaf and blind to the plain teachings of science and experience as to the nature, scope, and legitimate results of physical education, seems im- probable. To my mind, the most hopeful and distinctive characteristic of the present diversified and expanding interest in physical training is found in the growing conviction that trained intelligence must be employed to supplement and reenforce enlightened enthusiasm, and in the evident desire of a few benefactors and governors of educational foundations to provide ways and means for developing and seconding such intelligence. In various quarters, including two of our leading universities, attempts are in progress to embody that conviction and to realize that desire. These attempts, and such meetings as this, betoken the dawning of a new day. Let us gird ourselves and go forth to meet it ! SOME UNSOLVED PROBLEMS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 621 SOME UNSOLVED PROBLEMS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION BY T. D. WOOD, M.D., PROFESSOR OF HYGIENE AXD PHYSICAL TRAINING, LELAND STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA. [AB8TRACT.] The great need in physical education to-day is the scientific spirit — the spirit which inspires the student to seek for truth and for its useful appli- cation ; the spirit of generosity toward all, and of mutual helpfulness among those engaged in the same or similar lines of work ; the spirit which pre- cludes petty personal competition or jealous rivalry among those who are working for other than selfish ambition or mercenary ends. There is to-day, in an embryonic and crude form, a science of physical education ; and for the sake of the honorable future, the idea of the science should exist first in the minds of the profession, and then in minds of the laity. The science of physical education should take the place of the so-called systems of physical training. We can conceive of a system or series of definite exercises, arranged to produce a desired effect upon a given person, or upon a class of persons ; but the only adequate name for a department of human knowledge and of research is that of a science. Science is classified knowledge ; but for the most part the words " un- classified ignorance" represent the present condition of our new science — physical education. Now, the intelligent understanding of the problems which need solution is the first step in the opening out of any new field of study. Here is a field of study as broad as human thought, involving questions important, far-reaching, and impossible of immediate settlement. The term physical education is so misleading, and even misrepresented, that we look for a name which shall represent fairly the real idea of the sci- ence. What is physical education ? This is one of the unsolved problems. Many people answer : "The training and development of the physical " ; and they consider that the aim and end may be found in anthropomet- ric apparatus, physical measurements, athletic contests and exhibitions, with graphic representations of measurements and of averages. Now these things are very well in their places, but if our science is to be worthy of the best efforts of men and women, and of the respect and recognition of the educational world, physical education must have an aim as broad as education itself, and as noble and inspiring as human life. The great thought in physical education is not the education of the physical nature, but the relation of physical training to complete educa- tion, and then the effort to make the physical contribute its full share to the life of the individual, in environment, training, and culture. The aim must not be primarily utilitarian, simply physical betterment, strength, skill, or fine proportions. It must be high and comprehensive. 622 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The ethical teacher tells us that the human ideal, the first and chief end of life, should he self-realization, the attainment of the best that there is in the possibilities, powers, and faculties of the individual. This guiding thought, this one ultimate end, brings into harmony all departments of human training. This ideal gives us the basis of our science, and sug- gests many questions of fundamental importance. For example, What is the relation, more exactly than we know yet, of vol- untary muscular activity to the activity and training of motor brain centers, and through these to general development ? Again, what are the laws which indicate the order and method of growth and development in all the tissues, organs, and activities in man ? In such study as this, thou- sands of individuals must be carefully observed and accurately tested, and the various laws determined by induction, tabulation, charting, and the various methods of statistical study, which has come to be a distinct specialty. Then types are to be brought out in strong relief, not to mis- lead but to assist us. Independently of all personal bias or prejudice these questions must be settled, through the scientific study of man him- self. Here are the fields for the biologist, the physiologist, the psycholo- gist, the physical and the general educator. These fields have been too much separated. They should overlap with generous margins, so that each may verify the results of the others, and that there may be unanim- ity among all. At present our exact knowledge with reference to these most important problems is very meager, especially in the field of physio- logical research. Dr. George W. Fitz has well brought out this thought in his excel- lent paper in the September number of Harvard Graduates' Magazine: "In the absence of exact physiological knowledge, various more or less reasonable and far-reaching hypotheses have been assumed, and elaborate theories and systems of training based thereon. The advent of new sys- tems, and discussions provoked by them, have made clear to physiologists the ignorance in relation to some essential facts." The rational study of the science of physical education will stimulate the efforts of investigators in many fields, and make plain the vital connection between facts hitherto unrelated even in the scientific mind. The work of the physical educator lies much in the field of the physical, but always from the standpoint of the ideal man, in whom the physical is the essential condition of his existence and activity. "It is seen," says Dr. G. Stanley Hall, "that the most perfect physical development involves the choicest knowledge, the best morals and religion." Here "best physical development " is related not to the material brute body, but to the possible admirable man or woman. What forms of exercise will best develop, or assist in development of, strength, speed, skill, self-control, accuracy, grace, endurance, automa- tism, courage, moral fiber, mental power, will power, character ? The TRAINING OF THE HUMAN BODY. 623 question of movement and the precise effect of each movement upon the human organism is to be determined by exact laboratory method. We are glad to know of the investigators who are working upon these problems. We rejoice at the establishment of such workshops as the laboratory in the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University, designed for the experimental study of the physiology of exercise. Several new and important pieces of apparatus testify to the early success in this special laboratory. May such institutions be multiplied ! The field of deformity, abnormality, and disease is of great importance for the physical educator, because the conditions named exist in slighter form and complicate the problem of many lives with which the teacher has to deal. What I have given you will serve to suggest the scientific basis of physical education. Here we must have definite knowledge. Whatever individual investigators have contributed to our scanty fund of knowledge we recognize with gratitude. The history of physical education among the different nations offers us much of great value. These two thoughts, then, let me emphasize : First, That there is a scienoe of physical education, based, with the other human sciences, upon a philosophy of human life. This science presents problems which are at once most interesting, important, and difficult, whose answers must form part of the foundation of all education. Second, That the ever-present, interesting, important, and difficult problem in physical, as in all education, is the individual living human being. TRAINING OF THE HUMAN BODY. BY DR. ANGELO MOSSO, PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF TURIN, ITALY. Many people, even so-called experts, think that a physical exercise, to be of use, must be executed with great energy and velocity. Imbued with a military spirit, they ask for exercises which consist of jerky motions, strong and violent grips and leaps. According to military judgment, a sudden motion is preferable to a slow one, because it is apt to be a decisive action; but the characteristic step of a Prussian soldier and the manner of his handling the gun are not admired by either physiologist or artist ; they are entirely unsuitable for woman's gymnastics. The activity of the muscles consists in their contraction caused by a chemical process. The chemical action is, however, useful also to the muscle itself. We are reminded of the old usage of the ''cupper," who asked his patient to hold his instrument case and turn it in his hands, so 624 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. that the blood should flow better ; and we see from this that a very gentle muscular activity suffices to accelerate the flow of blood. Even without contraction of the muscle we may make it stronger and more massive by means of massage. Concerning this phenomenon, im- portant investigations have been made which prove unquestionably that gymnastics owe their greatest usefulness to the fact that the muscles in their activity "knead" themselves, and that light motion aids the con- stant flow of lymph and blood better than strong and sudden motion. In the gymnastic exercises used at present, the tests of strength nearly always consist in lifting the weight of the body by means of arms and legs. Many believe that in order to increase muscular strength great feats are necessary. This is an error. I believe that muscular contrac- tions of short duration, involving less than one-tenth of the body's weight, are far more effective in strengthening and enlarging the muscles. Such movements may be made with dumb-bells or clubs. Experiments proved that girls between eight and thirteen years of age doubled and trebled the strength of their arms in fourteen days. I do not believe that the efforts of exercising on the horizontal ladder and bars can have a similar result, because the muscles, in lifting the whole weight of the body, work less under physiological conditions. It is remarkable, also, that slow physical exercises not only increase the strength of the muscles, but make them more economical in their per- formances— that is to say, decrease secretion by means of respiratory action, hence decrease the amount of nourishment required. Female gymnastics never aim at extraordinary performances of strength ; they are intended to facilitate mobility and gracefulness. Instead of given instructions, concerning every single movement, a series of movements should be practiced with a physiological purpose. How hard it is for mothers to teach their daughters to walk gracefully ! It is a complicated study to learn the combination of movements necessary for the girls to know how to carry themselves well. It is an error of gymnastic teachers to apply the same method and the same apparatus for both sexes. To women, the muscles used in respira- tion and those of the abdomen are much more important than for men. Those are terrible moments in which the contractive power of these muscles is so feeble that the labor in giving birth is prolonged, and may even cause death. German gymnastics, invented for soldiers, have not taken woman into consideration, and have done nothing for the develop- ment of the muscles of the diaphragm and the abdomen, although a long line of exercises for these purposes lies near at hand and seems absolutely necessary. Moreover, the present method of gymnastics does not seem to be favor- able to the training of soldiers for the field. The Swiss Monthly for Army Officers, of November, J892, contains an instructive report: "I TRAINING OF THE HUMAN BODY. 625 recently commanded forty-six teachers as recruits. During the first two or three weeks this teachers' section, which exercised gymnastics, was the best in the company ; but soon this section was overtaken by others, whose steps became longer and faster, whose march became more enduring ; they bore the burden of arms and baggage more easily, and soon the teachers' section was the weakest of all in the company, and the one which could not stand the hardships of a prolonged march. This is explained by the fact that these teachers practiced more military gymnastics and less mechanical military drill." We must not be pedantic and insist upon the same programme for all exercises ; it would lower the self -activity of the pupil. Gymnastic exer- cises should have a physiological aim. If the aim in view is plain, much more liberty may be granted. German gymnastics are tedious ; and when I see how complicated and difficult are the representations of the easiest and simplest performances of life, I cannot help remembering Goethe's irony with which he makes Mephistopheles iustruct the student. For reasons previously mentioned, instruction in gymnastics should be simplified, and games be introduced into the schools. Some " Freiiibung- en " that are now prescribed in schools I deem not only useless but decid- edly dangerous. Among these I class the clapping together of the feet, which promotes the growth of flat feet. A beautiful foot should always show a semicircle between the heel and the beginning of the toes. The narrower the bridge is, between heel and ball, the more perfect is the foot. We physicians judge the arching of the foot from a person's walk. If when walking he throws his feet a little forward he is apt to be flat-footed. This form of the feet represents a fault which in military service may prove disastrous, because on the inner part of the sole main arteries and nerves terminate. Hence flat-footed soldiers cannot march well. Another mistake of gymnastics for women is that no regard is had for strengthening the muscles of the organs of respiration. The ancients knew better. Orbasius devotes two chapters of his work to breathing- gymnastics, which were then called apotherapie. He prescribes holding the breath, and loosening the muscles of the abdomen by strong contrac- tion of those of the chest. This should alternate with an opposite move- ment, etc. Our present idea of beauty is different from that of the Greeks. To-day we still consider qualities as characteristic of female beauty which owe their value to prejudices of middle-age aesthetics. I believe Schadow was the first who pointed to the fact that the Venus of Medici had enormously long feet, and that the chests of Greek statues of women were larger than those of women of our time. The Venus of Milo must have been a woman of gigantic strength, if we consider the size and structure of her limbs. Her muscles show a character which reminds us of the distinguished 40 626 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Polyklet's statue of an athlete. The Venus of Knidos, in the Vatican collection, also displays masculine physical structure. There are tender ladies and vain mothers who fear gymnastic exercises because they develop the arms too much ; but a uniformly cylindric arm is not beautiful ; it may please some, but never anyone who is educated in art forms. Muscular action makes the fat disappear somewhat, and then through the skin the well-formed muscle may be noticed, for they are not relaxed entirely even in repose. The well-formed, full shoulders and the majestic gait of the women in the Albanian and Sabinian mountains are thought incomparable, and some people think that these women owe their beauty to the ease with which they carry light weights, or hold their hands on their heads. If we wish to learn the pure type of Roman women, it will not suffice to look at the few excellent forms one meets in the streets of Rome ; we must ascend the heights of the Apenninian mountains and visit the vil- lages where artists get their most beautiful models. These places resemble eagles' eyries on desolate mountain peaks. The people lead a very labori- ous life. The women climb daily up and down those steep mountain sides, carrying water in crocks on their heads, and like queens they walk to their huts. Undoubtedly this light daily exercise in pure air and the shining sunlight has facilitated the development of rare bodily excellences. It is an exaggeration to say that the ancient Romans had received their aesthetic sense of beauty from the Greeks. They always valued physical beauty. Without this feeling the Scipios would not have caused to be placed on the tomb of Cornelius Lucius Barbatus (300 B.C.) the Saturnian epitaph : " His bodily form was similar to his virtue : Perfect." How the times have changed ! To-day we dare not tell a woman that her physical forms are as perfect as her virtue. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF EXERCISES WITH AND WITHOUT APPARATUS. BY G. W. FITZ, M.D., INSTRUCTOR IN PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. The many conflicting theories and assumptions in discussions on physi- cal education have discouraged most of us, and made the task of reconcil- ing them, or even sifting out the good, seemingly hopeless. In our study of these problems we are forced, by lack of evidence to the contrary, to recognize the bases of many comprehensive theories to be a priori, and valueless as working hypotheses. We must go deeper, must search out the fundamental phenomena and conditions. In this field, where so little is definitely known, one must be extremely cautious in making positive EXERCISES WITH AND WITHOUT APPARATUS. 627 statements. In what follows, please interpret all that is stated positively to be questions which I wish to present for your discussion. It makes little difference in the general or local hygienic results whether one takes an hour of routine gymnastics, involving all the muscles of the body, and without variation from year's end to year's end, or takes an equal amount of exercise which constantly presents new coordinative problems ; yet the development of power would be very different. The hygienic and educative results are so independent that I shall omit all mention of the former and limit myself purely to the latter. For years the feeling has prevailed that the nerve centers take a large part in so-called muscular activity, but only recently has it been experi- mentally demonstrated. The evidence now seems to justify the belief that it is the actual fatigue of the nerve cells which limits muscular power ; that the muscle is not exhausted, even when it can be made to contract voluntarily no longer. Hodges' brilliant work, showing the profound changes in structure resulting from motor nerve cell activity, is of the utmost value to us, for it suggests the extreme power of adaptation possessed by the nerve cell, and probably the power to change quickly its way of reacting, thus demonstrating the physical basis of growth in skill. When a movement is made toward one's eye, or a particle of dust is blown into it, the eyelid closes quickly ; and if the time interval between the stimulus and reaction is measured, it will be found to be a small frac- tion of a second. This is a type of a large class of movements which have been called reflex, because apparently the sensory stimulus is immediately reflected to the muscle, causing a contraction. The movements which are the result of such reflex actions always follow the stimuli after a short interval, and usually so as to protect the part stimulated. If the hand is touched by a hot iron, it is snatched away from the iron even before we are conscious of being burned. This intelligent control of the muscles is not the result of brain action, and in fact takes place before the brain knows what has happened ; certainly before it could either help or hinder the movement. The movement follows the stimulus invariably ; it is fatal, it does itself. The nervous stimulus passes over a certain path called the reflex arc ; beginning in the peripheral sense organ, it passes inward to the sensory nerve cells in the cord, then to selected motor nerve cells, and out to the corresponding muscles. There is a clear choice between many possible movements, and that one is selected which will best protect the individual. When a child sees a bright ball and reaches out for it, we have almost an identical process, only now the reaction to the stimulus is slower, and we say the child wills to pick up the ball. Here certain brain-cells are used in addition to those of the cord, and the child is conscious of the ball and desires to possess it. As such movements are studied, it is seen that they are fatal, that the perception of the ball brings about the desire 628 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. and the attempt at possession. The willing is here of slight importance. The act is reflex, but higher and more complicated in character than the reflexes of the cord, and slower in time. Now, practically all of our physical activity falls under this type of reflex action. Walking is reflex, the sensory stimuli coming from the soles of the feet and the eyes ; the walking does itself. So also in eating and manual work of all kinds. We have the sensory stimuli acting as guides to the motor responses, and all unconsciously. The curious part is that we can react best when we are unconscious, for as soon as we become conscious we react less accurately and more slowly. The small boy who throws a snowball at a passer-by is perfectly uncon- scious of the ball, of his hands, and of the dozens of muscles he is about to use, but he is vividly conscious of his victim — his whole attention is upon the target. He does not estimate the distance and the necessary elevation to carry the ball, nor the force to get it there : he simply makes a vague, violent effort, and the snowball rises in the air, falls in a graceful curve, and hits squarely. In the first place, the boy has a reflex desire to throw the snowball, which all the policemen in the neighborhood cannot inhibit ; secondly, a reflex control of all the muscles, which makes them work together with that perfect harmony that insures success, allowing for force and elevation so as to overcome the distance, and perhaps also allowing for the wind, and movement of the target. Of all of this, our small boy is totally unconscious. Analysis of other acts will show that they are made in response to sen- sory stimuli, and that we are unconscious of the means, being conscious solely of the ends sought ; all else is done for us, so far as we are con- sciously concerned. We know, moreover, that this is true throughout the animal kingdom, and doubtless has been true in part through the ages of development. We not only do things now in this way, and have always done them in this way, but we possess nerves and muscles developed by this plan of interaction ; hence our conclusion must be that the mutual work is thus best done — that it is the natural way. We find that our ordinary activities are stimulated by our perceptions of external conditions ; that our plan of procedure is dependent upon our interpretation of those conditions, and a stimulation of just the right muscles to accomplish the result. During this time we are intent upon the end to be reached, the target to be hit, the book to be lifted, the car to be stopped, etc.; this seems to be the most important factor, for our skill is directly proportional to our success in this concentration. What do we get from this besides clear judgments of size, distance, etc.? It seems that these are essential factors for our motor responses, and that they start, reflexly, the whole complicated train of accurate motor response ; thus they act as guides of the responses as well as stimuli. It is this function which is of greatest importance to us as physical trainers. EXERCISES WITH AND WITHOUT APPARATUS. 629 Apparatus work presents these conditions fully and completely. This is palpably true in all heavy work, but is still true in work with dumb- bells, Indian clubs, wands, etc. We have the sensory stimuli appearing more or less strongly, acting as guides, and controlling the motor impulses. As the Indian club swings about the head it tends to move uniformly and in a true curve ; the hand, feeling this, is guided thereby. Consciousness is centered in the club, and there is no inhibitory consciousness of the arms and their muscles. In case of heavy work, such as pitching hay, this guidance is most perfect, unifying the whole effort of the body, and forc- ing the workman into beautiful attitudes. Is not the grace of the gon- dolier due to the same perfect interaction of perception and motor response ? Give the awkward boy something to do with his hands, and he loses his self -consciousness and awkwardness, for the reflex arcs are occu- pied, and the motor impulses are guided naturally ; his consciousness is projected into the thing to be done, and all goes easily. It is interesting to note that the games which have held the activities of youth, such as football, baseball, handball, cricket, and a thousand others, bring into play the higher reflex processes, involving the perception and interpreta- tion of external physical conditions, and the quick, appropriate, motor responses. Apparatus work may be defined as work which involves reflex stimula- tion and control of motor activity by sensory stimuli. Free work is, conversely, such work as does not involve reflex stimula- tion and control of the motor activities by sensory stimuli. Let us now consider the problem presented in free exercises. The so- called order movements for the arms given by the Swedes and the free-arm exercises of the Germans are typical examples. The exercises of the trunk and legs belong properly to the class of apparatus movements, for here we have a distinct guiding by sensory impulses'. If the order is given to bring the arms to a horizontal position outward at the sides, we have an entirely different chain of events from that which we have discussed. Here we have a stimulus to the ear, but one that has no direct natural relation to motor activity ; it only gives rise to a motor response through the complicated process of calling up a concept of the movement demanded. The consciousness is immediately introspective, becoming fixed on the movement and on the arm itself ; if on the individual muscle, so much the worse. Katurally the accuracy of the movement will depend on the vividness and accuracy of the remembered concept, for it must duplicate a previous movement. Such movements are difficult, but where is the diffi- culty ? The small boy who has had no so-called systematic training is able to hit a fly on the wall in such a position in relation to his shoulder, and to do it instantly ; yet when you order him to execute the aforesaid movement, he gets his hand perhaps four or five inches too high, or too low, or too far forward, or too far back, usually upward and backward. 630 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. His difficulty is not that he cannot do the movement, for his nerves and muscles are all right, but he has only a vague concept of this conventional position in relation to the sense of position of his arm. The sense of position is in itself good, for he must have known just where his arm started from to hit the fly. We are forced to consider the concept as at fault. In order to do it exactly, he must be able to perceive the identity of his arm sideward-horizontal position concept, and the arm position sense, and furthermore must know when he is approaching it. The fact that it is difficult for him shows that there has been little call for it in his natural activity, or in the activity of the race. The demand is not a natural one, the conditions are unnatural. The question arises, Does it require education because it is undeveloped ? Is it not shown to be of slight value by the fact that it has not been developed ? But aside from this consideration, what is its value ? Necessarily such concepts are of a few arbitrarily chosen positions, the positions having no greater value than an equal number selected at random from an infinite number of oblique positions. It is difficult to conceive of any real value from the training of such concepts, except to a soldier; while the soldier illustrates the' decided disadvantages attached, for his angularity and stiffness show the tendency gained for the nervous discharges to go in the well-grooved paths resulting from the drill, and so thus prejudice the movements to the direc- tions exercised. Fortunately, training of this sort, while it does little good educationally, can result in but slight harm, for the actual use of the muscles and nerve cells in these exercises amounts to so small a part of the total day's hap-hazard activity that its influence may be ignored. Only when systematic training goes beyond the daily ordinary experience in amount or range, does it come in as marked factor in development. In all series exercises made up of sets of simple movements there can be only slight gain, for the series per se have no intrinsic value, except as in piano practice, typewriting, etc., where one recognizes a distinct utilitarian end. Dr. Wey, of the Elmira Reformatory, has made a significant observa- tion in regard to arousing enthusiasm in exercises. The free exercises were tried, but the class could not be kept interested ; they wanted to feel they were doing something. When given apparatus work they became interested, and showed good results from the training. Is this not due to the fundamental psychological difference existing between the two — one being a natural, concrete set of conditions, while the other is abstract and unnatural ? When we consider physical training in its educational aspect, we must claim manual training as a part of our work, for here we have preemi- nently all the conditions of apparatus work — the clear perception of exter- nal conditions of material and tools, and the motor responses guided by such perceptions. PHYSICAL EXERCISES FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES. 631 I believe fully that it will not be many years before much of so-called gymnastic teaching will be a thing of the past, and in its place we shall have a well-ordered series of games and occupations, which will furnish full free play to all the physical activities, giving to the child the oppor- tunity for his true physical upbuilding. Such training, or rather such opportunity, should begin in the cradle, and continue till the physical activities are in full power and the body has reached its complete devel- opment. Eeference to movements that are primarily aids to expression has been purposely omitted, and many points naturally related to the foregoing have been avoided, that the main question might be left clear for discussion. PHYSICAL EXERCISES FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES — HOW SELECTED AND GRADED. BY J. GARDNER SMITH, M.D.,* SPECIAL INSTRUCTOR PHYSICAL TRAINING PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEW YORK CITY. In discussing the subject of physical exercises for schools, we must remember that we are dealing with a very large class of our population ; that we are dealing with a class which is under better control and disci- pline than any other class of individuals except our military forces ; that we have to deal with these children through a board which in many towns is slow to believe in the necessity of and expenditure for physical training. To accomplish much, we must urge progressive measures through the board of health and otherwise for the betterment of the bodily training of public-school children. Need. — The need of such training is apparent both as a hygienic and a pedagogic measure. Scholars are taught words and facts and figures ; their cerebral centers are engorged with blood at the expense of their bodily growth and development. Teachers wonder why the little mind does not show more energy, why it does not grasp and retain and digest all this mental food. The fact is forgotten that the voluntary muscles contain perhaps one-fourth of the blood in the body, and that through their activity a large proportion of the potential energy of the body is changed into work and heat. As a pedagogical measure, physical exercise, properly directed, is a necessary factor. One need but observe the standing or sitting position of public-school children, their awkward gait, difficult breathing when singing or speaking, to appreciate a need of training. Kindergarten and manual training to a limited extent affect both muscles and mind, but the need to-day is a definite system of physical •Member New York County Medical Society, Director Physical Department Harlem Branch Y. M. C. A. 632 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. training which by graded and more or less intricate exercises shall not merely develop muscles but educate the mind to control and coordinate the whole voluntary muscular system. For, as Dr. Keating says in his "Cyclopedia of Diseases of Children": "Every movement of the body depends as much upon the proper coordination of the muscles for its accuracy, grace, and force, as upon the strength of their contraction." The need of physical training as a hygienic measure is more imperative. During the past two years I have examined upward of eight thousand public-school children. A large proportion of these children stood with abdomen protruding, shoulders and neck forward. The average expan- sion of the chest at the nipple, in breathing, of boys was 1.1 inches, of girls, .9 inch. The breathing was sufficient to support life, but the quantity of reserve and complemental air was very small. Very few could distinguish between diaphragmatic and costal breathing. About ten per cent, had an apparent scoliosis. Comparatively few rachitic children were found. The step in most cases was fairly good, as the children had already been trained in marching. After eight months the chest expansion in boys was 1.9 inches, in girls was 1.8 inches ; scoliosis improved in eighty per cent, of the cases. These examinations showed a most urgent need of training in the sitting and standing position, for development of muscles of trunk and upper extremities, and especially in the carriage of the body and mobility of the chest. For all these reasons, and many more, it is highly imperative that a rational system of physical training be pursued during the ages of school attendance. Such a system should meet the demands hygienic, educational, and recreative. The practical question which now arises is as to the method and its adaptation. Shall the system be German, Swedish, or what ? I say, Let the system be American, comprising the best of all known exercises. Let the special teachers be well informed upon all so-called systems and thoroughly familiar with the human body, able to examine the scholars and adapt the exercises to their needs. Too much time is spent to-day in discussing systems, and too little in the study of needs and how to meet them. Method. — As to the method or selection of exercises, it must vary in detail according to circumstances. We must consider the condition and needs of children first. This may be done by some form of physical examination relative to the heart, the lungs, the thoracic cavity, the condition of bones of trunk and limbs, the strength and development of voluntary muscles ; all of these should be considered. Measurements of height, weight, chest, abdomen, hips, arms, and other important notes should be recorded. In this way the director of this department is enabled to place the children in proper classes, and to arrange and adapt the work intelligently. On the other hand, the children are thus stimu- PHYSICAL EXERCISES FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES. 633 lated to work for their physical improvement, and not merely to learn how to perform certain mechanical exercises with no definite end in view. We must consider the building, the room or rooms to be used, the num- ber of teachers and number of grades, the length of time spent in each grade, the sex, and the apparatus available. Next we must consider the mental capabilities of the children, and suit the exercises to the various grades from this standpoint also. The system must be progressive, from the ABC to the graduates who enter college or business. In this pro- gression, however, fun and recreation should be prevalent. The three great needs — hygiene, education, and recreation — should underlie the whole system. There are two other very practical considerations : First, the cooperation of the teachers ; and second, the necessary financial out- lay. This latter need not be very extensive, although it should be suffi- cient to secure the best talent and means for the best result. One com- petent man, with the cooperation of regular teachers, might have the oversight of from five thousand to twenty thousand pupils, or with special assistants he might direct an almost unlimited work. I have been agree- ably surprised to see the unanimous and hearty way in which the prin- cipals and teachers have supported and aided in the exercises of physical training in the schools of New York City. With these facts before us, we proceed to a more definite outline of exercises. It is not the province of this paper to discuss school furniture, but it is of course important that desks and seats be adjustable, so that the child can touch his feet to the floor, for instance, and so that physi- cal instruction can be carried out. Exercises permissible in school may be classified as follows : Training in sitting position ; training in standing position ; Breathing exercises, upper thoracic, lower thoracic, diaphragmatic ; Marching, walking, running, hopping, skipping, jumping; Calisthenic exercises (innumerable) without apparatus ; Light gymnastic exercises with apparatus — rings, dumb-bells, wands, poles, bell-bars, Indian clubs, etc. Heavy gymnastic exercises — horse-buck, parallel bars, horizontal bar, vaulting, jumping, ladder, rings, etc. Games, indoors and out. — Innumerable games, especially in spring and fall, with much of the other exercise, can and should be done out of doors. It is not necessary to go into much detail regarding this classifica- tion, but some explanation may be profitable. Assuming that we have a room well ventilated, with two hundred cubic feet of air space for each individual, and the most modern adjustable desks and seats, there are innumerable groups of enjoyable exercises which might be done by the children, as often as every half hour at least. Motion is one of the means of rest to the growing child. Ho should not be restrained in one 634 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. position longer than live or ten minutes. Neither should faulty positions, tending to scoliosis and other deformities, be permitted. Exercises in the sitting position may be alternated with risings and facings, and marchings at intervals. This rest and recreation for body and mind need not be longer than a minute or two, or perhaps five, at a time. Standing — Before children are taught to march they should be taught to stand in the position of the soldier. (See revised tactics, United States army.) Ask the untrained child to sit or stand erect, and you will observe the shoulders thrown backward, head tipped back, and abdomen protruded, in many if not most cases. Considerable training will be necessary to properly " set up" the child. Perhaps the next most important point is the control of thoracic mus- cles, both for the health of the child and to improve his singing and speaking. He should be taught to use the upper and lower thorax and diaphragm at the same time, and each separately. These ideas and habits inculcated into the minds of children might do much to encourage dress reform, because the child could see the impossibility of sufficient chest expansion while the chest is constricted. There may result more muscular strength under restriction, but not so much elasticity and expansion of the chest. Marching. — Many evolutions in accordance with the United States tac- tics will prove interesting and beneficial to scholars — an improvement in the way of school discipline that would give us better men and women, and better soldiers. Calisthenics. — This field is almost unlimited where large, airy rooms are at command. In many school houses calisthenics must be limited to such as can be done in a classroom with desks. It must be remembered, as Dr. Lincoln remarks in his article on school hygiene to Dr. Keating's " Cyclopedia": " Above the age of twelve years scholars begin to look down on them [referring to free exercises] as childish ; and with good reason, for they lack one essential element — they do not call for exertion to over- come resistance. For better work scholars should have light dumb-bells, wands/' etc. I would note another lacking element, viz. : the recreation afforded by the fact that some apparatus is held in the hand and used in the exercise. We see this desire for apparatus before the child reaches twelve years, and in New York City five primary grades use apparatus. Calisthenic exercises may be grouped in drills, for assembly or class- room or gymnasium, occupying from one to twenty minutes. The pro- gression proposed by Professor Ling (see Keating's " Cyclopedia of Dis- eases of Children "), the grace and ease of movement as taught by Delsarte, and the recreative "rounds" of the Germans, can be made exceedingly attractive when adapted to the needs of the scholars. The United States setting-up drill, arranged to 4-4 time, has proved very interesting and attractive in assembly and classroom drill. PHYSICAL EXERCISES FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES. 635 Light Gymnastic Exercises (tot'th apparatus). — This affords better opportunity to grade the exercises to suit the body and mind of the child from five to twenty years of age, and to cultivate not alone, muscles and strength, grace and agility, but to train the perception, memory, judg- ment, and almost every faculty of the mind, at the same time affording much recreation. Indian-club swinging, for instance, while simple and easy, can be made most intricate and interesting. This fact was illus- trated at one of the New York school receptions, where the graduating girls gave a very creditable exhibition of club-swinging, showing grace of movement, complexity and variety of exercises. The following is a classification of graded drills in New York City schools (June, 1893) : In the grammar departments : First Grade (highest). — Advanced Indian-club drill No. 1. Second Grade. — Advanced bell-bar drill No. 1. Third Grade.— Wood dumb-bell drill No. 1. Fourth Grade.— Bell-bar drill No. 2. Fifth Grade. — Indian-club drill No. 2 ; or wood dumb-bell drill No. 2. Sixth Grade. — Short-wand drill No. 1. Seventh Grade. — Wood dumb-bell drill No. 3. Eighth Grade. — Calisthenic dumb-bell drill No. 4 ; or free drill No. 4. For the primary departments : First Grade (highest). — Indian-club drill No. 3. Second Grade. — Anvil chorus dumb-bell drill, or bell-bar drill No. 3. Third Grade.— Short-wand drill No. 2, Fourth Grade. — Wood dumb-bell drill No. 5. Fifth Grade. — Military drill, and ring drill No. 1. Sixth Grade. — Free drills Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and breathing exercises. In the higher grades of grammar departments, where ages range from fourteen to seventeen years, especially in the male department, heavy apparatus — horse, horizontal bars, etc. — can be used to advantage. This work need not be limited to the boys' classes, though of course the work by the girls must be much simpler and easier of accomplishment. The element of resistance to exertion here satisfies an evident demand, and affords an increased amount of recreation. Here the class should work in squads under competent leaders, who set the exercises and see that they are properly carried out. Games. — Of course the element of fun is greatest in the so-called "games." The rivalry and exertion completely change the mental con- dition, and recreate body and mind. These should not be carried to fatigue. Baseball, handball, basket-ball, tag, etc., can be utilized in a most profitable way ; and I believe games will hold a much more promi- nent place in the future than they do to-day in school, association, and college gymnasiums. 636 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. How Taught ? — In answer to this question we would say, By the class teacher, supervised by a competent director. This plan has been followed in New York for two years with good results. The director of physical training should visit each school at intervals (perhaps once each week), reviewing the past work and setting some new exercise for each class. The exercise of each grade should be printed, illustrated by photographs, and placed in the hands of the teachers. The assembly work and marching orders will be about the same for all classes, but the grade work, of course, will vary in progression. When the exercises are well understood by the scholars, the piano or other music increases the interest and recreation of the work, and becomes the only leader needed for the class. The exercises, taught by the class teacher, will prove mutually beneficial. In closing, let me urge the necessity of more recreation in our schools, more study of this branch of education, and more hearty cooperation by all interested in this common cause. THE REGULATION OF ATHLETIC SPORTS IN COLLEGES. BY R. TAIT McKENZIE, B.A., M.D., DIRECTOR OF McGILL UNIVERSITY GYMNASIUM, MONTREAL. Every department in college work has its honor course in which results are decided by competition. But there is always an ordinary course wherein steady work, not peculiar excellence, is required. In the depart- ment of physical culture, however, in many colleges all work is competi- tive. Thus in "athletics" there is no "ordinary course." Freshmen in everyway unprepared encounter the full strain of a hard game, such as football, like raw recruits rushing into battle before they have learned the first rudiments of drill ; in fact, the value of drill is often entirely overlooked. "It is the intent of gymnastics," says Jahn, " to restore to our educa- tion that completeness which has been lost, to add bodily training to one-sided mental culture, and to balance over-refinement by manliness regained." Athletic sports, supplying as they do nourishment to the physical wants of our college men, may by regulation minister to that " completeness " which the great German reformer had in view. Certainly athletics in some form will continue as a college institution so long as a young man's glory is in his strength. He will devise some method of measuring it with his fellows, and of displaying his prowess, even if it be at the expense of the unfortunate policeman or the innocent street lamp. He must have some safety-valve to let off his surplus vital force. Froebel, in designing the kindergarten, instead of ignoring this "play THE REGULATION OF ATHLETIC SPORTS IN COLLEGES. 037 instinct," made gymnastic games a part of his system, thus bringing the most coustant and prominent characteristic of the child's nature strongly to bear on his education and development. Hap-hazard as their regulation is, athletic sports have had a powerful influence in molding the lives. of men. Wellington's historical remark : "All the victories of my life were fought years before on the football fields in England/' is as true to-day as it wus then. Our modern college education is sometimes a process of over-refine- ment ; the intellectual is so emphasized that men are made unfit for the rough-and-tumble fight of life by their lack of physical courage. The struggle is distasteful to them. "The need of the pre-scientific age was knowledge and refinement ; the need of our age is health and sanity, cool heads and good digestion." On the campus a man is disciplined in quick decision and prompt action, and learns resolute pluck when opposing forces are greater than his own. The timid boy, needing such discipline most, gets it least. Let us be glad, with Wadsworth, that "the spirit of athletics is abroad among our young men, enlarging muscles, broadening shoulders, and deepening chests. The result will be a fine race, and that paragon of animals, the noblest result of the ages, a strong man." The Greeks as a nation cultivated athletic sports with a passionate enthusiasm. Their games were warlike, as became their social conditions and environment, but even they distinguished educational from military or athletic gymnastics. The modern city does not, for walls, need the bodies of her young men as did Sparta, but in the nineteenth century, when life is a keener struggle than ever for existence, the man with the most physi- cal stamina will produce the most work and the best, other things being equal, just as surely as the disciplined soldier of Rome proved himself superior to the untrained barbarian in the hand-to-hand conflicts of his day. As the hypertrophy of any muscle or set of muscles is produced at the expense of the whole body corporate, so the undue prominence of this feature of college life may become an abuse, and seriously interfere with the work of the classroom. Those who see little if any value in athletic games say that time so spent is not only wasted but is stolen from the useful and legitimate col- lege studies. This objection, which is heard usually from the teaching staff, certainly has foundation when a large amount of class-work has to be done in a short term. Why not settle this disagreement in the manner proposed by the little boy about to be spanked by his mother: "Don't strike; let's arbitrate " ? From the standpoint of hygiene, Professor Mosso, of the University of Turin, backed by able medical authorities, including the Lancet, proves that mere strength of limb tends to weaken and impoverish the body ; 638 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. that great muscular strength impedes the circulation, interferes with respiration, and makes the pulse irregular. Also that the brain does not rest during exercise. Assuming his conclusions to be correct, as they doubtless are, the fact remains that college men will insist upon playing football, running, jumping, and heaving weights ; but as we are at pres- ent trying to regulate and control this Saxon characteristic and minimize its attendant dangers, his conclusions are hardly relevant, for they apply to extremes only, and in the case before us are like half-truths in evi- dence— more misleading than mistakes or direct falsehoods. Physical education is becoming a department of preventive medicine at the cost of the recreative element that Herbert Spencer lays so much stress upon in his essay on that subject. If the authorized physical department does not recognize the "play instinct," it will manifest itself as a discordant factor, opposing where it should cooperate, interfering with and detracting from the popularity of the official work. Apropos of this, a philosopher once said it was hard to understand why football should be called play when shoveling coal was considered hard work. That such is the case proves that a great deal of hard work can be dis- guised by the spirit of play, and if some ingenious mind were to plan intercollegiate coal-shoveling contests, it would doubtless become a new and popular sport. In the English universities we find sports at their best, for England is the mother of athletic games, and has a large family of them. So much do boating, cricket, and football take up the time and strength of the Oxford undergraduate that Ruskin, seeing in this a waste of valuable energy, said it might mend all the roads in Oxfordshire — a most productive form of athletics. As there is little or no control exercised over such athletics, and as the open weather extends throughout nearly the whole year, out- door sports and games almost entirely take the place of indoor gymnastic work ; in fact they leave little room for it. In America we find that his sporting proclivities have followed the Englishman, and the same love of games and admiration of physical prowess are there seen. But sport has become changed by the more stimulating climate, and has taken on some national characteristics. Everything is done under high pressure and great excitement ; and because of interested crowds and big gate-money at stake, ingenious tricks are indulged in to gain advantage in the match. "Who but an American would have thought of greasing his canvas jacket for a football match ? Athletics are, however, taken seriously in most American colleges, and are undertaken with a characteristic intenseness. There is not much fun or freedom in the life of a candidate for the university crew or the foot- ball team. A stranger is astonished at the spirit of keen competition in the athletics of American colleges. It is in danger of interfering with fair play in many intercollegiate contests. The mere winning is an inci- THE REGULATION OE ATHLETIC SPORTS IN COLLEGES. 639 dent in the game, and should not be so magnified as to become the sole object for which the game is played, that before which everything else must give way. A team which cannot win on its merits, often resorts to trickery. The motto seems to be : " Get there honestly if you can, but get there." Codes of signals are practiced behind closed gates, spies are sent to discover the enemy's tactics ; in fact, an outsider is apt to think a civil war is about to break out, instead of a friendly trial of strength -between two sister institutions. This intense rivalry smothers the spirit of fair play, and leaves the game shorn of one of its greatest attractions. The newspapers make capital of this in exaggerated paragraphs, and the annual football match assumes the appearance of a gladiatorial show. It is played before enormous crowds, on neutral grounds hired for the occa- sion. The question of gate-money has the first consideration in choosing the scene of action. For example, in 1893 the receipts at the Yale- Princeton football match were over $30,000 ; about $12,000 of this went to each club, and was used principally in training the team, paying attendants, hotel bills, and railway fares — everything, expenses included, being on a truly gigantic scale. This money-making value of the game is dragging sport down from its true place as a recreation, and, together with the rivalry before alluded to, must tell against its best interests. But the evil does not stop here, for the smaller colleges, like small boys, try to imitate their big brothers, and so offer distinguished players large salaries to coach their football teams that they may compete with some hope of success ; and thus many of the men who become noted in college athletics have professionalism thrust upon them. Our Canadian colleges occupy a position entirely unique. Their strong leaning toward American forms, to be expected from their social and geographical relationship, is offset by the influence of British customs, traditions, and official connection. The form and character of the sports are therefore rather more English than American. A football match is always played on the ground of one of the competing colleges ; the com- petitive and professional elements do not enter so much into sport there as they do further south, the visiting team being entertained as guests. The annual 'Varsity-McGill Rugby match is always followed by a compli- mentary dinner, and the rivalry is most friendly and good-natured. In no college in Canada do the university authorities have any voice on the athletic boards, except as honorary members or officials of the games. But experience goes to show that some government is beneficial and even necessary ; that if left entirely in the hands of the undergraduates, without assistance from those who have been through the mill, blunders are made, time, labor, and money are wasted yearly by raw committees, and the athletic interests of the college have to bear the loss. If members of the teaching staff were also members of th.3 athletic committees, these faults 040 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. would in part at least be remedied, as a certain official recognition would be given to athletics. They would then assist physical training very much as practical demonstrations or Saturday excursions enlarge the course in geology or botany. A scheme for the government of the athletic interests of any college must of necessity vary in detail with the special conditions of the institu- tion. In the first place, if games were confined to intercollegiate events, the rougher element would be excluded. Secondly, games would be played on college grounds only, and the admission be by invitation rather than by payment, so that the right audience, the friends of the players and of the college, would have the first opportunity of witnessing the game. This would empty the coffers, it is true, but college athletics would rise from the plane of a mere money-making advertisement, which these sometimes occupy, to that of the pure recreation so necessary for the welfare of the present-day student. Thirdly, as the laurel wreath at Olympia was valued not for its intrinsic worth but as a mark of distinc- tion and souvenir of the event, so should the contestant nowadays esteem his prize, though of little money value. Other outlay being on the same scale, a small compulsory fee charged all students would easily cover the necessary expenditure. Fourthly, let the control of all the athletic interest of the college be in the hands of a committee composed some- what as follows : The principal or president (ex-officio) ; one governor, or trustee, elected annually ; one professor from each faculty, elected annually ; the director of the gymnasium ; one graduate, elected annually by the graduate society or similar organization ; the president of the athletic association, an undergraduate ; one undergraduate representative from each football or tennis club, etc., elected annually by the respective bodies at their first meeting. There would be about twelve in all, equally divided between graduates and undergraduates. The duty of this committee would be to control the college athletic grounds, to confirm all rules and regulations of the differ- ent clubs before they became valid, to decide any inter-club disputes involving the general welfare, to insist on a medical examination before allowing men to take the risk of competing in games of strength and endurance, and to make a report at the end of the year to the governing body of the university of work done, with comments and recommen- dations. Next in order of precedence would come the athletic association, the central managing undergraduate society, in which would be represented football, hockey, cricket, and tennis, each of these clubs managing its own affairs, and requiring legislation on certain questions only, such as grants of money. If a scheme like this were adopted there would be a system of athletic law courts from the individual to the club, from the club to the ENGLISH EXPERIENCE WITH PLAYGROUNDS. 641 association, from the association to the committee, and from the com- mittee to the supreme court, the governing board of the college. Athletic interests would then be regulated by the men best fitted by inclination, experience, and ability, to check abuses and encourage new and better ideas, and the chaos of conflicting interests and authorities, now unfor- tunately too prevalent, would be replaced by the cosmos of harmony and order. ENGLISH EXPERIENCE IN PROVIDING THE POOR OF CITIES WITH PARKS, GARDENS, GYMNASIA, AND PLAYGROUNDS. BY THE EIGHT HONORABLE THE EARL OF MEATH, LONDON. Fifty years ago the world, comparatively speaking, did not contain many large cities. It is only within the memory of living men that the great exodus has set in from the country to the town. In former ages, no doubt, the city always exercised a certain fascination over the bucolic mind ; but locomotion was difficult and expensive, social custom and laws antagonistic and often almost prohibitive to migration, especially in the case of the peasant, and the city fenced itself round not only with material walls, but with prohibitive tariffs and with regulations which rendered all ingress and egress troublesome, and change of residence a painful labor rather than a pleasure. The attractions of the city, too, were not so marked as to outweigh the disadvantages attending residence within its walls. In the town work was often scarce, food dear, dirt ubiquitous, disease endemic and sometimes rampant, and life and property not infre- quently less secure than in the country, which did not offer to the idle and evil-disposed so easy and rich a prey. It was not until steam power superseded hand labor, till factories arose requiring the daily cooperation of numbers of human beings to carry on the work, till delicate machinery needing the constant attention and repair of skilled artisans came into use, till encompassing walls were razed, octroi duties and regulations either abolished or modified, locomotion made easy and inexpensive, and city life comparatively safe, healthy, and agreeable, that population began to leave the country and settle in the town, attracted by work, high wages, and the brighter and more varied aspects which life assumes in the midst of crowds. As towns improved in their sanitation, in their outer beauty and inner life, so wealth was attracted, and labor followed in the footsteps of its patron, until by degrees grew up the city as we know it, where may be found all that can make existence agreeable to the rich man, who, when he is satiated with the pleasures of the city, may retire to the country and enjoy (all the more for the contrast) the peace, the freshness, aud the beauty of nature. But those masses of 41 642 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION human beings who have been congregated through the exigencies of commerce, of manufacture, and of wealth, cannot migrate at their will. They are bound to remain cooped up, year in, year out, within the walls and streets of the crowded city. They have been driven by hard fortune from their country homes, and like wild flowers torn by some careless hand from the meadow bank, are left to fade and die on the hard and pitiless pavement. If artificial social necessities have demanded the permanent banishment of the masses from the country, and from all that the country means to man, it is but just that society should endeavor to minimize the loss to them by bringing back to the city as much of the beauty and pleasures of nature as money and circumstances will permit. With this view, the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association and the Kyrle Society have labored with marked success to increase the number of public open spaces, gardens, and playgrounds in the metropolis, and have lost no opportunity of fostering a public opinion within Great Britain favorable to the acquisition and maintenance by municipalities of numer- ous public open spaces easily accessible to the masses of the people. So successful has this propaganda been that London alone has, since the for- mation of the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association in 1882, increased her open spaces by one hundred and fifty-seven, containing 4,998 acres, whilst the entire number of public parks and gardens within easy reach of the inhabitants of the metropolis is two hundred and seventy-one, con- taining 17,876 acres, which include 6,280 acres acquired and maintained by the Corporation of the City of London. During the same period the provincial municipalities have added largely to the open spaces under their control, but it is difficult to give an accu- rate statement as to their number. In the year 1883, in answer to a circular letter issued by the writer to the authorities of forty-two provin- cial cities and towns, it was found that they possessed an aggregate of one hundred and thirty-one open spaces, containing 12,343 acres. Since then it is probable that at least one hundred more have been added, so that we may roughly say that the cities and towns of the United Kingdom, includ- ing the metropolis, possess some five hundred open spaces, over 40,000 acres in extent. These public grounds are of course in addition to the innumerable private gardens and squares which are to be met with in almost all British towns, and which, though not open to the public, still gladden the eyes of all by the sight of nature, materially increase the num- ber of cubic feet of pure air which each citizen may breathe, assist in the production of oxygen and the consumption of carbonic acid gas, and give pleasure and health to a large majority of the inhabitants of the towns in which they are situated. It is calculated that there are some five hun- dred private squares (and frontages) in London, as well as one hundred and seventy three closed burial grounds, containing an aggregate area of about 1,500 acres. ENGLISH EXPERIENCE WITH PLAYGROUNDS. 643 The operations of the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association have been largely directed toward the transformation into pleasant gardens, and the throwing open to the public, of these closed burial grounds and squares ; and no less than sixty-one of the former and eighteen of the latter have been thus treated by the society since its formation. The London County Council, the governing body of the metropolis outside the city, has been most energetic in furtherance of the open-space move- ment, and within four years has itself contributed £170,000, whilst other public bodies have subscribed £171,000, in jointly adding 418 acres to the open spaces of the capital, besides receiving three noble gifts amounting to 66 acres. It should here be mentioned that many years before the existence of either the London County Council or of the Metropolitan Public Gar- dens Association, the ancient corporation, which rules over the one square mile in the heart of the metropolis known as the City of London, and whose head is the lord mayor, initiated the policy of encircling London on its outskirts with a series of large commons and open-spaces. In 1882 the corporation acquired the noble domain of Epping Forest, 5,350 acres in extent. Up to the present time the corporation has provided ten or eleven of these large open areas, amounting to 6,380 acres, at a total cost of £310,000, and is still continuing its large-hearted policy of enclosing London in a green ring, a policy which not only promotes the welfare of its own citizens, but to a far greater extent benefits the inhabitants of London at large, outside the narrow limits of the City. There are some who are of the opinion that London possesses for the moment a sufficient number of extensive parks and gardens, and that her present need is a large increase in the small gardens and playgrounds to be found scattered amongst the more densely packed portions of her popu- lation. The ideal of the writer of this paper is that a small garden or playground, divided into two portions, one for boys and one for girls, both supplied witli gymnastic apparatus and appliances for suitable games, with a certain portion roofed in in case of bad weather, and under the care and supervision of special attendants, should be opened and main- tained by the municipal authority in every large city within a quarter of a mile's walk of each working or middle-class home. As a rule in cities the large parks — and this is especially the case in the United States — are too far from the masses of the population to be of much practical benefit to them except on a Sunday; but if small play- grounds under the strict supervision of careful attendants were scattered all over the town, work-people would be able to send their children to them, even for a short time, between, before, and after school hours, con- fident that they would be in safety and well looked after. Such play- grounds would seem to be more needed in America than in Great Britain, inasmuch as almost all British schools have playgrounds attached to 644 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. them, which, as far as the experience of the writer goes, is not usually the case with those on this side of the Atlantic. Public playgrounds may have been constructed in the more crowded portions of American cities since my visit in 1889, when, as chairman of the Parks Committee of the London County Council, I drew up a report, for the use of the committee, on the public open spaces of America ; but at that time the only play- ground of which I heard, outside those attached to parks, was one at Boston. The usefulness of these institutions cannot be doubted by anyone who has once seen such grounds crowded with children thoroughly enjoying themselves, and unconsciously strengthening their limbs and constitutions by games and gymnastic exercises performed under the open canopy of heaven. The London County Council and the Corporation of the City of London have been so convinced of the benefit which these playgrounds are to the rising generation, that they have not only taken over several origin- ally made and temporarily maintained by the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association, but have constructed and enlarged others in the parks under their control. Open-air gymnasia, in addition to those scattered about the metropolis, are now to be found in the following London parks : For Boys under Ten For Men. Years of Age, and for Girls. Victoria Park 2 2 Battersea Park 1 2 Ravenscourt Park ■ 0 1 Brockwell Park 0 1 Clissold Park 0 1 Wapping Recreation Ground 0 1 Vauxhall Park 0 1 Southwark Park 1 * 1 * {(1 boys only and 1 girls only. Finsbury Park 0 1 Kennington Park 1* 1* It is only in the royal parks of London that no public gymnasia are as yet to be found. Years ago I remember to have seen them in Manchester and Salford. I believe there are now many in the towns of Great Britain. One of the first open-air playgrounds ever constructed was at Manchester ; it was made and maintained by Messrs. Armitage for the use of their work-people. Following their example, some years ago I constructed two for the use of the tenants on my property in the city of Dublin. The largest is divided by a railing into two portions, one for boys and the other for girls. It contains a giant stride, climbing mast, horizontal and parallel bars, swings, jumping board and cat gallows, skittle ground, * Only one gymnasium, but separate hours for women and girls. ENGLISH EXPERIENCE WITH PLAYGROUNDS. 645 skipping ropes attached to a central post, horizontal ladder, trapeze and swinging rings, and a sandpit in which the little children dig and play whilst their mothers and nurses can sit round on benches, watch- ing them or chatting. The other ground is too small to be divided, and is therefore on alternate days devoted to the exclusive use of boys or girls, as the case may be. A large painted board informs all whether it is a boys' or a girls' day. In each playground there is a care-taker, attired in uniform. The rush of children when these grounds were first open was so great that it was almost impossible, though two care-takers were employed in each ground, to keep any order for the first week, and conse- quently a few accidents occurred ; but since then I have had no complaint, nor have I heard of any further accident, though the grounds have now been open for five years. They are in constant use, and, now that the novelty of the thing has worn off, not so inconveniently crowded as formerly. It was feared by some that the existence of these grounds might prove detrimental to the educational interests of the children, but it has practi- cally been discovered that the playgrounds save the school officers a deal of trouble, as, if a child is absent from school, they have not now to hunt for him as formerly, but know exactly where he is to be found. Experi- ence has shown that in Great Britain public playgrounds must never be left without a caretaker, and should be closed after dark ; but if these pre- cautions are taken, and if in rough districts special aid be given the care- taker for the first two or three weeks after their opening, no further difficulty need be anticipated. Up to the age of ten it appears advisable to allow boys to enjoy the use of the girls' playground, and after that age to provide them with a ground of their own, to which no adult should be admitted. The girls' gymnasium, to which admittance should be strictly forbidden to males, should be under the charge of one or more able-bodied women, and it should, if possible, be screened from view, so that the elder girls, who often need exercise even more than the boys, owing to the sedentary nature of their employment, should be able to use their limbs in perfect freedom from observation, and without injury to their sense of modesty. The London playgrounds are of all sizes, from those in Spa Fields, Clerkenwell, and Union Road, Walworth, which contain respectively two acres and two and a quarter acres, to the little ground at Russell Court, Drury Lane, which is about the size of a West End drawing-room. Some of the smaller ones are asphalted ; the larger ones are covered with Croydon screened gravel, well rolled. The latter foundation is much safer than asphalt for the children to run and play on, but on the other hand the former has the advantage of enabling the children to enjoy the amuse- ment of roller skating. Open spaces and playgrounds should be provided on a systematic and 646 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. well-thought-out plan, by which they may be scattered at easy distances throughout the different districts of a town or city, and not be placed at bap-hazard, as is too often the custom at present. The money required for the acquisition of open spaces should, in the opinion of the writer, be partly derived from a tax, say of ten per cent., on all new ground rents accruing after the passing of the act or ordinance legalizing the above proposal, a tax which land-owners intending to build should be able to contract themselves out of by presentation to the municipality of ten per cent, of their land, for conversion into public gardens and playgrounds for the enjoyment of the people. PHYSICAL TRAINING OF CRIMINALS. BY HAMILTON" D. WET, M.D., STATE REFORMATORY, ELMIRA, N. T. It is not necessary in this connection to enter upon a description of the general features of life within a reformatory, so I pass on to a considera- tion of my subject proper. As the years went by, and the population of the Keformatory, steadily increasing, became more and more heterogeneous, it also became apparent that while methodical living, coupled with an unrelaxing discipline, reached a majority of the inmates, as evidenced by their responsiveness and improvement, there appeared to be an element beyond the operation of these agencies. Some were apathetic and listless, though possibly capable ; others dull and stupid, as if their mental and perceptive faculties were dormant or undeveloped ; many were brutes in human form, sodden and debased ; and a number appeared incapable of prolonged manual application and mental exertion, and exhibited a proneness to nervous explosions of temper, combativeness, and destruction. They could not be classed as imbeciles and dements, or as of unsound mind, in the common acceptation of the term, but rather crude, unformed, and degenerate men. After a disappointing experience, extending through a number of years, with this class of men and boys, the idea suggested itself that if they were such animals as they appeared to be and their propensities indicated, why not treat them as a stock-raiser does colts — regulate their food as to quantity and kind, groom thoroughly, and put them daily through their paces for physical betterment, that their potentialities, if any, might be realized and made apparent ? We were familiar in those days with the principles of physical educa- tion as taught both then and now, and their application for pedagogic ends. The more the idea of physical renovation of the class of boys and men just described was considered, the more it commended itself to us, until finally we determined to experiment. It was really an experiment, PHYSICAL TRAINING OF CRIMINALS. 647 as none of us had had any experience with physical training upon a selected number, and the writer was assigned to inaugurate the work. In June, 1886, the initial class was formed. It consisted of twelve men, from nineteen to twenty-nine years of age, who for a period ranging from one to two years had made no appreciable progress in school work and hand-craft, and whose sensitiveness and susceptibility were upon a par with those of any other domesticated animal. - The plan proposed to be followed was the substitution of a special dietary for the regular prison fare, weighing out to each one his rations, that all might be observed under similar conditions. A common diet for all, the same in quantity and kind, was altogether scientific in its applica- tion, as the needs of certain individuals might indicate different forms of food; but this course was rendered necessary so as not to embarrass the domestic arrangements of the place too severely, and the difficulty was partly remedied by a varied diet. The school work was to be continued upon a common plane, as all were practically illiterates. The reduction of the most advanced to the level of the lowest wrought no detriment to the former, and possibly might through companionship enthuse the latter. The class was organized June 6th, at which time the men were examined, weighed, and a few simple measurements taken. They were supplied with a new outfit of clothing throughout, and placed, so far as could be — even to the extraction of all carious teeth — in a condition to most readily respond to the plan of treat- ment mapped out for them. They were placed under the immediate care of the writer, under supervision of a fellow-convict, a man of energy who previous to arrest had associated in the training of prize-fighters and other pseudo athletes. The morning, from eight to twelve, was occupied with school and bath- ing. Three baths per week were given, a tub and vapor bath alternating. Each was followed by douching and massage, and an hour allowed before dinner for relaxation, which was usually passed in sleep. I improvised a bath that was a hybrid — neither a Eussian nor a Turkish bath — by turning steam into a room until a temperature of 120° Fahrenheit was reached. In this moist atmosphere the men were placed for half an hour. The crude bath served its purpose well enough in that it excited the glandular functions of the skin and corrected the "hide-bound" appearance of the men. The afternoon was devoted to free-hand exercises, marching, military evolutions, etc., which usually occupied three hours or more, with frequent intervals of rest. This may appear an excessive length of time for a daily setting-up drill and calisthenic exercises, but we considered it better so than to undo our efforts and promote inertia with corroding thoughts by confinement in a cell. The experiment was continued for five months, at the end of which time they were returned to the routine of prison life, 648 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. to which conditions they formerly had failed to adapt themselves. Our facilities were imperfect, and a crudeness of procedure marked our efforts, yet there was a decided improvement manifested in the men in physiog- nomy, carriage, muscular increment, and general betterment of tissue and vegetative functions. But better than these were the evidences presented of mental stimulation and quickening. The subsequent labor, conduct, and progress of these men during the remainder of their prison life was markedly in advance of what it was prior to the time of taking them in hand in the manner described, and it was demonstrated that the effects of five months of physical education were not ephemeral, even with most unpromising subjects. In 1887 other classes were formed, and from this time dates the intro- duction of physical training into reformatory measures at Elmira. The work was, however, still experimental. Some men were treated in con- nection with a special dietary, while others received the ordinary prison fare. The value of this year's work consisted in the demonstration it afforded of the value of a special dietary. The men receiving a restricted amount of specially prepared food did better and were more responsive than those who had an unlimited amount of ordinary prison fare, suffi- ciently nutritive for all ordinary purposes, but not apparently meeting individual conditions in a particular class. From 1887 the number of men subjected to physical training increased yearly. Instead of fools, dullards, and apparent incorrigibles, we began in addition to include those whose health declined simply as the result of im- prisonment, those who had organic disease, together with those in whom there was functional impairment or perversity. In other words, the physical training class, by a process of natural selection, came to supple- ment the hospital as it had previously supplemented the school. We were embarrassed through a lack of proper quarters. One week, with our classes, we occupied the main hall of the prison ; the next we were in the end of a shop, where we were disturbed by the vibrations of machinery ; and for a time our classes were in the loft of a barn ; and between times, weather permitting, they used the quadrangle, either in the heat of the sun or the shadow of the building, according to the time of the day. We became accustomed to the order "move on" or "step lively," and acquired the Arab's facility in folding tents and silently steal- ing away. The report for 1886, together with those of succeeding years, brought to public notice this phase of prison work. To many it was a novelty in prison administration, while to others it was simply the application of an educational measure of established value. In 1889 the legislature granted an appropriation for a gymnasium and bath-house, to be used in the scien- tific treatment of inmates physically and mentally deficient. The work of construction was begun early in the summer of that year and pushed PHYSICAL TRAINING OF CRIMINALS. 649 forward with such a degree of rapidity that the cold weather found the building under cover. During the winter the interior was completed, and March 20, 1890, in the presence of a few invited guests, the building was used for the first time. The opening exercises were simple in charac- ter, consisting of a few musical numbers, an exhibition drill by an inmate military company, and class work in gymnastics. The building is without architectural pretensions, constructed of brick and slate roofed. Being detached, an abundance of light and air is ob- tained. The main floor is eighty-three by one hundred and two feet, and free from post, pillar, and obstruction of every kind. The roof is an open truss, and the ceiling of Georgia pine. Suspended from the roof and sup- ported by the walls is a running track, eleven feet above the floor, on which seventeen laps and a fraction equal a mile. - The distance from floor to ceiling along the lateral walls is twenty-one feet, and from floor to peak, forty-two feet. The equipment is a fairly complete one, of the Sargent apparatus. Situated in the east end of the building are the measuring and dressing rooms and bath. The bath is a dry vapor, Turk- ish, and comprises a hot and warm room, shampooing and douching room, and plunge. The floors of the bath, together with the sides and bottom of the plunge, are of marble. The walls are brick, painted white. With the exception of the iron work entering into the truss, and the slating of the roof, the building is the work of prison or inmate labor. The building, with plant of bath and apparatus, cost $16,000, and for all practical purposes compares favorably with the more elaborate and costly gymnasia of note throughout the country. The work of the gymnasium has increased year by year. In 1890 there were eighty-five assignments ; one hundred and twenty-one in 1891 ; one hundred and thirty-two in 1892; with a prospect of a still further increase in 1893, or about ten per cent., year by year, of the entire prison popu- lation. The various functions of this prison gymnasium may be inferred from what has been already said. It is in touch with every department, second to none in importance, and particularly related to the schools, the hospi- tal, and to discipline. In its relation to the schools it is a place of pre- liminary setting up, of physical renovation and betterment, that vegeta- tive functions and volitional processes may be quickened and amplified and a higher grade of man evolved, which is sought, not for increased immu- nity from disease, decline, and death, but for corporal excellence in its entirety, with resultant impress upon mind and manners. It is in touch with the hospital in that it receives many cases of functional disturbance and perverseness not in themselves inimical to life, but whose continu- ance disturbs the rhythm of the organism and the correlation of its several parts. Errors of circulation, repair, and waste are more readily overcome by 650 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. supervised exercise, bathing, and massage than through detention in the hospital and efforts at improvement through chemical therapeutics. Then, again, in many affections convalescence is hastened by removal from the hospital and its atmosphere suggestive of morbid conditions, and the sub- stitution of the activities of the gymnasium. The routine of the hospital is food, medicine, quiet, and sleep, with draughts and dominoes in mod- eration, and healthy reading — all good under certain conditions and serv- ing a healthful purpose, but contradicted in others as favoring inertia and pseudo invalidism. The man in the hospital, unable to work, but up and about, who sleeps at night because the lights are down and nothing else remains for him to do, is not nearly as well off as the same individual placed in the gymnasium and a cell, and sleeping at night as the result of physiological fatigue. In particular has the gymnasium proved of service in the treatment of convalescence from epidemic influenza attended by persistent physical depression and mild melancholia. Physical training is related to discipline through the greater amenability established to law and order from the strengthening of parts, regulation of function, and removal of nervous irritation arising from nnharmonious adjustment of the several systems of the body. In many instances mind and conduct are hampered and fettered by body conditions, and a man is unconsciously irritable and insubordinate in consequence of a morbid physiology. The experience gained by extended contact and association with the population of a corrective penal institution has strengthened the convic- tion that the latent good there is in a man is not alone developed by hard labor for the profit of the state or other employer, in conjunction with three meals a day, a change of clothing, and at night a bed to sleep upon. Occu- pation, food, clothing, sleep, are all good in their way ; all serve a useful purpose, and are what we accord to any beast of burden. But in the development of traits that mark a man, especially in one defective and out of adjustment with society, they do no more than perhaps contribute to length of days and the development of an Ishmaelitish state. Nor does sentimentality displayed through appeals to the emotions and the excita- tion of a state of nervous tension elevate the character of a man whose life has been one of criminous habitude. When we refrain from profitless discussion concerning the duality of mind and body, and accept the former as an incognizable portion of the latter, we shall be in a position to better appreciate how mind and judg- ment, accomplishment and will, may be advanced or retarded by physical conditions. The Keformatory plan of treatment recognizes that the erring boy has other claims upon the state than to be simply worked and fed and put to bed at night, that energy may be accumulated for the morrow's task. The state only essays to deprive him of his liberty for a limited length of time, during which it should, by rational and scientific means, at least PHYSICAL TRAINING OF CRIMINALS. 651 attempt to raise him to a plane where the operations of his body and the workings of his mind shall be in unconscious harmony with the social conditions he formerly antagonized. As an economic problem, it is far cheaper to educate a delinquent boy, bestowing upon him an education and knowledge of hand-craft, that he may be able to maintain himself by his own efforts in some specific calling, than to sentence and resentence him to institutions where the animal wants are supplied, and the labor of his hands utilized for the profit that may accrue to the management. Such an education should be rounded, symmetrical, and comprehensive ; not confined to occupation and moral means alone, but including every agent known to intelligence, and seeking the development of body, hands, intellect, judgment, and will. It is not assumed that every boy who has gone astray is reclaimable, or that physical education is a sole specific for moral ills of every description ; but the contention is, where there is an excellence of physical conditions, as you understand the term, an increased power for conformity to normal living is conferred over what obtains in the case of corporal depreciation, nervous irritation, and other conditions that appertain to an unstable man. Systems and apparatus have been the cause of much variance of opin- ion, contention, and feeling among physical educators, and their discus- sions have waxed as warm as those of theologians concerning religious dogmas and beliefs. Without entering into the whys and wherefores, I would state we have employed the German system in the. main, not in its entirety or according to the ideal of a Turner, but so far as we were able to adapt it to the peculiar conditions and restrictions under which we labored. As time went by, and we came into the possession of a gymna- sium with a fairly complete equipment of the Sargent apparatus, consisting of chest weights, inclined plane, quarter circle, vaulting, horizontal, and parallel bars, flying and traveling rings, climbing ropes, poles, ladders, etc., we began to employ the so-called developing mechanisms. Not that we were disappointed in our efforts, or that our results were much if any below our reasonable expectations, but because we saw an indication for the employment of apparatus of the kind just named. Many of the men, dull and stupid to a degree of not knowing the right hand from the left, were untaught of hand, and had no true coordinated control of the muscular system save for purposes of locomotion. They failed to comprehend the purpose of free-hand exercise, and were deficient in ability to promptly respond to a command, even when they understood its import. For this reason they failed to appreciate, in the effort and expenditure of force, an equivalent for themselves ; calisthenic exercises were drudgery to this class of men, and they regarded them in the spirit that they formerly did the policeman's command to " move on," which conveyed to them no other motive than the desire to compel them to do what they did not wish to do. But they could climb ropes and ladders, 652 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. hold fast to rings, raise themselves upon the horizontal bar, and hit the striking bag. These things were within their comprehension for the activity and muscular development they conferred. As the result of this apparatus, work with it paved the way for better performance of free- hand exercises through increased confidence in self, comprehension of a command, and celerity in the execution of the same. We do not consider apparatus work essential to the betterment and renovation of the class of men comprising the gymnasium contingent, but as desirable in hastening the accomplishment of our ends. We regard the bath of great importance. The tub has been discarded, and the dry vapor, or Turkish bath, substituted. The increased activity of the skin, through the agency of heat and stimulation by douching and massage, yield most satisfactory results in the treatment of the more com- mon forms of cutaneous disease. It increases the glandular and elimina- tive functions of the skin ; equalizes the circulation by the dilatation of cutaneous vessels, thus tending to relieve areas of localized internal con- gestion, and stimulates peripheral nerves. Each man is allowed three baths per week, and, on intervening days, a plunge at the close of the morning's work. We have yet to witness any injurious effects from the employment of the bath, even in cases of enfeebled cardiac action. To be sure, all are not subjected to the same degree of heat. Those who are greatly reduced, together with cases of cardiac disease, are treated in the warm room, where a temperature of 120° Fahrenheit is maintained ; all others in the hot room, at a mean temperature of 150° Fahrenheit. Fol- lowing the bath, as a reactionary agent, is the plunge, which is used by all, affording relaxation and pleasure, and an opportunity for learning how to swim. Since we adopted the plan of heating the water in the plunge to 70° Fahrenheit there have been no instances of shock or other unfortunate symptoms. Excepting Sundays, the gymnasium is in daily use from seven A. m. to four p.m. At noon there is an intermission of an hour. The men are divided into general divisions — a morning and an afternoon division. Those in the gymnasium in the morning are distributed among the various industries in the afternoon, and are enrolled in the military. The afternoon squad is similarly employed throughout the morning. The men are divided into classes and sections according to their needs, deficiencies, and meas- ure of responsiveness to treatment. The hours are long as compared with those of other gymnasia, and, as the result of general conditions obtaining throughout the place, are necessarily so, as it is inconvenient to divide a morning or an afternoon into two or more divisions each for a specific purpose. It is impracticable to place a man in the gymnasium for an hour a day, assigning him to a shop for the balance of the time. Such a plan would work confusion in both gymnasium and shop, and interfere with the performance of a specified common task in the latter, PHYSICAL TRAINING OF CRIMINALS. 653 necessitating special allowance for shortage of task, besides creating dis- content in the matter of special privileges. But as the hours are long, we seek to do in half a day, less the time consumed in bathing, what perhaps is accomplished elsewhere in an hour or so. To compensate for the unequal length of time, as between the morning and afternoon, we have introduced into the morning scheme the element of play, and devote an hour to games, as basket and foot baseball. To those of you who are occupied in the contemplation of serious things, the introduction of games may appear to be a prostitution of the gymnasium. But as there is such a thing as overwork, and mindful of the saw to the effect that Jack needs play as well as work, we have, in response to certain conditions from which 'we cannot well escape, introduced the element of play, which has served a useful purpose in awakening interest, creating increased competition, and breaking the monotony of what would otherwise be a repetitious course, save as it was broken by progress and advancement. Such, in brief, is the history of physical training in a penal institution. No one is more conscious than ourselves of our deficiencies and failure to reach an ideal plane. But as compensatory for a disagreeable retrospec- tion, we compare with pleasure present means of treating physical insuffi- ciencies, and accompanying shortcomings of mind and will, with former methods and the time when medicine and dosing followed every allegation of malaise and pain. While the personnel of our class is constantly changing, it retains the same general characteristics. The man of to-day is the facsimile of his predecessor, and will in turn be resembled by his successor of to-morrow. The most manifest deficiency of the men we are called upon to treat relates to the thorax. Pigeon-breasts are frequently encountered, and recently two cases of funnel-chests have been noted. This last, I take it, is not a common malformation, as these two cases are the only ones that have occurred in my experience. There seems to exist a particular sus- ceptibility to pulmonary diseases, even in cases where there is no history of a family tendency. I have noted, also, the unusual frequency of morbid conditions relating to the pleura, and the repeated following of pleurisy by an effusion. While thoracic disease in these men is in many instances the result of former living, dissipation, exposure, and poor hygiene, it occurs in so many instances in which they cannot be considered as factors as to suggest that an unusual proportion are inherently weak in chest and possess small resistive power against conditions whose tend- ency is the production of thoracic disease. While it is comparatively an easy matter to develop the pectoral muscles and add to the chest a symmetry of form, it is difficult to confer upon the intrinsic muscles of respiration an adequate and sufficient power. Shallow respiration, and insufficiency of vesicular capacity and power, are common throughout the prison. J notice it in connection with the military, and 664 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. note it in the gymnasium. Chest apparatus and free exercises appear inadequate to overcome the defect. Running accomplishes but little more, as shallow respirations attend this exercise, which, if continued in beyond a point not excessive and within the range of an ordinary growing boy, is followed by vertigo and nausea. Repeated commands result in mental confusion, with increased inability to properly fill and empty the lungs, and the pupil becomes discouraged. What the pupil canuot consciously or will not voluntarily do, he can be brought to do unconsciously, and for this purpose the tank is frequently employed. Those who can, inflate and empty their lungs to the limit of their power, in the tank ; and those who cannot, but are attempting to learn, in response to a feeling of self-pres- ervation and to keep afloat, manage to use their lungs as if they were blacksmiths' bellows. Two wooden cylinders, four feet long and one foot in diameter, are of great assistance in the tank. The boys attempt to climb upon and ride them, which, as they revolve, is no easy matter ; and in anticipation of an involuntary plunge, a full, deep, unconscious inspira- tion occurs. Nearly every city boy can swim, while the number of those from the country who can do so is surprisingly small. The popular idea is that nearly every cutaneous redness is erysipelas, and that pain and stiffness are of rheumatic origin. Every now and then instances occur where pain is referred to the ankle and foot upon stand- ing for any length of time, and after running, jumping, and continued walking. The story in nearly every case is that the trouble is rheumatic and recurrent, and accompanied by slight swelling of the feet and frequently disqualification for work. Medical attention and medicine ad nauseam afforded no relief. An examination shows the most of these cases to be instances of talipes valgus, splayfoot or flatfoot, a condition declared by authors to be rare in the congenital form and common in the acquired. My experience has not been in accord with the writers. But then this maybe due to the fact that these cases occurred in a class domi- nated by some degenerate condition, and which, if so, may be accepted as evidence of such degeneracy. Five cases of talipes valgus occurring among one hundred and fifty men, or plus three per cent., is a large percentage. In pulmonary tuberculous disease, arrest of the morbid process within the lung has occasionally occurred in connection with physical training. The arrest of the disease, however, was nothing more than a suspension of process, as in time the cases terminated in the usual manner. The majority of cases of this affection pursued the usual course, uninfluenced by this means of treatment, which is at best but the application of a better hygiene. Baer states, as quoted by Osier, the mortality from consump- tion is four times as great in prison as outside. Results somewhat more satisfactory are obtained in the class of cases formerly termed scrofulous or strumous, involving the lymphatic glands, PHYSICAL TRAINING OF CRIMINALS. 655 most commonly the cervical, and which is now regarded as tubercular in nature. The course of these cases is frequently deceptive, as disappearance of glandular swelling is in many instances followed by involvement of pulmonary tissue. Functional disturbances of the nervous system, circulation, skin, diges- tion, bowels — frequently the result of prison life and deprivation of out- door living — are treated in the gymnasium, instead of, as formerly, by sojourn in the hospital and drugging. The line of your education and the trend of your ideas have prepared you to regard physical training, however you may apply it, as the devel- opment of the body to the measure of its fullness for the benefits that may accrue to the subject through the realization of the potentialities of the organism and the conferred increased resistance to morbid processes which impair activity and usefulness. While we have cherished the same idea, and attempted to uphold it, as a matter of fact successive years have in a measure characterized the gymnasium as a place for the treatment of minor ills. Thus, in 1892, ninety-two percent, of those who participated in its benefits were there for this purpose. It would be difficult, through the absence of well-defined lesion and specific disease, to apply a scientific nosology to all the conditions that prompted selection, which should rather be regarded as instances of faulty functionating and systems out of balance. A proper comparison would be to a piece of machinery whose integrity is unimpaired, but whose perform- ance is faulty, due to lack of adjustment or disproportion of its several parts. Cutaneous diseases were a cause of selection to the extent of eleven per cent., comprising acne, eczema, and ringworm of the scalp. There were eight cases of acne, or six per cent, of the men were selected for the treatment of this disease. Among the inmates of the Reformatory, as outside, this figures as one of the most common forms of skin disease. It is not a grave affection, though in chronic and exaggerated form it may cause permanent disfigurement; but selection is had for treatment for the reason that its continuance denotes either errors of digestion, improper food, constipation, or self-indulgence. The pimply boy cannot be regarded as in the best physical condition, nor in position to give expression to the limit of his capabilities ; hence he, together with those affected with other cutaneous troubles, are subjected to the influences of the gymnasium and bath, that a greater and higher degree of functional activity may be enjoyed. It is upon this class of cases in particular that the beneficial effects of bathing and massage are witnessed. Cutaneous venous congestion appears in a large number of the men, imparting to the surface a livid or dappled appearance, resembling a faded piece of castile soap. Where no facilities exist for the vapor bath, excellent results, so far as stimulation of cutaneous functions is concerned, can be had through douching and rubbing. We have discontinued, in the bath, 656 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. the use of cold water. No good effects were seen to follow its use. There was a certain degree of shock attending, and an aversion to the bath was inspired. The opposition by some of the men toward the bath is almost in- credible. At first it was a matter of surprise, but later we came to regard it simply as the displayed opposition to a radical change of habit. Three baths per week appeared a work of supererogation, particularly to those whose habit it had been to dispense with a general bath throughout the winter months, and whose general person never came in contact with water from fall to sheep- washing time in the country, and from the closing to the opening of the public baths in the city. To many country boys the plunge bath was particularly repellent, and persuasion, command, and sometimes force were necessary to get them into it for the first time. The question is frequently asked, How do your men enjoy the gym- nasium ? Some throughout the entire time they are there are interested and heartily cooperate ; others, when the charm of novelty has passed away, do their exercises perfunctorily and examine themselves as they never did before in the hope of finding some overlooked and latent dis- qualification. Some are interested in the apparatus and class work and indifferent in the games, while others attempt to shirk the former and display great interest in the latter. What is distasteful in the work is not excused. It is considered a part of the man's education to do the work that is set before him, even though it be displeasing, to the end that what was originally unpleasant may become a pleasure as proficiency is attained. There is scarcely a day but what some men, not in the gymnasium, re- quest to be placed there, and those who are already there ask to be trans- ferred to other activities. Generally, in either case, the request is ill- considered and arises from a morbid desire for change. Some even go so far as to discredit the work of the gymnasium and make it appear they are deriving no benefit, but, on the contrary, are sustaining an injury from the continuance of physical training. They may even go so far as to provoke fictitious disease, decrease their weight, induce pallor and a quickened pulse through the ingestion, sometimes habitually, of soap, tar paper, rosin, chalk, vinegar, and molasses in excessive quantities, sucking copper, etc. And again we are asked : Are the men you treat in the gymnasium benefited sufficiently by physical training to justify the additional expense incurred, and is an equivalent returned equal to the interest upon the money in the building ? It is a wise man who can figure out in dollars and cents a net return resulting from an expenditure of money for hygiene and educational purposes. We are probably as successful as our neighbors in assisting those whom we treat to structural amplification, to gain in strength, to increased functions, vegetative and intellectual, to greater range of coordinated action, and to subordination of animal to the ethical and intellectual. It is impossible to gauge the full measure THE NORTH AMERICAN TURNER-BUND. 657 of success or failure by means of charts and tabulated figures, as reference is not had solely to the present or immediate future, but to remote after- days, that the influence of our instrumentalities may manifest them- selves in other and happier phases of life. Gross corporal results can be tabulated. Those more subtle and relating to mind and conduct cannot be formulated, but must be evolved by association and observation of subsequent living. The same measurements in vogue in prominent gym- nasia are employed and repeated in a given case, from time to time, to demonstrate the degree of responsiveness. It is not measurements alone, important as anthropometry is, that con- veys an idea of the success of this gymnasium or that. The fullness of accomplishment should not be gauged by structural increase alone, as revealed on tape-line, calipers, and measuring rod ; or augmented mus- cular power, as shown by the dynamometer and other tests ; but rather as it develops potential power and brings out that which will be of the greatest value to the individual. The training should be carried out along the line of greatest proficiency, keeping in view the law of natural limitation. It must be development, not creation. The material we have to work upon is not the most promising. It is a deluded stream of beings of defective ancestry, inauspiciously conceived and antagonized before birth, whose surroundings, voluntary and invol- untary, operated to reduce physical forces and nullify that subtle power, that unknown quantity, that determines the quality of a man. THE NORTH AMERICAN TURNER-BUND— ITS HISTORY, AIMS, AND ACHIEVEMENTS. BY HUGO MUENCH, EX-PRESIDENT NORTH AMERICAN TURNER-BUND, ST. LOUIS, MO. The North American Turner-Bund (Gymnastic Union) is an organiza- tion which now unites over forty-two thousand members, distributed over well-nigh all the States of this Union ; which looks back upon a history of over forty years of gradual and steady growth, and which is not founded upon those principles of modified selfishness which cement most modern social organizations, but which, on the contrary, demands, and has always received, from its members many forms of personal sacrifice. It must therefore be based upon some living principles that are both humane and inspiring, and which do not spring merely from temporary need or per- sonal advantage. An understanding of the nature and principles of the Turner-Bund cannot well be had without recalling the history and fortunes of its founders. 42 658 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The science of "turning" (true gymnastics) was created by Jahn, Gutsmuths, and other educators and leaders, at a time when Germany's only hope of throwing off the Napoleonic yoke seemed to lie in a regener- ation of the German race itself. By restoring to its pristine vigor the body of the German youth, Jahn and his co-workers sought also to restore independence and strength of mind ; and how well they succeeded in this endeavor was shown by the bearing of their disciples in many a subse- quent contest. The spirit of liberty, however, which the followers of Jahn had imbibed, and which rapidly spread into the German high-schools and universities, grew so inconvenient to the organized despotism of Europe that " turn- ing " was for a season proscribed in Germany, and Jahn himself was rewarded for his trouble by a term of prison life. But the love of inde- pendence that had been implanted could not so readily be eradicated. The so-called " Eevolution of 1848 " united the best and brightest minds of Germany in an effort to republicanize their native land. They had counted, however, without that element whose aid alone could have ren- dered their efforts successful — the common people — and their lot was failure and expatriation. The great majority of this band of patriots were cast upon our shores, where they met with varying success in their efforts to begin life anew. One thing can always be said in their praise. Not one of them, in the land of their second love, ever forgot or denied those high ideals which had been the inspiration of their youth. These were the men that called into being the first organization for physical culture, the legitimate fruit of which is the present "Turner-Bund." It was certainly natural that these founders, being themselves at once exponents and products of the high training which the universities of their native land afforded, should be desirous of preserving for themselves and their posterity the advantages of German culture, literature, scieuce, and art ; and believing that the preservation of language was prerequisite for the maintenance of those accomplishments, they ordained that the Bund thus formed should be German-American, and that in its proceedings, as well as in its interpretation of gymnastic science, the German language alone should be used. The origin of our Bund, thus traced, easily leads to an understanding of the fact that one of its tendencies has always been and is now an extremely patriotic one. Not only must every foreign-born member acquire the rights and duties of citizenship at the earliest practicable moment, but the various societies composing the Bund are held to arrange lectures and discussions upon the principles of pure republicanism, to commemorate patriotic dates and events, and to preserve from forgetful- ness the names of those whose lives were devoted to the cause of human freedom and enlightenment. THE NORTH AMERICAN TURNER-BUND. 659 Not in mere words has this patriotism found expression, but the Bund can refer with pride to the fact that during the late civil war every Turner hall in the United States had to be closed, owing to the fact that every member capable of bearing arms was actively engaged in the field ; and in that struggle for the preservation of our Union we believe that none fought more manfully than our brethren, and, when the contest was over, none were more swift to extend a helping hand to their fallen foe than the survivors among the so-called "Turner regiments." True to the original plan of Turner societies, a social feature also forms an element in the composition of our Bund. A common bond of fellowship, a community of aims and thought, forms a living tie between its members, the firmness of which is strengthened through periodical festivals, both in districts and by the national organization. Old and young are thus thrown in happy contact, and besides furnishing a valuable gauge of intermediate progress, such festivals serve to establish new friendships and to cement the old. By far the most important feature of our organization, however, and one which has wholly outgrown the limited notions of its founders, is the educational one. With the development of our educational, business, and professional life has arisen a most unanswerable demand for physical development as a curative of the errors and exactions in the direction of mental over- strain. Possessing a system of physical culture the superior of all, care- fully built up and scientifically created not by any one man but as the result of the study and research of a long line of eminent scientific men, a system at once ample in its present means of physical training and infinite in its opportunities for further development, the Turner-Bund soon felt it a privilege, and recognized it as a duty, to spread and nation- alize that system for the common good of the entire country. Out of its by no means ample resources it dared to attempt the educa- tion of fit persons in the art of scientific gymnastic training, and from a small beginning in that direction has grown that institution known as our normal school, the history and merits of which form the topic of my colleague's address, and which may well be termed the proud keystone of a structure reared by over thirty years of persistent effort. It goes without saying that with the attempt to nationalize our German system of physical culture arose the necessity for yielding at least a part of that exclusiveness which had characterized the early years of our Bund. While it is still an organization which believes in bi-linguistic culture, and which bears its part in preserving in this country those characteristics of German art, culture, and science that will and do adorn and develop true American character, yet the Turner-Bund has long since recognized the necessity for transcribing the garb in which the science was originally clothed into the language of this country, and has so fitted its instructors 660 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. that each and all of them are capable of entering every American school- room fully equipped for the work of conducting all classes in school gymnastics. Our aim has been, and will ever be, to make the standard of proficiency in our instructors so high that the possession of a diploma from our normal school shall be a surer guarantee of fitness for their chosen profes- sion than any fanciful degree that has hitherto served to gain appoint- ment for gymnastic instruction. In conclusion I would say, therefore, that to aid in the physical re- generation of our race is one of .the chief aims of the North American Turner- Bund, and to have borne its full share in the labor of that reform will have been one of its proudest achievements. We fondly hope that the Turner-Bund will never tire in its efforts until the glorious end has been achieved. DISCUSSION. Miss L. Garde, of Providence, R. I. : The first point noticeable in the Fatherland is the fact that the proper culture of the body is compulsory. The Germans in America have the same thought. They do not lose many moments in arguing this point, but have put their methods into the schools of the States where they largely predominate, because the underlying principle — the need of a trained physical being — must be estab- lished. I am well aware not every one will agree with me when I state that we need compulsory laws in this country to train the body, just as we need and have such laws for the training of the mind. We have a large class of persons in every community in America who give no atten- tion whatever to anything above the mere material demands of an animal existence. The most ignorant parent among this class appreciates the worth of what he does not possess — a common school education. . While he uses all means to keep his son or daughter at school, and impresses upon his children the great worth of understanding the three R's, he says nothing about the equally priceless worth of a well-trained body. Why not educate him and his children to this knowledge? Make, as in Germany, a national law enforcing daily physical exercise in our common schools: and as we grow more quickly to the appreciation of a good thing than in the older civilizations, a notice- able change for the better would soon be observed. It is to the German-Americans we owe the first step in this direction. Ohio has passed a compulsory law, and sees no reason to regret it. Pennsylvania has another on the docket ; Wisconsin has just defeated a bill, but such matters die hard ; and little Rhode Island will be the first of the New England States to follow the lead of the North American Turners' work. The permanence of the work of the German- Americans is shown by the manner in which they establish indoor and outdoor gymnasiums, as in the home country. Father Jahn, sensible man that he was, recognized the truth that the natural child wanted something more than the mere moving of arms, legs, and head ; that he wanted playthings; that he used resistance, and must have objects to cultivate his powers. And so he built places where real boys and real girls could play with each other and with something in the never-idle hands. And though there is not that lavish expendi- DISCUSSION. 661 ture of money in Germany that there is in America, gymnasiums are to be found all over the country, in every hamlet as well as in every city. Educators in Germany do not sit in solemn conclave and reason with each other as to the manner in which body training can be put into the public schools as cheaply as possible. Nor do the German-Americans here. Whatever is required in apparatus is secured. The gymnastic appliances in the cities in which their teachings are estab- lished are as much a part of the school furniture as the books, ink, or furnaces. They go farther and supply the school gymnasium. Instead of keeping the children con- ■ fined in school two and three hours continuously, and then allowing them a five min- utes' drill in the aisles, they should be sent at least once in each session for twenty minutes' vigorous work in the school gymnasium. Each city in Germany of over fifteen thousand inhabitants contains one or more out- door gymnasiums, and is taxed for the maintenance of the same. Would it not be a wiser policy to maintain such places, keeping them open at all times, under proper supervision, than to employ policemen and truant officers to hold under control the large numbers of American children who literally live in the streets for want of a better home or other playground? I make a plea for the German outdoor gymnasium. The success of the two at Charlesbank, Boston, is the best guarantee of what this German idea would do for the uneducated mass from which our criminals come by the natural process of street, reform school, and prison. Through German-American forethought, Sandusky, Ohio, has the first out-door school gymnasium. The individual instructor of German nationality sinks his own personality in his desire for the common weal. He is heartily in earnest, has no axe to grind, and is not a carping critic of his fellows. With the German- Americans the happiness of the child is ever uppermost. The German-American idea is to exercise for recreation, for relief from study. Their pupils respond cheerily to the commands given; they obey because pleased and happy in gymnastic play. The German-American child, dismissed with a good hearty game, is radiant with happiness and an appearance of health. Two other points in the aims of German- American teachings are worthy of notice. The German idea of gymnastics, according to the great writer Spies, must be object teaching, after Froebel's thought. Consequently we see the greatest diversity, not only in muscular movements, but ideas preceding the same. This educates the child not alone physically but mentally, leading him to think out what he is to do, and mak- ing the will act on the muscles. Imitation gymnastics, the worst and most common of all school gymnastics, are not seen if the true German principle is kept uppermost. Everything in the curriculum of the schools leads toward independent thought and action. If children are to be made reasoning beings, why not carry out this idea in their gymnastic study ? A child ought to be able to comprehend which is up, down, sideways, and forward, to the right and to the left ; and yet teachers of gymnastics go on, year after year, showing intelligent pupils how to step back and how to jump and how to twist their heads and how to pose in so-called beautiful attitudes. These instruct- ors would be the first to assert that such children, if not able to show the top and bot- tom of a slate, or the northeast corner of a map, were candidates for the asylum for the weak-minded. The German-American method trains the mind of the child. Few other so-called systems do it. The final thought demonstrated in Germany is that before a man or A woman is allowed to study for leadership in physical work, it must be shown both by education and physique, and some measure of grace inborn or acquired, that the profession will be dignified, not the profession dignifying the individual. I believe this to be another principle which governs the leaders in the progress made by the North American Turner-Bund, as allied with the gymnastics in the public schools. 662 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. THE ROYAL CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF GYMNASTICS IN STOCKHOLM. BY L. M. TORNGREN, DIRECTOR OF THE INSTITUTE. This institute was erected by the Swedish government after the plan of P. H. Ling. His intention was to make it a normal school for teachers of gymnastics, by which a perfect physical education should radiate to all parts of his fatherland. To the realization of this plan Ling devoted all his energy. Ling met with many obstacles ; but he was understood by a few, and among them was Bernadotte, the crown prince at that time. His royal Highness understood what Ling aimed at, and supported him in his strug- gles. The result was that some old buildings that had been used as a foundry in Stockholm were changed into a gymnasium, a fencing-hall, and other rooms for necessary purposes. In addition a very limited sum of money was given. Thus the institute was enabled to begin operations in 1814. It is well known that Sweden at that time had gone through several wars, that it had lost a great part of its territory, that it was on the very verge of ruin in all respects. What should be done ? was a question that occupied all patriots. Ling was most active and successful in his work of answering the question. His idea was to make physical educa- tion as perfect as possible for all children throughout the whole country ; and he aimed to carry his idea into effect through the students of the institute. The idea itself was not new, but no one had as yet tried to cany it out on a large and practical scale. At first there were but few persons of education who would sacrifice their time to such a dubious undertaking as gymnastics, which in gen- eral was considered a juggler's joke. Meanwhile, some practical experi- ments showed what could be done for the development of the physique by gymnastics, given methodically and with good judgment. Some offi- cers of the army were ordered to go through the course at the institute, and some other patriotic individuals went through by their own impulse. Such was the beginning. The course of instruction at the institute was at that time, and is still, free from charges of any kind, and foreigners are received, though to a limited extent. The institute developed more and more under Ling's skillful hands, and it soon became recognized in foreign countries. For a short time it was connected with the army department, but it was soon transferred to the educational department, where it still belongs. Ling was the director until his death, the 2d of May, 1839. His pupil, Gabriel Branting, succeeded him as director, which post he held until 1862, when he resigned. ROYAL CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF GYMNASTICS IN STOCKHOLM. 663 At this time a reorganization of the institute took place. A new code of regulations was promulgated in 1864. It was then put under a separate administrative board of directors, consisting of four men nominated by the king. These directors are not salaried ; they have to meet at least once a month, when the preceptor shall present reports and propositions. The preceptor is chosen from among the head-teachers for a period of five years. Until 1862 the institute had been subordinate to the same author- ity as the schools and colleges in Stockholm, and until that time the course was finished in one year. In 1862 it was stipulated that the course should be extended to two years. These rules were valid until 1887, when some essential changes were made. These changes consisted in making out three courses, or classes, that come one after the other, each taking one year. The first course prepares instructors ; the second pre- pares teachers of gymnastics; and the third course or year is entirely given to medical gymnastics. Each of these courses ends with a public examin- ation. The first course gives a right to become a teacher in the lower schools, if no one with a certificate of a higher examination applies at the same time. The second course, that for two years, trains teachers of gymnastics for the larger schools, where the pupils' ages vary more, for which reason the teachers must have a corresponding knowledge and experience. The third course is, as already said, based upon the two others, and is entirely given to medical gymnastics, the study of which is begun in the second year. It will be readily understood that all studies belonging to this latter course are of great value to all teachers of gymnas- tics, and this circumstance is a reason for those who wish to become teachers to take the whole or the three years' course. Concerning the theoretical studies at the institute, it may be enough to say that they are anatomy, physiology, hygiene, pedagogical and medi- cal gymnastics, science of movements, pathology, the theory of fencing, and the different manuals. All regular teachers of gymnastics in our normal and public schools must have passed the two courses first mentioned at the institute ; the reason for this being that the same method of gymnastic instruction is nowadays carried out throughout the whole country. The institute has also to inspect the exercises in the different schools all over the country. These inspections are very useful. A young teacher receives thereby suggestions and advice, if in any way he shows himself to be mistaken about the application of what he has learned at the institute. Those who wish to take a course at the institute must at least have passed the examination of maturity, which is the same as that exacted of candidates for entrance to the universities. At first the institute was only intended for male students. Very few female students passed any of the courses there before 1864, and up to that time such courses were private rather than public in their nature. But in 1864 a regular course 664 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. for women was instituted, and now this course is very much appreciated, as is shown by the great number of females that apply for admittance to it. It is required that women who wish to attend the institute shall have the same standard in their studies as those who enter the normal school for the higher education of teachers. The institute has about twenty-five female students and fifty male students. The reason for admitting a larger number of men is that the army and navy are also supplied with teachers of gymnastics by the institute. There are now thirteen teachers, of whom two are lady teachers. Ling's idea, to have one system all over the country, is thoroughly carried out ; and all authorities that have had occasion to give an opinion upon the exercises have without exception affirmed their good influence. We have also had the pleasure of seeing a great number of foreigners at the institute. They study there for a longer or shorter time, and carry the idea of our gymnastics with them. We have also witnessed how institutes, with the same plan, have been established in other countries. I can but use this occasion to express my great satisfaction of what I have seen in America in this regard ; and I confidently hope for a lively and strong cooperation in the future between the institutes on this side the Atlantic and those in the Old World. HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN DENMARK. BY JOAKIM LABSEN, SUPEEINTENDENT OF THE FBEDBICKBEBG SCHOOLS, COPENHAGEN. The history of gymnastics in Denmark begins with the philanthropic movement in the educational world. Before that time some of the better schools had indeed their fencing- and dancing-masters and calisthenic exercises, and games were used, but any special instruction in gymnastics was not given until introduced by Franz Nachtegall, who was born in Copenhagen, 1777, graduated at the University of Copenhagen in 1794, and had commenced to study theology when the death of his father obliged him to become a teacher in order to support his mother. From his earliest childhood he had been fond of all sorts of bodily exercises ; later he had learned gymnastics and fencing, and now he accepted a situation as teacher of gymnastics at the educational institute established by the Rev. Chris- tiani, chaplain to the king, and soon after he also became teacher of gym- nastics at another private school. The manual published by Gutsmuths, teacher at the philanthropic institute at Dessau, was used by him as a text-book. In the beginning of 1799 he founded in Copenhagen a gymnastic society, whose members were students or young commercial men, and whose object HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN DENMARK. 665 was to promote gymnastic exercises. Here Nachtegall got an opportunity to train himself as a teacher, and in November he sent out an invitation to found a private gymnasium. He succeeded in his plan, and the Copen- hagen gymnasium, opened in January, 1800, was the first educational insti- tute in Europe entirely devoted to the training of the body. In a few years after its foundation it counted one hundred and fifty pupils, children and adults, among the latter being a Swedish theological student, Mr. P. H. Ling, afterward the founder of the Swedish gymnastics. Nachtegall succeeded in interesting in the cause a number of influential government officers, university professors, clergymen, and teachers. Some of these sent their children to attend the gymnasium, others wrote its programmes and were present at the annual exhibitions, or recommended gymnastic exercises in articles and lectures. The Rev. V. K. Hjorth, afterward bishop, even published in Danish an extract of Gutsmuths' manual. Besides this, Nachtegall interested the prince regent in gymnastics, so that he helped him to get a good hall for the purpose. The prince also frequently visited the gymnasium, and caused several of the royal princes to be sent there for instruction. Gymnastics as a regular branch was now introduced into several Copen- hagen schools, not only in private schools, as " Efterslogts-selskabet's " grammar school, where a young theological student, Mr. H. I. Mdnster, who afterward became bishop, was the teacher, but it was also introduced into several charity schools. In 1802 Nachtegall and Mdnster delivered a series of lectures on the subject of calisthenic exercises, and when Nach- tegall in 1804 was appointed professor of gymnastics, he lectured on the theory and different methods at the normal school, established in 1790, a short distance from Copenhagen. In 1804 Nachtegall founded the " Society for Promoting the Art of Swimming,'' that gave gratis instruction to charity-school boys, arranged swimming matches, and distributed prizes. In the beginning they carried zeal so far as to swim more than eight thousand eight hundred yards. In the preface to the second edition of his manual (1804) Gutsmuths was fully justified in mentioning that with regard to gymnastics Den- mark had outstripped all other countries in Europe. It is also necessary to remark that an educational stamp was given to the gymnastic exercises from their first introduction into Denmark. They were introduced by a divinity student, and altogether supported by men occupying civil posi- tions. They were practiced in schools before being introduced into the army, and the first teachers were theological and normal-school students. In 1804 the government established a military gymnasium for the train- ing of non-commissioned officers to become teachers in the army, thus founding the first government institution of the kind in the world. Mr. Nachtegall was appointed principal, and left the charge of his own private gymnasium to one of his pupils. In 1805 Nachtegall published his first 666 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. il Handbook of Gymnastics/' a small text-book for the use of military gymnasiums prepared after the Gutsmuths system. In the same year he also began the training of some theological and normal-school students for teachers of gymnastics. At the end of the course they had to pass an examination in theory and practice as well as in teaching. The training of teachers was carried on more extensively after the king, in 1808, founded the civil gymnasium, to procure teachers of gymnastics for the public schools. From 1809 to 1816 pupils were sent from the different normal schools to Copenhagen, and they not only received free tuition, but even their traveling expenses and board and lodgings were paid by the government. Their training finished, they returned to teach gym- nastics at the normal schools. They also formed classes for country teachers who already had positions. Mr. Meedom, a teacher of gymnas- tics at a normal school in Jutland, published a guide-book in gymnastics to enable teachers who had not received special training to teach calis- thenic exercises. By the law of July 29, 1814, that organized the public schools all over the kingdom, it was ordered that if the teacher pos- sessed sufficient proficiency he should give the children an hour's in- struction in gymnastics daily, outside of the regular school hours, and if possible he should also teach swimming. At every school there ought to be drill-grounds and apparatus for gymnastics. The regula- tions of 1818 for normal schools also admitted gymnastics as one of the compulsory branches. Still the movement was not received with great enthusiasm outside the capital, except where it was furthered by zealous magistrates, civil and clerical. The population on the whole did not under- stand the importance of the training of the body ; besides that, teachers were wanting in many places, and everywhere money was scarce, owing to the miserable economical state of the country. This also caused a reduction of the army, and Nachtegall only kept his place as principal of the military gymnasium by giving up his salary. He retained the favor of the king, drew up regulations for the gymnastic instruction of recruits, and was appointed superintendent of gymnastics in 1821. In this posi- tion he had, especially the first year, the charge of the educational insti- tutions of the army and the navy, for they as well as the civil and military schools were under his care. This connection was not, indeed, in all respects favorable to the school gymnastics, but at all events it served to keep up the interest for the cause in certain circles until better times should come. When the financial state of the country had improved and the import- ance of bodily training was better understood, Nachtegall drew up a propo- sition for a guide-book to be used for gymnastics in the public schools. Considering the heterogeneous local conditions, he had arranged the instruc- tion in three different grades, and, besides, had partly adapted it to the Lan- caster method, which the king greatly admired. This method was eagerly HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN DENMARK. 667 advocated by a committee appointed to adapt the proposition to the differ- ent conditions existing in city and country, so as not to hinder the progress of the cause. Nachtegall was obliged, though reluctantly, to submit to the adoption of methods still more approaching to the Lancaster system. On the 25th of June, 1828, Nachtegall's manual was authorized as a text- book to be used at the instruction of gymnastics, and four thousand copies were presented by the king to schools and school authorities. Furthermore, gymnastics was noiv made a compulsory branch, to be in- troduced into all the schools. In the country the simplest of the three grades in the text-book was to be used at all events, and in the towns and the capital one of the two more complete grades. Furthermore, a normal school was established at the military gymnasium for the free instruction of teachers. This school was opened in 1828, and was at- tended by more than two hundred teachers in the first year. During the following years gymnastic exercises Avere introduced into all the Danish schools. Copenhagen was at the head of the movement by pro- viding accomplished teachers (non-commissioned officers) and good hall?, and by appointing an especial municipal superintendent of gymnastics. Forty country schools in all the provinces were arranged as model schools, and a couple of years after Nachtegall was sent on a tour of inspection to the normal schools in the country. In 1834 he published a text-book on gymnastics for the use of grammar and high schools, and in 1837 he drew up new regulations for the army, thereby finishing his meritorious career. In 1842 he resigned his office as principal of the gymnasium, and died in 1847. Though the government, even after the death of Frederick VI. in 1839, continued interesting itself in having calisthenic exercises performed in the schools, and by a number of instructions tried to overcome the obsta- cles that, especially in the country, stood in their way, yet it was only in the towns that the movement progressed. In the country schools gymnas- tic exercises were indeed taught — judging from the annual reports — but in many of the schools this teaching was very insigni6cant. In many places the schools had not even gymnastic apparatus or a suitable drill- ground. Owing to this condition, Colonel Niels George la Cour, who had been Nachtegall's assistant from 1829, and had succeeded him as principal of the gymnasium, and in 1847 as superintendent, tried to improve the teaching of gymnastics. In 1855 he succeeded in getting his new text- book authorized, in which the antiquated Lancaster system was entirely given up and some slight changes introduced into the exercises. He also influenced the Department of Public Instruction to make an attempt to improve school gymnastics by enjoining the teachers to keep the drill- ground and apparatus in good order, and by enforcing the inspection of schools. In the severe season the schoolroom was to be used as a hall. These arrangements were not exactly welcomed by several teachers and 668 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. school boards, and when the superintendent also began personally to inspect the instruction at the schools, and thus found out that the state of gymnastics in many places was very deficient, the displeasure at last gave itself vent in a bill presented in the House of Commons, petitioning that it might be left to the different school boards to decide whether gymnastic instruction was to to be given or suspended for a while. The bill did not pass, however, yet several authorities did not look upon gym- nastics with favor for some years after. When La Cour in 1870 resigned his office as gymnasium superintendent the place was not again filled, but the office of " inspector " was substituted. The inspector has nothing whatever to do with the army, but has only the charge of institutions belonging under the Department of Public Instruction, and has also to be a member of the board of examiners. This office has been filled by Colonel John Theodore Wegener, Chamberlain, and afterward by the former principal of the military gymnasium, Colonel Julius Amsinck. The latter is the author of a new text-book authorized for the use of schools. AVith few exceptions, only boys were taught gymnastics ; but during the years 1860 to 1870 the physician, Professor A. G. Drachmann, made an attempt to introduce Laisne's French gymnastics into girls' schools, only succeeding, however, in very few cases in Copenhagen. Favorable to the gymnastic movement, however, were the rifle corps formed by young men in 1861. Already, four years after, these corps had become popular, and everywhere in the country new ones were formed. Of course they aimed principally at making the young men good shots, but bodily exercises were also on the programme, and as gymnastic exer- cises were performed at their public exhibitions, the interest for them increased. Division captains were trained for teachers of gymnastics by the military teachers, and Mr. Ainsinck's new manual was published as a text-book for rifle corps. In these, and independent of them, gymnastic societies were formed that tried to surpass each other at the public exhi- bitions that have been given since 1878. Through voluntary contributions gymnasiums were erected in the coun- try, as many as thirty in the same district. At present there are about two hundred and fifty halls and seven thousand to eight thousand grown-up mem- bers in these societies. The increasing interest, spreading from adults to children, was also furthered by the "people's high-schools," attended in the winter by young men, and in the summer by girls belonging to the peasant class. Almost every high-school had its own gymnasium, and here it was that the Swedish gymnastics was first introduced. They sent for lady teachers from the Central Gym nasi um at Stockholm, and young men from the high-schools went to Sweden to get acquainted with the new system. The high-schools of Vallekilde and Askov especially distin- guished themselves. A teacher of gymnastics at the former school, Mr. HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN DENMARK. 669 N. H. Rasmussen, civil engineer, in 1883, was the first advocate of the new system. He completed a full course at the Swedish Central Gymna- sium, and in 1887 opened an institute for Swedish gymnastics in Copen- hagen that during the last years has been attended by four hundred and thirty-six gentlemen and a number of ladies. Other private gymnasiums have also been established in the course of the last few years, many of them exclusively for women. Of these gymnasiums, some have adopted the Swedish system ; others, as Mr. Paul Petersen's, have tried to combine the exercises of the Swedish system with that of the Danish. Many, however, saw that a reform was needed. It was recognized that a fault had been committed in not following the healthy track Nachtegall had entered, and that a more pedagogical and physiological stamp ought to be given to gymnastics. After a lively discussion, that lasted a couple of years, the Department of Public Instruction appointed a committee, consisting of the inspector, Colonel Amsinck ; a physician, Dr. Hertel ; and of Professor Kromann, a leading educational authority, to devise a plan for the improvement of the instruction in gymnastics. After having visited Stockholm and Berlin, the committee gave as its opinion that the faults in the Danish way of teaching had their origin, first, in the defect- ive training of the teachers ; second, in the imperfect apparatus of the schools; and third, in the exercises not being chosen judiciously with due regard to physiological and pedagogical demands. The committee there- fore proposed, first, that gymnastics in all the boys' and girls' schools in Denmark should take rank with any one of the most important regular branches ; second, that it should be taught during a greater number of hours ; third, that suitable halls and apparatus should be provided ; fourth, that a well-arranged physiological and pedagogical system of exer- cises must be procured, suited to the. different sexes and ages ; fifth, that a staff of lady and gentleman teachers should be trained whose physi- ological and pedagogical knowledge should enable them to use advan- tageously the new system of exercises ; and finally that a gymnasium for the training of lady and gentleman teachers should be established under the Department of Public Instruction. This department has now appointed a committee to prepare a new sys- tem of exercises according to the principles indicated, and, furthermore, has taken steps to secure a piece of land near Copenhagen for the intended gymnasium for teachers. The committee above mentioued is expected presently to finish its work by publishing a new text-book on gymnastics. 670 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. GYMNASTICS IN THE KINGDOM OF SAXONY— A HISTORICAL REVIEW. BY PROFESSOR MORITZ ZETTLER, OF CHEMNITZ, SAXONY. The beginnings of organized efforts in behalf of gymnastics in Saxony may be traced back to the year 1818, when a club of about one hundred students of the University of Leipzig devoted two evenings per week to exercises in gymnastics. They did this during the summer in a garden. During the earlier part of the third decade several academic gymnastic societies were formed, the founders of which were students who had come from Berlin and had been Jahn's pupils. But in Leipzig, as in other parts of Germany, the agitation against demagogues caused by the assassination of Kotzebue in 1819, destined the first organized efforts in behalf of gymnastics to an early death. In order to uproot this "evil dangerous to the state," the police of Leipzig in 3825 ordered the parallel and horizontal bars and other apparatus of the societies to be sawed off. This did not prevent the disciples of Jahn from continuing their exercises in secret. It is important to note that in 1824 the educational institute established by Hander in Leipzig mentioned gymnastics as an integral part of its course of study. All indications point to the fact that this institution was the first school in Saxony in which gymnastics were fostered. For the further development of physical education in Leipzig, the two after- ward very distinguished physicians, Bock and Schreber, were especially active. They familiarized the people, by means of example, the spoken word, and the press, with the aims and effects of bodily exercise. In Dresden a few army fencing-masters had made use of parallel and horizontal bars in their instruction, but with little effect. The conditions changed, however, when Joh. Ad. Ludwig Werner, a retired army officer, opened a gymnastic hall in 1831 in Dresden, and conducted it with great skill. Most of the private and public schools aided the enterprise, so that the number of its pupils soon rose to several hundreds. Also girls' gym- nastics found much favor. It cannot be denied that the instruction in gymnastics given by Werner contained much charlatanism, but the fact remains that he induced many noted people of authority and influence to examine into the educational merits of physical exercise, a thing that had been despised hitherto. Almost at the same time (in 1833) Otto Heubner established in his native city, Plauen, in Vogtland, a gymnastic hall that was well patronized. As a consequence, in other cities of the Vogtland similar institutions were opened. GYMNASTICS IN THE KINGDOM OF SAXONY. 671 "Werner, in 1836, submitted to the Saxon Chamber of Deputies (Stande- kammern) two of his works, with the request "to take suitable measures to secure for physical education of the youth the same consideration that is given to intellectual education." The matter caused considerable dis- cussion in both chambers. The result was the passage of a resolution " to introduce gymnastics into all the high and normal schools of the kingdom, and to appropriate one thousand five hundred Reichsthaler ($1,125) per annum for that purpose." Without delay gymnastics were introduced (in 1837) into all state high- schools (gymnasia) and training-schools for teachers. Though it took some time before satisfactory results could be shown, the resolution referred to had established something which was destined to be of lasting influence. Many years after that — namely, in August, 1876 — gymnastics was made an integral branch of the course of study in all secondary schools (in gymnasia, " real-schools," and seminaries), and obligatory for all stu- dents. Two hours per week was the time appointed for regular gymnastic exercises. At present the faculties of these schools have each a teacher who has passed the state examination in gymnastics for high-schools and conducts the exercises. Every secondary school of whatever kind in Sax- ony has a gymnastic hall and suitable grounds. A state inspector of gym- nastics, appointed by the minister of education, supervises the work of physical training in secondary schools of the kingdom. The first institutions for gymnastics were intended for male youth only, but from the very beginning men of riper age became interested in phys- ical exercise, and hence boys, youths, and men exercised together. When a boy had succeeded, by means of good results, in becoming a "Vor- turner" (a section leader), he was in some institutions, by virtue of his position, allowed to take part in the deliberations of the members. This led, in many towns of Saxony, shortly after 1840, to the formation of gym- nastic societies for adults, who, however, made it a special object to facili- tate and foster physical exercise among the boys of their town. They offered special instruction for boys in their gymnastic halls, or, in some cases, placed their own teachers at the disposal of the public schools. Soon followed efforts to draw the girls into the movement by interesting the parents in the matter, and appointing special hours for girls' gym- nastics. The societies which did most in this direction were those of Plauen, Leipzig, and Dresden. In these cities gymnastics for children reached a high standard of excellence. Gymnastic societies developed in Saxony especially during the period from 1843 to 1848. Fifty-four flourishing societies sent delegates to the convention of gymnasts that met, November 1, 1846, in Dresden. At this time the society at Dresden was the largest ; it assumed a leading position by affording an example for imitation, in its admirable organization, to all other societies in the kingdom. Many of its members aided energetic- 672 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. ally the periodical The Gymnast {Der Turner), which was first issued in January, 1846. This publication was so well conducted and found so much favor that during the "second German gymnastic festival," held in Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1847, it was made the official gymnastic organ of entire Germany. The society in Dresden also arranged for two courses for the training of gymnastic teachers. The society's propositions to the minister of educa- tion, concerning the establishment of a state training-school for gymnastic teachers, found approval. The minister announced as early as March 16, 1849, " that he considered it his imperative duty to give gymnastics a place of equal importance with other branches of public education ; that therefore he had concluded to establish a training-school for gymnastic teachers, who could conduct such exercises in the light of pedagogic sci- ence, and that he had ordered the necessary preparation for the opening of such a school/' At Easter of 1849 the institution was to be opened, but the insurrection which took place during the following May prevented the execution of this plan. Not until October 23, 1850, was the institu- tion formally opened, and the principal, Moritz Kloss, introduced into his new office. The insurrection mentioned was the cause of preventing the con- templated introduction of gymnastics into the lower schools. Many noted gymnasts from the different societies for physical culture had participated in the insurrection (popularly styled the Revolution of 1849), and after it was quelled, an undiscriminating reactionary movement against gymnastic societies was inaugurated, so that the development of gymnastic art was checked. At many places it was entirely destroyed, and its practitioners were pursued with unusuaT severity. Life in gymnastic societies took a fresh impetus when preparations were made for the third national gym- nastic festival, to be held in Leipzig in 1863. The wars of 1864 and 1866 impaired the activity of the gymnastic societies in Germany but little. But the glorious war of 1870 offered the Saxon gymnasts opportunities, both in the field and at home, for giving energetic expression to their patriotism. Political discussions have been prohibited on principle in the Saxon gymnastic societies. This has enabled them to grow undisturbed by police authority. At present there is in Saxony no city or good-sized village without at least one gymnastic society ; even many small settlements have a society of that kind. A statistical enumeration of January 1, 1892, records 615 cities and towns with 757 gymnastic societies, that have 87,388 members over fourteen years of age ; of these, 51,901 are active gymnasts, led by 4,597 " Vorturner " (leaders of sections). If we consider the fact that the entire empire had at the same date 4,597 societies, with 447,046 members, of whom 227,628 were active gymnasts, it is seen that the kingdom of Saxony occupies the sixth place in regard to the number of GYMNASTICS IN THE KINGDOM OF SAXONY. 673 societies, the fifth place in regard to the number of members, and the fourtli place in regard to the number of active gymnasts. The royal government approached the question of gymnastics again in the year 1857, by adopting a set of rules for the examination of teachers of gvmnastics, and in 1863 it permitted the introduction of gymnastics into lower schools by "recommending it to the local authorities most urgently." But it is to be regretted that few cities and villages availed themselves of the opportunity, for, according to the statistical report of the German Gymnastic Union of 1869, the schools of only twenty-seven cities and three villages, and four state schools situated in villages, had obligatory gymnastic exercises in their courses of study. Hence not ten per cent, of the school population received gymnastic training. The new school law of April 26, 1873, admitted gymnastics, as a "diet- etic means of education for boys as well as for girls," among the essential branches of study in all the schools. The school authorities. now began to introduce gymnastics into elementary schools where hitherto it had not been done. Since the law fails to state at what year of age the exercises in gymnastics are to begin, the curricula of the different schools and cities vary on this point quite considerably ; but it comes very near the truth to say that, as a rule, gymnastics begins with the fourth year of school, or the tenth year of age. Also some differences are noticeable with respect to the time devoted to physical exercises. In some communities only one hour per week is given to gymnastics, while in the majority two hours are given. The transitional regulations issued to secure an effective execution of the new school law of 1873 permitted the postponement of the introduction of gymnastics until 1878 in communities where the necessary institutions could not at once be established. The local authorities of many country schools took advantage of this privilege, and after the transitional period of five years numerous petitions asked the minister and the House of Deputies for a further extension of the time. Statistical material gathered by the president of the Saxon Gymnastic Teachers' Society from the reports of the school inspectors confirms the fact that only one of the school districts of Saxony has introduced gymnastics in all its schools ; that, furthermore, in twenty-three districts a number of schools are still without gymnastic apparatus. In seventeen of these districts no less than fifty per cent, (the highest was 93.8 percent.) of the schools fail to live up to the law. It is the rule in elementary schools ( Volksschuleri) to have gymnastics conducted by the regular class teachers. Very few of these schools employ special teachers. In extensive institutions, such as city ward schools in Leipzig and Dresden, it has been found expedient to place this instruction in the hands of specially trained and experienced teachers. 43 674 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. PHYSICAL EDUCATION OF THE DEAF AND DUMB. ABSTRACT OF PAPER BY ALBERT GUTZMAN, INSTRUCTOR IN INSTITUTE FOB DEAF AND DUMB, BE KLIN, PRUSSIA. The question of the physical education of the deaf and dumb is not the same as with the education of persons in a normal condition. There are many defects found in deaf-and-dumb persons that are independent of deafness. These defects arise largely from the mode of life during their childhood. These children, if they belong to the poorer families, are seldom allowed an opportunity to become familiar with streets, fields, and forests. Sometimes they are locked up, day by day, while their parents go to work ; and their natural powers, physical and mental, remain dormant. Im- proper food and inattention to their manner of eating are causes of phys- ical weakness and of many defects not common in children who hear. By comparing statistics relative to persons who were deaf from birth and those who subsequently became deaf, it is found that those of this latter class are most numerous. From the fact that the deaf-mute does not use his organs of speech, the organs of breathing remain undeveloped, and a larger percent, of this class die between the ages of twenty and thirty than of persons in a normal condition as to hearing and speaking. The physical exercise of the deaf and dumb has first of all to adjust and repair the defects of these pupils. The way to do this must differ from the training for hearing, healthy children. So the physical education of the deaf-mutes is first gymnastics, for curing and to develop the organs of breathing. The purpose in view in their physical exercises is quite differ- ent from that in public schools in general. There is little or nothing done for the physical education of the deaf and dumb child before he is sent to school. The first condition of all development is movement. So the deaf-mute child must be trained to stand, walk, and run. He must be given much movement, not only at home, but in garden, field, and forest. In stand- ing and moving the breathing is quicker, and with it the strength is increased. F. Smith has calculated that if one gives the magnitude of breath in lying as 1, it is in sitting, 1.33 ; in walking slowly, 1.9 ; in walk- ing quickly, 4 ; in running, 7. Keeping the bodies of small children straight in sitting, standing, and walking is a very important exercise. The trailing of the feet, characteris- tic of deaf-mutes, is a sign of physical relaxation and want of physical agility ; and the causes of this are nearly always to be found in the first years of the child's life. Here much could be improved even by suitable educational influence. In rich families, the attentive and conscientious PHYSICAL EDUCATION OF THE DEAF AND DUMB. 675 family physician will look after it, but in the cottages of the poor this help is wanting. The more movement and change of mode of life the deaf-mute child has, the more it is incited and prepared for the development of oral lan- guage. With normal children this is the time of their greatest evolution in speech. This is also the period of the greatest spontaneous movement. The hearing child practices his speech seldom while in a state of full bodily rest, but along with moving, catching, walking, and running. The deaf- mute child without instruction does not learn the formation of articulated sounds of speech. The influence of deafness on the development of the lungs cannot be especially great if the deaf-mute child is early incited to talk and receives instruction in speech. We can see this in the well-known fact that the small deaf-mute child usually laughs and cries as much and as loud as the hearing child and thereby exercises the lungs. A great number of deaf- mutes do not become deaf before a later age, after they have learned to speak. The neglected exercise of oral language is undoubtedly a great disadvantage to the physical development of deaf-mutes. Instructors of experience with deaf-mutes think that loud speaking is most advantageous for the health of the deaf-mutes ; that the instruction in oral language ought to be introduced generally and as early as possible. The oral language is the principal means, fixed by nature, for strengthen- ing the breast organs, which are always weak with the deaf-mutes. Oral language is for the deaf-mutes the real gymnastic-hygienic exercise. When the celebrated Gall performed the duties of a physician in a deaf-and-dumb asylum at Vienna, he observed that after introduction of oral language the diseases of the lungs were rarer than before. Every deaf-mute who is fit for education ought to get instruction in oral language, particularly on account of his physical education. Speak- ing implies an activity of breathing conducive to the ventilatiou of the lungs that we do not find in any other human performance. While the usual breathing is done regularly, and inspiration and expiration are of nearly equal duration, in speaking the inspiration is short and deep, but the expiration long and often interrupted. The speaking requires a more frequent and deeper inspiration, therefore an increased ventilation, which is beneficial for the lungs. And not only for the lungs is the speaking of beneficial effect, but for other important organs. Arthur Ames Bliss, a well-known laryngologist in Philadelphia, Pa., has recently made examinations with four hundred and fifteen deaf-mutes, of whom three hundred and three were taught only by the sign-language. With these he found a far greater number of deformities than with those taught by oral language. These defects were in the nares, at the tongue, at the palate, at the tonsils, at the pharynx, at the larynx, and at the vocal bands. Most of the deaf-mutes who did not use oral language had vocal 676 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. bands of a dull gray color, bowing or wavy at their free margins ; or they were so thin and narrow as to be unusually obscured by the ventricular bands. Efforts at phonation showed the adducent muscles to be weak and inefficient. One ought not to undervalue the way of rational teaching in oral lan- guage on account of real sanitary causes. Teaching may even be danger- ous for the health of the deaf-mute child. Schmalz says: "In cases where speaking has been neglected in early childhood, it must certainly be done with greatest cautiousness, that the inactive lungs be not sud- denly fatigued." In bis first development of speech the hearing child shows us how the teaching of speech is to be done. He learns the language while walking and running, leaping and jumping, and nearly unconsciously in playing. Therefore the deaf-mute children ought to practice speaking under quite free conditions. Instruction in speaking must not turn into training and drilling. When the sounds and the utterance of them are developed, the child should practice them first under guidance of the teacher, and later without him. The activity of breathing is the base for the voice as well as for articulation. " Much movement during the time of formation of oral language is the law of nature." This law should be carefully observed in the instruction of the deaf-mutes in oral language. Also in the further instruction of the deaf-mutes in school, besides the systematic gymnastics, there should be frequent interruption of work done in sitting by work done in standing or walking during the lessons, and likewise more out-door exercise, as is usual with hearing children. Lessons in object teaching, geography of the surrounding country, and natural history could be given in the open air. Besides the proper gym- nastic games, suitable youthful games should be used in the physical edu- cation of the deaf-mutes. The German school gymnastics are best for deaf-mutes. The Swedish gymnastics are simply mechanical exercises of the muscles, and the least suitable for deaf-mutes. German gymnas- tics are not only gymnastics of the muscles but of the nerves too, and produce not only strength of the muscles but skill of the muscles, and secure a thoroughly harmonious physical education. Looking at that adjusting question, we find in the first school years the physical training of our deaf-mute pupils must be kept in the foreground of the plan of education, while the mental and moral-religious education and the appropriating of knowledge may be left to the later life. There- fore the physical exercise in the first school years must have an essentially different plan of instruction for the deaf-mutes than that for later years. During the first years of instruction we have to do with a more or less spoiled and neglected organism, that must be prepared by systematic exercise of usual life in childhood for the purpose of education. PHYSICAL EDUCATION OF THE DEAF AND DUMB. 677 I have the opinion that gymnastics on horizontal and parallel bars, trestle, etc., in the first school years of the deaf-mutes, must give place to free exercises in simple standing, walking, running, leaping, and jumping, which increase the strength of breath and voice. Boys may climb up and down on a perpendicular bar, or practice on the rope in moderate height. During the first three or four school years I never allow the pre- scribed exercises to be exceeded. But the pupils should have at least three systematic lessons in gymnastics weekly till the end of the school- life and still longer. The two weekly lessons in gymnastics usual in our public schools are not sufficient. The gymnastic lessons during the week are like food that is too much to allow starving and too little to live on. The deaf-mutes in larger towns like to keep together ; and who can blame them for that ? Even the well-educated deaf-mute feels lonely among hearing people, while he is well understood by his equals. Under these circumstances it cannot be difficult to unite the deaf-mutes who have left the school. In the year 1888 I established with some of my former deaf-mute pupils a gymnastic club, which succeeds very well. The first years I conducted it myself, and had much pleasure with it. At present they get on very well without my help. One member of the club — a deaf-mute — is gym- nastic guard, and commands the free gymnastic exercise in oral language. The head masters of gymnastic exercise conduct and guide the classes by oral language. The club makes excursions independently and with much benefit. Their language of intercourse is the oral language. Being at present the chairman of this club, I do myself the honor to invite the members of the World's Congress to visit our club, which prac- tices four hours weekly. In March of the year 1884 I made the following gymnastic fixations of the first gymnastic class of boys of the deaf-mute school here : The section contained thirty-seven pupils, of whom the three eldest were seventeen years old, the youngest ten years ; the average age was fourteen years. The heaviest pupil weighed 50 kg., the lightest 25 kg. The average weight was 38£ kg. The tallest figure was, in easy position, 1.62 m. ; in straight position, 1.64 m.; the height of the smallest boy was 1.19 and 1.20 m. ; the average height, 1.41 and 1.43 m. The greatest extent of the breast was, in easy position, 79 cm.; in straight position, 83 cm.; the least-was 56 and 59 cm.; the average width of the breast was 03 and 67 cm. The pupils practiced gymnastic exercise on an average two lessons weekly, during five years and a quarter. The performances were as follows : (a) Bowing of the arms on the horizontal bar, from hanging stretched till touching the bar with the chin : The highest fifteen times, the least once ; on the average, six and a half times. (b) Bowing of the arms in lying leaned on the parallel bars : Highest 678 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. number, twenty-five times ; the least, twice ; on the average, eleven times. (c) Racing in the open air : The least performance two and a half min- utes ; the highest, twenty minutes ; on the average, about ten minutes. Thus, a boy of fourteen years, weighing 38£ kg.; ].43 m. tall, with a width of the breast of 67 cm., having practiced gymnastic exercise for five years and a half, performs climb-drawing on the horizontal bar only six times and a half, bowing of the arms in lying leaned on the parallel bars eleven times, and racing in the open air only ten minutes. This is hardly the measure in capability of performance which I have attained under most unfavorable gymnastic circumstances with, on the average, younger boys (hearing) in the school in Biitow. A third fixation of similar kind I made especially for this essay with thirty-one active members of the " Friedrich " gymnastic club. The num- ber is composed of the smallest and tallest, of the youngest and eldest members, as well as of those who in age and height are between those. Therefore this measurement, even in this small number, is of some value. SUMMARIES. (1) The deaf-mute child has many important bodily defects which endanger his life and his later capability to earn his bread. (2) To adjust this, or partly to prevent it, one has to begin as early as possible the physical education of the deaf-mute child in family and school, and to carry it through systematically over the school time. (3) The most excellent means for the physical education of deaf-mutes are exercise in oral language and physical gymnastics. To the latter, as the most perfect system of education for the human body, one ought to give the suitable time and position in the plan of education of the deaf- mutes. DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. SECRETARY'S REPORT. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday, July 26, 1893. The Congress of Rational Psychology in Education, which met in Room 27, Art Pal- ace, was called to order by Dr. W. T. Harris at 9.30 a.m., Wednesday, July 26th. Professor G. T. Ormond, of Princeton, announced the following official secretaries : Messrs. C. O. Scudder, W. C. Dodge, and Miss Luella Little. Dr. Harris then introduced Dr. James McCosh, of Princeton, who presented a paper on "Reality — What Place has it in Philosophy ? " This subject was discussed by Dr. Harris ; Professor Ormond, of Princeton ; Dr. Laws, former President of the University of Missouri ; Dr. Boardman, President of Maryville College, Tennessee ; Dr. Black, of Missouri Valley College ; Dr. Hayes, of Maine ; Professor Mills, of Western College ; Mrs. Maynard, of Cornell ; Miss Buck- ingham, Mr. Russell, and Mrs. L. P. Brightman, of Chicago. A paper by Dr. Josiah Royce, of Harvard, was read by Dr. Harris. Subject, " Can 1 sychology be founded upon the Study of Consciousness alone, or is Physiology needed for the Purpose ? " Among those who took part in the discussion were Professor Ormond. of Princeton ; Dr. Boardman, of Maryville College, Tennessee ; Professor Shorey, of the University of Chicago, and Dr. Lewis, of Chicago. SECOND SESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893. This session of the Congress met at 9.30 a.m. Dr. James McCosh presided. The first paper was presented by Professor G. T. Ormond, of Princeton, on "The Soul as the Basal Concept of Rational Psychology." Dr. Laws, formerly of the State University of Missouri, opened the discussion ; he was followed by Dr. Lummis, of Appleton, Wis. ; Dr. Boardman, of Tennessee ; Dr. Charles Lewis, of Chicago ; Dr. Black, of Missouri Valley College ; Dr. Foster, of the University of Chicago ; and Mr. Sanders, of Georgia. The Very Rev. Augustine F. Hewit, D.D., of the Catholic University, Washington, D. C, being unable to be present, the Rt. Rev. John J. Keane, of Washington, D. C, read his thesis on "The Theory of the First Principle in the Eleventh Book of Aristotle's Metaphysics." Professor Ormond was given an opportunity to answer his critics. Bishop Keane opened the discussion of Dr. Hewit's paper. Dr. Smith, of Connecti- cut, asked Bishop Keane several questions, which were ably answered. Dr. Boardman, of Tennessee, continued the discussion. He was followed by Dr. Foster, of Chicago ; Dr. Ormond, of Princeton; and Dr. Lummis, of Appleton, Wis. Bishop Keane closed the discussion. 680 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. THIRD SESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893. This session met at 9.30 a.m., Dr. McCosh in the chair. Dr. J. Gould Schurman, President of Cornell University, not being present, his thesis, " Self-Activity in Education," was read by George P. Brown, of Bloomington, 111. This subject was discussed by Dr. Harris ; Dr. Ormond, of Princeton ; Miss Crozier, of the State College of Mississippi ; Dr. Boardman, of Tennessee ; Mrs. Brightman, of Chicago ; Dr. Laws, of Missouri; and Dr. Harris. A thesis, " Wundt's Psychology of the Will," prepared by Professor E. B. Titchener, of Cornell University, was read by Professor Ormond, of Princeton. Dr. McCosh did not comprehend the paper, and felt like making a rule that no paper should be presented except by the one who wrote it. Dr. Ormond explained the theo- ries of the paper as he understood them. Dr. Boardman, of Tennessee, felt that there were ultimate truths which the paper seemed to deny. Dr. Hayes, of Hayes College, Maine, and Dr. Laws further discussed the subject. Dr. McCosh remarked that in general the agreement between the participants in the discussions was greater than at first appeared. The discussions were in a reverent spirit. " We are gradually approaching a belief in reality, in realism." More atten- tion had been paid to education at this than at any other meeting. He complimented Dr. Harris's labor, and moved a vote of thanks to Dr. Harris for his services in prepar- ing for this meeting and for the cause of education in this country. Unanimously carried. Professor Ormond moved also a vote of appreciation of, and thanks to, Dr. McCosh for his eminent services and advice. Carried unanimously by a rising vote. After which the session adjourned sine die. A paper by Rev. Dr. Samuel W. Boardman, of Maryville College, Tennessee, on " Theo-centric Education," had been submitted, but time failed for its reading. LIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. CANADA. George M. Duncan, A.M., Yale University, New Haven Prof. John Watson, Queen's College, Kingston, Edwin W. Runkle, A.B., Yale University, New Ontario. Haven. GREAT BRITAIN. GEORGIA. England. Rev. j. e. Dickey, A.B., Emory College, Oxford. Bernard Bosanquet, Esq., A.M., University College, Prof. William Wallace, Oxford University, Oxford. ILLINOIS. Rev. E. L. Rivard, C.S.V., St. Viateur's College, „,„__. „,j. . _.„„ Bourbonnais Grove. UNITED STATES. Ezekiel G. Robinson, D.D., LL.D., University of Chicago, Chicago. CALIFORNIA Walter Smith, A.M., Ph.D., Lake Forest University, Lake Forest. Rev. W. S. Matthew, A.M., D.D., University of James H. Tufts, A.M., University of Chicago, Southern California, University. Chicago. COLORADO. INDIANA. Charles Caverno, A.M., LL.D., University of Col- Rev. Gregory Bech I old, O.S.B., St. Meinrad's Col- orado, Boulder. lege, St. Meinrad. CONNECTICUT. IOWA. Pev. Andrew C. Armstrong, Jr., A.M., Wesleyan Barton O. Aylesworth, A.M., Drake University, Des University, Middletown. Moines. LIST OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS. 681 Rev. John D. Burr, A.B., B.D., Central University of Iowa, Pella. R. C. Glass, A.M., 8.T.B., University of the North- west, Sioux City. Rev. Richard C. Hughes, A.M., Tabor College, Tabor. J. S. Mills, A.M., D.D., Western College, Toledo. James Simmons, Jr., A.M., Iowa College, Grinnell. KANSAS. Rev. Solomon A. Alt, A.M., Wichita University, Wichita. -Rev. William R. Kirkwood, D.D., College of Em- poria, Emporia. KENTUCKY. J. V. Logan, D.D., Central University, Richmond. Rev. John M. Worrall, D.D., Centre College, Dan- ville. LOUISIANA. Rev. George W. Henderson, A.M., Straight Univer- sity, New Orleans. MAINE. Rev. Benjamin F. Hayes, D.D., Bates College, Lew- iston. MARYLAND. Rev. John J. Tierney, A.M.,Mt. St. Mary's College, Mt. St. Mary's. MASSACHUSETTS. William E. Huntington, S.T.B.,Ph.D., Boston Uni- versity, Boston. Edgar Pierce, A.B., Harvard University, Cambridge. Benjamin Rand, Ph.D., Harvard University, Cam- bridge. Edmund C. Sanford, Ph.D., Clark University, WorccstGr. William G. Tousey, A.M., B.D., Tufts College, Tufts College. MICHIGAN. William T. Bland, B.S., Battle Creek College, Battle Creek. Rev. Henry E. Butler, A.M., Alma College, Alma. Alfred H. Lloyd, A.M., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. MINNESOTA. JohanS. Carlson, A.M., Gustavus Adolphus College, St Peter Very Rev. Dr. Peter Engel, O.S.B., St. John's Uni- versity, Collegeville. MISSISSIPPI. Richard M. Leavell, A.M., University of Mississippi, University. MISSOURI. J. Louis Kessler, Ph.D., Central Wesleyan Univer- sity, Warrenton. Rev. Cleland B. McAfee, A.M., Park College, Park- ville. Rev. W. R. Rothwell, A.M., D.D., William Jewell College, Liberty. C. M. Towles, A.M., La Grange College, La Grange. NEW JERSEY. Rev. John G. Hibben, A.M., College of New Jersey, Princeton. NEW YORK. William Caldwell, A.M., Cornell University, Ithaca. Miss 8. L. Chapman, Elmira College, Elmira. Rev. W. P. Coddington, D.D., Syracuse University, Syracuse. Rev. Absalom G. Gaines, D.D..LL.D., St. Lawrence University, Canton. Joseph II. Gilmore, A.M., University of Rochester, Rochester. Frank S. Hoffman, A.M., Union University, Sche- nectady. James H. Hyslop, Ph.D., Columbia College, New York. Brother Ivo. O.S.F., St. Francis' College, Brooklyn. Rev. Charles M. Tyler, Cornell University, Ithaca. NORTH CAROLINA. Rev. W. M. Hardgrave. D.D., Biddle University, Charlotte. Henry H. Williams, A.M.. B.D., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. NORTH DAKOTA. Horace B. Woodworth, A.B., University of North Dakota, University. OHIO. Elias Compton, Ph.D., University of Wooster, Wooster. Rev. Henry Garst, D.D., Otterbein University, Waterville. Rev. Henry C. King, A.M., Oberlin College, Oberlin. Rev. M. Loy, D.D., Capital University, Columbus. Rev. Francis P. Nussbaum, S.J., St. Xavier College, Cincinnati. OREGON. Benjamin J. Hawthorne, A.M., University of Ore- gon, Eugene. PENNSYLVANIA. William R. Newbold. A.B., University of Pennsyl- vania, Philadelphia. Rev. Matthias H. Richards, D.D., Muhlenberg Col- lege, Allentown. Rev. Henry T. Spangler, A.M., Ursinus College, Collegeville. SOUTH CAROLINA. Rev. J. W. Flinn, A.B., South Carolina College, Columbia. Gordon B. Moore, Funnan University, Greenville. TENNESSEE. Collins Denny, B.L., A.M., Vanderbilt University, Nashville. Thomas C. Karns, A.M., University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Edward E. Weir, A.M., Cumberland University, Lebanon. TEXAS. Walter Lefevre, A.M., Ph.D., University of Texas, Austin. VIRGINIA. Rev. Luther A. Fox, A.M., D.D., Roanoke College, Salem. Rev. John A. Kern, D.D., Randolph-Macon College, Ashland. Rev. James A. (Juarles, D.D., LL.D., Washington and Lee University, Lexington. William D. Thomas, A.M., D.D., Richmond Col- lege, Richmond. WEST VIRGINIA. Rev. P. B. Re3'noIds, D.D., West Virginia Univer- sity, Morgantown. WISCONSIN. Rev. E. J. Gleeson, S.J., Marquette College, Mil- waukee. Rev. Henry Lummis, D.D., Lawrence University, Appleton. RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. REALITY— WHAT PLACE IT SHOULD HOLD IN PHILOSOPHY. BY DR. JAMES McCOSH, EX-PRESIDENT PRINCETON UNIVERSITY. This is an important question. I regard it as the most important in philosophy in the present day. Scanty systems have arisen from the over- sight of it. I. In establishing my positions I remark that every one believes in realities. Everyone believes in two kinds of realities. He believes in his own exist- ence. He believes, or rather knows, that he thinks and feels ; that he is liable to grief and joy, to hope and fear. He believes and knows things without him ; in that man or woman, in the various organs of his body, in that wall or house, as also in that tree before him, in the greenness of its foliage, in the hardness of its trunk, and in the smell and taste of its fruit. We can appeal to the proper tests in justifying reality. First, the objects are self-evident. We know ourselves by simply looking within, and objects around by simply looking without. We need no further evi- dence. But secondly, this is confirmed by the circumstance that this belief or knowledge is necessary ; we cannot be made to believe or know otherwise. We cannot be made to believe, by any argument or by any reasoning, that these objects do not exist. But all the while we have a belief or conviction which abides with us. Then, thirdly, this belief or , knowledge is universal. Not only do I believe in these objects, but every man does the same. He is sure that he himself exists, and that certain objects around him exist. He carries this conviction with him wherever he goes. Philosophy which is an expression of our nature should do the same. II. Reality cannot be established by syllogistic or mediate proof of any kind. No man can prove mediately his own existence, or the pains he feels in his own body, or the existence of that stone or plant which he sees and touches. To prove that there is life or mind, we must have life or mind in the premise. Without this, the alleged proof will evidently be illogical. For it is acknowledged on all hands that in order to a right con- REALITY— WHAT PLACE IT SHOULD HOLD IN PHILOSOPHY. 683 elusion we must have the object or truth in the conclusion involved in the premise or premises. The attempt to prove Reality has ever led to unmeasurable confusion and error. Descartes, the father of modern philosophy, propounded an argument, Cogito ergo sum. But if the ego be in the cogito the whole alleged argument for Reality is an evident assumption, for already we have the Reality there. If the ego be not in the cogito we have no proof "whatever, as what we have in the conclusion is not in the premise. WAY IN WHICH REALITY IS DISCOVERED. Starting in this way with real objects, we prosecute farther investigation by induction. This is the method pursued by Reid and the Scottish school. It was derived originally from Francis Bacon, and had already reached many important points in the discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton and others. The Scottish school perceived this, and were anxious to secure like results in the study of the human mind, using self-consciousness rather than the senses in the gathering of the facts. In this way they had been so far successful in the account which Reid and Stewart and others had given of the faculties of the mind. Not that they for one instant regarded this induction as the foundation of their philosophy, which had its foundation within itself in the principles of common sense (Reid) and fundamental laws of thought (Stewart). But they represented Induction as the means of discovering these laws. Thus they built up a philosophy resting on deeper principles, but discovered by the cautious and safe method of Induction. We may consider more carefully the way in which Reality is discov- ered. Take this stone or this tree. I perceive them to be realities by the senses, especially of sight and the sense of touch, and I cannot be made to decide otherwise. I cannot prove it mediately or by syllogism ; I have no premises to establish the point that this stone exists or this tree exists. The mind has cognitive powers by which it discerns these objects, that they exist. In the same way, by the inner sense or reflection, we discover within us at once certain things, such as hope and fear, joy and grief, exciting us. By the same or farther cognitive powers we may come to know farther qualities of these objects — of this stone, that it is hard ; of this tree, that it grows rapidly. This knowledge may increase from day to day till the number of objects becomes beyond our calculation. When there is an addition or multiplication of these real objects there is no lessening or increasing of Reality, which continues the same. •Having Reality in the individual object— say in the stone or tree — we have Reality in the general notion, in stone or tree. Having Reality in the qualities of concrete objects, we have Reality in the abstract. Thus, Reality in the hardness of the stone implies Reality in its quality of hardness 684 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Thus we have Reality in every form of it when we have Reality in the concrete individual. Finding Reality in all these quarters, I think we are entitled to call the inquiry and the results which issue from it the philosophy of Realism, and to adopt it as the true philosophy. III. Reality is got not by reasoning, but by immediate inspection — by what is usually called Intuition. We have cognitive faculties for this pur- pose, especially the inward and outward senses. We know ourselves, and especially our various ideas, moods, sufferings, by self-consciousness. We know these extended things by the senses as cognitive, particularly by sight and touch. We need no mediate proof. In regard to these things, proffered probation woiild be felt as an incumbrance and would turn out to be invalid. We have here primary truth which does not need support, but which may give support to other truth reared upon it. Knowing objects to be real, we may draw other objects from them which are also real, by argu- ment— say by mathematics, by ordinary science, by common observation. There may be times when we are not sure whether the object is a reality or a phantom, whether that whiteness seen in the darkness is a ghost or a sheet put out to be dried. We are to settle the question by an examina- tion of the appearance, using, if need be, all the senses. It is to be understood that when we have the real we can also have things, derived from it logically, also real. Thus, having the individual oak as real, we have oaks in general as also real. The reality in the sin- gular goes up into the general. There are some who maintain that Realism must not only establish the reality of objects, but must show what the reality consists in. Now, I am willing to admit in establishing reality we must know somewhat of the nature of the reality. It is thus that we can separate it from other things; only thus we can think or speak of it. Still it is not by psychological but by the Real sciences that we must determine the real nature of the object. Mental science must know somewhat of the nature of water before it can declare it to be a reality. But it is not psychology but chemistry that must settle what this reality is, that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen. It is astronomy and not philosophy that must show us what is the relation of the planets one to another. It is to be understood that while the mind has the Real by the cognitive powers, it may also have the Ideal by the imagination, and the two not inconsistent one with the other. It may form a figure of ugliness or beauty to which there is no corresponding fact. With these we may be amused, or we may be exalted above ourselves and ahove the earth. These fancies will present themselves spontaneously, or we call them up by an REALITY— WHAT PLAGE IT SHOULD HOLD IN PHILOSOPHY. 685 act of will. If reality has its solid blessings, so has ideality its pleasing fancies. We should profitably retain and cherish both. But we should always distinguish between them. The prevalent philosophy in the present day is that of Kant ; and this in all countries, European and American, in which philosophy is valued. I wish it to be understood that I look on Kant as one of our great thinkers. There never can come a time when certain truths of Kant and the Ger- man philosophy are to be regarded as superseded. But Kant was guilty of one great oversight. He did not start with Reality in his primitive assumptions. While we cannot dispense with him, the crisis has come in which the Critical Philosophy should be critically examined, when it will turn out that its supremacy should be set aside. Kantians of all descriptions are forever referring to space and time as forms of sense. I do not say that too much importance has been attached to space and time, while light has been thrown upon them by these dis- cussions. But along with these forms there should have been assumed Reality in the things made known to us. Reality is not an end to be gained after a process or by a process, but is a means to an end. We are to begin with Reality and carry it on with us throughout with that mother's kiss, with that nurse's lap, and it should run on throughout the whole life. There is admirable system in the Categories and in the Ideas with which Kant follows up his Forms of Sense ; and in them Reality is not to be regarded as superseded or set aside. But if we have not Reality through- out, the foundation is insecure ; and hence the vacillations through which the German philosophy has passed, and which are not to be arrested till Reality has its place to stay the whole. Kant began with phenomena. But the phrase has two senses. Inordi- nary science it means a fact to be explained that is referred to its law. Or it may retain its Greek meaning and signify appearance to be explained. It is in this sense that Kant uses the phrase. With these appearances he starts, and from these he never could derive and infer any real object without having in the conclusion what was not in the premises. He should have begun with realities as made known by the consciousness and the senses. Only thus can we have a true philosophy with a well-laid superstructure. A philosophy which does not thus begin with Reality must always have something insecure in its foundation. Hitherto America has had no special philosophy as the ancient Greeks had, as the Scotch have had and the Germans have had. But there is a philosophy lying before it, and it should appropriate it and call it its own — an advance beyond Locke, beyond the Scottish school — the American philosophy. This would be in thorough accordance with the American character, which claims to be so practical. The change from the speculative to this thoroughly realistic philosophy 686 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION would not be unlike that from the European monarchies to the American republics. REALISM AND RELIGION. The Eealistic view as true is the one most favorable to religion, as it proceeds on facts, and not phenomena in the sense of appearances. Thus when it says (Rom. i. 20): "For the invisible things of God from the crea- tion of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead," where both " the invisible things of God " and " the things that are made " are facts and not mere j)henomena. A like affirmation may be made of such passages as these: "Rejoice with them that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep." All such passages refer to facts and not to vague appearances, and carry with them our convictions and our confidence. In Germany they follow Kant, and regard what they discern, and con- sequently what is revealed to us, as in Scripture, as phenomena — that is, as appearances. The view which they take is, in consequence, pliable and insecure, first in their philosophy, and then in their theology as swayed by their philosophy. These views, fermenting in Germany, come over into Great Britain and America, and trouble our students and our theology. DISCUSSION. Dr. Harris indorsed the paper read by Dr. MeCosh. Kant made an error in the high order of reality ; said that time and space had no objective reality ; he makes them sub- jective only. Professor Ormond followed, justifying the place of reality in philosophy. Philosophy leads us to the realization of God. Dr. Laws could not find the Absolute aside from its attributes. Pyrrhon and Hume are the advocates of the doctrine that every phenomenon is illusory.. We must know what reality is, before we can defend it. Immediacy is necessary to the comprehension of reality. We have a direct knowledge of distant matter only by the perception of the ego ; hence, by inference. The mistaking of abstract for real space has been one of the misleading ideas of philosophy. Dr. Boardman said in part: " We must assume the reality of mind and matter and of time and space as the dictate of the intuitions. The soul spontaneously affirms the reality of mind and matter by the constitution which it has received from its Creator. These affirmations are primary, self-evident, necessary, and of course universal. If they are not true, the benevolence and veracity of the Creator are impeached, for He has made the human mind to affirm their truth. The mind cannot be more sure of any knowledge than it is of these intuitions." Dr. Hayes said that we are not conscious of outside realities ; only know our own consciousness. Mrs. Mayxard: We have no immediate knowledge of matter. PSYCHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 687 CAN PSYCHOLOGY BE FOUNDED UPON THE STUDY OF CONSCIOUSNESS ALONE, ORIS PHYSIOLOGY NEEDED FOR THE PURPOSE? BY PROFESSOK JOSIAH ROYCE, OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. I. The importance for psychology of the study of the physical aspect of man's nature is, I insist, no longer a matter of doubtful question. We can, indeed, very usefully ask ourselves the reflective, the philosophical question, Why has the study of psychology come to involve a study of the physical aspect of man's nature ? Be'flective inquiry into the meaning of known facts is never out of place. But it would be vain to doubt, in view of these known facts, that the further advances of psychology will largely depend upon the advances of a number of allied scientific undertakings, amongst which the study of the functions of the nervous system, in the widest sense of the term function, will necessarily hold a very important place. A division of scientific labor is indeed indispensable. The psychologist proper will never be, in his undertakings, either merely a psychologist, or, on the other hand, a worker at home in all parts of the physiologist's realm. The physiologist will far transcend the student of psychology in one direction, since the former will be interested in the whole range of the physiological functions ; the student of psychology will far transcend the physiologist in another direction, since, as psychologist, he will take interest in the functions of the nervous system only in so far as they run parallel to the mental processes, whilst the physiologist, as such, will have only a subordinate interest in the latter. Thus the two doctrines will indeed never coalesce. Nor will either science ever become part of the other. Auguste Comte was certainly wrong in declaring that mental science would properly be definable as identical with cerebral physiology. But the whole matter is not a question of identity or of subordination, but of community and of cooperation. Certain regions of nervous physiology will always be common territory for both sciences — will always be as important to the psychologist as to the physiologist. The latter student will view the facts in question, in these regions of biology, as a sub-class of the facts of the biological processes in general. The former (the psychologist) will study the same facts as embodying a highly significant expression of the processes and the laws of mental life. What is sure is that the psycholo- gist, as his doctrine grows, will never get on without the study of these types of physical facts. This, I insist, is already decisively indicated to us by the whole course of recent investigation. " Our main question, in so far as it is a question of real doubt, relates to 688 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. the philosophical definition of the reason, and consequently of the limits of this dependence of the psychologist upon the study of the physical aspect of man's nature. I shall venture, then, to discuss that aspect of the problem assigned to me — that aspect, I repeat, which alone seems to me to be, in the present state of knowledge, a matter of serious philosophical doubt — by first slightly altering the statement of the issue as announced to me in the wording of the assigned topic. " Why and to what extent is psychology forced to study the physical life of man in addition to a study of consciousness in itself ?" For, after all, a mere repetition of the known commonplaces of recent inquiry could not, in the presence of this Con- gress, prove enlightening. That an answer to the question as I now word it involves a sufficient answer, for our present purposes, to the question as stated in the programme of the Congress, will appear, as I hope, in the sequel. II. Human knowledge, as it tries to get itself organized into the form of science, takes two different and, on the whole, pretty strongly contrasted shapes, whose relations, indeed, are of the most intimate, but whose dis- tinction, when once it is defined, is none the less obvious. Our knowl- edge, namely, as it develops, shows itself either as what may be called reflective knowledge, or as what, in a very wide sense of the word, may be called descriptive knowledge. Of an attempt at organized reflective knowledge, general philosophy is the typical example. Of highly devel- oped descriptive knowledge, analytical mechanics may be instanced as a classical representative. The goal of reflective knowledge is a completed metaphysic and ethic. The goal of descriptive knowledge is a completed natural science. Neither goal can be completely attained in finite time by beings situated as we men are ; both goals must be regarded as in some measure approachable, by every rational inquirer. "We actually can take no step in thought, under human conditions, without reflection ; we can as little do our mental work without an effort to describe what we call the nature of external reality. Philosophy is an effort toward a consistent and thorough-going reflection upon the pre- suppositions of life and of thought. But every man is unconsciously a philosopher from the moment he begins, as every rational being does, to reflect. Natural science is organized knowledge about the external world. But every man, whether he is conscious of the fact or not, actually begins the study of natural science from the moment he begins to observe. And so the inevitable presupposition of our conscious life is that both sorts of knowledge are possible, and, in us men, are progressively perfectible. As a fact, as I have just said, both sorts of knowledge go together, and are never, except by abstraction, to be divorced from one another, although the abstraction which notes their actual contrast, and which organizes PSYCHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 689 them into seemingly separate systems of knowledge, is indeed useful and inevitable. In studying philosophy one reflects, but still reflects concerning what the world of facts, which is the object of descriptive science, has suggested to one's mind. So the philosopher, like the student of natural truth, must have his descriptive science of facts in mind. Only he describes in order that he may thereby the morq wisely reflect — i.e., he studies facts to find out, if possible, their significance. On the other hand, in studying natural science, one describes — that is, one notes, classifies, and brings into orderly relation masses of facts. But as one does this one must, indeed, continually reflect as one goes upon the meaning of one's own thoughts ; for without such inner considerateness outer observation would come to nothing. Yet here, while reflective and descriptive knowledge are once more combined, it is now the reflection which serves as a hand- maid to the descriptive process. One is considerate, in order that one may get the facts in hand. Both natural science and philosophy, therefore, unite reflective with descriptive knowledge, but in sharply contrasting ways. Natural science reflects only in order that it may describe the facts of the world. Philosophy describes the outer world only as a means toward the end of reflecting upon the meaning of truth. And so, once more, despite the actually inseparable connection of reflective and descrip- tive knowledge, we have a right to say, as we just said, that philosophy is the embodiment of reflective, natural science, as such, of descriptive knowledge. To come still a little nearer to our present distinction. I reflect when I ask myself the question, What do I mean by this my thought, my belief, my intent, my plan, my passion, my life, my insight, my world ? Whatever is for my consciousness may as such be made the topic of re- flective insight ; and, conversely, in so far as I reflect, I regard the truth in so far as it is just truth for consciousness, and, in fact, in so far as it is a truth for my consciousness, and not in so far as it is truth beyond my consciousness. The world of self-consciousness, as such, is the world of reflection ; and, conversely, I can reflect only upon what belongs to the world of self -consciousness as such. Logic is an excellent example of a department of reflective knowledge. Become fully conscious of what you mean when you think that all men are mortal, and you reflectively see that you can otherwise embody the same meaning by saying that no immortals are men. For reflection, then, self- consciousness is the necessary and sufficient condition. And each of us reflects only at home — within what he regards as his own hidden and soli- tary finite selfhood. Eeflection, as such, can be conveyed in finished form to nobody else. Nobody can observe from without a reflective truth. On the other hand, descriptive truth, as such, is definable as the truth which can be verified by many observers, either successively or together. 44 690 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Description is the setting forth of the nature of facts in so far forth as all observers, apart from their individual reflections, give the same account of these facts. The world of reflection is the world for me. The world of description is the world for us. When I describe facts I lay aside for the time, as far as possible, the interfering constructive tendencies of my indi- vidual reflection. I care not how tilings are for me, unless they are also so for you. The external world is definable as the truth that finite beings explicitly share in common, and that they know only so far as they do share it in common. Destroy all finite beings save one, or cut off nil communication among finite beings, and you do not touch, for the insight of the survivor or of the isolated beings, whatever reflective truth happens to be known, nor do you exclude the possibility of further reflective prog- ress. But what you then do destroy is the basis for any further real defi- nition of a knowledge of external truth, of physical fact, as such. For, I repeat, description of facts is essentially a social process. The external world of fact is definable as the world that the people tell about, and as the world that, in the end, they tend, all of them, to describe in the same way. Complete reflective knowledge I should then get if I could grow up to full self-consciousness. Complete descriptive knowledge I should get if I could learn what would be common to the experiences of all possible observers of the truths that are themselves common objects for all finite selves. Think for yourself is the maxim of reflective knowledge. Com- pare observations, describe, and verify — this is the maxim of descriptive knowledge. The multitude of observers forms the presupposition of descriptive science, and the external truth is what, in the end, proves to be the ideally common object for them all. The single self-consciousness is the presupposition of reflective knowledge, and the truth is, in the end, what this self-consciousness becomes aware of for itself. Such is the bare outline of the contrast between two forms of knowl- edge which, from a higher point of view than the human, may, and in my opinion must, once more coalesce, but which, from our human point of view, remain stubbornly distinct. Logic, ethics, metaphysics are primarily concerned with reflective truth, which for each of us must be worked out in self-consciousness. Physical science is concerned with a truth which can be reached only by a ceaselessly continued comparison of the accounts which endlessly numerous observers give of what has come to their conscious notice. That which in the long run they tend to describe in the same way, is here the humanly accessible truth. III. And now for psychology. Psychology is the natural science, or the attempted natural science, which endeavors, as it were, to describe the PSYCHOLOGY AM> PHYSIOLOGY. 691 life of the thinking being ; in other words, to describe the life of the being who is himself the subject for whom the world of inner or reflective truth exists. Plainly such a science is, amongst sciences, in an anomalous posi- tion. Its topic is the life of a conscious — that is, of a reflective — being. Its method is that of trying, not like metaphysics or logic to reflect upon the meaning of his inner life, but, like physics, to describe him as he is known or knowable in a relatively external way. If he, the thinking sub- ject, studies psychology, he is invited, without losing hold on his own existence as a conscious self, to see his life ' ' as others see it," to regard himself not only as the self-knowing, reflective being of the inner life, but also as the object of the social consciousness, of the common observa- tion of his fellows. How is this possible ? Only, so I answer, only in so far as there actually exists in the world of truth an intimate correlation between what self-consciousness reflect- ively discovers in the inner life of the individual, and what the common consciousness of mankind detects somewhere in the describable processes of the physical world. Were there no such correlation discoverable, there would be no psychology possible, but only metaphysical, logical, ethical reflection. There is no "science of the laws of mental life " possible for the subject himself alone, in his reflective isolation. For when he reflects alone he discovers truth indeed, but logical truth, ethical truth, meta- physical truth — never truth about the natural history of his own being. He must " see himself as others see him" before his inner life can become a topic for a natural science at all. Now he knows himself indeed, but not as an object for general observation, only as the subject of the inner life. And this inner life, again, has infinite meaning indeed, but, so far as the individual subject reflectively knows it, it conforms to no observable natural laws, because it is so far not observable from without, and is no object of the common human experience at all. On the other hand his fellows know, not the subject of his inner life at all, but a complex phe- nomenon called his bodily functions, which are a proper topic for physi- ological knowledge. How then, I once more ask, is a psychology, a sci- ence of the subject in so far as he can be treated as if he were also an object for the common observation of his fellows — how is such a science conceivable ? How can there be a descriptive knowledge of the life of the very subject of reflective knowledge ? And I answer once more : Only by virtue of a correlation, which experience indeed shows to be real, but without which no psychological science would be a priori possible — only by a correlation which actually ties the whole inner life of the reflective being to the changing states of a describable physical process, only thus is a psychology conceivable. Apart from an embodiment, a manifestation of the inner life in a psychophysical process, there would be no psychol- ogy thinkable. For only thus, in a two-fold process, could we have in the 692 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. world of truth a life that, seen from within, is the life of a self, and that at the same time can, in one of its aspects, be seen from without. This necessity for a correlation such as shall unite the world of reflect- ive insight with the world of descriptive knowledge, such as shall make the man who knows himself (hut not from the point of view of natural science) also, in another aspect, a being who can be an object for others — this necessity is, I insist, a condition prior for any psychology. That the correlation in question is given us in case of the nervous system is a matter of experience. As a fact, furthermore, it is by the pathological study of defective nervous functions in case of disease, by the comparative study of the nervous functions in man and the animals, and by the experimental study of complex nervous functions in the healthy man, that we have of late come for the first time to have a developed notion of what the future science of psychophysics is to be. And I have merely insisted, in the fore- going paper, upon the thought that if there is ever to be any knowledge of the inner life except such as reflective philosophy has attempted, that knowledge must necessarily take the form of psychophysics. And that such a science may come to pass, every student and lover of human nature in its natural — i.e., in its socially accessible — aspects must needs devoutly hope. DISCUSSION. Professor Ormond : I wish to express my high appreciation of Professor Royce's paper. It is characteristically able and clear. It seems to me. however, that he makes the distinction between the spheres of description and reflection too absolute. We are in danger of having our universe cleft into two incommunicable parts. Besides, the distinction tends to isolate the individual consciousness so far as it is an organ of reflec- tion. My own preference is to regard the distinction as merely relative. Consciousness is the organ of both, and it develops its descriptive and reflective categories in a process which is continuous. I do not think that we can regard our categories of reflection as being any less objective or universal than our categories of description. It is one world that presents itself to our consciousness, but in the order of knowledge the material and descriptive is first, and then the spiritual. The basis of this duality of categories must, I think, be sought in the constitution of the soul itself. Dr. Boardman complimented the paper highly, but dissented from the belief that psychology needs physiology as a basis. He remarked : " Have Plato and Aristotle done nothing in psychology r We all greatly value the contributions of modern physi- ology to psychology. All the sciences constitute one sisterhood. Fach contributes to the advantage of all. Especially has neurology brought a most acceptable offering. But it is possible greatly to exaggerate the value of the additions to our knowledge of the soul thence derived. Ancient philosophy, exploring chiefly consciousness, made vast acquisitions and searched many of the deepest foundations of knowledge." Dr. Shorey held that the new psychology has not yet shown results that render it worthy of usurping the place of the old. Dr. McCosh believed in pure mental science and pure physical science ; that each can throw light upon the other, but that, so far, investigation had not shown a close connection between them. THE SOUL AS BASAL CONCEPT OF RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. 693 THE SOUL AS THE BASAL CONCEPT OF RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. BY PROFESSOR G. T. ORMOND, OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY. Part I. — Psychology and the Postulate of the Soul. In modern psychology the question of the relation of the idea of the soul as a permanent subject of conscious experience, to the problems of psychic science, has been variously answered. Among empiric.il psycholo- gists it is common to take the position that except as a species of working hypothesis the idea of a soul has no value for psychology. In dealing with mental phenomena it is conceded that there is a need for the assump- tion of some unitary principle as a thread to hold particulars together, but beyond this it is said psychology has no more concern with a soul in man than physics has with a soul in nature. Without any disposition to deny that it may be possible, within certain limits, to ignore the problem of the soul without serious detriment, we are concerned here to maintain that a point will be reached where the laissez faire principle must break down. In their initial stages all sciences may confine themselves to empirical generalization from phenomena, and in these processes it may not be necessary to look deeper than the facts and relations of the external series. But every science that progresses far enough inevitably reaches a point where it ceases to be purely empirical and tends to become rational. Keflection will show that this transition is made when the science in ques- tion begins to transcend the phenomenal and to achieve an idea of the nature that underlies the class of facts with which it deals. Most obviously does the law of which we are speaking apply to psy- chology. In consciousness not only do we come upon phenomena, but we are also conscious of the bond that holds them together. Conscious- ness is aware of the unitary principle at its basis, and cannot, there- fore, dismiss it as a mere assumption. Now while the unitary principle forces recognition, it has been thought that all the requirements of psychology will be met by simply postulating this unitary principle while dismissing all attempts to determine its nature. The character of our consciousness, however, renders all such compromises nugatory. Consciousness bears witness not merely to some unitary principle, but to one of a specific character; namely, the idea of self. The unity of consciousness inevitably ripens into the conscious idea of self as a subject and bearer of the conscious life. The problem here, then, is not that of an abstract unitary principle, but rather that of a concrete subject and bearer of conscious experience. Now, there are certain predicates which normally and necessarily attach themselves to this subject. Among these are unity, personality, 694 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. individuality, and persistent identity. Psychology finds itself unable to conceive these attributes as being predicable of a mere flowing stream or series of conscious states. Professor James, who treats the question with much more than the ordinary insight, only escapes the difficulties of the " serial " theory by postulating a dualism between the objective flow- ing stream and a passing subjective "thought" which assumes all the characteristic functions of a permanent and transcendent ego; so that from James* point of view there is not merely a stream of states, but a virtually persistent self that owns the stream and can contemplate it for- ward and backward. James, it is true, thinks he has discovered a sub- stitute for the soul in his perishing thought which knows itself and the stream and passes on its possessions as a heritage to the thought that reigns after it has been gathered to its fathers. But the old-fashioned soul is dispensed with in appearance only, and not in reality. For when we sum up the duties which this thought is called on to perform, we find it clothed in all the trappings and prerogatives of a full-fledged and richly dowered soul. James' "passing thought" is just the soul itself repre- sented in the form of one of its manifestations ; for it is evident that the soul does think all the things that this "thought" thinks, aud that in addition it supplies a reason, where James can supply none, why "the successive passing thoughts should inherit each other's possessions." The nature of the demand for the soul as basal concept in psychology may be indicated as follows : An organic self-consciousness like man's requires not simply a principle of abstract unity, but a bearer of concrete attributes like personality and individuality. In short, the bearer of self-consciousness must be a being and not a mere abstract force or prin- ciple. For selfhood, which includes the maintenance of personality and individuality of the conscious subject, can only exist, as Lotze subtly argues, in a reality that has the capacity of internal reaction or self-asser- tion against that which would impair its individuality ; and in this capacity we find the germ out of which the idea of the soul rationally develops. Consciousness presents a trinity of manifestations — emotional, volitional, and intellectual. It also reveals a unitary principle which, as we have seen, can be adequately conceived only in the idea of a subject. Now if we refer consciousness back to the soul as its spring, we will be able to connect its threefold manifestation with that capacity for internal reaction which we have seen to be essential to the soul's life. We thus arrive at the notion of the soul as the spring of consciousness and the subject of a trinity of manifestations — emotion, volition, and intellection. The mani- festations as a whole are to be conceived in one sense after Herbart, as the efforts of the soul toward self-preservation and self -maintenance ; in another and higher sense, as the efforts of the soul toward the self-realiza- tion of its own inherent activity. We arrive, then, at the notion of the bearer of consciousness as a self-maintaining being which contains a syn- THE SOUL AS BASAL CONCEPT OF RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. 695 thesis of intelligence, emotion, and will. This synthesis expresses itself in personal manifestations, and it is contained in the self-maintaining individ- uality of the concrete subject of experience. The idea of the soul that then arises is that of a real bearer of the whole concrete life of man. No abstract principle whatever is an ade- quate basis for personality and individuality. Man cannot regard himself as a mere phenomenon, for his own nature forces on him the distinction between phenomenon and ground, and this reveals to him the metaphysi- cal quality of his being. The only postulate that satisfies the whole de- mand of the case is that of the soul as the metaphysical ground and subject of the whole concrete manifestation of our conscious life. The means by which the soul reveals itself to our apprehension cannot be elaborated here. They fall into two categories — the intuitive and the reflective. The intuitive embrace the immediate self -revelations, and may be grouped under three heads : (1) Self-feeling. (2) Self-perception. (3) Self-ideation. Self-feeling is the indefinite apprehension of self that accompanies the simple exercises of sense. Self-perception is the more definite self-reaction that accompanies the perception of objects in which, as McCosh says, the soul is aware of itself in a particular state. The in- tuitive phase of self-ideation is the immediate consciousness of our unitary personality which accompanies the higher exercises of our intelligence. It is the immediate aspect of the rational self-consciousness. The reflective knowledge of the soul arises out of the indirect study of its manifestations. It emerges when we reflect upon our conscious life as a whole and seek its rational explanation. Through this reflection we construct from the data of intuition that notion of the soul, as the meta- physical ground and subject of experience, which, as we have maintained, must constitute the basal concept of psychology in its rational stage. Part II. — A Theory of the Soul and its Implications. The idea of the soul as developed in the first part of this discussion leaves undetermined its essential relations and its type. The main prob- lems as to the soul's relations are (1) the connection of the material and spiritual in the sphere of the soul-life, and (2) the dependence of the soul on some absolute ground of its existence. The first problem can be solved only by achieving some definite conception of the psychic constitution, and this will in turn assist us in conceiving the soul's relation to the abso- lute ground. The dependence of the soul on the corporeal is a truth that all the facts of experience concur to demonstrate. Physiology shows that the physical is the basis, or at least a necessary condition, of the psychic. This result has on the one hand been materialistically construed to sig- nify that the psychic has no distinctive reality of its own, but is a mere phenomenon of matter. Spiritualism, on the other hand, in order to escape materialism, has felt obliged, with Berkeley, to virtually deny the 696 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION reality of the material by reducing it to a mere psychic phenomenon. Now, I believe in a spiritualistic metaphysics as supplying the only adequate theory of the ultimate reality of things. But it seems to me that the essential requirements of spiritualism are more completely satisfied by the following postulates, which cannot be developed here, than by any purely monistic theory, whether materialistic or spiritualistic : (1) That the absolute ground of existence is a spiritual nature in which the dualism between the material and spiritual, that dominates the rela- tive sphere, lapses. (2) That in the relative, which is to be conceived as resting upon and generated from the absolute, a dualism emerges between matter and spirit, and that the order of development is first the material and then the spiritual. (3) That in the relative sphere, therefore, there is a relative dependence of the spiritual upon the material, matter being everywhere an indispens- able ground of spiritual manifestation. Now, while we reject materialism which construes the dependence of spirit on matter in an absolute sense, and thus raises matter to the position of the absolute, we cannot, on the other hand, regard the idea of the soul as a purely spiritual monad as satisfactory. We reject it here mainly on two grounds : (1) Because it virtually denies the relative dependence of the spiritual upon the material and reduces matter to a mere psychic phenomenon ; (2) because it treats the relation of the soul to the material in a purely external and therefore unsatisfactory manner. We must, it seems to me, in order to really solve the psychic problem, conceive the soul not as a spiritual monad, but as a duad. The spring of the soul's unitary and conscious life must, of course, be regarded as a spiritual principle. But there is no pure spiritual manifestation in the relative sphere, but everywhere the conscious life of the soul is held in temporal and mechanical categories. It falls into a series, follows the temporal order, and only escapes for an instant from its empirical and temporal self when it retires into the citadel of what the Kantians call the " pure ego." This close dependence on the material cannot be adequately explained by representing the soul as a self-contained spiritual individual which reacts externally upon a material substance outside of itself. Rather we must use our postulate of a spiritualistic absolute to deny the Cartesian dualism which raises an absolute barrier between matter and spirit, and to assert that the distinction between them is only relative, while they are one in the absolute. This will enable us to conceive the soul as a synthesis of material and spiritual principles. The real nexus between spirit and matter must be sought in the sphere of the atoms, and the psychic duad may be repre- sented as arising out of the nuptials which join a material atom and a THE SOUL AS BASAL CONCEPT? OF RATIONAL PSYCHO LOOT. 697 spiritual principle in a bond which no force but that of the absolute can part asunder. This duad is to be conceived as the atomic nucleus of the soul's life. Out of it, by virtue of its spiritual principle, spring those attributes which have been dealt with in the first part of this discussion. Out of it, by virtue of the psychic synthesis of the material and spiritual, springs the inseparable connection of the life of the soul with the material, its immer- sion in the forms and categories of space and time and sense. Deductions from the Duality of the Soul's Constitution. From the dual idea of the soul as developed above, a number of deduc- tions may be made. We shall notice only four. In the first place, it leads (1) to a conception of the law of the soul's progress or development which is of the highest pedagogical importance. Assuming that, in the relative sphere to which our life belongs, the material is the basis of the spiritual, and that the soul contains a synthesis of material and spiritual principles, it follows that the progress of the soul-life will be from a stage in which the material dominates the life, to a goal in which the spiritual shall dominate and transform the material. This will be the common law in the spheres of the mental, moral, and aestheti co-religious. In each the psyche will pass ideally through three stages, which we may designate the sensuous, the sensatio-rational, and the rational. But underlying this trinity of stages in the soul's evolution will rest, as the motive-spring out of which it emerges, the duality of the soul's constitution, giving rise to an everlasting struggle of the spiritual, which contains all the ideal norms, to transform the material and to lift the soul to higher stages of rational and spiritual life. (2) The Knowledge of the Soul. — In this dual conception of the soul may be found a ground of reconciliation between apparently inconsistent pro- cesses of knowledge. In the sphere of cognition we find a duality. The soul seems to construct its world out of its own resources, and on this sub- jective idealism founds. But the objective character of its apprehensions is just as coercive, and it cannot escape the conviction that its cognitions are perceptions of real objects. The key to the dilemma is to be found in the fact that the material principle in the soul supplies it with categories that are common to it and to its objective environment. The world it apprehends is therefore a real world, objective to itself, although the process by which it apprehends it is subjective. Again, the complete method of science is dual — a synthesis of empirical and rational processes which play into each other's hands. This empirico-rational interplay can be rationally grounded only in a dual conception of the soul's nature. For if the soul were monal in its constitution, the process of knowledge ought also to be monal. But it is essentially dual — a fact that implies a dual constitution of the subject of knowledge. 698 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. (3) The Freedom of the Soul.— The dual idea of the soul has also a bearing on the problem of freedom. Empirical psychology can go so far as to identify voluntary choice with self-determination in view of alterna- tives, among which the choice is the exercise of a selective function. Now self-determination is in form free determination. But what seems to be freedom lapses into a species of necessity in view of the fact that the life of the soul belongs to the temporal series in which preceding choices act as factors in determining choices that follow. A man cannot escape his empirical character, which holds him to the series and its law. Now, were the soul a monal substance there would be no help for this. But since it is dual, and its history is to be conceived as a struggle of a spirit- ual principle to overcome and transform the material, freedom may be represented as the law of the spiritual, and may be teleologically conceived as the end and goal of the whole spiritual struggle of the individual. We have an intimation of what this means, in conscience, which imposes its ethical standard as an ideal law upon the actual and empirical, and we have only to enlarge our conception so as. to include the whole rational and spiritual nature of man in the ideal sphere in order to see how the achievement of freedom becomes the great and all-absorbing business of the whole life of man. (4) The Destiny of the Soul. — What Lotze calls considerations of value — that is, reasons arising from our estimates of the spiritual worth of things — have always borne strongly, especially when reinforced by the faith and sentiments of religion, in favor of the postulate of immortality ; yet science has never been able to clearly conceive the possibility of the soul's survival of the body. The inductions of physiology seem to bear so strongly in favor of the absolute dependence of psychic phenomena on the body as to virtually overcome and neutralize in advance all considerations of value. It seems to me, however, that much of the force of this negative implica- tion has been due to the fact that no distinct conception of any type of soul-life apart from the bodily organism has seemed possible. This want is supplied by the dual concept of the psyche developed here. It not only gives a definite concept of the psyche, analogous to the atomic conception of matter, but it also supplies a basis for a distinction between what we may call the essential and the modal conditions of the soul's life. The essential conditions rest in the synthesis of the psychic atom and its depend- ence on the absolute, while that rolled-up neurotic knot which we call our brain is to be regarded as a modal condition of the present form of the soul's manifested life. Once distinguish between the atomic constitution of the soul and the organized material conditions in which it manifests its life, and the scientific presumption will, I think, be reversed. For I see no reason why it should not be intrinsically as difficult to conceive the destruction of the soul atom as it is conceded to be to conceive the destruction of an atom of matter. The dual type enables us also to con- DISCUSSION. 699 ceive a possible mode of future existence. For if the soul carry its dual constitution with it, not only is it secured from the danger of losing itself in the absolute, but it has the nucleus of organization within itself, and may go on everlastingly weaving for itself temporal garments for its phe- nomenal life. We may possibly find here a philosophic basis for the doc- trine of a resurrection of the body. At all events the field will be cleared for the considerations of value to assert their full power over the thoughts and convictions of men. DISCUSSION. Dr. Laws dissented from the views of the paper. A principle underlies. The human mind is incapable of anything apart from its phenomena or its appearances. Two groups of facts come within apprehension of consciousness. In the first group every object may be quantitatively determined ; in the second, there is no object which may be quantitatively determined. Dissented from the amalgamation of the two groups. Our knowledge of God is by inference and not by intuition. The soul is a substantial entity . Dk. Lummis : A satisfactory definition of the soul is conscious entity; of matter, extended entity. Things are cognized concretely; not motion, but moving things. There is no such thing as unconsciousness ; an unconscious spirit is unthinkable. Phenomena exist only when present with intelligence. President Boardmax : As to the first part of the learned essay. Its able argument for the reality of the soul in distinction from matter was obviously conclusive. Such reality, the very soul itself, is a direct object of consciousness. Its existence is a primi- tive intuition If we do not know our mental existence we know nothing. Self exist- ence is the fundamental intuition. No thought is possible without this underlying ground. Not activities or states alone, but the soul itself, is directly known in all self- consciousness. As to the second part of the essay, there might be much more question. The synthesis of mind and body proposed, said to be derived in some way from the con- ception of the Logos, was not clear That a profound idea was involved in the conception of the Logos, whether as embodied, tangible, concrete thought, or still higher as desig- nating the incarnate Godhead, was obvious. But it seemed to the speaker unphilo- sophical to blend, confound, and mix mind and matter in the way which seemed to be proposed in the essay. It was an intermarriage, an amalgamation unknown to science. No sucli tertium quid, which is neither mind nor matter, could in the nature of things exist. It was contrary to consciousness, which directly affirms the existence of both, and their diversity, wide apart as the poles of existence. The essay affirmed the neces sity of such an hypothesis to bridge over the chasm between mind and matter, and so explain their interaction one upon the other. The speaker felt no such necessity. He believed such interaction of matter and mind to be an ultimate fact, and, like all other ultimate facts, to need no further explanation. To go beyond the ultimate is a contra- diction in terms. Dr. Lewis : I ask Professor Ormond if I am correct in the saying that the " soul is a unitary principle which holds together threads of ideas " ; or, in other words, that the soul brings into oneness successive series of ideational experiences? \ Answer. — Not exactly; well, yes, practically.] Knowledge in the main is the product of sense- impression, and it is probable that of our ideas but a very few are from any other source. The senses are not referred to in the paper as being of value, singly or conjointly, in the process of unifying successive series of ideas. That this is an oversight is the more probable when we consider that one sense or end- organ is not generally sufficient to gather and send over its nerve to the idea-making region of the cerebral cortex a sufficiently forceful impression of an object to elaborate therefrom a finished idea. This is more satisfactorily accomplished when neural energy arrives in the cortical centers from two or more of the senses. To hold that this neural 700 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. energy or successive series of ideational processes is changed into comprehended ideas by that being denominated the soul, is more arbitrary than to assume that we have a very proficient unitary principle, which Professor Ormond calls the soul, in the combined action of the senses, which is presumptively an emanation from the individual sense- energies. The soul, or that mysterious something which changes an unconscious idea into a conscious one, and is continuously acting upon ideas in all sentient beings in series, to the end of bringing about a state of conscious experience, is problematical, hypotheti- cal— yea, wholly inexplicable, save in the sense sum total of neural energy proceeding from the special senses. We have, when these unite their forces as changed by the gray matter, a conscious whole, a conscience — yes, if you please, a soul. Du. Black expressed his surprise at the revival of the doctrine of duality by the most conservative university (Princeton) of this country. Laws of matter are irreversible. If the thought of the essay were carried out to its ultimate issues it would concede the immortality of the animal and vegetable world, a doctrine which the speaker was aston- ished to hear proceeding from Princeton. Dr. Foster : We are always confronted with a dualism which takes the form of a conflict between mind and matter. He suggested that there is a third ground or medium in which mind and matter originate. This third ground or matrix is thought, which is capable of thinking both matter and mind. Mr. Sanders expressed the belief that we have extra senses besides " the five senses." but that they are now closed. The move of this age should be to open these closed senses. THE THEORY OF THE FIRST PRINCIPLE IN THE ELEVENTH BOOK OF ARISTOTLE'S METAPHYSICS. BY DE. AUGUSTINE F. HEWIT, OF THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY, WASHINGTON, D. C. The eleventh book of Aristotle's Metaphysics is the most interesting and important part of the whole work. In the closing books of the Meta- physics, Aristotle sums up and brings to a focus the previous specula- tions of his physics and metaphysics, in what is, properly speaking, his ontology. In the tenth book he reasons of that kind of imperfect being, which is called being in a certain relative sense. It is being, inasmuch as it presents an object of apprehension and thought, is something think- able, and yet it is not anything which subsists in and by itself ; it is only an appurtenance, a relation, or even a merely negative notion, such as " the not white " or " the not straight " ; which is to be referred to that which is being in the perfectly real sense. This perfect being, having its concrete, subsisting essence in itself, and when complete by itself, is substance. In the eleventh book Aristotle proposes his theory of substance as that which is primary and fundamental in ontology. His ultimate object is to discover its first principles and causes, to determine its reason of being and its origin. He sets out, therefore, to trace back all modes, qualities, movements, all essence and nature, all form and matter, all relations and order, to the first principle and cause, and to the final cause, from FIRST PRINCIPLE IN ARISTOTLE'S METAPHYSICS. 701 which substantial being and its consequences depend, in respect to actual existence, energy, and every kind of movement. The science which embraces all these topics — viz. : ontology or general metaphysics — is called by Aristotle wisdom, primal philosophy. It is the science of the deepest and universal reasons which are the underlying and dominant principles of all the particular sciences. Aristotle finds that the preceding philosophers had recognized yet failed to solve the great problem of ontology, viz. : the first principle and cause of all being, especially of substance, subsisting under specific forms, and also under- lying all phenomena. The question, What, whence, and wherefore is the force energizing in the universe multifariously, and giving the spring to all its movements from some beginning or from eternity ? remained in Aristotle's view unanswered. If it is unanswerable, then metaphysics is an impossible science. Aristotle insists that it is in the highest sense science, and that its principal part is the theory of substance. He makes a threefold division of substance — into sensible substance which is cor- ruptible, sensible substance which is incorruptible and subject only to the change of local motion, and substance which is immovable, un- changeable, free from all contingency and potentiality. Corruptible sub- stances are subject to transmutations in respect to their quiddity, quality, quantity, and location. There is, therefore, in them an element of con- tingency, a capacity which is not in itself a sufficient reason of coming into act ; a potency or potentiality which is a kind of receptacle of sub- stantial forms, a kind of term for an active power, a first matter, as it is called, and which is a first element and constitutive principle of every essence and nature, except that of God. The first matter of incorruptible substances — viz. : of the heavens and their spheres — is, however, different from the matter of the substances whose primary and simple forms were supposed to be earth, air, fire, and water ; and hence it is often called in Aristotelian physics by the name of " Fifth Matter/' The next step in the argument of Aristotle is to the consideration of the immovable being as the principle and cause of all motion in the uni- verse— i.e., of all transmutations and every kind of transition from poten- tiality into act, of capacity into energy. The argument is based on a principle which is found everywhere in Aristotle's metaphysics, that potential being can be reduced to act only by the application of motive power from a being already in act. Ontologically, act is prior to potency, and as an infinite series of received and transmitted movements has in it no sufficient reason of its energy, no ultimate principle and cause of motion, it is necessary to go back to a first mover. Evidently the first mover cannot have any prior principle and cause from which he receives any kind of being in act, any active power, any perfection. His essence is most perfect and most pure act and energy, without any mixture of potentiality, without any capacity for change into something better or 702 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. worse. He is unchangeable and immovable in his eternal and infinite plenitude of being. Aristotle proceeds to prove that this supreme being whose essence is energy can have nothing material and corporeal in his nature. The only kind of being in the universe, depending from him which furnishes an analogical concept of his nature, is intelligence and will. He is the intel- ligible and the intelligent, the lovable and the loving, in his essence ; and his life is beatitude in the contemplation with complacency of the best — that is, of his own being ; the object of intellectual cognition, and of the loving complacency of the will. Subject and object in this most pure act are identical in a perfect, indivisible unity. The question concerning the relation of the universe to the supreme being as its first mover, comes next. As Aristotle teaches that God rests immovably in himself in a most pure and perfect act of contemplation, so also he affirms that the universe is in a perpetual motion toward the same object of intelligence and love, but in different modes, according to the different natures of its various substances ; rational beings consciously, the rest unconsciously. That is, Aristotle presents the idea of God as final cause most prominently. It is well known that many philosophers interpret him as denying or ignoring any exercise of intelligent and vol- untary energy in God, as first efficient cause, either of the movement and order of the universe, or of its first being. In that case, the attractive force which is the first principle of all movement from potential into actual being must be both necessary and unconscious. Consequently, there can be no love of God toward the beings who depend from him, no providence over them, no relation of friendship between men and God, and no religion. Here, I conceive, lies the principal field of discussion. As it is the object of this paper merely to introduce this discussion, I will not engage in it. I will merely take the liberty of suggesting that it is important to discuss thoroughly threje distinct topics : First. What is explicitly affirmed and argued by Aristotle in respect to efficient causality in the supreme being. Second. What is implicitly contained in his metaphysical and moral treatises. Tliird. What is virtually contained in them — i.e.., deducible from his premises by reasoning, or, at least, capable of being proved to be not in contradiction to his principles and conclusions, but rather in harmony with them, and to be a further development of theodicy on his lines, and according to his methods. It is evident that so far as it can be fairly proved that the philosophy of Aristotle is in harmony with Christian natural theology, a great gain accrues to the cause of pure Christian the- ism. And it is needless to add that the study and elucidation of the works of the great Grecian sage are worthy of the best efforts of scholars. SELF-ACTIVITY IN EDUCATION. 703 DISCUSSION. Bishop Keane : Aristotle means that God acts consciously. Considered the idea of the tertium quid being " thought," an absurdity. Dr. Harris agreed with Dr. Hewit's thesis. Aristotle's book was the foundation of scholasticism. God is a personal being ; hence man also, a personal being. Rational psychology reaches this point. Dr. Foster : The main question is whether God is a conscious being. It is true that thought thinks itself, and hence all things else. He did not agree with Bishop Keane that there was no antagonism between mind and matter. Dr. Ormond : How does the manifestation of a perfect being as illustrated from the creation of the purus actus come to change into an imperfect being ? SELF-ACTIVITY IN EDUCATION. BY DR. J. G. SCHURMAN, PRESIDENT OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY. I observe that in the history of psychology two views of the nature of mind have always prevailed. There is the sensationalist theory, and there is the rationalist theory. However named, the fundamental difference is between the conception of mind as active and the conception of mind as passive. In the one case the human spirit is regarded as a thing subject to the universal law of causation ; a thing of a peculiar nature, it is true, yet a thing taking its place without reserve or remainder in the world of knowable objects. That objects are known at all only through this intel- ligence is a fact whose significance is strangely overlooked. And it is this consideration that justifies our rejection of the conception of mind as merely another thing among the objects which make up the universe. It is opposed to these as the subject which knows them. It is not, therefore, to be described in metaphysics borrowed from the material world. It is not a machine, it is not an organism ; but it is spirit. And the mark by which it distinguishes itself from everything else is the self-activity, the absolutely unique self-activity, in which the life of mind or spirit essen- tially consists. Of this activity we are conscious alike in perception, recol- lection, thinking, and in volition. It requires strenuous thinking to hold fast to the notion of mind as essential self-activity, even after the still greater initial difficulty of form- ing this notion has once been overcome. All objects may be conceived as effects ; but the subject which knows them, the human mind, is never an effect. Objects are dependent for their existence and attributes upon other objects, but mind is an independent and self-subsisting original. We form just views of the human spirit only when we think of it as 704 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. creative and self-creating. And of nothing- else in the universe can these terms he predicated. Now this conception of mind has fruitful consequences both for the the- ory and practice of education. In a paper, or rather in the draft of a paper, whose only object is to provoke discussion, I cannot pretend to enumerate all these consequences, much less to describe them in detail. AH that can be attempted is to indicate some of the most obvious of them. Firstly, then, this conception of mind as essential self-activity enables us to take a view at once just and inspiring of the real nature of edu- cation. Its ultimate cbject is not the communication of knowledge to the pupil — though this is obviously the proximate end — but the awaken- ing, the energizing of the pupil's mind by contact with the knowledge imparted. In physiological language, knowledge is the food on which the intellect is nourished ; or, without analogy, the intellect realizes itself as intellect, passes from a mere capacity to an actuality of intellect, in and through the process of receiving, elaborating, and reacting upon the materials of instruction communicated by the teacher. Secondly, this conception of his work is one calculated to stimulate the teacher and give him an exalted sense of the dignity of his vocation. The educator in training the minds of his pupils is enabling them to attain the highest goal of their existence. The true teacher is, as it were, a fellow- worker with the Creator. Thirdly, the conception of mind as self -activity throws some light upon the problem of the proper materials of instruction. Those subjects are to be taught which are most provocative of mental activity. The test is indeed a very general one. But by means of it we can justify, for example, the teaching of arithmetic and languages. On the other hand, since only those subjects will prove provocative of mental activity which the pupil feels some interest in, we see at once how variety of interest renders it difficult, apart from the great fundamental similarities of all minds, to lay down a uniform curriculum of study. Lastly, the conception of mind as self-activity, and of education as a process whereby this essential nature is developed from original potenti- ality, shows the shallowness of all short and easy roads to culture, science, and scholarship. There is no real education till the mind is stirred into life, till it takes up the material presented, makes it its own, and uses it as a factor in its own development. Perhaps the best test of such attain- ment is the ability to use what has been acquired. The presence of this utility is sure proof that the mind has grown by what it has fed on. If these remarks lead to a discussion of this important subject here briefly described, they will have served the end for which they were designed. WUNDT'S PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WILL. 705 DISCUSSION. Dr. Harris : Self-activity is one of the essential qualities of mind. The new school is trying to get rid of the idea of self-activity, and this is one of the prevailing faults of this school. The greatest writer on self -activity is Hegel, in the third book of his '• Logic." Dr. Ormond : The paper shows a theory of the connection of mind to education. It is right in saying that self-activity is the central category. We must, however, com- bine evolution with the idea of self-activity. Only thus can we get a correct theory of education. He had learned more psychology from his children than from Plato, Aris- totle, and Hegel. The psychology of the child helps to interpret that of the philoso- phers. No theory of education should be founded upon an abstraction. First the lower categories ; then a development through the middle up to the spiritual categories. Miss Crozier : Children are being over-educated. They should be let alone. When the child asks, " Who made God?" let him develop up to the point when he can under- stand, instead of trying to impregnate the mind of the child with our ideas. Dn. Boardman : The self-activity of the soul is a matter of direct consciousness. It is a matter of fundamental characteristic of mind. The essav has incidentally spoken of the intellectual as the part of mind most susceptible of progress toward perfection. We believe that this honor should be accorded to the moral rather than the intellectual. The moral involves the intellectual ; and in this function of mind, doubtless, self- activity has its highest field and makes its noblest progress. Dr. Harkis : Self-activity is necessary in order to interpret the external world. In the analysis of causality it appears that A determines B. But before A can send an influence to B it must be active itself . Cause must be self -active. WUNDTS PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WILL. BY PROFESSOR E. B. TITCHENER, OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Wundt is the founder of the new psychology. His views deserve our consideration for two reasons. Firstly and generally, because of the standing and authority of their promulgator. "Just in philosophy/' said the late Croom Kobertson, in a different connection, " where because of -its supreme human interest anybody may claim to have a voice, is there most need for the . . . help of ' those who know.' " Secondly, and more specially, however, because of their frequent and continued mis- understanding. In many passages of his writings Wundt directly asserts that his position is that of empiricism. Consciousness is, for him, nothing more than the sum total of mental processes present (given to the individual) at a particular moment.* The word "processes" is import- ant ; the inner experience is in perpetual flux, f The datum of psy- chology is this momentary fusion of conscious processes (consciousness) ; its object is the elimination and determination of the mental elements, and the conceptual reconstruction of the concrete mind from them. J * Phil. Stud., vi., p. 250. Vorlemmgen, 2d ed., p. 252 ff. t Ethik, 2d ed., p. 434. % Phys. Psych., i., 4th ed., p. 3. 45 706 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. If, then, we may trust the author's own account of his work, that work is certainly empirical. Yet we find Professor Muensterberg repeatedly rep- resenting the Wundtian apperception as a foreign power which arbitrarily invades the content of consciousness;* and Dr. Ziehen finds in Wundt's doctrine of the will a survival from the old faculty-theories, a return to the pre-Herbartian standpoint ; f while the views which these two writers have propounded to the German public have been set before the English by Professor Bain \ and Dr. Bastian.§ These, then, are the reasons which have led me to present to you a purely exegetical paper, rather than one which should be critical or con- structive. We cannot criticise until we have understood ; we should not construct without reference to the labors of those who laid the founda- tions of our science. I. — THE CONATIVE ELEMENT, QUALITATIVELY REGARDED. | The datum of psychology is consciousness, as this term has been defined above. Its first problem is the determination of the number of the ulti- mate conscious elements, from the interaction — fusion and combination — of which we may build up this consciousness. We have seen that various writers posit variously one or two or three such elements. Our question here runs : Is conation a mental ultimate or a mental derivative ? If now, as we say by metaphor, we " look into " the mind — " introspect " — we find among the ideas which go to compose it at the moment a certain difference. (1) Some are clear, vivid; some indistinct, blurred. Eetain- ing our visual metaphor, we may say that the former are situated at the conscious fixation-point, while the latter are scattered over the conscious field-of-vision — not in the least meaning to imply, by this language, that there is a "consciousness" outside of or beyond the ideas, which turns to them, and illuminates them, as the eye turns to the objects of the external world ; but simply wishing to illustrate by a familiar analogy what is a striking fact to the beginner in introspection. (2) But not only are the "fixated" ideas more distinct and vivid than the rest; they are more unified, more firmly welded together. They constitute a whole, which is, comparatively speaking, permanent ; the remaining ideas are detached, fleeting, unconnected. (3) Further, if we consider the indefinite ideas which lie outside of the conscious fixation-point, we find that they pass, and are succeeded by others, in a kind of independent panorama. We are not "interested" in them; we are passive, as they come or go. * Beitrdge, i., ii., Hi., passim. t Leitfaden, 1st ed., pp. ill., 118, etc. Cf. Wundt, in Phil. Stud., vi., p. 17. Cf. G. E. Mfiller, in Gott. gel. Am., June, 1891, p. 429. t Mind, 1887, p. 161 ff. § Brain, pt. lvii., p. 20. \Phys. Psych., ii., 3ded., p. 235 ff. Ethik, 2d ed.,p.433ff. Phil. Stud., i., p. 337 ff. System, p. 380 ff. Vorlesungen, 2d ed., p. 252 ff. Kiilpe, I. c, p. 427 ff. WUNDT'S PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WILL. 707 Whereas, with every clear idea, every fixated idea, there is bound up the experience of internal activity, or activity of the self. These three observations are equally empirical. It is not a question of what we wish to find in consciousness, but of what we actually do find, when we examine it. The fixation of ideas we term apperception; their entry into the conscious field-of-vision, perceptiou. In other words, the distinct unified ideational mass, with its concomitant activity-experience, is an apperceived content ; the loose and indistinct ideas are perceived contents. Note the conclu- sion. There is, given to introspection, an observable process of unifying activity — this process of apperception. But the properties of activity and unification are just those which attach to the concept of conation, and which do not belong to the notions of sensation and affection (pleasure and pain). We are justified, therefore, (1) in speaking of a special cona- tive element, and (2) in regarding apperception as its quality — as that aspect of it by virtue of which it is elemental. Three points of objection arise at once. (1) Despite the plea of empiri- cism, do we discover this internal activity by introspection ? We find Dr. Ziehen saying to his student-hearers, in the course of his analysis of action : "Ieh bitte Sie nun, durch Selbstbeobachtung zu bestaetigen, dass zwischen das Erinnerungsbild der gewollten Bewegung und die Empfind- ung der vollzogenen Bewegung sich in unsrem Bewusstsein nichts da- zwischenschiebt."* Dr. Ziehen should, as a professing psychologist, know that the use which he is making of introspection is a totally illegitimate use. Between the results of his observation and that of Wundt each one must finally decide for himself ; only, let the decision be made with knowledge — i.e., after a fair practice in the employment of this psycho- logical method. (2) It may be urged that certainly not in every case of attentive observation do we experience this apperceptive activity. This objection simply says, as Dr. Kuelpe points out,f that not every apper- ceptive act is apperceived. Why should it be ? Not every affection, not every sensation, is apperceived. (3) Is it not perhaps a logical 'error to coordinate "active" (as quality of will) with "pleasant" (as quality of affection) or "blue" (quality of sensation) ? The term is so much more abstract. Here, again, the answer is given by Wundt in a reference to the facts. If we eliminate from conscious experience the "blues" and the " pleasants," there remains just this singly-qualitative "active" process, which is not otherwise describable.J II. — THE CONDITIONS OF APPERCEPTION. § Every apperceptive process — all conation — is conditioned. For conven- ience' sake, we distinguish apperception as (1) active and (2) passive. But * Leiffaden, Uted., pp. 16, 17. t L. c, p. 431. $ Cf. Staude, in Phil. Stud., i., p. 140 ff. § Wundt, U. cc. Kfllpe, /. c, p. 428, 429. 708 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. neither does "active" signify "unconditioned," nor do we intend by the distinction to mark off two separate qualities of will. The apperceptive act is passive when it is univocally* determined — a loud sound "forces" our attention, as we say. It is active when it is multivocally determined — when different " motives " are at work, striving to determine it in differ- ent directions. The division is one of degree, not of kind ; the criterion external, not internal. The chief conditions of apperception may be briefly tabulated as follows : (a) External. — (1) Relative adaptation of the (in the particular case) appropriate motor apparatus ; (2) character of sense-impressions (inten- sity, quality, duration, extension) ; (3) absence of complicating impres- sions. (b) Internal. — (1) The affective value of impressions; (2) the relation of impressions to the (individually different) psychophysical "stock "or "capital" — to a man's " psych ostatical conditions," as Lewes calls them (memory, education, mood, habits, etc.) ; (3) absence of complicating mental processes. III. — THE SPHERE OF CONATIVE ACTIVITY.* Wundt's doctrine of will was classed above with those of Beneke and Fortlage, as being more broadly conceived than the views of the other positivists. The critics have, of course, not been slow to remark on this width and extent of apperceptive activity in his psychology. Professor Muensterberg speaks somewhere of the great Sam meltopf of apperception ; and Dr. Ziehen, in his preface,! indulges in similar sarcasm. But if once the actuality of the activity-experience is granted, its far-reaching charac- ter must be also allowed. Without going into full detail, I will attempt to shown in outline the rdle which Wundt ascribes toit. (1) As regards the other conscious elements. A sensation can be apperceived. And not only is affection a frequent determinant of will, but the sense-feeling is itself the mode of reaction of apperception upon sense-impression-. (2) As re- gards fusions of the conscious elements. The idea (fusion of sensations) can be apperceived. Attention, desire, instinct, obviously all involve the presence of conation. Emotion implies, at least, passive, and the "intel- lectual feelings " (aesthetical, religious, ethical, logical) active appercep- tion. (3) As regards combinations of conscious elements. The idea (com- bination of sensations) can be apperceived. Associations of ideas must excite the passive apperception, and may also be actively apperceived, and thus transformed to "apperceptive combinations. " Impulsive movements and voluntary movements alike demand for their analysis the recognition of the conative element. (4) As regards the self -consciousness. This arises * Phys. Psych., i., 4th ed., p. 587 ff.; ii., 3d ed., 239 ff., 361 ff., 408 ff., 487 ff. Phil. Stud., I. c. Vor- lesungen,p.238fi. System, p. 562 ff. Kuelpe, /. c, p. 432 ff. t P. iii. WUNDT'S PSYCHOLOGY OP THE WILL. 709 from a sum of (a) permanently present ideas, (b) standing in a relation of dependency to the will. In the last instance, the activity-experience or apperception-experience usurps the full dominion, and of itself constitutes the ego — the ideational content becoming of secondary importance. This scheme is, as I have said, but a bare outline. It must be filled in from the writings of Wundt himself. But we can see clearly from it the vast importance predicated of the will. As Dr. Kiilpe puts it :* "In the adult consciousness there is but one content which is either not dependent on conation, or not fused or combined with it — the perceived sensations and ideas. In all our remaining mentality, apperception is somehow implicated." IV. — THE PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSTKATE OF APPERCEPTION", f Like all other mental processes, the activity-experience must hare a physiological (neural) correlate. There are two points to notice : (1) We find, as a matter of pathological fact, that lesion or degeneration of the frontal lobes brings with it disturbances of the "intelligence," of the moral nature, and of the "will." (2) There is a relativity of neural func- tion, as there is a relativity of mental process. Neural function is a mat- ter of neural connections and relations. Now apperception requires both sensory and motor connections. The special sense-centers must excite the organ of apperception centripetally ; excitations from the organ must be able to reach the motor centers centrifugally, and issue in voluntary movements. These conditions are given in the frontal lobes. " Highest- level neural synthesis" J may be safely predicated of them. From this point of view also, then, the seat of apperception seems indicated with tolerable clearness. But the localization of the "organ of apperception" is confessedly hypothetical and tentative. V. — THE GENESIS OF CONATION.§ There are, plainly, two opposed views, prevalent in psychology, of the genesis of the will : the heterogenetic and the autogenetic view. The former derives conation from the non-conative, the latter declares that will cannot be deduced from any process but its own. Herbart and Lotze are typical adherents of heterogenesis ; Wundt maintains the autogenetic standpoint ; Bain occupies an intermediate position between the two schools. The question of the ultimate origin of will, psychology cannot attempt to answer. It asks as much or as little about this as it asks about the * L. c, p. 437. t Phys. Psych., i., 4th ed., p. 228 ff.; ii., 3d ed., p. 240 ff. Kfllpe, I. c, pp. 438 ff. X Qf. Waller, Brain, lix. and lx., p. 393. § Phys. Psych., ii., 3d ed., p. 4(53 ff. Essays, p. 286 ff. Phil. Stud., 1. c. Vorlesungen, p. 238 ff., 461 ff. System, p. 579 ff. Kfllpe, ;. c, pp. 440 ff. 710 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. ultimate origin of sensation or affection. But when we have recognized conation as an elemental conscious process, qualitatively irreducible, exist- ing alongside of the other two ultimates, we can proceed to ask questions as to its successive concrete manifestations — its post-natal development, so to say. And here three topics present themselves for discussion : (1) The relation of conation to its fellow-elements ; (2) the passage from internal to external conative activity ; and (3) the genesis of complex action from simple. (1) The first issue has already been discussed under III. above. (2) The passage from internal to external conative activity is explained in accord- ance with Wundt's general conception of apperception. Logically, at least, the internal is the prior of the two. The external is, when psycho- logically formulated, nothing more than the apperception of an idea of movement. We may distinguish apperception itself (the internal activity of will) not only as passive and active, but as impulsive and reproductive. In the case of the latter form, it is the memory-image of a particular movement which is apperceived ; in the former, the will-process accompanies the movement itself. The hypothetical apperception-center, it must be remembered, is connected both with the sensory and motor areas ; it modifies incoming, it can set in motion out-going excitations. There is, therefore, nothing forced in the notion of an impulsive form of appercep- tion.* We find now (a) that in the scale of conscious life univocally deter- mined volitions appear to precede those which are conditioned by a play of motives ; (b) that the sensation comes before its reproduction, the fact of movement before its memory-image ; and (c) that reproductive apper- ception implies the play of motives just now alluded to, and therefore inhibits impulse. Putting all this together, we conclude : (1) That the internal act of will, apperception, is the primitive act ; there is no con- sciousness without apperception ; f and (2) that the external voluntary act springs from impulsive apperception (simultaneous apperception of a sense-impression and the movement which this impression physiologically conditions), developing by way of taking into itself, at a later stage, the idea (memory-image) of movement. From which statements follow two important corollaries : (a) Eeflex acts are originally impulsive acts, which have become mechanical; and (b) the movement-ideas, which are so essen- tial to the heterogenists, are on Wundt's theory secondary phenomena ; the primitive, impulsive movements were performed without their aid. (3) The third problem was that of the genesis of complex action from * We must not be led, in this connection, to ascribe to Wundt the positing of an Innervationsempftnd- ung. (Cf. the collation of passages bearing on this point in Mind, Jan., 1893, p. 143.) His phraseology- is, unfortunately, loose in places : cf. Phys. Psych., ii., 3d ed., p. 235. But revision comes with new editions : Phys. Psych., i., 3d ed., p. 233, is improved in i., 4th ed., p. 228; Ethik, 1st ed., p. 380, in 2d ed., p. 442, etc. • t Phyt. Psych., ii., 3d ed., p. 470. DISCUSSION. 711 simple. Conscious life begins, for Wundt, with the simple impulse — i.e., with a mechanically conditioned movement, in which, however, both toned sensation and motion are apperceived. Not, of course, that the three pro- cesses of sensation, affection, and conation are already differentiated in the protozoan consciousness. But they are present in germ. From the impulse, which possesses in some measure the characteristics both of vol- untary and of reflex action, there are two lines of development : one of degeneration, to the physiological reflex ; the other of ascent, to the decis- ion after deliberation. Such, in brief, is Wundt's Psychology of Will. No such cut-and- dried presentation as 1 have given will be found in his manifold publica- tions. Eather does he approach the matter in various works from the standpoints of various sciences ; so that often there occur seeming contra- dictions in his doctrine, statements which are, however, easily reconcilable with the central thesis, if their context and special setting are noted. Wundt does not attempt to be " easy " ; rather has he the fault of so many constructive thinkers, that of regarding a difficult problem, which has become for himself from long consideration familiar almost to contempt, as equally well-known to and apprehensible by his audience. Hence many obscurities and some carelessnesses in the course of his exposition. The present paper may, I hope, serve as a sketch-map, based on his survey, of the most difficult field in psychology to English-speaking students, as that of Dr. Kulpe * has been to so many Germans. Two things should, at any rate, have been now made clear : that Wundt's Psychology of Voli- tion is indeed empirical, and that it is — intelligible. DISCUSSION. Dr. Boardman : Freedom is an ultimate fact. It is sui generis. It is known intui- tively to consciousness. Much has certainly been determined and stated coucerning its conditions, and results, by philosophy. Plato and Aristotle affirmed important truth con- cerning it. Much has been added in modern, and as it seems to me in recent, times. All concerning it can never be known to finite minds. Its relations to environment, inward and outward, to the universe, and to God, will invite study, will reward labor, and will forever extend beyond the reach of finite investigation. Notwithstanding the obscurities of Wundt's treatment of it, we catch many profound statements. His apper- ception seems to be substantially voluntary and resolute attention to an object. Liberty is far more than this. It is not mere intellect, or the object chosen. There is a third element, choice, not accounted for in either of the others. It is a distinct, primitive, fundamental activity ; a sui generis activity of the soul. * Phil. Stud., II. cc. Also procurable as off-print. DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY. SECRETARY'S REPORT. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday, July 26, 1893. The meeting was called to order, at 9.30 a.m., by President G. Stanley Hall, of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., a large audience being assembled. President Hall deliv- ered the opening address, choosing as his subject, "Child Study as a Basis for Psychology and Psychological Teaching." The following additional papers were presented during the session : " The Imaginations of Children," by E. Harlow Russell, Principal of State Normal School, Worcester, Mass. " Mental Waste and Economy," by Professor G. T. W. Patrick, State University of Iowa. "Dominant Seventh in Education," by Miss H. E. Hunt, Pd. D., Hartford, Conn. "Constitutionally Bad Spellers," by Miss Adelaide E. Wyckoff, Packer Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y. An animated discussion followed the reading of the paper by Miss Wyckoff, in which Professor Russell, President Hall, Professor Krohn, Mrs. E. R. Sunderland, Mrs. Barns, Miss Gillet, Professor Patrick, Professor Harvey, Dr. Burnham, Mrs. Weston, Pro- fessor Soldan, Professor Trendly, and Miss McDowell joined. The session adjourned at the close of this discussion. SECOND SESSION— Thursday, July 27, 1893. Dr. G. Stanley Hall, president of the department, presided. Before begining the regular exercises Professor Compayre, the well-known author of "Intellectual and Moral Evolution of the Child," " History of Education," and many other works, briefly addressed the Congress in French. Professor Earl Barnes, of the Leland Stanford, Jr., University, California, read a paper presenting the thesis, " A Study of Children's Theology." A lively discussion followed. Those who took part in it were : Dr. Schaeffer, State Superintendent of Pennsylvania ; Rabbi Lyons ; Superintendent Brooks, of Philadelphia ; Professor Sin- clair, of Hamilton, Ont. ; Dr. Winship, of Boston ; Mrs. Western, of Chicago ; Mrs. Tupper-Maynard ; Miss Lloyd, of Pennsylvania ; and Mrs. K. V. Grinnell, Mayfair, Ills. Miss Lloyd's criticism was greeted with applause. Professor W. H. Burnham, of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., read a paper on " Child Study as a Basis of Pedagogy." This was followed by a paper on " The New Psychology in Normal Schools." by Miss Lillie A. Williams, State Normal School of Trenton, N. J. Professor Barnes, of California, and Mr. Galvin, of the Wisconsin State Normal School, took part in its discussion. Dr. F. Tracy's paper on " Infant Vocabularies " was read by Professor Hervey. 714 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The next paper was presented by Dr. E. M. Hartwell, director of physical culture, Boston public schools. Its subject was : " Principles of Physical Training and their Application to the Prevention of Stuttering in Children." An interesting discussion followed. The Secretary read the paper of Mr. James Sully, of England, on " Dreaming and Poetic Invention." After the reading of this paper the meeting adjourned. THIRD SESSION— Friday, July 28, 1893. The session was opened by President Hall, who called for the report of the committee appointed to draw up a plan for the organization of a national society for child study. The committee submitted the following plan, which was adopted : This organization shah be known as the American Association for the Study of Children. II. Its object shall be to forward, through the organization and co-operation of its mem- bers, the scientific study of children. III. Its officers shall consist of a president, ten vice-presidents, a secretary and a treasurer. IV. Any man or woman interested in the study of children shall be eligible to member- ship on the payment of a fee of ten dollars. An annual fee of two dollars shall be paid by each member, the money to be used for printing and distributing outlines of study and suggestions for work. V. The association shall hold one meeting each year, at the same time and place as the National Council of Education. VI. The president and vice-presidents shall constitute an executive committee, the duty of which shall be to prepare and circulate among the members of the association, within two months after the annual meeting, a suggestive outline of work for the year. This committee shall also assign papers to be prepared for the annual meetings, and it shall arrange to have data sent to the persons having special subjects of study in hand by the members of the association. VII. Officers shall hold their positions for one year, and shall be elected at the annual meeting, by a majority vote of those present. . VIII. These by-laws may be amended by a majority vote at any annual meeting. IX. The National Association will foster the establishment of local chapters, and will receive as adjuncts such local associations as are already in existence, and who present themselves for due and proper affiliation. LIST OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS. 715 The following were proposed and elected officers of the association : President— Dr. G. Stanley Hall, Clark University. Vice-Presidents — Miss Lillie A. Williams, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. ; Miss Millicent Shinn, Editress Oberlin Monthly; Professor E. R. Shaw, University of the City of New York; Professor Earl Barnes, Leland Stanford, J r. , University ; Professor O'Shea, Mankato, Minn.; Dr. Shaeffer, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Pennsyl- vania ; Professor J. M. Bailey; Professor E. Harlow Russell, State Normal School, Wor- cester, Mass. ; Professor Gr. T. W. Patrick, State University of Iowa ; Mr. Louis J. Block. Secretary and Treasurer — Professor W. L. Bryan, State University of Indiana. The above report was signed by the following members of the Committee on Organiza- tion : Professor Earl Barnes, Miss Lillie A. Williams, and Mr. Louis J. Block. The following papers were presented during this session : "On the Observation and Study of Movements and Mental States, Based on the Examination of some Fifty Thousand Children," by Francis Warner, M.D., of London, England. The paper was read by Professor Crohn. Tests reported by Professor Bryan were directed mainly towards the questions of Eye and Ear-mindedness. This was followed by a brief " Plea in behalf of one kind of child- study, namely, that in which methods already scientifically developed in the laboratory are applied to large numbers of children." " Some Association Tracks Involved in Reading and Spelling," by Superintendent T. M. Balliet, Springfield, Mass. "First Two Years of Childhood," by Miss Millicent Shinn, Editress of Oberlin Monthly. The discussion, which owing to the length of the programme was very brief, was engaged in by Professor Bryan, Professor Cook, Professor Hervey, Miss Rebecca Rice, of Chicago, Mr. Butler, and Dr. Cams. The Nomination Committee reported as follows : For President : Professor Earl Barnes, Leland Stanford, Jr., University. For Vice President : Professor W. L. Bryan, University of Indiana. For Secretary : Miss Lillian A. Williams, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. The meeting then adjourned after some felicitous remarks by Dr. G. Stanley Hall. LIST OF PERSONS ACCEPTING THE OFFICE OF HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATION. FRANCE. ILLINOIS. Prof. Beaunis, Faculty of Medicine, Nancy. George A. Coe, Ph.D., Northwestern University, Dr. Alfred Binet,at the Hospital Salpetriere, Paris. Evanston. Hiram K. Jones, M.D., Illinois College, Jackson- GREAT BRITAIN. William O. Krohn, Ph.D., State University, Cham- Dr. Fletcher Bench, M.B.,F.R.C.P., Medical Super- „ Pai?n- ... . M „.. „ intendent of Dareuth Asylum for Imbeciie Chil- Benjamin Smith, A.M., Chicago, dren, Dareuth. Prof. E. A. Schafer, Medical Faculty University INDIANA. College, London. William L. Bryan, Ph.D., Indiana University, Blooniington. TT\najs i a, 02^ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4* 21.14 20.71 4.00 21.55 0.23 0.49 0.37 r>- 15.65 14.85 5.20 10.25 8.88 4.08 16.44 0.21 0.90 0.47 6- 13 39 13.40 4.58 8.78 9.69 4.58 14.38 0.26 1.11 0.71 7" 9.49 9.35 4.38 9.86 8.83 3.72 9.62 0.46 0.98 0.73 I' 7.10 6.09 4.03 9.79 10.68 3.98 8.11 0.48 1.29 0.90 8- 626 7.41 4.04 10.40 9.26 4.06 5.11 0.37 1.08 0.74 lo- 5.00 4.77 3.12 7.43 10.24 4.56 5.23 0.42 1.00 0.77 ll - 3.76 4.28 3.39 9.74 13.78 4.08 3.23 0.28 1.04 0.71 18- 3.87 344 3.78 10.31 12.23 3.11 4.30 0.50 1.20 0.87 18- 5.19 4.18 4.68 11.66 10.94 1.90 6.17 0.38 1.29 0.86 14- 4.90 3.98 4.01 13.02 7.83 0.77 5.83 0.51 1.14 0.91 15- 5.61 5.31 1-75 12.96 5.61 0.51 5.89 0.41 1.14 0.80 16. 6.57 6.58 0.77 5.23 3.14 6.57 0.42 I.C7 0.95 17. 7.22 6.43 3.97 7.94 0.19 0.69 0.41 18. 8.17 10.40 6.32 0.30 0 51 0.49 19. 10.37 10.25 10.48 0.18 0.57 1.07 20. 8.72 11.21 6.95 From measurements made in 1875 of some twenty-five thousand chil- dren of the Boston public schools, Professor H. P. Bowditch, of the Harvard Medical School, determined that the growth-rates of the two sexes differ from one another ; that the pre-pubertic growth of girls in height and weight begins earlier, proceeds faster, and culminates sooner than is the case with the pre-pubertic growth of the boys. Table V. shows that the death-rates of Boston boys and girls vary; i.e., that the years of age in w.hich lowest death-rates occur are not identical, being for the three census years 1875, 1885, 1890, the year eleven to twelve for girls, and twelve to thirteen for boys. And, in general, that the years of greatest growth grouped together are the years of lowest death-rates. It is of interest to note that the largest percentage figure for stuttering among girls is at the age of twelve, or the year following the lowest death-rate among girls ; and that thirteen to fourteen, the year in which the largest number of stuttering boys is found, is the year immediately following the year of their lowest death-rate, viz., twelve to thirteen. It may be that greatest susceptibility of each sex to the special neurosis of stuttering is closely related to the condition of the body when its power of great- est resistance to death begins to decline- 750 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. DISCUSSION. By a Member : May I ask a question ? I have noticed that a great many pupils who stutter, some of them very badly, in reading or talking, in singing seem to sing as readily as any other people. I would like to know the real cause of it. Dr. Hartwell : In the use of the voice in speaking we have the very irregular rhythm, and we have none of the benefit of the rhythmic series of discharges from the cells to help to carry the stimulus over the point where the check comes, as it does come upon particular letters and sounds, from positions of the vocal organs where those are concerned in the production of voice or articulation. By a Member : 1 should like to speak of one point in connection with the curve, to call attention to the general correspondence of the curve which Dr. Bartwell obtains between the ages of twelve and sixteen, and that which I have obtained with respect to voluntary motor ability. There is a maximum at the age of thirteen or fourteen, followed by a sharp descent, and I think I have observed that the ascent and descent are sharper in the case of girls than in the case of boys, and that it is followed by an ascent at the age of sixteen. This is a parallel to some extent to the result obtained in the measurements of height and weight of children. I do not know to what extent further investigation might show these things to be connected, but it certainly is a point of some interest, I think. By a Member: Will Dr. Hartwell tell us what he means by the second and third stages of neuro-muscular development ? Dr. Hartwell : I suppose I used those terms for the lack of any other. That is to say, neuro-muscular development may be divided into stages, which shall correspond more, or less closely with the physical changes which characterize the stages of infancy, childhood, adolescence, and so on. That is all that I meant. 1 did not mean that there was accurate law to develop, with regard to which the developed neuro-muscular mechanism of the coarse and fine adjustments respectively has been worked out. I am perfectly satisfied, and could show from neurologists that it is generally held that there is such a development. Its stages and steps and lines of demarkation remain to be worked out from further investigation, in which we can all take part. OBSER VA TION AND STUD Y OF MO VEMENT AND MENTAL STATUS. BY FRANCIS WARNER, M.D., LOND., F.R.C.P., ENG., PHYSICIAN TO THE LONDON HOSPITAL. At the request of your committee, I have the honor to present some results of observation and study of movements in children as indications of mental status, with remarks on the adaptation of educational methods to the mental peculiarities of certain children. My difficulty has been to select the material and to present new work, with explanation of the facts seen, and the teaching they suggest, while preserving due limits to my thesis. The observations are drawn from my report on fifty thousand children whom I inspected in various schools, which has been published by the Washington Bureau of Education. It seems to me that our knowledge of children and their educational requirements should be based upon observation of the children themselves ; such knowledge I have endeav- ored to acquire by individual inspection, as follows : The children are best observed in a large and well-lit room. They are drawn up in ranks, a "standard" (grade) at a time, so that the observer STUDY OF MOVEMENT AND MENTAL STATUS. 751 can see each child individually. To fix the child's eyes while he is under observation it is convenient to hold up some object for him to look at. I use a shilling at the end of a pencil. The children are then asked to hold their hands straight out in front of them with the palms toward the floor, and for a moment the action is done before them. At each stage of the investigation children that present deviations from the normal are asked to wait with the teacher. Each selected child is reexamined individu- ally, and a schedule is filled in describing the points seen, while the teacher's report of mental status is subsequently written in. Nine thousand one hundred and eighty-six cases were thus recorded. This inquiry was specially arranged for the enumeration and classifica- tion of children below the normal standard, and notes were taken on such cases only. It is gratifying to find that boys 79.3 per cent, and girls 84.5 per cent, were normal in body and in nerve condition ; the proportion of normal children is the foundation of a national educational and social system, while the abnormal present a social danger. Now as to the points observed — passing over the individual defects in development of the body (physiognomy, cranium, palate, ears, etc.) — I shall only refer to children presenting such defects as "development cases." Movements and postures of the parts of the body are indices of the action of portions of the nerve system (nerve centers) corresponding ; abnormal actions of this class are termed " nerve signs" ; children pre- senting one or more nerve signs are called "nerve cases." The most frequent nerve signs may now be defined ; their frequency among the fifty thousand children and the co-relations indicate their significance. General balance defective. — Under this heading are entered cases when the balance at the body is asymmetrical as to spine, shoulders, feet, etc. ; shoulders at unequal height, back bent, slouching gait. Expression defective. — Without expression, as in a paralyzed face ; one constant unchanging appearance ; want of changefulness ; vacancy ; a fixed look — or it maybe a fixed, unchanging bad expression. No anatom- ical definition can be given. Frontals overacting. — The frontal muscles produce horizontal creases in the forehead, which may be strongly marked if these muscles overact coarsely. Sometimes the muscles are seen working under the skin in ver- micular fashion, with an athetoid movement. In other cases the action is fine, producing what may be called a dull forehead. This over-mus- cular action does not necessarily erase expression. Corrugation. — Knitting the eyebrows ; contracting the eyebrows. Ver- tical creases are thus produced. This may coexist with overacting frontal muscles. Orbicularis oculi relaxed. — There is a thin muscle, the orbicularis oculi, which encircles the eyelids ; its tone gives sharpness to the curvatures of the lower lid, so that its convexity is seen. Its action is increased in 752 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. laughter; when this muscle is relaxed there is a fullness or bagginess under the eyes. Eye movements defective. — Some children, when an object is moved in front of them, follow it not with their eyes only, but with the head, keep- ing the eyes fixed. In other cases there is restless wandering of the eyes, which do not fix well on the object looked at. Head balance weak. — In the normal the head is held erect. In these cases it lolls over to one side or other or droops forward. Hand balance nervous. — In these cases, when the arm is extended for- ward, the wrist droops, the palm is slightly contracted laterally, the thumb and fingers are extended backward at their junction with the palm of the hand. Hand balance weak. — In this type of balance the wrist is slightly drooped, the palm contracted laterally, and the digits are slightly bent. A frequent sub-type is for the hand to be straight except as to the thumb and its metacarpal bone, which are drooped or somewhat adducted toward the palm.* Finger twitches. — This may be observed when the hand is held out, particularly if the fingers are separated. The twitches may be up and down, or lateral. Lordosis. — In those cases, when the hands are held out, an altered bal- ance of the spine may be seen, with an arching forward of the lumbar region, while the upper part of the body and the shoulders are thrown back. Other nerve signs. — Signs less frequent, though not of less importance, are here given as one group, including such as the following : Slowness of action in response to a command, as when the children are told to hold out their hands ; uncertainty or irregularity in response to such command ; defects of speech ; oversmiling or grinning ; openness of mouth ; tremor- oversmiling or grinning ; nystagmus. Movement in man has long been a subject of profitable study. Visible movement in the body is produced by muscular contraction, following upon stimulation of the muscles by efferent currents passing from the central nerve system. Modern physiological experiments have demon- strated that when a special brain area discharges nerve currents, these are followed by certaiu visible movements or contraction of certain muscles corresponding. So exact are such reactions, as obtained by experiment upon areas in the brain cortex, that movements similar to those produced by experimental excitation of a certain brain area may be taken as evi- dence of action in that area. Movements are then the visible signs of action in certain brain areas corresponding, and form our data for the study of brain action. * In the normal, when the hand is held out, all parts are In the same horizontal plane. The limb is then held on a level with the shoulder, without flrxion at elbow, wrist, or other joint. STUDY OF MOVEMENT AND MENTAL STATUS. 753 Postures or attitudes of the body depend upon the ratios of nerve- muscular action, and to some extent indicate the ratios of force produced by the nerve centers concerned. The " nerve signs " given above are movements and postures which ample experience shows may be taken as indices of the nerve state. All expression of mental action and mental states is by movement and results of movement, whether by acts done, gesture and facial expression, speech or writing. It is by the careful observation and analysis of move- ments that we may hope to determine the kind of cerebral action corre- sponding to mental states. In mental research we must study not only the simple movements already described, which I have employed in school inspection ; but also series of movements, the time and quantity of indi- vidual acts, their antecedents and sequents, need description. Spontaneity of Movement in Children. — Common observation affords abundant evidence that the members and parts of a healthy infant present constant movements. AVhen the infant is awake, movements without any known stimulation through the senses may be seen in the limbs, especially in the digits or small parts ; they are slower than most of the movements of adults and are almost constant. They occur in no apparent order, but appear to be quite irregular. A short period of wakefulness is usually followed by sleep, indicated by subsidence of all movements except those of respiration, and closure of the eyelids. Reenforcement of Movements. — A series of movements may occur sequential to some stimulus, in which the final movement is much stronger than the force of the primary stimulus, each group of movements as the series progresses increasing in number and in force. It is the spreading area of movement, or the increasing number of parts moving as the action proceeds, that is here specially indicated, such augmenting series of movements being started by a very slight stimulus. The prick of a pin or a sharp word to a child may be followed by depression of the angles of the mouth, alternate tonic contraction and relaxation of the muscles of the limbs, altered respiratory movements causing screaming, flushing of the face, and finally spasmodic contractions spreading over the body. Such action I have termed "reenforcement of movements." In the pupil and adult this is antithetical to good coordinated action and good mental action, often being accompanied by mental confusion. When the hands are held out, if thrust violently forward, there may be accompanying finger movements ; the head may be coincidently inclined to one side. When spoken to, the head may be inclined jr the tongue protruded, as I have seen in examinees. Such habits are examples of reenforcement of movement, and are bad economy of nerve force. Inhibition of Movement. — When the infant is five or six months old, the sight of an object may arrest spontaneous movement, and this may be followed by or replaced by turning of the head, the eyes, and the 48 754 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. hands toward the source of light or sound. Thus we see inhibition of movement followed by new coordinated action. The endeavors of brain training are directed to bringing about the coordination of the nerve centers, and in young children spontaneous action must for this purpose be temporarily inhibited ; yet it must always be remembered that it is only their spontaneous action that you can coordi- nate and train. Encourage spontaneity, then train it. Coordinated action in the child must ever be aimed at in education ; the child's spon- taneity and movements must be controlled by school discipline. This is principally effected through the eye and the ear, by sight and sound. I find the methods used vary much ; the best teachers control mostly through the eye. It seems to be thought easier to check spontaneity of movement in tongue, hands, and eyes, through the ear ; hence the school bell, the cane struck on the table, and the whistle sometimes used, and principally the word of command, in which the teacher's voice as well as words used are sometimes ill adapted to the purpose in view. My expe- rience is that all the noises and the vocal command often produce rein- forcement of movement, with mental confusion when direction through the eye translates this spontaneity, or a part of it, into preparedness for mental action and coordinated movement. In the best classes, I have seen silence and quietness of action with commencement of the proper work by the children effected by the teacher's gesture without a word spoken — a great saving of energy to pupils and teacher. Further, I have often found that classes whose movements are habitually controlled by verbal command are more apt to present abnormal nerve signs when they are inspected singly, than children that are mainly controlled through the eye. Imitation is the great means of control. Let a teacher present an ill- balanced hand or head, many of the children will be seen to follow. Every movement, every mode of balance iu the teacher tends to repetition in the class. Children tend to imitate much from one another, especially the bright ones ; hence the importance of classification and proper grouping of children in school. Children naturally tend to exact imita- tion of teachers' movements ; hence some teachers hold out the right hand for imitation by the child's left. No wonder there is often a mental confu- sion in pupils as to which is their right hand. Facial gesture, expression, frontal overacting, etc., may often be controlled and temporarily removed by a face that smiles at them, which the child imitates ; a command to cease the grimace is apt to be followed either by its increase or by arrest of all spontaneity. Having described certain abnormal nerve signs and shown that they correspond to certain brain states, let me show their significance as to the bearing of movement on mental status. Of 5,487 children presenting "nerve signs," 2,250 were reported by the teachers as dull mentally — i.e., STUDY OF MOVEMENT AND MENTAL STATUS. 755 forty-one per cent. If the nerve signs were removed, the brain would be in better order and probably the mental action would be brighter. With so difficult a problem before us as the means of improving these children's brains, we must take the " nerve signs " separately. Say, the boy who is dull at lessons also shows "frontals overacting. " You wish to lessen this sign. Observe : Is it more or less frequent and marked when he is spoken to, or when he is controlled through the eye ; when doing arith- metic, or when receiving an oral lesson ? Is it more marked before lessons or in history class ? You will soon find out under what conditions the sign is least developed. From my own observations I think this sign most frequent when the child is least under mental influences. You see the lower eyelids full and baggy. This sign is a frequent accompaniment of brain exhaustion, with or without headaches ; it may be due to late hours over-night, to prolonged work or to ill ventilation at home or in school. Children in whom mental processes are otherwise active are often bad and inaccurate readers because they have never been trained to move their eyes well ; they are also bad observers, and if the eyes move much spontane- ously they see objects imperfectly, and need eye-drill, which should occupy an important place in the infant school. This defect can usually be over- come. So when the nerve signs are recognized they can be attacked in detail. There are two great groups of "nerve cases": those with accom- panying defects in development — i.e., "development cases with nerve signs" — and "nerve cases without development defects." Of the former group forty-three per cent, were reported as dull ; of the latter, only thirty- nine per cent. In this last group, removal of nerve signs is more hopeful. There are two results to be sought by good training. The normally de- veloped children should not present abnormal nerve signs ; while for those of defective development much may be done to remove such signs. It is also desirable to lessen mental dullness. An assessment of the results of train- ing in a given school may be made by observation and report as described, from which calculations may be made contrasting educational results in this school with others. It may be shown that in some respects boys differ from girls in their constitutional tendencies ; girls present a larger proportion of the normal. " Development defect cases " among girls present a smaller proportion with nerve signs than among boys ; but these girls suffer more from low nutrition and mental dullness. There are fewer ill-made girls than boys, but the girls of constitutional low make tend in larger proportion to bodily and mental feebleness. (Tables were appended to this paper giving further detailed information. The work of investigation is being continued by a committee appointed by the International Congress of Hygiene and Demography; and the secretary, C. "W. Wallis, Esq., Parkes Museum, London, W., will be glad to supply the tables and any other information asked for.) 756 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. SOME ASSOCIATION TRACKS INVOLVED IN READING AND SPELLING. BY THOMAS M. BALLIET, SUPERINTENDENT SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. It is a fact fairly well established that the impressions received through the different senses are perceived by different areas, or " centers," of the cortex ; and in like manner the process of ideation, or recalling these sense impressions, is carried on by various centers, located for each sense probably in the same general region of the brain in which the impressions of that sense are perceived ; if indeed ideation is not a function of the very same groups of cells which perform the process of perception. Con- cepts of objects of sense are therefore reproduced in memory through an activity of these centers of ideation ; and a complex concept, such as that of an orange, gained through a number of senses, involves for its com- plete recall an activity of a number of different areas of the cortex. In like manner it is fairly well established that special groups of cells or centers have been differentiated in the cortex for the purpose of lan- guage. The facts of aphasia show quite clearly that there is a word- hearing center, a word-seeing center (a reading center), a speaking center, and a writing center. The different centers of ideation are connected by fibers, or association tracks, which make it possible for one center to arouse to activity all the others. It is in virtue of these association tracks that an entire concept, consisting of ideas gained through a number of senses, can be recalled as a whole and appear in consciousness as a unit. In this way the visual perception of a piece of granite recalls its hardness, its roughness, its weight, and other qualities, in idea. When these association tracks are disturbed or destroyed by disease, the person perceives an object without recognizing it as having ever been perceived by him before and without recalling any of its uses. In short, he suffers from what is pathologically termed apraxia. Like the centers of ideation, the various language centers are connected together by association tracks, both with one another and with the cen- ters of ideation. If these association tracks, or the centers themselves, are injured by disease, there arise various disturbances of speech, known as ivord-deafness, word-blindness, aphasia proper, and agraphia. Without aiming at an exhaustive enumeration, I may say that the most important of the association tracks involved in the use of language are the following : (1) In hearing spoken language, an association is made (a) between the oral word in the auditory word center and the ideas constituting a con- ASSOCIATION TRACKS IN READING AND SPELLING. 757 cept in the centers of ideation ; (b) between the spoken words as they follow one another in groups. (2) In talking, there are at least three association tracks involved : (a) Between the muscular movements of the vocal organs and the thought, or between the motor speech center and the centers of ideation ; (b) between the oral word and the muscular movements of the vocal organs, or between the auditory speech center and the motor speech center ; (c) between the successive muscular movements of the vocal organs in utter- ing words in groups or sentences. (3) In writing, the following seem to be the principal associations which are, or ought to be, made : (a) Between the thought and the muscular movements of the hand in writing it, or between the centers of ideation and the writing center ; (b) between the visual or printed form of the word and the muscular movements of the hand in writing it, or between the visual word center and the writing center ; (c) between the auditory word center and the visual word center ; (d) between the visual word center and the muscular movements of the hand in writing. (4) In reading, there are, or ought to be, at least three associations made : (a) Between the printed word and the thought, or between the visual word center and the centers of ideation ; (b) between the oral word and the printed word as wholes ; (c) between the separate letters and their corresponding sounds ; these last two involving association tracks between the visual and auditory word centers. The more unconsciously these associations are made, the better the teaching. It is a serious fault of education that many of them are still made with far more consciousness than is necessary. As the language centers are differentiated in each individual human being, and are therefore, at least as far as the reading and the writing centers are concerned, not inherited to any great extent, it follows that the order in which the association tracks shall be established depends mainly on the method of education. Moreover, the order in which they are established determines largely the mode of thinking, and through it the mode of speaking, of reading, and of writing. It would seem, there- fore, that most children may be made either ear-minded or eye-minded in reading, at the pleasure of the teacher. Thought moves along the lines of least resistance, and these are either those association tracks which are first opened, or those which are used most, the latter being usually identical with the former. Several questions of fundamental importance at once arise here in regard to reading and spelling. In learning to hear and understand spoken language, as also in talking, the child makes an association between the oral word and the thought ; in teaching him to read, ought the first association to be made in his mind between the oral and the printed word, or between the printed word and the thought ? — i.e., ought he to be made ear-minded in reading, and be 758 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION obliged all his life to translate mentally printed speech into oral speech before he can get the thought ? or ought he to be made eye-minded, and be able to get the thought directly from the printed page ? Ought a direct association to be made between the printed vocabulary and his thought, so that a stimulation of the visual word-center may directly arouse the idea- tional centers and bring the thought into consciousness; or ought an indirect association to be made, as is done in current methods of teaching, between his printed vocabulary and his thought, by associating the former first with his oral vocabulary, so that a stimulation of the visual word center by the printed page will awaken the auditory word center, and through it bring the thought into consciousness by arousing the ideational centers ? Should the child be taught reading in such a way as to enable him to think in printed speech when he reads silently, or in such a way as will make it necessary for him to translate mentally the printed words into oral words and do his thinking in oral language ? It seems to me there can be but one answer to these questions. In teach- ing a child to read, the association between the printed word and the thought should be made first, as is the case with all children who have never had the sense of hearing. After this association has been made, that between the oral vocabulary and the printed vocabulary should be made. Oral reading, even if the thought is in consciousness, as is not the case when such reading is mechanical, tends to establish and to intensify the associa- tion between the two sense products — the visible printed word and the audible oral word. Silent reading tends to establish and to intensify the direct association between the printed word and the thought, provided the association between the oral word and the printed word has not yet been made so firmly that the latter calls up the former vividly in idea in silent reading. That is, silent reading will make the child eye-minded in reading, provided he has not yet been made strongly ear-minded through oral reading. From this it would seem to follow that the first steps in reading should be in silent reading, and that it is a mistake to let oral reading precede or accompany too much from the beginning the silent reading. A person who is eye-minded in reading, and gets the thought directly from the printed symbols, can read from two to three times as fast silently as he could read orally ; whilst a person who is ear-minded and is obliged to get the thought indirectly through the oral symbols recalled in idea by the printed symbols, cannot read materially faster silently than he can read orally. Eapid reading in the case of light literature is not inconsist- ent with intelligent reading, and it does not follow that the silent and indirect process of the ear-minded reader is a more thoughtful one than the more rapid one of the eye-minded person. There are not wanting instances indeed which go to show that quite the reverse is true, as far as light literature is concerned. ASSOCIATION TRACKS IN READING AND SPELLING. 759 It is, however, not merely the gain in time which is- of most importance. The process of thinking directly in printed speech in reading is also easier than that of translating first the printed symbols into oral symbols ; and training a child to get thought by the most direct route, as it were, and along the line of least resistance, contributes largely to fostering in his mind a love for reading. That children, coming from intelligent homes, who have done much silent reading from their earliest years, are for the most part eye-minded in reading, read intelligently and yet with great rapidity, and love reading, goes far toward confirming the ground here taken. By a line of reasoning similar to this in regard to spelling, it may be shown that the first association which should be made is not that between the oral word as pronounced by the teacher in the spelling exer- cise and the muscular movement of the hand in writing (spelling) it, but that between the visual or printed form and this muscular movement on the one hand, and between the thought and the muscular movement on the other, the latter soon displacing the former association. In other words, children should not be made ear-minded in spelling, nor even eye-minded, in so far as it can be avoided, but motor-minded. This would eliminate much self -consciousness from spelling, and would remove a frequent cause of misspelling from schools and from everyday life — misspelling a word by spelling it phonetically. It has been a fundamental error in teaching reading and spelling to treat printed and written language as if it were primarily the representa- tion of oral language instead of the immediate representation of thought. In the historical development of written language in the human race, the written symbol was at first the picture of the object which it denoted ; that is, it was the immediate representation of the object itself, and only in an altogether secondary sense a representation of the oral name of it. The invention of separate letters to represent separate sounds was a late and altogether artificial device of immense practical advantage to the race, butNa misleading device as far as the first steps in teaching a child to read and spell are concerned. This false assumption of the relation of printed and written language to thought in primary education has been used as the basis for an argument in favor of spelling reform whose force is largely fictitious. Spelling reform is, no doubt, one of a number of very desirable reforms, but a phonetic system of spelling would not save the time which it is supposed to save in teaching a child to read and spell, if, in teaching these subjects, the printed and written word were at first treated as the immediate symbol of the thought, and were directly associated with the thought instead of indirectly through the oral word. Several interesting questions present themselves for future investiga- tion : 760 INTEBNATION AL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. (1) What per cent, of people are eye-minded in reading, and what per cent, are ear-minded ? (2) To what extent do eye-mindedness and ear-mindedness in reading accompany eye-mindedness and ear-mindedness in other respects ? (3) To what extent are eye-mindedness and ear-mindedness in reading due to methods of education ? (4) Are the well-known disturbances of other speech centers which so often accompany auditory aphasia due to faulty methods of teaching language, by means of which wrong association tracks were first estab- lished ? (5) What per cent, of persons who have occasion to write much are ear- minded in spelling, what per cent, are eye-minded, and what per cent, are motor-minded ? (6) To what extent is this determined by ear-mindedness, eye-minded- ness, and motor-mindedness in other respects, and to what extent is it due to education ? (7) What light can be thrown on the problems of teaching language by a study of the facts of aphasia as they present themselves in deaf-mutes, in whose case some association tracks which exist in hearing persons can- not be opened ? (8) What effect has eye-mindedness in reading on the reader's apprecia- tion of beauty of style and on his oral reading ? (9) What effect has motor-mindedness in spelling on the writer's style ? DISCUSSION. Professor Bryan : It has been shown by recent investigations in aphasia, not that there is a separate center for sounds and the words of which those sounds are the elements, but that there is at any rate a separate psychical function. In one very interesting case reported within the last few months, a patient was found who was able to recognize certain of the letters and sounds of the alphabet and not to recognize others; but in many cases where he could recognize every sound that made up a word, he could not tell what word it meant. He could give the separate sounds, but not the word ; and the reporter of this case holds not that there are separate centers, but that there are at any rate separate functions for those. Now the question I wish to ask Superintendent Balliet is, whether it would follow from the general line of his paper that the sounds should not be taught separately ? Superintendent Balliet : My impression is that there are a great many reasons why that should not be done. Years ago we began by a sort of histology of the English alphabet, did microscopic work in reading. We taught the elements, and then com- bined the elements into principles, and the principles into letters, and so on. We have now given that all up. The next step was to teach children to write by writing entire letters. The result was that the connecting lines between one letter and another, and making up a whole word, made the muscular movement seem different from what the muscular movement was in making a separate letter, and we have given that up. Children now write the entire word, and are drilled on the technical work of making the letters strictly accurate until after they have been trained to make entire words. The same thing applies to reading. I think phonics in pronunciation ought to be taught by pronouncing entire words, and if a child makes a sound imperfectly, that sound ought to be prominent in some word, but ought not to be singled out. There are discussion. 761 very few people, and I am not one of them, who can make the sounds that correspond to the English alphabet separately, and make them correctly, because they do not sound quite, when they are separate from one another, as they do when they are combined in groups ; so I think there is every reason why children should not be taught to make the separate sounds very early, and I think there are many reasons that go to show that it is possible to live and die happily without doing that. Mb. Cook : It strikes me the speaker was making a point in regard to association that was not quite valid. Is not the symbol merged with the thing so that we look right through the symbol at the thing? Now we begin, for example, to translate this new symbol, 50$, and we say 50<2 equals -flfl,, or another expression for the same thing exactly ; and do not these three blend, so that there are three phases of the same thing, rather than that we should go through series here, and afterward get to the object itself? And if we are to use an object of this kind, are we to go through the symbol by tracing, and end with this? This is a particular thing itself. It seems to me that the idea of association is held to obtain in the child's mind if it has really dis- appeared. Now I have made quite a little study upon this particular point, Mr. Balliet, and I find that if the pupil is required to talk in either of these languages, if you please, that there is no movement through a series. You move from one line to another simultaneously. It is simply three phases of the same idea. Professor Hervey, of New York : There is one question I would like to ask. Is it better for me to know how to spell a word by knowing the way it feels when I write it, alone, or is it better for me to know how it looks, and how it feels to see it, and to pro- nounce the letters? In other words, is it better for me to have three hooks or only one ? Now, in my own experience I cannot find any instance where the possession of those three pegs in my mind has been at all burdensome, but there have been times when I was very glad of the other two pegs when the first one had refused to do duty for me. I would like to ask if that does apply in this question ? Miss Rice, of Chicago : I should like to know if those who read by sight, in thinking of the sound, speak as well or read as well orally as they would if they thought the word when they read. Many of us have learned our Latin in the beginning in that way. My experience with pupils has been that those write best, most perfectly in form, and read best orally, who read by the ear, as you say. I should like to know what your experience is in this matter. Professor Balliet : It is true that children do not read as well orally at an early age, if you train them silently. On the other hand, if you begin with oral reading, they will not read as well silently And it is purely a question whether it is oral read- ing or silent reading that you wish learned best. Reading ought to be made the leading method of interpreting literature. We can well afford to read aloud that part of lit- erature which is very fine, the aroma of which we want to get, and the beauty and bal- ance of sentence ; and we can well afford to read that aloud, and get it in that way, rather than to be ear-minded and be hampered when we want to look up facts quickly, not being able to read more than one-third as fast as we ought to read. It is the silent reading that tells in a child's life, and it is with rapid silent reading the same as it is with rapid addition, the quicker you do it the better you get it. That applies to light literature only, of course. It trains children how to study. It trains children how to master books, and how to master them thoroughly and quickly. As far as the spelling is concerned — whether it is better to hold a word by different hooks, several hooks, than one — I should say, in the first place, that it does not pay to hold words by any hook that you use only once in three months. You can afford to go to Webster's dictionary in such cases. It does not pay to drill in school upon words and spelling which the children use very rarely. They can afford to go to the dictionary. What we want to do is to make spelling a function of the muscles of the hand, and a function of the nerve centers of the brain that control the hand. In other words, make children motor-minded, so that as a thought comes into the mind it moves the hands to record it unconsciously ; then, as in speaking, the thought, as it enters consciousness, moves these muscles. Spelling is to printed speech exactly what pronunciation is to oral speech. It is harder to make them motor-minded in spelling thau it is in talking, but so far as their vocabulary is concerned they can be trained to spell unconsciously, and then comes the economy of force. The child wastes energy to the extent to which he is conscious of his spelling. We are wasting children's time by having them spend it 762 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION on punctuation and capitalization. They ought to be trained in such a manner that all their mental power can be concentrated in the thought. I think spelling ought to be made a function of the spinal cord instead of a function of the brain, just as we shake hands with the spinal cord. I am very sure that a great deal can be relegated from the higher brain centers to the spinal cord. Professor Sinclair : 1 find in teaching children reading that where a boy has learned this sentence : " The pitcher is on the table." he has associated the word-form with the object ; that when he comes to read silently, or orally, he does not know what the thought is, and is apt to make no distinction between reading '"The pitcher is on the table" and " The table is on the pitcher." Thus, while he has associated the word-form with the object itself, he has not trained himself to go down into the sen- tence and think the thought in that. The great difficulty in learning language is, we do not acquire the habit of getting the author's thought. That is a difficulty that has presented itself to my mind in the teaching of reading to beginners. I have found the cure for that difficulty in silent reading. CONSTITUTIONAL BAD SPELLERS. BY ADELAIDE E. WYCKOFF, THE PACKER INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. If a child cannot learn to spell, it is well to locate the difficulty before trying to deal with the case. Knowledge of spelling begins with percep- tion through eye or ear, and ends with the establishment of a chain of memories. Somewhere along this line we may find a defective provision. Let any one watch himself in writing slowly, and he will perceive that the words flow from the pen under the suggestive influence of a series of mental images. He will either hear the words mentally recited, or he will see them mentally in print or writing. Let him write more rapidly, and these images fade to mere suggestions of themselves ; yet some clew remains by means of which an automatic series of muscle memories is aroused and the hand is guided in the correct motion. Knowing that the muscle images are linked to eye or ear images, we trace the maintenance of the sense images to physiological retentiveness, and their origin to the act of perception ; while we find the results of this act determined by the way in which attention is directed, and by the conditions of sensation. Thus our line of investigation naturally divides itself as follows : First, the sensation ; second, the directing of attention ; third, the retentiveness ; fourth, the mental image ; fifth, the automatic circuit. Two series of tests are given by the writer, one for eye and one for ear impressions. These experiments, briefly described at the Round Table of Educational Psychology at Toronto in 1891, are conducted with children from the time that spelling lessons begin. As an aid in the investigation, a special series of tests, more exact and detailed, was given during the past year to five young women over twenty years of age. These students were able and faithful, but were recommended by their teachers of English as incor- CONSTITUTIONAL BAD SPELLERS. 763 rigible bad spellers, whose early training and experience seemed to offer no adequate explanation of the difficulty. For comparison, the tests were made upon two good spellers. Eeference will be made to only a few experiments selected from the visual series. The tests for optical defects showed astigmatism in four of the poor spellers; short-sight in one; normal vision in one only of the five. The natural mode of directing the attention was tested by exposing for one second a card containing an unpronounceable combination of letters, those that had been seen being instantly written down in the position and order perceived. The test was repeated with combinations of different lengths. For purposes of comparison the same test was given to forty other students, who answered an accompanying series of questions. The result showed three distinct modes of directing the attention. In the first mode two or three letters only were seen, frequently the first, second, and last, the relative location and distance being correctly reproduced. The impression made was that of a whole with characteristic features. In these cases the number was estimated by after-calculation. In the second mode most of the letters were correctly perceived, the order was right, and in a majority of cases the number was a part of the perception. The impression made was that of a whole composed of distinct parts. In the third mode most of the letters were seen, but the order was not known. In one case, the only pure instance of the type, nine correct letters were given in shuffled order, the student declaring that she had received no conscious impression of their arrangement. The number was obtained by counting afterward. Here, apparently, the impression was of individual, unrelated letters. Comparison between the character of the perception and the character- istics of the student showed that these three fundamental modes of atten- tion were correlated with three distinguishable and familiar types of mental aptitude and interest. The first favored the synthetic, the second the analytic, the third the individual and practical. For example, the first class preferred the group of studies including geometry, history, philosophy, and the classics ; the second, that including algebra, modern languages, and the natural sciences. In the third the choice of studies was less significant than the mental method, which was exact, clean-cut, and scrupulous. The bad spellers of the first type were two students who always sought out the general principle and remembered by means of it. Conspicuous as thinkers, they were comparatively slow readers, having the habit of reading one word at a time. Almost all their mistakes in spelling occurred in the latter half of the word. For this fact a slight astigmatism failed to account. Further tests made it clear that attention was habitually directed to the beginning of the word. Here, then, seemed to be one type of con- 764 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. stitutional bad speller, proved by subsequent test to have good powers of visualization and sound imaging and fair retention, but gifted with a natural mode of attention unsuited to purposes of spelling. Of the second mode of attention we will speak later. The third, the individual or disjunctive, furnished no bad spellers. Here a fact was evidently a fact, and the fact that c-a-t spelled cat had been duly observed and pigeon-holed. The ensuing tests served still further to define the mode of directing attention. The best natural speller perceived long words in two or more groups of letters, none of the poor spellers having this habit. Words and irregular geometric figures variously marked were exposed, and a list written down of the points of relation observed within a given number of seconds. The poor speller who observed most points of relation failed utterly in the tests on visualizing and retention. She could not write fast enough to get the points on paper before they were forgotten. She represented the pure type of the second or organic mode of attention, being able to perceive instantly and correctly a combination of niue letters. Tests for direct and constructive imaging were given by requiring the student to spell a word backward from the visual image. In the case of those whose attention centered on the first part of the word, only this could be distinctly visualized. The automatic circuit was tested by having a paragraph written with hand concealed. Mistakes were made of insertion, omission, inversion, and substitution. Comparison of the eye and ear series of tests brought out the fact that one of the poor spellers was an audile. In conclusion, the following points may be emphasized : (1) Many constitutionally bad spellers have defective sight ; some defect- ive hearing. (2) The same causes that have operated to impair the sight or the hear- ing have frequently impaired the retentive power. (3) Constitutionally bad spelling may, in part, be the result of a strong natural bent toward selective attention. (4) In such cases, where the syllable method of teaching might be especially ineffective, the mechanical memory would be helped by assisting attention in its selection. For example, above the word separate might be written, as an invitation to the eye, the syllable p-a-r. (5) Apperceptive methods should be employed from the outset in the teaching of spelling. For the class of students just mentioned they are a necessity ; for all they are an economy. The children could use a set of cards, each contain- ing a word so chosen as to furnish material for induction, in the finding of root, prefix, and suffix, and the meaning of each. Then, using these as tracers, they could notice in reading and blackboard exercise such new words as contained the familiar elements. The words "separate," "pre- THE THEOLOGICAL LIFE OF A CALIFORNIA CHILD. 765 paratory," and "reparation" could form the nucleus of such a group for the use of children old enough to understand their meaning.* (6) It might be well to devise some exercises for perfecting the auto- matic circuit. Possibly practice in writing with hand concealed might be of service, use being made of selections that had been memorized. ' THE THEOLOGICAL LIFE OF A CALIFORNIA CHILD. BY PROFESSOR EARL BARNES, OF LELAND STANFORD JR. UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA. This study is not intended in any sense as an inquiry into the child's religious life and feeling. It is intended simply to show the theological atmosphere in which California children live, and their mental attitude toward their theology at different ages. The materials on which the study is based are : I. One thousand and ninety-one compositions written by children from six to twenty years old, in the various schools of California, on the sub- jects of heaven and hell. They were simply given the subjects, and asked to write compositions in the presence of their teachers, without suggestion or comment. II. Sixteen reminiscences prepared by adults, in which they tried simply to recall and state their early beliefs. III. Twenty-seven studies on young children made by mothers and teachers through conversations, working along the lines of this syllabus : Ood — Where is he ? What does he do ? Why cannot we see him ? Death — Why do people die ? Where do they go ? Heaven — Where is it ? Who goes there ? What do people do there ? What will children have there ? Hell — What must a person do to go there ? What is it like ? Angels — What do they do ? Ghosts — Why are people afraid of them ? Witches— What can they do ? Prayer — Why do we pray ? What do we pray for ? Why do we not always get what we pray for ? Religious Ceremonies— Why do we celebrate Christmas ? Why do we go to church ? Every variety of faith was represented in the papers : Catholics, Method- ists, Presbyterians, Universalists, Christian Scientists, Mormons, Baptists, Adventists, and Spiritualists. With only two or three exceptions the chil- dren treated the questions seriously, and the papers bear internal evidence of honest effort to express the truth. * It is expected that a few of these groups will be prepared for test in the classroom during the coming year. 766 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The data were collated in the following groups : God, his appearance and activities. The devil, his appearance and activities. Heaven, its location, its inhabitants, and their appearance and activities. Hell, its location, its inhabitants, and their appearance and activities. Indications of a critical attitude ; acts which take people to heaven ; acts which keep them out of heaven. Since the children were not answering any set questions, we cannot state what proportion accepted any particular idea, but only how many of the children who mentioned an idea accepted or rejected it. In studying the data an attempt was first made to bring together the theological conceptions expressed in the compositions, and then to deter- mine the attitude of the children toward these conceptions. The central figure in the theology is naturally God. The pictures drawn of him are often misty and indistinct, but more than half the papers represent him as a great and good man. He is so large that "he could stand with his feet on the ground and touch the clouds with his arras upraised." "He is a man that has six hands and feet and eyes"; or, "He is a huge being with numerous limbs spread out all over the sky." He is generally an old man, with a long white beard and flowing white garments ; often he is represented as having wings and a crown on his head. He is most often described as good and kind ; the stern quality is seldom apparent, but the whole figure is shadowy, unreal, and indistinct. A considerable number of children speak of him as being able to do anything, as being everywhere, and as knowing everything. Omnipresence seems hard for the children to conceive, and it probably accounts for his being represented with several heads and members. Omniscience is easier : " God can see everything you do and hear every- thing you say, even if you are inside of a house." "I have thought and been told that he can see through anything; it makes no difference if it is iron, steel, glass, wood, or anything." Many of the children feel that God is watching them, and some say "he writes it all down." Omnipotence is mentioned by many children, but there are few concrete instances given. One girl of twelve says that " God could have an earth- quake at any time." His activities are seldom described ; less than five per cent, of the children speak of him as ruling the universe, making things grow, or caring for our material needs. One boy of ten says in per- fect earnestness that " God is bossing the world." Christ is seldom mentioned, and his relation to the Father is rarely brought out ; where it is, in one-fourth of the cases the relation is reversed, and God is spoken of as the Son of Christ. The Trinity is mentioned by only two children. Christ is mentioned as our Eedeemer by some twenty-five children. Heaven is generally, even with children up to the age of twelve and beyond, THE THEOLOGICAL LIFE OF A CALIFORNIA CHILD. 767 simply an improved earth. More than five hundred children locate it "in the sky," "in the clouds," or "up." The next most common location is " where the good go " or " where God is ;" while a few say it is " in the earth," "all about us," "on some star," or "in the east," "and no one in a balloon could reach it, it is so far away." More arguments are pro- duced to prove the location of heaven than to prove any other one point. Christ, they say, ascended ; Elijah went up ; and several close the argu- ment for locating it in the sky by saying : "Besides, where else could •it be ? " Among those who are in heaven, four hundred and eighty-two mention angels ; three hundred and sixty-seven, God ; four hundred and twelve, the redeemed ; and sixty-four, Christ. A few mention dead rela- tives, the saints, Santa Claus, and unborn babies. Heaven is most commonly described as "a beautiful place ;" but large numbers describe it as " a city," "a mansion," " a palace," " a fine house," " a garden," or "a park." It has streets and gates, plants, flowers, birds, and trees. The concrete particular most commonly men- tioned is gold. The streets are of gold, the walks are of gold, the houses are of gold, and one boy has the angels eat gold bread. Several say there is no night, and opinion is about equally divided as to whether there are animals in heaven. The redeemed and the angels are generally the same. Three hundred and forty-six children mention their wings ; nearly the same number speak of them as looking like people dressed in white. A considerable number say they are women, because they never heard of any men being angels, while a few say they are fairies, birds, ghosts, or little babies. Several think of them as always small, others as having " just babies' heads and wings." The appearance is sometimes carefully described, as when a girl of thirteen says : " I think they wear white gowns shirred around the neck "; and she adds: "I should think the boys and girls would wear their hair alike." Another says : "I thought angels were all the same size ; that even if before they died they were fat, they grew thin." The activities of the redeemed, or the angels, furnish the most difficult detail in the children's theology. Several say they do not know what the angels do ; but most of the papers represent them as flying around, play- ing on harps, and singing praises to God. Sometimes they are said to help God, and a very few have them help the people on earth. Children of twelve or thirteen often mention the monotony of the life. Several mention the angels as carrying the souls of the dead to heaven, and bringing babies to the earth. Some of the children declare that the angels work, while an equal number say no one works in heaven. To some of the children this freedom from work is the chief attraction. The evil spirit and his abode are pictured far less often and with less 768 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. detail than is given to the abode of the blest ; but there is much greater uniformity in the descriptions. The general type of devil is well described by a boy who says: " I thought the devil had a man's head, with a long hooked nose and pointed chin, with an ox's ears and horns. He had a man's body, and one leg like a man and the other like that of an ox. He had a tail with a ball of three points at the end. He carried a spear with three prongs, the same as his tail. He could spit fire, and had a tongue like a snake." Often he is black, sometimes red ; three or four speak of him as a fallen angel ; a few as a serpent or monster. His activities are tempting and fooling people, and killing and burning people. Some say he bites and scares people, or carries off children. Generally, however, the children do not go into any detail about him, but simply say he is a bad man who tempts people. Hell is generally located under the earth, or below us. It is a place of fire, some say like a furnace, and a very few add snakes and darkness ; but hell and the devil play a small part in the compositions, and disappear almost entirely from the compositions written by children over ten years old. In all this scheme of theology natural phenomena play but a small part. The stars and moon are a very few times spoken of as lighting heaven. In two or three cases the clouds support or hide heaven. Two or three speak of God as like a cloud, and one says the devil is like smoke ; but there is little connection in the compositions between the celestial hierarchy and the mountains and hills, the plains and woods, the deserts and oceans of this world. Thunder and lightning, birth and death are hardly mentioned in these connections. God is certainly not seen in his works by our ordinary school children. To summarize briefly the theological ideas of California children, we should say : The world of spirits is for the most part attractive ; there is very little dark and forbidding imagery ; terror is unknown ; the ideas are generally vague, and the standard theological beliefs are often quoted in ways that show that the children have had little or no teaching. The attitude that children of different ages take toward this theology is an important question for the educator. The young children under six examined by mothers and teachers almost always accept what they have been told, without question or com- ment. They, however, recast their theology into forms that appeal to their experience and their modes of thought. The spirit world is simply a beautiful playroom or playground where children have what they want ; God is a more serious form of papa, the angels are playfellows, and Satan is simply a " boogie;" while hell is a dark closet. From seven to ten there are occasional vague questionings, but under THE THEOLOGICAL LIFE OF A CALIFORNIA CHILD. 769 ten years old there are few indications of a questioning or doubting frame of mind. From that time on, however, questions arise ; the children try to reason things out and to relate their theology to what they have learned through experience and through their studies. This critical spirit seems to culminate at thirteen or fourteen, and criticisms are far more persist- ent and severe at this time than later. Of course, in this work, as in all studies on children, we must recognize the fact that some children develop .much more rapidly than others, so that there are many exceptions; but there is a clearly marked difference between the compositions of children of eleven and of thirteen which must strike even the most careless observer. One sees this difference even when the children are doing the same grade of school work ; age marks differences better than school gradations do. Forty papers were selected at random from one thousand to illustrate the critical attitude. Ninety per cent, of them were written by children between twelve and fourteen years old. The critical spirit first appears in an effort to place the responsibility for the doctrines stated in the compositions. Thus at eleven and twelve there begin to appear in the compositions such phrases as, "I think," "I've been told," "my idea was," "the Bible says," "I was taught in Sunday-school," or "they say." By thirteen or fourteen these phrases become, "we imagine," "I used to believe," " I doubt," etc. A girl of thirteen modifies her statements as follows : " We cannot exactly tell who is in heaven, but it is supposed that everyone that serves Him probably goes there." And a girl of twelve thus tries to place the responsibility for the statements she offers : '• If heaven is a place where you are said to be always happy, I think it must be very beautiful. One of the most lovely things to beautify a place is flowers, and it is my opinion that we will find lovely flowers there. It is said that the people that go there, who are angels, have wings and dress in white. Of course, I have never seen them. So I don't really know how they do look." The most common form of criticism is that which appears in efforts to harmonize theology with experience. Thus one boy says : " I used to believe that the air was full of bad spirits which would hurt you, but I don't believe it now, because they don't hurt." A girl of fifteen says : " I don't see how people can stay in heaven forever, without nothing to do except to play and sing, but people might be different there from what they are here." The new desire to exercise the critical judgment seems at times the only reason one can find for the questions raised. Thus a boy of fourteen says : "I thought that the devil and all the other things were just as they say they are in the Bible, from which 1 got my impressions, but beyond that all is a mystery. My idea of heaven has changed, and now I think that heaven is space. Hut if that is so, how could the heavens open, as it says they did in the Bible ?" And a boy of fourteen says : " I think it is strange that when one dies his soul goes to heaven if he is good, and if he is bad his soul does not go to heaven ; and I don't see what good it does for your soul to get to heaven, because when you are dead you know nothing of it." The children at this age also try to make their theology harmonize with their human- itarian feelings and their sense of justice One boy of fourteen says : " I think when a mother sees her son, if such things happen, left among the bad, she will not be very happy for a while." Frequently the children of this age say they do not believe that savages 49 770 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. and babies will go to hell, while very many who accept the standard theology for God, the angels, and heaven, declare that they do not believe there is any devil or bell. This, of course, may be due simply to their teaching, but it seldom appears in compo- sitions by children under eleven or twelve years old. A very few assert their disbelief in any form of theology, but these few atheistic state- ments are more dogmatic in general than the statements of orthodox Sunday-school children, and bear all the marks of having been simply accepted from parents or others. For example, a girl of eleven writes: "Heaven is our dear mother and father, and heaven don't help to grow, nor he don't give us bread nor anything." And, again: " When people die they put them in a hole and put some ground on them and leave them there — and they don't go up in heaven or any place ; they always stay in that same place." After children pass fifteen they generally avoid telling what they believe by saying : "I used to believe," or, "When I was little I believed," etc. If they express their present beliefs they raise very few concrete doubts. They use more abstract terms, describing God as a great, all-powerful spirit, and heaven as a beautiful abode of the blest. Angels are celestial spirits, and the devil is the great evil influence in the world. One cannot help thinking that they have accepted an abstraction and a name, and have, temporarily at least, laid the questions that perplexed them aside. Certainly from fifteen to eighteen there is no such persistent exercise of the critical judgment in matters theological as there is between twelve and fifteen. In all these reasoning processes the Bible is only occasionally referred to as an authority, and in citing it the children show a very great igno- rance of the most common Biblical allusions. Incidentally this study throws a strong side light on what children are taught to consider good and bad acts. Naturally most of the children say that to go to heaven we must be good, and that if we are not good we do not go to heaven ; but in many cases they specify virtues and vices supposed to be especially prominent. Next to being good, the virtue most commonly named is obeying God, and then come in order of importance : " keeping the commandments," "believing in God," "loving God," "praying," "trusting God," "obey- ing parents," and "telling truth." Less than one per cent, of the children mention "going to church and Sunday-school," "reading the Bible," "keeping Sunday," "working hard," and " being baptized." A boy of four says : "You must be good on the earth and be quiet " ; while a boy of ten sums up the virtues with : " God wants you to obey your parents and to do what they say, and he wants you to be polite to everybody you meet on the street." The whole career of the good man is summed up as follows by a boy of twelve: "The good man will first join the church on probation, and then in six months he will join the church and be a member. He will push the work of God along as much as he can, help the poor and the church, and probably be successful in heaven. He will die a happy man and go to heaven." Among the bad qualities, next to being bad, the children mention "disobeying God." DISCUSSION. 771 Very few concrete sins are mentioned; less than one in a hundred mention "swearing," "lying," "talking dirty talk," "drinking," and "using tobacco." Many allusions also throw light on the sources of the theological ideas which the children hold. Many say : " My mother has told me," " I have heard in Sunday-school,*' or, " they say in church ; " not one mentions what his teachers have told him. Evidently the effort to secularize our schools has been but too successful. One boy says he got his ideas of the devil from a Punch and Judy show ; two say their ideas of the devil came from the pictures on deviled ham. Several mention the hired girl as an authority, and a large number say their ideas came from pictures. From the study of the data in hand it would seem that we could safely draw the following conclusions : If young children are to be taught a theology, it must be in an anthropomorphic and realistic form. We may teach that God is a spirit, but the child's mind at once invests him with a form and human attributes. If we do not furnish exalted and worthy imagery, the child fills out the form with random pictures, Punch and Judy impressions, and images of grocery labels. Since pictures furnish so much of this imagery, children should be surrounded with worthy pictures — e.g., Raphael's Sistine Madonna. Through confidential conversation with "the child, grotesque images should be detected and corrected. Many California children seem to be ignorant of the most common and most generally accepted theological conceptions of Christian people. They should be given this knowledge, if for no other reason, because it is essential to an intelligent understanding of the literary and artistic life of our times. The period of most intense critical activity is the period of puberty. Some special effort should be made at that time to assist the child in rearranging and adjusting his philosophical and theological conceptions. In the schools literary, historical, and scientific studies should be dealt with in a large and philosophic spirit. The child's desire to grasp the universe should be encouraged, not discouraged. Later he will settle to detailed work. The general absence of references to nature would seem to indicate that children are accepting scientific explanations as final. It would seem that the schools should lead them to feel and realize that Greater Power which lies back of our superficial explanations and makes this a sane universe. DISCUSSION. By a Member : I would like to ask if there was found among the authors of those papers a single. Swede nborgian. Professor Barnes: I cannot tell. "We had every variety of faith represented, and they were not required to put their denomination on the paper in any way, so that except in cases where I asked the teachers to put that on paper there were no cases given. 772 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Rabbi Lyons: I must differ from Professor Barnes when he states that this matter can be reduced to some scientific status. I do not think that there exists among chil- dren in regard to their theology anything that is capable of such reduction, for there is nothing original to children in this direction. What we find in the mind of the child is but the voicing of a sentiment that has been implanted in its mind by the lips of the parent, and the more speedy way to reduce this to a scientific basis would be to direct our attention immediately to theology as it exists in more mature minds. I believe very firmly that in theology all of us are the children of one another. We improve on the thoughts of the children in giving to their infantile thoughts a greater polish and rendering them more poetic. Professor Brooks, of Philadelphia : It occurs to me that if the significance of Professor Barnes' paper could be impressed upon the minds of the parents of the chil- dren of our country, the most practical and excellent lesson could be drawn from it, because the probabilities are, taking our organization of schools and society as they are, that this theological thought, theological doctrine, could better be taught by the parents in the family than in the public schools, especially, too, fiom the fact of the great variety of theological thought in the different families of our country. Is it better to impress vivid imagery, concrete ideas of theology, on the minds of Christian children, or is it better to deal in more general conceptions ? Professor Sinclair, of Hamilton: I would like to ask whether Professor Barnes observed any tendency on the part of the child to grow toward the perfection of an ideal in matter and doing, and whether these children have observed, or are learning to observe as they are growing older, that by concentrating their attention upon that form or motive, if you will, which will lead them toward that which they conceive to be the highest ideal, they will be enabled to forget those things which drag them down, and will be drawn up toward a conception of the good, beautiful, true, and to the perfection of that end. The reason I ask that question is because in a weak way we were endeavor- ing to carry on this subject of child study for some years, and in the supervision of some three hundred children, between five and seven years of age, and their teachers, 1 have noticed this, that as the teacher has studied psychology and has investigated along the lines of which Professor Barnes has spoken, we have found invariably that the maximum of child study has resulted in the minimum of child punishment, and I think it is because this point has been emphasized and that children have grown into the way of trying to forget the bad, and are interested in the good. Professor Barnes: Our study would not lead me to make any general judgment on the subject. I wish Dr. Winship would relate a little incident that I know bears on this subject. Dr. Winship: I happened to receive a letter this morning from home in which our little boy, three years and five months, last Sunday evening declined to say, "Now I lay me down to sleep," because he didn't want God to' take care of him over night ; he wanted his mother to. Professor Barnes: I should like to observe that if my paper shows anything it is this: that you can't put into a child's mind a general conception, a general vague term, an abstract definition, a large abstract idea or notion of some kind, and ask him to hold this in its abstract form until he gets old enough to clothe it in its proper image. If he holds it at all, he holds it because it is an image. Miss Lloyd, of Pennsylvania : I can only speak from personal experience when I differ from you in regard to the conception that a child can have of God. I am a Quaker. I received my theological instruction from a Quaker mother. I can never remember a time when I had anything but an abstract conception of God. As a little child I thought of Him as something like clouds and shadows and air and light, that was every- where and might easily be everywhere, and afterward these thoughts took more definite shape. I should be very sorry, if teaching Christian theology in our schools means teaching little children the demonology of Milton's "Paradise Lost," that it should ever find a place in our schools. THE FIRST TWO YEARS OF TEE CHILD. 773 THE FIRST TWO YEARS OF THE CHILD. BY MISS MILLICENT W. SHINN, EDITRESS OF OBERLIN MONTHLY. The baby, coming to his third or fourth year, reaches the extreme frontier line of any region thus far annexed by pedagogy. He is described and discussed abundantly — if somewhat loosely — and yet of him but little is known by the teacher or the psychologist. With what powers, what interests, what prepossessions, does he come ? What difference would it make in our systems of earliest education if we knew ? Did Froebel or James Mill map a system most in accord with the real psychology of the three-year-old ? The first practical application likely to be made of recorded observations of babies under two or three years old will be to the answering of such questions as these. What capacity, for instance, has the two-year-old for understanding color, form, number, time ? What memory ? What reasoning power ? A baby girl of whose development I kept close record, a bright, healthy, matter-of-fact child, of no unusual powers that I could see, found it play to learn to name and recognize everywhere the colors and the principal plane forms before she was two years old ; before she was a year old, her grandmother taught her to recognize " 0 " on a block or a card, and she found a "Q" on another card, and held it up, expressing by questioning sounds her wonder what this was that so resembled " 0," yet differed from it. Yet this same baby, who could discriminate at eleven months so small a difference in form as the quirl of a " Q," could not comprehend, far on into the third year, so conspicuous a division of time as a day, nor use time words with any intelligence. " Howt long did baby sleep ? " " Two- fee week." "How long ago did you go to the city?" "Two-fee minute." And " When ?" would be answered as indiscriminately, " Next year," or " Six o'clock." If color and form are usually so easy to a baby, time so incomprehen- sible, we ought to know it. Why should we withhold till the later and more crowded years the one knowledge, if the baby is able to receive it with ease and joy and find life the more interesting for it, while we daily take for granted an inborn comprehension of the other, to which the mind is really dark ? So again : Does the baby really, as we are perpetually told, grasp first the individual, the special, the concrete ? The first word that Preyer's baby volunteered was At-ta, and it meant disappearance, departure, and all associated therewith. The little girl I studied used as her first word All-gone, in a highly generalized sense. She said it when an object was put out of sight ; when one was denied her ; when she saw an object that had been denied her ; when she swallowed a 7?4 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. mouthful of food ; when she slipped back, failing to climb a step ; when she had tried to attract some one's attention and failed ; when a person left the room ; when a door blew to ; when a wagon drove away ; when a person passed by, or a wagon approached ; when she wished to go out herself. I have had the mother's notes on another little girl whose first word was the same, used in a similar wide, vague way. My little subject knew flower before rose; tree before walnut or orange tree; and indeed so general was her idea of tree that she called little seedlings by the name unhesitatingly, and seeing a twig of pink Japanese maple in a glass, pointed and cried, " Tee ! Ba ! " — a tree in a vase. If the baby's ideas really go according to Spencer's code, from vague and general ones to narrower and clearer differentiations, we ought to know it and have it in thought in dealing with his mind. So we might ask many questions, the answers to which we ought to have before we can use the best intelligence in dealing with the baby, or with the little one just beyond babyhood. In so brief a paper I will try to suggest but one more ; and this is one as to which observation is so easy, and the pedagogic suggestion so direct, that it seems to me the one likely to yield the first important results. That is, What are the real interests and tastes of the baby ? In what order developed ? We make much effort nowadays to meet them, and talk much of developing the child along the lines nature is already taking with him. First the senses and later the reason, we are told ; first the object and then the word ; first handcraft and then headcraft. I cannot see that the baby holds to any such order, if it is left to him. A certain familiar- ity with the world around him by the use of his senses he must get before he can begin to use his mind on it or apply words to it ; but just as soou as he can he begins, so far as my observation goes, to make sense the servant of mind, and language the great and highly prized means of all clear understanding of anything. With all his insatiable desire to see, to handle, to move what can be moved and open what can be opened, and change the places of objects, his curiosity goes only to a certain point ; he resists efforts to interest him in more precise and systematic use of his senses for their own sake. Let me illustrate from the baby girl of. my record. Her first great interest was in getting a rough conception, with eyes, fingers, and mouth, of the world about her. In the fourth month she began to inspect the room in which she lived; she would look deliberately from object to object, till one section of the room was thoroughly examined ; then turn her head quickly and examine another, until the appearance of the room from that point of view was mastered. Then she would show impatience till she was carried to another side, to renew her inspection thence ; all this with an expression of surprise and eagerness, eyes wide and brows raised. But soon, probably when she had come to recognize the furniture THE FIRST TWO TEARS OF THE CHILD. 775 from any point of view, she ceased to examine the familiar room, but renewed her eager and surprised inspection when taken to another. So in widening areas she reduced her world to a certain order and rationality. I am obliged to use words that imply more distinct mental operations than hers could have been ; yet in some sort she certainly did have a con- ception of the aspects and place-relations of objects about the house ; for once, when I carried her out through the kitchen into the woodshed, then, opening a door, stepped across a veranda directly into the room we had left, her amazement at finding that to go to a strange place, and thence to take a strange path onward, brought her back into the familiar room, was unmistakable. When she could use her hands she practiced to the full the endless investigations of babies. When she could creep, she explored tirelessly every corner of the room for a time ; then new rooms only excited her curiosity. For days it was heaven to be taken about the lawn, investigating the grass, the gravel walk at the edge, the bark of the trees. But soon she had reached such comprehension of these things as she craved, and their mere ministry to her senses ceased to interest; she would coax with all her baby powers to be carried about the shrubbery. When she could walk and run about the paths, her joy in traversing and retraversing two or three of them, reacquainting herself with them on her own feet, was extreme ; but every few days a sense of satiety would appear, and she would annex a new route, in steadily widening areas. Meantime the "miracle of language" had come to her. She had had for mere purposes of communication a language by signs before, and even in this she showed a cleverness beyond her general development at the time ; but it was quite instinctive, not a conscious joy and intellectual possession. When she discovered in her eleventh month, almost simul- taneously, that pictures represented objects, and that the sounds we uttered also represented objects and acts ; that as we talked around her, amid meaningless sounds there came to her from time to time intelligible pictures in vocal form, and as week by week these grew more numerous — it was as if the world of sense was made new to her. She turned the leaves of her picture-book, selecting the images that conveyed meaning to her, and putting her little finger on one after another, looked up into our faces with a coaxing sound to hear its name pronounced, then con- templated it again with a satisfied grunt. She held up her arms and asked to be carried about the room and have object after object named at her note of interrogation. Had we not watched her as closely as we did, and tried to follow the leading of her own mind, of her spontaneous desires, instead of preconceived ideas, we might have failed to see so early this joy in language. But no one can be unaware how persistently the child, when he has obtained the power to speak for himself, desires to ticket off everything in his mind with a word. " Fat's dat ? " " Fat did he do?" the baby asks daily. So it was with this little girl; and 776 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. very early in her possession of speech she rejoiced to turn over the pages of books, naming the pictures she could, and setting down the others under the general title, "picture." At all times the power of delicate distinctions in speech was far beyond what her general mental development would have seemed to warrant. So it is with all babies. By what process of reasoning does a two-year-old baby manage so abstract a signification as that of a personal pronoun ? How should he observe so delicately that we say " I " of ourselves, " you " to others ; and instead of literally imitating, calling himself " you," follow the analogy intelligently ? Yet a dozen distinctions as philosophic (if not always this particular one), as impossible without help from ancient race-habit, the baby will make at an age when you can barely coax the bungling little fingers to string a bead. Midway in her second year the application of names to colors — for which as mere sense impressions she had not greatly cared — opened a wide field of interest to the little girl I speak of; and with a like exercise in naming the forms, plane and solid, made the chief indoor happiness of the rest of the year. The key of the word opened her eyes to notice the color or the form ; it visibly enabled her to put the sense impression away in her mind in available place, and to recognize its counterpart when she saw it, instead of passing blindly by. When she stood on a chair by my shelf, and pulled the books off and dropped them on the bed beside, the mere mechanical exercise was renewed in interest as she spontaneously named over the colors : " That red book ; that book black : that green." She waked suddenly one day, in her twenty-second month, with a shout of joy, to the discovery that the walls, the doors, the furnishings about her, carried the well-known plane forms ; she rejoiced thenceforth in finding and naming them. " Oblong over there !" she would shout, pointing to the door panels. She made people turn and smile in the cars with the sudden joy of her discovery of a " cunning little square " in the paneling ; or in a store with her loud and jubilant enumeration of " Red stocking ! Blue stocking ! Black stocking ! Pink shirt ! White shirt ! Green box !" By the time she was a year and a half old, stories and verses from which she could have got little but gleams of clear meaning enveloped in a cloud of vague suggestions, were liked by her, preferred to many things that were more definite to her. Yet this is probably less true of her than of most well-born and well-tended children, for she is un- usually matter-of-fact. That most such children by the third or fourth year do get much in the way of an atmosphere, an elusive beauty and suggestion, an invaluable glimpse of a beyond, from words that are out- side their comprehension, seems to me indisputable. One three-year-old friend of mine took great pleasure in reciting Blake's. " Piping down the valleys wild." She could not have understood it — any more than the rest A PLEA FOR SPECIAL CHILD-STUDY. 777 of us ; but she liked it, and she recited with a sympathy and feeling that showed she found something in it. The two or three other lines of interest that have seemed to me leading ones I must barely mention. Of the joy in mastering the use of its own body, the endless interest in mere muscular activity, I need say nothing. Joined with this I found throughout the first two years an exultation in freedom — freedom of limb, of choice, the free distances and spaces out- doors— that was surprising. None of the obvious reasons were really sufficient to account for the perpetual passion to reach outer air. A bare strip of ground was better than a room full of interests. A docile child, willing to accept restrictions, to be denied wishes, the little girl yet craved above all things freedom to follow her own devices in the free air. One can hardly help seeing in this some race-inheritance from a forest life. So, too, if one is not afraid of being fanciful, in the singular interest roused by the lower animals in most babies — an interest that in the case I observed waked at six months old with a passionate enthusiasm for the dog, passed on to eats, and birds, and horses, and bears, and chipmunks, and has never failed, now far on into the third year. I cannot dwell on it here ; and it is well known to all students of children already. The pedagogic suggestion afforded by it and by the similar (but later and weaker) interest in growing things, has often been discussed already with reference to the education of children somewhat older. It is so strong in little babies that it must enter into any consideration of their education. A PLEA FOR SPECIAL CHILD-STUDY. BY PROFESSOR W. L. BRYAN, UNIVERSITY OF INDIANA, BLOOMINGTON, IND. I wish in substance to make a plea for one special kind of child- study — that, namely, in which methods already well developed and tested in the laboratory may be carried out under the direction of experts upon large numbers of children. This is not the only kind of child-study profitable. Individual teachers everywhere, though little skilled in scientific methods, may gain great advantage for themselves by observing the children under their charge ; and if the records of such observations be brought together into competent hands, important gains may be made for psychology. The proper direction of such work is at preseut of the utmost importance. This is the natural history of childhood, and it has certain values of its own which cannot be replaced by anything else. I wish to urge the timeliness of supplementing such and all other methods by methods more systematic and strictly scientific. 778 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION In the last quarter century we have had a vast amount of work in experimental psychology. The bibliography of the subject is growing at the rate of much more than one thousand titles each year. More than a dozen laboratories have been established in the United States within the last half dozen years. We are, in brief, on the crest of a great social movement for the regeneration of psychology. It is a fact, however, that, from the highest scientific standards, the vast and invaluable work so far done has been largely of a preliminary charac- ter. This is, in part, matter of course and a necessity. Questions must be discovered ; one sagacious question — one reasonably definite ignorance — is worth more than a World's Fair full of blind " Outlines for Child- Study." The laboratories of the world are engaged almost exclusively in this kind of work. It does not turn out tracts for popular enlightenment. It furnishes few recipes for teachers or preachers or mothers. It supplies few satisfying generalities to philosophy. Its outlay of published results look to the uninitiated like a mass of tedious scraps. From the standpoint of those engaged in it, this planning of questions, apparatus and methods is for the most part not intended to furnish general laws of conscious life. Such work is essentially preliminary. The ingathering of results must follow after. But those who have been working at the foundations in experimental psychology have not been blameless, or at least their accomplishment is not blameless. I think experimental psychology has been peculiarly free from this danger. But I cannot disguise my fear that the preliminary part of the work of which 1 have spoken has engrossed too large a share of attention, to the peril of our scientific and educational standing. We promise a science of conscious life. As other sciences have traced the development of the physical world, we promise to supplement this by giving the natural history of conscious life from its darkest beginning to , the highest achievements of man. But we shall be false to all our promise, and we shall turn the confidence and sympathy which has endowed chairs and built laboratories, into derision and rejection, if we confine our science to a little round of test in the laboratory. I believe that the time is fully ripe for a rapid advance in the ingather- ing of results. The most important things are ready, the things that can- not be hurried. There are many plans scientifically developed. There are men who have that knowledge and training which cannot be extem- porized, and who are eager to work. But there must be organization, and there must be money. The thing most in demand is endowed re- search in the field of child-study. What we want is a millionaire. Or, perhaps, it can come without the millionaire. The people of this country love their children. If the scientists and educational leaders whose repre- EYE AND EAR-MINDEDNESS. 779 sentatives are here can make the people understand how deep a matter we have in hand, how far into the life of their children and of all the after world this work tends, perhaps, then, from many quarters money will flow in to make possible, under the best scientific direction, a national bureau for child-study. Suppose such a bureau established, under the direction of our one greatest master, manned by a corps of experts in anthropology, in child- diseases, in the various departments of experimental psychology, in the mathematical treatment of results, and the like. Suppose then, under the direction of these, a little Gideon's army of trained agents working every- where in schools, high and low, in the country and in the city slums. Suppose, finally, that an innumerable army of teachers and mothers were working as they were able under this direction. Whatever sane prediction we should make to-day of the outcome of such an enterprise for psychol- ogy and all the sciences and arts dependent upon it, would in a few years be surpassed. EYE AND EAR MINDEDNESS. REPORT OF TESTS MADE BY PROF. W. L. BRYAN, UNIVERSITY OF INDIANA, BLOOMINGTON, IND. The experiments of which I shall make a brief and partial report were directed mainly towards the question of eye and ear mindedness. These tests were made by myself and wife, with the advice of President Hall and Dr. Burnham, of Clark University. Ex- periments were made in discrimination of shades of gray, and memory for shades of gray ; and in like manner discrimination in memory for length of lines ; discrimination in memory for pitch ; discrimination in memory for rates in metronome ticks ; then a series of tests in memory span, for figures seen and heard ; and then a series of tests, the general idea of which was suggested by Dr. Burnham, whose purpose was to deter- mine, if possible, whether associations are stronger between sensations of the same modality or sounds of different modality. There were forty-one tests in all, made upon each of about six hundred children. One thing that came out clearly by these tests was the very great individual variation. In matters which seemed to be comparatively simple and to involve comparatively simple mental phenomena, the individual variation was so great that it is impossible to deter- mine whether there is a degree's growth from the lower to the highest course. It is almost impossible, for instance, to determine whether the child of the ninth grade can discriminate shades of color better than the child of the fifth grade ; or whether children can determine pitch of tone better in the ninth grade than in the fifth grade. This simply points out the necessity for far wider investigation, and gives a point for the plea which I make for further investigation. One thing is certain, that the advance, that the gross advances have been made when the child is still very young. The curve is upward and nearly straight. It may be that in many of these functions the rapid part of the curve has come before the child entered school at all. This suggests what seems to me to be one of the most important lines for investigation. We need to note in respect to this, and to that, and the other function which it is desir- able to cultivate, whether the period of rapid development has occurred already before 780 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. the child entered school, or whether that may possibly occur in this or that or the other part of school course. This cannot be known in advance of investigation in respect to any given function. It opens the way for a great field of inquiry in which every one of the functions which we wish to cultivate comes up for separate and extended exam- ination. The memory-span tests were made in substantially the same manner as those made by Mr. Boulton, under direction of Dr. Boaz, in the schools of Worcester, except that besides the ear-span tests, eye-span tests were made. As nearly as possible the condi- tions were made the same for the eye and for the ear. The first general result of this, is that, as Dr. Bealey and others have surmised, "the majority of pupils are not decidedly eye minded or ear- minded." Take the number of errors made by each pupil with the eye, and with the ear, let them be ascertained, and then if the excess of errors either way be determined for each pupil, it will be found that many more than half of all the pupils have an excess either way of less than five errors ; that about ninety-four per cent, have an excess either way of less than ten enrors when fifty-two figures were written. Nevertheless it is important to remember that there were some who did show extreme eye-mindedness, and others who showed extreme ear-mindedness. 1 should not be safe in saying how many out of ten thousand there would be ; but in those that I have examined I should say that there were between five and ten pupils who were so strongly inclined one way or the other that they should have special attention given them, unless the individual pupil is going to be sacrificed to the exigencies of system. I should say that there are about five per cent, of the pupils who will make almost no errors, perhaps none, with one of these senses, and a very great number of errors with the other. The question has been raised as to whether or not there is a tendency from the lower grades to the higher grades in favor of one of these senses. Allow me to read a very few figures on this point. In the third grade the eye-span errors were 200 and 201 per cent, that is twice as many errors for the eye as for the ear. In the fourth grade. 140 per cent; in the fifth grade, 107 per cent; sixth, 111, per cent; seventh, 111 percent; eight, 104 per cent ; ninth and High Schools taken together, 99 per cent ; a class of train- ing girls, 96 per cent; twelve adults recently examined, 80 per cent. These last numbers, of course, are taken on very few individuals. These figures taken alone would seem to constitute, if they were representative of that which should be found anywhere, a tremendously strong support of the position that we are making everybody eye- minded. Some modification, however, must be made with respect to this. I think it may be shown by a study of the results which I got, that the great advance made from the third to the fifth grade is to be accounted for by the fact that children are learning at that period very rapidly to recognize digits. That is to say, if we study the shade- discrimination, and shade- memory tests, no such enormous advance is made, indeed a very slight advance is made in those things ; but of course, at this period, the children are learning very rapidly to recognize digits by the eye. I think the advance can be explained in that way. Now I wish to read only one other list. The last which I gave took account of all errors of all kinds, errors of ear, omission, and errors of insertion — the method being the same as that used by Mr. Boulton, with the advice of Dr. Boaz. Now I wish to read the list with the errors of ear alone, which considers possible deficiencies of eye-sight or confusion of sense perceptions. In the third grade the eye errors are 233 as compared with 100 in the ear ; in the fourth grade. 123 ; in the fifth, 92; sixth grade, 94 ; in the seventh, 93 ; eight, 88 ; ninth grade and High School, 86. In the training schools, in a class of twelve, 86 ; in the case of twelve adults, 65 per cent ; in the case of these adults examined, who were students of the summer school of pedagogy of Indiana, the test was made with a high degree of care. I have spoken of these things, but I THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY IN NORMAL SCHOOLS. 781 wish to use them rather as an illustration in furtherance of my plea that we need more extended investigations than these have been in which methods developed in the labora- tory are applied to large numbers of subjects. This, of course, is not the only kind of child-study now profitable. Individual teachers anywhere, though little schooled in scientific methods, may gain great advantage for themselves by observing the children under their charge and taking the records of such observation, which if brought together in competent hands, may be the cause of a great gain in psychology. DISCUSSION. Br a Member: I would like to ask Professor Bryan whether the relatively large per cent or the relatively small per cent of errors in the ear test , above the eye test, among very small children, would seem to show that the child is naturally ear-minded, and that he becomes eye-minded only as a result of our system of education. The reason I ask this is because the theory has occurred to me that possibly the same evolution has taken place in the mind of the child, as has taken place in the history of the world. If we compare ancient Greek civilization with the present civilization, we find that the Greeks were eminently ear-minded as compared with the moderns, and we are eminently eye-minded as compared with them. In modern times our eye-mindedness is illustrated by our constant reading of newspapers and magazines and books, the tendency to make the theater and opera spectacular, and the existence of all such exhibitions as the World's Pair, ninety-nine per cent of which deals with the eye rather than any other sense. It seems to me, in the history of the world that there is a tendency towards eye-mindedness, and I would like to ask Professor Bryan whether in his opinion the young child is not naturally ear-minded, and becomes eye-minded as a result of evolution . Professor Bryan: The facts undoubtedly pledge us to say that in the case of those pupils examined, the eye gained upon the ear at an enormous rate; and this apparent difference between the third and fifth grade is not to be accounted for by a gain in eye- mindedness. I think, as I said before, that it is a matter of practice and recognition. Then another consideration is also deduced from these figures. They do not indicate that there is, in a majority of cases, a very decisive superiority of either sense over the other, and incidentally it may be said that most persons do not know whether they are eye-minded or ear-minded. I asked about fifty children, above the age of twelve, who thought they knew. Twenty answered as their results indicated ; and eighteen answered wrong. THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY IN NORMAL SCHOOLS. BY MISS LILLIE A. WILLIAMS, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, TRENTON, N. J. My paper is a brief plea for the new psychology in normal schools, first, because it is specially adapted to the class of learners found there ; and, second, because it insures the sort of child study which is needed now as a basis for scientific pedagogy. Entrance requirements for normal schools must be low enough to admit candidates from the average district schools. Hence, the first year is devoted, not to instruction in the art of teaching, but to the common school branches. Fortunately this work now follows the lines of the new education, so that students begin their professional course with observa- tion and discrimination somewhat cultivated, and an acquaintance with inductive and synthetic methods, but lacking the discipline of the severer 782 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. studies and without breadth of view. Could they give the next two years to mathematics, physical science, and the culture studies, they would even then fall far short of that advancement which is required in colleges before taking up psychology. But this science has its present prominent place in normal courses, because we believe that it furnishes a basis for the theory and practice of teaching. To be used in this way it must be studied by our pupils at the beginning of their professional work in spite of their scanty preparation. The psychology which has usually been taught is abstract and rational- istic. The text-books, even when simplified, present matter which the students cannot relate to their own experience. They are not interested. In too many cases the work has become a painful task of word-memoriz- ing. There is no clear showing of what the study of mind can do for the training of mind. Better results can be obtained by a different sort of work. The new psychology affords the more excellent way, not because it is so easy that anybody can learn it — on the contrary, never before was so difficult and expensive a preparation demanded of the psychological investigator — but because its methods adapt it to the stage of mental growth of the class of students of whom I speak. The new psychology is so new that its results are yet to be found largely in pamphlets and monographs. There is no text-book at once compre- hensive enough, simple enough, and concrete enough for our students. This is, I believe, a good thing, since it insures the inductive presentation of the subject. The teacher must now select and arrange the topics to be considered, and then, through experiment, introspection, and obser- vation of others, lead the pupils to infer the principles for themselves. We need a psychological library and much use of books by way- of refer- ence, but no text-memorizing. For experimental work in sensation, we have Dr. Sauford's admirable course ; for the rest, one could be arranged by the teacher. The labor- atory work need not involve a large outlay; one hundred and fifty dollars will go a long way, if wisely expended. Where there is a manual train- ing department in the school, many pieces of apparatus may be made there at small expense. Normal schools need not aim at extending the boundaries of knowledge, and so can do without the costly appliances for quantitative determination. The really serious obstacle to success in experimental work is the large numbers in the classes. These should be so subdivided that the teacher could give each student individual attention. Above all, we must have correlation of allied subjects. Physiology and hygiene must prepare the way for psychology, and for a time must overlap. The teacher of the theory of education, the training teacher, should build on the psychology. The teacher of psychology should be able to turn to the model school for concrete illustrations of principles. THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY IN NORMAL SCHOOLS. 783 This brings us to our second point. All Normal psychology must- nec- essarily be child psychology. Our pupils must be taught to study chil- dren. The first step is to set them to observing, according to Mr. Russell's plan, which is now so well known that I need not describe it. They will have had a year of this awakening work before they take up psychology. As this science unfolds itself, and they begin to understand degrees of accuracy in observation, the nature of reflection, the importance of meas- urements, and the use of experiments, it will be more helpful to system- atize and specialize in their child study. In a properly related course, the department of physical culture will require measurements of children, records of pulse-beats with reference to degree of fatigue and excitement, school health statistics, observations on color and other signs of health, movements of children at play, and so on, and psychology can build upon these in its opening study of the relation of mind and body. The modern view that "man is a creature whose life is the adjustment of inner to outer relations, that fundamentally the mental life is for the sake of action," makes it wise to take up next instincts, emotions, and will. Experimental psychology does not yet cover this field ; it is mainly in the observational stage. As a rule, this side of the child's mental life first attracts our untrained workers, and we may count upon a large mass of observations to begin with. Professor Barnes has shown us how obser- vation may be specialized here. Motor ability may be studied more exactly by tests. Dr. Scripture has described, in the Educational Review, two which any one could apply. Dr. Bryant's apparatus costs but two or three dollars, and with that his inter- esting line of experiment could be repeated. Children's vocabularies should be sought, as well as cases of mirror-writing. In sensation, many of the tests used in the laboratory may be at once applied by the students to classes of children, especially in touch, hearing, and sight. The pitch-pipe mounted upon a graduated scale, contrived by Dr. Scripture, will enable them to get accurate results in regard to sensitiveness to variations of pitch. For testing color-blindness, my pupils made disks from Professor Jas- 'trow's description, and found them most convenient. Results should be expressed as far as possible by the graphic method. For attention, we shall accumulate much data during our work in sensation. Tests on divided attention may be applied, and studies made of parlor games like the so-called "mind reading," Ouija, and others. In association, Galton's or Jastrow's tests are easily made. A great deal may be done in time experi- ments with a stop-watch, or even with an ordinary watch, if enough tests are made. The analysis of children's associations brings out interesting points. Some experiments should be made to ascertain the relation between asso- ciations, time, and age. 784 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. In 'primary memory the children may be tested in their power to repeat figures or nonsense syllables. The latter may be so used as to show whether visual, auditory, or motor images predominate. Some of Galton's questions on the image-making power may be asked the children. The entire set should be given to the normal class. Taking as a text their curiously unlike answers to the same questions, the teacher may well point out the great differences in mental life and the folly of supposing that there is any one method of imparting knowledge. The students should collect number forms and instances of colored hearing. In memory, many of Ebbinghaus's experiments may be adapted to work with the children. As to creative imagination, we are again dependent on observation, as we are also in the important field, of childish reasoning. Such a course as I have indicated will take up all the time now allotted to psychology, but to drop it at this point is to leave all at loose ends, and to fail of a good part of the benefit which we ought to derive from it. We should have, in the last year, a higher course. I fancy it would be better to make it an elective, in which we take a systematic review of the field, discussing topics which could not earlier have been seen in their true bear- ings. If the apparatus is to be had, let the quantitative enter into experi- mental work. In many places students are sent out, in their last year, to practice in the city schools, and thus have a larger field for observation. Will the results from such a course pay for the expenditure of time ? I believe that they will. Successful testing and experimenting with chil- dren is not easy. The training which the young workers thus get in patience, sympathy, and insight into childish ways is most valuable. Teachers thus trained cannot sink into drudges, nor the work become a treadmill round ; for, as Dr. Hall says, " Though the ground to be gone over each year may remain substantially the same, the children's minds will be seen to be never alike." In their schools, such teachers will be care- ful gatherers of facts, and thus, each contributing her mite, will help on the day when through the new psychology there will be a Science of Education. DISCUSSION. Professor Barnes : Three people whom I know, who are carrying on the work that Miss Williams has described in normal schools, say no matter whether we get any scien- tific results or not the work will pay, because of the interest it will arouse in the students and the scientific spirit it will cultivate in them. 1 would like to ask Miss Williams if she thinks it desirable in our normal schools to have masses of data gathered and experi- ments made and work carried on, provided we are not able to elaborate and work it up into some form of definite expression. Miss Williams : I believe we ought to have the students think that something will come of it. I have tried to do so, and I would tell them that 1 mean to do something with the result. When I first began taking observations I found that the thing which interested the pupils more than anything else was to tell them that I wished them to be DISCUSSION. 785 very careful with these blanks, because in some large institutions they are making collec- tions of these papers and they might want their papers, and the very idea that it might be used seemed to be a stimulus. I think in time we ought in our own school to work out these results. Mr. GrALViN, of Wisconsin State Normal School : I want to know if in this line of study there could be as much definite knowledge as we have definite knowledge in psychology ? Professor Barnes : I would say that it would be infinitely better for a man or woman to have studied three or four psychical phenomena, who is going to be a teacher, with great care, than to have mastered all the rational psychology that we have ever thought we had. 50 DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION.* REPORT OF SECRETARY. The sessions of the Congress of Business Education were held in Hall 29, Art Palace, July 26-27, 1893. Opening address by S. S. Packard, New York, on the "Evolution of the Business College." "Practical Advantages of a Business College Training." George Soule, New Orleans. "Relation of Business College Instruction to Industrial, Commercial and Financial Interests." By A. D. Wilt, Dayton, Ohio. "Higher Aspects of Business Education." By R. E. Gallagher, Hamilton, Ont. " Stenography and Typewriting as Branches of Business Education," By Isaac S. Demert, Chicago. "The World's Need of Business Women." By Mrs. Sara A. Spencer, Washington, D. C. " Reciprocal Relations and Benefits of Business Colleges and other Departments of Education." By Ira Mayhew, Detroit. Address by Dr. James MacAlister, President Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. * Explanatory.— Requests were duly made for the papers pertaining to the meeting of the Congress of Business Education, but no reports of the proceedings, nor any of the papers read at its seasions, were delivered to the Secretary of the National Educational Association for publication, nor to Dr. William T. Harris, chairman of the committee in charge of the International Congress of Education. About the 10th of April several of the papers read at the Congress of Business Education were sent to the editor in charge of publication of the proceedings, but too late for any portion of them to appear in the order of the departments . It then was only possible to print abstracts of some of the papers, the list of which is given in the Secretary's Report. BUSINESS EDUCATION. THE EVOLUTION OF BUSINESS COLLEGES. ABSTRACT OF OPENING ADDRESS, BY S. S. PACKARD, PRESIDENT OF DEPARTMENT CONGRESS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION. The task is laid upon me, within the limits of a brief paper, to sketch the birth and progress of business colleges ; and the embarrassment which it brings to me must be apparent to all who are conversant with that his- tory. The temptation is very great to go back to the beginning, to mention names, dates, and incidents which are matters of history and interesting to us all, and to follow consecutively the steps of this evolution and the expansion of the idea which, in the course of fifty years, has given to this country a distinct system of education, which has planted schools in all our large and small cities, which claims a patronage embracing men and women in business, in the professions, in charity, in statesmanship, in religion and in all the great enterprises of the country. The first teachers of bookkeeping, who are really the pioneers of our present business college system, were not moved simply to open a profes- sion for themselves, but to do a needed work. In the language of one of them, it was at that time impossible to learn bookkeeping without get- ting into business, and impossible to get into business without having learned bookkeeping, and so the first business college began as between a man who wanted to know something in order to advance his own interests, and another man who was able to impart that knowledge and willing to do it for a consideration. It must be borne in mind that when the first book- keeping class was formed there was no railroad system in this country and strictly speaking no railroad ; the telegraph lay nascent in the brain of its inventor; duplex currents and incandescent lights were not even dreamed of; the sun had not entered into the picture business, and there were no better means of getting over the surface of the earth than were enjoyed by Lot when he wanted to visit his uncle Abraham. Since that first bookkeeping class, everything worth mentioning has happened, and all that was necessary to bring about the conditions which we now con- template was simply to follow along the line of progress and to meet the growing demands as they came. The one man in charge of the first busi- ness college student sustained as full relations to the demands of business in 1843, as the five thousand men, more or less, representing five hundred prosperous schools, with a constituency of not less than seventy-five TEE EVOLUTION OF BUSINESS COLLEGES. 789 thousand pupils, sustain to the present condition of progress all along the lines of enterprise and activity. The Columbian Exposition of 1893, as it is spread before our eyes in this great metropolis of the West, is the legitimate product of education ; not of a particular school, or class of schools, but of the reaching out of the human mind in all directions, and of making effort effective through the processes of education. Fifty years ag» there were not only no business colleges, but there were no kindergartens, no trade schools, no specialties of study and research requiring a distinct curriculum and aiming in a large way at a distinct end. If a boy wanted to learn a trade, he must spend from four to seven years as an apprentice, and even then he was not so well equipped as would be the graduate of one of our trade schools after a year's instruction. If a young man desired to become an account- ant, he must begin in a store as an errand boy, work his way up tediously to a clerkship, and in some surreptitious or favored way by contact with the bookkeeper, master the principles and attain the practical knowledge which would place him in the line of promotion. The business colleges have changed all this; first, by knowing exactly what is required in the counting-house, and next by supplying that knowledge in the most direct and positive way. The future bookkeeper or financier, instead of spending years tediously in approaching to the desired attainment, can now, by contact with masters in their special lines, gather not only the underlying principles, but enforce by real prac- tice the knowledge requisite for the high duties upon which he is to enter ; so that there is to-day no more of a question as to the qualifications of a graduate of a genuine business college for the duties upon which he is to enter, than there is as to the graduate of a literary college, the medi- cal college, the theological seminary, or the law school. After fifty years of growth side by side with other departments of education, the business college to-day, in its best estate, is guilty of no presumption in challenging the confidence of the community. Thus it is that we come into this con- vention of educational specialties without apology, and with a full and clear sense of our right to the honor that has been given us. It would be a pleasing task for me, had I the time and the occasion favored, to compare the work of the business colleges with that of other educational enterprises, each standing upon a distinct idea and looking to a distinct end. I should be glad to show that in this effort of ours we are simply co-workers in the educational field with all earnest and honest men, that the work we have undertaken to do we mean to do well, and as its importance grows upon us by the demands of our constituency and the expectations of the public, we mean to be able to meet all the require- ments. It has been said elsewhere, and on different occasions from this, that we are the gleaners of education, and when that designation is defined to cover the facts, there is no higher or more honorable position to be 700 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. taken. It is one of the conditions of the building up of our schools, that we cannot choose our pupils. To a certain extent, we may exclude those whose lack of qualifications would be a bar to their progress, but ordinarily our charitable intent impels us to accept, to a greater or less extent, those who have been left by other schools, and who need the instruction which will enable them to enter upon life armed and equipped as best they may. The business colleges in the Country are restricted in their work by responsibilities thrown upon them to make accomplished accountants and accomplished correspondents. An accountant must understand thoroughly and practically not only how to keep books, but how to manage financial affairs, and how to discharge the duties of citizenship. It has been one of our delightful privileges, during the past few years, to qualify girls for positions as stenographers and correspondents. To be a stenographer and a correspondent is not simply to be able to write shorthand with facility and transcribe it correctly, be able to understand and write an English sentence correctly ; but to these some knowledge of business affairs must also be added. I think I may safely say that the course of study which is carefully laid out and practiced in all the departments of our best busi- ness colleges is clear, positive, intelligent ; that its faithful administra- tion will secure the best results of education ; and beyond this, the opportunities which come to this class of schools, and which I feel it incumbent on me to say are the greatest opportunities which occur in life for the advancement of the highest interests of young men and women, are not lost sight of, nor underestimated. There is an important part of our duty as educationists that is not mentioned in any public curriculum and cannot even be designated here, and that is the duty which one human being owes to another ; the duty, above all, which a teacher owes to his pupil, to know the ordering of his mind, to come into harmony with his thoughts and his purposes, and in that faithful and conscientious discharge of duty which must ever be the true teacher's patent of nobility, to direct the mind to healthful channels ; to put it into harmony with the best thoughts and the best purposes ; to kindle the spark of self-consciousness and personal responsibility, and, in short, to lay the foundations of a noble life. I have said that this part of our work cannot be put into a curriculum, cannot be formulated in words, and that its existence in any school through the ordinary means of investi- gation cannot be ascertained ; but knowing intimately, as I do, those who are engaged in this work, and the principles that govern them, I feel compelled to say that not only have the business colleges of the country established their right to stand as special agencies in education, but that the work they have undertaken is in good hands. AD VANTAGES OF A COMMERCIAL COLLEGE TRAINING. ?9l PRACTICAL ADVANTAGES OF A COMMERCIAL COLLEGE TRAINING. ABSTRACT OF A PAPER BY GEORGE SOULE, NEW ORLENAS, LA. Locke tells us that " the best way to come to truth is to examine things as they really are, and not to conclude that they are as we fancy of our- selves, or have been taught by others to imagine." And Narada, a Hindoo sage, wisely says : " We must study to know, know to comprehend, and comprehend to judge." To reach a correct conclusion on the question before us, let us follow the wise counsel of these philosophers, and study and learn the facts of the case. Advancing on this line of thought, let us first, in logical order consider some of the human enterprises and industries of man which are carried on by virtue of the very knowledge tbat is imparted by a business college training. In the front line stands commerce, graceful and digni- fied, robed in royal purple, queen of human industries. In her wake, civilization, religion, and humanity, the triune virtues of a people, march on to grander and to higher altitudes of glory. Commerce invades the wilderness, crosses oceans, and through its influences are founded king- doms, empires, and republics. Now the essential qualifications necessary to carry on this commerce and to disseminate those principles which result in the social and physical im- provement of the world, and which make labor, production, manufacture, and exchange successful, require a special curriculum of study, which must be acquired either by the slow and costly process of apprenticeship and experience, or by schools established and equipped for this especial purpose. This special curriculum should comprise, for the merchant, the banker, and all classes of business men, in addition to a literary educa- tion, commercial law in all its general applications to partnership, to insurance, to common carriers, to general contracts, to notes and bills, to principal and agent, to rights and remedies, etc. It should embrace individual and political economy, the ethics of trade, and the principles of sociology and of civil government; also correspondence, practical mathematics, book-keeping, corporation accounting, partnership settle- ments, etc. This course of study gives knowledge, system, order, accu- racy and discipline to the mind. It unites in action, the reasoning, the perceptive, and the moral faculties, which, with caution and acquisitive- ness, constitute the capacity to plan and devise those financial campaigns that result in just and honorable gains. Speaking for the business college, I can testify, from an experience of more than a third of a century, that the well-conducted business school of the present day does teach the above-named special curriculum of 792 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. studies required by all men of business. Therefore, since commerce is so grandly beneficial to mankind, and since a high-grade technical curriculum of practical knowledge is required to successfully conduct so great an industry in all its multitudinous ramifications, and since the well-appointed business college does impart the knowledge required, it follows that a business college training is of practical advantage to its possessor, to com- merce, and to the progress of mankind. By the light of this conclusion, I submit that the practical curriculum of the business college is not only of practical advantage, but is demanded by the commercial and business interest of the world, and by the great social questions of the age, which are agitating capital and labor in all the fields of human action. If busi- ness men of all classes had a more bountiful supply of this practical knowledge, failures and defalcations, violated promises and repudiated contracts, would be far less frequent. But, Mr. Chairman, the benefits of a business or commercial school education are by no means limited to the merchant. The banker, the manufacturer, the artisan, the tradesman, the farmer, the lawyer, the theologian, the professional man, and in brief all classes of society are more thoroughly armed and equipped for service in their respective spheres of labor, by the practical education taught in the commercial or business schools. All of these classes of men must of necessity have some knowl- edge of accounts, and of the customs and laws of business. A large part of a lawyer's professional business brings him face to face with accounts, with business transactions, with the adjustments of part- nerships and of financial settlements. As evidence that the clergy have need for financial knowledge, we have but to consider the financial busi- ness of the church. The churches of the United States own over two hundred million dollars of real estate. They receive and disburse annu- ally for expenses, for foreign missions, and for educational purposes, nearly twenty-five millions of dollars. The church is also largely engaged in the publication of books, magazines and papers. To possess this property, and to transact the business of the church, is it not clear that the clergy have need for business and accounting knowledge ? To deny the advantage of the medical school education for the physi- cian, or the law school education for the lawyer, or the theological school education for the clergyman, or the engineering school education for the engineer, or the military school training for the soldier, or the school of mines for the metallurgist, or the manual training school for the mechanic, or the art school for the painter and sculptor, would be a denial of well-known facts, an unpardonable libel on the civilization of the nineteenth century, and an evidence of a mind incapable of discern- ment or comprehension. And thus as the above-named schools stand to the science, the profes- sion, or the trade for which they prepare disciples and votaries, so stands INDUSTRIAL, COMMERCIAL, AND FINANCIAL INTERESTS. 793 the business school to all classes of business men ; and this, for the reason that all classes require in their respective lines of business, as a supple- ment to their profession or trade, some knowledge, as previously stated, of the customs of trade, the laws of business, of contracts, of commercial paper, and instruments of writing, of shorthand and type-writing, and of account keeping, etc., etc. The business college is not intended to sup- plant other schools, but to supplement them. - The business college recognizes the fact that the school of experience occupies the highest altitude of all educational institutions. But while it recognizes this truth, it bases its claims for usefulness to mankind, and to a place of honor among its educational sisters, upon the self-evident fact that there should be a preparatory course of study and training given to all persons whatever may be their vocation in life, before they matriculate in the great school of experience, where the instruction is limited to one branch of knowledge, and the tuition always costly. The commercial course supplements that of all other schools, and is equally as beneficial to the graduates of the university, as it is to those whose general education has been limited to the public school. All univer- sity alumni must pursue a course in some technical school, such as law, medecine, theology, or business. A business college education is of special and practical advantage to a large class of industrious young men and young women, whose time is too limited and whose treasury is too small to allow them to pursue any literary or scientific course of study, which would require from two to five years. The functions of the business college are well defined and limited. By holding the standard of its own curriculum high, and by doing its limited work faithfully and well, it will continue to increase its practical advan- tages to the business world, and will merit the kindly favor of all right- minded men. THE RELATION OF BUSINESS INSTRUCTION TO INDUS- TRIAL, COMMERCIAL, AND FINANCIAL INTERESTS. ABSTRACT OF A PAPER BY A. D. WILT, DAYTON, OHIO. It may be safely claimed by the commercial colleges of the United States that there are to-day in the business enterprises of the country not less than one million of their graduates. This will include thousands of heads of firms and owners of business, whose training and the boundless opportunities our country affords have made them wealthy, independent men. The relationships, therefore, between the business college of this country and the commercial, industrial, and financial interests of the country are 794 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. peculiar to this country. The sentiment of caste, which in many parts of the world keeps the highly educated class out of business, has never obtained here, and as a consequence a considerable percentage of the well- to-do and of the best-educated class are in business ; and the training given by the business college, which, compared with the broad curriculum of the European schools or the long apprenticeship of the English youth, would seem inadequate, is, however, much more effective than it would appear to be, because of the excellent preliminary training alluded to. Those who have taken it have succeeded ; and it is believed that a fair comparison between the German, French, and English business man and the American business man will not give the advantage in the question of ability and effectiveness to his foreign brother. In all of the best of these institutions the important part of the course is that which is given the student in what is known as the practice depart- ment. In this department the student is furnished with a capital in money, merchandise, etc., represented by cards or otherwise, and engages with his fellow-students in transactions which elucidate the methods, forms, customs, and laws of business in all departments. Thus the work of a jobbing house is duplicated in the work of the students with a degree of exactness and fullness that enables the graduates to immediately assume the duties of very responsible positions in such houses ; while so much attention is given to the opening and conducting of corporations, and to the latest customs and methods of dealing with their bonds and stock, and to the relationship of owners and the public, in all aspects, that very many of the large corporations have been operated by graduates without further training. No adequate judgment of the place the American business college has in the educational appliances of the country, or the relationship it has to the great industries of the country, is possible without giving due weight to these important and significant facts concerning the extent of the con- trol and management which their graduates have of the business of the United States. While the methods, laws, and customs of the various commercial nations of the world are necessarily similar in many respects, a marked individuality obtains in each, and this notwithstanding the constant efforts that are being made by commercial, financial, and industrial congresses to unify these methods, laws, and customs. Much good in this direction is to be hoped for as a result of the various conferences of the great Columbian Exposition ; and what may be agreed upon, which can be generally adopted, will be at once made a part of the curricula of the commercial colleges, and the large body of their graduates who are taking positions in the business world will aid in giving it effect. The relationship of the million of alumni of these colleges with their alma mater has been annually growing more intimate, and the dissemina- INDUSTRIAL, COMMERCIAL, AND FINANCIAL INTERESTS. 795 tion of these new ideas between the colleges and their alumni is con- tinually and easily made to the great advantage of both. Not only are the results of the state, national, and intermediate con- ferences thus quickly brought to the notice of this great body of students and active business men, but the current decisions of the courts in com- mercial, industrial, and financial affairs are disseminated in the same way. It is on these accounts, as well as the others before alluded to, that the influence of commercial colleges in the commercial, industrial, and finan- cial world is constantly and highly advantageous. Not only is the narrower work of book-keeping, but also the broader labor of the management of business affairs, better done in every city or region in which the best class of these colleges are training the young for business pursuits. The most systematic labor-saving methods of account- antship are in use in the counting-rooms, and the broadest and most effective lines of management are followed up. These claims for the advantages to the business world that result from the work of these business colleges are supported by the testimony of many of the prominent managers of the great industries, and by other high authorities. This elaborate plea for business college training would not be justifiable or necessary were it not that these colleges, being private institutions, are not so conspicuous to the public eye as the great endowed scholastic and church schools are, and therefore the great and salutary influence they have had in supplying modern business the great body of trained workers, which has made possible the enormous magnitude of our colossal under- takings, is not easily seen and appreciated. It will not be inferred from the foregoing that those now charged with the responsibility of commercial teaching undervalue the advantage of the broadest literary training to the business man and to the business world. When the late President Garfield, himself one of the broadest scholars of his time, a graduate of the noble college he highly honored, compared the training that Harvard gave to the training given by the commercial colleges, he said he was animated not less with a profound sense of the power that broad scholarship gives in business, as well as in the professions and in all human relationships, than with a regretful recognition of the fact that the graduates of the best American literary colleges have not generally had the specific training that would enable them to quickly and successfully take up the problems of the great business affairs. 796 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. THE HIGHER ASPECTS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION. ABSTRACT OF A PAPER BY R. E. GALLAGHER, HAMILTON, ONTARIO. No amount of mere intellectual knowledge will render a man educated in any high or proper sense of the term. The test of education is action, and the educated man is he who has all his faculties strong and active so that he can perform his part rightly and effectually in the world. The honest, the truthful, the upright man, imbued with right principles of industry and economy, is in every proper sense of the word better educated for life than one who has taken degrees at a university, or who has a full acquaintance with all the systems of ancient and modern philosophy, but who is without those qualities. This education is well within the province of the business college, and, as will be seen, is of the very highest character. While the business college may be said to be a technical school, educat- ing in a special direction, its field is nevertheless a broad one, for every person needs some training in the processes of doing business. You all understand how much is lost, how much evil results, from the want of knowledge of the ordinary methods of transacting business on the part of farmers and artisans. It is possibly as important, or more important than for the young men who go as clerks or bookkeepers in the business houses, for such young men can get a knowledge of business from their employers. These have teachers over them, and they are thus trained and promoted in the degree that they take on training; but the man undertaking to manage a farm or carry on a mechanical business of any sort seldom has an opportunity for such elementary training as is given to a clerk by his employer, and he feels the want of it all his life. Indirectly (if not in all cases directly) the business college is a great ethical school. Many schools have the subject of commercial ethics on their curriculum of study, and by the use of text-books and lectures the students are specially trained in ethics ; but whether the science of ethics is made a special study or not, bookkeeping as taught in the business colleges is one of the grandest exponents of the economic relations of society. Dr. Anderson says : " A good set of books, well kept, is in reality a series of an exact and certain number of rights and obligations ; the rights on one side and the obligations on the other. This is the more important, as men in general are much more cautious in caring for their rights than for their obligations. That is a clear-headed and trustworthy merchant who keeps his obligations always less than his rights ; that is to say, where he has rights enough to meet, and more than meet, his obligations. Now this is a mere matter of ethics." All business con- THE HIGHER ASPECTS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION. 797 sists in the exchange of rights. The moral right that underlies book- keeping is therefore of the greatest importance. This is not an ideal representation. Bookkeeping should be so taught that all this may be thoroughly brought out, as it is only second in value to its great practical utility, involving as it does all the processes of banking, insurance, trans- portation, and exchange. It is possible some of the business educators of this country are them- selves taking a wrong view of their duty ; are regarding themselves merely as machines to satisfy the demands of the business community ; are considering it as their sole duty to equip young men and women with preliminary training necessary to supply the clerk market, or to merely make money in life, instead of giving them such training as will help them to become business men and women in the higher and nobler sense of the term. If my apprehensions are correct, let me ask : Are not the ethical complications among the very greatest ? Are not the problems of the rights and relations of men as important as any commercial study could be ? Is not the commercial world a great commonwealth ? We are living in a great business age ; vast combinations everywhere multiply- ing and extending far and near to change all business relations and results. Who can tell in these days what the real market price of any- thing is, or what it ought to be, even to money itself 9 Tell me, what is so important in that vast system as the ethical principles, the questions of right and wrong which are involved ? What is so important to the success of any business as that there shall be upright principles underlying it ? Young people need to be educated in these respects. It is also the duty of the business college to train for citizenship, and so far as possible for the responsible duties of the public office. How important that the problem of a higher education for business be considered in all its bearings ! There are those who pretend to believe that our obligations to our pupils have been met when we have taught them the usual branches of the business course. These certainly should be well taught, but much more must be undertaken. Even these are means, and not ends. The work of the modern business school must above all things be so conducted, and its studies so constructed, as to add continually to the moral force and to the already acquired intelligence of the pupil who comes to it. He must be led into habits of the most careful observation; he must be taught to have confidence in his own opinions and his own skill; but at the same time he must be taught to respect the opinions and feelings of others, and to see that his own are well and intelli- gently formed. He should be required to trace given results back to their producing causes, and to anticipate the legitimate results that might be expected to follow given causes. Patience, perseverance, neatness, accuracy, and dispatch are as essential to a suitable preparation for business, as are theory and practice. In no other way, except by this broad and persistent 798 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. business training, can the pupil be fitted in any true sense to receive the business inheritance that awaits him. In addition to the studies of commercial ethics, bookkeeping, arith- metic, penmanship, commercial law, correspondence, orthography, stenog- raphy, typewriting, etc., a thorough training in political economy and civil government should be given in every business college, and, if possible, instruction in commercial geography and commercial history ; thus prescribing a course of study requiring from one to two years to complete. I understand that some business colleges are working in this direction already, and are not only meeting with great success, but are dignifying and elevating business education. All that is required is for a number of the more prominent colleges to take the lead in these matters, and others will of necessity follow. The public expect the business college graduates to perform a leading part in the drama of life, and they will not be disappointed. Reinforce- ments are needed in the ranks of those struggling for the elevation of the human race, whether in society, business, or politics, and the quota from the business college will be equal to the task. It will send out well-trained young men and women for the real work of life ; will send out those who have the power to apply their knowledge, not merely those who possess an array of facts, and no ability with which to make use of knowledge. But they will grandly meet the demands made upon them in all departments of business life. STENOGRAPHY AND TYPEWRITING AS BRANCHES OF BUSINESS EDUCATION. ABSTRACT OF A PAPEE BY ISAAC S. DEMENT, CHICAGO, ILL. We have but to glance into the office of any business concern, whose transactions are of any particular moment, to find one proof that these branches of learning are of value. Not only are they of value, but their special value lies in the assistance which they furnish the progressive and hurried business man. There is, perhaps, no study which so trains the mind to a clear percep- tion and a quick analysis as shorthand. Typewriting, too, cultivates these habits of mind, and the other important ones of a full knowledge of our language and its presentation in properly constructed periods and paragraphs. Both studies, when properly taught, lead the student to habits of neatness in handwriting and typewriting. To go more into detail. The committing of principles and word signs necessarily leads to meditation ; while the necessity of quickly reducing to shorthand the rapid utterances of speakers, the raging conflicts between STENOGRAPHY AND TYPEWRITING. 799 attorney and witness, the brawls of political caucuses, the vehement utter- ances of the debater, and the excited arguments of counsel, bring into full play acuteness of hearing, sense of harmony, and knowledge of language. This being true, the progressive student soon sees the necessity of thorough training of the mind in order to become a proficient writer and the recip- ient of well-deserved fees. Typewriting may require less of intellectual capacity ; yet it requires a quickness of perception and deep penetration which are not necessary to the shorthand writer, though of value to him. This is illustrated by the endeavor of a man, with muffled utterance and little or no knowledge of the English language, to dictate his business correspondence. If the operator be thoroughly competent, it will be his duty and natural desire to grasp the full meaning, and his sense of hearing will be put to the utmost tension. In addition to the difficulty of understanding the words will be placing together in proper sentences, accurately punctuated, his ideas ; and this must be done quickly, for such a dictator would become irritated by what might seem to him unnecessary delay. If I take the other view of the meaning of this topic — that I am to treat the subject as a distinct branch of business — the subject is still fur- ther broadened. The field for a fully equipped amanuensis is almost unlimited. There is scarcely a branch of business into which he may not go. And the time is not far distant when stenographers will become as much specialists as physicians and surgeons now do. When that time arrives one student will qualify as an amanuensis in the real estate business, another in the grocery business, another in the hardware business, another for law offices, and others still for insurance and other offices. Even now reporters are becoming specialists ; for we have reporters of debates, of medical confer- ences, of legal trials, and even of funeral services. Why I say that amanuenses will qualify for these distinct lines of busi- ness is that now the business man is confronted, when he desires to employ an amanuensis, with the knowledge that it will take weeks, and maybe months, before the new assistant will become so thoroughly versed in his business as to perform his functions without delay or error. General con- ventions, local conventions, meetings of associations, etc., are becoming so numerous that they afford constant employment for many reporters. The reporter has been schooled in the idea of doing all kinds of work, but the fact that he may obtain a good clientage in any special line of work necessarily creates in him a desire to settle into that single line of reporting. If it be true, then, that these studies are to lead into a necessity for these differences in training, it is safe also to predict that the department of com- mercial colleges usually termed Department of Shorthand and Typewriting, which is now considered subsidiary, will rise into such prominence as to 800 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. demand separate institutions. Many teachers of shorthand are now endeavoring to produce this result, and their efforts in the end will be successful. This demand, which I have outlined, for a divorce of the shorthand department from the business college, will force an acknowl- edgment of its importance. It is not acknowledged ; it is treated as a sub-department. True, its revenues are large ; but it is not given that literary standing which it, in and of itself, by virtue of its mere theory, demands. I take the broad stand, therefore, that shorthand writing is a profession, requiring just as much study, research, and practice as any other profes- sion. Unlike most professions, however, remunerative employment awaits the novice, and he may either climb or remain an amanuensis. THE WORLD'S NEED OF BUSINESS WOMEN. BY MES. SARA A. SPENCER, PRESIDENT OF SPENCERIAN BUSINESS COLLEGE, OF WASHINGTON, D. C. LAn Abstract.] Shining landmarks in the world's history, commemorating new civili- zation, are known as "The Age of Pericles," "The Renaissance," "The Court of Queen Elizabeth," "The Reformation." This period of time and events known over the earth as the Columbian Quadricentennial, the Golden Wedding of the Old World and the New, will be better known in history as " Woman's Era." " Columbus discov- ered America, but the American Congress has discovered woman," said an American queen, Mrs. Potter Palmer, at the opening of the World's Con- gress Auxiliary, October 21, 1892. As the centripetal force of humanity, the essential brooding spirit of this new civilization, the mother heart whence the arteries and veins, and thence the nerves, muscles, bones, and sinews of a new life grow, it is right, fitting, and inevitable that, in this supreme hour, woman's position, development, purposes, outlook, and general relation to the world at large, should be announced, studied and discussed from every conceivable point of view. What the world needs of her is the special topic of this paper. To begin with, one may safely declare that the world needs more dread- winners. The right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, implies the right to the means whereby to live and to secure liberty and happiness. But in woman's case a gigantic obstacle interposes, and unless we can demonstrate that she is needed in remunerative fields of labor, her own needs will count for little. The serene, superior, boundless confidence man has in his ability THE WORLD'S NEED OF BUSINESS WOMEN 801 to provide for, protect, and fix the place and station of every woman on earth, is only equaled by the placid unconcern with which he passes away from this planet without leaving wife or daughter a dollar in the world, or a dollar's worth of earning capacity. The truth is, there is no natural nor logical reason why all men should support, or claim or undertake to support, all women and children. It is too large a contract. It is not a true division of labor, nor wise politi- cal economy. Nor is there any just reason why the labor of the world should be divided into paid and unpaid labor, and all the paid labor should be man's work, and all the unpaid woman's work. Women, nowadays, generally know that they are working hard enough to earn, and far more than earn, their own living, and this under the greatest possible disad- vantages. The protection and support theory sounds noble, but it isn't true. Women have found out that it is largely " pretty talk," good for courting days. President Lincoln is reputed to have said, "You may fool some of the people all of the time, or all of the people some of the time, but you can't fool all of the people all of the time." The patriarchal system is dead. Peace to its ashes ! TJie world needs more brain-workers. No man should wait until he is obliged to earn his own living before he sets himself about it. All the forces within him should cry out for activity. This is equally true of woman. "Obliged to earn her own living !" say you ? Yes, obliged to win and preserve her own self-respect, her natural love of independence, to fulfill her share of the grand activities of the grandest age the world has known, to live out her surging, abundant life in congenial work. The world needs her rich young brain, her swift, skillful fingers, her keen, in- tuitive perception, her tender conscience, her tireless devotion to duty ; and to withhold all these from their proper expression not only defrauds her of her birthright, and harnesses the eagle to the plow, but it defrauds the world of the wealth locked up in her royal capabilities, and is a lavish waste of God's bounty in human brains. The world needs more home-builders. And here the oft-quoted and ever just and timely criticism of Emily Faithfull, of England, should be reaffirmed : " It is a cruel mockery to tell women who have no home, that home is woman's proper sphere," and it is far more cruel to taunt gentle, true-hearted women, who some way have missed marriage, by telling them that every woman should be a wife and mother. The world needs wiser marriages. The most indignant remonstrance against business training for women I ever heard was from a popular member of Congress, who said, " Do you wish to make young women so independent that they will not need to marry ? Your ideas would wreck the world, if people believed in them, which, thank heaven, they do not !" One would think this gentleman, whose wife really loved him devotedly, 51 802 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. and blindly indorsed all his opinions, would have preferred a woman who felt compelled to marry him for a home, or impelled to marry him for social station. The world needs an intelligent distribution of its wealth. Shall mil- lions of men risk their lives exploring the caverns of the earth and the depths of the air and sea for gold, silver, plumage, pearls, and diamonds, only that a few favored women may be decked in jewels or clad in furs and seal skins ? " To paint the lily, Or add another hue unto the rainbow, Is wasteful and ridiculous excess." This small fractional portion of womankind, whose splendid array and gorgeous coming and going through the earth make them appear to be typical of the sheltered and protected ease and luxury of the entire woman- hood of the world, will receive in this paper our late but respectful con- sideration. It cannot be that womankind has no other interest in the precious wealth of the world than to make herself irresistibly attractive to its few possessors, and thus to bear off the palm before all others, and to win and wear their gold and jewels. Ignoble destiny ! Worthy of the Circassian slave or the queen of the seraglio ! Few women of America bear that relation to the wealth of the world. As a fact, the larger portion of the great fortunes made by men in this country were made after marriage, and the wives of these men, having shared with them the early days of poverty and struggle, know well how to sympathize with their toiling sisters, understanding also, too well, that poverty may be the least of their misfortunes. The world needs a wiser administration of its charities. If it is still largely true that " one half of the world does not know how the other half lives," and that, in great cities, the '* submerged tenth " continue to poison the air that all must breathe, it is also true that there is to-day being done, and wisely done, on this planet more truly benevolent work for the genuine uplifting of humanity, than in all the other ages of human history taken together. Evils are no longer accepted as inevita- ble, necessary, and eternal, but as symptoms of a state of humanity suscep- tible of treatment. The work of redemption is largely in the hands of women. And it is work, real brain and heart work, of the finest, most subtle and delicate description. If it does, as it does, incidentally, in- volve the handling of large sums of money, the money is not generally used to pay people for becoming and remaining paupers, and thus sinking them deeper in degradation, but for disseminating information, living truths, to lift them to a higher plane, educating their children to useful labor, and thus permanently improving their condition; offering "not alms, but a friend and a helping hand." BENEFITS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION. 803 The exhibits of the work of women in all departments of this Columbian Exposition indicate that the women of all the world are now in kindly competition with each other in the development of special talent, inherited genius, and acquired skill in invention, construction and production, to meet every phase of human need. And everywhere the truly womanly and motherly spirit is manifest, from the kitchen knife that will do execu- tion and not cut the fingers, to the humane cattle car3, and improvements in the life-saving service ; from the tender training of infants, to skillful methods of alleviating the horrors of war, and securing safety in public travel. Everywhere her work symbolizes the strength, symmetry, grace, and beauty of the usefully trained, nobly developed daughters of this new age, this memorable Woman's Era. RECIPROCAL RELATIONS AND BENEFITS OF BUSINESS AND OTHER DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION. ABSTRACT OF A PAPER BY DR. IRA MAYHEW, DETROIT, MICH. Under the prevailing systems of education in this country, up to the middle of the present century, bookkeeping was not taught in any grade of our public schools. It was not required preparatory to admission to college, neither was it embraced in the curricula of these institutions, nor taught in any of our professional schools. Under such a system of educa- tion an enterprising and successful merchant might send his sons through college, and then through schools of law, medicine, or divinity, without their having an opportunity to master the principles of accounts. Under such circumstances, in case of the disability of the father, none of his so-called liberally educated sons would be able to carry on or close up his business, or properly to comprehend its condition from an examination of his books of account. Surely such a system of education, whatever excellences it may possess, is manifestly radically defective. About the middle of the century a number of persons, embracing both educators and business men, realizing the situation, undertook to remedy the difficulty: some of them, by the preparation of books teaching the science adapted to use in schools, and by opening what were known as initiatory counting rooms, mercantile institutes, and the like, for prepar- ing young men as accountants ; others of them, without the use of text- books on the subject, taught from manuscript sets, giving especial atten- tion to penmanship, including ornamental work and flourishing. Many of these earlier enterprises were conducted by persons of limited general education, who severely criticised established schools for their disregard of bookkeeping; and these schools, in turn, criticised this new departure in 804 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. education, conducted by illiterate men (as they claimed), but which, by its attractive features, drew largely upon the patronage of old and estab- lished schools. These new schools, it was further claimed by their critics, were superficial in their teaching, and on the whole injurious to the cause of sound learning. But this era of unfriendly criticism, it is believed, has now become a thing of the past, and both literary schools and business colleges better under- stand and appreciate each other's work. Many of the business colleges, at first, were open to criticism, and profited by it ; and the same is true of literary schools. In like manner business colleges, while improving in their business methods, are gaining in their literary standing. There are various ways in which strictly literary institutions and purely business schools mutually benefit each other, and render valuable service to one another's students. Cases have come under the writer's personal observation where young men who have not had awakened in them an interest in the studies of the literary school, have fallen behind their classes, have failed to receive promotion, and have finally, under advice, left school. Later, these same persons have entered a judiciously con- ducted business college, become interested in its range of work and methods of study, completed its course with credit, and become successful in business, and having thus learned how to study, have taken up literary work in connection with business and achieved success in both. In such cases the business school is surely a godsend to the young man it develops and saves from becoming a drone in the community. The wrriter has also known of other cases where literary students have held their positions in their classes until graduation at college, without becoming specially interested in any of their studies, or seeing how these studies could aid them in preparing for or obtaining a position in business. They realized that they were not qualified to engage in teaching. They had neither taste, time, nor means for studying a profession. Their education had not fitted them for business. They were prepared for no work but what an average school-boy could do quite as well'as they. A few months' study in a good business school would have better fitted them for business, or put them in better condition for obtaining a situation in which they could earn a comfortable support, than the years of unproductive study they had engaged in. We have seen how the remarkable growth of our country has rendered a correspondingly broad business culture a necessity, and how the business school, which has done much towards creating this demand, has also con- tributed largely toward meeting it. No matter how ample one's literary attainments may be, these alone will not fit him for the practice of medi- cine or the law. Special training is necessary for the successful practice of these professions. The more general culture one has before entering upon either of them, the better his opportunity for achieving success in it. A BUSINESS MAN'S EDUCATION. 805 The same is equally true of business. Men who engage in it without due preparation rarely attain success, and in most cases utterly fail. On the other hand, the better the preparation, the deeper and broader the founda- tion laid, the surer the prospect of attaining success. Occasionally some genius may achieve remarkable results without seeming preparation. But this is the exception, not the rule. The business college bears the same relation to business life that the law school and medical College do to professional life. In all cases alike, the more general culture one pos- sesses, the better the prospect of success in his specialty. Should business schools simply make good bookkeepers, they would be of great benefit in a commercial nation like ours. But the ideal college not only does this, but it so cultivates the judgment and develops the judicial powers that its students take a firmer grasp of the great problems of life, gain far-reaching conceptions of cause and effect, and entertain higher aims and know better how to realize them. They cannot fail thus to prove of incalculable benefit to the country. What has been said of the need of supplementing the work of literary schools with a course of business study, applies equally to scientific and professional schools, and to complex pursuits where several branches of arts, manufactures or trades are carried on, and where purchases for use in one branch are paid for in sales from another. In all such cases it is necessary to know not only how to operate each branch of business carried on, but to be able to keep accounts so as to show the cost and returns of each branch of business conducted ; otherwise, although the net result of the whole may be determined, while there has been great gain in some and loss in others, still the particular sources of gain and loss may not be known. Only a good knowledge and the careful practice of bookkeeping can in such cases bring to light the facts required to be known, in order to so change the management of the business as to increase the gains and reduce the losses, and thus place the business as a whole upon a better footing. A B TJSINESS MAN'S ED UCA TION—CONCL UDINO ADDRESS. BY DE. JAMES MACALISTER, PRESIDENT DREXEL INSTITUTE, PHILADELPHIA. I have no right to speak on business education, first, because I am not and never have been a business man ; and, secondly, I have never studied or taught business as a branch of education. I have thought a great deal about it and have a very profound interest in it. Just as I came in I heard a remark dropped about giving women a business educa- tion. Well, that is a matter that I have had occasion to look at in a very practical way. I think that is one of the great needs of our society at the present time. I believe that as a general thing women know very little about business. I do not know that they are altogether to blame. There are a great many families, probably some in Chicago, where 806 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. the wife knows nothing of her husband's resources or the future of her family, so far as business is concerned. One of the rich men of the East, who was a partner in one of the largest banking houses in America, died a few years ago, leaving millions of dollars to his three daugh- ters. These three young women thus became the richest unmarried girls in America. This man was a banker, and he trained those girls in business. He did not choose to leave the money to a trust company. He left three men, one of them his brother, a partner, another a dear friend, to assist them. He had trained these daughters in finance, he had trained them in business, and to-day one of them, whom I know inti- mately, has as clear a head about the management of her millions as any man who is struggling along with a business of fifty thousand dollars. Her wealth does not grow less. I merely mention this to show that there is a good deal in business education, and I have always thought it an indictment almost of the elementary public school that arith- metic, which forms so large a portion of the course of instruction, is of so unpractical a character that it is possible for a girl or a boy to spend eight or nine years in the ele- mentary school, and leave it with perhaps a very accurate knowledge of all kinds of fractions, and know very little indeed about the real affairs of life, so far as they relate to business. And so the matter of professional education becomes of importance ; and I take it, sir, that this is the chief purpose of this Congress — the discussion of professional education. Now, I cannot say too much on that. It is one of the great needs of this country. With our enormous wealth and unrivaled resources, and our opportunities for business, and for each man rising in the business world, unequaled anywhere else, or in any period of the world's history, yet less provision has been made for professional education than any other. In France and in Germany it is a matter of government duty. The government thinks it just as much its duty to provide professional colleges in business as it does in technology, in art, and in science, and so you will find in Paris great magnificent schools in one of the finest social centers, and with the tricolor of the republic over the great gables; that is the great college for training merchants of the highest order, just as the state trains lawyers, and physicians, and soldiers, and sailors, and scientists, and scholars. The course of study there is most elaborate. They think there, as we all think, that the business man should have a broad, general charac- ter. I don't know of any who need it more than the business man does. There is no reason at all why a business man should not be an educated gentleman. I take it that a general, broad education is more important to a business man than to a lawyer, because the lawyer's is a very specialized profession; the business man has the broadest outlook and covers a larger field than any man in the activities of the world. Guibert the great historian said, " The merchant is the friend of man," and that is true. There is no man who does more for the progress and the elevation of humanity than the great industrialist. The ultimate end of all education, of all human education, primary, secondary, and higher, is to put man in true relation to his entire environment, the environment of nature, the great world and universe all around him, to his social environ- ment, to all the duties and obligations thac relate men to each other, and I would say, also, to his economic and commercial environment. One-half of the millions spent on taxes in this country is wasted, because of the manner in which education is administered. In high schools here and there they have a business course, but it is not a professional education. It serves a good purpose, and the more girls you can get to take it, the better, but it is not professional. This country does nothing for professional education in business, and so it has been left to private enterprises, and we owe a great debt of gratitude to the enterprising men who have devoted their lives to that work, and I do not think with altogether an interested motive. To-day I believe we are suffering from the want of an adequate knowledge of A BUSINESS MAN'S EDUCATION. 807 the science of business in this country. There is not any legislature in the world where you will find such an absolute ignorance of finance as in|the American Congress. I do not look with any faith to the approaching session of Congress, because they do not know how to settle the great questions that are of the most serious importance to the people at this moment. When we go back to the Revolution and try to name the one great man, and name next to him the great statesman of that epoch, with one mind all turn to Alexander Hamilton, who laid the financial basis of this nation. So when we go to European countries, we find that the great statesmen are the men who are best fitted to deal with financial and business problems. The greatest statesman of the English- speaking world, perhaps the greatest it has ever had, is William E. Gladstone, and he won his spurs, as did all the prime ministers of England, by dealing with financial ques- tions, and so it is in all the other countries of Europe. And it would be a most important and valuable result to our society, if these professional business colleges could educate men who go into our business affairs, who control the wealth which is ultimately the power of the nation. The bar has not all the great men now, and I don't think the pulpit has. The medical profession is beginning to attract a great many able men. It is not true of the profes- sions now as it was half a century ago, because a large amount of the intellect and the real power of the country has gone into business. I have had personal relations with a great banker, and I don't know of any man who earned his money as hard as he did. I don't know any man who needs more intellectual power and resource, and who works harder and who has graver responsibilities, than the man who takes care of our money; and so I think we should gain enormously if we could make it a rule that the door to business, as well as to the old and the new professions, should be through the profes- sional business school. I hope I shall not be considered importunate if I express the hope that these professional schools would widen their training. As private enterprises, of course, they are dependent upon public support, but as I learn from my friend, and as I hear from others engaged in the business, there is an organized desire on their part that the curriculum in the business college shall be widened. How can any man hope to be a successful business man who does not understand the great economic laws of the world ? I do believe that a great many miscarry in business simply because of total ignorance of the fundamental principles of economics, that it does not require a very large amount of serious study to master. I hope the time will come when the alphabet and the economics wiil be taught in the elementary school ; but for business it seems to me that this ought to be included in the curriculum. And then there is the noble science of Commercial Geography — really a broad science, full of meat and full of learning, and one that would not only widen the whole outlook of the business man, but would give him a practical knowledge that would be of great value to him, if you choose, in an interesting sense. And then there are the great ethical considerations that ought to enter into business education. Ethical training is an absolute training for every human being, but at the same time it ought to enter into the professional training. It has been a very great satisfaction to me to find that your work has received recog- nition by the National Educational Association, and that you now, like the other depart- ments of education, have yours, and in that way your work has been dignified, because of its recognition, and it deserves it. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM. SECEETAET'S EEPOET. FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July 26, 1893. In the absence of Hon. Henry Barnard, chairman of this department, Hon. Henry Sabin, of Des Moines, Iowa, was called to the chair. Principal C. C. Rounds, of the State Normal School, Plymouth, N. H., delivered an address on " Present Ideals in Educational Journalism." A paper by Sefior Ramon Monterola, editor of the Boletin Bibliografico y Escolar, Mexico, was read by Mr. Will S. Monroe, of Leland Stanford Jr. University. Mr. Amos M. Kellogg, editor of the School Journal and Teachers' Institute, New York City, followed with a paper on " The Purpose and Reward of Educational Jour- nals." A free discussion ensued, in which many members of the department partici- pated. SECOND SESSION.— Friday, July 28, 1893. The second meeting was made especially interesting by the presence of Hon. Henry Barnard, the oldest educational editor living, now in his eighty-third year. He spoke with the vigor and energy of a young man. He recommended that immediate steps be taken to provide for keeping in this country the entire educational exhibit at Jack- son Park. A committee was appointed, consisting of himself, Dr. MacAlister, of Drexel Insti- tute, and C. W. Bardeen, of Syracuse, to devise a plan for this and report at the general meeting in the evening. M. Compayre, the distinguished French author, read a history of educational jour- nalism in France in the French language. Dr. MacAlister paid a graceful tribute to the great work France is doing in education. Principal Rounds said that no student was allowed to graduate from the New Hampshire State Normal School without enough knowledge of French to read French pedagogical literature in the original. Papers were presented giving the history of school journals in different parts of America, and in Germany, Austria, Italy, Mexico, and India. EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM. PRESENT IDEALS IN EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM. ABSTKACT OF THE ADDRESS BY C. C. BOUNDS, PRINCIPAL OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, PLYMOUTH, N. H. The forms assumed by the educational journals of the United States are so manifold that it is difficult to discover 'Clearly in them any one ideal toward the realization of which they are tending. There is less difficulty in discerning the slowly forming ideal of American education, and one may surely foresee the character of the journal which in the future is to voice the aspirations of this education. The leading characteristics of this ideal, the realization of which is, with more or less definiteness, the aim of the best educational journalism of the present, it is the purpose of this paper to present. The educational journal must be a journal of civilization. Along the main lines of culture represented in school work, it must keep its readers well informed. Without claiming to be a journal of literature, of scieuce or of art, it must speak with authority as to what is best in literature, as to what are the most important discoveries and advances in science, as to what is truest and most uplifting in art. But it must be especially & professional journal in the broadest sense. It must have a belief and a purpose, not merely reflect the changing phases of educational thought. It must be a journal of the philosophy of educa- tion, and of methods as founded' upon this philosophy ; a journal of inde- pendent and of broadly philosophical discussion of movements in all lines of culture. The interests of education demand that the sympathy of all cultivated people be enlisted in its behalf ; that appeal be made not to teachers alone, but also to that larger class outside the profession who are interested in the progress and the methods of culture along many lines. Hence the educational journal of the future will deal more and more with the points of contact of the work of the school with the work of the world and with all human interests. The civilized world is rapidly becoming one in purpose and in aspira- tion. Scientific journals, and the journals of all the other professions, represent this spirit by reporting the advances made in other lands and embodied in other speech than ours. In the school-house of city and country alike, we are educating citizens of the world. The American EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN NEW ENGLAND. 811 journal of education must be cosmopolitan. It must represent critically, fairly, discriminatingly, the best educational thought of those nations which are moving together in the progress of the race. The educational journal must be comprehensive. The time may come when all teachers at the beginning of their work will possess such a Avide range of general and professional culture that the journal devoted to their special grade and work will suffice for them ; but that time is not yet. The American teacher needs a wider intellectual horizon, and the special journal, if this be his only one, may do as much harm as good. The jour- nal of devices, the journal of primary teaching alone, will make a teacher who knows only devices ; one whose thought is limited to the child that now is, and does not reach forward to the youth that is to be. The ideal educational journal must be edited. A free parliament is well, but it must be kept in its place. The editorial force must" decide as to what is needed, and call for it. This journal will have no place for gossip, but will gather discriminatingly from home and foreign fields the news which from day to day makes the current history of educational progress. Nothing has been named which is not within the recognized scope of the journalism of to-day ; nothing less will place the educational journal in line with other professional journalism of authority. A larger support will come from appeal to wider sympathies and interests, from making the educational journal a necessity to all cultivated people. Such a journal will hold up the hands of teachers and guide their work in truer lines. Toward the realization of such an ideal, American educational journals of the better class, in many ways, with more or less comprehensiveness of scope, with more or less clearness of vision, are now tending. May the progress be hastened ! EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN NEW ENGLAND. BY W. A. MOWRT, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SALEM, MASS. It has been by many supposed that the first educational periodical in the country was the American Journal of Education, published in Bos- ton in 1826. This, however, is a mistake. On February 7, 1818, was published in New York the first number of the first volume of a periodi- cal for teachers, entitled The Academician. Albert and John "W. Picket were the editors and publishers till it was discontinued on January 29, 1820. The work contained a series of articles, critical and discriminating, upon the entire subject of grammar, English and general ; another series on the teaching of mathematics ; articles on the Lancasterian system of edu- 812 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. cation ; an importaut series of articles on Pestalozzi's method of teaching religious and moral principles to children ; a comparison between Pesta- lozzi, Bell, atid Lancaster, and their methods ; accounts of various institu- tions of learning, such as Fellenburgh's School, the Virginia University, the Hartford Deaf and Dumb Institution, the New York Institution for Deaf and Dumb, William College, Columbia College, Union College, Uni- versity of North Carolina, Fayetteville Academy, and other institutions. The quotations from Pestalozzi are extended and valuable. The depart- ment of philology is written from a high point, philosophically and philo- logically. The whole work from beginning to end is of high character, and would be of great service to any reader of the present day. I have mentioned this Academician and given the above brief account of it for the purpose of correcting the too common error into which many have fallen, by supposing that the American Journal of .Education was the first publication of this kind in the country. THE "AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION " AND "THE MASSACHUSETTS COMMON SCHOOL JOURNAL." The publication of this monthly periodical was begun in January, 1826. Dr. Henry Barnard is authority for the statement that the Journal was edited by William Russell, W. C. Woodbridge, and William A. Alcott. Mr. Eussell retired from the editorship in January, 1829. The Journal then became bi-monthly. Two months later its name was changed to American Annals of Education and Instruction, a Journal for Literary Institutions. During this time its principal editor was William C. Wood- bridge. Soon after his retirement, at the close of the volume of 1837, Dr. Alcott, who had assisted him, also withdrew, and M. G. Hubbard became the editor. A fatal mistake was made by the new editor. He turned the magazine away from its former broad design, and made it the advocate of high schools, academies, and colleges. Horace Mann, who had meanwhile become secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education, looked with regret upon the change in the magazine, and in November, 1838, issued the first number of the Common School Journal. He continued to edit this periodical for ten years. The last number published under his care was that of December 18, 1848. He was succeeded by William B. Fowle, an earnest advocate of reform in educational matters at that day, who remained its editor until it was dis- continued with the volume for 1852. These two periodicals, The American Journal of Education, later called the American Annals of Education and Instruction, covering the period from 1826 to 1838, and the Common School Journal from 1838 to 1852, exercised a great influence upon the educational thought of America. Their subscription lists were never large, but they were read by the leading educators in all parts of the country. EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN NEW ENGLAND. 813 "THE MASSACHUSETTS TEACHER." The Massachusetts Teachers' Association at its second annual meeting, in November, 1846, decided to establish a teachers' journal. This led to the publication of The Massachusetts Teacher. Its first number appeared in January, 1848. The first editorial board consisted of Samuel W. Bates, of Boston ; George B. Emerson, of Boston ; Oliver Carlton, of Salem ; Charles Northeud, of Salem ; Ariel Parish, of Springfield ; C. S. Pannell, of Charlestown ; John D. Philbrick, of Boston ; Thomas Sherwin, of Boston ; P. H. Sweetser, of Charlestown ; Gideon F. Thayer, of Boston ; Benjamin F. Tweed, of Charlestown ; and William H. Wells, of Andover. Of these distinguished educators only Mr. Northend and Mr. Tweed are believed to be now living. The Teacher continued to be published under the auspices of the Teachers' Associations for twenty-seven years. A board of twelve editors was appointed annually by the Association, each person editing one number. During most of these years, in addition to the twelve editors there was also a resident editor. "JOURNAL OF THE RHODE ISLAND INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION. In 1845, the friends of education in Bhode Island, teachers, lawyers, clergymen, and business men, organized what has practically ever since been a State Teachers' Association. The name adopted, patterning after the name of the parent society, the American Institute of Instruction (organized 1830), whose constitution, in large measure, it adopted, was the Ehode Island Institute of Instruction. This Institute at once under- took through Dr. Henry Barnard the establishment of a periodical devoted to the interests of education, the first number of which appeared November 15, 1845. Its name was The Journal of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction. The editorial department was under the care of the Hon. Henry Barnard, Commissioner of Public Schools. The first volume of this journal was completed in June, 1846, and consisted of fourteen numbers, embodied in 255 pages, to which were added thirteen numbers of extras, comprising 215 pages, and educational tracts of 141 pages, making in all 611 pages — a pretty formidable volume for the low price of fifty cents. Volumes two and three were still larger. The publication was then interrupted by Mr. Barnard's withdrawal from Rhode Island, having been appointed superintendent of the public schools of Connecticut. The services of Mr. Barnard as school commissioner of Rhode Island from 1843 to 1849 was of the most vigorous character and of the greatest value. He was earnest, devoted, efficient, and a radical reformer. This Journal, like the Common School Journal to Horace Mann, was "his right arm" for both defensive and offensive efforts. 814 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. RHODE ISLAND "EDUCATIONAL MAGAZINE. AND "SCHOOLMASTER. Mr. Barnard was succeeded by Hon. Elisha R. Potter as school com- missioner of the State, who published, in 1852, a periodical with the above title. It was supported principally by the private contributions of gentle- men interested in advancing the cause to which it was devoted, and it was sent gratuitously to the chairmen and clerks of school committees and to the clerk of every school district. At a meeting of the Rhode Island Institute, held in Providence, Jan- uary 27, 1855, a vote was given in favor of the establishment of an educational journal. In response the Rhode Island Schoolmaster was issued. Its first number appeared in March, 1845. Mr. Allyn edited the magazine, assuming the entire financial risk of its publication, until he left the State in September, 1857. Mr. William A. Mowry then purchased it from him, and edited and published it until January, 1860. At this time it had become a vigorous and successful periodical, with a respectable list of subscribers, and was upon a paying basis. Mr. Mowry now turned it over to the Rhode Island Institute. A board of twelve editors was appointed, as follows : Henry R. Pierce, of Woonsocket ; N. W. DeMunn, of Providence ; Thomas Davis, of Pawtucket ; A. J. Foster, of Westerly ; Amos Perry, A. W. Godding, William A. Mowry, John J. Ladd, of Providence ; Isaac F. Cady, of Warren ; N. B. Cooke, of Bristol ; Francis B. Snow, Albert J. Manchester, of Providence. The following writers became special contributors to its pages : Hon. J. B. Chapin, Commis- sioner of Public Schools ; Rev. Daniel Leach, Superintendent of Schools, Providence ; Rev. Micah J. Talbert, of East Greenwich ; Albert A. Gam- well, of Providence ; Profs. Samuel S. Greene and Robinson P. Dunn, of Brown University ; and Rev. Robert Allyn, of Ohio. In January, 1862, a new departure was made by appointing a long list of contributing editors, and assigning to each editor a particular subject. These subjects included the following : Political education, literature, natural science, didactics, questions for examination, grammar and rhet- oric, reading and writing, moral culture, geology and botany, school disci- pline, physical education and physiology, history, languages, geography, mathematics. The same arrangement was continued for several years. The number for March, 1869, gave notice that " The present number of the Rhode Island Schoolmaster is the last — at least for the present." The difficulty seemed to be that no proper arrangement could be made for editing it. In October of that year its publication was revived by Hon. Thomas W. Bicknell, who had been appointed commissioner of public schools for the State. Mr. Bicknell assumed the entire control financially, and for the next two years it was edited by T. B. Stockwell and T. W. Bicknell. The volumes for 1872, 1873 and 1874 were under the exclusive control EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN NEW ENGLAND. 815 of Mr. Bicknell. It still continued to be the organ of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, and this body annually appointed a board of contributing editors as heretofore. The December number for 1874 com- pleted twenty years of its publication. At that time it was merged with the other teachers' journals of New England in the New England Journal of Education, which will be considered later. The Massachusetts Teacher and the Rhode Island Schoolmaster stand out conspicuously among the journals of the New England States. They did not furnish the strong, meat which had characterized the American Journal of Education or the Common School Journal, but they had appealed to the teachers of the common schools, had created among them a laudable ambition for improvement, had suggested better methods of instruction, better ideals of education, and established a higher type of school management and discipline. They did yeoman's service in their respective States in the cause of public education. They now give way to a better plan in the union of forces upon one journal, and that to be issued weekly and to cover the ground for all New England. "THE CONNECTICUT COMMON SCHOOL JOURNAL." Hon. Henry Barnard was Secretary of the Board of School Commis- sioners in Connecticut from 1838 to 1842. On entering upon the duties of his office, he at once saw the necessity of having a medium of commu- nication upon school matters between him and the people. He, therefore, at once established a monthly periodical, styled The Connecticut Common School Journal, which he published, edited and owned, during these four years. It was chiefly intended to contain the school laws of the State and all such information concerning educational matters as the school officers and teachers should need. When Mr. Barnard removed to Rhode Island to become the school com- missioner for that State, this periodical ceased. On his return to Connec- ticut as superintendent of the schools of the State in 1850, he reestab- lished the Journal and conducted it as before until 1854. At that time it was turned over to the Connecticut State Teachers' Association, which appointed an editorial committee in 1853. The first board of editors under this new arrangement consisted of Hon. Henry Barnard, Hartford ; Prof. John Brocklesby, Trinity College, Hartford ; T. W. T. Curtiss, Principal of the High School, Hartford ; David N. Camp, State Normal School, New Britain ; Rev. E. B. Hunt- ington, of the High School, Waterbury ; Prof. John Johnston, Wesleyan University, Middletown ; F. B. Perkins, Hartford ; E. A. Lawrence, of the High School, Stamford ; Prof. T. A. Thacher, Yale College, New Haven ; and John D. Philbrick, Principal Normal School, New Britain. This board of editors was changed more or less from year to year. John D. Philbrick was the first resident editor of this monthly publication. 816 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. After several years Charles Northend became the editor, and later David N. Camp. The Journal was fairly well sustained by the teachers of the State, though never a source of profit to the Association. Frequent deficiencies in the funds for its publication were made up by contributions from leading teachers of the State. It proved to be an important aid to the State Department of Education as well as to the local school officers and public-school teachers. For several of the later years of its publica- tion a small appropriation was made by the State, in return for which the Journal was sent to the school visitors of every town. This Journal, with others, was merged in the JVew England Journal of Education, January 1, 1875. barnakd's "American journal of education." Dr. Barnard's experience with the Connecticut Common School Journal, between 1838 and 1842, convinced him that a monthly or quarterly maga- zine devoted exclusively to the history, statistics and discussion of systems, institutions and methods of education in different countries, but with special reference to the condition and needs of our American system of education, was highly desirable. During many years he collected a large amount of material, some of which he published in separate pamphlets. He endeavored at one time to enlist the aid of the American Institute of Instruction, but it had no money to devote to such a purpose. He made various efforts to secure the co-operation of the Smithsonian Institution but without success. He presented the subject to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, but that organization felt it necessary to confine its work to the more restrictive department of scientific investiga- tion. Finally he determined to undertake the publication upon his own responsibility, of such a magazine which should prove a complete library of education. At about this time he discovered that Rev. Absalom Peters, D.D., had in mind the project of publishing a periodical to be called the American College Review and Educational Magazine. Dr. Barnard joined forces with Dr. Peters, and they together as co-editors began the publication of The American Journal of Education and College Review. The first number was published in August, 1855. This number contained princi- pally papers read at the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Education, which had been held in the city of Washing- ton the previous December. The second number did not appear until Jan- uary, 1856. After the publication of these two numbers it became evident that the two editors had such widely divergent views as to what a periodical of this high character should he, that it was clearly desirable that they should devide their work. Dr. Peters, therefore, withdrew from the publication, and Dr. Barnard assumed entire charge of the work and continued it on EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN NEW ENGLAND. 817 its original plan. The third number, therefore, was published in March, 1856, under the title of The American Journal of Education. The new journal was fairly launched. The fourth number was issued in May, and the first volume was completed by a variety of supplement- ary papers, making in all a volume of 776 pages. The second volume contained three numbers, regularly published in August, September and December, 1856 ; and the third volume two num- bers, the first in March, 1857, the next number in June of that year. The fourth volume was a great improvement upon its predecessors in breadth and scope of its contents. The work was now thoroughly established, and received from every quarter the highest encomiums for its wide scope, and philosophical character. Its numbers were so large, with such a variety and quantity of material, that they could not be published with absolute regularity of time. The arrangement was not always the best. In the main it has been a quarterly. The work has extended to between thirty and forty volumes, each containing from six hundred to eight hundred octavo pages of important matter embracing all the depart- ments of educational work. Dr. Barnard's services as editor of this famous quarterly have given him a world-wide reputation as one of the most distinguished educators of this century. The journal as a whole is a great encyclopaedia of knowledge, of facts, of principles, of philosophy, upon all departments of education ; and its strength and solidity have won, both for it and its editor, the highest testimonial from the best educators of many lands. It is without a peer in the breadth of its discussion of systems, institutions, public schools, private schools, technical and special schools, and the history, biography and philosophy of educational matters. It has been through- out its whole history edited by Dr. Barnard and published in Hartford, Connecticut, but it is thoroughly national in its character and perhaps as highly appreciated in Europe as in this country. "THE MAINE TEACHER." Between the years 1849 and 1858 there were several attempts in the State of Maine to establish a periodical for the schools. The first of which I have any knowledge was in the former year, and was entitled The Scholar's Leaf. Later was another effort called The Common School Advocate. The first of these was principally for the pupils in the schools, the second was designed rather for the teachers. The life of each was brief, and needs, perhaps, no further consideration here. In 1858 appeared the first number of The Maine Teacher, a monthly periodical. It was established by Mark H. Dunnell, the State Superin- tendent of Schools. Two years later, when Mr. E. P. Weston became the State School Superintendent, it was continued under his care, but was suspended in 1864. It was revived the next year under the name of The 52 818 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Maine Journal, by Mr. George M. Gage of the Western Normal School. From this time it was conducted with much vigor, and among its contribu- tors were Key. Jacob Abbott of Farmington ; Hon. E. P. Weston, State Superintendent of Schools ; Dr. A. P. Stone of Portland, and many of the leading teachers of the State. For three years it was published by a Mr. Swift. In 1868 Mr. Brown Thurston became its publisher, and it was issued Irom Portland. In January, 18G9, its name was changed to The Maine Journal of Education. Mr. Thurston remained as publisher and proprie- tor, and Dr. A. P. Stone became its principal editor, assisted by twelve monthly editors, comprising the several principals of the normal schools of that State, some of the county supervisors, and several of the more prominent teachers. In 1873 and 1874 its editor was Mr. Albro E. Chase, of the Portland High School. At the beginning of the volume for 1875 it was absorbed by the New England Journal of Education, published in Boston. This Maine journal differed in its character and make-up materially from year to year. Neither its ability nor its success was uniform. It could succeed in doing much good to the State educationally, but it never could succeed financially, farther than pay the necessary bills for its publication. "THE NEW HAMPSHIRE SCHOOL JOURNAL/' The movement in New Hampshire for a State educational journal began in January, 1857. The pioneer in this work for that State was Eev. William L. Gage, who had just returned from an extended residence in Germany, and his whole soul was aroused in the interest of educational affairs in this country. He established The New Hampshire School Journal, and at first was its sole editor, publisher, and proprietor. Like the other State journals of its lime, it was in the form of a monthly pamphlet of thirty-two pages, and was published at one dollar a year. In 1858 Mr. Gage turned over the subscription list and good-will of the paper to the New Hampshire Teachers' Association, and Mr. Henry E. Sawyer, then of Concord, became its editor, by appointment of the Associa- tion, with an associate board of twelve assistants. Mr. Sawyer edited the. Journal with ability for about three years, when he was succeeded by Mr. Jonathan Tenney. The subscription list, however, was never large enough to make the investment a paying business, and its publication ceased in 1863. "THE VERMONT SCHOOL JOURNAL." The first effort in Vermont for a school periodical was made in May, 1847, when Messrs. Bishop and Tracey, of Windsor, began the publica- tion of The School Journal and Vermont Agriculturist. This was a EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN NEW ENGLAND. 819 pamphlet of sixteen pages, one-half of its space being devoted to the public schools, and the other half to agriculture. It was published for three years, but not proving profitable to the publishers was then dis- continued. After this came The Teacher's Voice, which was published by Mr. J. K. Pangborn for about a year and a half. The Vermont School Journal was established by the Vermont Teachers' Association in April, 1859. Its first editors were A. E. Leavenworth and G. S. Spaulding. The editors assumed the financial responsibility of its publication, which they continued through 1859 and 18G0. Mr. Hiram Orcutt then succeeded Mr. Spaulding. For two years it was published by Mr. Orcutt and Mr. Leavenworth. At the expiration of that period Mr. Orcutt took the entire charge of the Journal, assuming the respon- sibility of its publication, and editing it with vigor and success for three years. When Mr. Orcutt removed to New Hampshire its publication ceased. "THE NEW ENGLAND JOUKNAL OF EDUCATION." The Journal of Education is to-day one of the very few educational journals in this country published weekly. Practically it shares its honors only with the Neiv York School Journal. The latter was first established, and has that flavor which comes from age and experience. The Journal of Education was at first called The New England Journal of Education, and its first number appeared in January 2, 1875. It was the result of a long-continued effort on the part of several of the leading educational men in New England to unite the different State journals in one periodical for New England. The writer of this article believes him- self to have been the first one to propose this plan, and for a long period prior to its accomplishment he had persistently advocated the scheme and called public attention to its desirability. The project took definite shape at the famous forty-fifth annual meet- ing of the American Institute of Instruction, which was held at North Adams in July, 1874. In the midst of the discussions as to what plans to adopt to infuse new life and a vigor of business management in the association, the scheme of uniting the New England educational journals was the most vital. It was urged by such men as Dr. George B. Emerson, Dr. Merrick Lyon, Rev. C. Hammond, Hon. B. G. Northrop, Hon. Thomas Bicknell, the writer of this article, and others ; and the institute voted unanimously to recommend an earnest effort to unite the several State journals in one strong and able paper. It was recommended also that the American Institute of Instruction, the teachers' associations of the several New England States, and the managers of the several school journals of New England, be invited to co-operate in securing the union of these educational agencies in establishing such a journal as would meet the wants and demands of the educators in and out of New England. It 820 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. was voted also that an advisory council of twelve be appointed to make all arrangements for the organization of the enterprise. This council was to be composed of two members from each New England State, one to be elected by the American Institute from each State, and the others by the State association, one each. This committee decided that the advisory council should appoint an editor and a publisher, and that each State teachers' association should be asked to elect a State editor. At a meeting of the directors of the American Institute, held in Boston in November, the committee made its report. Hon. T. W. Bicknell was elected editor of the new journal, and Charles C. Chatfield, publisher of The College Courant, was chosen as publisher. It was recommended that the paper should be published weekly. After the organization was completed and all arrangements made, the new Journal entered upon its career at the beginning of 1875. It met with favor everywhere. Mr. Bicknell continued as editor and chief manager until the beginning of the year 1886. The writer of this paper connected himself with this Journal in the summer of 1884 and was its managing editor until January, 1886. Personal reasons then induced him to withdraw from the Journal and the company which published it. A few weeks later, Mr. Bicknell sold out his interest in the concern to Rev. A. E. Winship, who has been its chief editor till the present time. The Journal is now in its nineteenth year; is as vigorous as ever ; has a wide circulation, and is doing, as it has done, good service in the cause of popular education. "THE AMERICAN TEACHER. " The Primary Teacher was a monthly paper published in Boston from 1878 to September, 1883. It was edited principally by Mr. William E. Sheldon, and was one of the most practical and valuable primary papers yet published in this country. ' In 1881 began the publication of The Public School, also monthly, of the same size and shape as the Primary Teacher. These two papers, in September, 1883, were united under the name of The American Teacher. The editors were Mr. Bicknell, Mr. Sheldon, and W. N. Hailman. It still continues to be published, and Mr. Sheldon still remains as its principal editor. It has now completed ten annual volumes, and has a large subscription list from all parts of the country. " EDUCATION." In September, 1880, began the career of a magazine of high grade which was at first published bi-monthly. It was called Education, an interna- tional magazine devoted to the science, art, philosophy, and literature of education. It was edited by Mr. Bicknell until January, 1886. when the writer of this paper became its editor, publisher and proprietor. He con- EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN NEW ENGLAND. 821 tin ued its publication until January, 1891, when Rev. Frank H. Kasson became its editor and publisher. Mr. Kasson, together with Rev. Frank H. Palmer, whom he has associated with himself both editorially and in its business management, continues its publication at the present time. This magazine, from the beginning struck out anewpathamong theeduca- tional publications of America. For thirteen years it has discussed, in a vig- orous and philosophical manner, the great problems of American education. The contributors to this magazine embrace names of many of the most prominent educational men and women of this country, and it has published many articles from the pens of prominent English educators. Its sub- scription list, while never very large, has included many representative names from all parts of this country, from Great Britain, France, India, China and Japan. The thirteen bound volumes of this magazine embrace more than eight thousand pages of educational material, covering a great variety of subjects, and forming altogether a creditable addition to our American pedagogical literature. " COMMON SCHOOL EDUCATION." The writer of this article began in January, 1887, the publication, in Boston, of a magazine for common-school teachers, which was entitled Common School Education, devoted to the art of instruction. Its publi- cation was continued until June, 1891, when it was merged with The Teacher's World, published in New York, which from that time took the name Common School Education and Hie Teacher's World. "THE POPULAR EDUCATOR." About the year 1884, several gentlemen in Boston started a new educa- tional monthly with the above title. It did not give the name of its editor, but it was generally understood that one of the Boston grammar masters had something to do with its pages. From the outset the paper assumed a positive and aggressive character, taking a decided position upon leading questions, and furnishing to its readers a great variety and a large quantity of material. It has, for the past ten years, dealt largely with schoolroom devices and methods of instruction. Latterly it has devoted more atten- tion to the principles which underlie good teaching. Its subscription list rapidly increased, and for years it has claimed the largest list of subscribers, perhaps of any educational paper in the country. "primary education." In January, 1893, began in Boston the publication of a new monthly paper with the above title. Its name indicates its purpose and scope. It is edited by Mrs. Eva D. Kellogg, who has had large experience as a teacher in Boston, in normal schools at the West, in the work of city snperintendency, and as assistant editor on the Neiv York School Journal. 822 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. DR. BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION. BY WILL S. MONROE, LELAND STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA. At the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Education, held at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, December 26, 1854, Dr. Barnard submitted a " plan of central agency for the advancement of education in the United States," one of the features of which was the publication of a journal of education, to be issued monthly or quarterly, embracing accounts of systems, institutions, and methods of education, as well as current educational thought. The plan was approved, and a standing committee was appointed to carry it into execution as fast as the funds of the association would permit. But the absence of funds and of pledges of pecuniary co-operation prevented the committee from carrying the plan into execution ; so that Dr. Barnard on his own respon- sibility decided to undertake its publication. The first number of the Journal appeared in August, 1855. The second number appeared the following January, the third in March, and the fourth in May. Volume I. was completed May, 1856. Dr. Barnard's acquaintance with schoolmen and institutions in Europe during his travels of 1835-6, and his visit to London in 1854 to attend the educational exhibit and congress at St. Martyn's Hall, were supplemented by five subsequent European trips, correspondence, and by exchange of letters and educational documents, thus enabling him to accumulate a vast library of the choicest and most instructive parts of the educational literature of all times and peoples. Important articles and monographs from these various sources he had translated at his own expense ; and the first ten volumes of the Journal contain no less than forty-five arti- cles from Von Raumer's " Geschichte der Padagogik," all of vol. iii. of Savigny's "Geschichte des Romisches Rechts im Mittelalter," portions of Bonghi's "Publica Instruzione," and numerous other articles from standard foreign works published in Germany, France, Switzerland, Italy, and Great Britain. Upon the completion of the ten volumes promised, realizing the impor- tance and scope of the work before him, he decided to continue the publi- cation of the Journal; and March, 1862, he wrote in the preface to Volume XI. : " With a moderate encouragement from the thoughtful and active friends of educational improvement, we shall continue our quarterly issues until they have at least reached six (more) volumes." Volume XVI. was completed in 1866, and two volumes of the Journal were published at irregular intervals during Dr. Barnard's connection with DR. BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION. 823 St. John's College and the Bureau of Education. In the prefatory note to Volume XXI., he wrote : " With this number (for January, 1871) we resume the regular publica- tion of The American Journal of Education, which has been somewhat interrupted, although not positively suspended, during our connection with the department and office of Education. We hope to receive sufficient encouragement to enable us to continue our articles, original and selected, on the existing conditions and movements of education, until we have something like a comprehensive survey of the past history and present conditions." With little to encourage him in his great undertaking, save the con- sciousness of the need of such a publication, Dr. Barnard continued to edit The American Journal of Education until the completion of the work as it stands to-day in thirty-one large octave volumes. In a letter to the late Kobert Herbert Quick, written January 24, 1878, he says : uThe publication of the Journal has proved pecuniarily disastrous. The subscriptions, paid in from year to year, have never met the expenses of publication. My small income has been reduced by the deprivation of office and the pressure of the times. No publisher can be induced to undertake the responsibility of the Journal; and to carry on the work to a point where the encyclopaedic scope of the undertaking could be seen and appreciated has involved my little property in mortgages, and myself in obligations which I am now making a desperate effort to meet. If I am successful in disposing of enough sets of volumes of the Journal to meet the obligations which mature before the first day of May, I shall continue the publication to the close of Volume XXVIII. If I am not successful, the plates (25,000 pages with more than 1,000 illustrations of school structures) which have cost over $40,000, will go into the melting pot for type metal, and the volumes on hand will be sold to buyers who may apply within a given time, and, at the expiration of that time, will be converted into pulp by the paper makers, and the avails thus realized will be applied, as far as they go, to meet my obligations ; and thus will end with me an enterprise which has absorbed my best energies for the last twenty years/' Mr. Quick wrote in reply to the New England superintendents : "■ I would as soon hear that there was talk of pulling down one of our cathedrals and selling the stones for building material." The American Journal of Education is not a school journal or review, in the accepted use of those words, but, as Mr. Quick has aptly remarked, a vast encyclopaedia of educational literature. In the domain of historical pedagogy, it gives accounts of the development of human culture, both theoretical and practical, under varying conditions of race, climate, religion and government ; the attempts at systematic training of children in the family and schools, by parents and teachers, among the nations of the 824 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. East through the writings of Confucius in China, the Vedas and Buddha in India, Zoroaster in Persia, the Ptolemies in Egypt, and Moses, Solomon, and the rabbis in Palestine ; among the Greeks, through the institutions of Pythagoras and Solon, and the teaching of Socrates and Aristotle ; among the Romans, through the didactics of Cato, Seneca and Quintilian ; among the modern nations of Europe, through the schools peculiar to the early Christians — those of Chrysostom and Basil, the catechetical school at Alexandria, the monastic and cloister schools of Saint Jerome and Tertullian, the court schools of Charlemagne and the educational labors of Alcuin, the modifications wrought through the influences of Arabian learning with the establishment of Mohammedanism in the seventh century, the domination of the religious conceptions of Abelard and scholasticism, the rise and growth of universities and the awakening of the scientific spirit, the revival of letters and the study of the classics, the long protracted struggle between humanism and realism, and the gradual expansion and realization of universal education. These are some of the lines of historical thought, more or less fully developed, that one finds in studying the historical development of the human intellect in these thirty- one volumes of Dr. Barnard's journal. Systems of education in the Old World and in the New, normal schools and other institutions devoted to the professional training of teachers, the organization and curricula of colleges and technical schools, institutions for criminals and defective classes, physical education, school architecture, and other departments of theoretical and practical pedagogy find full and clear expression in the twenty-seven thousand pages of choice literature printed in The American Journal of Edu cation. Oscar Browning says in the Encyclopaedia Britaunica : "The great work of Henry Barnard, The American Journal of Educa- tion, has valuable papers on almost every part of our subject (education) ; it is by far the most valuable work in our language on the history of education." President D. C. Gilman, in an article devoted to the educational development of our country, published in The North American Review for January, 1876, says : "It is the best and only general authority in respect to the progress of American education during the past century. The comprehensiveness of this work, and its persistent publication under many adverse circum- stances, entitle the editor to the grateful recognition of all investigators of our system of instruction." DISCUSSION. 825 THE PURPOSE AND REWARD OF EDUCATIONAL JOURNALS.* BY AMOS M. KELLOGG, EDITOR OF " THE SCHOOL JOURNAL," NEW YORK. The educational journalist aims to diffuse a right idea of education. When Horace Mann undertook that seemingly impossible task of placing the teacher and the school in just position before Massachusetts, he felt the necessity of an educational journal ; and the rich results that followed his labors came from his eloquent pleading aided by his equally eloquent writing. The same course was followed in New York ; to aid in the effort to lift the schools out of the degradation in which they existed, Edmund Dwight spent much of his private fortune in publishing Tlie District School Journal. The great upheaval there was due to David P. Page and that paper. In every attempt to realize a higher ideal of education, the edu- cational journal has played an important if not the leading part. While the publishers of educational journals may never obtain the credit they deserve for having attempted, like Moses, to lift a pillar of light above the advancing hosts in our school-room, there is avast debt due, and in a moderate measure it is recognized. Their recompense must lie greatly in this recognition, for certainly no one would perform the work demanded with the hope of obtaining a pecuniary reward equal to the outlay. Works of real beneficence are rarely profitable. There is an abundance of teachers who do not make any money ; they aim solely at usefulness. The educational journalist is of this class of men. DISCUSSION. Henry Sabin: Every journal has its own ideal. The time will come when the edu- cational journal will be as much of a power in shaping educational thought as the normal school. W. A. Bell: The ideal paper should be a leader, it should be suggestive. The journals should aim to set before its readers something a little higher than they have. But there is a business side that has to be considered; you must modify your ideal to secure a larger number of readers. Yet even when the standard is lowered, the aim should be to give the reader a touch of what is better than he now has. To secure the best results the paper must have specialists in charge of the departments, so that the best thought can be secured, and at the same time there may be some continuity and connection in the articles presented. James Canpield: The educational press has already done much to elevate the teaching profession. Even those journals which do nothing but criticise accomplish some good. Geo. P. Brown: The editor must provide material for the careful advanced thinker and also for the mass of its readers. He must do missionary work to uplift the average reader. * The paper of which this is an abstract was published in full in vol. xlvii. No. 9 (Sept. 9, 1893), of The SchoolJournal, New York ; E. L. Kellogg & Co., Publishers. 826 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. E. O. Vaile: This ideal journal is a myth. Neither editors nor teachers ought to pursue their occupations as missionaries. C. W. Bardeen: An oration is not good unless it can command an audience. It is just so with journalism. Educational journals must secure a public, that is the first essential. Fifteen years ago very few teachers read school journals. Now one paper that I know has fifty thousand subscribers. Reasons why they take them now are that the teacher is allowed a percentage for taking educational journals. This gets sub- scribers, but they have not yet reached the point where they can discriminate between papers. Still it is an advance that they take papers even on this consideration. William S. Monroe: The ideal journal ought to treat more of the history of edu- cation. It ought to give the ideals of great thinkers in the educational world. Miss Andrea Hofer: There ought to be a journal that would reach the mother teachers from a less technical standpoint. Geo. P. Brown: Every school journal in this commercial age must be a business success, but while making it a business success, we must try to work out an ideal. EDUCATIONAL JOURNALS IN NEW YORK* In educational journalism New York makes three claims : (1) to the earliest educational journal published in English ; (2) to the most thorough trial of the educational journal as an official publication, having had for a time two such journals contemporaneously, one representing the Department of Public Instruction, and the other the State Teachers' Association ; (3) to a series of educational journals of such continuance and character that they depict her educational history more minutely than that of any other State recorded. "the academician/' 1818-1819. On February 7, 1818, appeared the first number of The Academician, a semi-weekly octavo (6 x 9|) of sixteen pages, at $3 per year. The editors were Albert Picket, f president of the Incorporated Society of Teachers, and John W. Picket, corresponding secretary of the same. "THE COMMON SCHOOL ASSISTANT,'' 1836-1840. In January, 1836, there was issued at Albany the first number of a quarto (8£ x 10£) journal of eight pages, published, at fifty cents a year, by J. Orville Taylor. Mr. Taylor was widely known as an educational leader. He was born in Charlton, May 14, 1807 ; fitted at the academy at Cherry Valley, and graduated from Union College in 1830, after which he studied law in New Haven. ♦These statements relating to educational journals in New York are taken from a paper read before the Department of Educational Journalism, of the International Congress of Education, by C. W. Bardeen, editor of the School Bulletin. The entire paper, valuable for its full information, is published in a pamphlet of forty-five pages, entitled: The History of Educational Journalism in the State of New York. By C. W. Bardeen. Syracuse, N. Y. t Barnard, xv. 544. EDUCATIONAL JOURNALS IN NEW YORK. 827 "THE DISTRICT SCHOOL JOURNAL OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK, 1840-1852. TJie District School Journal was started March 25, 1840, at Geneva, by Francis Dwight, as an eight-page quarto (9 x 11-J). The issue of The District School Journal for July 1, 1841, contained the announcement of Superintendent John 0. Spencer that this was the periodical selected by him, and would be regarded as the official organ of communication with the officers and inhabitants of the several districts. The superintendent took great pleasure in again commending this publication to the favorable consideration and liberal support of the friends of education generally, remarking that the favorable successful prosecution of the work must depend chiefly upon the individual subscription, as the amount authorized to be subscribed by the State barely defrayed the expenses. Under the impulse of Superintendent Spencer's subscription for twelve thousand copies, it was now removed to Albany, enlarged into a monthly quarto (9 x 13y) of eight pages, and published at fifty cents a year. The editor and founder of the Journal, Francis Dwight, universally respected and lamented, died December 15, 1845. Mr. Randall became sole editor, and announced in the February number that as the superin- tendent had ordered the subscriptions to districts continued he should rely for compensation wholly upon the subscription list outside the State appropriation, which was reduced in February from $2,800 to $2,400. With Volume XII. , TJie District School Journal united with Tlie New York Journal of Education under the title of The District School Journal of Education of the State of New York; and W. F. Phelps and Joseph McKeen were joined with Mr. Randall as associate editors. But though Superintendent Morgan, in his annual report, recommended the periodical as an indispensable auxiliary to the department in the transmission and communication of educational information, and in the dissemination of educational news generally, and even urged an increase in the appropria- tion, the Legislature refused to heed him, and the Journal ceased with the number for April, 1852. "THE SCHOOL BULLETIN," 1874. It was New York's last attempt at an official publication. The School Bulletin, which purchased The E-lucational Journal, and has since been known as The School Bulletin and New York State Educational Journal, has been from the first owned and controlled by its present editor, and has never asked or been offered official recognition. The first number of The School Bulletin was published in Syracuse in September, 1874. It consisted of eight pages, 9£ x 14 inches. After its union with The Educa- tional Journal it appeared in April, 1875, with sixteen pages, but has not since been changed in form or size or management or ownership. 828 INTERNATIONAL CONGHESS OF EDUCATION. EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN OHIO. BY SAMUEL FINDLEY. [The complete paper of which this is an abstract was published in The Ohio Educational Monthly.] The first educational periodical in the State of which I find any mention was called The Academic Pioneer. Its first number appeared in July, 1831. It expired after two or three issues, for want of patronage. In the decade following, there appeared half a dozen or more similar journals, only one of which lived beyond the year of its birth. The Common School Advocate, started at Cincinnati in 1837, was kept alive for four years. The Ohio Common School Director, started the same year under authority of the General Assembly, expired at the end of its first year. The Pestalozzian appeared and died at Akron in 1838. Other ephemerides of that period were The Schoolmaster and Academic Journal, Oxford, 1834 ; The Universal Educator, Cincinnati, 1837 ; The Western Academician, Cincinnati, 1837; and The Educational Dissemi- nator, Cincinnati, 1838. In 1846 three vigorous journals were started in the State, The Ohio School Journal; The School Friend; and The Free School Clarion. The latter was discontinued in 1849 or 1850, the two others in 1851. The Western School Journal, begun in 1847, was discontinued in 1849. The Ohio Teacher was started in 1850, and departed in silence, with none to record the date of its departure. The American Educationist and Western School Journal was started in 1852, and lived one year. The Association continued the publication of the Journal for eight years. The first four volumes were edited by Dr. Lord ; the fifth by Eev. Anson Smyth ; the sixth by John D. Caldwell ; and the seventh and eight by Wm. T. Coggeshall. After this the Journal was transferred to private parties. Eev. Anson Smyth, then State Commissioner of Common Schools, became the editor, and the name was changed to its present title. The Ohio Educational Monthly. In May, 1861, Dr. E. E. White and Hon. Anson Smyth became joint editors and proprietors, and in 1863 Dr. White became sole editor and proprietor. In September, 1875, the magazine was sold to Dr. W. D. Henkle, who transferred it from Columbus to Salem, Ohio. He continued its publica- tion until his death in 1881. In February, 1882, it was sold to the writer, then superintendent of the city schools of Akron, Ohio. The further story of the dear old Journal in these last years, I leave to be told by those who come after. Educational Notes and Queries, started by Dr. Henkle, about the EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN INDIANA. 829 time he took hold of the Monthly, was discontinued at the death of its founder. The National Normal, started in 18G8, under the editorial manage- ment of E. H. Holbrook (of Lebanon), was merged with the Monthly in 1874, revived again 1883 under the name of The Normal Exponent, and continued until 1893. The Guernsey Teacher was started at Cambridge in 1880, by Dr. John McBurney. Its name was subsequently changed to The Eastern Ohio Teacher, and still later to The Ohio Teacher, under which name it is still published under its original founder. Its avowed object has been to help the younger and less experienced teacher, and especially those engaged in the country schools. The Public School Journal was started at Cincinnati in 1876, as a grangers' and teachers' paper. In 1880 it became purely educational, and assumed the name under which it is still published, The Public School Journal. It is now owned and edited by one of its founders, F. E. Wilson. The School Visitor, devoted to practical mathematics, examination work, notes, queries and answers, now in its fourteenth year, is edited and published by John S. Royer, at Versailles, Ohio. The Journal of Pedagogy, a monthly journal, was started at Athens, Ohio, in 1887, edited by Dr. J. P. Gordy. It is now issued quarterly from Dunkirk, N. Y. The Progressive School, an educational weekly, was started at Alli- ance, Ohio, in January, 1891, by B. F. Yanney, then a professor in Mount Union College. It is now published by the School Publishing Company, of Alliance, and edited by B. F. Yanney, being issued forty times in the year. In February, 1893, The Western Reserve School Journal, a monthly paper published for a short time at Geneva, Ohio, by J. P. Treat, was merged with The Progressive School. There has been no attempt to enumerate in this brief sketch the multi- tude of school and college papers, past and present, devoted to local edu- cational interests ; and it is not improbable that some worthy publications, which should have had a place, have been overlooked through ignorance or inadvertence. I have omitted none such intentionally, and I have set nothing down in malice. EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN INDIANA. BY GEORGE F. BASS, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. Nearly fifty years ago (in 1846), an Indianapolis man by the name of West, started a little paper which he called TJie Common School Advocate. This was the first attempt, so far as we have been able to learn, to publish an educational paper in Indiana. Only one number was published. 830 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. In 1852 an Ohio man came to Indianapolis and started The Educa- tionist. Only three numbers of this were published. There was another journal in these early years that had a longer life than either of these. The only account of the paper that we saw is in Vol. IV. of The Indiana School Journal. In 1854, at the first meeting of the Indiana State Teachers' Association, the desirability and practicability of starting and sustaining an educational journal was discussed. At the second meeting it was decided to publish an educational journal, similar in size and typographical execution to The Ohm Journal of Education. The paper was named The Indiana School Journal, and George B. Stone, then superintendent of the Indianapolis schools, was appointed resident editor. He was assisted by nine editors, who did the editorial work for the honor there was in it. This was the beginning of The Indiana School Journal, that is still in existence, but not owned and published by the State Association for the good of the cause. It has now the largest circulation of any educational publication in the State, and there are only two older educational publications in the United States — Tlie Ohio Educational Monthly, and The Pennsylvania School Journal. In looking through the volumes of this paper we find, in the earlier vol- umes especially, that the information side is made most emphatic. Even in the professional articles this is true. There is not so much on the philosophy of teaching as we find in the best journals of to-day. There was almost no attempt to view a subject as related to the child. The point was to give child information and have him "git a plenty while he was gittin'," as the "Hoosier schoolmaster" puts it. After two years and a half Mr. Stone resigned, and Mr. Henkle took his place as editor of the Journal. This was about the middle of 1858. In August, 1859, Mr. Henkle left the State, and Mr. Phelps took his place. In December, 1859, the Association transferred the management of the Jouraal to Mr. Phelps, allowing him to make all he could out of it. The Association remained a kind of guardian for it, but did not agree to foot bills. It, however, agreed to give the same spiritual support as before. In 18G2 Mr. Phelps transferred the Journal to Mr. George W. Hoss. The circulation had dropped to only one hundred and fifty paying sub- scribers on account of Mr. Phelps' illness. Mr. Hoss put a great deal of vigor into the work, and in 1869 took in W. A. Bell, its present editor and pub- lisher, as an equal partner. The circulation at this time was about eleven hundred. In July of lb71, Mr. Hoss, having been elected President of the State Normal School of Kansas, sold his interest to Mr. Bell.. It has increased in circulation and influence from that time to the present. Its circulation has not fallen below six thousand in the last ten years, and has at times reached eight thousand. SCHOOL JOURNALISM IN MICHIGAN. 831 Mr. Bell is now the sole owner and publisher of this paper. He em- ploys several department editors. In 1875 A. C. Shortridge and Geo. P. Brown became associate editors of the Journal, but they remained in con- nection with it only a short time. From the first issue of this paper it has been a power in the educational work of the State. It has always been progressive and sometimes aggressive. It has always seconded every effort to attain higher ideals, and often has led. While some of us, at times, have thought that it was not quite vigorous enough, we shall all agree that it has faced the right way and is moving. Many other educational papers with good motives have sprung up in this State from time to time, but most of them have suspended or been swallowed up by the Journal or some foreign paper. Among them are the following : The Indiana Teacher, published at Indianapolis, made its first issue in January of 1869. It was united with The Indiana School Journal in July, 1869, when Mr. Bell became half owner. This paper was published by Messrs. Bell, Brown, and Shortridge. In January, 1873, Mr. A. C. Shortridge and Mr. Geo. P. Brown issued the first number of a monthly paper called The Educationist. It was continued till December, 1874, when it was united with the Journal, and its editors became associate editors of the Journal. The Northern Indiana Teacher was a paper issued from South Bend in 1874. It was ably edited by Mr. H. A. Ford. The Education Weekly was conducted by Mr. J. Olcott for a year or two, when some Eastern paper bought it. The field was not rich enough to sustain a weekly paper. This was a bright little paper and had a fair subscription list. There are at'present several papers published, but most of them, if not all, are published in the interest of private normal schools, or by the county superintendents in the interest of their own counties. One of the largest of these is a semi-professional paper called The Student, and published at Valparaiso. SCHOOL JOURNALISM IN MICHIGAN. BY PROFESSOR HENRY A. FORD, DETROIT, MICHIGAN". In school journalism, as in some other features of a right school system, Michigan came early to the front. In March, 1838, when Michigan had been a State hardly more than a year, the Hon. John D. Pierce, who is reputed to have been the first State Superintendent of Public Instruction in this country, so designated, started in Detroit The Journal of Educa- tion. How remote this is in the history of American schools may be judged from the occupation of the first number almost exclusively by Dr. 832 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Stowe's Keport on Elementary Public Instruction in France. It preceded by eight months the beginnings of Horace Mann's renowned Common School Journal. In November, 1838, Mr. F. W. Shearman, afterward also Su- perintendent of Public Instruction, became associate editor, and the remaining numbers were issued from Marshall, long the home of "Father Pierce." The magazine ceased to exist at the end of its second annual volume. For thirteen years, from 1840, the State had no school organ. At the fall meeting of the State Teachers' Association at Kalamazoo, in 1853, a paper was read by Professor J. M. Gregory, afterward State Superintend- ent, which resulted in the issue at Detroit, the following January, of The Michigan Journal of Education. With Dr. Gregory were associated as editors the Eev. Dr. E. 0. Haven, then a professor and afterward presi- dent of the State University, and Alexander Winchell, the distinguished geologist of that institution. The editorial management suffered kaleido- scopic changes ; during one year each number, by systematic arrangement, having a different (perhaps sometimes indifferent) editor. Dr. Gregory remained in general charge of it until 1860, when it fell into the hands of Duane Doty, subsequently superintendent of schools in Detroit, and it was suspended in September of that year. In January, 1866, The Michigan Teacher, another monthly, was begun at Niles, by W. H. Payne, now Chancellor of the University of Tennessee, and a well-known author and translator, with C. L. Whitney and John Goodison, who both became professors at the State Normal School. With them were afterward associated Professor H. L. Wayland, then of Kala- mazoo College, and now editor of The National Baptist, Philadelphia, and H. A. Ford, of Niles, who became sole proprietor and editor at the close of 1870, and maintained the magazine until the close of 1876, when it merged into the new Educational Weekly, of Chicago. The Teacher was carefully edited, and won many commendations from public and private sources. During part of its life some of the county superintendents of schools issued small but vigorous and useful organs of their work ; and another magazine, beginning in 1872, and entitled The School, was conducted, to good purpose, by professors of the State Normal Institution. The Michigan School Moderator is now the representative of the State Department, and generally of the educational interests of the Common- wealth. It was founded at Grand Eapids in 1880, by N. H. Walbridge, with whom in 1884 was joined Henry E. Pattengill, at present State Superintendent of Public Instruction, who became sole owner and editor the next year, and in September removed the paper (a semi-monthly quarto) to the State capital, where it has since been published. Under Mr. PattengilPs popular and energetic management its circulation has been pushed to nearly five thousand. EDUCATIONAL JOURNALS IN ILLINOIS. 833 The School Commissioner, at Saginaw, is a monthly magazine issued largely for the class of county educational officers thus entitled. A small magazine, The Investigator, is also printed at Grand Rapids, in the kindergarten interest. Several of the commercial and other colleges of the State have their periodical organs, and during the last academic year a daily paper of this kind has been published at the University. Taken for all in all, printer's ink has been well used for the uplift of education in the Wolverine State for more than fifty-five years. EDUCATIONAL JOURNALS IN ILLINOIS. BY JOHN W. COOK, PRESIDENT NORMAL UNIVERSITY, NORMAL, ILL. Information respecting the beginnings of school journalism in Illinois is not easily attainable. From a sketch by Dr. Samuel Willard, published in the Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1883-84, I learn that The Common School Advocate was started at Jacksonville, under the editorship of Rev. Theron Baldwin, in 1837. This journal was short-lived. In 1841 E. R. Riley, of Springfield, issued The Illinois Com- mon School Advocate, but this effort, like that of its predecessor, was in advance of its time. Only five or six numbers were issued. From this time until 1865 there was no publication that was distinctively educational. " THE PRAIRIE FARMER." From an admirable article in the Report of the Superintendent of Pub- lic Instruction, 1885-86, prepared by that accurate and reliable gentleman, Mr. W. L. Pillsbury, I quote the following : " Mr. Wright was not a farmer, and had never lived on a farm, and yet he made The Prairie Farmer at least as good an agricultural paper as was published in this country; and without being a teacher even, he made The Prairie Farmer also a most excellent school journal, all the more effective because it reached the patrons of the schools more than the teachers. From the start, in 1841, until the publication of The Illinois Teacher was begun in 1855, this paper occupied the field of school journalism in Illinois. The school history of this period must be largely written from its pages." It is my impression from what I have been able to learn of the work done by Mr. John S. Wright in TJie Prairie Farmer, that no educational journal has done or could do what he accomplished. There was no free- school system in existence within the borders of this immense domain. It was iu a peculiar sense a time when the people had to be reached at their firesides. The State was poor. The rash experiment of trying to coax prosperity within our borders by a vast and unwise system of public im- 53 834 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. provements had demonstrated its own folly. Anything looking toward an enterprise that called for public taxation was destined to meet the warm opposition of the people. But Mr. Wright's paper was read and re-read in the farmhouses that were scattered oyer the prairies, along the water- courses, and in the native groves of the State. In every issue he pressed upon the people the crying need of a system of popular education main- tained at public expense, that should give to every child the rudiments of an education. He issued calls for educational conventions and urged the people to attend them. When they were convened he was a leading spirit in urging the scheme that seemed nearest to his heart. When the con- ventions had completed their work he reported their- proceedings, and persistently labored to create a public sentiment favorable to the estab- lishment of a great free school system. Any account of the movement that ended in the act of 1855, which should fail to recognize Mr. Wright and his Prairie Farmer as potent factors in that great consummation would be very imperfect. This journal is clearly entitled to the honor of being the earliest of the educational periodicals of the State that have been of any value in influ- encing legislation and determining public sentiment. I have alluded to it as an educational journal. To this name it is justly entitled, although its editor would have been the last person to make any claims for so ques- tionable a distinction. "THE ILLINOIS TEACHER." In 1854 the newly-organized State Teachers' Association held its first meeting at Peoria. The question of an organ came up, and the decision to publish a monthly started The Illinois Teacher on a career that was destined to continue for more than eighteen years. Daniel Wilkins, now a resident of Chicago, and W. H. H. Amy, afterwards memorable in the Southwest, were the local and. managing editors. The main editorial work, however, was to be done by twelve gentlemen who were to mount the tripod in succession for the first twelve months. The monthly editor scheme proved a dismal failure, and the enterprise seemed destined to perish before it had cut its milk teeth. At this juncture Charles E. Hovey, who had come West to seek his fortune, came to the front and assumed the whole burden. He was tireless, full of resources, and possessed pluck to the backbone. He threw himself into the fight for a normal school, the desirability of which had been discussed for years by the friends of popular education. The normal school idea was kept prominently before his readers ; the educational public was not permitted to forget that the normal school was a necessity. The passage of the act establishing the institution in 1857 was due in large part to the influence of The Illinois Teacher. Hovey's prominence is attested, by the fact that he became the first principal of EDUCATIONAL JOURNALS IN ILLINOIS. 835 the school, remained for four years and until it had passed the danger- point, and then went off to win the stars of a major-general in the Union army. He acted as editor for two years. By his untiring energy he suc- ceeded in raising the subscription list to fifteen hundred the first year, and to something more than two thousand the second. But he had the build- ing of the new normal school on his hands, and was obliged to give up his editorial work. Dr. Bateman succeeded him in 1858. When the State Association met in December, 1858, there was a disposi- tion on the part of several of the leading members to free the organization from all responsibility for the further support of the paper. The contest was a memorable one. A report of the discussion covers several pages of the printed proceedings. The measure at last carried. A few responsible men, among whom were Hovey, Hewitt, Bateman, and a dozen more of their sort, met and chose Charles A. Dupee editor, and Hewett mathematical editor, pledged twenty-five dollars each to meet current expenses, and started the Teacher on another year. It made its monthly visits to its subscribers and came up smiling at the' end of the year. Its vitality was marvellous. When disaster seemed impending, its friends rallied about it and kept it on the move. In 1860, Dr. Willard, who was then employed as a teacher in the normal school, assumed editorial control. He continued through 1861. Alexander M. Gow followed him in '62 and '63. S. A. Briggs, who had been Gow's assistant, served during '64 ; Richard Edwards, in '65 and '66 ; Wm. M. Baker, in '67, '68, and '69. In 1870, S. H. White, who had been serving as assistant for five years, accepted the editorship, and continued for two years. E. W. Coy was his assistant. In accordance with the most approved system of civil service, Coy succeeded to the edi- tor's chair in '72. At the close of the year the Teacher was sold to Gove and Hewett, and was merged in The Illinois Schoolmaster. One of the leading functions of this pioneer school journal was the training of the editors. Counting the twelve monthly editors who served the first year, there were twenty-two in the aggregate. There were in addition to this list several assistants that have not been enumerated. Among these were James H. Blodgett ; Professors Stetson and Pillsbury, of the normal school ; and Professor Standish, of Galesburg. " THE SCHOOLMASTEE." Some time in the year 1866, E. D. Harris, of Normal, Illinois, started a small paper with an educational bias, which he called The Normal Index. Some two years later, Mr. John Hull, then superintendent of schools in the county of McLean, purchased the paper, changed its name to The Schoolmaster, enlarged and otherwise improved it, and pushed it into public notice. Professor Albert Stetson, of the State Normal School, was 836 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. associated with Mr. Hull iu the editorial management. In May, 3870, Mr. I. S. Baker, principal of the Skinner School, Chicago, joined forces with Professor Stetson in the control of the paper, and its influence began to grow in a very tangible way. In July of the same year, it was thought expedient to remove the place of publication from Bloomiugton to Chicago, and its name was changed to The Chicago Schoolmaster. In May, 1871, Mr. Hull sold The Schoolmaster to Mr. Aaron Gove, of Normal, who was soon joined by Professor Edwin C. Hewett of the State Normal School. Mr. Gove took general charge of the paper. In February, 1873, these gentlemen purchased The Illinois Teacher, consolidated it with TJie Chicago School- master, and changed the name to The Illinois Schoolmaster. In 1874, Mr. Gove sold his interest in the paper to Mr. John W. Cook; Professor Hewett continuing to retain an interest, although not actively engaged in its management. In January, 1876, The Illinois Schoolmaster and several other magazines in the Northwest were purchased by S. R. Winchell and Company and united in The Educational Weekly. The career of this paper was comparatively brief. The West seemed hardly ready for so radical a change in educational journalism. In the more populous East a weekly had made a place for itself, and it had already found generous patronage in the Northwest. While 'Hie Schoolmaster had no hobby it printed a good deal of valuable matter. Its contributors were among the leaders of educational thought in the State. Dr. J. A. Sewall, of the State Normal School, was a frequent contributor back in the early seventies. Dr. E. C. Hewett, Dr. H. H. Belfield, E. C. Smith, familiarly known as " Smith of Dixon/' Alfred Kirk, 0. Blackman, and the gifted and lamented Jeremiah Mahoney did far more than any others during the editorial management of Mr. I. S. Baker. The versatile Jonathan Piper came across the line from Iowa about that time and introduced himself to the Illinois pedagogues by some spicy extracts from his notebook of observations. Aaron Gove occupied the humble position of editor for the Illinois Normal Department, all unconscious of the dignities that were soon to devolve upon him as editor in chief. In May, 1871, Baker retired from the editorial management. While he was by no means a brilliant editor, he was helpful and thoroughly in earnest. Unlike his predecessor, he was engaged in public school work. In the management of a large city school he was constantly in the presence of the problems that confronted his readers. He treated them from the practical rather than the theoretical standpoint. When Mr. Gove took charge he found a respectable subscription list, a fair reputation, and almost a free field. In 1871, Mr. Gove began the publication of a series of language lessons. They seem to have been a new departure in the matter of language teaching, and attracted no little attention. They were in a way EDUCATIONAL JOURNALS IN ILLINOIS. 837 the forerunners of that large crop of Introductions to Grammars that soon crowded the markets. Their author was W. B. Powell, at that time superin- tendent of schools in one of the smaller cities of Illinois. Jeremiah Mahoney continued to contribute his brilliant and original articles. Among the occasional contributors were Dr. J. M. Gregory, 0. S. Westcott. George Howland, "Father" Root, of "Egypt," E. A. Gastman, J. H. Blodgett, J. L. Pickard, Hon. Newton Bateman, Professor S. A. Forbes, President Richard Edwards, Henry L. Boltwood, and Dr. Samuel Willard. Mary Allen West made her bow as a writer of short educational stories. Her name was destined to become a household word in the Northwest, on account of her devotion to the temperance cause. She died in far-away Japan, and lies in the quiet cemetery at Galesburg, where her loving pupils laid her with grateful benedictions. In 1874, Mr. Gove was called to the superintendency of the Denver schools, and was succeeded in the editorial management of the paper by the present writer. There was little change in its policy or general character. As I look over the numbers that were prepared in the midst of the pressing duties of a very busy life, I am impressed with the fact that we were only playing at school journalism. Little was lost when The Illinois Schoolmaster was merged in The Educational Weekly. And the cause of popular education did not go to the wall when that ambitious effort ended in financial disaster. Civilization seems destined to survive the decay of some of its most conspicuous pillars. Excellent financial support was given to The Schoolmaster during the time that it became the duty of Dr. Hewett and myself to look the printer in the face. I am sure we received ample compensation for all the work that we put upon it. And the book publishers — those generous gentle- men that made their benefactions under the pleasing guise of business — and made educational journalism possible, I wonder if they ever got back cents where they put in dollars. "THE ILLINOIS SCHOOL JOURNAL." Late in the seventies — exactly when, the writer is unable to learn — a certain gentleman of Napoleonic qualities conceived the notion that it was quite possible to cover the whole field of American school journalism by a very simple and economical arrangement. If we are a Nation with a big " N," why should not the same matter answer for one State as well as for another ? Full of this idea, this ingenious gentleman cast about him for the necessary talent to furnish the local coloring. He was very fortunate in his choice for Illinois. There was a young man of good parts who was working on a small salary as principal of a grammar school in one of our State nopmal schools. He was promptly engaged as local editor. Before many moons he became disgusted with the management of the 838 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. new venture, which had received the modest title of The New Gleaner. He bought out the Illinois edition, and a new school paper, The Illinois School Journal, was launched on the perilous sea of journalism. The first number appeared in May, 1881. The first number was highly promising. It was nearly double the size of The Schoolmaster, was filled with practical material all ready to be served, it had discarded a considerable part of the news notion, and showed a page of wide-awake editorial matter that looked like business. The new editors were Dr. Edmund J. James, and Charles De Garmo. The later prominence of the gentlemen warrants the statement that here was a strong combination. The Journal, to use a phrase that some of my hearers may not understand, had " the pole " at the start. There was much of the dash and wit of the " Jerry Mahoney " articles. Evidently these editors were not afraid. The admirable training of Dr. James in the pedagogical courses of German universities gave a dignity and character to whatever he chose to write upon educational subjects, that at once began to attract attention. It was a new era in school journalism. The old contributors began to reappear. There was a happy combination of philosophy and helpful simplicity. Dr. James was profound, and Mr. De Garmo was ingenious and inventive in the line of schoolroom devices. During the winter Congress was discussing the question of national aid to education. The Journal engaged in this discussion with great spirit and ability, and formulated one of the plans that received the re- spectful attention of that eminent body. Members of the General Assem- bly of Illinois seemed not altogether unwilling to be informed of their duties in the line of popular education, by a school journal that insisted upon being heard. A somewhat careful examination of the numbers issued by these gentlemen convinces me that we did not fully appreciate them. In 1883 Dr. De Garmo left for Germany, to enter upon his university course, and the present writer again found himself engaged in school journalism. Dr. De Garmo had just arranged with William Hawley Smith for the production of a serial story with an educational motive. Two or three numbers had appeared before I succeeded to the editorial manage- ment. I soon discovered that the plan met with the favor of the educa- tional public. " The Evolution of Dodd " was no less a business than a literary success. The circulation of the paper increased with great rapidity, and the call for the back numbers containing the story betrayed the reason. It became very apparent that the teacher is not averse to a highly practical system of pedagogics, if it has the concrete setting which Mr. Smith has so happily illustrated in his charming little book. There is a highly valuable suggestion in the success of ' ' The Evolution of Dodd." The school journal that can work it out will not lack for readers. EDUCATIONAL JOURNALS IN ILLINOIS. 839 After a year of oppressive labor I was joined by Mr. R. R. Reeder in the management of the Journal. Little is to be said of our success. Finan- cially it was unequivocal. Educationally I regard it as a failure. It was the work of hours that should have been devoted to rest. In November, 1886, the magazine was purchased by Mr. George P. Brown, and the name was soon changed to The Public School Journal. Few school journals are better known. It is unique, in that a singleness -of purpose has characterized it from the first number — the grounding of all teaching in a rational philosophy of education. "THE CHICAGO TEACHER." This journal was only an episode in the history of educational journal- ism. It merits this characterization because of its brief career. Allusion has been made to the brilliant and lamented Jeremiah Mahoney. In com- pany with Ira S. Baker he started the Teacher in 1873. It was destined to have a short history. The reputation of Mr. Mahoney and the business tact of Mr. Baker soon put it upon an excellent financial footing. Edito- rially it was original, somewhat meteoric, but extremely captivating in its general character. "OUR COUNTRY AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS." In the early eighties it began to be whispered about the State that one John Trainer, county superintendent of schools in Macon County, had achieved a remarkable success in the management of the schools under his charge. Mr. Trainer was a man of remarkable ingenuity, and possessed the extremely happy faculty of interesting the public in his work. He is entitled to whatever of honor attaches to the introduction of what is known in Illinois as " the graded course for country schools." To exploit Mr. Trainer's "find," and to gather in certain pecuniary advantages that were conceived to attach thereto, Charles I. Powner started Our Country and Village Schools. The idea was practical and attractive. The paper sprang into a prominence beyond its merit, and promised abundant suc- cess. But Mr. Powner's business methods soon wrecked the enterprise, and it joined the melancholy shades of defunct school journals, respecta- ble at least in numbers. The purpose of this paper is to deal with the past, or with such papers now current as had their beginnings in a somewhat remote past. Intelligence, of Chicago, now in its thirteenth volume, Mr. E. 0. Vaile, editor, in a certain way was an offshoot of The Educational Weekly, with which the accomplished editor of the Intelligence had a brief connection. 840 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. ED UCA TIONA L JOUR NA LISM IN 10 WA . BY HENRY SABIN, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION OF IOWA. In January, 1853, The District School Journal of Education was issued at Dubuque under the care of A. P. Wood, S. K. Gilbert acting as editor. At the end of the first year the name was changed to The Ioioa Journal of Education. From 1854 to 1857 there was no educational journal in the State. In the latter part of the year 1857 J. L. Enos commenced the publica- tion of The Educational Voice at Cedar Kapids. Mr. Enos was one of the strongest educational men Iowa has ever produced. The journal was con- ducted with great vigor. Its articles were varied, and touched upon all the wants of the community. The Voice boasted at one time a thousand paying subscribers. It is uncertain what became of it. Iowa has had no journal since its day of greater, and but few of equal, merit. In May, 1859, Kev. S. S. Howe, principal of the academy at Mt. Pleas- ant, commenced the publication of The Literary Advertiser and Public School Advocate. It was discontinued in 1860. The same year (1859) Mills Brothers, of Des Moines, commenced the publication of The Iowa School Journal under the editorial care of A. J. Stevens. In October, 1859, The Iowa Instructor was issued under the control of the State Teachers' Association at Tipton, C. C. Nestlerode being the responsible editor. The Instructor runs through three volumes. The ablest men in the State contributed to its columns, among them Fellows, Thomas H. Benton, Jr., Prof. N. E. Leonard, Ingalls, Nestlerode, F. M. Witter, J. D. Hornby, Kissell, Miss P. W. Sudlow, and many others who are well known in the educational history of the State. It is to the influence of the educational journals published prior to 1865 that Iowa owes much of whatever prestige she enjoys now in the educa- tional ranks of the nation. In 1862 the Instructor and the School Journal were combined and pub- lished by Mills & Co., at Des Moines, under the name of The Instructor and School Journal. The first number of The Iowa School Journal appeared at Des Moines, July, 1859. From July, 1860, to January, 1861, the Journal was in a state of suspended animation. Vol. II. begins with the latter date under the editorship of Thomas H. Benton, Jr., an able writer, under whose super- vision the Journal at once became influential in the State. In 1864-67 we find the names of various teachers on the editorial page, evidently a committee chosen by the State Association. It is impossible to follow the EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN IOWA. 841 Journal through each year. The keen vigorous utterances of Kissel, the terse epigrammatic sentences of Jonathan Piper, the wise logical reason- ing of D. Franklin Wells, grace its pages and make them profitable reading to the student of the educational history of Iowa. In August, 1871, The Manual was commenced at Keokuk under the supervision of 0. M. Greene, of Keokuk, and 0. E. Burchard, of Fredo- nia, N. Y. It did not continue long. In January, 1872, it was com- bined with The Ioiua School Journal, and continued until 1875. In January, 1873, W. E. Crosby, of Davenport, commenced the publi- cation of The Common School, and in 1875 he bought the Journal. The last number which we are able to find is April, 1877. We think, how- ever, it was issued some time after that. With it disappeared the last vestige of The Iowa School Journal. In 1877 a resolution passed at a meeting of Normal Institute instructors resulted in the establishment of The Normal Monthly. The first number was issued in August of that year at Dubuque, with Principal W. J. Shoup as editor and proprietor. It was designed to be an Iowa journal devoted almost entirely to State interests. The Normal Monthly was ably conducted and was very popular in the State. Mr. Shoup was absolutely fearless as an editor, and did not hesitate to express his opinions on the educational vagaries of that day. He edited his own journal in every sense of the word. Ill-health forced him to retire, and in April, 1884, he sold the Monthly. Of the other journals at present published in Iowa, little need be said. The Central School Journal, published at Keokuk, is now in its fifteenth volume. The first number was issued in December, 1877, with J. W. Howley editor-in-chief. Miss Lydia G. Howell was editor from 1883 to 1886, at which time Professor George Edward Marshall, of the Keokuk high school, became editor, and remained so till 1889. The Journal is now owned by Superintendent 0. W. Weyer and Principal Charles H. Wolf, of the Keokuk schools. The Central School Journal has always been charac- terized as a progressive journal, fully up with the demands of the times. The Iowa Teacher is published at Charles City. This paper furnishes the larger part of the printed matter for many country papers, leaving them a page or two for home matters. In 1886 The Iowa School Journal was established at Des Moines. It is now known as Iowa Schools. Tlie Northwestern Journal of Education flourished for a time as a weekly journal. Although it had the best editorial ability in the person of one of the ablest female writers of Iowa, it did not pay expenses, and came to an untimely end. So much for the past of educational journalism in Iowa. It is impos- sible to forecast the future. With four journals, each clamorous for sup- port, with the great influx of journals from outside the State, it does not seem possible to put any journal on a paying basis. 842 INTEH NATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. THE EDUCATIONAL PAPERS OF MISSOURI. BY H. A. GASS, JEFFERSON CITY, MO. The first educational paper published west of the Mississippi River was The Missouri Journal of Education. It was established by the Missouri State Teachers' Association, and was the official organ of that body. By. act of the association, Mr. E. K. Woodward, of St: Louis, was made the publisher, and Hon. Ira Divoll, superintendent of the St. Louis public schools, local editor, and W. S. Baker, traveling agent. The first and only number was published in July, 1857. In May, 1858, Mr. Thomas J. Henderson began the publication of The Missouri Educator. This was continued until July, 18G0, as the official organ of the State Teachers' Association, and was the second effort of that body to establish a school paper for the State. Henderson was its editor, J. L. Tracy, Arrow Rock ; W. L. Luckey, Fayette ; J. W. Sutherland, Boonville ; Dr. S. S. Laws, Fulton ; Richard Edwards, St. Louis ; James Love, Liberty ; W. H. Lewis, Independence, were the associate editors. The paper was of a high order. The editorials and contributed articles were strong. Advanced ground was taken on the subject of normal schools, teachers' institutes, and other questions of importance to the educational public. TJie Missouri Teacher was founded by Prof. J. U. Barnard, at Kirks- ville, Mo. The first number was issued in January, 1880. The publica- tion of this paper was continued by Prof. Barnard for nearly three years, when he sold it to other parties who changed its general character and after a few months suspended its publication. The Missouri Teacher was a good paper, and did its full share towards helping the educational growth of the State. The Missouri School Journal was founded by Professors W. T. Car- rington and J. L. Holloway, at Jefferson City, Mo. The initial number was published October 1, 1883. In December, 1887, Howard A. Gass, the present owner, purchased it, and January 1, 1888, changed it from a semi-monthly to a monthly. In January, 1891, it was changed to maga- zine form which it still retains. The Journal has grown steadily from its inception until it is now recognized as the leading educational paper of the State. The American Journal of Education was established in February, 1868, and is now in its twenty-fifth year. It is edited by its founder, Major J. B. Merwin. It was largely instrumental in raising the wages in Mis- souri more than nineteen dollars per month. Its advocacy of a liberal policy toward the schools has made the paper and its genial editor thousands of friends in all parts of the country. EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN UTAH, COLORADO, KANSAS. 843 School and Home was established March 20, 1884, by Mr. William L. Thomas, who still owns and edits it. It is published semi-monthly at St. Louis, Mo. The Missouri Teacher is a new educational monthly established by Professors Smith and Scotten at Sedalia, Mo. The first number was pub- lished September 15, 1892. Only ten numbers of Vol. I. have as yet been sent out. EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN UTAH, COLORADO AND KANSAS. BY JOHN MACDONALD, EDITOR OF "THE WESTERN SCHOOL JOURNAL," TOPEKA, KAN. In Utah, educational journalism is still in its infancy. The Inter- Mountain Practical Educator is the only representative educational paper in the Territory. The Educator first made its appearance in April, 1891. Its editors and publishers were J. W. Newbern, G. W. McKay, and J. C. Wolfe, teachers in the Salt Lake City schools. In May, Messrs. McKay and Wolfe retired, and Mr. Newbern took entire charge of the paper. In January, 1892, W. A. Corey bought a half interest in the Educator, and a few months later, bought the other half. The word "Practical " in the title was dropped, and the name is now Inter-Mountain Educator. Mr. Corey is still editor and publisher. The Educator is the organ of the Territorial Commissioner, and of the county superintendents of Utah. It is growing in favor aud in circulation, has done and is doing much good in advocating needed changes in school laws and school work, and in faithfully representing and defending the interests of all the teachers in that vast tract of country known as the "Basin Region." COLORADO. The first educational periodical in Colorado, TJie Colorado School Journal, made its appearance in April, 1885. It was established by Super- intendent Aaron Gove, of Denver, and Mr. J. D. Dillenback. Mr. Gove has continued to edit the Journal since 1885, and Mr. Dillenback con- tinued to be the publisher until 1890. At that time J. S. Temple bought Mr. Dillenback^ interest in the paper, and became the publisher. The Colorado School Journal is and has been the organ of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, also of the State Teachers' Associa- tion. The aim of the Journal has been to discuss new theories and prac- tices in education, to help especially the young teachers, and to aid in cementing the bond between the common schools and the higher educa- 844 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. tional institutions. It also gives full reports of all State educational meet- ings, gives some space to educational news, and publishes all the opinions of the State Superintendent on questions of school law. KANSAS. The first educational paper published in Kansas was the child of the Kansas State Teachers' Association, and was called The Kansas Educa- tional Journal. The Association was organized in September, 1863, and it was resolved to establish, as soon as possible, an organ to represent the teachers of the State. The Association assumed sole control of the young periodical, elected its editors, and made annual and sometimes desperate efforts to meet the deficit, which appeared with distressing regularity. Superintendent H. D. McCarty was the first editor of the journal, and remained in charge until 186?. In 1867 L. B. Kellogg and H. B. Norton were elected editors, and con- tinued in control until 1870, when Superintendent Banfield of Topeka and Professor Dilworth of Emporia were elected. The panic of 1873 came ; then the plagues of Egypt, the grasshoppers, the chinch-bugs, and the drought, descended upon the State, and the Journal apparently gave up the ghost — at least it disappeared. The Kansas Educational Journal during the ten years of its existence did a vast deal of good in keep- ing constantly before the people the need of certain amendments to the school law, and in introducing better methods of teaching into the schools. During the years between 1873 and 1879, educational journalism was well-nigh dead in Kansas, or at least in a state of torpor. Various efforts were made to revive the old Journal, but without success. In 1877, it appeared in Emporia as The Hatchet, editor Buel T. Davis. In 1879 The Hatchet merged into The Educationalist. The circulation of these papers was extremely limited, but they served to keep educational journalism alive. In 1880, Dr. Geo. W. Hoss bought Tlie Educationalist, changed its name to Educationist, made Topeka his headquarters, and continued to publish and to edit the paper until January, 1885. The Educationist was a worthy successor to The Kansas Educational Journal, but its circulation was still far from satisfactory, and the editor, we suspect, had to live mainly on faith, hope, and oxygen. In January, 1885, H. C. Speer, then retiring from the State Superin- tendency, bought The Educationist of Dr. Hoss, changed the form of it to a quarto, and the name to Western School Journal, which name it still retains. Mr. Speer greatly increased the circulation, and, for the first time, began to make the paper pay. In May, 1887, Mr. Speer sold the Journal to K. W. Turner, late United States Consul to Cadiz, Spain. Under Mr. Turner's management the Journal continued to grow in circulation and EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN FRANCE. 845 in influence. In December, 1888, The Western School Journal was pur- chased by the writer of this paper, and he has during the last four or five years been trying with such strength and grace and faith as he may have to make the paper a representative educational journal in every true and good sense. To what extent he has succeeded, it is not for him to say, and it would be obviously improper for him to discuss the subject in this paper. He can, however, properly say thus much : That the Journal has largely increased in circulation during the last few years, and that it is more enthusiastically supported by the teachers of Kansas than any other State educational paper in the Union, with one possible exception. Educational journalism in Kansas has come to its present position through great tribulation. In its troublous infancy, it was afflicted with all sorts of adversities, educational whooping-cough, strangling croup, and all the other ailments which beset the path of childhood. But in spite of all the child grew and waxed strong, and is now mature and robust enough to make its way in the world without artificial propping. For the educational journal in Kansas is not now, as in the olden time, a mere adjunct to a college professorship or city superintendeucy. It is to-day, thanks to the teachers who so generously support it, upon a paying foundation. EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN FRANCE. ABSTRACT OF A PAPER BY GABRIEL COMPAYRE, PRESIDENT OF THE FRENCH PEDAGOGIC DELEGATION TO THE WORLD'S FAIR. For the sake of clearness we have classified the educational journals of France as follows : (1) Those devoted to the interests of all the schools of the country ; (2) Those published particularly for the teachers and pupils of superior and secondary schools ; (3) Those pertaining to elementary instruction ; (4) Journals for specialists; and (5) The public documents of educational associations, faculties, etc. FIRST GROUP. Until 1892 there existed two publications devoted to the interests of the French public schools — the Bulletin Administratif die Ministere de V Instruction Publique and the Recueil des Lois et Actes de V Instruction Publique. The latter, founded in 1847, has been discontinued. The official bulletin of the Minister of Public Instruction appears weekly. That which gives it a pedagogic character are the ministerial instructions intended for the guidance of teachers in their capacity as educators and professors. 846 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. SECOND GROUP. Among the journals addressing themselves particularly to the professors of superior and secondary schools are the following : La Revue Internationale de V Enseignement, published by the Society of Superior Instruction. It was founded in 1881, and appears monthly. Edited in a very liberal spirit and above all confessional prejudices. This review is designed to make known the works of French and foreign masters who are interested in the future of the higher studies. It affords an opportunity to follow the pedagogical movement in various countries, and to make very interesting and instructive comparisons. Thus the International Review plays the part of a sort of permanent congress where questions of highest import for the advancement of education and instruc- tion are discussed. La Revue Universitaire has a more practical character than the pre- ceding journals. It aims to be of assistance to teachers of secondary schools, and to be of equal service to the pupils. Teachers as well as pupils find in it interesting and varied articles on education, literature, history, the fine arts, hygiene, etc. Its programme embraces all the subjects taught in the lycees and colleges. Besides these general studies this review has a department devoted to the preparation for examinations, and gives a very complete bibliography. It was founded in 1892 and appears monthly. L' Enseignement Secondaire des Jeunes Filles, conducted by Camille See, is specially devoted to questions relating to female education. A happy innovation of recent date is the publication of the best compositions of pupils, with notes and criticisms of teachers. This is an excellent means of keeping up emulation between the various establishments. The journal was founded in 1882 and appears monthly. Before passing to the journals and reviews devoted to the interests of elementary schools, we may mention the Revue des Cours et Conferences, which reproduces public lessons given at the Sorbonne and the College of France. It was founded in 1892 and appears weekly. THIRD GROUP. The journals for the use of the teachers of elementary schools form the most numerous group. We mention first a publication which, although belonging to this group, contains articles of a higher quality than those of the school journals proper. This is the Revue Pedagogique, whose frame embraces all that pertains to the science of education. Founded in 1878, it has become, since July, 1882, the organ of the Pedagogic Museum. It appears monthly, and is sent free to members of the administrative personnel of elementary instruction, to normal-school principals, and to a certain number of teachers who are known to the administration as EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN FRANCE. 847 earnest students of pedagogic works. The committee which conducts the review aims to encourage pedagogic study and independent research, and gives space to free and dignified discussions. Outside of articles on all points touching the interests of education and instruction and studies in the history of pedagogy, the Revue publishes each month a review of the press and of books, a record of elementary instruction in France, and notes of foreign countries. Besides, there are literary and scientific reviews. Among the regular contributors are the most authoritative representatives of French pedagogy : Messrs. Greard, Buisson, Compayre, Marrion, Pecaut, Steeg, etc. With the Manuel General de V Instruction Primaire we arrive at the journals which, without neglecting questions relating to methods and what might be called the theory of education, aim to furnish teachers with practical directions and to facilitate their daily tasks. The Manuel was founded in 1832 and appears semi-monthly. It lost the official char- acter which it bore at first in 1840. It enjoys a great and well-deserved influence. It was one of the first journals to demand free and obligatory instruction, and has supported all efforts relating to the reorganization of elementary education in France. The publishers of the Manuel issue since October, 1892, a journal of a peculiar nature. This is the Correspondance General de V Instruction Primaire, a bulletin serving as a free mediator between school authorities, the families, and members of public and private elementary schools. It is sent out twice a month. Its main object is to introduce reforms in the economy, mechanism, or spirit of national instruction. Next to the Manuel General and L'Ami de VEnfance, of which we shall presently speak, the oldest school journal is the Journal des Instituteurs. Founded in 1878, it appears every Sunday. Devoted exclusively to the preparation of classes, it is the first periodical to publish a course of studies in which teachers may find tasks and lessons for every day in the year on all the studies in the programme. In 1879 a new periodical was published, destined to make a rapid success. We refer to L' Instruction Primaire, a journal of practical education for school teachers and principals of kindergartens. Its character is about the same as that of the Manuel General. It com- prises two distinct departments, the semi-monthly journal and a supple- ment. The former is particularly designed for the teacher in the class- room ; it furnishes materials for lessons for every day, and facilitates the preparation of pupils for the examinations. The supplement addresses itself particularly to the masters and mistresses, and aims mainly at an extension of their literary and scientific knowledge, and to aid them in the preparation for the attainment of the various diplomas that they may desire to possess. The monthly Ulnstituteur was started in 1886 to react against the 848 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. utilitarian tendency of the pedagogic press. It aims to elevate the teacher. Accordingly it seeks less to furnish the teachers with ready-made lesson plans than to give them directions as to how to choose the material and how to prepare it. The thought of making moral training more prominent than the ordinary studies inspires the pedagogic articles that take the first place in this journal. Le Progres tie V Enseignement Primaire, a monthly journal founded in 1886, like L'Instituteur aims to encourage individual effort and original work. Every number contains a pedagogic discussion, a plan of monthly studies, a review of 'school journals, and directions for the teaching of manual training. Besides, the Progres publishes each month the biography and portrait of an ancient or modern educationalist. L' Education Nationale, started in 1887 under the inspiration of Paul Bert, has aimed particularly during the first years of its publication to contribute in the largest possible measure to the moral and civic instruc- tion of teachers and pupils. A liberal and openly republican spirit ani- mates all its articles. Since the 1st of January, 1893, it has undergone a change, and is now almost exclusively devoted to the preparation for the various examinations. It is issued every Sunday. A certain number of other periodicals do not distinguish themselves by any clearly defined purpose. Their programme, like that of the Manuel General or L' Instruction Primaire, is to guide teachers in the preparation of classroom work, to aid them to complete their professional training, and to defend their interests. Among those which occupy a quite honorable place in pedagogic journalism are Le Journal de V Enseignement Primaire, founded in 1879 ; La Revue de V Enseignement Primaire et de V Enseigne- ment Superieur, founded in 1891 ; L'Instituteur Pratique; L'Echo de l' Enseignement Primaire, founded in 1892 ; and the Volume. The care with which the latter journal is edited deserves special mention. The journals enumerated above are devoted mainly to public elementary education, and are edited and read for the greater part by public-school workers. The free schools have also their organs ; among them are UEcole Francaise, founded in 1889, and L' Education Chretienne, founded in 1892. These publications are devoted to the defense of the Catholic interests. The educational press numbers few journals systematically opposed to the administration. We can mention but two whose polemiqne does not keep within the limits of courteous discussion. These are the Reforme Universitaire and France Enseignante. There are three publications specially devoted to maternal schools (ecoles maternelles) — the Ami de VEnfance, the Moniteur du Jeune Age, and the Ecole Maternelle et Enfantine. The first mentioned is the oldest of the three. It was founded in 1839 by Mr. Cochin to support the teaching in the salles d'asile, which were then being estab- lished in France. The Ami de VEnfance has been conducted for some EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN FRANCE. 849 time by Madame Pape-Carpantier, whose whole life was devoted to the education of little children, and to whom we are indebted for ingenious devices and many excellent books. The present directress of the journal, Madame Kergomard, continues the work of Madame Pape-Carpantier with equal devotion and like success. Le Moniteur du Jeune Age addresses itself to all who are interested in the education of young children, to mothers as well as to teachers. This is also the plan of the Itcole Maternelle et Enfantine. The two last-named journals are in existence for upward of ten years, and are worthy rivals of the Ami de VEnfance. FOUETH GROUP. We do not comprise in this group the journals of scientific societies, which, as they address tbemselves to a very limited public, cannot be con- sidered as forming a part of the school press. But there exist for the use of professors and pupils of the secondary and elementary schools certain special publications which we must mention here. Instruction in geography, which in recent years has received a lively impulse, is encouraged and strengthened by the Revue de Geographie (published since 1877) and the Annates de Geographie (since 1892). We might mention also JJAnnee Cartographiqtie, published since 1891. Teachers of modern languages derive much help from the Revue de V Enseignement des Langues Vivantes, founded in 1884. The pupils of the lycees and colleges have for their use the Deutsche Zeitung fur die franzosische Jugend, or the Journat Allemand-Deutsches Btatt fur Franzosen, published by a coterie of professors ; the English Journal or the Journal Anglais : A Magazine for French People, a journal similar to the German one. Physical culture, long neglected and to-day occupying quite an honor- able place, has also organs, of which we mention the following : La Gym- nastique Francaise, the Moniteur des Exercises Physiques, the Education Physique, and the Moniteur de la Ligue Girondine de VEducution Physique, etc. Lastly, let us call attention, without attempting to give even an incom- plete list of them, the journals which have for their object either the diffusion of the " modal " method of teaching music, or the advocacy of a simplified and more rational orthography, or the dissemination among teachers and pupils of a knowledge of shorthand. FIFTH GROUP. The bulletins of various faculties are of recent origin. They have the advantage of making known the courses and special lines of work of the professors ; of aiding the students in their preparations for examina- tions, and of encouraging individual efforts. 54 850 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. While the bulletins of faculties address themselves almost exclusively to the members of the teaching corps, the publications of educational societies inform the larger public concerning the progress of enterprises, and at the same time solicit aid. Outside of the greater associations which aim to support the efforts of the public powers in the work of popular education, there are among teachers a certain number of mutual aid societies which have also their bulletins. These bulletins do not merely record the deliberations and decisions of the society, but have also a pedagogic department where everybody reports the result of his observa- tions, recommends this or that method, and, in short, seeks to make his colleagues profit by his experience and studies. The most important of these societies is the Union of Public School Teachers of the Department of the Seine, founded in 1888. Its bulletin appears monthly. The syndicate of teachers formed after the plan of the syndicate of workingmen publishes two journals with socialistic tendencies — the Echo Nouvelle and Les Congres et les Associations d' Educateurs et d'Insti- tuteurs. Another journal which, without being the particular organ of an associa- tion, is destined to unite the different associations of teachers and to give them more vitality by publishing their works, is the Union Pedagogique, published monthly since 1891. It plays a very useful part, and has begun to occupy an important place in school journalism. Thanks to this journal, the good ideas and interesting efforts of provincial teachers are drawn out of the somewhat narrow circle where the special bulletins of departmental teachers' societies abound. These modest journals are never- theless a sign of a praiseworthy pedagogic activity, and it would not be just to make eulogistic mention of a few of the small leaflets that are gallantly fighting against routinism. It remains now to say a word of a bulletin of a special nature. I refer to the Bulletin Scolaire de V Union Francaise pour le Sauvetage de VEnfance. This society, founded in 1887, has for its object the defense of the guardianship of ill-treated children and of those exposed to moral dangers. In 1890, the Minister of Public Instruc- tion authorized the schools to join this league for the rescuing of children. The Bulletin Scolaire, which appears about ten times a year, publishes the list of schools which have collected membership fees or gifts in favor of the French Union, and all information touching the work that will be of interest to pupils in the schools. Let us add, finally, that there exists in every departement (county) an official bulletin of elementary instruction. These departmental bulle- tins are gratuitously sent to teachers and are the property of the school. They instruct the teaching personnel regarding their appointments, dates of examinations, pedagogic conferences, etc. ; they reproduce the greater part of the ministerial circulars which appear in the Bulletin Adminis- tratif of the Minister of Public Instruction. EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN FRANCE. 851 If we go back to the origin of the French educational press, we find that it has made remarkable progress in the last twenty years. The first journal of education dates from 1789 ; this is the Journal de Famille ou Livre des Enfants of Seguin. From 1789-1870 have appeared about sixty school journals and bulletins of societies devoted to popular instruc- tion. Among the journals properly so-called, only a few have survived — the Manuel General, the Ami de I'Enfance, and the Journal des Insti- tuteurs. All the other educational periodicals have sprung up since 1870. But we have mentioned only the journals and reviews actually appearing, and that without pretending to give an exact and complete list. Looking backward, we can estimate the number of school journals at one hundred, of which more than one-half are devoted specially to questions touching elementary instruction. APPENDIX. The following papers were prepared for and submitted to the International Congress of Education, at Chicago, July 25-28, 1893, through Hon. William T. Harris, Com- missioner of Education of the United States, and General Chairman in charge of the Congresses. None of these papers were read at sessions of the Congress, but, containing as they do much important recent information in relation to the condition of education in foreign countries, they are here appended to the proceedings. The series of papers on the Education of Women in Great Britain and her colonics, were prepared under the auspices of Mrs. Millicent Garrett Pawcett, and offered to the International Congress of Education at the request of Dr. Harris. List of the Papers. "University Education for Women in England," "A Few Words of Retrospect and Forecast," " University Association of Women Teachers," "Elementary Education in England," "National Education in Scotland," " Women Students in the Scottish Uni- versities," "Convent Education in Ireland," "Women's Education in New Zealand," "Educational Work for Women in Australia, chiefly in New South Wales," "Recent Developments of Education for the Women and Girls of India," "English Orphanage and Training School in Bosnia, 1869-92," " Elementary and Secondary Education in Cape Colony, Africa," " Public Instruction in Italy," " Needlework in the Public Schools of Stockholm, Sweden." UNIVERSITY EDUCATION FOR WOMEN IN ENGLAND. BY MRS. HENRY FAWCETT [MILLICENT GARRETT FAWCETTJ. The story has often been told how the exclusion of the women delegates, chosen by two of the American societies, from the great anti-slavery convention held in London in 1840, led to the first formal and organized claim of women to the rights of citizen- ship. The seed had lain long in the ground, giving signs of life indeed, but none of rapid germination. It will be readily understood that a considerable degree of heat was engendered by the controversy whether it was in accordance with social decorum and the ordinances of Almighty God that Mrs. Mott and Mrs. Stanton, having been chosen as delegates, should sit and speak and vote as delegates, or should be fenced off behind a bar and curtain as mere spectators. This heat was just what was needed to start that process of growth which has never ceased since that day either in England or in the United States. The supporters of exclusion carried the day ; the majority of the men who had met to take counsel together how they could best oppose negro slavery were not prepared to concede the most elementary civil liberty to women. But as Mrs. Mott and Mrs. Stanton left the hall, they then and there resolved to call a women's rights convention on their return to their own country. Among the Englishwomen who were the spectators and auditors of the discussion which led to the exclusion of the 854 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. American ladies from the conference were Mrs. Pry, Mrs. Jameson, Lady Byron, and Mrs. Howitt. The seed germinated in their minds too, and the conviction grew that if liberty was good and a thing worth striving for, it would be good for women. The movement for political enfranchisement, equal laws, opportunities of employment and of education for women, received a most important impulse in England from the slight put upon the American ladies by the anti-slavery convention. I propose to endeavor to trace in outline the development in England of one of these main branches of the women's movement — the claim to share in higher education. The defective state of women's education in the first half of the century, and still more in earlier times, it is difficult now to realize. Defoe had called attention to it in one of his essays on Projects. Mary Wollstonecraft had protested against it and against the mass of false theory and evil practice which supported it. Sydney Smith had assailed it with the keen shafts of ridicule. But very little had practically been done to place the education of women on a rational basis. The first definite piece of work in this direction was begun in 1846, and owed its initiative to the Rev. Frederick Denison Maurice, who was then one of the professors of King's College, London. The idea occurred to him that as it was part of his duty to teach young men at King's College, it would be right and suitable to provide classes for their sisters. The practical outcome of this idea was the foundation of Queen's College. The Dowager Lady Stanley of Alderley seconded Mr. Maurice's efforts. He was also aided by Dr. Trench, afterward Archbishop of Dublin,* and by the Rev. C. G. Nicolay, then both professors of King's College. Classes for young women were opened in 1846 ; in 1848 a house in Harley Street was taken, and in 1853 a Royal charter was obtained. The educational impor- tance of the foundation of Queen's College is difficult to exaggerate. It opened a new life to those who profited by its instruction. Among its earliest pupils were Miss Buss, now of the North London Collegiate School for Girls, and Miss Dorothea Beale, now of the Ladies' College, Cheltenham. These two ladies have devoted their whole life to raise the standard of girls' education. They founded schools of their own which after- ward served as models for the schools of the Girls' Public Day School Company, and have had a most important influence on the development of education all over the United Kingdom. Queen's College, being in a sense a sister establishment to King's College, was from its foundation a Church of England institution, whereas Bedford College, founded mainly by Mrs. Rcid, in 1849, was entirely undenominational. As Queen's College is able to boast of Miss Buss and Miss Beale as among its earliest students, so Bedford College lays claim to the distinction of having provided part of the intellectual equipment of George Eliot, and of Barbara Leigh Smith, afterward Mme. Bodichon, one of the founders of Girton College. After the foundation of Queen's and Bedford there was a long period of quiescence, when, if progress was made at all, it was so slow as to remind one of what Mr. Russell Lowell once said of the movement of public opinion in England. He said it was like the movement of glacial drift ; you could not see it move, but when you looked again, after an interval, you found it had moved. Possibly the slow rate of prog- ress in the development of higher education for women after the foundation of Queen's and Bedford Colleges may be accounted for by the preoccupation of the national mind with the Crimean war and the Indian Mutiny of 1854-6 and 1857-8. Times of national crisis, "the glory and grief of battle, won or lost," may solder a race together, but the years thus occupied are not usually the years when social movements make rapid progress. Such times, however, are great tests of character, national and personal. In the presence of real danger, conventions and insincerities are at a discount ; any one, man or woman, who can do a stroke of work for the country is urged to do it. * Archbishop Trench afterward became one of the chief promoters of Alexandra College, Dublin. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION FOR WOMEN IN ENGLAND. 855 The national necessities of England during the Crimean war gave Florence Nightin- gale the opportunity of doing the work which her capacities, character, and training had fitted her to do, and indirectly gave an impetus to another movement which has re- sulted in England in the opening of the medical profession and of university education to women. The train of ideas is not difficult to follow. If women can be of essential service to the sick as trained nurses, why should they not also be of essential service to them as doctors ? To obtain medical education, women had to knock at the door of the universities, and while they asked for medical education they also asked for instruc- tion in other branches of knowledge. In April, 1862, Miss Elizabeth Garrett (now Mrs. Garrett Anderson, M.D.), then working with the aim of obtaining a medical qualification, memorialized the University of London to open their degrees to women. Her application was refused on legal grounds, but on the last day of the same month her father reopened the subject by again addressing the senate of the university, begging for a reconsideration of his daughter's application, and suggesting that a clause should be added to the charter of the university expressly providing for the admission of women to its examinations and degrees. On May 7, 1862, Mr. Grote, the historian, vice-chancellor of the university, moved a resolution favorable to the request of Mr. Garrett's memorial. This was seconded by the Right Hon. Robert Lowe, M.P. (afterward Lord Sherbrooke) ; but after a pro- tracted discussion the voting was equal, ten on each side, and the proposal was nega- tived by the casting vote of the chancellor. On this occasion the petitioners were able to appeal to the original charter of London University, where it was stated in the broad- est possible terms that the university was founded with the object of holding forth "to all classes and denominations, . . . without any distinction whatsoever, an encour- agement for pursuing a regular and liberal course of education." It appeared, however, that when this was written, in 1836, the great discovery of the nineteenth century, that women are human beings, had not been made. Women were told that though the university was for " all classes and denominations without any distinction whatsoever," it was not for them. Though defeated, the applicants felt by no means discouraged. In the autumn of 1862 a committee was formed to obtain for women admission to uni- versity examinations. The honorary secretary of this committee was Miss Emily Davies, and the honorary treasurer was Lady Goldsmid. To Miss Davies more than to any other single person this branch of the women's education movement owed its inspiration and direction. The committee began its work in what they wisely believed to be the line of least resistance. Very few people at that time were prepared to open the honors and tripos examinations of Oxford and Cambridge to women, but girls' schools were familiar and not terrifying objects even to the most timid. The first work undertaken by the committee was the effort to open to girls the university local examinations which had been established for boys in 1858. About the same time (1864) Miss Davies and Miss Bostock were instrumental in preparing, independently of the committee, a memorial to the recently appointed Schools Inquiry Commission, praying them to include girls' schools and the application of endowments to girls' education within the scope of their inquiry. The success of this application was one of the most important turning points in the struggle for the reform of girls' education. It gave the reformers a mass of evi- dence authenticated by the royal commission. It brought to light the almost entire exclusion of girls from the benefits of educational endowments, and had a very im- portant bearing on the work that was subsequently done by the Endowed Schools Com- missioners in restoring to girls some of the educational endowments of which they had in previous generations been deprived. It is true tlmt some schoolmistresses, when the Schools Inquiry Commission was appointed, deeply resented its investigations. One replied that the questions asked were too inquisitorial for any woman of spirit to answer, 856 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. and that every girl of spirit would leave the room on the appearance of the assistant commissioner in it. Another replied to a letter asking permission to visit the school: " I am sincerely sorry to find that ministers have nothing better to do than to pry into the menage of private families, as I consider my establishment, which has been in exist- ence thirty years and always held the highest position." The commission reported in 1868. It is unnecessary to dwell in detail on the char- acter of the report as regards girls' schools. It is sufficient to say that with but few exceptions, such as the Quakers' School at York, the North London Collegiate School, and the Ladies' College, Cheltenham, hardly any girls' schools were reported upon as supplying their pupils with a liberal education. One of the chief causes of the defects in girls' schools was the want of suitable preparation for the profession of teaching on the part of governesses. " My poverty and not my will consents " might have been the motto of all but a very small proportion of the women who embarked upon this honor- able and difficult profession. Another reason for the low standard of education in girls' schools was the indifference of parents and the public generally to anything in girls' education beyond what was showy and attractive. As a consequence of this want of interest in good education, nearly the whole of the educational endowments of the country had been appropriated for boys. The report of the commission afforded a solid founda- tion of fact on which the reformers of girls' education have industriously built. Public attention was thoroughly aroused, and plans for improving the education of girls sprang up in a variety of directions. Very much was done to repair the injustice done to girls in the matter of endowments by the labors of the Endowed School Commissions, now merged in the Charity Commission. Meanwhile Miss Davies' committee, formed in 1862, took up, as I have just said, as its first piece of work, the opening of the local examinations of the University of Cam- bridge to girls. These examinations are for young people of the school age; the juniors must be under fourteen and the seniors under sixteen ; the examinations are held simul- taneously in different local centers all over the country and in the colonies. When first established they were for boys only ; in December, 1863, an experimental examination for girls was held in London, at which, with the consent of the Local Examinations Syndicate at Cambridge, all the regulations enforced in the case of boys were strictly observed. The next year a memorial signed by more than one thousand teachers of girls and many other influential persons .was addressed to the vice-chancellor of the university, on the subject of opening the local examinations to girls. The reply was favorable, but the matter had to be referred to a vote of the senate. On March 12, 1865, Miss Davies received a telegram from Mr. Markby, secretary of the Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate: " Send up all you can to-morrow — voting at 12. Opposition organized." On March 13th he wrote as follows : " Fifty-five to fifty-one, so we are successful ; it was a close contest. I got votes enough to turn the scale just before going into the Senate House." Cambridge was thus first in the field as regards English universities to open any of its examinations to girls ; Oxford very shortly afterward opened her local exami- nations also. The chief point to be remarked is that, owing chiefly to the strong views entertained on the subject by Miss Davies, exactly the same examination papers were used for boys and girls and exactly the same regulations were observed for both, except at first, in the case of Cambridge, the names of the girls examined were not given. Miss Davies has always been a very stanch opponent of any special university examinations for women, or of any variation, in the case of women, of what the university requires from the men who offer themselves for the tripos examinations. Difference on this sub- ject is the chief difference between those who have guided the fortunes of Girton and Newnham respectively. The labors of Miss Davies' committee having been successful in opening the local examinations to girls, she immediately afterward began to project the idea of a college UNIVERSITY EDUCATION FOR WOMEN IN ENGLAND 857 for women students beyond the school age, where they could be prepared for university examinations of a more advanced character. The first list of subscriptions to this pro- posed "college for women" is dated 1869, and amounts to nearly £3,000. The executive committee met in London, and the college when first opened, in 1869, was situated at Hitchin, in Hertfordshire, about half-way between London and Cambridge. In 1872 the college was transferred to handsome buildings specially erected for it at Oirton, about two miles from Cambridge. Having traced the development of one branch of the women's education movement as far as the opening of Girton College, I must now ask my auditors to allow me to trace the development of another branch of the same movement which culminated in the foundation of Newnham College. I like to think of these two colleges as sister stems of a beech-tree, deriving their nourishment from the same root, but having an inde- pendent growth, and differing from each other in some externals. The development of each presents some interesting examples of the interdependence or solidarite of the several parts of the women's movement. The same energy that produced Girton also gave the first impulse to the opening of the medical profession to women in England, and also to the opening to women of uni- versity examinations of identically the same character as those provided for men. The energy that produced Newnham produced also what is now known as University Extension, which in its turn led to the formation all over England of university col- leges in our principal centers of population, where men and women, not able to proceed to either of our ancient universities, can obtain advanced instruction. The promoters of Girton set before themselves, with unalterable determination, the aim of making the tests applied to university education for women exactly the same as those for men. The promoters of Newnham approached the subject of the reform of women's education in a rather different spirit. They found it defective, and sought to remedy its defects without desiring to follow exactly on the lines of men's education where they thought these were capable of improvement. Both, in my judgment, have been most useful ; they have been complementary to each other. Girton has maintained for women the highest intellectual standard ; Newnham showed a greater power of adaptability to the then conditions of the educational problem, and had in view excel- lence of examination as an educational test, rather than identity of examination of women with men all through the university course. Miss Anne J. Clough was to Newn- ham all, and I may say more than all, that Miss Davies was to Girton. She was not only the founder of the college and the originator of the movement from which the college sprung — Miss Davies was that to Girton — but she was for the first twenty-one years of its existence its principal. She more than any other one person was, as a woman, the representative in the university of university education for women ; and she was the embodiment of wisdom, kindness, gentleness, and tact, that won her not only the enthusi- astic loyalty of her students and personal friends, but the cordial respect and consider- ation of the university authorities. Her death last year was referred to in a university sermon preached by the Bishop of Peterboro', and in the annual address given by the vice-chancellor, as one of the chief losses which the cause of education had recently sustained. Her combination of sweetness, humor, and determination made her an unique personality, to which much of her singular power of influencing other minds was due. In 1866 Miss Clough was resident in Liverpool, and with the cooperation of Mrs. Josephine Butler formed the Liverpool Ladies' Educational Society. This society instituted courses of lectures for ladies, requiring steady work from those who attended them. After rather more than two years' successful work the society enlarged its aims. University lecturers were engaged, and other towns were invited to join in the scheme, so that the lecturer might go from town to town, spreading the means of higher education for women in each. The inaugural meeting of this society, which took the name of 858 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OE EDUCATION. the North of England Council for the Higher Education of Women, was called by Miss Clough at Mrs. Butler's house in 1869. Manchester, Leeds, and Sheffield joined, and the Ladies' Educational Council was formed, with Mrs. Butler as its president and Miss Clough as its secretary. This was the beginning of university extension, and ulti- mately of the university colleges in many of our chief cities, and led indirectly to the foundation of Newnham College. Among the Cambridge men who were in hearty sympathy with the efforts to spread education among women were Mr. Henry Sidgwick and Mr. James Stuart, both of Trinity College. Mr. (now Professor) Sidgwick, with the help of Miss Clough, under- took the direction of the movement for the higher education of women in the univer- sity. Mr. Stuart (now member for Shoreditch) directed, or rather created, the movement for university extension. Time does not allow me to follow the history of this move- ment in any detail. It has had an important bearing on the higher education of women. Its principle is now well known. " If Mahomet cannot go to the mountain, the moun- tain must go to Mahomet." To women in their homes, to clerks at their desks, to arti- sans at their work, Mr. Stuart and his coadjutors said : " If you cannot go to the univer- sity, the university shall come to you." In consequence of his efforts, university extension has spread all over the English-speaking world ; your own Chautauqua is its child. In England many of the towns that took the lead in welcoming the university exten- sion scheme were not long content with the visits of itinerant lecturers. The Firth College, Sheffield;* University College, Nottingham; the Yorkshire College, Leeds; and the university colleges of Liverpool, Bristol, and Newcastle, sprang up in response to the demand for higher education that had grown up out of the university extension movement. The university colleges of Wales, and the Mason College, Birmingham, are probably related to the same movement; and to these colleges, all over the country, we certainly owe the establishment of the Victoria University. It must be noted that the origin of the whole movement was in that meeting called by Miss Clough in Mrs. Butler's house in 1869. Hence, as of so many other good things, we may truly say of it, "Cherchcz la femme;" and the consequence is that university extension has been absolutely open and equal to women all along. They are admitted on equal terms to all the classes either at extension centers or at university colleges (except when these latter include medical schools) ; and when Victoria University was founded by Royal charter, in 1880, f all its degrees were as open to women as to men. The slow and grudging recognition of the claims of women to higher education which is a blot on the history of Owen's College, Manchester, is largely due to its being an older foundation, opened in 1851, before it had been discovered that the education of women was an important factor in national development. One other word must be added about the university colleges. They and University College, London, and the university extension classes everywhere, are the only important things we in England have to show in the way of mixed education. If we may still speak of this as an experiment, the experiment has been thoroughly successful ; men and women sit together in the same classrooms, learn the same subjects, are tested by the same examinations, and the world has gone on much the same as it did before, only better, by giving men and women more points of sympathy and a larger number of common interests. * I have not ascertained the number of women students attending classes at all the various university colleges, but I take the one at Nottingham as a fair example of the rest, and I find on inquiry from Professor Syme, the principal, that, in the year just closed, 200 women attended day classes and 760 attended evening classes. t The first examinations of Victoria University were held in 18S1, when only men entered ; two women presented themselves for examination in 1883 ; in 1892 the number had increased to thirty. There are now forty -four women graduates of this university. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION FOR WOMEN IN ENGLAND. 859 Going back now to the beginning of Newnham College, the lectures established by the North of England Council for the Higher Education of Women led to a demand for a university examination of a higher grade than the senior local, and in 1868 the examination for women over eighteen, afterward called the higher local, was established by the University of Cambridge.* Miss Davies and the Girton committee opposed this as antagonistic to their main principle — identity of educational tests for men and women. Miss Clough, Mr. Sidgwick, and the other pro?noters of Newnham supported it as meeting a present need. Lectures for women in Cambridge, much on the same .plan as those organized in Liverpool and other northern towns by Miss Clough and Mrs. Butler, were projected in 1869, and actually begun in 1870. Mr. Henry Sidgwick was the originating mind of the whole scheme. I hope I may be pardoned a feeling of satisfaction in recalling the fact that the first meeting in Cambridge to discuss this plan was held at my house in December, 1869, and that the first document in the books containing the history of Newnham is the notice convening this meeting. The necessity of seeking the line of least resistance is apparent throughout this little document. The economy of having lectures for women delivered in Cambridge by lecturers already engaged in lecturing on the same subject in their respective colleges is pointed out. There was, perhaps, another kind of economy in this method of stating our case. The circular also mentions that though the imme- diate object of the lectures would be to afford means of higher education to women residing in Cambridge, yet if women from a distance, not having friends in Cambridge, "should come here for the purpose of attending the lectures," it would be necessary to provide " some lodging or hall" for them. The word " hall" was the only vestige of intrepidity in the circular. But 1 ask those who would point the finger of scorn at us to remember that if we had said we wished to establish a college for women in Cam- bridge we might as well have said that we wished to establish a college for women in Saturn. It was an absolute necessity to proceed with great caution. We made a good deal of use of the fact that the university had established an examination for women over eighteen, and that the lectures for women in Cambridge were designed with a view of providing the education which that examination has been instituted to test. We asked no recognition from the university further than what had already been given. The whole machinery of the lectures was voluntary; several of the most distinguished professors had for many years past allowed the presence of ladies at their lectures. And many of these, besides some of the leading college lecturers, gave their support to "the lectures for women." Our first list of friends contains the names of Professors Adams, Cayley, and Maurice, besides those of Messrs. W. C. Clark, Clifford, Jebb, Marshall, Skeat, and Todhunter ; and the first series of lectures was delivered by men many of whom had even then gained a world-wide reputation in their respective subjects. How much the whole movement owes to those men who befriended us at the very beginning of our efforts, I hope none of us will ever forget. In the Michaelmas term, 1870, Mr. John Stuart Mill and his stepdaughter, Miss Taylor, gave us a scholarship of £40 for two years. The same year Mr. A. J. Balfour gave us £20 toward a fund for a similar purpose. The numbers attending the lectures made satisfactory progress, and the con- tingency, which had been foreseen from the beginning, became a reality. Women from a distance, not having friends in Cambridge, desired to reside in the town for the purpose of attending the lectures ; and in 1871 Miss Clough was invited by the com- mittee to come to Cambridge and open a house for these women students, of whom at first there were five only. This was the beginning of what is now Newnham College. * This examination was open to men in 1873, but very few men avail themselves of it. 860 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The plan pursued by Newnham and Girton in regard to the examinations of the uni- versity differed in one not unimportant respect. Newnham used the higher local exam- ination established by the university for women over eighteen as the first test of educational progress, proceeding afterward, by the permission of the examiners, to enter them for the tripos examinations of the university. The opinion of the author- ities of Newnham was that the hig*her local was a decidedly better educational test than the university examination for men known as the "Littie Go," and that it was also more suited to the needs of women. Girton, as I before explained, would have nothing to do with any special examination for women ; every Girton student, therefore, had to pass the " Little Go " before applying to the examiners for leave to be examined in any of the tripos examinations. There were and are other minor differences between Girton and Newnham. Girton is founded on the principles of the Church of England ; Newnham is completely unsectarian. Girton allows its students to study for the ordinary degree exami- nations ; Newnham students only prepare for the tripos examinations. If for any reason it is considered unsuitable to submit a student to the test of a tripos, she is at Newnham encouraged to take various groups of the higher local. The ordinary or "poll" examination is not recommended. Girton is two miles out of Cambridge, and is governed by an executive committee, which meets in London and is composed almost entirely of London people. Newnham is in Cambridge, and is managed by a council, which meets at the college and consists almost wholly of Cambridge people. In 1878, as the result of long struggle for medical education, all the degrees of London University were thrown open to women. This undoubtedly had a stimulating effect upon the friends of women's education in the University of Cambridge. The system represented by London University would be unduly favored if London gave perfect equality to its women students while Cambridge merely suffered them to exist without giving them any claim to have their knowledge tested by university standards. From the time of their foundation to the year 1881, Newnham and Girton students could only enter for university examinations other than the higher local, by grace and favor of the examiners. There was no official recognition by the university of the women students. In 1880 a movement was initiated by Professor and Mrs. Steadman Aldis, of Newcas- tle, and supported by Miss Davies and the Girton committee, to put an end to this state of things, and memorials were sent by. them to the senate of the university, praying that degrees might be opened to women who fulfilled the conditions of residence and of examination which the university demanded of its male students. The memorial pro- moted by Professor Sidgwick did not go as far as this. It was signed exclusively by members of the university, and prayed that the arrangement by which the students of Girton and Newnham had been for the last ten years informally admitted to university examinations should be placed on a formal and stable footing by receiving the sanction of the university. This proposal was carried by grace of the senate by an overwhelm- ing majority, on the 24th of February, 1881. From that time women had an assured position in the university ; their claim to education was formally sanctioned. The success of the whole movement has from one point of view been very remarkable. The high place gained by women students in the various tripos examinations is so well known as to require no emphasis. There have been women senior in every tripos except those in theology and Semitic languages. But from another point of view there has been no progress. Women may take the highest honors that the university examina- tions afford to either men or women, but they are not members of the university, they have no degree. The humblest poll man who has scraped through just sufficiently well to put B.A. after his uauie has a position superior to theirs. No university prize UNIVERSITY EDUCATION FOR WOMEN IN ENGLAND. 861 is open to them for competition,* and, a fortiori, none of the educational posts in the uni- versity, which are of course reserved for members of the university. The libraries, museums, and laboratories of the university are used by them on sufferance ; they have been desired not to occupy a seat in the university library, because there are not more seats than enough for " members of the university."' The intellectual distinction of many women students, and the scholarly work done by several of them after they have passed the tripos examinations, seem to have produced no effect in securing for them any approach to equality with members of the university. A series of memorials organized by Miss Davies, and very influen- tially signed, were presented to the vice-chancellor and senate in 1887, asking that women might be admitted to degrees. These memorials were not supported by Pro- fessor Sidgwick, who thought the time had not then come for raising the question of degrees. The council of the university declined to appoint a syndicate to con- sider the question of opening degrees to women, and since that time no further effort has been made in this direction. I have given the history of the higher education of women in the University of Cam- bridge at some length, because that has been the center of the movement so far as England is concerned, and also because I am personally acquainted with its details, whereas I only know the history of Somerville and Lady Margaret and St. Hugh's, at Oxford; of Holloway and Westfield Colleges, and of the Welsh university colleges at second hand. The Association for the Education of Women in Oxford provides the teaching for the Oxford women's colleges. The regulations of the University of Oxford in regard to women do not confine the examinations of the university to women who reside within its precincts. Students may be prepared for these examina- tions in their own homes, or at colleges such as Holloway or the Welsh university col- leges. This is the main distinction between Oxford and Cambridge, so far as their connection with women's education is concerned. The vote of the University of Oxford opening its examinations to women was passed in 1884. Somerville was opened in 1879, Lady Margaret in 1879, and its younger sister, St. Hugh's, in 1886. Westfield is a college for women in London conducted on Church of England principles. It was founded in 1882 and prepares students for the degrees of London University. The Royal Holloway College, the palatial buildings and endowment of which are due to the munificence of the late Thomas Holloway, was opened by her Majesty in the year of her jubilee, 1887. It prepares students for the Oxford examinations and also for the London degrees. Illustrations of the buildings and grounds of all these colleges, as well as of those of Newnham and Girton, will be found in the Women's Building among the exhibits of the subcommittee on education in Great Britain. The Welsh university colleges at Bangor, Aberystwith, and Cardiff all have halls for women students, and women are admitted on equal terms to all their educational advantages. They prepare their students for the examinations of the universities of Oxford and London, and in general for any university examinations where residence is not required. I refrain from a long parade of figures illustrative of the growth of the university education of women in England, but I may mention that in the old seats of learning more than a hundred women are studying in the women's colleges at Oxford, and close upon three hundred at Cambridge. The first year the London University was open to women (1878), sixty-six women passed its examinations; the number had risen in 1893 to five hundred and sixty-eight. When one reflects that the whole of this movement has grown up within the scope of one lifetime, almost within one generation, I think we * Mrs. Philippe has recently founded a prize, in memory of her brother, Arnold Gernstenberg, on the express condition that it should be open to the students of Girton and Newnham, as well as to " members of the university." 862 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. may fairly congratulate ourselves on the progress that has been made. The movement of glacial drift, though slow, is overwhelmingly powerful, and so continuous as almost to baffle imagination. We no longer resent Mr. Lowell's comparison, but are content that the renaissance of the nineteenth ceutury, the awakening of women to a perception of the wonders of the old learning and the new science, should go on " without haste and without rest." A FEW WORDS OF RETROSPECT AND FORECAST. BY DOROTHEA BEALE, LADIES* COLLEGE, CHELTENHAM, ENGLAND. When Mrs. Fawcett and I came to compare notes we found that our papers covered much of the same ground. Mine had been written during the brief intervals of school work; hers was far more complete. I therefore willingly suppressed mine; but I may add as a sort of postscript to hers a few words of retrospect and forecast, for I have one advantage over her — I have lived longer; I was born in the dark ages and have witnessed the renaissance. I need not touch on the facts which are fresh in your memory. Once we cut our way slowly through the tangled thickets of popular opinion. "Thou shalt not " was the beginning of most of the commands addressed to women then ; and some turned sadly back, and those of u3 who pressed on, spite of many prophecies of evil, did so often in fear and trembling. There are those now who look back upon the vision of the ideal housewife and sigh for the " good old times." The scientist has been welcomed by Cinderella. He has set her free from much household drudgery, and her energies, available now for higher work, have surely enriched the commonwealth. Can we, now that we have reached a vantage ground, look back and say: " All is well "I Are women better or worse for the wider opening of the gates of knowledge to women, for university teaching, for examinations and degrees ? Is it better for them, is it better for the commonwealth, that the "old order should give place to new," and that the restrictive law, " Thou shalt not," should be exchanged for the life-giving word, " Thou shalt"? The answer must surely depend on our faith in women. Knowledge and power exist only in a living person ; they are good or evil according to the way in which he uses his knowledge and his strength. Those who have no faith in woman will desire for her the life of restriction ; those who believe that she too has risen to a higher life through Christ, will believe that she too is to tread upon serpents and scorpions, to carry on a holy war, to be a Una or a Britomart. And what so far has been the result of the new movements ? What has been the effect of the higher education ? Has the light of truth quickened not only the mental but the moral life, and been a blessing not to the individual only but to the commonwealth? Look first at the commonwealth. I need not ask now whether it was well that Flor- ence Nightingale, spite of the outcries of many Mrs. Grundys, went to nurse the soldiers in the East. That pure and gracious figure has been a vision of beauty, for she has passed out of the sight of the world to live the hidden life of charity. Truly she is still a prophetess, who was able to make the dead arise, and we see an army of earnest work- ers filling the place of Mrs. Gamp in hospital, workhouse, and infirmary. Many have learned through her the beauty of the Master's words : " I am among you as one that serveth." And surely, too, the world is better because Mrs. Fawcett's sister led the van in the great struggle, which seemed so hopeless until the first victory in Edinburgh became like the flight from Mecca, the beginning of victory. J remember when it was consid- ered indelicate for a woman to study the human body. Strange that it did not seem to A FEW WORDS OF RETROSPECT AND FORECAST. 863 English women, as to our Oriental sisters, that it was equally indelicate to be doctored by a man ; that if in no other, in this at least, as Mrs. Jameson earnestly pleaded, there should be a communion of labor. And now the highest sanction has been afforded to those who in India and elsewhere are giving to their suffering sisters the help which only those who have gone through the scientific study of medicine can render. And for the women doctors themselves, I appeal fearlessly to those who have known them. Are they not. with few exceptions, women full of tenderness and womanly feel- ing, neither womanish nor mannish, but womanly and manly, too ? And surely it is a good vision our poet-prophet saw in coming time, "when the man should be more of woman, she of man." Surely it is well that woman, pondering these things, should learn to feel that if the spiritual principle is that which forms the body, yet the degraded body brutalizes the soul ; that they should join in the holy war against intemperance in its many forms ; that they, too, should descend "into the cruel habitations," "to deliver the spirits in prison that have been disobedient to God's laws ; that they, too, should go down and raise their sisters." Is it well that women, armed like Britomart, should watch for souls in the police-court, the prison, the workhouse ; that they should show to the men who have learned to despise women that there is in the lowest a spark of good which the heat of divine pity can fan into a flame ? Such noble women have moved many a knight to put on " the bloody cross in dear remembrance of his dying Lord," and go forth to war against the great dragon. " This may be well," some may say, and yet ask further : " Is it well that the gates of knowledge should be thrown open, that the tree of knowledge of good and evil should be allowed to grow in the garden of Zenana ? Is it well that girls should pass down the lanes where the hedges are made bright by the lovely berries of the deadly nightshade?" The choice does not rest with us ; evil and good grow together in this world of ours ; the danger surely is aggravated by ignorance. Let the eye and the taste be taught to discern good and evil, and the soul disciplined to obedience ; this alone is our safety. I appeal freely to the experience of those who have been able to contrast the system of liberal bodily and mental diet, of free and vigorous exercise, with that of restraint and seclusion. Our girls are far healthier in body and mind, more happy, more useful, more truly womanly, than those whose whole nature was less fully developed. Besides, a woman with wider intellectual interests can be a more true and helpful companion, a being "breathing thoughtful breath." That alone is a true marriage which is a union of souls. It is not well that the husband should live in a different region of thought and feeling and religion from his wife ; that mother and son, brother and sister, should inhabit different worlds. There are actors who learn only their own speeches and trou- ble themselves about nothing until they take up their own cue. Need I say these are failures ? But those who have entered, like the Meiningen actors, into the whole play — they alone could give their own part with effect. And so in life ; each will have his or her own province of work, but each will do her own better the more she is in sympathy with others. Women will be able to do their work as women better from understanding better the work of men ; and men, as they learn to respect women, will be more desirous to bs respected by them. This reflex influence on men is not the least of the good which comes from women having a higher education, and it would, I am persuaded, have no degrading influence upon political life. I would fain dwell on the blessings to the community of the increased moral influence of women, as they have rebelled against that profane teaching of our great poet, which so marred the nobility of his character and lowered the standard of right both for men and women : "He for God only, she for God in him." It has been truly said that 864 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. slavery degrades the slave owner even more than the slave ; and all history teaches us that those who treat women as property rather than spiritual, responsible beings, are degraded; and we do believe this advance has had a vast spiritual influence, for which we thank God. The chief leaders of this great movement " have surely deserved well of the republic." Miss Buss, Miss Shirreff, Mrs. Grey, and Miss Emily Davies survive to look on a changed world. All has been done quietly, patiently, gradually. The old idea of a " lady" is gone. To render service is felt to be the highest privilege. And it is mainly this desire that has made women contend for education and training. This passion for serving, as Ruskin has taught, stimulates every faculty, glorifies and gives insight into nature, and hallows all art. This, as our great musicians have shown, ennobles the emotional nature and exalts its expression. As soon as women came to feel the value of a higher education for themselves they longed to lift up those who had not their advan- tages ; a great army of unmarried have become working bees in the social hive. Women have taken their share in great social organizations. They have sat on school- boards ; they have been elected guardians of the poor, aldermen, and county coun- cilors. Women have been appointed assistant calculators in the Royal Observatory, clerks on labor commission, to say nothing of other civil service appointments. Many women have become speakers and writers on social topics, missioners on temperance, sanitary science, dress, cooking, home arts and industries, plain and art needlework, Sloyd, etc. Some took up lecturing as a profession, and are employed by the Palestine and Egyptian Exploration Societies. Miss Harrison lectures at the British Museum on Greek art. Others have taken up physical culture, regarding it as a matter of national importance. It was an imposing gathering of about two thousand women at the Conference of Women Workers at Bristol last autumn, all of whom are engaged in some philan- thropic work, able to write and speak clearly, to organize and to direct. There are about sixty different orders of Sisters or Deaconesses, engaged in a vast variety of religious, philanthropic, educational, and charitable work ; in the Salvation Army, as in the Society of Friends, women hold equal rank with men. Vast organizations of many thousands have been formed and managed by women, to help those who are working for their bread; notably, the Girls' Friendly Society, the Mabis, the Christian Young Women's Association, the Young Women's Help Society, the Girls' Club Union, and the College for Working Women. The Oxford and Cam- bridge colleges, and the Cheltenham Ladies' College have tried to do work in these lines, and have established settlements of their own in the poor parts of London. Noble women have been leaders in the great crusade against the most terrible evils which afflict humanity. The old prejudice, that for a woman to earn money was to lose caste, is almost a thing of the past ; those who are admitted to the highest circles of society have accepted headships of women's colleges. Head- mistresses rank with head-masters. Lady physicians and other professional women now take the place to which they are entitled. I believe too that the vast social work that has been carried on by women has averted, for a time at least, social convulsions as terrible as those of a century ago. This cannot, of course, be proved, and "The world which credits what is done Is blind to all that might have been." The positive good all know when they see the fierce spirits tamed and the desperate rescued from the sloughs of despondency by the power of holy and beautiful lives, proving that good is stronger than evil. "Amor vincit omnia," UNIVERSITY ASSOCIATION OF WOMEN TEACHERS. 865 UNIVERSITY ASSOCIATION OF WOMEN TEACHERS. BY CONSTANCE ELDER, HONORARY SECRETARY OF THE UNIVERSITY ASSOCIATION OF WOMEN TEACHERS, ENGLAND. The movement toward obtaining university education for women had stood the test of fourteen years' actual working when the Universi'y Association of Women Teachers came into existence. The period covered was one of hard labor on the part of its pro- moters, to gradual but assured success. In 1869 the first of the two sister colleges (Girton) was opened at Hitchin, a village in Cambridgeshire, and, slightly later, the second, called at first Merton Hall (practically the beginning of Newnham), was opened in Cambridge itself. Ten years later the two Oxford halls, Soraerville and Lady .Margaret, were opened simultaneously. The year 1881 was made memorable to those interested in the higher education of women by the passing of the graces by the Senate of Cambridge University. Hitherto the examinations for women had been quite informal and were unauthorized by the univer- sity, and it was only by the courtesy of individual examiners that the papers were corrected. This being the case, it was even possible that the examiners might refuse to examine, and so the work of three years might fail of its rightful recognition. Such a state of things could not continue. Friends of the new movement began to agitate by means of memorials on the subject, and finally the scheme already followed informally was adopted by the Senate. The result of this concession is that women and men now stand on the same footing as regards examinations, and though women are not eligible for degrees, they receive a university certificate showing the examination they have passed, and the class they have taken. By the statutes of convocation passed in 1886 and 1888, similar privileges to those enjoyed by Cambridge women students were conferred on Oxford women. The number of women students at both universities had in the meanwhile largely increased, and outside the universities the system of secondary education in endowed and proprietary schools had created a demand for teachers of scholarship and cultivation. Private coaching had also become daily more sought after. In 1872 the Girls' Public Day School Company had been formed by a number of per- sons interested in the subject of girls' education. The object of this movement was to secure more adequate provision for secondary education of girls, and to raise the standard of teaching in girls' schools generally. The company now has thirty-four schools and seven thousand pupils. Eleven years later the Church Schools Company was founded ; it now has twenty-five schools and two thousand pupils. Private enter- prise had also done much towards establishing a better and more thorough system of education for girls. Miss Buss had been at work for several years, and her private school had proved itself to be so great a success that it served as a pioneer and model for the whole scheme of high schools. MissBeale had also done much in working up the well-known college for girls at Cheltenham. Previous to these Professor Maurice had opened classes for girls at King's College, and, in conjunction with Charles Kingsley and others, founded Queen's College, which received a royal charter in 1848; and shortly afterwards Bedford College was opened. These two institutions gave perhaps the greatest impetus to the education of girls in England. There were then two movements on foot : (1) That towards the higher education of women. (2) That towards the improvement of the secondary education of girls. And it is interesting to notice that the convergence of these two movements was the means of showing the need of combination among duly qualified women, 55 8G6 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION Every year there was a large increase in the number of young women seeking educa- tional work of a higher kind than had hitherto been offered or asked for. The deficiency of means of bringing them into contact with parents and head-mistresses was great, and entailed on the principals of the women's colleges much correspondence. The difficulty also on the part of the principals of keeping a full record of the move- ments of every student, after she left college, was even greater, so that the practical necessity arose of some kind of center where employers and those seeking work could be put into communication with each other. The University Association of Women Teachers was the practical outcome of all this. The primary object of the members thus banded together was to constitute a registry for teachers, worked by themselves. It was felt not only that the ordinary registers, carried on commercially for profit, charged the teachers too large a commission, but that its registry office could exert an influence that would improve the conditions under which its members took engage- ments, and that the strength gained by having a registry of their own would be a protection to teachers and would add dignity to their position professionally. But further, the functions of the Association were to associate, for their common interests and for the advancement of education, duly qualified university women engaged in the profession of teaching. It provides : (a) Lecturers, (b) Teachers in public and private schools and families, (c) Examiners in schools. To explain the word duly qualified women. The Association is divided into Ordinary Members, classes A and B, the higher and the lower. Class A contains the names of those who have passed examinations of the highest grade, and whose scholarship alone entitles them to be placed under that head. The merits of the various university examinations were carefully considered and com- pared, and they were arranged accordingly. Thus, we place under the first head those who possess one of the following qualifications : A certificate of having attained the standard of (a) the Cambridge tripos. A certificate of having attained the standard of (b) the Oxford public examination in honors ; (c) the honor certificate of the Oxford examination for women ; (d) the London degree ; (e) the degree of the Victoria University (Manchester, Leeds, Liverpool) ; (/) the honors degree of the Royal University of Ireland. In the second class (Class B) are placed the names of those who have taken the lower grade examinations : (a) the Cambridge ordinary degree ; (5) the higher local honor certificate; (c) the intermediate or. preliminary scientific M. B. examination of the University of London ; (d) the pass certificate of the Oxford examination for women. And these must possess the further qualification of having resided three consecutive terms at Girton or Newnham College, Cambridge ; Somerville Hall, Lady Margaret Hall, St. Hugh's Hall, Oxford ; the Royal Ilolloway College ; Westfield or College Hall, London. The "residential qualification" is a very important one, and by those who have enjoyed the privilege of residing in college it is considered to be a distinct disadvantage to any student, whether in Class A or B, to be without it. The close contact with women of various types and experiences, the toleration which this engenders, the diversity and similarity of interests and pursuits, all are invaluable helps to the develop- ment of character. There are virtues which seem almost created in some women through the opportunity now afforded them of a three years' seclusion in a university town, and an absorption in academic interests, which are making them into better, brighter, and more capable citizens, by widening their sympathies and bracing their intellects ; and which are slowly but surely enlarging the sphere of women's work and women's opportunities. Besides the advantage to the individual of having resided, there is also the advantage University association of Women teachers. 867 to the Association of having a guarantee as to the course of study she has pursued and the character she has borne — all the more desirable when there is not the guarantee afforded by the certificate of having passed one of the best examinations. It is interesting to note that the University of Edinburgh is beginning to adopt, in this respect, the custom of the ancient English foundations, and is encouraging its students to go into residence and to enjoy the stimulating social influence of college as well as university life. Associateship. — Though, with a view to maintaining its character as a body of university women, the Association insists on the foregoing qualifications for ordinary members, yet the right is reserved to the committee, under very special circumstances, of admitting as Associates some efficient women teachers who, through residence abroad or some other cause, may have pursued some other course of study than that generally recognized by the committee. Presidentship. — The Association is more than fortunate in having had as its presi- dent, from its commencement up to the time of her death, the late honored principal of Newnham College, Miss Clough. It was she who, after initiating, with others, the scheme for the opening of the senior local examination to girls, and, later, that of the North of England Council for Promoting the Higher Education of Women, after work- ing on to the opening of the higher local examinations, and doing perhaps more than any other woman has done to give the impetus needed to woman's education, suggested the formation of the University Association of Women Teachers. Prom the beginning she showed her active sympathy with and appreciation of the work done by it in the most helpful of all ways — by giving her personal service and presiding at almost all its general meetings ; by passing on notices of work received by her, and by recommending employers to apply to the registry branch for whatever kind of teaching they required. She was keenly alive to the various plans for furthering the interests of its members, and she looked also beyond the personal interests to that of education itself, to discover, with the better material at hand, the uses to which it could be put, not only for the benefit of the Association, but for that of the cause generally. She attached the greatest importance to the effect of university life and training on women teachers, and felt strongly the fact that as they had received the best education, they were the best fitted, as a whole, to have the charge of the secondary education of girls in their hands. She looked always to the wider operations of the work done by the Association, and held that some kind of supervision by women educated at the universities might do much to ■remedy the inefficiency of girls' schools. The hope of gaining Miss Clough's approbation in any plan for the advancement of the aims and objects of the Association, and the confidence placed in the wise advice she gave, inspired its promoters with courage and confidence, and went far to insure its success. Since February, 1892, the Association has been without a president. It was felt that it would be difficult to put any one in Miss Clough's place, and that the Association might well mark its sense of this by keeping the position vacant for a time. The Committee. — The affairs of the Association are administered by a committee of twelve, who willingly devote their time and thought to carrying on the work. This committee is as nearly as possible representative of the colleges which supply the mem- bership, and it is also chosen as nearly as possible to represent, in due proportion, the elements in the teaching profession of which the Association is made up. Further, it is the duty of the committee, besides administering the affairs of the Association, to keep abreast of educational movements, and of legislative proposals affecting teachers (regis- tration bills, secondary education bills,. etc.); to examine and discover the best educa- tional methods (those which obtain maximum efficiency with minimum expenditure of power), and, by giving proofs of the power and capacity of its members, to secure free- 86& INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. doin of method for them in their work, and in every way to cherish the interests of members. The committee endeavors also to keep up a high standard with regard to salaries for its members, so that they are maintained in health and freedom from anxiety, and work under the most favorable conditions. The professional elements in the Association, which make up the total of four hundred and fifty-three members, are : twenty-five honorary members ; twenty-one lecturers in the various colleges ; fourteen head-mistresses in public schools ; two hundred and fifty- four assistant mistresses in public schools ; six head-mistresses in private schools ; twenty-eight assistant mistresses in private schools ; seventy-seven coaches ; five uni- versity extension lecturers, or about to become such ; six non-resident governesses ; seventeen resident governesses — total, four hundred and fifty-three. About twenty-five of the above have been through a regular course of training to become teachers. Besides, therefore, being a bona fide association of women teachers, it is claimed that it is also a representative body, and, as such, it is felt that members have grave responsibilities toward each other in making common cause where educa- tional interests are concerned. By bona fide we mean " professional " in the full and strict sense of the word. When the representative of the Association was giving evidence before the select committee in the House of Commons on the teachers' registration bills, the chairman, Sir Richard Temple, particularly asked whether the Association was composed of bona fide teachers, or merely of persons interested in education. It is satisfactory that the witness was able to declare it to be the former, as this gave far more weight to its opinion than would otherwise have been the case. Lectures were given under the auspices of the U. A. W. T. in the first year of its existence. The advisability of organizing a further scheme, on the lines of the university exten- sion lectures, for offering to public and private schools: (a ) Courses of lectures; (b) Courses of lessons, in special subjects, given after school hours by especially appointed, qualified lecturers, is under consideration. TEACHERS IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. The object of the Association was not to make money but to provide work for its mem- bers, and the registry branch was to facilitate their obtaining the kind of educational work they were best qualified to do, and to enable parents and head-mistresses to com- municate with teachers with a view to forming engagements. It is often forgotten, even by those who have belonged to the Association for a long time, that it is purely an educational body, and does not undertake to provide journalistic work, clerkships, or posts as librarians, and it is not easy to disabuse the public mind of the idea that it does not deal with the sale and transfer of schools and other purely commercial transactions. It was thought that the Association will have amply justified its existence, if, keeping strictly within the limits defined by its title, " University Association of Women Teachers," it develops to its utmost all that it legitimately can do as such. Since the formation of the U. A. W. T., the Teachers' Guild and the Association of Assistant Mistresses have come into being, having more or less similar objects in view, but there is no other society which works on quite the same lines as it. Examiners in Schools. — Though the U. A. W. T. was instituted, as said above, primarily to increase and impart knowledge by supplying teachers of every kind, it undertook, secondarily, the function of testing knowledge acquired, in order to promote, as far as in its power, sound learning and good education, and an examination branch was constituted for private schools, not examined by the Oxford and Cambridge board. UNIVERSITY ASSOCIATION OF WOMEN TEACHERS. 869 A well-considered standard was devised, and a certain amount of useful work has been done. It was, however, resolved, in order to keep up a high standard, to ask high fees, and this has probably acted as a deterrent, and limited the number of applications received for examiners. Test papers for private pupils are also set and corrected by accredited members, and from the number of this kind of applications it is to be inferred that private teachers are becoming more anxious to gauge in this way the amount of learning they have been able to impart to their pupils. Beyond the various facilities offered by the Association to its members for obtaining work and discussing subjects of more or less general interest, the need was felt, espe- cially by members abroad, or by those whom distance prevents attending the meetings, of a channel through which members could express their views, detail their experiences, and make suggestions; the result was the establishment of a "Journal," the scope of which was to include notes and articles on all matters relating to women's education and the teaching profession, also on work and movements of other kinds in which university women are taking part, or by which they are in any way affected. The correspondence and discussions on debatable points are perhaps the most valuable feature of the journal. The area of the Association is wide, comprising, as it does, Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Australasia ; this naturally gives diversity of interests and width of experience. A Home Teaching Scheme was suggested by the late president, in consequence of the strong feeling in England, surviving in a considerable class of parents, against the public- school system for girls. The training and stimulus of having teachers who have made the subject their special object of study was felt to be so valuable that the Association undertakes to recommend, to parents, teachers in various subjects, from whom a selection is made. They again divide between them the instruction of boys and girls in the same families. It is hoped by this means to secure accuracy and clearness in every branch of knowledge, and a more organized and developed system of private teaching. Besides the annual meetings for the usual purposes of presenting the report of the work done during the year, other meetings are held and papers read on points of special interest to members. Thus, at the time the two bills for the registration of teachers were before Parliament, that subject was taken for discussion, and points given to the witness delegated by the Association to give evidence in the House on the bill, and examination has lately been made of the clauses in the Secondary Education bill. Mrs. Fawcett has spoken on the utility of association, and Miss C. E. Collet has laid before members the salary question, from the trades union point of view, when it was con- sidered, on the whole, that the great difference in the rate of efficiency made it impossible to do more than fix a minimum, and that it would be unsatisfactory to take that step. and go no further. Part of the most valuable work done by the Association, representing, as it does, not one particular body, but all kinds of women teachers, is in the direction of widening the interests of its members and helping them to avoid the old danger of teachers becoming absorbed in the narrow world of their individual work ; of affording, by means of the above discussions and similar ones, opportunities of mutual education, not only for their own benefit but for the benefit of those whom they teach and of education generally. One word on the function of the Association as mediating between schools and the university. Beyond the hope of helping to bring order and consistency into the general scheme of girls' education there was the further one that the U.A. W.T. form the much- needed link between girls' schools and the university. In England the universities are the most ancient part of the educational system, while girls' high schools are compara- tively but a growth of yesterday. In England also, except in the lowest grade of schools, it has always been to the universities and not to the state that educationalists have looked for a standard and for guidance in the education of boys and youths; and those interested 810 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OP EDUCATION. in girls' and women's education believe that the only hope of enabling them to reach and maintain a standard now markedly inferior to that of their brothers, is in keeping girls' schools within the influence of university life and thought. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. BY ROSAMOND DAVENPORT-HILL.* In the first chapter of the Report of the Eoyal Commission on Education, 1888. are the following words : " The history of public elementary education in England is no exception to the law which seems to characterize the growth of many of our national institutions, in that it originated in the convictions and efforts of individuals or private bodies, and only when it appeared to have outgrown the means or the powers of the original promoters, did the state step in to gather up their work, and to place it on the basis of a national institution." f In the early part of this century popular education was in a deplorable condition. \ " In England good schools were few and far between, the schooihouses were often squalid, with miserable furniture, few books, and scarcely any other school appliances. The attendance of the children was irregular, their attainments were wretched. The teachers were often ignorant adventurers, who had adopted the profession when they had proved their utter incompetency for any other calling, while those who possessed any knowledge were ignorant of good methods of imparting it. Riot and disorder were kept under only by the most savage discipline." Two educational associations— the British and Foreign Society, and the National Society, were founded, the first in 1808, and the second in 1811, which gave a great impetus to education. In 1816 a committee of the House of Commons, presided over by Henry Brougham, reported that " they had found reason to conclude that a very large number of poor children were wholly without the means of instruction." § And though, in another report of the same committee, it was for the first time publicly stated that the educa- tion of the people was a matter in which the state had a vital concern, || the govern- ment did not until 1839 really step in to systematize it. In 1839 a committee of the Privy Council, entitled the Committee of Council on Education, was called into existence "to superintend the application of any sums voted by Parliament for the purpose of promoting public education." ^[ Inspectors of schools were appointed, whose duty it was to assist, not to control, the schools. In the same year the grant was increased to thirty thousand pounds, and from that time it has almost continuously grown year by year, until, in 1891, it had reached the enormous amount of four million one hundred thousand pounds, including grants to colleges and cost of administration, nor does it show any signs of approaching its maximum. In 1839 the first college for the training of teachers was founded by voluntary effort. * In presenting my paper on Elementary Education in England, I ought to mention that my experience has almost entirely been gathered under the London School Board, of which body I have been a member for the last thirteen years. I have had very little to do with any other schools since the passing of the Education Act in 1870. But as all schools inspected by the Education Department are carried on under the same rules, there is a certain similarity between board schools and non-board, i.e., voluntary schools. t Report of Royal Commissioners on Elementary Education, 1888. t The New Code, 1876. Gibbsand Edwards. § Report of Royal Commissioners on Elementary Education, 1888. II Ibid. 1 Ibid. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 871 Others soon followed, and between 1839 and 1846 several were established. It is curious that, while it was considered necessary to train teachers for primary schools in the art of teaching, more than half a century ago, such training is not even now believed to be essential for those teachers who give instruction in secondary and higher grade schools, who too often are compelled to acquire their power of imparting knowledge by trying experiments on their unfortunate pupils. The pupil-teacher system was also introduced as a cheap method of obtaining com- petent instructors. These young persons of both sexes, who must have attained the age of thirteen years, already possessing some education, were apprenticed for five years to the head teacher of their school, and spent their time in acquiring more knowledge, but chiefly in teaching, under the supervision of their head master or mistress. Many of them afterwards finished their training in the colleges, which, though founded by voluntary effort, were largely assisted by state aid.* These measures systematized and assisted voluntary effort, thus largely increasing and improving popular education ; but as the state aid was only given in furtherance of local effort, it left untouched those parts of the country in which the people either could not or would not help themselves. The need for further extension and improve- ment was shown by the report of the educational conference, held to consider "the question of the imperfect attendance of children at school, and their early removal therefrom," under the presidency of the Prince Consort, in 1857. This report states that of the two millions of children at school, forty -two per cent remained at school for less than a year, while only four per cent, remained for more than five years and less than six.f The facts brought to light by the conference led to the appointment of a royal commission in 1858, called, from its president, " The Duke of Newcastle's Commission," to inquire into the state of popular education. The report of the Royal Commission presented in 1861 showed that " One in eight of the population was at some time in some school or other ; that somewhat more than three-fifths of the two and a half millions of children of school age were not in public schools of any sort ; and that of pupils in inspected schools not more than one-fourth were receiving a good education, the instruction given being too much adapted to the elder scholars to the neglect of the younger ones." % The condition of popular education brought to light in this report led to a great change in the administration of the government grants. The Revised Code which came into force in 1862, demanded only three Rs — Reading, 'Riting, and 'Rithmetic. Class subjects, such as geography and grammar, and specific subjects, such as French, mechanics, etc., were included in later codes. Until 1862 it had been the custom of Her Majesty's Inspectors to examine schools in classes. But from that date, under the Revised Code, every scholar underwent an indi- vidual examination in successive standards of knowledge, and the grant largely depended on the scholar's success in passing these examinations; while, to encourage managers to induce the children to come more regularly to school, a grant was given on average attendance. Individual examination insured a more thorough drilling in the three Rs, three subjects in which the scholars earned grants on individual passes, but on the other hand, it led to the children being crammed rather than educated. " The children have * In 1881 the school board for London withdrew their pupil-teachers from the instruction of the head teacher, and placed them in schools specially established for their instruction. The pupil-teachers from that year have divided their time between the schools to which they are apprenticed, learning practically the art of teaching, and the pupil-teachers' schools, increasing their stock of knowledge. The period of apprenticeship has been lately shortened from five to four years. A considerable portion of the pupil- teachers still finish their education in training colleges. t Report of Educational Conference, 1857. X Report of Royal Commissioners, 1888. 872 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. been well prepared," is a phrase not infrequently met with in Her Majesty's Inspectors' reports on schools, i. e., for examination, but not for the battle of life. It is a common saying that children, after having left school for a year or two, forget the facts with which they have been crammed, and could not again pass the examination by which they formerly earned grants for their school. This Code was very unpopular with school authorities, but nevertheless remained in full force until 1890, when more liberty in classification was allowed. Teachers in London have availed themselves of this permis- sion to a considerable extent, but whether this be the case in the provinces I am unable to say. But these measures I have rapidly described did not carry education to the places which most needed it, where the destitution of the people, both moral and physical, precluded the hope that they could share in any effort towards the education of their children. Ragged schools had indeed done good service in giving to the poorest and most neglected some amount of instruction, but the standard to which they could attain very rarely entitled their managers to any grant from the Educational Depart- ment ; they were obliged to rely entirely on voluntary contributions, and the work was far too gigantic for philanthropy unaided by the State to accomplish.* Moreover it became plain that England lagged behind some other countries in the matter of education, and she might in consequence lose her supremacy in manufactures. The passing of the Representation of the People's Act in 1867, extended the Parliament- ary franchise to a less educated and very large class of the community. Education was essentia] to enable this class to exercise their newly attained power with safety to the country. All these circumstances combined, led to the passing of the Educational Act of 1870, introduced and carried through the House of Commons by W. E. Forster, with whose name it will ever remain associated. The ideal of the Act is " A school place for every child, and every child in its school place. " The Act created school boards, bodies of men and women elected in different parts of the country by the local ratepayers. Attendance at school, between the ages of five and fourteen, could be made compulsory, and, when so made, boards were given the power of summoning parents who infringed the law, before a magistrate authorized to impose a fine for this offense. The enforcement of compulsion was at first left to the- discretion of each school board, but by further amending acts, attendance at school has been made compulsory. The boards are responsible for the attendance of pupils, not only at schools under their own management, but at every elementary school in their respective dis- tricts, whether entirely supported by voluntary contributions and free to scholars, or partly supported by fees, or whether beyond these two sources of income, supplemented by government grants. Such schools are known as voluntary schools, in contradistinc- tion to those belonging to the boards. At the time of the passing of the Education Act there were 8,381 voluntary schools in England and Wales receiving grants ; 6,382 carried on by members of the Church of England, 1,549 belonging to the various bodies of nonconformists, and 450 to the Roman Catholics. Up to the end of 1891, twenty-one years after the creation of school boards, there were 14,816 voluntary, and only 4,779 board schools, a proof that in England and Wales the creation of the latter has not, as it was feared would happen, destroyed in the present day the zeal and activity which our ancestors displayed in their efforts to spread education throughout the land. Compulsory attendance at school was a new feature in English law, and could only be gradually introduced. It is now more or less strictly enforced all over the country, and has received on the whole the cheerful acquiescence of the people. The school boards * As far as I know, the ragged school in St James's Back, Bristol, founded in 1846 chiefly by the efforts of Mary Carpenter, was the only one in England which was able to earn a grant. 'ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 873 draw up their own by-laws, subsequently sanctioned by the Educational Department, fixing the standard both of half-time attendance, and exemption from school, which vary in different parts of the country. After the passing of the Act of 1870, the Educational Department retained its former powers over voluntary schools, and was by the Act endowed with the same in regard to board schools ; and in addition it exercises considerable control over school boards. The Education Act left managers entirely free to give or not to give religious instruction in their schools. Under school boards such teaching must be wholly undenominational. Voluntary managers, as a matter of course, give instruction according to their own views. In all schools, both board and voluntary, " the conscience clause " which per- mits parents to withdraw their children from religious instruction must be strictly obeyed, but I believe they rarely avail themselves of this permission. School boards are empowered to establish evening classes. The scholars must, if under fourteen years of age, have passed the prescribed standard of exemption in the day school. Beyond that age they can of course attend without having passed any standard at all, but should they be more than twenty-one, of whom there is a consider- able number attending these classes, they do not earn any grant from the government. I believe evening classes are in active operation all over the country. The curriculum is much the same as in the day school, except that all the scholars who have passed the fourth standard need not be again examined in the three Rs, but may devote their time to class and specific subjects, such as geography, history, French, drawing, mechanics, manual training, cookery, etc. Our schools are generally divided into three departments, infants (both sexes), boys and girls, but there are many in which boys and girls receive their instruction together. These are called mixed schools. There are a few attached to some schools to which children of both sexes are drafted when they quit the infants' department, and remain together until having passed, in some schools the second, in others the third standard, they go to the senior boys' and girls' departments. These are called junior mixed. There are also some schools called higher grade, in which the upper standards are divided into smaller classes than in the ordinary schools where the pupils study a greater variety of " specific " subjects. In 1891 the Free Education Act passed, permitting managers of schools, both board and voluntary, to abolish fees altogether, and offering in their stead a grant of ten shillings per head on average attendance. This act came into force on September 1st, 1891, and up to the present date no reports have yet been issued by the Department on the extent to which it has been adopted. Improvement in the curriculum of elementary education has made great strides dur- ing the last few years. The almost exclusively intellectual training boys used to receive after quitting the infant department created in them a dislike to hard labor; the comparatively well-to-do desired to become clerks, when it would have been better for them to become high-class artisans, while those who from family circumstances had been obliged to leave school at an early age could become little else than errand-boys. It was therefore essential to encourage a taste for skilled hand labor.* With this end it was determined that the hand and the eye should be trained. The Education Depart- ment consequently introduced subjects into their codes which supply such training. The lads who have been first taught to be skillful in the cutting out of paper, and the making of articles in cardboard, enter the manual training class, where they learn the use of tools by making different articles in wood. This scheme, beginning with paper- work and leading to wood-work, was formulated and introduced into the schools of the board by our senior inspector, Mr. George Ricks. * Girls fared in this respect better than hoys, they had always their needlework ; and cooking has been a subject of instruction in many schools for several years. 874 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION'. In all departments physical exercises, based on scientific principles, are an essential part of our school training, for as education is defined to be the harmonious develop- ment of all the faculties, bodily and mental, with which the child is endowed, the body demands equal training with the mind in due order, and in just proportion. Before sending a lad to the truant school, which is a special boarding-school, it must be ascertained whether or not the parents have done their duty in the matter. The parents must not only have sent him to school, but must, as far as lies in their power, have secured his attendance there. If the child be absent several times during the week, it is assumed that they have failed, and the father is summoned by the school board before the magistrate, who, after hearing both sides, either dismisses the case or inflicts a fine on the parents according to his discretion. If the fine be not paid, the law directs that such portion of his goods shall be sold as will cover the amount of the fine, or that he be sent to prison for a term of days in default. Should the child continue to offend, the parent is again summoned, and the course, already described, repeated. But if these proceedings fail in obtaining regular attendance, a fresh summons is issued, and the boy is ordered by the magistrate to attend a certain school chosen by the parents, and a month's grace is given him in which to obey the order. If he now fail, the magistrate commits him to a truant school, where his day is divided between studying and working with his hands, time being allowed for exercise and rest, but very little for recreation. He may be detained until he reach the age of fourteen, when the jurisdiction of the school board ceases. But, in fact, the boy only remains until, by his orderly behavior, he gives promise of attending the day-school regularly, should he be allowed to return home ; the period of detention usually lasting from nine to twelve weeks. He is then licensed out, and if he attend school regularly for nine months he is unconditionally discharged. During the probationary period he is carefully watched. Should he again play truant his license is revoked, and he is brought back to the truant school for a second period of detention. When these institutions were first founded, about the year 1877, the boys belonged to a better class than they do now. The truants who recall Shakespere's lad, '* with shining morning face creeping unwillingly to school," will always exist, but they are easy to deal with compared with the lowest grade, to which the operation of the law has now penetrated. These unfortunate lads become truants through the utter neglect, cruelty, or corrupt influence of their parents. NATIONAL EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND. BY FLOEA C. STEVENSON", MEMBER OF THE EDINBURGH SCHOOL BOARD. " Whereas, it is desirable to amend and extend the provisions of the law of Scotland on the subject of education in such manner that the means of procuring efficient educa- tion for their children may be furnished and made available to the whole people of Scotland, be it enacted." These words, taken from the Preamble of the Education Act, which became law in 1872, indicate the wide scope of the statute which regulates public education in Scot- land. Unlike the English Act passed in 1870, which deals with elementary education alone, the Scottish Act makes provision for a graded system of education comprising infant, elementary, and higher class schools. Based on the parish school system, the Act preserves many of the old traditions of national education in Scotland. Under the Act the ultimate control of the national system of education rests with a governmental department, called the Scottish Educa- NATIONAL EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND. 875 tion Department of the Privy Council, who are responsible for the administration of the moneys voted annually by Parliament for public education. The parliamentary grant is distributed according to the regulations laid down in a code, which determines the rates and the conditions of the grant. The local control of public education rests with the popularly elected school boards in every parish and burgh. The school boards are elected triennially, and consist of from five to fifteen members, according to the population of the school district which they represent. The electorate consists of all owners and occupiers of lands and heritages of the annual value of four pounds and upwards. No property or residential qualification is required for candidates for election, and men and women are equally eligible. On many of the Scottish school boards women have been elected and have rendered valu- able service in the cause of education. The duties of school boards are to provide the public school accommodation necessary for the locality, to manage all rate-aided schools, and higher class schools falling under their jurisdiction in terms of the Act, to levy the school rate, and generally to administer the provision of the Act according to the regulations of the education code. Under the Act of 1872, for the first time in Scotland, education was made compulsory, and one of the most important duties of school boards is to enforce the compulsory pro- visions of the Act. Every parent is bound to provide ' ' elementary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic" for the children, and failing to do so may be prosecuted, and is liable to the penalty of a 6ne not exceeding twenty shillings (£1), or to imprisonment not exceeding fourteen days. The effect of compulsion has been very largely to increase the enrolment and attendance at all state-aided schools in the country. In accordance with the traditions of education in Scotland, religious instruction including the teaching of the Bible and the Westminster Shorter Catechism has always been given in the parish schools. This tradition was respected by the Act of 1872, and the question as to whether or not religious instruction, "according to use and wont," was to be given in the public schools (under the restrictions of a conscience clause) was left to be decided by the school boards. The first school board election practically settled the question, and for twenty years a majority of members have been returned who have continued this system of religious instruction in the schools under their management. Outside, however, of the school board system the Act made provision, in those parts of the country where there is a sufficiently numerous population belonging to the Roman Catholic and Episcopal Churches, for the continuance and establishment of schools under the management of these churches. The denominational schools are state-aided, receiv- ing Parliamentary grants on the same conditions as the public schools, but receiving no support from the local school rate. Since the passing of the Act the number of Roman Catholic and Episcopal schools has largely increased, while the number of schools be- longing to other denominations has become very small, the religious instruction given in the board schools being identical with the teaching of the various branches of the Presbyterian Church. Another tradition of Scottish schools continued in the public education of this time is the system of mixed schools, boys and girls being taught together in the same class- rooms. The regulations of the department require that in schools of the large towns, boys and girls must be kept separate in the passages and staircases, and in the play- grounds. In the small country schools the old natural arrangement continues as in the old days. The primary conditions of grant are, the attendance and proficiency of the scholars, the qualifications of the teachers, and the state of the school buildings. Further grants are made in respect of various class subjects, and specific subjects, and a special grant is given to schools having a separate infant department under a specially qualified infants' mistress. The school age for children in Scotland, during which compulsory 876 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. attendance at school may be enforced, is from five to fourteen. Two of these years are spent in the infant school. No part of the educational system in Scotland has made such advances during the last twenty years as this. In Edinburgh, especially, the infant schools have reached a very high state of efficiency. In addition to reading, writing, and arithmetic (proficiency in which according to a fixed standard is required for exemption from school attendance), the subjects of instruc- tion in the juvenile school are : — English geography, history, needlework (for girls), and elementary science. They are known as "class subjects," but not more than three of them can be taken for examination. In the Gaelic-speaking districts Gaelic may be taken as a class subject. The teaching of drawing is compulsory in all schools for boys, and may be taken by girls. The higher subjects of instruction are known as specific. It is here that the ordi- nary elementary school work extends into secondary education. The subjects are : — Mathematics, Latin, Greek, French, German, principles of agriculture (for boys), and domestic economy including practical cookery and laundry work (for girls). In the larger towns, especially in Edinburgh, attention is now paid to the physical training of the children in the board schools. In all of the schools under the Edin- burgh Board gymnastic instruction is given by specially qualified teachers, and some of the newer schools are provided with large swimming baths, where swimming is taught to both boys and girls. Another subject which has recently been added to the school curriculum is manual instruction in carpentry, and clay modelling. The advantages of this extended education are now practically free to all Scottish children. Recent legislation has put at the disposal of the Government certain moneys which have been devoted to the relief from school fees. Free education was practically given to Scotland under a Local Taxation Act in 1890, which made education free up to the standard of exemption, but further legislation has provided for free education for all children up to the age of fourteen, in all state-aided schools. At present a proposal is under the consideration of Parliament for devoting additional moneys to the pro- motion and better organization of secondary education throughout the country. Under a recent Act the educational endowments of the country have been revised and adapted to the necessities and conditions of the present time. In Aberdeenshire and the northern counties, under the Dick Bequest, stimulus and encouragement have been given to secondary education in the public schools, by grants to schoolmasters who successfully prepare scholars for higher examinations. In Glasgow the funds of the Hutcheson Trust are also devoted to the encouragement of secondary education. In Edinburgh, under George Hariot's Trust, which is the wealthiest endowment in the country, an annual income of from thirty to forty thousand pounds is spent in promoting technical and secondary education and in providing university-bursaries for men and women. The provisions of the scheme for the admin- istration of the trust that affect the public schools are the application of an annual sum of two thousand pounds to be given in school bursaries to pupils (boys and girls) attend- ing the state-aided schools. The bursaries which are of the value of five pounds, ten pounds, and fifteen pounds, yearly, and tenable for two years, are awarded on the results of examination, and in addition to these, five bursaries of thirty pounds yearly value are offered annually to boys, to be tenable at the Royal High School in Edinburgh for five years. The Merchant Company of Edinburgh have devoted their large educational endowments to the establishment and maintenance of secondary schools for boys and for girls. These are fee-paying schools, but there are many bursaries open for com- petition to the pupils in attendance at the schools. In addition to the provision made for education in public day schools, a great deal has been done in recent years to develop the system of evening schools. They are also WOMEN STUDENTS IN THE SCOTTISH UNIVERSITIES. 877 state aided, and are supported out of the local school rate. They are intended as con- tinuation schools for boys and girls whose circumstances necessitated their leaving the day school after passing the exemption standard, and also for providing for young men and young women secondary and technical instruction. The following account of the schools carried on by the Ladies' Highland Association is given by Miss Rainy, the Honorary Secretary, who was for some years a distinguished member of the Edinburgh School Board. " In some parts of Scotland education is attended with peculiar difficulties. The counties of Ross, Inverness, and Argyle include about one hundred inhabited islands, some of which contain only a few families ; and others whose population is greater, as well as the west coast of the mainland from Cape Wrath to the Mull of Cantyre, are so intersected by arms of the sea, pathless morasses and dangerous torrents, that attend- ance at school is often perilous if not impossible. Add to this the poverty of the people, and the fact that English is to them a foreign tongue — their vernacular being Gaelic — and you have a combination of circumstances singularly adverse to the enforcement of red tape arrangements. The number of separate schools required for a population so scattered entails heavy expenditure for buildings, and the difficulty of enforcing regular attendance, or of bringing Gaelic-speaking children up to the required standards in English, makes the earning of the Parliamentary grant a great difficulty. The local school rate has in some places been as high as six and seven shillings in the pound of rental, and although exceptional grants have been given by the department, it has been found necessary to supplement the public school system by private enterprise. The Ladies' Highland Association, founded in 1850, has planted schools in the most out- landish and destitute spots, employing as teachers Gaelic-speaking young men who are allowed to come to college two winters out of three, leaving substitutes in their place ; and who are willing on this account to endure hardships which more permanent teachers would shrink from. It has not been possible within the limits allowed for this paper to do more than give a very general outline of the Scottish national system of education. All that has been attempted is to give an idea of the educational legislation regulating the system of education, and the means by which the provisions of the Education Act are carried out. WOMEN STUDENTS IN THE SCOTTISH UNIVERSITIES. BY MISS LOUISA STEVENSON, HONORARY SECRETARY OF THE EDINBURGH ASSOCIATION FOR THE UNIVERSITY EDUCATION OF WOMEN. On the 22d of February, 1892, the Royal Commissioners, acting under the Universi- ties (Scotland) Act of 1889, issued an ordinance under their seal which deeply affected the educational interests of Scottish women. This commission, consisting of sixteen members, with the Hon. Lord Kinnear, one of the senators of the College of Justice, as chairman, was appointed for the purpose of making laws for the better government of the four Scottish universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews. Essentially democratic as they in other respects have ever been, not one of these universities possessed the legal right, when the commission was appointed, to give degrees in arts or science, or teaching qualifying for such degrees, to any woman, however gifted. Under the act this disability was removed. The legislature gave special powers to the commissioners to enable each university " to admit women to graduation in one or more faculties, and to provide for their instruction." These 878 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. powers, it will be noted, were enabling and not compulsory. It was made competent to each university court, after consultation with the senators, " to make provision within the university for the instruction of women in any of the subjects taught within the university, either by admitting them to the ordinary classes, or by instituting separate classes for their instruction." The conditions for graduation within any faculty to which women were admitted were made practically the same for women as for men. It was made the duty of any court exercising the powers conferred by the ordinance to make regulations for the use by women of such libraries and museums as were open to all matriculated students. An important clause was also inserted by which it was made competent to any university court to admit women to graduation in arts without further examination who were registered in the books of the university as having regularly attended classes conducted by the professors of the university or by their assistants in the seven subjects hitherto required for the ordinary degree of Master of Arts — Latin, Greek, mathematics, natural philosophy, logic and metaphysics, moral philosophy, and English literature — and as having, after examination by the university examiner for the said degree, in all these subjects obtained the pass certifi- cate in arts of the university. This certificate was instituted in 1874, at the instance of the Edinburgh Association for the University Education of Women, who as far back as 1869 made arrangements with individual professors and lecturers to cooperate with them in opening classes for women outside of the university in rooms provided by and on the responsibility of the association. This certificate formed a valuable link with the university, and was granted to any student of the association who passed, in any three or more science and arts subjects, examinations up to the standard for the M.A. degree. The work done was of good old-fashioned university gold, and the commis- sioners authorized the authorities to stamp it in the case of all students who had passed in the seven M.A. subjects. There was great rejoicing amongst the friends and promoters of the university education of women when, on June 28th, the ordinance, after lying for three months on the table of the House of Commons, received the Queen's assent and became law. Much eager interest was at the same time felt as to what action the various universities would take, now that their legal disabilities were removed. To the credit of Scotland, each of the four universities resolved to avail itself without delay of its newly acquired powers. Edinburgh, St. Andrews, and Aberdeen have opened their science and arts classes to women students who attend the professors' lectures along with the men, and the conjoint teaching given in University College, Dundee, qualifies for the M.A. degree of St. Andrews. Glasgow has incorporated Queen Margaret College as an integral part of its university system, and appointed professors and lecturers to give separate courses of instruction to its women students. The classes taught are university classes, and the women students are students of the university. The two systems of conjoint and separate teaching have thus been inaugurated. Time will show which is productive of the best results. It may not be uninteresting to record that at the first meeting of the executive committee of the Edinburgh Association for the University Education of Women, held at the close of the winter session, the following resolution was unanimously passed : "This committee record their entire satisfaction with the working of the conjoint system of teaching in the faculties of arts and science during the session 1892-93 ; and their continued belief, after this experience, that under no other system could women students receive in Edinburgh University instruction equal to that provided for men." This opinion, which was afterward unanimously confirmed by the council of the associ- ation, is of special value as coming from a body of men and women — professional and lay — who for a quarter of a century have taken practical interest in the question of the university education of women. Women students are to be congratulated on the new CONVENT EDUCATION. 879 regulations regarding the subjects qualifying for the M.A. degree, which took place contemporaneously with their admission to the universities. In the old days seven subjects were inexorably fixed for that degree ; under the new system the subjects qualifying for graduation have been raised to twenty-seven, although certain of the original seven are still compulsory in following any one of the three paths leading up to the M.A. degree. History or a modern language, for example, may be taken instead of English literature ; and a selection may be made between natural philosophy and mathematics, and between logic and moral philosophy ; but candidates for graduation must attend seven full courses of lectures and pass exami- nations on the subjects studied. They must also pass a preliminary examination in (1) English, (2) Latin or Greek, (3) Mathematics, (4) one of Latin or Greek, if not already taken, French, German, Italian, dynamics. Students not intending to graduate are not required to pass this preliminary examination. Much excellent work was done by the Scottish women students in this the first year of their admission to the universities. In Edinburgh honors were gained by them in almost every subject studied, and they took or shared first and second prizes in natural philos- ophy, Greek, English literature, logic and mental philosophy, moral philosophy, educa- tion and music. At St. Andrews women gained the first and the second places respectively in Roman history and in English literature. As time goes on, it is hoped that an ever- increasing number will matriculate in all the universities. It is pleasant to end this paper by recording that on the 13th of April, 1893, the senators and the university court of Edinburgh, acting under the powers already mentioned, admitted to graduation eight fully qualified women students, who, wearing full academic dress, were "capped "by Principal Sir William Muir, K.C.S.I., vice- chancellor of the university, for the degree of Master of Arts, amidst the enthusiastic applause of professors, students, and an enormous gathering of the general public. The event was a historic one, and the Scottish universities are now free from the reproach of having no women amongst their graduates. One of the eight, Miss Lilias Maitland, passed extra examinations and graduated with first-class philosophical honors. The thanks of all Scottish women are due to the Royal Commissioners and to the members of the university court who made such rights and privileges possible. CONVENT EDUCATION. BY F. M. L., PRINCIPAL OF A TRAINING-COLLEGE. I have been asked by the Sub-committee on Women's Work to contribute a paper on convent schools, or the educational work carried on by the Catholic Church in the United Kingdom ; and I propose briefly to review that work in two classes of schools : (a) Primary or public elementary (in Ireland, national) schools ; (b) secondary, including day-schools and upper-class boarding-schools. The communities occupying themselves with education in the British Isles may be classed as follows : (1) Those teaching the poor only, as Sisters of Charity and of Mercy, the Presentation Nuns, the Sisters of St. Paul, etc. (2) Those teaching the upper classes chiefly, as the Ladies of the Sacred Heart, the Benedictines and Augustinians, the Assumption Nuns, etc. (3) Those devoting themselves to the instruction of all classes, as the Ursulines, Domin- icans, Franciscans, the Sisters of Notre Dame, the Faithful Companions, the Loretto Nuns, the Sisters of the Holy Child, and many others. 880 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Primary Schools. — In no department has the work done by nuns been so extensive or so successful as in the primary schools for the laboring classes. The vast majority of the Catholic public elementary schools in Great Britain, and most of the Roman Catholic national schools in Ireland, are taught by "Sisters." The number of com- munities thus occupied in England and Scotland is three hundred and sixty-six; in Ireland the number is considerably greater. In some of the large towns each convent takes charge of a whole group of schools. Thus in Liverpool, one order, the Sisters of Notre Dame, send their Sisters to twenty different schools. The work done in the public elementary schools of Great Britain is very carefully tested by periodical inspection and examination on the part of the state, and though "payment on results" is no longer the absolute rule, the grants of the Education Department are not issued without full evidence of intelligent and successful teaching. The infants' schools have special attention paid to them, and kindergarten methods are universally adopted. In the girls' and mixed schools, the children learn, in addition to the " three Rs," grammar, geography, history, and elementary physical science. Draw- ing is compulsory for boys, while the girls have lessons in cookery and domestic economy. In Great Britain, since 1891, most of the public elementary schools have been free. In what are called " higher grade schools," in which the teaching is earned further and the curriculum is somewhat wider, a fee of ninepence per week may be charged with- out forfeiting the government grant. The programme of studies is fixed by the state and is purely secular ; but in all Roman Catholic schools a special time is set apart for religious instruction, and the nuns go in largely for that personal interest in and inter- course with their pupils which leave so indelible an impression on their after lives. In some large towns the Sisters take charge of continuation and evening classes, where they have a precious opportunity of coming in contact with the girls who, at fourteen or fifteen years of age, have ceased to attend the day-school, and are now in greater need than ever of the influence which guarded their childhood. It should be noted that in all the educational institutions subsidized by the state the teachers are required to be certificated. For this purpose the nuns willingly present themselves at the public examinations — three in number — which they are obliged to pass in order to gain the diploma of the Education Department. A striking feature in the English and Scottish schools, especially those under nuns, is their staff of young apprenticed pupil-teachers going through a double course of study and of practice (for education is an art as well as a science), living in some cases in the convent under the eye of their mistresses, or else attending the central classes where the pupil-teachers of a whole district assemble in the evening for their lessons. The com- plement of the pupil-teacher system is the normal college, with its two or three years' course of training. Three of these colleges are superintended and taught by religious communities, viz. : Liverpool, under the Sisters of Notre Dame, founded in 1856 ; Wands- worth, near London, under the Ladies of the Sacred Heart; and Baggot Street, Dublin, under the Sisters of Mercy. A fourth training-college is about to commence under nuns in Glasgow. The success of the Catholic training-colleges has been very marked, and the Sisters conducting them have held their own with some of the best institutions in the country. Her Majesty's inspector, the Rev. Mr. Warburton, a Canon of the Church of England, who visited the Catholic training-colleges for several years officially, said : " I cannot express too strongly my admiration of the work done here. If a foreigner visiting England were to desire to see one of our institutions, I should direct him to one of the Roman Catholic training-colleges." The pupil-teachers trained in the preparatory classes held at Liverpool have invariably taken high places at the entrance examination, and twice one of their number has headed the scholarship list, after competing with some thousands of pupil-teachers from the schools of England and Wales. CONVENT EDUCATION. 881 Roman Catliolic Secondary Schools. — These maybe divided into day-schools, high and middle, and boarding-schools. They are nearly all in the hands of nuns, who in some in- stances seek the assistance of lay governesses. A new departure was made some year< ago in the upper-class day schools, and in some of the convent boarding-schools, by entering the pupils for examinations conducted by public examining bodies. Candidates were prepared and sent in for the university local (English) examinations, and for the inter- mediate and university (Irish) examinations. Pupils of the Ursulines, the Dominicans, the Sisters of Notre Dame, and the Faithful Companions have distinguished themselves at the " locals " of the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Edinburgh ; while from three of the Notre Dame convents pupils have passed the examination for the L.L.A. diploma at the University of St. Andrews. In Ireland the convent schools have won even greater laurels at the public intermediate examinations. The first place in all Ireland was taken by a pupil of the Loretto nuns ; the same place was reached twice by pupils of the Ursulines. Both these communities sent in a number of candidates to the matriculation examinations of the Dublin University, and several of them reached the honors division. On the other hand, it must be owned that some excellent schools hold aloof from public examinations, for reasons which one can respect even if one cannot agree with them. Public opinion will probably be brought to bear on this point, when the Commission on Secondary Education has presented its report to the British government, and when the proposed bill is passed by the legislature. If the time comes when all teachers will have to be registered, and to produce credentials for their fitness for the office, it will be necessary for Catholics to have some institution corresponding to the colleges for women that have arisen at Oxford and Cambridge. If we cannot have a Girton or a Newnham, we may perhaps aspire to an institution for the higher educa- tion of women and for training governesses, such as the Cambridge College for Teachers, which is doing such good work under Miss Hughes. The Loretto Sisters, who are eminently fitted for the task, have long contemplated founding something corresponding to the Alexandra College for Women in Dublin. The apathy of parents is a great obstacle to educational progress in upper-class Catholic schools. In general they do not appreciate higher education for girls, and with very few exceptions they cry down every effort made to raise the standard of their daughters' studies. Fathers object to pay the fees of examinations, and even the cost of books. Mothers have an instinctive dread of over- pressure, and beg that their children may be spared all continuous mental exertion, under the belief that it is injurious to health. This is very discouraging to those who would like to give to Catholic girls the same advantages enjoyed by others. In our convent schools there is sometimes another drawback, viz. : the lack of the M skilled workman " element amongst their teachers. Our sisterhoods have brought to the task refinement, gentleness, patience, and all the devotedness which is born of a religious life and a religious atmosphere. They succeed admirably in infusing a high moral and religious tone and a spirit of piety and unselfishness into their pupils ; and if the girls who leave our convent schools could find something to work for when they return to their homes, some object for their lives a little higher than dress, visiting, and amusements, we might have a loftier standard of intellectual and social life than at present exists amongst us. To render lives useful and " worth living," there should be some preparation in school for carrying out pursuits and avocations for which tastes should have been previously created and openings should be subsequently made. Without speaking of occupations which may become lucrative, there might be ways of fostering a love for the poor and a sympathy with little children, or with girls of a lower social scale, which would result in useful personal intercourse, and encourage- ment given to Sunday-schools, recreative or instructive evening classes, guild meetings, 56 882 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. etc. ;a love for home and home duties, by practical acquaintance with sick-nursing, cookery, and plain needlework ; a love of study and self-improvement, which would enable girls to fit themselves to become teachers either in private life or in schools ; a love of art which would lead to many a happy hour spent in painting or decoration for the church or the poor. The ideal of education for aspiring maidenhood seems to the writer to be a first-rate day or high-school, combined with a religious and intellectual atmosphere at home. In no other institution can girls enjoy the advantages of careful religious and domestic training united to opportunities for widening their sphere of knowledge and of thought, by attending lectures, visiting museums and art galleries, hearing something of what is happening around them, and keeping in touch with their sisters in a lower walk of life, taking up their share in that portion of woman's work which they are best fitted for. Day-schools of some kind, whether high -schools or upper-grade schools, will probably be the schools of the future, and it is in these that the teaching staff should be strength- ened, that the tests from outside should be courted, and the curriculum arranged on a broad and sound basis. Superficial teaching and a smattering of accomplishments should be conscientiously and systematically avoided ; coaching up a few clever pupils to win a name for the school should be considered beneath the dignity of the work and of the worker ; individual tastes and pursuits should be encouraged in the higher forms, and the child should merge into the — "Perfect woman, nobly planned, To warn, to comfort, and command ; And yet a spirit still, and bright With something of an angel light." The complement of the day-school course for the more intellectual maidens would be a term of residence in a hall or college (under the superintendence of some highly edu- cated religious women) in Edinburgh or Dublin, or in the environs of London, where they could either specialize and attain excellence in some distinct line of art, literature, or science, or go through a course of professional training as teachers, and take out a diploma such as the L.L.A. of St. Andrew's, or a degree at one of the other universities. Education carried out in a Catholic spirit has to keep in view the final destiny of the immortal being, without losing sight of the immediate sphere of action in which that destiny has to be wrought out. Hence the curriculum for higher education, while embracing all that can elevate and enrich as well as discipline the mind — theology, philosophy, mathematics, literature, science, and art — should also follow the lines of woman's work and woman's influence. The true greatness of woman lies in her posi- tion relative to the whole human race, and the power given her of molding it for good or evil. It is not by unsphering herself that the perfection of her being and her mission can be attained. All that it befits her to know as wife, mother, and teacher, can reason- ably be made the subject of higher education; and it is to be hoped that the communities of religious sisters, who inherit the learning and the piety of the great monastic institu- tions of mediaeval times, will rise to the full height of their modern mission, and bring up generations of muliercs fortes, religious and intellectual, heroic and self-sacrificing women. Perhaps I may conclude by quoting the words of Professor Knight, of the University of St. Andrews, who in an admirable and exhaustive lecture, lately given at a training- college, on the history of the higher education of women, speaks thus of the work done by convents in ancient times: "In the great Benedictine schools girls were taught in the same classes with boys, and they kept pace with them in their studies. They learned the classical languages, at the same time that they imbibed piety and devotion. It was in the convent schools of WOMEN'S EDUCATION IN NEW ZEALAND. 883 the so-called dark ages that teaching was given both to the upper and middle classes ; and it is a fact not as fully recognized as it ought to be, that women were less well edu- cated after the monasteries had been destroyed. Fragmentary and unsystematic as some of their teaching undoubtedly was, they did an admirable work ; and but for the enthu- siasm of those mediaeval spirits, and the seed they sowed, we should not now be reaping our rich modern harvests." WOMEN'S EDUCATION IN NEW ZEALAND. BY MRS. STEADMAN ALDIS. The Education Act of New Zealand provides that every person, "male or female," otherwise eligible, "shall be qualified to be a member of the board." " There is really," says the Inspector-General of Schools, "very little to say about the education of women in this country, because, in this respect, men and women are treated alike." Primary schools throughout the colony provide for the education of all children up to a certain standard, and the whole of New Zealand is divided into twelve education districts, each ruled by a board. From the money intrusted to them by the government, most of these boards annually offer scholarships to the most deserving pupils of the primary schools. The winner of such a scholarship is entitled to free tuition at one of the secondary schools established in the principal towns of the district, and usually to an annual payment of twenty or thirty pounds. In the chief centers of population, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Auckland, are university colleges, to which the poorest can find access by means of scholarships. It thus frequently happens that a clever child of poor parents gains a district scholarship after free attendance for a few years at a primary school, and so passes without expense to a secondary school, where in due time an university junior scholarship is won, and presently the highest honors which the university can give. All these advantages are open to "all children of school age," to girls as well as to boys, the Education Act making this quite plain by speaking of "his or her scholarship," to be held as long as "he or she" shall continue "his or her" education. In the college lecture-rooms, the college and university scholarships, and the degrees, no distinction of sex is recognized ; and it may be remarked in passing that there has been no sign of the many grievous consequences sometimes predicted from such a state of things. With regard to the state schools, the following information has been kindly furnished by the Inspector- General : In the primary schools boys and girls are generally taught in the same classes. In large town schools, where the number of pupils is large enough to admit of separate instruction for girls, without waste of teaching power, there are separate classes for the sexes. There are a few separate schools for the sexes. The syllabus of instruction and examination in primary schools makes only one distinction between boys and girls, and that is with respect to needlework, which only girls learn ; and it is ordered that "the inspector shall judge all other work done by the girls more leniently than that done by the boys, to such a degree as would be implied in reducing by ten per cent, the minimum marks required for any examination pass." The governing bodies of all the high schools or grammar schools that owe their origin to state endowments provide education for girls as well as boys. In some places there are separate schools ; in others girls and boys are taught together, and at the Auckland College and Grammar School, and elsewhere, the teaching is given to the boys and girls apart, but under one head-master. In the examination for primary school-teachers' certificates of the lowest class (E), the difference between men and women is that women 884 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. must take up needlework, aud that for the paper in " Elementary Science" they have the option of substituting a paper in " Domestic Economy," and for them the minimum for a pass in arithmetic is somewhat reduced. Nearly twenty years ago Miss Kate Edger, daughter of the late Rev. S. Edger, of Auckland, applied for an university scholarship in mathematics, thus testing the ques- tion whether a girl could hold such a scholarship. The authorities thereupon examined the question carefully, and. finding nothing to prevent, the successful candidate at- tended the Auckland College and Grammar School, that being then the only institution affiliated to the university within her reach. There she worked with the senior boys, who were preparing for degree, and after a course of three years was, again without any objection, admitted to the degree of B.A. Thus, while the old universities of Eng- land and Scotland were grudgingly doling out what could hardly any longer be withheld, the University of little New Zealand, spurning these traditions of selfishness, did itself the never-to-be-forgotten honor of being the first in the British dominions to bestow a degree upon a woman; and it may be added that this pioneer woman, now Mrs. Evans, M. A., is at present Examiner in English for the Matriculation and Medical Preliminary, and for the junior scholarships examinations of the university. A younger sister of this lady followed the same course, and last year Miss Lilian Edger, M.A., was elected by the Auckland graduates to a seat upon the Council of the Auckland University College. Up to this date the senate of the university has been composed of men only, but, as far as appears, the position is quite open to any woman who may be appointed or elected to fill it. In fact, throughout New Zealand it is generally accepted as axio- matic, that to state endowments of education women and men have equal rights. If, therefore, in the university colleges, the men students outnumber the women, the reason is, simply, that fewer of the latter have cared to go in at the doors, which stand wide for those who choose to enter. When the Durham University College of Physical Science was opened at Newcastle- on-Tyne, some ladies of the place addressed to the council a memorial asking that women might share in the advantages of the new institution. Without hesitation the request was granted, and it was a disappointment when, as year after year passed away, all the names upon the roll of students were those of men. When at last one or two women did appear, they shyly chose to place themselves quite at the back of the class ; and in each lecture-room, in accordance with their evident wish, the back bench was courteously left for them by the other .students. On our arrival in New Zealand, between nine and ten years ago, we were edified by the contrast prevailing here. It was only the second session of the Auckland College, but the women students, of whom there were more than one or two, had already established the claim of custom to the front benches ; so that once when, by the wish of the professor, a very deaf young man had taken a vacant front place, a young woman, unaware of what had passed, casting a scathing glance at the intruder, was overheard to ask her neighbor : " What's that boy doing there ?" Of all the different branches of education there is none from which women have been excluded with such obstinate determination as from the study of medicine ; and, for some reason unexplained, unless it be fees, there is none which has evoked in its defense such an amount of ungentlemanly behavior. As, therefore, two ladies have lately joined the medical school at Dunedin, it seems likely that there at least might be found a comfortable supply of material for this paper, that there could hardly fail to be a tale to tell of opposition and of successful struggle. But Professor Sale, answer- ing a letter of inquiry, says that there' is nothing to tell ; that it is merely an accident that women have only last year begun attending medical classes, for all classes of every kind have from the first been open to women, and that this unrestricted admis- WOMEN'S EDUCATION IN NEW ZEALAND. 885 sion was largely due to the efforts of the first Chancellor of the University of Otago, Major Richardson, afterwards Sir John Larkins Cheese Richardson. Dr. Scott, Professor of Anatomy and Physiology at Dunedin, has just been in Auck- land. A young lady told him she wished to join his classes. He told her she would find it pleasanter to have a companion. She took his advice, the two girls entered, and everything went on as usual, quietly and well, without either difficulty or disturbance. It is gratifying to be able to add that medical studies at Dunedin are not tainted by the disgraceful horrors of vivisection. The district of Otago was in great measure settled by Scotchmen, but the experience of these two ladies has certainly differed widely from that of the first lady medical students at Edinburgh. That was some years ago, but even in the recent new departure there, the admission of women to the same lecture- rooms as men, there seems to have been reason for the trepidation said to have been felt by those best acquainted with the character of the Scottish student ; and the behavior of the latter at the opening lectures to the mixed classes shows that there is need of the " elevating and humanizing influence " which it is hoped will proceed from the pres- ence of women. "Why," exclaimed a New Zealand undergraduate girl, " we never hear of such things ; such doings as those are never even thought of here." This is quite true, and perhaps, in saying so, we do feel some pride in our country, though, with regard to the treatment of women, if we look outside this one subject of educa- tion, we cannot give thanks that we are not as others. In the public schools under the control of the department, many women find employ- ment; and here comes in the one flaw. From pupil-teachers upward, women teachers are almost invariably less highly paid than men, for whom also the prizes of the profes- sion, the best posts, such as they are, are reserved. In one of the suburbs of Auckland, for example, a small school had been successfully worked up by a lady placed at its head. Then the very increase of numbers under her management was made the reason for an agitation for her removal, on the theoretical ground that a woman could not maintain discipline among so many, and this lady had actually to leave, that a man might be put in the place to which she had given value. So we must not boast too much, even though the civil service is open to women, and though, as far as education of themselves is concerned, they are so fairly treated here. It would be gratifying to be able to say that the advantages freely offered are freely used. But truth compels the admission that in the university colleges the number of women students is small compared with that of the men, and that the number of highly educated women to be met with in New Zealand cannot be described as large, though, indeed, this latter statement may be made also concerning the men. Professor Parker of Dunedin has thus put the case : "In discussing the state of learning in Scotland, Dr. Johnson once said, with that mixture of insight and brutality which so often characterized his utterances, ' It is with their learning as it is with provisions in a besieged town ; every one has a mouthful, and no one a bellyful.' That is precisely our case. We turn out every year a fair number of B.A.'s, and a few M.A.'s, but no scholars, mathematicians, or philosophers ; a few B. Sc.'s, but no men of science. The list of our graduates includes many excellent and successful lawyers, doctors, clergymen, and schoolmasters ; but how many are there among them who are recognized authorities on any subject whatever ? In science I know of only one. ... I consider that the first reason why our students do so little for the advancement of learning is that so few of them do it for its own sake. Making all due allowance for individual exceptions, there is very little enthusiasm among the young people of Otago, either for nature or for books ; and it is to those who seek her diligently for her own sake, and not because she pays in an examination, that Wisdom says, ' Come eat of my bread, and drink of the wine which I have mingled.' " It may be, further, that the want of enthusiasm is partly due to another cause, viz., 886 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. that what is lightly gained is apt to be lightly prized. Under New Zealand socialism the primary schools are free, except a small payment for books, etc. — regarded by many as an inexcusable hardship — while the secondary school and university fees are absurdly low. However this may be, teachers of experience agree that the boys in the grammar schools do not work as hard as boys in the old country, and that the best of them leave school with a far smaller stock of knowledge than that possessed by boys in England and Scotland under similar circumstances. Naturally it is the same with their sisters, though, in Auckland at least, the latter have the excuse that, in what is called society, a girl who takes to study may have to bear a good deal of old-fashioned ridicule from persons holding the view expressed by a certain Scotchman in his prayer at a wedding, " Lord, we thank thee, who hast given us wumman to make us comfortable." In Auckland we have not a perfect, but a delightful, climate, for which we have a way of showing our gratitude by blaming it for our own shortcomings or overgoings, as the case may be. To this cause is sometimes attributed the want of enthusiasm, of grip, of the faculty of steady grind, among our students, which gives rise to the fear that these men and women of the future will miss from their lives the power which comes, and can come, only from "the stress and strain of glorious endeavor." In fairness to the university students it should be mentioned that among them are both women and men who are earning a living as teachers, and at the same time reading for a degree, and of them it certainly cannot be said that they do not work hard under very considerable difficulties. Also, owing to the high wages of domestic servants, girls in this country have usually a greater share of household work than would be the case in the old country. But it is matter of regret that those who are comparatively free to make study their principal object pay so little attention to the precept which bids us "get knowledge, get understanding," and this the more, as far as women are concerned, if, as seems not unlikely, we are soon to have the suffrage. Already New Zealand women interest themselves warmly in public matters in which the sound judgment arising from careful mental training is most necessary, and have organized themselves for the attainment of various objects. By their energy and determination they may actually be said to have defeated the Woman's Suffrage Bill last year, since the publican interest was aroused against the giving of a vote to those who, it was feared, would use it for the passing of a law for the prohibition of "all sale of intoxicating liquors." Looking at the various possibilities opened to women during the last twenty-five years, it can but be hoped that they, who in the past have suffered so much from false ways of looking at things, will use their greater knowledge, their growing power, ever for truth and righteousness ; that of them, in the brightening future, it may be said, according to the right reading: "The Lord giveth the word ; the women that publish the tidings are a great host." In this glad heralding may the women of New Zealand join with all others — an universal sisterhood : " For mankind are one in spirit, and an instinct bears along, Round the earth's electric circle, the swift flash of right or wrong. New occasions teach new duties : Time makes ancient good uncouth ; They must upward still, and onward, who would keep abreast of Truth." As this paper comes from Maori-land, it may be permitted to close in Maori fashion : Greetings ! Greetings to you every one ! Greetings from the little islands to the great continent ! EDUCATIONAL WORK FOR WOMEN IN AUSTRALIA. S8? EDUCATIONAL WORK FOR WOMEN IN AUSTRALIA, CHIEFLY NEW SOUTH WALES. BY LOUISA MACDONALD, PRINCIPAL OF THE WOMEN'S COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY. By the side of the government or public-school system of education in Australia, stand the schools of every grade and kind started by private enterprise. At the top is the university, representing higher education. To classify in detail the schools according to the education given in them is difficult. There is too little coherence of plan. The state of things is rather a chaos of theories gathered from the Old World and put experimentally into practice in the New. But out of the chaos time and circumstances are developing one or two clear ideas. One of these is the idea of government-aided education ; the other is seen everywhere at this present time, especially in the democracy of America — the custom of educating the sexes together. These two ideas of state aid, and of mixed education, have an influence in shaping women's education in Australia ; but the conditions of life in the country affect that education, especially of the girls of the upper classes, most strongly and directly. In the homesteads in the country, and in small country towns, the girls help in the housework, and are exceedingly useful. Good household servants are difficult to get, and the wages, even for indifferent workers, very high. The Australian girl is skilled in all domestic occupations — cooking, sewing, fruit-preserving, jam-making, and the like. But these things, and the necessity of knowing them, interfere with any educa- tion after the so-called school years are over. The hot Australian summers leave only a small amount of energy to be devoted to any purpose, and if that has to be used up in the kitchen, or at the sewing-machine, there is none to be given to hard study. I should think, too, that the shadow of the almost inevitable domestic vocation for women was cast before, and hung even over, the education of the girls, making it appear dimly to many as a work of supererogation. In these country homes a governess teaches the girls — after a fashion — till they are about fourteen or sixteen, when they go to a boarding-school in Sydney or elsewhere to be "finished." It is much the same system as that which prevailed in England till within the last twenty years ; but here it has more drawbacks. The laxity of home dis- cipline, the lack of any social pressure from without, leave everything to be done by the schoolmistress in the one or two years which are all that are allowed to her. The fierce competition which exists — for schools and mistresses are many and pupils few — makes the question even more complicated. Not only must parents be pleased by their daughters' progress, but the daughters, who have here some independence in their own affairs, must be pleased too, even the most unruly, and the results are not always satisfactory. One result is somewhat noteworthy : the almost complete neglect of arith- metic and mathematics in schools for girls. It is really with difficulty that a girl at a private school can learn mathematics enough to qualify for matriculation at the university. Still in many ways, in spite of difficulties, the teaching in these private schools is excellent. Latin in many of them has a recognized place among the subjects taught, and in some elementary algebra and geometry as well. In part this is due to the sys- tem of local examinations instituted by the university. The great events of the school year are the senior and junior local examinations, and much esprit de corps is shown concerning the success and failure of candidates from different schools. The lists are 888 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. published in the early summer, October and November, and for some days before they appeared I was puzzled by the intense eagerness of my students, newly emerged from the schoolgirl stage, to see the morning papers. The winners of the Fairfax prizes {i.e., the best candidates of either sex), the schools they came from, the other honors gained, were discussed and commented upon over and over again. Many of the girls who distinguish themselves at these university local examinations come from convent schools, conducted by the Sisters of the Sacred Heart, of the Good Samaritan, and the Loretto nuns ; and these convent schools for girls, as well as the schools for boys taught by different religious orders, are an increasingly important factor in the secondary education in New South Wales. A proportion of the convent- bred girls go on to the university, and two of them were among the first non-resident students at the Women's College. From those I know I should judge favorably, not simply of the instruction, but of the general tone of education given by the Sisters. Besides the private schools, there are one or two high -schools for secondary educa- cation under government control. So backed up, the teaching is more authoritative, and, consequently, in harder and less attractive subjects, more thorough. From all this it can be imagined that the higher education, as we use the term in England, is not widespread, however far advanced it may be in individual cases. It is not yet the cus- tom for men to attend the university courses except for professional training as law- yers, doctors, or teachers. The same holds good of women to a certain extent. Owing perhaps to the growth of wealth and the increasing proportion of women to men in town population, there are a few women, attracted to study by the love of it, who go to the university ; but their numbers as yet are small. There is no established wealthy and leisured class, as in England, amongst whom learning and the love of learning might be cherished. Those who have money, either made or inherited, who desire culture and art, go to the Old World to seek it, or break up their time by per- petual voyages home, and their sons and daughters go to English schools and colleges to be educated. This is desirable in many ways, but it were to be wished that education, wherever con- ducted, should include the inculcation of patriotism as a primary duty ; not patriotism in the sense of brag, but the patriotism which would make the new countries of the south resolve to emulate the toil and the glory of the islanders from whom they sprang. The question of state subsidies to education is too large to be treated of here, even as regards its effect on women's education, and the advantage or disadvantage of the same depends on the view taken of the duties of the state. About the advantage of the other leading idea, that of mixed education, which time is developing in Australia, there seems to me small room for doubt. It is practiced in all the colonies, I believe, in primary schools (though in towns, as the children grow older, the sexes are divided), and in the univer- sities. The separation of the sexes still holds good in secondary education. To the years of separate work are due, I should say, whatever drawbacks of flirtation and undue excitement there may be in the university life. But a few months at the university gener- ally does away with these, and it is pleasant to see the terms of frank equality on which young men and women meet each other at university lectures, on the tennis courts, in the quadrangle, or at college and university sports and games. Both Sydney and Melbourne Universities have a system of sectarian residential col- leges ; in Sydney, founded and endowed partly by government, partly by private sub- scription. At the Sydney University there are three — Anglican, Roman, and Presby- terian, and lately a new departure has been made in the foundation and incorporation by Act of Parliament of a non-sectarian residential college for women. The movement to found the Women's College began with the professors of the university, some of whom largely aided by subscriptions as well as personal effort, and, till the proper college build- EDUCATIONAL WORK FOR WOMEN IN AUSTRALIA. 889 ing should be erected, temporary premises were opened last March just after the begin- ning of the university session. Unlike the first women's colleges in England, it began rather with the desire to create a demand than with any demand on the part of students or their parents. But that has been the way with the university itself, and there was and is still in some quarters no less opposition to university education and scorn of its advantages than there is now to our Women's College. There were in residence in 1892 four students, and four others were admitted in the course of the year, to attend tutorial classes as non-resident students. For the first week of the year the first student was alone in her glory, and as she passed to the lecture- rooms the first-year students, still rather at the schoolboy and larrikin age, used to salute her with jeering remarks, such as " There goes the Women's College ! " But the jeers changed to friendship later, and the first students of the college were among the most popular of their own or any other year. University lectures in Sydney are compulsory, to obtain a degree, and this adds to the difficulty of carrying out the residential principle. The students are necessarily absent from college so many hours a day, and during that time practically responsible to no one. Melbourne approaches more nearly to Oxford and Cambridge custom. There the col- leges have usurped somewhat the university functions, and attendance at college lectures is accepted as equivalent to attendance at those of the university. Some six or seven years ago the Warden of Trinity College, Melbourne, founded a hostel for women students attending the Trinity College lectures. Some of the most brilliant women students of the Melbourne University have at one time resided in the hostel; among others, Miss Staurell, who won high honors at Cambridge last year. But the prosperity of it has fluctuated, and it has no standing of its own, owing in great measure, I imagine, to the somewhat anomalous position it holds of a women's annex to a male college. Of course it remains to be seen whether the Sydney plan will be more successful. The residential colleges in Sydney are built in the university park, and have grounds varying in extent from two and a half to sixteen acres. The four colleges — the fourth, the Women's College, is now in process of building — the laboratories, the Medical School, and the beautiful Prince Alfred Hospital, lie grouped irregularly round the central university building, which stands — a long line — on a ridge of hill, and have a very imposing effect. The arrangements for residence for men and women alike are the same as that at Newnham. One fairly large room serves for study and bedroom, and libraries, reading, and sitting rooms are common to all the students. Individual women students in Australia have greatly distinguished themselves at the universities : Miss Jane Russell, M.A., (now tutor to the women students at the Sydney University) here in classics, Miss Whyte at Melbourne in medicine, and others at Ade- laide and in New Zealand. All the four Australasian universities, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, and New Zealand, are open to women * as to men in all subjects. In medicine, where there is a medical school, the men and women work side by side. In law, there have been as yet — to my knowledge — no women students, but there is nothing in univer- sity regulations to hinder their gaining a law degree. Apart from the regular system of instruction at schools and the university, there is in Sydney a very flourishing scheme for university extension lecturing. Courses of lectures have been delivered in Sydney, the suburbs, and the larger provincial towns, on history, literature, and philosophy. As has been proved in England, they have an influence on the intellectual life of men and women, chiefly, perhaps, of women, and they pave the way for appreciation of more thorough and systematic teaching. Last * Sydney was opened to women in 1884, Melbourne in 18S1, Adelaide in 1880, New Zealand certainly since its reconstruction in 1874— whether before that date or not I do not know. §90 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. session, for the first time, a course of university extension lectures was given by a woman lecturer, and at the same time, on the motion of one of the professors, a woman was appointed assistant examiner at the local examinations. This last appointment had already a precedent in New Zealand. There is, 1 think, no doubt that a fair field in intellectual things lies opened to women here if they care to take advantage of it. No one who is accustomed to the strong current of intellectual life in Great Britain, or even those in America, wide though it is, who are in touch with a large population, can appreciate either the intellectual difficulties or the triumphs over them of the few hundred thousands who dwell on the borders of our island continent. Few books are published here. Of English books of note, as solid literature, but one or two copies are imported except on order. The university and public libraries, good as they are, are still necessarily lacking in much even of general interest. Specialist literature is often entirely unrepresented. Nothing, perhaps, will illustrate better the state of general intel- lectual thought and its upward progress than an interview I had with a leading bookseller in Sydney some months ago. I had asked for four books, all fairly well known, none of which did he know by name, much less have in stock. The fifth, Frazer's "Golden Bough," to my surprise he actually had — one of two copies in the colony, he assured me. I complained, perhaps more gently than had the fifth book too been unattainable, of my ill success and his small store. " Well," said he, " we're a great deal better than we used to be. Nine years ago, when I set up in business, most of our trade was done in young ladies' journals and the like ; now we hardly sell any." Let no one smile. Only one hundred and five years since the sparse inhabitants of New South Wales were savages, and the conditions of life to-day in the cities of the white man, except the capitals, are crude. Yet in Australasia there are four universities, and Tasmania is about to found a fifth. Those who are destitute of education are few in number — only four per cent, of the population— and learning is absolutely free to men and women alike. Only, as in all new countries, leisure is wanting ; and this will come with time. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS OF EDUCATION FOR THE WOMEN AND GIRLS OF INDIA. BY E. A. MANNING. In attempting to describe the recent progress of education among the women and girls of India, I have to call your attention to a remarkable but silent conflict which is taking place in that country. On the one side we perceive an attacking force from the West, favored by political circumstances ; namely, an educational system which recog- nizes the claims of women to intellectual and general development. On the other side, a compact social framework, based upon the solid rock of custom, supported by the traditions of centuries, and strictly controlled by an authorized religious caste. The struggle did not begin actively until fifty or sixty years ago, and there are parts of India which it has as yet scarcely disturbed. Moreover, one is frequently in doubt whether the apparent triumphs of either combatant are real or only superficial. But a deep interest attaches to the contest, and in this short paper I wish to indicate a few of its main features, and of its results. I shall refer, first, to the rise and characteristics of the English educational system in India ; secondly, to the Indian social system in regard to women ; and, thirdly, to the collision between the two. Let me remind you, preliminarily, that the population of India, including native states, numbers about two hundred and eighty-seven millions, and that it consists of three chief races : Hindus, who arrived in successive waves from the North in the distant past, EDUCATION FOR THE WOMEN AND GIRLS OF INDIA. 891 and who form, roughly speaking, four-fifths of those millions ; Mohammedans, one-fifth, military invaders, whose large empire was already falling to pieces when British rule began : and Parsis, exiles from Persia eleven hundred years ago, who, numerically insig- nificant, being only ninety thousand, have won a prominent position by their enterprise and their charitable munificence. I. The English educational system in India. It must not be supposed that India had no schools in early times. Sanskrit semina- ries were scattered here and there in the recesses of the forests, where pundits explained the Vedas to bands of select disciples ; and the Mohammedans used to teach the Koran, chiefly by rote, in schools attached to mosques and in colleges. There were, besides, in thousands of the agricultural villages, small schools of a very primitive type, called in Bengal Patshalas, and in Madras Pyal, or veranda schools. The pupils used to shout out the alphabet, each independently, and the parents were apt to estimate the efficiency of the master by the amount of noise that they heard in passing by, just as now they are said sometimes to judge of the children's progress in writing by the proportion of ink bespattered over their simple garments. But the teaching was remarkably adapted to the object in view, which was mainly to give facility in village accounts, and these schools have served as a foundation for the government system of primary education. Nor was the Indian girl of the well-to-do classes without some sort of education in her own home. She teas — I may say, she is — instructed especially with great care in household duties. Every Hindu lady must know how to attend to the ceremonial rites for worship, and to cook, to wash (and perhaps dye) her sarees, and to direct servants. She probably learns, too, to recite religious poems — those legends which illustrate her duties as a wife ; and she is taught enough arithmetic to enable her to bargain and to keep accounts. Among the Mohammedans the girls become very clever also in embroidery, and they sometimes acquire the classical and beautiful Persian language. In the orthodox families reading and writing were very rare accomplishments ; for it was thought, and still is thought in some parts, that if a girl is allowed such instruc- tion she will early become a widow. But the Indian girl is capable, quick, and docile, and, within the narrow limits of her training, she soon evinces skill and practice. The moral teaching that she receives cannot usually be said to be satisfactory. Too often children are alternately coaxed and threatened, and obedience is secured by means of superstitious dread. Evil spirits are supposed to lurk everywhere about, ready to seize the self-willed child, whose natural joyousness is thus frequently crushed by haunting terrors. The mothers are so young and so inexperienced that they can hardly be expected to be wise in the treatment and guidance of their children. Education, then, was by no means unfamiliar in India; and now, how did the English system take its rise ? The East India Company, which dates as a governing body from 1757, having been at first connected only with trade, did not occupy itself with educa- tional matters until some way into the present century. A practical necessity had by that time arisen, to meet which Western training was introduced into India. For administrative purposes the Government required native aid. The study of English was therefore encouraged, and the Hindus and Parsis (the Mohammedans at first holding aloof) began speedily to equip themselves with that language as a means of livelihood. Boys' schools and colleges sprang up, especially in the presidency towns, under three distinct agencies — missions, associations of Indian gentlemen, and the Company's Government. In similar order, but on a comparatively very small scale, these same agencies commenced doing something also for the instruction of girls. The first school for girls at Bombay was founded by an American mission in 1824, and before long the various missionary societies started many in all the presidencies for their converts and for outsiders. These schools helped, by their gentle discipline and by the kindly personality of the teachers, to disarm prejudice ; but there arose gradu- 892 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION ally a strong fear among the orthodox Hindus of possible prose] ytism, so that the pupils of the missionaries fell off for a time, or came chiefly from the lower castes. And now certain classes of the Indians began to bestir themselves. At Bombay some enthu- siastic Parsis devoted their limited leisure to teaching in four girls' schools founded by their community, and at Calcutta several educated Hindus, who had given up caste, became active in the same cause. Meanwhile the richer people generally were not only apathetic, but distinctly averse to education for girls on Western methods, and those who stood up for it had to endure various kinds of serious persecution. A decided impulse next came through the Government ; for, in 1854, an education despatch of great import was issued by the Court of Directors of the East India Com- pany, and later confirmed by the India Office, when the Company had ceased to exist. As a result of that despatch, the present educational machinery came into being over thirty years ago. Three universities were founded, to which the existing colleges were affili- ated, and which since some years have been opened to women ; a Director of Public Instruction was appointed in each province ; grants in aid were multiplied for girls' as well as for boys' schools ; and additional state funds were appropriated in support of education, that for girls being specially favored. Now followed the visits to India of Miss Mary Carpenter, the first taking place in 1866, and these exercised considerable influence upon the progress of Indian women. She succeeded in stimulating many educated men to allow to their wives, sisters, and daughters some of the advantages which they themselves enjoyed ; and also she per- sistently emphasized the pressing importance of increasing the supply of women teachers. Through Miss Carpenter's efforts a few normal schools were established by Govern- ment, three of which, after many vicissitudes, are still in active working— that at Madras being one of the most useful educational institutions in India. The strong opinion expressed by Miss Carpenter as to the need of duly trained teachers for the girls' schools received also a thorough corroboration from the witnesses examined before the education commission of 1882, presided over by Sir W. VV. Hunter. I am inclined to wonder whether it might not have been better in some ways if these educational arrangements had been delayed thirty or forty years. For the period which introduced Western training into India was characterized in England by two dog- mas, one positive and the other negative, both of which are now widely disputed. There was then a prevailing idea that education should be mainly literary, and that if every one could read and write, the prisons would be nearly empty ; while the negative belief was, teachers did not require to be specially prepared for their work — that it was the one profession in which training is superfluous. It appears to me that the educa- tional system of India was pervaded and greatly vitiated by these two views, and in India, owing to certain conditions, they have proved even more hurtful than in the West. If at the first it had been recognized that true education consists in the develop- ment, not of one or two, but of all the faculties, moral and physical, as well as intel- lectual ; and if, instead of energizing to multiply, by hundreds, poor little so-called schools, under the lifeless teaching of aged pundits, the first effort had been to provide well-trained teachers, and the second to start schools— less work, I think, would have had to be undone, and there would have been a better chance of overcoming, by the presentment of a really sound and practical system, the very strong objections of the people to English education. Perhaps, however, it was one of those cases in which only through attempts, however imperfect, the desired end could be attained. Anyhow, much improvement has latterly become noticeable. All the three agencies above indicated — Government, the people themselves, and missions— are now not merely establishing girls' schools, but trying to encourage better methods of instruction ; elementary science, hygiene, domestic economy, and drawing, etc., are here and there introduced ; the work of the zenana teachers is of better quality than formerly ; a plan EDUCATION FOR THE WOMEN AND GIRLS OF INDIA. 893 of home teaching for families in which missionary influence is disapproved has been instituted by the National Indian Association, a society founded by Miss Carpenter ; some beginning has been made towards understanding and applying the principles of the kindergarten ; normal training is more insisted upon ; and opportunities for the higher education of women are increasing. I may mention also the very important action of the Madras Government in placing, a few years ago, all the girls' schools of the presidency under women inspectors instead of men ; which has had the most satis- factory results. An organization has thus been planted in India, testifying, in spite of defects, with an emphatic voice to the truth that women and girls should be educated as surely as men and boys. II. Let us look, secondly, at the Indian social system, that stationary force which presents an antagonistic front to Western education, especially as regards women. I shall allude to two customs, one chiefly distinctive of Hindu, the other of Mohammedan, life in India — child marriage, and seclusion. First, then, the custom of child marriage. Xow, this is no mere transitory fashion or habit. It rests upon the religious philosophy which governs every moment of the life of Hindus, and upon the theory of that philosophy respecting women. Until a Hindu girl is married she cannot be said to have any spiritual existence at all. Only by means of her husband does she become a spiritual being. It is therefore the clear duty of her parents to marry her suitably and early. And, in fact, one reason why the birth of a girl is so unwelcome in a Hindu family is that the difficulty and the expense connected with her marriage at once loom into view. No music or rejoicings announce her birth, as in the case of a boy. She is received into the world under the silence of disappoint- ment. In former times her life was held so cheap that infanticide was fearfully common. It was thought better to destroy the child than to run the risk of not being able to marry her within the limit of her caste. The anxiety of the parents on that score begins in her earliest years. The match-makers, that is, usually the barbers or the barbers' wives, are set to work to enquire for eligible boys with a favorable horo- scope. When one is selected, there follow endless discussions as to money and presents, so that, as they say, a lakh of words, namely one thousand, are expended in the transaction. At last all being arranged, the chief marriage ceremony has to be performed. The little girl may be only a chattering infant, or more likely eight or ten years old, but this first ceremony, which we should call betrothal, must take place while she is still almost a child. In one way it is much more than a betrothal, for if the " wedded boy " (as I have heard him called) dies she is looked on as a widow for all her days. Of course she enjoys the importance of the occasion, and she likes being laden with orna- ments and apparelled in red (the color which has to prevail at Hindu weddings from the invitation cards onward), and she likes the receiving of presents, and the feasting, and the fun. Besides, her thoughts have been directed to her marriage from the time that she could understand anything. But her childhood is now at an end, and she must behave very demurely. A while after, when she is about twelve, the second, a less grand ceremony, takes place, and from that time she joins her husband to live ever after, except for rare visits home, at the house of her father-in-law. We will just follow her there. She enters a large joint family, similar to the one she has left, consisting of the parents, the sons with their wives and children, and an indefinite number of more or less distant relatives, many of them widows. She comes as the youngest bride, and has to be entirely sub- missive to her mother-in-law, and to her sister-in-law, who probably apportion to her the work they most dislike. She is under the strictest rules of behavior. She must not eat till her husband has finished ; she may not even call him by his name ; if she wants 894 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. to indicate him it has to be by a gesture, or by an indefinite pronoun. It is her duty almost to worship him as a god. If she does not behave rightly towards him she will be reborn as some objectionable animal. A teacher once told me that, wishing to test the knowledge of her pupils, she pointed to some bats, or flying foxes, suspended from the bough of a tree, asking what they were. The answer was : " Those are the souls of women who have eaten their break- fast before their husbands." The wife also has to be very careful about covering her face and keeping silence in the presence of her elder brother-in-law, or of strangers. Should she have a son her position improves very much ; but if she becomes a widow she is shunned as unlucky, and accused of having been the cause, through sins in a former life, of her husband's death. She has then to practice rigid austerities for the good of his soul, and as affording her the only hope of one day rejoining him. I need not wait to point out how opposed this custom of early marriage is to the intellectual, moral, and physical development of the Indian woman. It hurries responsibilities on to the girl before she is fitted to bear them, and interferes with the quiet interval which education may reasonably claim. Among the Mohammedans marriages are usually later than among the Hindus. Second, and now as to the seclusion of women, which we English call the Zenana or Purdah system. I have said that this is distinctive especially of Mohammedan life, but it is also adopted by the Hindus in many parts of India. The point is disputed which race introduced it, for Mohammedan women in other Mussulman countries are permitted, if veiled, to walk and drive out more freely, which seems to indicate that the restrictions were first learned, or first adopted, in India. On the other hand Hindu women had far more liberty in ancient times, and they cannot be said to be now much secluded in Western and Southern India, where the sway of the Mohammedan was less powerful. Anyhow, in all Mohammedan families of any position, and in numbers of Hindu families of Bengal and the Northwest, the women folk not only have to confine themselves to the inner apartments (perhaps a second inner court, or a portion of the house quite shut off), but they are forbidden to go out and about, even in company with their relations, except it may be for a pilgrimage, or on a visit to their former home. If they must drive anywhere, the curtains of the carriage are closely drawn lest by any chance a stranger should see them. The arrangements when a Mohammedan lady has to make a railway journey are most complicated. I have observed how the enveloped palki, in which she is borne to the station, is set down on the platform, and how then her servants hold up curtains, and make an avenue for her to pass along into the carriage, where already every blind has been pulled down. The Purdah (or screen) seems to indicate distrust, but to be thus secluded is so much a mark of social rank that the women themselves would on no account give it up. And although for years, or for their whole lives, they are restricted to the inner apartments with only the variety of the courtyard or the roof, their life is by no means dull. In a Hindu home there is much household occupation, and plenty of companionship and opportunities for gossip. The Mohammedan ladies depend rather more on servants, and often get very lazy, unless they are fond of needlework, or have literary tastes. But in all cases the life is varied by frequent feast days, when the house is furbished up, and friends come and go, and religious leaders are entertained. Indian women, how- ever, are contented, because they know of nothing different. Besides, they believe implicitly in fate ; whatever is " written on the forehead," as the Hindus say, must come to pass, and be borne with submission ; and the Koran teaches the Mohammedans to be fatalists. But consider how narrow must be the ideas of these ladies ; how shallow their knowledge of the outside world ; how limited their experience ; how undeveloped their powers. Yet it is quite a mistake to think that Indian women have little weight EDUCATION FOB THE WOMEN AND GIRLS OF INDIA. 895 in domestic concerns. On the contrary, their influence is most potent. Especially the chief lady, the wife of the head of the family, has great authority. She controls the whole internal organization ; she manages the stores, and very cleverly ; she decides about the marriages to be arranged ; she is consulted by her husband, even as to his own affairs. Indeed, it is because of the power wielded by the women that their rooted prejudices and their extreme conservatism are so much to be lamented. Many other customs might be named antagonistic of Western education, but these two, child-marriage and seclusion, present the greatest barriers of all. III. I now pass to the third division of my paper — the collision between the English educational system and the Indian social system. The two have met in India, face to face, and let us note a few of the results of the conflict. The joint-family is strong within itself, and admirably complete. Every part bears a fixed relation to the whole ; each social rule is framed with regard to the general ideal ; adaptation to surrounding conditions has been carefully worked out and secured ; while as to discipline, a supremacy, which all acknowledge, is, as we have seen, vested in the family head, and his wife. Now, what reply does this joint-family make to the theory that girls should have a sound general education ? Its answer is : " Our girls have no need of such education as you offer. They are not to become clerks or Munshis — so leave them alone." Thus, indirectly, the fact that at the rise of English education for men, it was encouraged and accepted as a means of livelihood, tends to prevent its extension to women. But the joint-family says further : " It was the custom of our forefathers to give no education to their female relations, and why should we be guilty of disrespect to them, by deviating from the path which their superior wisdom thought it most expedient to tread?" One may oppose to this that in the very early times education was considered honor- able in women, and that only comparatively lately have they, as the saying is, been " drowned in the ocean of ignorance." But arguing is of little use, for the one unanswerable answer, continually reiterated, is, "Such is our custom." This phrase, however, no doubt covers a real fear on the part of the men that domestic life will be more disturbed if the women are permitted to have education. It is objected, They will not be so submissive to their husbands; they will neglect their children; they will become affected, conceited, discontented. It cannot be denied that to a certain extent education will alter the present social ideas, and this the men shrewdly perceive. But they do not see that it is a wrong towards the women to condemn them to ignorance, and that if women, as well as men, may but receive a sound education, family life will reach a better standard. All the antagonistic reasoning put forward tends to prove that it is not education in itself that is disliked, but its inevitable effect upon the exist- ing social system. We will look more closely at what is taking place in India; first, as to schools, and secondly, as to higher education for women — and I think it will be evident that in some degree the social fortress is already giving way. (1) Schools. Let us glance at that pleasing sight, a Hindu girls' school. The pupils, with their rich brown complexion, and fine black eyes, are dressed in the graceful saree, of various tints, deep red, purple, green or orange. Their dark hair is tightly drawn back and arranged in a plait, either coiled behind one ear, or hanging down behind, and decorated with golden ornaments or flowers; they wear numerous chains, bangles and anklets, and, of course, no shoes. The younger ones — gentle, round-faced little children— now often have colored skirts and jackets. The teacher, probably a man, with long coat and turban, and perhaps a cashmere shawl thrown across his shoulders, stands at his desk, the girls sitting, in modern schools, on benches, while the smaller ones are more comfortably placed on the floor. The school is perhaps located in veranda rooms, surrounding an ordinary courtyard, so that you catch sight of the classes on the dif- 896 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION ferenfc stories all at onee. Or, it may be in an old deserted palace, or more frequently, in a dark close room, which would be hardly thought good enough for a boys' school. The girls are delighted to bring their needlework or their writing for a visitor's in- spection, and several of them timidly hand you a book, that you may hear them read. For, under a capable teacher, they begin to take pleasure in learning. But the climate is not favorable to exertion, so if the teaching is dry and monotonous, they are quite willing to sit in listless inaction. Mrs. Brander, one of the Madras inspectresses, has said, that on going into a school, she can tell from the countenances of the scholars whether the teacher expects them to use their brains on not. It may really be called unfortunate, that Indian children have such good memories; they can repeat with the greatest ease passages that they have heard or read, without having any idea as to the meaning. And as from old times it has been the habit of Indian schoolmasters to be satisfied if their pupils could learn by rote, there is great difficulty in persuading them to aim at anything higher. Now, there are numbers of such schools, and so far education is advancing. But see what happens, when the girls are just waking up to the pleasure of receiving instruction. It is the social system that now "scores." An auspicious month for marriages has arrived, and straightway all the most forward scholars are swept into the seclusion of a zenana. In some parts they may return to school for a year or two between the first and second marriages, but in the stricter districts it is not so — and besides those that are at once to become brides, numbers of their young companions absent themselves, to attend the wedding festivities. And some perhaps are removed from school though they are only eight or nine years old, because it will be a saving of expenses to celebrate two marriages at once. The disappointment of able teachers is great when the only promis- ing children are thus spirited away. I have heard of some town where there was once even a double clearance, for an unlucky conjunction of planets had been predicted for the following year, and consequently all the girls whose marriages had been planned for that unfavorable twelvemonth were obliged in their own interest to be married earlier. Under such circumstances one is apt to doubt whether it is worth while to continue the struggle; for these girls, as has been in many cases ascertained, forget very soon what they had learned at school. But just as the sieve remains damp even though the liquid poured into it has quite disappeared, so the young scholars probably retain some little good from their short school course. They benefit at least somewhat by the habits of regularity, punctuality, attention and effort required of them, and it is of value that they should have the change of spending a few hours daily away from the large mixed home group. And one strong reason for encouraging these schools is, that when the time comes, the pupils, as they really like attending, will be probably more ready to send their own children. So in spite of the early withdrawals, the cause of education is on the whole the gainer. I have now to mention an unexpected way in which even the orthodox ladies are becoming influenced to favor school training for girls. It has come to pass, with the rapid spread of education for men in India, that college students and university gradu- ates have begun to prefer educated wives to such as are ignorant and illiterate. The consequence is, that when a girl's parents meet the relations of the bridegroom to discuss money arrangements, her school training makes a point which lessens the expense on their side. I have heard of an old woman, who brought her grand-daughter up to the teacher, saying, ''You must move this girl quickly into a higher standard, for it is time to marry her ;" implying, "the more advanced she is, the smaller need her dowry be." Such calculations have for some years prevailed in regard to the young men. A matriculated student has a greater value in marriage — a value that can be stated in EDUCATION FOB THE WOMEN AND GIRLS OF INDIA. 897 rupees — than one who cannot get beyond school, and of course a B. A. is reckoned at a higher amount still. The future of an Indian student depends so much upon his place in the examinations, that these computations are not surprising ; but that girls, on whom the money-making does not depend, should now be appreciated by the same scale, is a matter of promise. It is an interesting fact, too, that girls who have attended school begin to consider it important that the husbands chosen for them should be educated. Even some years ago a little girl of eight, finding at the marriage ceremony that the boy she was to marry was in a lower standard at school than herself, and that he was unable to answer certain questions in arithmetic or geography which she put to him, turned reproachfully to her parents, exclaiming, " You have married me to a stupid man !" while he on his side urged that she should at once be withdrawn from school lest she should get further beyond him. Although the pecuniary motive is noi the highest, yet it is encouraging that the family authorities are in a measure yielding to the new requirements of the times. I may refer also to the influence of scholarships for girls as delaying the age for mar- riage. Many of the girls who attend school are very poor, and if they are able to win one of the numerous scholarships offered on the condition of working for a higher stand- ard, the parents are sometimes induced to let them continue at school beyond the usual age, so as to take advantage of it. The amount may be only three or four rupees monthly (£2 or £3 a year), yet this sum, and the honor attaching to it, are highly valued. It is considered one of the best ways of encouraging education to found such scholar- ships, and thus indirectly to lessen the evils of the marriage system. Prizes, too, are greatly appreciated, only their apportioning ought to be made to depend, more than is the case, upon merit. I remember seeing a tiny girl in her mother's arms at a prize-giving, and I asked how she had earned the toy in her hand. The mother replied that it was given her because she had come to look on. But these cere- monies do good by arousing interest in the schools, and when one sees the children's delight at receiving the presents (even if they may not be called prizes), one cannot but believe that it would be a pity to abolish the system. And a prize distribution in India is certainly a very attractive occasion — when the school-room is decorated with tropical foliage and ferns, and the children appear in their gayest attire. Scholarships and prizes thus tend to weaken the prejudice against education for girls. With regard to fees, the people are beginning to understand them rather better than at first. It was frequently the custom forty or fifty years ago for school managers to pay the children for attending, and even to send carriages to collect them, but there is no necessity for this now, at least in the enlightened districts. But fees are still a trial and a puzzle to many. Regular charges are not in harmony with the people's habits. In old times the schoolmaster did receive remuneration, but it was most often in the form of a present. The parents would give him at intervals a piece of cloth, or a few mangoes, or some tiles wherewith to strengthen his roof against the monsoon, and especially when a pupil had conquered the alphabet or had entered upon a new book, or if a marriage was to take place. Besides, a feeling which one cannot but respect is prev- alent in India, that learning is too precious a thing to be bought or sold. However, the necessity of paying for it is being gradually acknowledged. The government fund for educational purposes is not large, so it is important that the people should help to bear the burden, which they will do if they really care for their children's education. On the whole, progress in fee-paying is generally observable. Now let us take a general view of the position. What is the proportion of girls attend- ing school in India ? Probably, in the whole of the country, not more than two per cent. This is even rather too high an estimate ; but take 1,000 girls of the school-going age, and 20 will be found at school, and the remaining 980 will belong to families that 57 898 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. abide by the old customs. This is the discouraging side, but there is another view which gives much promise ; namely, the number of girl school-goers increases steadily every year. I will instance two presidencies. In Bombay, twenty-one years ago, in 1872, about 11,000 girls were at school, while last year the number had grown to more than 67,000 ; and in Madras, the advance is greater still— from 9,500 in 1872, to just over 98,000 in 1892. And it has to be noted, too, that, independently of schools, education is spreading considerably, for the educated men often instruct privately the girls of their families in the vernacular, or even in English. Nor is it only in British India that the prejudice against education for girls is some- what disappearing, for in several native states there is a remarkable increase in girls' schools. The enlightened rulers of Mysore and Baroda, and several other Maharajas, are devoting much attention to this movement. By the latest statistics of Baroda, a greater proportion of girls attend school there than in the Bombay Presidency ; and at Mysore there is a large school of high-caste girls, with normal classes, which has existed for some years, and from which, as a center, schools are extending over the province. These princes, too, and some rajas, occasionally secure English governesses for their children. The ruler of a native state can, in certain ways, do more than the British Government to incline the minds of the people towards education. Being of their own race, he can understand and meet their objections more fully, so that his lead is followed in a less suspicious spirit, and with a firmer tread. It is, therefore, very satisfactory that in several of the Kajputana and Kathiawar states, as well as in Travancore and those states already mentioned, the rulers are practically showing favor to the school training of girls. (2) I will now refer briefly to the progress of higher education for women. There are certain small communities in India which have never belonged to caste, or have broken with it, which do not practice either child-marriage or seclusion, and among these there has arisen a genuine desire for Western education. I mean the Parsis, some classes of Christians, and the Brahmos. The conflict that I have dwelt on concerns these com- paratively little ; their efforts at culture are not followed by excommunication and per- secution, and thus they have been able more freely to develop their faculties. Several Indian women of the communities that I have named have, in the last ten or fifteen years, distinguished themselves in various lines of intellectual and practical work. The first perhaps known in the West was Toru Dutt, of Calcutta, who, though she died so young, showed much poetic power, clothing in graceful verse some of her country's legends, and even translating from the French with accuracy and sympathetic comprehension. I have already stated that the Indian universities are now open to women. Women students have not been slow to take advantage of the facilities thus given them. Indeed it was because one Indian young lady, Miss Chandra Mukhi Bose, a Christian, desired to present herself for the Calcutta matriculation, and to proceed to the B.A. exam- ination, that it was decided to admit women to the degrees of that university ; in 1883 the B.A. degree was conferred upon her, and upon an equally studious fellow-student belonging to the Brahmo community. Miss C. M. Bose is now an M.A., and she has been for some years superintendent of the Bethune School and College, while the other lady, Miss Kadam-bini Bose, now Mrs. Ganguli, B.A., is a medical practitioner. She may probably visit the United States. Since then several others in Bengal have fol- lowed the example of these two pioneers, and have taken the Calcutta B.A. exami- nation. Meanwhile four or five lady students have graduated at the Bombay Univer- sity, the first of these having been Miss Cornelia Sorabji, who has since passed a very advanced examination in law at Oxford. At Madras no woman has as yet taken a degree, but last year some girls, from an excellent mission school, were the first to matriculate in that university. Indian women of these more advanced communities have also begun to do excellent EDUCATION FOR THE WOMEN AND GIRLS OF INDIA. 899 professional and philanthropic work. A good many have entered upon the career of medicine, either in missions or under Lady Dufferin's Association. Several Parsi ladies are already practicing, and others preparing for this profession. It is of inesti- mable benefit to the zenana women to be able to apply in illness to doctors of their own sex, and there is reason to believe that the number of medical women students will surely increase. In literature several Indian ladies are exerting themselves with success. One, in Bengal, has published a small volume of poems ; another, a Parsi, writes folk-lore stories in excellent English ; a member of the well-known Tagore family edits a ver- nacular magazine ; a Madras lady has written a pleasing tale about life among native -Christians in the funjab ; some striking essays and dialogues regarding social reforms have been brought out by a Hindu lady of liberal sympathies, belonging to the Punjab. Another extremely important line taken up is that of teaching. Only when the men teachers in Indian schools can be superseded by women, will the parents permit their daughters to remain at school after the age of ten or twelve. It is therefore most satis- factory that more students are presenting themselves at the training colleges. It will be long before the necessary change can be effected everywhere, but it is already a settled aim of the Madras Education Department to provide women teachers in all the girls' schools of that presidency. From among the communities that have no caste hindrances (and from among the Eurasians), more and more, it is hoped, will take the profession of teaching. Even some orthodox Hindu women — wives of schoolmasters, for instance — and widows have come forward to be trained, with a view to their undertaking the charge of schools, and actually here and there a Mohammedan woman has ventured on the same course. I may add that Miss Govindavajulu, a Christian, has dono several years of excellent edu- cational work as an assistant inspectress to Mrs. Brander. Then again, there is occupation of a philanthropic kind, and here a prominent place belongs to a Hindu lady, learned in Sanskrit, whose name is familiar in America — Pundita Ramabai. She wrote a very touching book about the miseries of Hindu widows, which had a large circulation in the United States, and which called out the sympathies of many American friends, with the result that her earnest desire to found a school and home for child-widows has been carried into execution. The institution, under the name of the Sharada Sadan (a Home of Learning), is established at Poona, and there many widows have, after times of neglect and suffering, found a happy refuge with the kind-hearted and enthusiastic Ramabai. Another widows' home, which is also doing great good, has been started near Calcutta, by Mr. and Mrs. Sasipada Banerjee ; and in the Madras Presidency a young Rani, who has lost her husband, has collected a number of destitute widows for daily needlework and maintenance. I could mention many other instances of benevolent activity on behalf of such as in some way or other need help. Naturally all that goes by the name of higher education in India is not satisfactory. There is, in many cases, a tendency to imitate a superficial aspect of English training and to neglect home duties, and to fail in respectfulness toward elders ; but one may hope that this is a passing and transitory phase, and that such a shallow view as to what true education is, and should lead to, will not long be tolerated. The great struggle is thus going on with varying, though, on the whole, hopeful results. There is little doubt but that higher education for 'women in India will con- tinue to extend, because the influence of caste and its associate customs is year by year declining. The question as to what will happen in the case of the Hindu caste people and Mohammedans who form the large majority of the millions of India, is less easy to decide. For there are many motives which lead to girls being allowed to attend schools, such as, the desire to please the Sirkar, that is, the Government, or to satisfy the mis- sionaries, or to gain favor of some individual. At present there is not much evidence 900 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. that the people have any genuine wish that education should make way in their fam- ilies. We have seen how extremely powerful is the sway of custom in regard to child-marriage and the seclusion of women. At the same time that sway appears to be very, very slowly lessening. It is on the younger generation — on the educated men — that the responsibility as to progress in this direction chiefly rests. As yet their influ- ence on the joint-family is slight, but the time will come when their opinions and wishes will have more weight. Many of this class have visited England, and have been struck with the difference between the position of women there and their own country. They have realized that a wife should be her husband's companion and friend, and that mothers should be wise as well as fond, and it even begins to occur to them that fairness and justice toward the women themselves demand for them facilities of development. Some of these men, however, can speak fluently about education on platforms, while after all they are only what are called " lip-ref ormers, " and when the time of trial comes they succumb to the old influences, which doubtless it is very hard for them to break through. Others again have not the indispensable patience, and try to force reforms on their friends and neighbors, instead of using persuasion, or simply setting an example. . . The responsibility is shared also by English people, by those at home, and those in India. English women who live in that country, especially, can do much to cause edu- cation and enlightenment to advance. By making the acquaintance of Indian ladies, when it is agreeable that they should do so; by helping to improve methods of instruc- tion ; by encouraging teachers ; by sympathizing with what is admirable in the existing social system ; by learning the vernaculars ; by translating books ; by working rather with the people than for the people, in hundreds of ways that feelings of friendliness will suggest, they can help to weaken the hold of injurious customs, to render education attractive, and to introduce more light and health into Indian homes. ''The Present, if it shall have the Future accomplished, shall itself commence." ENGLISH ORPHANAGE AND TRAINING SCHOOL IN BOSNIA, 1869-1892. BY MISS A. T. IKBT. My paper is offered to our American brothers and sisters in order to give them some account of an English effort made to promote the education of girls and to raise the status of women in Bosnia and the Herzegovina. These two provinces, in southeastern Europe, were until recently under Turkish rule, but are now, according to the pro- visions of the Treaty of Berlin, occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. A Christian Serb population, belonging to the Eastern, commonly called the Greek Church, contributed the majority of the inhabitants. These had remained doubly enslaved and ignorant under the double yoke of Turkish Pashas and Phonoiote Greek bishops from Constantinople ; while the Latin rayahs belonging to the same race, but divided from their brethren by difference of creed, were somewhat better off under the bishops of the Church of Rome. When I first traveled in Bosnia in 1862, there was but one Christian girls' school in the two provinces. In some places we found the Mohammedan female children collected together, and taught to repeat prayers and to do embroidery, but there was only that one school for Christian girls, taught by a native Bosnian woman, Halgia Staka, of the Greek Church, the daughter of a Christian merchant of Herzegovinian origin. ENGLISH ORPHANAGE AND TRAINING SCHOOL IN BOSNIA. 901 In the course of travels in the South Slavonic Provinces * we saw that, while Free Servia and Montenegro had their own schools; while the Bulgarians, not then free, were making every sacrifice for the education of their children, American missionaries f being also at work there ; we found that for Bosnia and the Herzegovina there were no American missionaries, and only the one little native girls' school, which I have just mentioned. Therefore we resolved to put our travels to account, if possible, for the good of these people. On our return home to England, was formed, in 1865, the "Association for the Pro- motion of Education among the Slavonic Children of Bosnia and the Herzegovina," under the sanction of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, and Lord Shaftesbury. Dr. Norman MacLeod, in his large-hearted charity, was one of the chief promoters, and in the committee subsequently formed. The funds raised in England and Scotland for the children of the Slav Christians of Turkey, were at first entrusted to the Protestant German Deaconesses' Institution of Kaiserswerth, which made, con amore, the arduous and difficult beginning in 1869, but retired in 1871, since which time I have carried on the work. Every enslaved nation is characterized by deceit and suspicion. The poor Bosnian rayahs have so long been accustomed to cruelty and injustice that it is not easy to awaken their trust in any disinterested human sympathy. Clinging desperately to their church as the ark of their nation, it was but natural that in this new school, opened by Protestant Deaconesses from Germany, with foreign customs and the observances of an- other church, they should see an attempt to Germanize and Protestantize their children, and should refuse to send them. The actual beginning among the poor native rayahs, for whom the school had been founded, was small and very gradual. From the Turkish Government, indeed, we had no opposition Whatever. The Osmanli officials were well accustomed to the sight of English and American missionaries in the East, and I think they looked on our little girls' school as a harmless craze, quite below their notice. But it took long to show the Serbs of Bosnia that our aim was neither to proselytize nor to denationalize their children. One good result of our effort was, that then first the Serb community of Serajevo be- stirred themselves to establish their own schools, aided by the protection of the Russian Consul, and with money from Russia. Also for the Roman Catholic community were brought Soeurs of St. Vincent de Paul from Esseg, in Slavonia, originally from a Mother House in the Tyrol. When the school of these nuns was opened I sent to them, much to their astonishment, the only two Roman Catholic children who were in our house. I shall never forget the horror of the good nuns when, accompanied by Halgia Staka, I first paid them a visit. The sight of two such heretics, a native schismatic and the very Protestant whose influence they had come to counteract, was too much for them ; they fell to crossing themselves in pious fear. We were afterward on friendly terms, and exchanged various good offices. The language was one of the difficulties in the beginning of our school. After a time I was able to secure the services of a native Bosnian schoolmaster, who came daily to teach our eight or ten orphans. On one occasion the house was stormed by some Bos- nian women, who insisted on taking all the children away, a panic having been raised that the girls were to be carried off the next morning to a foreign country. I let them go with the women, who brought them back after a few days, but I refused to take two or three of them. Before long more children were brought than it seemed prudent to take in. * See Travels in the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey-in-Europe, by O. Muir Mackenzie and A. P. Irby, with Preface by the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, t The Robert College (American) proved a mighty factor in the preparation for Bulgarian freedom. 902 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OP EDUCATION The education given, and the aim and spirit of the teaching, were such as were indi- cated in the first statement of the Association, issued in 1^68 : " In the school which it is proposed to found, reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography, plain work, cooking, and care of health, would be among the branches of instruction; but the princi- pal aim would be to give the girls a sound, useful education, based upon the doctrine of Christ, and so not only to effect a gradual elevation of their intellectual and social condition, but also to prepare them to be the future teachers of their countrywomen." Thus the little school continued until the Bosnian revolution of 1875-78. Civil war in the land rendered the position of Serajevo so uncertain that we removed the elder girls to Prague, in Bohemia, there to attend the Higher Girls' School, living under the care of our own English matron and teacher, who remained in Prague. Miss Johnson, who was at that time my kind helper and coadjutor, returned with me to England, to start a special fund for the suffering fugitives, which was initiated by a donation of ;£50 from Florence Nightingale, whose loving interest in the work has been unfailing. During those three years, and the two following, in the excitement of public feeling roused by the Bulgarian massacres, was collected for the "Bosnian and Herzegovinian Fugitive and Orphan Relief Fund," the sum of ,£40,912 3s. 4d., which, together with Miss Johnson, I administered on the frontiers, distributing corn and clothing, establish- ing schools for the children of the fugitives, and feeding and clothing many starving parents, as well as their children. Some 200.000 fugitives (I quote from the official account) fled across the Bosnian frontier into the neighboring provinces of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia. After the establishment of peace, and the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria, the wretched fugitives who remained alive — scarcely one half of the entire num- ber— returned to their own land, mostly to find their huts burned down and destroyed, and their fields unfilled. In the little schools on the frontiers, our aim had been that every boy and girl should learn to read and write, and to know a little arithmetic. Now that the schools were closed, and the children were going back, each one who could read well enough was given a Bible or Testament, and a little book. We returned to our schoolhouse in Serajevo. Thither we gathered many orphan children of the fugitives, both girls and boys, placing most of the latter in a neighboring Turkish house, which we had purchased for the purpose ; and some few with Halgia Staka. The boys could be sooner sent out into the world to earn their own living, or passed on into the gymnasium and the training school for men teachers now established by the Austrian Government. Out of the fifty-two or more boys whom we sheltered at Serajevo, several are now schoolmasters, many are in trades, and others earning their bread in various ways. The Austrian Administration is introducing in Bosnia a similar school system to that which obtains in the Austrian Provinces. Girls and boys who are candidates for places as schoolmasters and schoolmistresses in the Government ". Properatidija," or training school for teachers at Serajevo, by passing the first examination are entitled to become what are called '• assistant teachers." This does not mean that they are under teachers in the school which they are given, but it means that they must send in and prepare a very full plan and report of the lessons for every day in the school year. The second examination, which is mainly a repetition of the first, after one or two years of teaching in a school, gives them the rank of " sorsene " or complete teachers, higher pay, the right to a retiring pension, and it exempts them from the laborious preparation of the school scheme. It is not within the scope of my paper, to criticise or comment upon the Government examioation. I have to recognize the fact that the girls in our house who have the capacity to become teachers, must be brought in with the requirements of the examiners if they are to get a Government school. The examination is exceedingly hard, and EDUCATION IN CAPE COLONY, AFRICA. 903 includes a great variety of subjects ; geography, history, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, logic, literature, German, physics, botany, zoology, chemistry, pedagogy, music, and sinking, and for girls, also needlework and domestic economy. It is evident that some of the subjects must be taught by the teachers or professors from the gymnasium or from the " Proper andija," and I find the expense of these lessons is so great that it is doubtful whether I shall continue them. I have here given a slight sketch of our work from its beginning until now. I have described our first attempt to train native schoolmistresses for the poor Bosnian rayahs in the Turkish times ; then I have spoken of our schools for the children of the Bosnian fugitives on the frontiers during the insurrection and the civil war ; and now of the still continued "Orphan and Training School " in Serajevo, under the very different condi- tions of the present Austrian occupation and administration. The Home, the orphan- age, is as greatly needed as ever, and the true idea of a training school in its moral as well as intellectual bearing reaches beyond the mere equipment for school exami- nations. When the examination is over, and the Home quitted, some friendly moral aid is as sorely needed, as it is difficult to render, for the girl teacher sent forth to sink or swim in the miry waters which overflood every rank of society in Eastern Europe. The young schoolmasters and schoolmistresses have a wide influence for good or for evil, by their teaching and by their example. They stand in the midst of temptations, for the most part wholly without uplifting aids around them, and without any adequate moral control. ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION IN CAPE COLONY, AFRICA. BY MISS MAY BENGOUGH. The first attempt of Government to provide for education in Cape Town, Africa, dates from about 1840, when, in accordance with a suggestion of Sir John Herschel, a certain number of public schools were established in some of the principal towns. These Herschel schools provided an entirely free education for what were then known as the " burghers' children," and were altogether Government institutions; no local bodies had either voice in the management or share in the expenses. Their failure seems to have been due in part to questions of expense, in part to a suspicion of political motives con- cealed behind the scheme, in part to the want of interest among those whom it was intended to benefit, resulting from their being debarred from all active participation in the scheme. Fail, at any rate, they did, within some fifteen years of their foundation. But even before the failure had become manifest, the aided system, which at present obtains favor throughout the colony, had come into existence. Grants were asked for and made, in the first instance, in support of the mission schools connected with the various religious denominations, and by degrees the whole of the public education of the colony came to be worked on the same lines. The schools assisted by a grant from Gov- ernment, greater or less according to their class, are, speaking roughly : (1) Undenominational public schools of three grades, the third grade consisting of schools established in villages only. (2) Mission schools. (3) Farm schools. (4) Dis- trict boarding-schools. The development of the railway system during the last five or six years has necessi- tated the establishment of a special class of railway schools. These, I believe, are exclusively Government institutions. With this exception, schools of all the above classes are established originally by local enterprise, as the need may arise ; they are 004 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. governed by a local board of management, elected from among the individuals who are personally or philanthropically interested in starting the school ; and this board is responsible for any deficit. There is not, anywhere in South Africa, anything of the nature of a school-rate, and it would seem to be the general opinion that neither for this nor for school boards, in the English sense, is the country yet ripe. Neither, as yet, is there any kind of compulsion in the matter of attendance, but it is becoming a question of serious consideration whether some law should not be enacted to that effect. Under present conditions there are difficulties in the way of the general application of any such law, but every year makes it more imperative that, for the larger towns at least, some attempt should be made to remedy the growing evil of irregular attendance, or, in too many cases, of no attendance at all. With regard next to the class of education provided. It were vain to pretend that South Africa is anywhere in the van of educational progress. It were equally unjust to accuse her of being hopelessly in the rear; an average place in the main body may per- haps be assigned to her, and considering the multitudinous difficulties which beset the matter in this country, such a place is more creditable than might appear at first sight. Difficulties of race, of language, of a sparse and scattered population ; and of all the States which compose South Africa there is none in which all these difficulties combined are more felt than in the Cape Colony. In the Orange Free State, for instance, the difficulty of providing for a widely scattered population may be even more felt than in the older colony : on the other hand, the Free State Government does not profess to make provision for the educational requirements of any but the white population, which reduces at once the responsibility and the expense. Natal has practically no " colored " population — no population of mixed race — to provide for; whereas in the Cape Colony out of 70,000 (circa) children of school age some 16,000 are returned as of " mixed race," while Malay, Hottentot, Fingo, and Kaffir scholars bring the non-European total up to 30,000. Under all these circumstances it is not perhaps surprising that the general standard of elementary education is not high, that the methods are often antiquated, and that in many cases the teacher is guided by no light much newer than that of nature. When the appointment is not made a family job (as in the case where it was given to the grandmother of the clan), it is not infrequently the last resource of the broken-down adventurer — "gentleman once," or not, as the chance may be — who is willing to estimate his services at no higher a rate than they deserve. But in all such cases Government has no remedy at present ; it has no voice in the appointment, the only privilege reserved for it is to pay. But it is to the daughters, not to the sons of the soil, that the country must look for its future educators. The Colonial youth has but most rarely any taste for the scholastic profession. Even if he has been at the pains to qualify himself as a teacher, in nine cases out of ten he will not hold out above a year or two ; he prefers some means of gaining a livelihood more free, more speculatively remunerative perhaps, less monotonous certainly, than that of a schoolmaster. The Normal College at Cape Town is doing excellent work in training youths for an educa- tional career ; but the testimony of the principal is in substance that given above : they scarcely ever persevere in it. It must be admitted that even in the villages and towns there is little to be found that can justly be called scientifically conducted education. In most of the first-class public schools a modified form of kindergarten teaching exists, but public opinion is by no means educated up to the idea. Parents and guardians are apt to feel themselves defrauded by any system which does not carry its credentials in the visible form of a spelling-book. In the higher standards all the educational authorities of the colony are beginning to recognize and deplore that the teaching hitherto has been much less education than EDUCATION IN CAPE COLONY, AFRICA. 905 " cram." The system is too little elastic ; and the standards might be more judiciously graded, intelligent children being often kept needlessly long at merely mechanical work. Standard III. is the first that makes any provision for the teaching of geography ; while the work in this subject expected from Standard IV. is out of all proportion to the humble requirement of Standard III. Also, far too little attention is given to English composi- tion, nothing being done in this line before Standard V. Yet few subjects could be more practically useful in a country where the difficulty of preserving the language even tolerably pure is almost insuperable ; where children considerably above the lowest ranks of society speak English as a literal translation of Cape-Dutch idiom ; where such phrases as " He threw me with a stone ! " "I have left my book by the house ! " or " The cat make the mouse dead ! " are scarcely noticed as incorrect ; while the entire absence of inflections in this patois (it would be a libel on Dutch to call it a language) adds difficulty to the composition of the most ordinary letter in English. All the above remarks apply with equal force to the grammatical writing of Dutch itself. The only advantage a Cape-Dutch-speaking child starts with, if taught in the beloved " Taal," is a larger vocabulary than it may perhaps possess in English ; so far as it is grammatical, the Cape-born scholars must acquire Dutch like any foreign tongue. This battle of the languages — Dutch or English as the medium of instruction — is being fought rather vigorously just at present; fought with a vigor on the part of the supporters of Dutch which looks a little like the energy of despair. No doubt there is reason in contending that a child whose school-life is of the most limited length should be taught for the brief time in which it is under instruction, in the language which, so far as actual vocabulary goes, is most familiar to it. This is reasonable, and no one wishes to prevent it. No one wishes to suppress Dutch after the high-handed fashion in which the Dutch themselves suppressed the French language in the case of the Huguenot refugees in South Africa. Every provision is made for the examinations and inspection of schools in which Dutch is the recognized medium of instruction. To go further, to make the Dutch obligatory, would be as unjust to the upgrowing population as it would be to forbid the language altogether. For the rest the problem may safely be left to work itself out in the natural course of events. Of other elementary subjects : Arithmetic, so far as regards speed and accuracy in the manipulation of figures, is a fairly strong subject ; but here again the teaching is mechanical. Elaborate sums can be worked quickly and correctly, so long as the pupil is told by what rules to work them. But set before him some quite simple problem and leave him to find out the rule applicable to the case, and the result will be too often surprising. If this is the case in government-aided inspected schools, I would gladly draw a veil over much that goes on under the name of teaching arithmetic in private schools ; over the valuable time spent in copying neatly into an exercise book sums fully worked out — not by the pupil — upon the blackboard. Yet such an exercise book full of sums, though it does not even imply a knowledge of the multiplication table, is too often a source of pride and joy to parents. With the last few years vocal music has been added to the curriculum in elementary schools ; but as a science it is still very much in its infancy, and as an art — with some honorable exceptions — there is too much tendency to consider volume rather than quality of sound as the thing to be aimed at. However, there are signs of improvement in this branch. The very important subject of needlework, too, is only just beginning to receive the attention which it deserves, and very much remains to be done in this department. The show of plain needlework from the Public and Missions Schools of the Colony, at the late Kimberley Exhibition, taken as a whole, was decidedly disappointing. Secondary Education. — This is so wide a subject that it is difficult to say exactly where it stops ; at what point secondary education passes into something higher. The 906 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Cape of Good Hope University, established by Royal Charter in 1873, is entirely an examining body; it does not profess to teach. It confers degrees, but the examinations on which these depend are prepared for by the student in private study. Perhaps the two annual school examinations held by the University — the elementary and the higher — may be taken as representing the standard of secondary education in the Colony. The elementary examination requires the candidates to satisfy the examiners of their proficiency in : — (a) The English Language, including writing passages from dictation, parsing, etymology, analysis, English composition. The school higher examination is equally without restriction of age, but is consid- erably higher in its requirements, both as regards the difficulty of the papers and the range of subjects, including a choice of classical and modern languages in Group I., and of mathematics and physical science in Group II. The proportion of candidates entered respectively for the elementary and higher examinations in 1891 sufficiently indicates the difference in the standard required. In the elementary 1,014 were exam- ined, in the higher 370. Of the elementary candidates, 641 failed, the greater number in history and English ; of the higher, 91. An inspection of the number of candidates presented in the higher for the choice subjects in Group II. shows science to be very much at a discount among our Colonial youth. Against 293 examined in geometry, only 57 were examined in physical geography ; below this came animal physiology with 19 candidates ; the remaining subjects — botany, mechanics, light and heat — found not even half so much favor as this, while chemistry could not boast of a single candidate. In view of the complaint made by the examiners on another occasion, that the chemistry candidates seemed to have no experimental knowledge of their subject, perhaps this indifference is scarcely to be wondered at. Chemistry acquired chiefly from a text- book cannot be a very exhilarating branch of study. Beyond these two examinations, most of the better class of schools prepare pupils for the Matriculation Examination, to pass which does imply that the candidate has a satis- factory amount of education, and something even of culture. In 1891, out of 228 candi- dates, 142 passed. All the above examinations (and, I believe, all the others connected with the Cape University) are open to both sexes ; and it is satisfactory to relate that the girls and women of the Colony fully hold their own in the contest. In fact, the education of women in the Colony is perhaps better provided for, on the whole, than that of men. Such educational establishments as have been started by foreign enterprise (exclusive of missionary institutions for natives) are almost all for girls. For these the Colony is chiefly indebted to America, the principal centers being at Wellington and Stellen- bosch. I much regret that coinciding holidays have always prevented me from seeing any of these schools in working order ; yet perhaps any detailed account of their working would be out of place in a paper of this kind, seeing it would, after all, be an account of an imported system which owes nothing, either in idea or method, to Colonial influence. The work done is far from being limited to bare intellectual training. It was pleasant and encouraging to hear the other day. from a visitor to one of these schools at Stellen- bosch, that, seeing the dormitory walls curiously studded with nails, and asking the reason, the principal replied that they were for pictures and ornaments which the pupils were encouraged to procure and arrange for themselves. These articles were, at the time, put away for purposes of holiday cleaning ; but it was the principal's idea that as important as anything in the education of the Colonial girls, was the cultivation of a taste for pleasant prettiness, to know how to arrange and decorate a room, how to adorn life : things which the monotony and isolation, the materialness, the rough-and-ready PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. 907 manners within, the featureless barrenness without, of an up-country farm, can certainly never teach, yet which they are so much needed to relieve and to refine. In conclusion I would repeat, that if this brief account of the condition of education in South Africa conveys no very high idea of our stage of progress, it must be remem- bered that we are but a young people, scarcely indeed, as yet, one homogeneous people at all. There is much to be done, but we are at least conscious that it needs doing. More favored countries may better wish us good-speed for the future, than deride us for the slowness of our progress in the past. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. BY DR. EGISTO ROSSI, ROME. Publtc instruction in Italy is regulated by law of November, 1859. This law has been modified, however, by royal decrees and by later laws. The educational system comprises three grades : elementary, secondary (including classical and technical schools), and superior. There are also infant schools which aim to give the rudiments of an educa- tion to children between three and six years of age, the later being the earliest age at which children are admitted to the primary grades. Private individuals of known moral character and capability are permitted to open infant schools and those of elementary and secondary grade, providing the locality in which the school is to be opened is satisfactory, from a hygienic point of view, to the authorities. Infant Schools. — The compulsory education laws do not apply to the infant schools. These schools are founded by the communes, by corporations, associations, and private individuals. Many of them are autonomous in character, possessing their own revenues, which accrue from perpetual funds and donations. Other schools are supported entirely by the individuals or corporations founding them. Almost all these schools receive subsidies from the commune, provinces, and the State, in addition to the funds received from the sources mentioned above. The chil- dren receive gratuitous instruction in the majority of infant schools ; in a few, a small fee is charged, the means of the family being taken into consideration in making such charge. In 1889 the communes gave $317,532 to the infant schools ; the State, $8,085. Elementary Schools. — The elementary schools are in charge of the communes and are under the supervision of their administrative officers. In conformity with the law they are gratuitous and are maintained by subsidies from provincial and communal funds. In accordance with special laws the State aids in such support by subsidies for construc- tion and repairs and for teachers' salaries. The State is authorized to favor communes, which are too impoverished to construct school buildings, by giving subsidies for such buildings, and by giving aid, either by loan or gift, if there is any special reason for so doing. If any loans have been made, the State undertakes to reimburse the institution loaning said fund by adding thereto a normal interest. The elementary schools are frequented by children from six to twelve years of age. These schools are divided into two grades ; the lower grade, which extends through three years, is subdivided into three classes ; the highest grade into two classes, equiva- lent to a two years' course. The course of study includes writing, elementary arith- metic and the metric system, history of Italy, elements of geography, natural history and physics, civic education, and gymnastics. All the communes are required to establish lower-grade elementary schools ; communes of four thousand inhabitants and over are required to establish those of the higher grade. In these larger communes there must also be institutions of a secondary grade. 908 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. By law of July, 1877, which carried out the provisions of the law of 1859, parents were obliged to send their children between six and nine years of age to the elementary grades unless they could show cause for instruction at home or in private schools. This compulsory education act could be carried on beyond the ninth year if the pupil, when called up for examination at close of the course, did not indicate knowledge of the studies in the lower grade elementary schools. By degree of February 16, 1888, pupils of both public and private schools, and those who obtain home instruction, must receive a certificate of having passed such final examination before they can be placed on the registration list for the holding of politi- cal or administrative office. Parents and guardians who fail to conform to the above regulations are subject to censure from the syndic, and in case of further non-compli- ance they are subject to a fine of not less than $2.50. By law of July 15, 1877, which went into force in October, 1877, each commune is required to have a certain number of teachers, trained for duty in these lower-grade elementary schools. This number is to be proportionate to the population. Normal Schools. — The normal schools serve as preparatory schools for teachers of the elementary grades. The State provides the funds for the teaching force and for scien- tific apparatus. The remaining expenditures and those for the " ConmttV (establish- ments where pupils are boarded and lodged) are paid by the provinces and communes in which the normals are located. There are still other schools of this character for the training of teachers which are maintained exclusively by provinces and communes, by corporations or individuals, while some receive State subsidies. The normal schools are of higher and lower grades for men and women. The lower- grade normal schools have only the power to confer a diploma as teacher for the three lower classes of the lower-grade elementary schools. The higher-grade normals, on the contrary, confer the diploma required to teach in the elementary schools of both higher and lower grade. In the normal schools for women a certificate or diploma is also conferred which permits its holder to become a teacher iri, or directress of, an infant school. Instruction in the normal schools is gratuitous: the course is of two years in the lower-grade normals, of three years in the higher-grade normals, and is preceded by a preparatory course of three years. An examination for admission is required of those who wish to enter the normal schools. Each normal has a practice school attached, in which the pupil can obtain practice in teaching. The normals for women have also an infant school attached, which school is divided into three sections. Persons desiring to obtain a teacher's position in the elementary schools are appointed by the communes (which pay them), after competing for such position in the competi- tive examination before the Provincial School Council ; this council, after examining as to their qualifications, presents the list of persons eligible to such positions, and the Communal Council has, as its duty, to select and appoint the teachers. To determine the minimum legal stipend for teachers, the elementary schools are divided into two categories, urban and rural, and each of these categories into three classes in accordance with the wealth and population of the commune. The minimum legal stipendia according to the law of April 11, 1886, are as follows : First Second Third Class Class. Class. (Higher ,Men $254 $213 $198 CitySch00ls lwo l^n::::::::::::::::::::::::: 8 ,'3 !8 (l,ower -)Womeu 152 i46 139 (Higher »Men lr3 164 152 RaialSch00l8ZT jKeu: ::::::::::::::::::::::• 3 S II (Lower j VVomen 123 n§ 10§ PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. 909 These stipends are augmented one-tenth for every six years of service in the same commune until the salary has been increased four times. There are other institutes auxiliary to, or complementary to, those for elementary instruction. Among the first mentioned are two "convitti" (establishments where pupils are boarded and lodged, and which have elementary schools attached) for the orphans of elementary teachers, and the institutions for the blind and deaf mutes; among the second are comprised the "convitti," the educational institutions for girls, and the two higher-grade normals for girls. Secondary Classical and Technical Instruction. — The aim of secondary classical instruction is to train young men in the studies requisite for acquiring the literary and philosophical knowledge which entitles them to enter upon special studies leading to the academic grades of a university. These branches of instruction are imparted in the " ginnasie" (lower-grade classical schools) in a five years' term, and in the "liceo" (higher-grade classical schools) in a three years' term. In order to be admitted to Class I. of a " ginnasio " the student is required to pass an entrance examination in the branches of the higher elementary grade, and in order to be admitted to the first year of a " liceo " it is necessary to possess a gymnasial license (hcenza ginnasiale) ; while the license of a liceo (licenza liceale) is required for admittance to a university course. The " ginnasi" are supposed to be supported by the communes, and in some prov- inces the State maintains them in accordance with special laws. The "licei" are sup- ported by the State as far as the expenditures for teachers and scientific material are concerned ; the expenditures for the buildings and furniture are borne by the communes. The State, either by law or by special agreements with the communes or other corpo- rations, cooperates in maintaining the "giznasi" and non-governmental "licei." The communes, other corporate bodies, and private individuals support similar institutions. The State, moreover, maintains the " convitti" annexed to the governmental "gin- nasi" and " licei;" and by law, or special agreement, the State also subsidizes other " convitti" whose maintenance would naturally belong to a province, commune, or to a corporate body or association. The aim of technical professional instruction is to impart to young men, who are ambitious to enter upon a specified career in the public service, i. e., in industrial, com- mercial, and skilled agricultural pursuits, such general and special knowledge as is requisite for the carrying on of these pursuits. This knowledge is acquired and taught in technical schools (scuole teeniche), technical institutes (instituti tecnici), and in the institutes for the mercantile marine. The course of instruction in technical schools lasts three years, at the end of which a diploma {licenza tecnica) is given to the success- ful candidates ; this diploma is required for admission to a technical institute or to an institute for the mercantile marine service. In the technical institute the instruction is divided, according to the profession to be pursued, into five sections, namely, physico- mathematics, land surveying, agriculture, commerce and trade, and industrial pursuits. The courses last four years, and are divided into two biennial periods : one common to all sections, and one special course for each section. In the institute for the mercan- tile marine service the instruction is divided into six sections, viz.: as captains for the coast service, naval constructors of the second class, and machinists of the second class, a two years' course ; captains for long-distance courses, and naval constructors of the first class, a three years' course ; and machinists of the first class, a four years' course. The diploma of the physico-mathematical section entitles, as does the "licenza liceale" to admission in the faculty for physical, mathematical, and natural sciences, of a university. The maintenance of the technical schools is imposed upon the communes where they are established. The State pays half of the teachers' expenses, however. In some cases, in accordance with special laws, the technical schools are entirely in charge of the 910 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. State. The State also subsidizes technical schools which are in the main supported by the communes, provinces, and corporate bodies or associations. The expenditures for the technical institutes and for those of the mercantile marine are borne in part by the State, which pays half of the expenses for the teachers and other employes. The expenditures for buildings and non-scientific material are fur- nished by the communes where the institutes are situated. The expenditures for class- ical and technical schools, and for the " convitti" for boys' boarding schools annexed to a secondary school, were accredited as follows to the State, communes, and provinces during the years 1888-89 and 1890-91 : 1888-89. Provinces $447,128 " Communes 1,396,698 1890-91. State 2,389,207 Technical, industrial, and professional instruction is imparted in institutes and spe- cial schools, such as practical schools of agriculture, agrarian schools, industrial schools, schools of art and trade, and professional schools. The expenditures of this class of schools are paid in part by the State, which, through subsidies given to the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce, in accordance with special laws to that effect, cooperates with the provinces, communes, and corpora- tions. In order to be admitted to these schools it is necessary to have successfully fin- ished the elementary course or to have passed an examination for admission. During the school years 1888-89 and 1890-91 the expenditures for this class of schools were distributed as follows : 1888-89. Provinces $125,677 " Communes 326,498 1890-91. States 439,655 Superior Instruction. — The highest grade of education is furnished in the univer- sities, the superior institutes, and in superior special schools. The • ' Istituti Superi- ori " include the schools for engineers, veterinary schools, the literary and scientific academy, the higher normal school for instruction in literature, and the superior insti- tute for the perfecting of higher studies in Florence with its university faculties. The universities comprise four faculties : law, philosophy and letters, physical, mathemat- ical, and natural sciences, and medicine and surgery. In some universities the schools of pharmacy and veterinary schools are annexed to the faculty of medicine and surgery. Not all universities have four faculties. The degree of doctor (laurea) is conferred in each faculty at the close of the course. In the higher institutes there are faculties, or sections of faculties, where doctors' degrees are conferred at the close of the course. In the special schools diplomas are given for subjects taught there. The superior special schools are : The superior commercial school, whose purpose it is to prepare young men for the management of banking and commercial institutions, or for the career of consular agent in foreign countries, or for the position of instructor in the science of economics in technical institutes; the superior agricultural schools, which prepare teachers of agricultural sciences and promote agricultural interests by means of experimental researches; the superior naval school, for the training of naval and hydro- graphic engineers and naval constructors; the institute of forestry, for training persons as forestry inspectors; and the industrial museum, for training mechanical engineers (ingegnerc industriale), and for training in the studies of chemistry and special branches of mechanics and physics. The expenditures for universities and superior institutes are in charge of the State, and are included in the budget of the Ministry of Public Instruction. The revenue and property of these institutions aid in their maintenance, and the fund is added to that administered by the State, NEEDLEWORK IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF STOCKHOLM. 911 Some provinces coo'perate, by means of special contracts {consorzi universitari), with the State in the payment of expenditures for the increase of scientific apparatus, for the annexed schools, for the laboratories and collections of the universities which are located in the respective provinces or communes. Some provinces and communes also aid in maintaining the superior institutes. There are seventeen governmental universities, and four called " free " because they are maintained by the provinces and communes where they are situated ; the superior institutes are governmental, and are eleven in number. The superior special schools are also eleven in number, and are maintained by the State, the fund being included in the budget of the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce, in conjunction with the provinces and communes where they are situated. The two superior institutes for the education of women are dependent on the Ministry of Public Instruction, to the accounts of which the expenditures are charged. The expenditures borne by the State for universities and other institutes and special schools amounted to $2,077,959 for the school year 1890-91, which sum was included in the budget of the Ministry of Public Instruction, and $112,905 in the budget of the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce. The amounts contributed by the provinces and communes to the funds of universities, superior institutes, and superior special schools, are added to the provincial and com- munal budgets. This fund is separate from the amounts furnished by the associations or corporate bodies for the general increase and progress of studies. To this latter amount the provinces furnished $457,811, and the communes $829,190 for the year 1888-89. But the State revenues for this year indicate that the provinces and communes will only cooperate to the extent of $152,536 in the maintenance of universities and other superior institutes administered by the State. The superior special schools, as has been mentioned before, are founded and main- tained conjointly by the State, the provinces, and the communes, and are managed by local commissions, which include in their membership representatives from the corpo- rate bodies which aid in the maintenance of said institutions. NEEDLEWORK IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF STOCKHOLM. BY MRS. HULDA LUNDIN, SUPERINTENDENT OF NEEDLEWORK, STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN. Educational methods of the present day demand that instruction in general shall be given according to a carefully considered plan, which shall be at the same time simple, logical and progressive. It is not sufficient to give out lessons to be committed to memory ; these must also be thoroughly explained and illustrated by the teacher. Suitable mediums of instruction must be sought and class-teaching maintained in order to insure thoroughness and inspire interest. It is a matter of great satisfaction that these principles have been adopted in all instruction from books ; but if one examines the method heretofore employed in manual training — training whose educational value can hardly be overrated —the strange fact is discovered, that, as a rule, not one trace of the intelligent principles governing instruction in other subjects, is to be found here. Therefore, while instruction in all other branches has developed, that in manual training has remained in its old elementary condition. Manual training has been regarded as an outside branch, not subject to the same laws as other educational branches, whereas it ought to stand side by side with them, because it has the same educational aim to fulfil. 912 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. The aim of the instruction in Girls' Sloyd (this term embraces in Sweden all kinds of handiwork) is : I. To exercise hand and eye ; II. To quicken the power of thought •, III. To strengthen love of order ; IV. To develop independence ; V. To inspire respect for carefully and intelligently executed work ; and at the same time VI. To prepare girls for the execution of their domestic duties. The instruction has two objects in view : (a) It shall be an educational medium ; (b) It shall fit the girls to practice life. But if the desired aim is to be reached, the fundamental principles of pedagogics must be applied to manual training. Formerly satisfaction was felt with purely mechanical skill in manual training, when the only thought was to procure even beautiful stitches in sewing, while the practical skill required in measure-taking, cutting out, and planning a piece of work was wholly neglected. The introduction of the sewing machine has developed entirely new conditions. We must now teach our pupils something the machine cannot perform, namely : to take measures, to draw patterns, to cut out, to put together and to arrange garments ; also to train them to skill in darning, mending, and marking, at the same time that we teach them to take correct stitches. This desired result is not easily attained, but experience has proven that it is best reached by : (1) Practical demonstration on the subject ; (2) Progressive order with regard to the exercises, and (3) Class instruction. (1) Practical demonstration in sewing is accomplished by means of a sewing frame (plansch), and in knitting by means of large wooden needles and colored balls of yarn. At the same time blackboard drawings are constantly being made. " With a piece of chalk and a blackboard a teacher can work wonders, " I once heard a clever teacher say. Even if this was somewhat overstated — as I readily admit — it is nevertheless true that a teacher who understands the value of these media, can by their help reach remarkably good results. French schools furnish fine proof of this. As no one is born a master, and as we cannot afford to cast away material at hand, it is necessary, until skill is obtained, to make use of preparatory exercises ; but much judgment must be exercised in their use. I consider it to be a great mistake to keep pupils engaged, term after term, with pre- paratory exercises, which they may not put into practice till long after, and by the time they are needed have perhaps forgotten. As soon as an exercise is well learned it should be applied to something useful, either in the school or at home. In this way the pupil's interest is awakened and strengthened. The child will, in such a case, see a residt of its work such as it can understand. And, moreover, the parents' sympathy with the instruction is won. (2) Progressive order with regard to the exercises. The exercises are planned and carried out in the most strictly progressive order, so as to enable the pupils to execute well the work required of them. Nothing is more discouraging to see than a badly exe- cuted piece of work. "One cannot expect more of a child," is given as a kind of ex- cuse. This may sometimes be true, but one can expect that a teacher will not give a child exercises beyond its capabilities, and before which it must fail. To fail continu- ally has an injurious effect on a child's character. No ; let us take simple exercises, let us execute them well, have our aim well in view, and not be discouraged even if the result looks plain and simple. In other words, in NEEDLEWORK IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF STOCKHOLM. 913 manual training, as in other subjects, there should be a systematic plan which is simple, logical, and progressive. (3) Class instruction. When instruction became obligatory in our schools, and it was necessaiy to have from thirty to forty pupils, and sometimes more, in one class, class instruction became an absolute necessity, and it was soon found that development of the individual was better secured through its means than when each pupil received instruc- tion by herself. Strange enough, one subject — manual training — remained unreformed, to the great injury of the subject ; for, by appealing to the whole class at once, a teacher can secure the attention of her pupils and awaken a lively interest in the work. Her teaching can then be deep and interesting. The teacher finds time to talk about form, size, and reason for doing this or that. Yes, the pupils even find time to think out why things shall be so and not so, and discover the best way to carry out an exercise. In this way the instruction becomes both developing and educating, and the pupils lay a firm foundation on which to build further in the future. But class teaching is only an effect, and should not be an aim. One must not have the mistaken idea that the teacher is to guide every step. Par from it. It is only the new in every exercise which should be explained to the whole class. After the pupils have learned through explanation and illustration what they must do, and how they shall do it, they should work independently of each other. Meanwhile the teacher should go around the class and notice whether all the pupils are performing correctly the required exercises. She should at the same time observe the position of hand and body, also whether the pupils hold their work at a proper distance from their eyes, so that they may not gain skill at the expense of their eyesight. The teacher of manual work should not only instruct, but also educate the pupils as well. Therefore the choosing of teachers is not an insignificant matter. Besides man- ual dexterity, teachers ought to be possessed of pedagogical skill. Therefore, for the training of teachers in manual training either special normal schools should be estab- lished, or — what without doubt is better — existing normal schools should place manual training in their curriculum on an equal footing with other branches of education. That is now done in Sweden, and in several other countries in Europe. Not only girls, but the younger boys, should be instructed in girls' sloyd. The boys should be taught this because it introduces variety and interest, trains the hand and eye, and renders them able, in case of necessity, to darn their stockings and mend their garments. From the foregoing we deduce the following : (1) Practical demonstration in sewing is accomplished by means of a sewing frame, and in knitting by means of large wooden needles and colored balls of yarn. At the same time blackboard drawings are constantly being made. (2) The exercises are planned and carried out in the most strictly progressive order, so as to enable the pupils to execute well the work required of them. (3) The instruction in sloyd should— like that in other branches — be given to the whole class at the same time, otherwise the time which the teacher could devote to each pupil separately would be insufficient to secure the desired results. In order to illustrate the progress from the simple to the more complex in the teaching of sloyd, we give the following class divisions of the subjects which are in use at the present time in the public schools of Stockholm. School age : seven to fourteen. Girls and Boys. Class I. (1) Plain knitting with two needles ; a pair of garters. (2) Plain knitting: a pair of warm wristlets. 58 914 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Class II. (3) Plain knitting ; a towel— practice in the different kinds of stitches ; running, stitching, hemming and overcasting ; a lamp mat. (4) The application of the already named stitches ; one small and one large needlework bag. Class III. (5) A needlework case. Simple darning on canvas ; a mat for a candlestick. (6) An apron. Girls. Class IV. (7) Plain and purl knitting ; slate eraser and a pair of mittens. (8) A plain chemise. Class V. (9) Knitting ; a pair of stockings. (10) Drawing the pattern, cutting out and making a chemise. Class VI (11) Patching on colored material. Plain stocking-darning Buttonholes. Buttons made of thread. Sewing on tapes, hooks and eyes. (12) Drawing the pattern, cutting out and making a shirt or a pair of drawers. Class VII. (13) Fine darning and marking. Drawing the pattern for a dress. Cutting out articles such as are required in standards II.-IV. (14) Drawing the pattern, cutting out and making a dress. The time given to needlework : Class 1 2 hours a week. •' II., III. and IV 4 " " " " V.andVI 5 " " " " VII 6 " •« " NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. CONSTITUTION NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. PEEAMBLE. To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States, we, whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt the following CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE I.— NAME. This Association shall be styled the National Educational Association. ARTICLE II.— DEPARTMENTS. Section 1. It shall consist of ten departments: The first, of School Superin- tendence ; the second, of Normal Schools ; the third, of Elementary Schools ; the fourth, of Higher Instruction ; the fifth, of Industrial Education ; the sixth, of Art Education ; the seventh, of Kindergarten Instruction ; the eighth, of Music Educa- tion ; the ninth, of Secondary Education ; the tenth, of Business Education ; and a National Council of Education. Sec. 2. Other departments may be organized in the manner prescribed in this Constitution. ARTICLE III.— MEMBERSHIP. Section 1. Any person in any way connected with the work of education, or any educational association, shall be eligible to membership. Such person or association may become a member of this Association by paying two dollars and signing this Con- stitution, and may continue a member by the payment of an annual fee of two dollars. On neglect to pay such fee, the membership will cease. Sec. 2. Each department may prescribe its own conditions of membership, provided that no person be admitted to such membership who is not a member of the general Association. Sec 3. Any person eligible to membership may become a life-member by paying at once twenty dollars. ARTICLE IV.— OFFICERS. Section 1. The officers of this Association shall be a President, twelve Vice-Presi- dents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, one Director for each State, District or Territory 918 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. represented in the Association, and the presiding officers of the several departments and a Board of Trustees to be constituted as hereinafter provided. Any friend of education may become a life-director by the donation of one hundred dollars to the Association at one time, either by himself or on his behalf ; and any educational association may secure a perpetual directorship by a like donation of one hundred dollars, the director to be appointed annually or for life. Whenever a life-member desires to become a life- director, he shall be credited with the amount he has paid for his life-membership. Sec. 2. The President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, Trustees, Directors, Life-Directors, President of the Council, and presiding officers of their respective departments shall constitute the Board of Directors, and, as such, shall have power to appoint such committees from their own number as they shall deem expedient. Sec. 3. The elective officers of the Association shall be chosen by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the second day of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided. Sec. 4. Each department shall be administered by a President, Vice-President, Secretary, and such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs ; but no person shall be elected to any office of any department, or of the Association, who w not, at the time of the election, a member of the Association. Sec. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding officer. In his absence, the first Vice-President in order who is present shall preside ; and in the absence of all Vice-Presidents, a pro tempore chairman shall be appointed on nomination, the Secretary putting the question. Sec. 6. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, and shall conduct such correspondence as the Directors may assign, and shall have his records present at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors. The Secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, keep a list of the members of his department. Sec. 7. The Treasurer shall receive and under the direction of the Board of Trustees hold in safe keeping all moneys paid to the Association ; shall expend the same only upon the order of said Board ; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expendi- tures, with vouchers for the latter, which accounts, ending the first day of July each year, he shall render to the Board of Trustees, and, when approved by said Board, he shall report the same to the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees ; and he shall continue in office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the Association next succeeding that for which he is elected. Sec. 8. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body ; shall have in charge the general interests of the Association, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees ; shall make all necessary arrangements for its meetings, and shall do all in its power to make it a useful and honorable institution. Upon the written application of twenty members of the Association for permission to establish a new department, they may grant such permission. Such new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the others. The formation of such department shall in effect be a sufficient amendment to this Con- stitution for the insertion of its name in Article II., and the Secretary shall make the necessary alterations. Sec. 9. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board CONSTITUTION. §1& of Directors for a term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the election of the Trustees in 1886, one Trustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years, one for three years, and one for four years, and annually thereafter, at the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the Association, one Trustee shall be elected for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term ; and the absence of a Trustee from two consecutive annual meetings of the Board shall forfeit his membership therein. The Board of Trustees thus elected and consti- tuted shall be the executive financial officers of this Association, as a body corporate, as conferred by the certificate of incorporation under the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, dated the twenty-fourth day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C, and recorded in Liber No. 4, "Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia." Sec. 10. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trustees to provide for safe keeping and investment of all funds which the Association may receive from life-directorships, or from donations ; and the income of such invested funds shall be used exclusively in paying the cost of publishing the annual volume of Proceedings of the Association, excepting when donors shall specify otherwise. It shall also be the duty of the Board to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors ; and, when practicable, the Trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding one hundred dollars, that may remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year. ARTICLE V.— MEETINGS. Section 1. The Annual Meeting of the Association shall be held at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five Directors. Sec. 3. Any department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time and place as by its own regulations it shall appoint. Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold their regular meetings at the place, and not less than two hours before the assembling, of the Association. Sec. 5. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the Board or the President shall determine. Sec. 6. Each new Board shall organize at the session of its election. At its first meeting a Committee on Publication shall be appointed, which shall consist of the President and the Secretary of the Association for the previous year, and one member from each department. ARTICLE VI.— BY-LAWS. By-laws not inconsistent with this Constitution, may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of the Association. ARTICLE VII.— AMENDMENTS. This Constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the unanimous vote of the members present, or by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided that the alteration or amendment lias been substantially proposed in writing at a pre- vious meeting. 920 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. BY-LAWS. 1. At each regular meeting of the Association there shall be appointed a Committee on Nominations, one on Honorary Members, and one on Resolutions. 2. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills approved by the Board of Directors. 3. Each paying member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of its Proceedings. 4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of its departments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be published in the volume of Proceedings without the consent of the Association, upon approval of the Executive Committee. 5. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary and Treasurer of the Association, to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the permanent fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate showing the condition of the said fund shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees. ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS. The establishment of a special fund from surplus receipts, after the expenses of the Association have been paid, to be known as the " Emer- gency Fund/' was recommended by the Board of Trustees, submitted to the Board of Directors, at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 12, 1892, and the following resolutions were adopted : Resolved, That there be established, as soon as the current expenses of the Associa- tion will warrant, an Emergency Fund not to exceed $4,000. Said fund shall be sub- ject to expenditure by the Board of Trustees in accordance with votes of the Board of Directors at any regularly called meeting. The said fund may be used for the purpose of meeting deficiencies of income of the Association, and for such additional investiga- tions and publications as may be determined by said Board of Directors ; and it is further Resolved, That the Board of Trustees be hereby authorized to transfer from the sur- plus funds of 1891-92, to the Emergency Fund, a sum not exceeding $2,500 ; and that additional transfers may be made to said fund from the surplus receipts ; and it is further Resolved, That the Trustees be and hereby are authorized to appropriate from the Emergency Fund sums duly authorized, not to exceed $2,500, the same to be expended by the Board of Trustees as recommended by the Board of Directors ; the said expendi- tures to be made upon duly approved vouchers, satisfactory to the Board of Trustees. The following by-laws pertaining to membership were also submitted to the Board of Directors and approved : First, The membership of this Association shall consist of two classes, to be styled respectively active and associate members, of whom active members alone shall be enti- tled to participate in the business of the Association and to hold office. CONSTITUTION. 921 Second, The active membership of the Association shall consist only of those who are connected with the work of education or with some educational association. Other members shall constitute the associate membership of the Association. Third, The Directors shall communicate to the Secretary of the Association the names of persons worthy of active membership, and the Secretary shall forward to such per- sons the statement of the conditions and advantages of such membership, with a request that they become members, and, on receipt of the annual fees, they shall be enrolled among the active members. Fourth, At the first session of each regular meeting of the Association the President shall appoint a Committee on Active Membership, to whom shall be referred all ques- tions of active membership during such meeting, and persons recommended by this committee may become members by a majority vote of members present and voting at any meeting of the Association. Fifth, During the month of January of each year the Secretary of the Association shall send to each active member a request for payment of the annual fees, and any member who shall neglect for one year the payment of the annual fee shall by reason of such neglect forfeit his membership. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS. NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. 1857.— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized.) James L. Enos, Chairman. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. 1858.— CINCINNATI, OHIO. Z. Richards, President. J. W. Bulkley, Secretary. A. J. Rickopf, Treasurer. 1859.-WASHINGTON, D. C. A. J. Rickoff, President. J. W. Bulkley, Secretary. C. S. Pennell, Treasurer. I860.— BUFFALO, N. Y. J. W. Bulkley, President. Z. Richards, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1861 , 1862.— No session. 1863.-CHICAGO, ILL. John D. Philbrick, President. James Cruikshank, Secretary. O. C Wight, Treasurer. 1864.— OGDENSBURG, N. Y. W. H. Wells, President. David N. Camp, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1865.-HARRISBURG, PA. S. S. Greene, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1866.-INDIANAPOLIS, IND. J. P. Wickersham, President. S. H. White, Secretary. S. P. Bates, Treasurer. 1867.— No session. 1868.- NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gregory, President. L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary. James Cruikshank, Treasurer. 1869.— TRENTON, N. J. L. Van Bokkelen, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. A. L. Barber, Treasurer. 1870.-CLEVELAND, OHIO. Daniel B. Hagar, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. W. E. Crosby, Treasurer. NAME CHANGED TO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. 1871.-ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. Pickard, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1872.— BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1873.— ELMIRA, N. Y. B. G. Northrop, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1874.— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1875.— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President. W. R. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1876.— BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1877.— LOUISVILLE, KY. M. A. Newell, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1878.— No session. 1879.-PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1880.-CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. J. Ormond Wilson, President. W. D. Henkle. Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1881.— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1882.-SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. G. J. Orr, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. H. S. Tarbell, Treasurer. 1883. -SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. T. Tappan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1884.-MADISON, WIS. Thomas W. Bicknell, President. H. S. Tarbell, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1885.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. F. Louis Soldan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1886.-TOPEKA, KAS. N. A. Calkins, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1887.-CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. Sheldon, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1888.— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. Aaron Gove, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1889.— NASHVILLE, TENN. Albert P. Marble, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1890. -ST. PAUL, MINN. James H. Canfield, President. W. R. Garrett, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1891.— TORONTO, ONTARIO. W. R. Garrett, President. E. H. Cook, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1892.-SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. H. Cook, President. R. W. Stevenson, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1893.-CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education.) Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES. OFFICERS FOR 1893-94. GENERAL ASSOCIATION. ALBERT G. LANE.. IRWIN SHEPARD.. J. M. GREENWOOD Chicago, Illinois President. Winona, Minnesota Secretary. Kansas City, Missouri Treasurer. E. H. Cook, New York. W. H. Bartholomew, Kentucky. L. E. Wolfe, Missouri. G. J. Ramsey, Louisiana. Vice Presidents. M. C. Fernald, Maine. E. E. White, Ohio. J. W. Dickinson. Massachusetts. T. A. Futrall, Arkansas. F. A. Fitzpatrick, Nebraska. C. P. Rogers, Iowa. Edward Searing, Minnesota. N. C. Schaeffer, Pennsylvania. Board of Trustees. N. A. Calkins Chairman 124 East Eightieth Street, New York. Zalmon Richards Secretary 13Q1 Corcoran Street, Washington, D. C. Term expires July, 1896. 41 1885. " 1894. " 1893. Zalmon Richards Washington, D. C E. C. Hewett Normal, Illinois N. A. Calkins New York Ciiy " H. S.Tarbell Providence, Rhode Island " A. G. Lane Chicago, Illinois Ex-officio "The Board of Trustees shall be the executive financial officers of this Association as a body cor- porate."— Art. IV., Sees. 9 and 10 of the Constitution. Executive Committee for 1893-4. A. G. Lane Chicago, Illinois President. Iuwin Shepard Winona, Minnesota Secreta7~y. J. M. Greenwood Kansas City, Missouri Treasurer. E. H. Cook Flushing, New York First Vice-President. N. A. Calkins New York City Chairman Board of Trustees. Board of Directors. Directors ex-officio. See Art. IV., Sec. 2, of the Constitution. Bartholomew, W. H., Louisville, Kentucky. Beardshear, W. M., Ames, Iowa. Blow, Susan E., St. Louis, Missouri. Calkins, N. A., New York City, New York. Dickinson, J. W., Newtonville, Massachusetts. Fernald, M. C, Orono, Maine. Futrall, T. A., Marianna, Arkansas. Glover, N. L., Akron, Ohio. Greenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Missouri. Hewett, E. C, Normal, Illinois. K i milk. D. L., Minneapolis, Minnesota. Lane, A. G., Chicago, Illinois. Low, Seth, New York City. Life Directors. Brown, LeRoy D., Box 138, Santa Monica, Los Hall, Caleb G., New Berlin, N. Y. Milne, J. N., Oneonta, New York. Ramsey, G. J., Clinton, Louisiana. Richards, Zalmon, Washington, D. C. Rickoff, Rebecca D., New York City. Rogers, C. P., Marshalltown, Iowa. Searing, Edward, Mankato, Minnesota. Schaeffer, N. C, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Shepard, Irwin, Winona, Minnesota. Tarbell, H. S., Providence, Rhode Island. Trant, Amelia E., Buffalo, New York. White, E. E., Cincinnati, Ohio. Wolfe, L. E., Jefferson City, Missouri. Angeles Co., Cal. Dougherty, Newton C, 906 E. Bluff St., Peoria, 111. Day, L. W., 422 Superior St., Cleveland, O. Fairchild, George T., State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kan. Greenwood, J. M., 1312 Oak St.. Kansas City, Mo. Gove, Aaron, 2045 Grant Ave., Denver, Col. Hunt, Mary H., 55 Central Ave., Hyde Park, Mass. Jewett, A. V., Abilene, Kan. Marshall, T. Marcellus, Carlisle, Pa. Parker, Chas. I., 9136 Exchange Ave., South Chicago, 111. Pike, J., Jerseyville, 111. Rickoff, Andrew J., 444 Central Park West, N. Y. Stratton, C. C., Portland University, University Park, Ore. Taylor, A. R., 1127 Congress St., Emporia, Kan. 924 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Directors by Election. North Atlantic Division. Maine J. Corthell New Hampshire. .C. C. Rounds Vermont G. P. Beard Massachusetts W. E. Sheldon . . Rhode Island T. B. Stockwell. Connecticut David N. Camp. . New York C. W. Baudeen. . New Jersey N. M. Butler . . . Pennsylvania D. J. Waller, Jr. Gorham. Plymouth. St. Albans. Boston. Providence. New Britain. Syracuse. Paterson. Harrisburg. South Atlantic Division. Delaware Maryland John E.McCahn. .Baltimore. Dist. of Columbia. Wm. T. Harris Washington. Virginia West Virginia W. H. Anderson. .Wheeling. North Carolina ...Robert Bingham. Asheville. South Carolina . . . W. B. Lanier Branson. Florida Frederic Pasco. .Jacksonville. South Central Division. Kentucky Henry Rhoades . . Frankfort. Tennessee Frank Goodman. Nashville. Alabama Solomon Palmer. East Lake. Mississippi Dabney LirscoMB.Stockville. Louisiana A. A.Trenby Texas H. C. Prichett. . .Huntsville. Arkansas Junius Jordan. . .Pine Bluff. North Central Division. Ohio J. A.Shawiian .. Columbus. Indiana Jesse H. Brown. .Indianapolis. Illinois W. L. Steele Galesbnrg. Michigan E. A. Strong Ypsilanti. Wisconsin Albert Hardy.. La Crosse. Iowa O. J. Laylander. Cedar Falls. Minnesota R. E. Deneeld Duluth. Missouri T. J. Buchanan . .Kansas City. North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska Kansas J. N. Wilkinson. .Emporia. Western Division. Montana R. G. Young Helena. Wyoming Wm. Marquerat. Laramie. Colorado R. H. Beugs Denver. New Mexico Arizona Utah J. F. Millspaugh. Salt Lake City. Nevada Idaho Washington F. J. Barnard Seattle. Oregon E. B. McElroy Salem. California Earl Barnes Menlo Park. OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION. 925 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION. E. W. COY President Cincinnati, Ohio. P. A. FITZPATRICK Vice-President Omaha, Nebraska. CH AS. De GARMO Secretary and Treasurer Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. DEPARTMENT OFFICERS. Kindergarten. Miss SUSAN E. BLOW President St. Louis, Missouri. Miss CONSTANCE MACKENZIE Vice-President Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Miss ANNA STOVALL Secretary San Francisco, California. Elementary. Mrs. REBECCA D. RICKOFF President New York City. AARON GOVE Vice-President Denver, Colorado. F. TREUDLEY Secretary Youngstown, Ohio. Secondary. J. S. CROMBIE * President Brooklyn, New York. AMELIA E. TKANT Vice-President Buffalo, New York. W. H. BARTHOLOMEW Secretary Louisville, Kentucky. Higher. SETH LOW President New York City. Rt. Rev. JOHN J. KEANE Vice-President Washington, D. C. WM. DEWITT HYDE. W. G. BALLANTINE J. H. CANFIELD WM. PRESTON JOHNSTON Brunswick, Maine. Oberlin, Ohio. Lincoln, Nebraska. New Orleans, Louisiana. MELVIL DEWEY Secretary Albany, New York. Normal. J. M. MILNE President Oneonta, New York. J. W. COOK Vice-President Normal, Illinois. J. N. WILKINSON Secretary Emporia, Kansas. Superintendence. D. L. KIEHLE President Minneapolis, Minnesota. WARREN EASTON Vice-President New Orleans, Louisiana. F. TREUDLEY Secretary Youngstown, Ohio. Manual Training and Industrial Education. W. M. BEARDSHEAR President Ames, Iowa. A. C. GORDON Vice-President Minnesota. W. B. FRIEDBERG Secretary New York City. Art. Miss CHRISTINE SULLIVAN President Cincinnati, Ohio. E. C. COLBY Vice-President Rochester, New York. Miss ELIZABETH H. PE RR Y Secretary Bridge water, Massachusetts. Music. N. L. GLOVER President Akron, Ohio. BENJAMIN JEPSON Vice-President New Haven, Connecticut. GEORGE C. YOUNG Secretary Wichita, Kansas. Business Education. R. E. GALLAGHER President Hamilton, Ontario. F. GOODWIN First Vice-President Nashville, Tennessee. W. E. McCORD Secretary and Treasurer Peoria, Illinois. * Deceased. MEMBERSHIP NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. The dates in the margin indicate the year when the several member- ships began, dence of each Life Director and Life Member. The addresses given in this list are the latest known resi- PERPETUAL DIRECTOESHIP. 1879. Philadelphia Teachers' Institute, 1889. Board of Education of Nashville, Sargent Street, below 9th, Phila- Tenn. delphia, Pa. 1890. Illinois State Teachers' Association, Springfield, 111. LIFE DIRECTORS. CALIFORNIA. Brown, LeRoy D., Box 138, Santa Monica, Los Angeles Co. COLORADO. 1888. Gove, Aaron, 2045 Grant Ave., Den- ver. ILLINOIS. 1887. Dougherty, Newton C, 906 E. Bluff St., Peoria. 1887. Parker, Chas. I., 9136 Exchange Ave., South Chicago. 1891. Pike, J., Jersey ville. KANSAS. 1886. Fairchild, Geo. T., State Agricultu- ral College, Manhattan. 1886. Jewett, A. V.. Abilene. Dickinson Co. 1886. Taylor, A. R., 1127 Congress St., Emporia. MASSACHUSETTS. 1887. Hunt, Mary H., 55 Central Ave., Hyde Park, Norfolk Co. MISSOURI. 1886. Greenwood, J. M., 1312 Oak St., Kansas City. NEW YORK. 1885. Hall, Caleb G., New Berlin. 1881. Rickoff, Andrew J., 444 Central Park West, New York. OHIO. 1888. Day, L. W., 422 Superior St., Cleveland. OREGON. 1888. Stratton, C. C, Portland University, University Park. PENNSYLVANIA. 1877. Marshall, T. Marcellus, Carlisle. LIFE MEMBERS. 927 LIFE MEMBERS. CALIFORNIA. 1889. Hobe, Augusta W., 1633 Hyde St., San Francisco. 1879. Iloose, James H., 255 S. Euclid Ave., Pasadena. 1877. De Jarnette, Anna Kalfus, care of J. L. Kalfus, San Jose. 1882. Morris, Harriette N., State Normal School, Chico. COLORADO. 1884. Hayward, Emily A., Denver. 1884. Raab, Ilenry, State House, Spring, field. INDIANA. 1876. Bell, W. A., 66£ North Penn St., Indianapolis. 1880. Irwin, John S., 241 West Main St., Fort Wayne. 1866. McKae, N. S., Marion. 1877. Smart, James H., Perdue University, La Fayette. 1876. Stevens, M. 0., Littleton St., W. Side, La Fayette. CONNECTICUT. 1884. Barnard, nenry, 28 Main St., Hart- ford. 1884. Northrop, Birdsey G., Clinton. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 1884. Bell, Alex. Graham, Washington. 1876. Harris, Win. T., Bureau of Educa- tion, Washington. 1880. Hitz, John, 917 RSt., N. W., Wash- ington. 1889. Keane, Rt. Rev. John, Catholic University , Washington. 1864. Richards, Zalmon, 1301 Corcoran St., Washington. 1880. Wilson, J. Ormond, 1439 Massachu- setts Ave., Washington. GEORGIA. 1890. Baker, W. H., 150 Drayton St., Savannah. 1881. Mallon, Mrs. Frances C. , The Leland, Houston St , Atlanta. 1870. Manley, R. M., Dalton, Whitfield Co. ILLINOIS. 1870. Allen, Ira W., 612 Maple St., Engle- wood, Chicago. 1880. Brown, Geo. P., Bloomington, Mc- Lean Co. 1884. Cheney, Augustus J., Oak Park. Chicago. 1864. Eberhardt, John F., 161 La Salle St., Chicago. 1876. Forbes, Alexander, 24 Aldine Square, Chicago. 1884. Hewett, Edwin C, 200 Ash St., Nor- mal, McLean Co. 1891. Hull, John, Normal University, Car- bondale. IOWA. 1880. Gilchrist, J. C, Laurens, Pocahontas Co. 1886. Pickard, Josiah L., 419 N. Clinton St., Iowa City. 1884. Taylor, Henry J., 1635 Douglas St., Sioux City. 1884. Willis, Wm. A., 612 Market St., Iowa City. KANSAS. 1886. Campbell, A. G., Lock Box 37, Coun- cil Grove. 1886. Clark, Frank H., Minneapolis, Ot- tawa Co. 1886. Coover, N. Wilson, Ellsworth Co. 1886. Fairchild, Edward S.. Ellsworth, Ellsworth Co. 1886. Jay, Walter M., St. John's School, Salina. 1886. Klock, J. E., Leavenworth. 1886. Larimer, Henry G., 216 Clay St., Topeka. 1886. Limerick, A. H., 902 E. 9th St., Winfield. 1886. MacDonald, John, Topeka. 1886. McVicar, Peter, Topeka. 1886. Meade, Richard C, Atchison. 1886. Roop, C. Y., 386 S. 7th St., Salina. 1886. Rose, Geo. E., Rosedale, Wyandotte Co. 1886. Sawhill, Thos. A., 309 N. 7th St., Concordia, Cloud Co. 1886. Schuyler, Aaron, 1316 S. Santa Fe St., Salina. 1886. Stanley, Edmund, 900 Kentucky St., 1 AY W1*PHCG 1886. Tillotson, D. C, 621 Fillmore St., Topeka. 1886. Williams, Philo J, Massachusetts St., Lawrence. 1886. President Board of Education, Abi- lene, Dickinson Co. 928 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION KANSAS— Continued. NEBRASKA. 1886. Dodge City Schools, care E. D.Webb, 1876. Beals, Samuel De Witt, 2118 Daven- Dodge City, Ford Co. port St., Omaha. 1886. Board of Education, City of Ottawa, 1880. Bibb-Sudborough, Mrs. Grace, 549 Franklin Co. S. 26th Ave., Omaha. 1886. Sedgwick City Schools, Sedgwick, 1884. Curry, Robert, cor. D and 4th Sts. , Harvey Co. Palmyra. 1886. Cowley County Teachers' Associa- 1884. James, Henry M., 2219 Capitol Ave.. tion, Winfield. Omaha. 1886. Riley County Teachers' Association, 1886. Miller, J. H., Room 5, Ledwith Block, Manhattan. Lincoln. KENTUCKY. NEW HAMPSHIRE. 1877. Bartholomew, W. fl., 426 East Gray 1876. Rounds, Charles Brooklyn. 1870. Jones, Daniel W., 4 Hawthorn St., |883/ ga7> Mrs. Albert New York. Roxbury, Boston. 1883- Hodgdon. Josephine E., 80 Wil- 1880. Marble, Albert P., 492 Main St., 1QQK o10"^^-. Bro°klyn. Worcester 1885. Hunter, Thomas, Normal College, 1886. Mowry, Wm. A., 97 Federal St., 1Q„. v New } °rk- XT „ . gal'm ' 1879. Kraus, John, New York. 1865. Sheldon,' Wm. E., 3 Somerset St., 188°- Bickofl, Mrs Heliecca IX, 444 Cen- «n,.tni1 tral Park West, New York. 1882. Stern, S. M., 29 E. 44th St., New 1884. Van Aken, Mrs. Georgiana, 63 Park 1866. Mayhew, Ira, 119 Griswold St., De- St., New York. troit. MINNESOTA. NORTH CAROLINA. 1864. Pennell, Calvin S., 2245 St. Anthony 1884. Bingham, Robert, Asheville. Park. 1870. Phelps, Wm. F.. 105 Germania Life nmr» Building, St, Paul. utiiu. 1890. Ind. School Dist. No 3, care Wm. 1884 Bennett, C. W., 218 W. Ash St., J. Pringle, Northneld, Rice Co. Piqua. 1880. Bennett, Hampton, Franklin, War- MISSISSIPPI. ren Co. 188d' WvfchksbEurgmUnd W"' P' °- BOX858' 1870- CoTwmfam^'Marysville, Union TifTccrkrTTJT 1883. Coy, E. W., Hughes High School, MlbbUUKl. Cincinnati. 1886. Evans, Chas. H., 915 Locust St., St. 1866. Curran, Ulysses T., 622 Columbus Louis. Ave., Sandusky. 1877. Soldan, F. Louis, 1616 Hickory St., 1880. Davidson, Chas. C, 59 W. Ely St., St. Louis. Alliance. LIb'E MEMBERS. 929 OHIO — Continued. 1880. Dutton, Bettie A., 94 State St., Cleveland. 1865. Hartshorn, O. N.. Alliance. 1870. Holden, L E., Cleveland. 1879. McMillan, Reuben, Canfield, Maho- ning Co. 1880. McMillan, Mrs. S., Canfield, Maho- ning Co. 1880. Miller, Lewis, Oak Place, Akron. 1880. Peaslee, John B., McGregor Park, Cincinnati. 1882. Robert, James A., 230 N. Summit Ave., Daytou. 1870. White, Emerson E., 287 E. Broad St., Columbus. 1880. Widner, Esther, 201 S. Perry St., Dayton. 1870. Williams, Mrs. Delia Lathrop, 62 S. Liberty St. , Delaware. PENNSYLVANIA. 1870. Arey, Oliver, 303 Springfield Ave., Philadelphia. 1879. Avery, Rachel Foster, Somerton, Philadelphia. 1876. Brooks. Edward, 240 S. 39th St., Philadelphia. 1879. Gratz, Simon, 1309 Locust St., Philadelphia. 1865. Ingram, Samuel D., 113 Market St., Harrisburg. 1891. Lyte. E. Oram, State Normal School, Millersville. 1891. Schofield, Martha, 1717 Vine St., Philadelphia. 1879. Shippen, Edward, 532 Walnut St., Philadelphia. 1880. Singer, Edgar A., 4662 Penn St., Philadelphia. 1884. Stewart, Sarah A., 1520 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. TENNESSEE. 1887. Conway, Clara, Memphis. WISCONSIN. 1884. Albel, Geo. S., State Normal School, Oshkosh. 1884. Aylward, John Arthur, Pioneer Block, Madison. 1884. Beck, Geo., 125 Elm St., Platteville. 1884. Carpenter, J. H., 315 Wisconsin Ave., Madison. 1884. Chandler, W. H., Sun Prairie, Dane Co. 1884. Charlton, Edwin A., Broadhead, Green Co. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1881. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1881. 1884. 1884. 18«4. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1.84. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. 1884. Clark, L. H., State Normal School, River Falls. Eden, Philip, Richland Center. Emery, J. Q., River Falls, Pierce Co. Flavin, John T., Watertown, Jeffer- son Co. Harvey, Lorenzo Dow, 225 23d St., Milwaukee. Platteville, Grant Box 201, Platteville, 212 Gilman St. ., 803 State St. Forest Wis- Hutton, A. J. Co. Nye, Chas. H Grant Co. Parker, Warren D., Madison. Parkinson, John B, Madison. Shaw, Samuel, Crandon, Co. Stack, Joshua, Martin Flats, consin St.. Milwaukee. Stewart, I. N, Appleton, Outagamie Co. Stearns, J. W., 512 Wisconsin Ave., Madison. Spencer, Robert C, Business College, Milwaukee. State Normal School, Platteville, Grant Co. Thayer, J. B., Madison. Twining, N. C, Monroe. Whitford, William C, Milton, Rock Co. Board Regents State N. Schools, Wis. State Historical Society, Madison. County Supts.' Association, Wis. State Historical Society, Madison. Board of Education, Beloit. Board of Education, Jamesville. Board of Education, A. N. Hardy, Clerk, La Crosse. Board of Education, Watertown. Supt. Public Schools (Board of Edu- cation), Milwaukee. Board of Education (R. H. Halsey, Supt. Schools), Oshkosh. Alumni Assoc, City Normal School, Milwaukee. County Teachers' Association, Mil- waukee. Intermediate and Upper Section, Teachers' Corps, Milwaukee. Principals' Association, Milwaukee. Primary Section, Teachers' Corps, Milwaukee. Athena?um Lit. Soc, State Normal School, Platteville. Philadelphian Society, State Normal School, Platteville. Public School Teachers, Janesville. Wisconsin Principals' Association. Wisconsin Teachers' Association. 59 930 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION ADDRESSES UNKNOWN. Letters sent to the last known address of the following were returned by postmasters, marked "Not called for," "Left for parts unknown," " Unknown," " Name not in Directory," etc. : Brown, Mrs. A. J. Crosby, W. E. De Wolf, David P. English, R. F. Franklin, M. B. Harvey, G. I. Heywood. C. W. O'Connor, Joseph. Partridge, Lelia E. Paxon, Joseph. Setzefaud, A. Schmitz, J. Adolph. Spring, E. A. Wilcox, M. C. Woodward, G. A. Videlia, Dornia G. Young, Chas. S. NAMES OP LIFE MEMBERS DECEASED. Allyn, Robert, Illinois. Corey, Lucien B., New York. Danforth, Edward, New York. Graham, Robert, Wisconsin. Hancock, John, Ohio. Harvey, Thomas W., Ohio. Hobbs, B. C, Indiana. Ilowland, H. C, Wisconsin. Newell, M. A., Maryland. Rusk, Hon. Jeremiah M., Wisconsin. Stanford, Leland (Life Director), Cali- fornia. Stevenson, R. W., Ohio. Stone, E. M., Rhode Island. Stone, Mrs. M. A., Connecticut. Tourgee. Eben, Massachusetts. Wickersham, James P., Pennsylvania. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP FOR THE YEAR ENDING JULY 1, 1894. Fraser, D. D., Cape Town. Cutler, Susan R., Talladega. Doll, C. D., Montgomery. Phillips, J. H., Birmingham. Talbot, Henry, Montgomery. AFRICA. ALABAMA. -Africa, 1. Towle, Amos, Mobile. Tutwiler, Julia L., Livingston. Van Wie, C. B., Florence. -Alabama, 7. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC Graham, Mary 0., Buenos Ayres. Howard, Jennie E., San Nicolas. — Argentine Republic, 2. ARKANSAS. Anderson, Chas. A., Haynes. Blake, A. L., Waldo. Brown, G. P. A., Marianna. Cook, Geo. B., Hot Springs. Cook, Minnie R., Helena. Crawford, W. A., Boonesborough. Droke, G. W., Fayetteville. Futrall, T. A., Marianna. Ish, Jefferson G., Little Rock. Kerr, C. V., Fayetteville. Kuykendall, J. W., Paragould. Lee, W. H., Washington. Leiper, W. D., Malvern. Bondy, Mrs. Ottilia, Vienna. Burgerstein, Leo, Vienna. Adams, Mary P., San Jose. Barnes, Earl, Palo Alto. Barth, Robert, San Francisco. Bayne, Frank F., Berkeley. Boyd, Nicholas E., Berkeley. Brown, Elmer E., Berkeley. Brown, Mrs. Elmer E., Berkeley. Dickson, Sadie, Escondido. Eckert, D. A., Azusa. Ennis, C. L., Los Angeles. Evans, Llewellyn, Pasadena. Farnham, Geo. S., Riverside. Foshay, Jas. A., Los Angeles. Foy, Mary E., Los Angeles. Garin, Paul A., Oakland. Greggs, Edw. H., Palo Alto. Kellogg, Martin, Berkeley. be Beuf, Helen J., Orange. Martin, Mrs. F. M., Santa Rosa. MeBride, Ruth, Pine Bluff. McNeill, J., Fayetteville. Millar, Alex. C, Conway. Murry, T., Morrillton. Oden, John W., Little Rock. Parham, R. H., Little Rock. Reynolds, T. H, Rover. Reynolds, W. D., Ramsey. Rogers, D. T., Jonesboro. Thompson, R. S., Paragould. Toon, W. B., Morrillton. Young, W. T., Wynne. — Arkansas, 25. AUSTRIA. Gugler, Josef, Vienna. CALIFORNIA. — Austria, 3. Matthews, Winfield S., University. Mavhew, Mrs. Nora D., Los Angeles. Mills, Mrs. C. T., Mills College, Alameda. Mills, J. S., Los Angeles. Molyneaux, Frank A., Pomona. Monroe, Will S. . Palo Alto. Payne, Frank H., Berkeley. Phelps, N. S., San Francisco. Pierce, Ed. T., Los Angeles. Porter, Mrs. Anna S., San Diego. Reid, W. T., Belmont. Rice, Mrs. Juliet Powell, Los Angeles. Rich, Ednah A., Santa Barbara. Sanford, Fernanda, Palo Alto. Schallenberger, Margaret E., Palo Alto. Wilson. Esther M., Chico. Wood, Thomas D., Palo Alto. Yowell, T. A., Los Angeles. — California, 37. 932 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. COLORADO. Allen, Leon M., Colorado Springs. Allen, Mrs. Florence, Denver. Baker, Jas. H., Boulder. Baker, T. O., Durango. Ballard, Charlotte, Watkins. Barron, Alida J., Denver. Beggs, Robert 1L, Denver. Boyd, David, Greeley. Bradley, C. A., Denver. Casey, W. V., Boulder. Cobb, Ruby E., Denver. Condit, P. M., Colorado Springs. Copeland, A. B., Greeley. Courtney, A. C, Denver. Coy, N. B., Denver. Davis, Fannie 0., Denver. Dewey, Helen A., Colorado Springs. Eddingfield, W. T., Aspen. Elder, Andrew W. , Denver. Fairfield, Alice T., Leadville. Farris, Miss F. 0., Denver. Fletcher, Mary L., Georgetown. Flower, Miss E., Denver. Fortner, Miss S. E., Denver. Gass, B. R., Denver. Gilkison, H. A., Denver. Goodrich, Miss II. E., Denver. Greenlee, Lewis C, Denver. Griggs, Herbert, Denver. Grossmeyer, Clara, Denver. Guss, Roland W., Greeley. Hale, Horace M., Denver. Harris, Harriet A., Leadville. Hayward, Emily A., Denver. Plenderson, Luella, Denver. Holdredge, Adelaide, Leadville. Hooper, Lydia, Idaho Springs. Houghan, Frona R., Denver. Jackson, J. P., Colorado Springs. Jones, Nora J. (Ft. Lupton), Ramah. Kerr, Annie, Denver. Kingsley, C. M., Boulder. Knapp, W. E., Denver. Krani, Mrs. C. V., Denver. Lawson, Mrs. C. B., Denver. Lees, Mary, Denver. Liddell, Miss M. E., Denver. Long, Geo. B., Denver. MacDonald, Myra M., Denver. Mack, Miss M. F., Denver. McArthur, Jessie, Georgetown. McChesney, Tude, Harman. McCleeny, J. S., Pueblo. McClure, Z. B., Denver. McCoy, Maggie, Leadville. McDowell, Wm. F., University Park. McNair, Agnes, Denver. Miller, Miss A. W., Denver West. Mitchell, Alice, Denver. Moore, DoraM., Denver. Morgenstern, Carolina 0., Denver. Murphy, Mrs. E. H., Denver. Murray, J. F., Denver. Osenback, C. M., Denver. Parker, C. V., Ft. Collins. Pike, Lillian L. , Farnham. Price, Minnie, Denver. Remington, W. W., Boulder. Robin, Susanna, Denver. Royce, Eudora, Highlands. Sabin, Mary S., Denver. Salisbury, CeliaA., Denver. Schleicher, Alice, Denver. Schmitt, Jacob, Denver. Search, W. P., Pueblo. Seavey, May, Denver. Shepard, A. D., Denver. Smedley, Wm., Denver. Smiley, W. R., Denver. Smith, Minna E., Denver. Snyder, Z. H., Greeley. Stephens, Eugene C, Trinidad. Stephenson, Mrs. D. E., Alma. Telford, Eva G., Rico. Thomas, W. C, Greeley. Thompson, Jennie M., Denver. Thompson, Lucy, Denver. Underhill, Mildi-ed, Denver. Wallace, Maggie M., Denver. Warnecke, Marie, Denver. Westhaver, Evelina, Edgewater. Whiteman, W. J., Denver. Wilson, Josephine, Denver. Woody, C. A., Salida. Young, J. S., Denver. — Colorado, 95. Bartlett, Ella E., Southford. Brocklesby, John H., Hartford. Buchner, Edward F., New Haven. Carlisle, Ella E., Norwich. Curtis, Virgil G., New Haven. Deane, Chas. W., Bridgeport. Pinney, M. A., New Haven. De la Sorre, Carlos, Havana. Fredrickson, Kristina, Kolding. CONNECTICUT. Raymond, B. P., Middletown. Scott, Walter, Suffield. Skinner, Stella, New Haven. Smith, Geo. W., Hartford. Smith, Minna E., Hartford. Willard, S. P., Colchester. — Connecticut, IS. CUBA. Horta, Constantino, Havana. DENMARK. — Cuba, 2. -Denmark, 1. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP. 933 ENGLAND. Brain well, Amy, Cambridge. Osborne, Aimee K., London, S. W. Brook, M. S., Westminster. Osterberg, Bergman, London. Cowham, Jos. EL, Westminster. Pritchard, Mrs. Emily C, Kingsland. Hanson, James, Bradford. Rooper, T. G., High Harrogate. Hughes, Elizabeth P., Barry, South Wales. Thomas, Mary V., London, W. Hughes, H. Millieent, Barry, South Wales. Vinta, Edith, Bayswater. Legard, A. G., High Harrogate. Wilson, Edith C, Manchester. Loueh, Mary, Cheltenham. Zimmin, Alice, Tunbridge Wells. Moore, Annie Osborne, London, S. W. — England, 17. FINLAND. Blomgvist, Elizabeth, Svenska Fruntim, Helsingfors. — Finland, 1. FLORIDA. Gaines, Nannie B., Leesburg. Veenfliet, Mrs. M. L., De Land. Payne, D. A., Jacksonville. Weston, Mrs. Olive E., Jacksonville. Sheats, W. N., State Supt. Public Instruction, Tallahassee. — Florida, 5. FRANCE. Beamme, D., Nancy. Alford, William B., Atlanta. Allen, Willette, Atlanta. Giles, Harriet E., Atlanta. Johnson, Wm. D., Athens. Chevrillon, Andre, Lille. GEORGIA. Smith, Willard N., Savannah Snyder, Jessie M., Columbus. Wright, Elizabeth M., Tate. GERMANY. Abel, Dr., 24 Park Str., Weisbaden. Lauer, Karl, Freiburg. Forster, Auguste, Kassel. Rieunier, Alexis, Herault. Guentsche, Richard, Buelowstrasse, Berlin. Schlee, Ernest, Altona. Imelmann, J., Berlin. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. — France, 2. — Georgia, 7. ■ Germany, 7. Alexander, W. D., Honolulu. Kricsy, Bela, Kecskemit. Adams, Carrie G., Chicago. Adams, Nettie R. , Chicago. Addy, Mary S., Chicago. Aldrich, Jessie, Chicago. Ailing, Harriet T., Moreland. Ailing, Jas. C, Chicago. *Allyn, Robert, Carbondale. Ames, A. F., Riverside. Andrews, Minnie J., Chicago. Armitage, B. F., Mattoon. Armstrong, James E., Englewood. Arnold, David S., Englewood. Backman, Kate, Chicago. Baertschy, Elizabeth, Ravenswood. Bangs, J. E., Fairbury. Banker, Emma J., Chicago. Wells, W. I. , Hanamaulu Kauai. — Hawaiian Islands, 2. HUNGARY. Mandello, Tulius, Sasutca. — Hungary, 2. ILLINOIS. Bannon, Geo. C, Chicago. Barbour, O. F., Rockford. Bard well, Conrad M., Canton. Barlow, Cornelia, Highland Park. Beane, E. M., Chandlerville. Beardsley, Alice, Chicago. Beaumont, Harriet A., Arlington Heights. Bedwell, Almeda, Chicago. Bennett, Jno. I., Chicago. Bevans, Homer, Englewood. Bilharz, Jane A., Waukegan. Blanchard, Chas. A., Wheaton. Block, Louis J., Chicago. Blount, Geo., Morris. Bogan, Wm. J., Chicago. Boltwood, H. L., Evanston. * Deceased. 934 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ILLINOIS— Continued. Bonfield, Mary, Chicago. Brayton, Laura T., Chicago. Bright, O. T., Bnglewood. Broderick, Mary, Chicago. Brooks, Sarah A., Chicago. Brown, Geo. P., Bloomington. Brown, Geo. W., Jacksonville. Brown, Hugh, Chicago. Bunion, Lilian, Chicago. Burke, Isabel, Chicago. Butts, Augusta E., Chicago. Byrne, Sarah, Englewood. Caldwell, Anna M., Chicago. Caldwell, Mavolta, Chicago. Canney, Alice B., Chicago. Cannon, Theresa A., Chicago. Carman, Geo. N., Morgan Park. Carpenter, Nellie M., Chicago. Case, Sophia M., Chicago. Castle, L. M., Springfield. Chadband, Fanny G., Rogers Park. Chadwick, Mary, Chicago. Chamberlain, Wm., Chicago. Chamberlaine, Patrick, Chicago. Charles, Thomas, Chicago. Church, Emma M., Chicago. Clancy, A. W., Chicago. Clark, J. Scott, Evanston. Clayberg, G. M., Oak Park. Coddington, Arch 0., Chicago. Colton, Buel P., Normal. Colwell, Lewis W. , Avondale. Compton, Helen D., Chicago. Conner, Bessie M., Chicago. Cook, Emily, Chicago. Cook, Ida M., Chicago. Cook, Chas. A., Irving Park. Cook, J. W., Normal. Coone, Henrietta M., Chicago. Covey, C. O, Farmer City. Crouse, Mrs. J. N., Chicago. Crow, Martha F., Chicago. Cullen, Mary Agnes, Chicago. Cutler, Robert E., Chicago. Cutler, Susan R., Chicago. Dalton, Catherine, Dalton. Dana, Susie L., Chicago. Danforth, Helen, Chicago. Darling, D. II., Joliet. Davidson, Cecilia D., Chicago. Davidson, Martha E., Chicago. Davis, Anna I., Joliet. Davis, George W., Buena Park. Davis, Mary A., Chicago. De Clark, Geo. W., Fern wood. Delafontaine, Mark, Chicago. Delano, E. C, Chicago. Deer, II. P., Elgin. Dewey, Electa E., Chicago. Dewey, Helen A., Aurora. Dewey, Jas. R., Chicago. Dillman, Louis M., Chicago. Dimock, Clara, Chicago. Dodge, Wm. C, Chicago. Donnelly, Margaret, Woodstock. Dougall, Jean, Chicago. Dougherty, N. C, Peoria. Duncan, Thomas C, Chicago. Du Plessie, C. 0., Chicago. Durham, S., Chicago. • Dwight, Hattie L., Rockford. Eaton, Ira T., Chicago. Eaton, Sarah J., Chicago. Ecelston, Mrs. S. C, Chicago. Eddy, Clara E., Chicago. Ellis, John C, Chicago. Emery, Constance, Quincy. English, Gertrude E., Chicago. Enright, Mary, Chicago. Erickson, Jennie, Jefferson Park. Etten, Frances, Chicago. Falck, Constance, Chicago. Falley, A. L., Ravenswood. Farnsworth, J. B., Mayfair. Farson, Mary E., Chicago. Felt, Ida, Chicago. Ferson, E. B., Chicago. Finch, C. W., Chicago. Finney, Mabel, Highland Park. Fischer, Eveline. Chicago. Fisk, Franklin P., Chicago. Fisk, H. P., Evanston. Fisk, Libbie E., Chicago. Fitzer, Levi R., Belvidere. Foote, Mary C, Rockford. Forbes, Alexander, Chicago. Forbes, Annie, Chicago. Ford, Chas. II., Chicago. Ford, Emma A., Aurora. Foresman, II. A., Chicago. Forkin, Mary A., South Chicago. Fox, Mary A., Chicago. Francis, Jane, Chicago. Frazier, Mrs. Lizzie H., Morgan Park Freeman, J. II., Aurora. Freer, Francis A., Galesburg. French, Emily L., Chicago. Fuchs, Elsa, Chicago. Gall, Katherine A., Chicago. Gasan, Emma, Chicago. Gee, Etta Q., Chicago. Gettenny, Mrs. Mary E., Galesburg. Giffin, Wm. M. (Auburn Park), Chicago. Gilbert, Mary E., Chicago. Gilbert, Newell D., Austin. Gill, Marcella, Chicago. Gimbel, Amanda, Chicago. Glenn, Annie J., Chicago. Goodhue, L. P., Chicago. Greenleaf, Mrs. Emma M., Chicago. Grimshaw, Elizabeth C, Cheltenham. Groves, Chas. W., Harwood. Guenther, Kate 0.. Blue Island. Haas, Mrs. E. S., Chicago. Hack, Patty A., Ravenswood. Hall, A. S., Morgan Park. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP. 935 ILLINOIS— Continued. Hall, Frank H., Waukegan. Hall, Wm. Gardner, Chicago. Halle, Rebecca, Chicago. Haramill, W. J., Rockford. Hannan, James, Chicago. Hanson, Martha E., Caledonia. Harding, Frank F., Chicago. Hardinge, Agnes M., Chicago. Harford, Emma, Dover. Ilarley, Walter S., Chicago. Harnett, Nellie E., Chicago. Harrison, Elizabeth, Chicago. Harrison, S. A., Chicago. Harrower, Walter J., Barrington. Hartney, Elizabeth L., Chicago. Hatch, Celia P., Hinsdale. Hatch, Henry D., Chicago. Hatch, W. H., Oak Park. Hatfield, Ida I., Chicago. Hays, Dudley G., Englewood. Heffron, Ida, Washington Heights. Heinroth, Luella, Chicago. Hendricks, Helen Q., Chicago. Henninger, J. W., Charleston. Henroten, Ellen M., Chicago. Heuermann, Minna S., Chicago. Hey ward, Frank S., Chicago. Hicks, David F., Chicago. Higby, Cora, Chicago. Hill, Louis D., Evanston. Hoerner, Effie, Chicago. Holbrook, Florence, Chicago. Horine, Lizzie, Chicago. Hullinger, Jno. D., Chicago. Hurst, Mary H., Chicago. Jackman, WilberS.. Englewood. Jarapolis, Amelia, Chicago. Jenkins, William, Mendota. Johann, Carl, Eureka. Johnson, Ellen M., Chicago. Johnson, Harriett P., Chicago. Johnson, Jennie 0., Chicago. Johnson, Mabel, La Grange. Jones, Mary E., Chicago. Josephi, Kate, Chicago. Judd, S. Alice, Mayfair. Kappes, J. Henry, Chicago. Kaufman, Mrs. M. D., Chicago. Keegan, Maggie E., Chicago. Kellogg, II. Amelia, Chicago. Kellogg, Kate Starr, Longwood. Kersey, Ruth Morris, Chicago. Kirk, Alfred, Chicago. Kirkhofer, II. J., Napierville. Kirkley, Sarah A., Chicago. Kletzing, Josiah F., Ravenswood. Kohler, Charlotte, Chicago. Kolb, Elizabeth, Chicago. Koupal, Kittie L., Avondale. Kurtz, J. H., Chicago. Lakin, B. B., Streator. Lambert, Vashti A., Palatine. LaMonte, Margaret R., Chicago. Lane, Abby E., Chicago. Lane, Albert G., Chicago. Leach, C. H., Rogers Park. Lennon, Anthony, La Grange. Lewis, Cora E., Wheaton. Linn, Henrietta A., Chicago. Little, H. P., Momence. Little, Luella V., Chicago. Locke, Josephine C, Chicago. Louden, Mary C, Chicago. Lukens, Herman T., Chicago. Lundegreen, Francis, Chicago. Lynch, Delia, Chicago. Lyons, Marguerite, Chicago. Martin, Anna B., Arlington Heights. Martin, Daniel R., Pullman. Marvin, M. W., Waukegan. Mattice, Ella A., Aurora. Maxwell, Fred B., Chicago. May, John W., Chicago. May, Mary C, Chicago. McBennett, Mary E., Chicago. McCabe, Nellie G., Chicago. McCarthy, John, Chicago. McCartney, Margaret, Chicago. McConville, Alice, Chicago. McCord, William E., Peoria. McCowen, Mary T., Englewood. McDade, James E., Kensington. McDonald, A. E., Chicago. McDonald, Katherine, Chicago. McDonald, Margaret E., Chicago. McEachron, Julia P., Chicago. McFarlin, Clara H., Chicago. McGarty, Catherine, Chicago. McGaughey, Mrs. J. A., Chicago. McGee, Lucy Castina, Chicago. McGinnis, J. W., Englewood. McKenzie, Mrs. Mattie, Chicago. McLauchlin, A. L., Chicago. McNarney, Mary A., Chicago. Melody, Genevieve, Chicago. Merriman, A. N., Chicago. Miller, F. L., Harvey. Miller, Lily, Simons. Milner, Sarah A., Grand Crossing. Minogue, Elizabeth, Chicago. Misch, Pauline, Chicago. Mitchell, Walter R., Chicago. Morgan, Royal T., Wheaton. Muffly, Sadie, Paw Paw. Murphey, Katherine T., Chicago. Nash, Georgina, Chicago. Nichols, F. R., Chicago. Nichols, Fred. W., S. Evanston. Norton, James II., Ravenswood. O'Bailey, Charlotte, Chicago. Oberlander, Sara E., Oak Park. O'Brien, Joanna A., Chicago. O'Connor, Mary I., Moreland. Ohr, Florence, Chicago. Oliver, Fanny E., Galena. Olson, Mrs. M. D., Chicago. 936 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. ILLINOIS— Continued. Olson, Minnie C, Chicago. Ormsby, F. B., Englewood. Osinga, G. A., Chicago. Owens, Amy, Chicago. Page, Mrs. M. P., Chicago. Panker, Emma J., Chicago. Parker, C. M., Taylorville. Patter, Clark R., Blue Island. Payne, Win, C, Hinsdale. Payne, Win, M., Chicago. Peterson, Julia, Chicago. Phelps, Mary A., Chicago. Pierce, John M., Oak Park. Piper, Jonathan, Chicago. Plapp, Fred. W., Irving Park. Plumb, G. H. R., Glencoe. Pratt, Frances M., Chicago. Price, James Russell, Western Springs. Putnam, Alice H., Chicago. Quantrell, L. J., Des Plaines. Rand, Grace, Lombard. Raven, Louise, Cheltenham. Reed, Josephine, Chicago. Reibold, Leonard E., Chicago. Rice, Emily J., Chicago. Rice, Mary B. S., Chicago. Rice, Rebecca S., Chicago. Rieder, Frank W., Chicago. Riennier, Alexis, Chicago. Rinker, A. S., Chicago. Robbins, Geo., Chicago. Roberts, Nettie R., Rock Island. Robinson, Adelia E., Crete. Robinson, A. R., Chicago. Rocheleau, W. F ., Carbondale. Rockwood, George II., Chicago. Rooney, Thomas C, Chicago. Root, Frederic W., Chicago. Roynon, Carrie G., Chicago. Ryan, Elesha A., Chicago. Sabin, A. R., Chicago. Sabin, Stewart B., Chicago. Sales, de, M., Chicago. Sanford, Frank E., La Grange. Sargent, Sabra L., Highland Park. Schaefer, Adelina S. A., Chicago. Schmohl, Miss F. J., Chicago. Schobinger, John J., Chicago. Schuyver, Jennie L., Chicago. Scott, Mrs. A. B., Chicago. Scudder, C. O., S. Evanston. Seely, Levi, Lake Forest. Sellars, Amanda, Mattoon. Sellars, Dovie Frances, Mattoon. Sengewald, Josie, Geneseo. Sergeant, Mary L., Chicago. Shaw, Ada M., Chicago. Silke, LucyS., Chicago. Sinclair, James G., Chicago. Slocum, J., Chicago. Smedley, Fred. W., Peru. Smith, Fannie R., Chicago. Smith, R. M., Chicago. Smither, Harriett R., Chicago. Smyth, Mary II., Chicago. Snow, Katherine L., Chicago. Snyder, Lydia E., N. Evanston. Solial, Arthur II., Chicago. Sollitt, Alice E., Chicago. Spooner, Mary L., Chicago. Spottswood, Mary C. , Rockford. Standish, John Van N., Galesburg. Starbuck, Ada C, Chicago. Starkey, Mrs. A. W., Quincy. Stearns, E. F., Chicago. Stedman, Maria M., Chicago. Steele, Eunice A., River Forest. Steele, Maud I., Chicago. Stegenga, P. M., Thornton. Stehman, John II., Avondale. Stephenson, Lillie S., Chicago. Stevenson, Albert L., Chicago. Stewart, Emma G., Chicago. Stieglitz, Julius, Chicago. Stimpeson, Lora A., Chicago. Stiver, P. 0., Freeport. Stoekman, Henrietta C, Bloomington. Stodder, Ida M., Chicago. Stokes, H. N., Chicago. Stowell, Corydon G., Chicago. Stowell, Harriett A., Chicago. Strasburg, James M., Chicago. Strong, Mrs. Emma, Chicago. Stube, John H, Simons. Stutesman, Ida E., Chicago. Suder, Henry, Chicago. Sullivan, Ella C, Chicago. Surridge, M. A., Ri*venswood. Sweet, Joseph F., Chicago. Taylor, Chas. S., Chicago. Tear, John II., Chicago. Temple, Alice, Chicago. Thompson, Ada, Chicago. Thurston, Henry W., Englewood. Todd, Emma J., Aurora. Toppelius, Meri, Lake View. Tracy, F. N., Kankakee. Trainor, Louise M., Chicago. Tucker, Helen L., Chicago. Tustin, Annie M., Chicago. Tustin, Eliz. R., Chicago. Underbill, Volney, Chicago. Vail, Jennie M . , La Grange. Vaile, II. S., Oak Park. Van Pelt, S., Onarga. Vaughn, Mary E., Chicago. Vernon, Josephine H., Chicago. Vinton, Geo. A., Chicago. Voorhees, G. L., Austin. Vosburg, Louise M., Pullman. Wadhams, John A., Irving Park. Waldt, Lizzie E., Chicago. Walker, P. R., Rockford. Walker, Clara, Chicago. Walker, Sylvia E., Chicago. Wallace, Sarah II., Austin. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP. 937 ILLINOIS— Concluded. Wallis, Sidonia, Austin. Waterman, Richard, Austin. Watson, Fred. J., Austin. Watson, Mina M.. Irving Park. Watt, Wra. E., Chicago. Weber, E. R., Harvey. Welch, Martha T., Chicago. Weldon, Adeline, Chicago. Welton, Wm., Lansing. Wentworth, Mrs. A. M., Englewood. Wescott, Oliver S., Chicago. Weston, Olive E., Chicago. Wheeler, Marshall G., Chicago. Whitcomb, Mrs. Hattie W., Gano. White, Emma G., Lanark. Whitmore, Eva Blaine, Chicago. Whyte, C. Ada, Chicago. Wiggins, Mary S., Chicago. Wilkinson, Cecelia E., Chicago. Wilkinson, Geo. E., Alton. Willard, Samuel, Chicago. Wilmarth, Mrs. H. M., Chicago. Wilson, Martha, Chicago. Wilson Grace, D., Chicago. Winchell, Ann E., Norwood Park. Winchell, Harriet N., Norwood Park. Winston, Eugenia. Chicago. Wood, Alice C, Chicago. Wood, Andrew J., Chicago. Wood, Kate L., Chicago. Wood, Silas S., Chicago. Wright, Ebenezer, Englewood. Wylie, John, Walnut. Young, Mrs. Ella F., Chicago. Zimmer, Thomas H., Wilmette. — Illinois, INDIANA. Allison, John J., Crown Point. Belman, W. C, Hammond. Birk, S. J., Elko. Black, J. C, Michigan City. Brown, Jesse H., Indianapolis. Bryan, William L., Bloomington. Cooper, John, Brightwood. Cropsey, N., Indianapolis. Eddy, Henry T., Terre Haute. Faught, John, Oaktown. Fellows, Geo. E., Bloomington. Ferris, Annette E., Thornton. Graves, Elma, Richmond. Griggs, Edward H., Bloomington. Hailman, Eudora L., La Porte. Hailman, W. W., La Porte. Hawkins, Robt. I)., Lafayette. Hitchcock, Clara M., Michigan City. Hodgin, Cyrus W., Richmond. Hosmer, Nettie, La Porte. Humke, Albert E., Vincennes. Irwin, Jno. S., Fort Wayne. Jackson, L. Marie, Indianapolis. Jones, Louis H., Indianapolis. Lewis, Eleanor II., Fort Wayne. Malsbury, A. E., Thornton. Martin, Alexander, Greencastle. Miller, Mary E., Washington. Mustard, Mrs. Mary V., Indianapolis. Nicholson, Mary E., Indianapolis. Remy, Edward A., Tipton. Smith, E. R., Indianapolis. Suter, Anna, Aurora. Swahlen, Wm. T., Greencastle. Swain, Joseph, Bloomington. Tuner, Harriet E., Indianapolis. Vail, D. Albert, Terre Haute. Warren, J. F., Rensselaer. Woody, H. G., Kokomo. Wilkinson, Cecilia C, Westville. — Indiana, Jfi. INDIAN TERRITORY. Bacane, A. C, Indian Univ., Bacane. Beardshear, W. M., Ames. Bredel, Clara H., Independence. Cook, Wm. W., Hull. Cramer, Wm. T., Iowa City. Frawley, Mary E., Marengo. Gates, Geo. A., Grinned. Goldsmith, Mary R., Fayette. Johnson, J. A., Munterville. King, Wm. F., Mount Vernon. Kleinsorge, J. A., Des Moines. Kratz, H. E., Sioux City. Laylander, O. J., Cedar Falls. Library Normal School, Cedar Falls. Marshall, James, Cedar Rapids. Matthews, Elizabeth K., Des Moines. Mehan, J. M., Des Moines. Riddell, Mrs. J. W., Muskegon. — Indian Territory, IOWA. Mills, J. S., Toledo. Nolte, Anna M., Davenport. Normal School Library, Cedar Falls. Patrick, G. T. W., Iowa City. Pickard, Josiah L., Iowa City. Ramsey, Geo. J., Clinton. Rich, A. W., Le Mars. Robbins, Henry E., Lyons. Rogers, C. P., Marshalltown. Sabin, Henry, Des Moines. Seerley, H. H., Cedar Falls. Sengewald, Josie, Madrid. Smith, O. E., Des Moines. Tittle, Flora, Stewart. Tyler, Emma, Marion. Vogenitz, E. W. G., North wood. 938 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. IOWA — Concluded. Warner, A. B., Harlan. Warr, Vina L., Des Moines. Wicks, Wm. J., Panama. Malloy, Wm. Robert, Dublin. Monti, D'Eudo, Legano, Milan. Eudo, H., Tosho Kwaishia. Gaines, Nannie B., Hiroshima. Ahlborn, Ida A., Baldwin. Bates, Mrs. Alice L., Concordia. Clark, H. C, Kingman. Cottell, Louisa, Topeka. Davidson, Wm. M., Topeka. Dunkin, Frank, Wichita. Halsey, Amelia L., Wichita. Longnecker, Oscar, Paola. MacDonald, John, Topeka. McNeal, Florence, Norcatur. Ballard, Mrs. Mary A., Lexington. Bartholomew, W. H., Louisville. Bi'ooks, H. Evelyn, Madisonville. Ford, Cannie W., Covington. Hill, Patty S., Louisville. Mark, E. II., Louisville. Merker, Margaret, Louisville. Williams, David, Milton. Young, J. B., Davenport. IRELAND. ITALY. Strobel, Pellegrino, Parma. JAPAN. • Kuroda, Sadaharn, Hongo. KANSAS. Peterson, Carl F., Lindsborg. Reed, Robert S., Cedar Point. Richardson, Wm., Wichita. Sharp, S. Z., McPherson. Smith, 0. L., Phillipsburg. Snow, Francis H., Lawrence. Taylor, Mrs. A. R., Emporia. Wilkinson, J. W., Emporia. Wood, Mary A., Topeka. Yowell, T. A., Wichita. — Iowa, -Ireland, 1. —Italy, 2. — Japan, 3. — Kansas, KENTUCKY. Obenchain, W. A., Bowling Green. Poynter, W. T., Shelby ville. Rhoads, McIIenry, Frankfort. Ryland, Wm. S., Russellville. Taylor, S. B., Louisville. Warfield, W. C, Covington. — Kentucky, LOUISIANA. Ayres, Brown, New Orleans. McGingin, Carrie, New Orleans. Baer, Clara G., New Orleans. Ramsey, Geo. J., Clinton. Brown, Marion, New Orleans. Soule, George, New Orleans. King, Frank E., New Orleans. ' Wright, Sophia B., New Orleans. Librarian New Orleans Educational Asso- ciation, New Orleans. — Louisiana, 9. MAINE. Adams, Chas. Everett, Bangor. Fernald, M. C, Orono. Hayes, Benj. Francis, Lewiston. Gilman, Daniel G., Baltimore. Goucher, John F., Baltimore. McCahan, Jno. E., Baltimore. Prettyman, E. B., Baltimore. Taylor.-Sarah M., Portland. Whittier, Frank N., Brunswick. — Maine, 5. MARYLAND. Sadler, Warren H., Baltimore. Schaffer, Edward M., Baltimore. Wise, Henry A., Baltimore. Worthington, John D., Belair. — Maryland, 8. MASSACHUSETTS. Abercrombie, D. W., Worcester. Adams, Chas. F., Worcester. Aldrich, George I., Newton ville. Baker, 0. M., Springfield. Baldwin, Wm. A., Andover. Barker, Edmund P., Ayer. Barrell, James S., Cam bridge port. Bryant, Oliver F., Boston. Burnham, Wm. H., Worcester. Buttrick, Mrs. S. M., Hanover. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP. 939 MASSACHUSETTS— Concluded. Chase, Florence A., Boston. Chrisman, Oscar, Worcester. Connell, Win., Fall River. Cooper, Frank I., Bridge water. Cross, Anson K., Boston. Curtis, Elmer L., llingham. Cutler, Henry F., Mount Herraon. Day, B. C, Easthampton. Deane. C. S., Adams ville. Dixon, Edward, West Brookfield. Dranga, Wilhelmina, Boston. Drew, Frank M., Worcester. Edgerly, Joseph G., Fitchburg. Edmand, E. J., Baldwinsville. Edson, A. W., Worcester. Enebuske, C. J., Boston. Fearing, Clarence W., South Weymouth. Fitz, Dr. G. W., Cambridge. Foster, Ellen B., Lowell. Gay, Geo. E., Maiden. Hall, I. Freeman, Arlington. Hallett, Samuel W., Hyannis. Harnus, Paul H., Cambridge. Hartwell, Edward M., Boston. Haskell, Claire E., Cambridge. Holt, H. E., Lexington. Hoomans, Amy Morris, Boston. Home, Irving W., Braintree. Hiding, Ray G., New Bedford. Hunt, Chas. L., Clinton. Hunt, Mrs. Mary II., Hyde Park. Ivreson, J. E., Boston. Kilbon, Geo. B., Springfield. King, Isabel, Newton. King, Rachel, Newton. Lanza, Gaetano, Boston. Larsson, Gustaf, Boston. Lewis, Mrs. H. L., Hancock. Lynch, John E., Worcester. Mason, Lizzie A., Orange. Melcher, S. A., Whitinsville. Merrill, Moses, Boston. Moore, Geo. Dunning, Worcester. Morss, Charles H., Milton. Mowry, Wm. A., Salem. Nichols, Alice, Boston. Parmenter, Chas. W., Cambridgeport. Pease, Alvin F., Northampton. Pierce, MaryE., Dorchester. Pitman, J. A., Oakdale. Posse, Baron Nils, Boston. Potter, J. R, Walpole. Ramsay, Chas. C, Fall River. Richards, Robert II., Back Bay, Boston. Riley, Lizzie A., Chelsea. Ryder, Josiah Peterson, Watertown. Runkle, John D., Brookline. Safford, A. L., Beverly. Sargent, D. A., Cambridge. Smith, Minnie, Fall River. Snyder, W. H., Worcester. Stevens, C. E., West Springfield. Tapley, Wm. W., Springfield. Thompson, John G., Leominster. Walton, Geo. A., West Newton. Warner, Annette, Pittsfield. Winship, A. E., Boston. Wheeler, U. G., Mittineague. Whitcomb, A. K., Lowell. Woodward, Herbert M., Cambridge. — Massachusetts, SO. MICHIGAN. Adams, Helen Case, Lansing. Angell, James B., Ann Arbor. Beane, Ellen M., Detroit. Blackwood, Jeanette, Detroit. Burdon, Lilian, Grand Rapids. Burnham, Stella M., Detroit. Cannell, Maud E., Ypsilanti. Chesney, Maggie, Bay City. Coffin, Miss M. E., Detroit. Cuddeback, Elnora, Grand Rapids. Cupples, James W., Lapeer. Ellis, Wm. A., Detroit. Fitch, Ferris S. , Pontiac. Garrigues, Ellen E., Ann Arbor. Goddard, Edwin C, E. Saginaw. Gorton, Lewis G., Agricultural College. Graham, Hugh A., Ontonagon. Hall, C. B., Detroit. Haviland, Hattie V., W. Bay City. Heffron, M. Cordelia, Detroit. Hetley, James H., Carson City. Hinsdale, B. A., Ann Arbor. Kimberlin, Nettie, Detroit. Mackenzie, David, Muskegon. Mauck, S. W., Houghton. Nykerk, J. B., Holland. O'Brien, Mary E., Detroit. Scott, Harriet M., Detroit. Strong, C. A., Ypsilanti. Whitney, Emory, Detroit. Whitney, M. A., Ypsilanti. — Michigan, 31. MINNESOTA. Brooks, Jabez, Minneapolis. Brooks, Sarah C, St. Paul. Carhart, Joseph, St. Cloud. Clum, Kitt, St. Paul. Corcoran, Anna T., St. Paul. Darrah, Estelle M., St. Paul. Engel, Peter, Collegeville. French, Fanny G., Winona. Galbreath, Louis H., Winona. Gilbert, C. B., St. Paul. Guptill, Fannie S., Minneapolis. Holmes, W. J., Winona. Jaeger, Mrs. Ruth, Minneapolis. Kiehle, D. L., St. Paul. 940 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Lindtwed, C. B., Northfield. Miller, M. F., Northfield. Nash, Alice 0., Minneapolis. Nolte, AnnaM., Duluth. Place, Mrs. C. L., St. Paul. MINNESOTA— Concluded. Schat.tschneider, J. J., Bethany. State Normal School, Winona. Stauff, Mrs. C. J., Wabasha. Strong, James W., Northfield. Twichell, Hattie, Minneapolis. — Minnesota, MISSISSIPPI. Barnard, J. U., Lafayette. Harris, Laura, Columbus. Lipscomb, Dabney, Agricultural College Anthony, E. L., Jefferson City. Arnold, Denham, St. Louis. Barnard, J. W., Cape Girardeau. Black, Wm. Henry, Marshall. Caldwell, A. J., St. Louis. Eaton, James R., Liberty. Fruchet, Amelia C, St. Louis. Greenwood, J. M., Kansas City. Jackson, Josephine, Hannibal. Jenness, A. L., Chillicothe. Jesse, R. H., Columbia. Ludlum, Mrs. Mary H., St. Louis. Martin, W. H., Lamar. McCulloch, Mary C, St. Louis. Merwin, J. B., St. Louis. Milligan, Sarah J., Webster Grove. Lipscomb, Mrs. Dabney, Agricultural Col. Lipscomb, Laura, Columbus. White, Jas. W., Agricultural College. — Mississippi, 6. MISSOURI. Muench, Hugo, St. Louis. Murphy, Geo. T., St. Louis. Osborn, Geo. L., Warrensburg. Page, Inman E., Jefferson City. Prewitt, Mary T., Kirksville. Ridgway, J. T., Kansas City. Riley, Matilda E., St. Louis. Robinson, Temple B., Paris. Slade, James B., E. St. Louis. Soldan, F. Louis, St. Louis. Sparrow, E. M., Moberly. Teuteberg, L. W., St. Louis. Thorn, Mrs. J. ft, Kansas City. Toensfeldt, J., St. Louis. Wood, O. M., St. Louis. Woodward, C. M., St. Louis. — Missouri, 32. MONTANA. Charles, C. M., Miles City. Paxson, E. E., Butte. Young, Robert G., Helena. — Montana, 3. NEBRASKA. Baldwin, Clara E., Lincoln. Beals, S. D., Omaha. Canfield, James H., Lincoln. Canfield, Mrs. James H., Lincoln. Chatburn, Geo. R., Wymore. Conklin, Clara, Lincoln. Fee, W. E. , Long Pine. Fitzpatrick, Frank L., Omaha. Fowler, W. K., Jr., Blair. Harris, Ebenezer D., Lincoln. Ludborough, Mrs. Gracie B., Omaha. McGee, Miss L. ft, Omaha. Moore. Hettie S., Omaha. Morgan, ElisaC, Peru. Moulux, J. B., Hastings. Munroe, Alex. A., S. Omaha. Nevins, Fannie, Omaha. Norton, A. W., Peru. Poppleton, Elizabeth E., Omaha. Reese, I). E., Oakland. Shields, Orietta Belle, Omaha. Wilson, Isaac E., Superior. Wolfe, Harry K., Lincoln. — Nebraska, 23. NETHERLANDS. Brinkgreve, Heer J. D., Dordrecht, Teekenleevar. -Netherlands, 1. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Copp, Isaac, Hillsborough. Dodge, Vienna, Webster. Piper, James ft, Stratham. Anderson, Lizzie, Camden. Briggs, Frank 0., Trenton. Bunting, Ida, Camden. Rounds, C. ft, Plymouth. Rounds, Mrs. Kate S., Plymouth. Rounds, Katharine E., Plymouth. — New Hampshire, 6. NEW JERSEY. Burrough, Clara S., Camden. Cassady, Lizzie A., Camden. Cotner, Mary ft, Camden. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP. 941 NEW JERSEY- Concluded. Davis, Charles M., Bayonne. Dix, J. Augustus, Elizabeth. Draper, Horatio, Camden. Parrell, Anna, Camden. Fithian, Laura H., Camden. Fry, Geo. E., Camden. Hall, Sallie E., Camden. Harris, H. E., Bayonne. Hill, Mrs T. R., West Creek. Hughes, Florence, Camden. Hull, Lawrence C, Lawrenceville. Kent, Wm., Passaic. Luther, Agnes Vinton, Newark. Mackenzie, J. C, Lawrenceville. Marvin, Mrs. Susan C, Jersey City. Maxson, H. M., Plainfield. Maybury, Belle, Camden. McCully, Clara E., Camden. Messlei-, Frances, Camden. Middleton, Chas. K., Camden. Musgrave, Alex., Hoboken. Ormond, Alexander T., Princeton. Salisbury, Rhyland, E. Hammonton. Sandy, W. C, Newark. Smith, W. W., Englewood. Spaulding, Randall, Montclair. Thompson, Helen J., Trenton. Willcox, Chas. H., Lawrenceville. Wright, Wm. R., Nutley. — New Jersey, 35. Allensworth, Allen, Fort Bayard. Hadley, Hiram, San Cruces. Hodgin, Chas. E., Albuquerque. NEW MEXICO. Morrow, Alcinda L., Albuquerque. Ramsay, Geo. S., Albuquerque. Winslow, Martha M., Albuquerque. — New Mexico, 6. NEW YORK. Ames, Daniel T., New York. Balch, Col. Geo. T., New York. *Bardeen, Beatrice, Syracuse. Bardeen, Bertha F., Syracuse. Bardeen, Charles R., Syracuse. Bardeen, C. W., Syracuse. Bardeen, Ethel, Syracuse. Bardeen, Norma P., Syracuse. Bartlett, Ella E., Troy. Beardsley, Elias J., Elmira. Benedict, W. H., Elmira. Benjamin, Geo. H., Albany. Bennett, Chas. A., New York. Bigelow, J. D., Moravia. Binion, Samuel A., New York. Black, James C, New York. Boelte, Mrs. Marie Kraus, New York. Bromwell, Amy, New York. Butler, Nicholas Murray, New York. Chandler, John W., Jordan. Cheney, Francis J., Cortland. Coe, Emily M., New York. Cole, Charles W., Albany. Coon, Henry Clarke, Alfred Centre. Comings, Fannie S., Brooklyn. Crandall, Chas. L., Ithaca. Crawford, Frances M., Cohoes. Cronnell, Julia W., Albany. Crowley, Mary E., Fillmore. Davidson, Martha E., Dobbs Ferry. Downing, A. S., Palmyra. Dunning, Sara L., Brooklyn. Dyke, A. W., Phoenix. Eaton, Chas. W., Brooklyn^ Elgas, Matthew J., New York. Flemming, Mary A., Buffalo. French, H. P., Albany. Friedburg, Wm. B., New York. Goodnough, Walter S., Brooklyn. Greene, J. A., New York. Griffith, Geo., Utica. Hall, Mary F., Spencer. Hambleton, Mrs. R. A., Buffalo. Harms, Meta, Brooklyn. Haven, Caroline T., New York. Hawkins, Emily J., Buffalo. Hilton, Bertha E., Amsterdam. * Hoffman, Paul, New York. Hueston, Jesse, E. Flushing. Jones, E. N., Plattsburg. Kellogg, Amos M., New York. Kelsey, David M., Saratoga Springs. Kinsley, M. H., Massena. Lovell, Thomas B., Suspension Bridge. Mac Vicar, M., Brooklyn. Mc Andrew, Wm. Andrew, Brooklyn. McKee, Wm. II., New York. Maguire, Edward, Lockport. Marsh, Clinton S., N. Towanda. Merrill, Jennie B., 112 E. 81st St., New York. Milne, James M., Oneonta. Milne, Wm. J., Albany. Morand, Emma, Troy. Morand, Linda, Troy. Montfort, R. V. R., Newburg. Norton, Lena Margaret, Rochester. Orr, Susan M., Brooklyn. Packard, Silas S., New York. Packer, E. E., Albany. Palmer, Francis B., Fredonia. Pardo, C, New York. Persons, MettaL., Gloversville. Power, Gussie, Hudson. Purdy, Henry S., Brewster. Rayson, Amy, New York. Reid, Jessie, New York. Rice, Gratia L., Buffalo. * Deceased. 942 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NEW YORK— Concluded. Richards, C. R., Brooklyn. Rock, Anna J., Niagara Falls. Rogers, Josephine E., New York. Rogers, R. R., Jamestown. Rounds, Miss C, Brooklyn. Shaw, Edward R., Yonkers. Sheldon, E. A., Oswego. Shiller, Branca, College Point. Shinier, Edgar D., Jamaica. Smith, J. Gardner, New York. Smith, Margaret K., Oswego. Sperganza, C. L., New York. Stearns, Way land E., Mohawk. Stowell, T. B., Potsdam. Thiry, John Henry, Long Island City. Thurber, Chas. Herbert, Hamilton. Trant, Amelia Earle, Buffalo. Van Tuyle, Chas. H., Hamilton. Van Wagener, Mary L., New York. Wentz, Etta Lansing, Albany. Winne, James, Poughkeepsie. Wylie, Mary J. B., Buffalo. — New York. 99. NEW ZEALAND. Dickinson, James C, Auckland. -New Zealand, 1. NORTH CAROLINA. Colten, Mrs. Sallie T., Falkland. Akels, John, Cincinnati. Armstrong, Miss M. L., Cincinnati. Baughman, L. E., Dresden. Bennett, C. W., Piqua. Bolenbaugh, Geo. B., New Richmond. Booth, E. R., Cincinnati. Chaney, N. H., Washington. Compton, Elias, Wooster. Corns, Harry, Columbus. Corson, Oscar T., Columbus. Day, W. E., Dayton. Dayton, Mrs. Fanny, Cincinnati. Dickey, Elizabeth S., Cincinnati. Dutton, Bettie A., Cleveland. Evans, Mary, Painesville. Evans, Carrie J., Cherry Fork. Felton, Elias R., Cleveland. Fillmore, Nettie, Cincinnati. Findlay, Samuel, Akron. Garst, Henry, Westerville. Gillman, J. W., Navarre. Glover, Nathan L., Akron. Goodwin, F. P., Cincinnati. Handley, C. H., Shelby. Harper, Geo. W., Cincinnati. Haupert, Chas., Wooster. Hinckley, Mrs. Emma R., Cleveland. Hirst, Cosmelia, Yellow Spring. Jones, Arthur 0., Cincinnati. Jones, Benj. T., Bellaire. Jones, John W., Circleville. Kimmell, M. A., Poland. Kohnky, Frances, Cincinnati. Kuersteine, Albert F., Cincinnati. Laird, Mrs. Ada E., Cleveland. Lathrop, Mrs. C. N., Cincinnati. Law, Mary E., Toledo. Laws, Annie, Cincinnati. Lee, Charlotte J., Youngstown. Leiter, Mrs. Frances W., Mansfield. Lewis, M. H.. Circleville. Long, C. C, Cincinnati. Smedes, Bennett, Raleigh. — North Carolina, 2. OHIO. Loomis, H. T., Cleveland. McCauley, J. C, Defiance. Magurk, Mary E., Cincinnati. Marshall, L. R., Newark. Mertz, H. N., Steubenville. Mohler, Jerome B., Gallipolis. Nohr, Robert, Cincinnati. O'Donnell, C. J., Cincinnati. Osgood, Anna M., Columbus. Parker, Henry M., Elyria. Parmenter, C. W., Akron. Patrick, Ellen M., Cincinnati. Peirce, Wm. Foster, Gambier. Peters, J. A., Tiffin. Pinney, Mrs. Weltha, Columbus. Raschig, H. II., Avondale. Rood, W. V., Akron. Sanor, S. D., Youngstown. Scott, James W., London ville. Scott, W. H., Columbus. Sharp, J. W., Mansfield. Shawan, J. A., Columbus. Smith, Olive E., Massillon. Smith, Olive L., Albany. Smock, E. E., Cumberland. Speidel, August, Tiffin. Sproull, W. 0., Cincinnati. Stay, J. D., Cleveland. Stevenson, Mary II., Cincinnati. Stewart, N. Coe, Cleveland. Stickney, Lucia, Cincinnati. Sullivan, Christian, Walnut Hills, Cincin- nati. Sullivan, Margaret, Columbus. Sutherland, Margai-et W., Columbus. Thomas, R. S., Warren. Turrill, Isaac H., Cincinnati. Vandegrift, Wm. C, Toledo. Venable, Wm. Henry, Cincinnati. Vogel, Wm. H., Cincinnati. Waite, Geo. S., Toledo. Westentoi-f, Mrs. Katherine, Cincinnati. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP. 943 OHIO — Concluded. White, Emerson E., Columbus. Wilson, Lucy L., Oberlin. Gallagher, R. E., Hamilton. Hughes, Mrs. Ada M., Toronto. Kirklan, Thomas, Toronto. Laidlaw, Jean R., Woodstock. Lawson, Caroline, Toronto. London, James, Toronto. Allen, G. W., Portland. Bloss, John M. Corvallis. Carson, Luella Clay, Eugene. Worden, Mrs. E. D., Cincinnati. Youmans, P. M., Cincinnati. —Ohio, 86. ONTARIO. Manintyre, Mary Ethel, Toronto. Millar, John, Toronto. Newcomb, Mrs. L. T., Hamilton. Sinclair, Samuel B., Hamilton. Wylie, Mary J. B., Brantford. — Ontario, 11. OREGON. Hawthorne, Benj. J., Eugene. McElroy, E. B., Salem. Young, Frederick G., Portland. — Oregon, 6. PENNSYLVANIA. Albro, S. H., Mansfield. Andrews, S., Pittsburg. Benthien, Elizabeth M., Millbrook. Boger, Cyrus, Lebanon. Brooks, Edwards, Philadelphia. Broumbough, M. G., Huntingdon. Buehrle, R. K., Lancaster. Cargo, R. M., Pittsburg. Caroland, Mary R., Philadelphia. Christ, D. H., Minersville. Crouter, A. L. E., Philadelphia. Deatrick, W. W., Kutztown. Dewey, James A., Wananne. Eccleston, Mrs. S. C, Philadelphia. Ehinger, Clyde E.. West Chester. Fleisher, Daniel, Troy. Gotwals, Jos. K., Norristown. Hallowell, Anna, Philadelphia. Higginbotham, May, Philadelphia. Heins, Mary, Eshbach. Hoffecker, R. F., Norristown. Huber, Vincent, Beatty. Kieffer, John B., Lancaster. La vers, E. C, New Brighton. Lamberton, Mary J., Philadelphia. Leister, H. F., Phoenixville. Lodge, Susan C, West Chester. Lyte, E. Oram, Millersville. MacAllister, James, Philadelphia. Mackenzie, Constance, Philadelphia. Mackey, Supt. E., Butler. Myers, J. A., McVeytown. Miller, L. W., Philadelphia. Morrison, A. J., Philadelphia. Mumford, Mary E., Philadelphia. Noetling, William, Selinsgrove. Palmer, Lelia B., Titusville. Rondinella, L. F., Philadelphia. Roth, Henry Rupp, Bradford. Samuel, Wm. H., Philadelphia. Schaefer, N. C, Lancaster. Seips, Theodore L., Allentown. Shaffner, Ruth, Carlisle. Smith, Andrew Thomas, Westchester. Spayd, H. H., Minersville. Speakman, Warren C, West Chester. Spencer, Pauline W., Philadelphia. Spiegle, Grace E., Philadelphia. Stearns, Chas. H., Indiana. Stewart, Sarah A., Philadelphia. Tadd, J. Liberty, Philadelphia. Townsend, Geo. W., Philadelphia. Walton, Jos. S., Ercildoun. Williams, Anna W., Philadelphia. Wright, Elizabeth M., Pittsburg. Wright, Mary, Philadelphia. Young, E valine, Philadelphia. — Pennsylvania, 57. PRUSSIA. Fett, W. A., Konigsberg. Harper, J. M., Quebec. QUEBEC. RHODE ISLAND. — Prussia, 1. — Quebec, 1. Bliss, Geo. N., East Providence. Churche, Geo. E., Providence. Delabarre, Edmund B., Providence. Draper, Frank O., Lincoln. Fisher, GilmanC, Pawtucket. Foster, Wm. E., Providence. Grant, Wm. Webster, Providence. Gay, P. A., Pawtucket. Guilbert, Jean F., Providence. Hammett, Elizabeth, Newport. Harris, Miss E. G., Woonsocket. Johnson, Ernest H., E. Providence. Kingsley, W. G., Providence. Putnam, Helen C., Providence. 944 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. RHODE ISLAND— Concluded. Rich, Joseph W. V., Providence. Snow, Leonis F., Providence. Stockwell, Thos. B., Providence. Deboglaff, Monsieur, Tiflis. Dewid, J. W.. Zlota 26, Warsaw. Fortunatoff, Professor, Moscow. Janovsky, Monsieur C, Tiflis. Kaidanoff, Mile., Tiflis. Klauss, Madame, Tiflis. Wightman, J. L., Pawtucket. Wilson, W. E., Providence. — Rhode Island, 19. RUSSIA. Kovalevsky, Eugraphe, St. Petersburg. Meller, Monsieur Paul, Tiflis. Nebolsine, Gregoire, St. Petersburg. Sigel, Theodore, Warran. Tamaincheff, Madame, Tiflis. Tanchul, Professor Ivan, Moscow. — Russia, 12. SCOTLAND. Clapperton, Margaret A., Edinburgh. Galloway, Janet A., Glasgow. Howden, Janet, Edinburgh. — Scotland, 3. SOUTH AMERICA. Howard, Jennie E., San Nicolas, Argen- Ruano, Albert G., Montevideo, Uruguay, tine Republic. — South America, 2. SOUTH CAROLINA. Bogeman, Louise, Ninety-Six. Davis, Ellery W., Columbia. Jones, Anna S., Bennettsville. Beadle, Wm. H. H. (2), Madison. Bredel, Clara H., Aberdeen. Nance, Mrs. M. E., Columbia. Patrick, John B., Anderson. — South Carolina, 5. SOUTH DAKOTA. Cross, A. G., Mitchell. Peabody, Helen S., Sioux Falls. — South Dakota, 5. SPAIN. Campos, Manuel Torres, Grenada. Ribera, Emilio, Valencia. Lagerstedt, N. G. W., Stockholm. Lundin, Hulda, Stockholm. Rodrigner, Juan, Valencia. — Spain, 3. SWEDEN. Osterberg, Edwin, Stockholm. Torngren, L. M., Stockholm. — Sweden, fy. TENNESSEE. Boardman, Samuel W., Marysville. Brachvogle, Leska, Nashville. Braden, J., Nashville. Garrett, W. R., Nashville. Atwood, T. J., Houston. Bledsoe, Thomas A., Abilene. Daniels, Miss M. I., Galveston. Dickinson, Mrs. C. T., Dallas. Harn, A. H., Pearsall. Harper, Mrs. M. A., Waco. Harris, Laui*a, Waco. Hogg, Alex., Fort Worth. Jones, M. H., Fort Worth. Aber, Wm. M., Salt Lake City. Malone, W. R., Salt Lake City. Martin, A. S., Salt Lake City. Millspaugh, J. F., Salt Lake City. Goodman, Frank, Nashville. Nance, Bethenia, Nashville. Toon, W. B., Franklin. White, W. T., Knoxville. — Tennessee, 8. TEXAS. McNeely, J. W., Wharton. Parsons, H. S., Italy. Randol, N. C, Fort Worth. Scratchley, M. C. E., Concepcion. Scull, Clara E., Galveston. Sutton, N. S., Houston. Vaughn, Mary, Fort Worth. Wedemeyer, Chas. H., Belton. — Texas, 17. UTAH. Hallock, Edwin S., Salt Lake City. Rook, Mrs. Susie B., Salt Lake City. Young, Geo. C, Salt Lake City. —Utah, 7. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP. 945 Putney, Chas. E., St. Johnsbury. Anderson, Chas. E., Adwolf. VERMONT. Wheeler, H. O., Burlington. VIRGINIA. Harrison, Corinne, Norfolk. WASHINGTON. Vermont, 2. Virginia, 2. Barnard, Prank II., Seattle. Oarothers, Geo. R., Tacoma. Keyes, Margaretta H., Olympia. — Washington, 3. WASHINGTON, D. C. Blodgett, James H., Washington. Schaeffer, Edward M., Washington. Cabell, Mrs. Wm. D., Washington. Schmidt, Anna, Washington. Eaton, John, Washington. Spencer, Mrs. Sara A., Washington. Pollock, Mrs. Louise, Washington. — Washington, D. C, 7. WEST INDIES. Gillies, William, Kingston. Hicks, George, Shooters Hill. West Indies, 2. WEST VIRGINIA. Anderson, W. II., Wheeling. Barnes, J. Walter, Fairmount. Campbell, James Edwin, Farm. Dandridge, Mrs. E. M., Quinnimont Evans, Chas. W., Fairmount. Amidon, L. E., West Bend. Anderson, W. H., Wheeling. Berkey, Nellie, Menomonee. Bruce, Wm. G., Milwaukee. Devlin, Sarah, Woodworth. Dresden, B. M„ West Bend. Felt, Emily M. B;, Platte ville. Forbes, Annie, Waukesha. Goldsmith, Mary R., Milwaukee. Holmes, Manfried J., Winona. Hoyt, Judson E., Menomonee. Hull, John, River Falls. Hutton, A. J., Platteville. Jackson. B. B., Bayfield. Jones, Ellen C. L., Hillside. Kruteson, Anna M., La Crosse. Maulsby, Lawrence S., Fairmount. Payne, C. H., Montgomery. Prillerman, Byrd, Charleston. Shields, D. W., New Martinsville. — West Virginia, 9. WISCONSIN. McGregor, D., Platteville. Needham, Oliver, Midway. Nichols, Alice, La Crosse. Nicholson, Dexter P., Appleton. Sabin, Ellen C, Fox Lake. Salisbury, Albert, Whitewater. Seelye, Osman C, Racine. Severance, Sara L., Superior E. End. Shields, Mrs. Una M., West Superior. Shutts, G. O, Whitewater. Sperdel, August, Milwaukee. Sylvester, C. PL, Madison. Todd, Samuel Brown, Madison. Vandewalker, Nina C, Whitewater. Wells, O. E., Madison. Woodward, Herbert M., Milwaukee. — Wisconsin, 32. WYOMING. Merz, Henry, Laramie. RESIDENCE UNKNOWN. International Money Order, Hungary. Rosechig, H. H. 60 — Wyoming, 1. Worden, Mrs. E. Davidson. — Residence Unknown, 3. II^DEX. Abbe, Cleveland, 526. Abbott, D. Q., 246. Abbott, Jacob, 818. Abbott, Lyman, 14.- Abercrombie, D. W., 177, 180, 199. Aberdeen, Scotland, 245, 385. Ability in teaching, 8. Abingdon, Va., 325. Abnormal manifestations, 143. Aborn, Frank, 591. Abrahamson, Augusto, 590. Abridging the time given to languages, 197. A-B's, teaching them, 36. Absence from school, 85. Abstract relations, 155. Abt, 9. Academic character of normal schools, 384, 432. degrees in pedagogy, 384, 440. Academic Pioneer, The, 828. Academician, The, 811, 826. Academies, supervision of, 6. Academy or ordinary high-school, 29. universal, 56. course in, 108. a one-horse, 191 , 193. a well-equipped, 193. Accompaniment of vocal music, 9. Accomplishments of technological schools, 525, 534. Accuracy in the use of English, 127. Achievement in founding a university, 168. Achievements of Turnerbund, 11. of leaders, 18. in Ontario, 41. Ackermann, Ed., 385. Acquaintance, elementary, 48, 130. Acropolis in Jackson Park, 23. Action, concerted, to protect colleges, 160. Acts of Congress, 32. Adams, Charles Francis, 130. Adams, Helen C, 324. Adams, Herb. B., 91. Adams, H. C, 92. Adams, John, 385. Adams, Thomas G., 617. Adaptation of methods of instruction, 244, 301. Addison, 170. Additional papers submitted to Kinder- garten Department, 360. Addresses made by Angell, James B., 32, 34, 65, 88, 164. Bonney, Charles G., 17, 25, 65. Buisson, B., 16, 39. Eaton, John, 247. Fallows, Samuel, 20. Gilman, D. C, 94, 167. Hall, G. Stanley, 713. Harper, W. R., 167. Harris, W. T., 65. Hartwell, E. M., 10, 618. Henrotin, Mrs. Charles, 22. Hughes, Ada M., 326. Huling, R. Greene, 181. Kovalevsky, E., 16, 55. Lane, A. G., 30. MacAlister, James, 805. Mackenzie, J. C, 182. McCosh, James, 682. Packard, S. S., 788. Peabody, Selim II., 23. Root, F. W., 510. Ross, G., 16, 39. Rounds, C. C, 810. Runkle, J. D., 10. Sheldon, E. A., 383. Waetzoldt, Stephen, 16. Walker, Francis A., 525. Wilmarth, Mrs. II. M., 23. Wolkonskv, Prince, 16, 37. Adelaide, Australia, 89, 243, 278. Adjustment, new, required, 197. of kindergarten to primary school, 7. Adler, Felix, 591. Adler, Herr, 245. Admiration excited, 88. Admission to normal schools, 8. to high-schools, 86. present state of, 118. Adornments of civilization, 163. Adrian College, 92. Adrian, Mich., 92. Advance in civilization, 162. Advancement made in education, 35. of our civilization, 161. of society, 145. Advancing civilization, 40. Advantages, practical, of business training, 10. boasted, 27. abandoned, 106. etymological, of Greek, 137. 948 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Advantages in power of appointment, 191. of commercial college training, 791. Advertising, art of, 185. Advisory counsel a corporate body, 23. Advocates of modern culture, 127. of the old education, 155. of the sciences, 198. Aesthetic question in teaching drawing, 8. basis of instruction, 10. sense, 29. aim of drawing, 455. Aesthetics found in novels, 175. Africa, 12, 244. Age of combination and supervision, 192. school-going, 68. Agencies cooperating toward Christian civiliza- tion, 162. of house and school, 164. " Agregation," a degree in France, 173. Agitation in the life of nations, 31. Agreement, general, 23. Agricultural botany, 244, 304. Agriculture studied in schools, 6. as a calling, 18. in rural schools, 244, 304. Aim a purpose of school, 321. aesthetic, of drawing, 455. principal, of the study of the classics, 130. Aims of Turnerbund, 11. of education, 45. Aims and work of the Institute of Gym- nastics, 615, 662. Aix, France, 245. Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen), Germany, 89. Akron, O., 92, 325, 507, 512. Alabama, 13, 90, 179, 323, 385, 526. Albany, N. Y., 14, 325, 386. Albee, G. S., 386. Albion College, 92. Albion, Mich., 92. Albuquerque, J. d'Azevedo, 90. Alcott, Alice J. C, 325. Alcott, Wm. A., 812. Alden, Mrs. C. M. N., 325. Algebra in elementry schools, 6. or geometry, which first? 178, 221. Alington, H. G., 245. Allegheny City, Pa., 325. Allegheny College, 617. Allegheny, Pa., 93. Allen, Anne E., 323. Allen, Edw. P., 91. Allen, Ira W., 179. Allen, Jerome, 384, 434. Allen, Prof., 525, 551. Allen University, 93. Allen, W. E., 180. Allen, Miss Willette, 323. Allentown, Pa., 93, 681. Alliance, 0., 92, 617. Alliance of university with the people, 18. Allievo, Giuseppe, 87, 90, 109. Allyn, Rob., 814. Alma College, 681. Alma, Mich., 324, 681. Alt, Solomon A., 681. Altona, Germany, 68, 179. Altoona, Pa., 325. Alvellino, Italy, 399. Alvord, H. E., 526. Amaron, C. E., 91. Ambrosius, Dr., 590. America, compulsory education in, 53. kindergarten in, 322. American Annals of Education and In- struction, 812. American Association for the Study of Children, 714. American Educationist, TJie, 828. American Journal of Education, H. Bar- nard's, 812, 822. American Journal of Education (St. Louis), 842. American Philological Association, 160. American Teacher, The, 820. American scholars, 96. universities, 96. experiments, 105; public, 125. students, 142, 145. spirit, 136. the, of the future, 163. education, 167. homes, 186. citizens, 192. Americanism triumphant, 125. Hellenism in, 125. Ames, Chas. H., 591. Ames, la., 526. Ames, James B., 87, 112. Amherst College, 91, 617. Amherst, Mass., 91, 527, 617, 716. Ami de VEnfance, 848. Amount of time given to language, 177, 196. Amplification of an argument, 126. Amsden, 67. Amsterdam, Netherlands, 456. Analogous to physicians' duties, 72. Analysis of art works, 8. of sculpture, 8. Analyze below the surface, 73. works of great masters, 455, 473. Ancient languages for kindergartners, 7. Ancient world, the, 153. Anderson, Lizzie, 325. INDEX. 949 Anderson, Mrs. Eliz., 89. Anderson, Newton M., 591. Anderson, S. C, 178, 224. Anderson, W. H., 70. Andover, Mass., 177, 180, 196. Andrews, A. S., 90. Andrews, Benj., 93. Andrews, Chas. M., 92. Andrews, N. L., 92. Anecdote in circulation among German students, 157. Angelier, M., 175. Angell, James B., 5, 16, 65, 87, 91, 160. Anglo-American literature, 129. Anglo-Saxon races, 40. mind, 170. Annales de Oeographie, 849. Annandale, N. Y., 92. Annapolis, Md., 91. Annapolis and West Point, 186. Ann Arbor, Mich., 11, 92, 260, 324, 509, 681. Annex to congress, 23. of Harvard, 101. Annville, Pa., 92. Antagonistic to kindergarten work, 322. Antecedent liberal education, 87, 112. Anthony, Brother, 92. Antioch College, 92. Antiquity, respect for, 20. Anvers, Belgium, 590. Anxiety to establish republicanism, 40. Apostolic injunction, 107. Apparatus for physical education, 10. exercises without, 615, 626. Appendix, a symposium on higher educa- tion of women, 853. Applause justified, 37. Appleton, Wis., 679, 681. Appliances of teaching, 7. Application of science and art of teaching, 73. of principles of physical training, 714, 739 Applied mathematics, 9, 525, 526, 560, 583. Appointment of teachers, 7, 78, 81, 191. and tenure of office of superintendents, 67, 77. Appreciation of honor and dignity, 36. keener, 322. Apprentices before master-workmen, 77. Appropriate parts of all instruction, 18. Appropriation of useful knowledge, 198. Aptitude, natural, for Greek, 124. for science, 155. Arboriculture in rural schools, 244, 304. Arce, Nunez de, 13. Archer, H. P., 70. Archibald, Lilian D., 323. Architectural drawing, 9. Architecture, to be master of, 18. Arctic Explorations, paper by Gen. A. W. Greely, 6. Arena, educational, 22. Argentine Republic, 12, 89, 244, 323, 384. Argument, basis of, in Cleveland, 78. against supervision, 193. Aristotle, his doctrine, 11. as an educator, 161. studies in, 171. Aristotle's works on ethics, psychology, etc., 119. his metaphysics, 151, 700. Arithmetic, written, a conventional study, 7. Arizona, 90, 385, 526. Arkansas, 90, 179, 246, 385, 509. Armour Institute, Chicago, 455. Armstrong, A. C, 680. Armstrong, G. F. S., 90. Army, noble, of men and women, 36. Arnold, Denham, 180. Amy, W. H. H., 834. Arras, Prance, 385. Arresting development, 28. Art studies, 6, 472, 473, 476. examination of teachers in, 7. instruction, 8. great types, 8. mechanic arts, 10. of writing, 10. instinct, 455, 466; its development, 466. schools, 455. of correct expression, 152. of advertising, 185. Articles, useful, 10. Articulation of the various parts, 199. Artificial aids, 132. Art Institute, 31, 67, 87. Art Institute, Chicago, 456, 497. Artistic merit, 507, 513. Artistic taste in drawing, 8. in music, 487. Artists, their devices, 8. Arts include Latin and Greek, 128. a shorter course in the, 589, 597. Art study, does it concern the public schools ? 487. Ascham, 170. Ascoli-Piceno, Italy, 590. Ashenhurst, Thomas R., 526. Asheville, N. C, 180, 325. Ashland, Ala., 179. Ashland, Va„ 70, 93, 681. Asia, people of, 30. Aspect, moral, of games, 146. of the question, another, 192. higher, of business education, 796. 950 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Aspects, higher, of business education, 10. physiological, of exercises, 10 physical, emotional, intellectual, and volitional, 29. of the curriculum in elementary schools, 243, 262. of the question, twofold, 112. of exercises without apparatus, 615, 626. Aspen, Colo., 323. Assimilating what others have discovered, 38. Associations, political, 49. Association tracks in reading and writing, 715, 756. Assume English forms of habit and preju- dices, 172. Astronomy, to be a master of, 18. of Aristotle, 119. Asylum for imbecile children, 715. Athens, Ga., 526. Athens, Greece, 22. Athens, 0., 92. Atherton, Geo. W., 527. Athletics of undergraduates, 6. athletic movement in France, 11. in life of undergraduates, 145. Athletic sports, regulation of, 615, 636. Atkinson, Edw., 14. Atlanta, Ga., 13, 91, 179, 323, 509. Atmosphere of our globe, 46. Atomic theory, 155. Atrophy of independence, 50. Attendance, compulsory, 7, 68. Attitude, critical, 74. Attorney, unlicensed, 185. Auburn, Ala., 526. Auckland, New Zealand, 89, 244, 315. Augusta, Ga., 323. Augustana College, 91. Austin, Tex., 246, 325, 386, 681. Australia, 12, 89, 243. Australia, educational work for women in, 887. Australasia, 244, 456, 590. Austria, 12, 68, 89, 178, 323, 366, 383, 508, 590, 616. Authorities implored to put a stop to granting degrees, 160. Authority, municipal, 6, 177, 183. state, 6. divine, 46. in a subject, 158. state and municipal, 187. Auxiliary of World's Congress. 17, 25. Avellaneda, L. J., 384. Avellino, Italy, 385. Awakening, a general, 118. Aylesworth, Barton O., 680. Ayr, N. B., Scotland, 245. Ayres, Brown, 526. B B.A. and B.S., degrees of, 140. Babcock, M., 246. " Baccalaureat moderne," 169. Bachelor of arts 61, 118, 122-135. of philosophy, 121, 123. of science, 124, 131. Bacon, 170, 185. Bad spellers, constitutionally, 713, 762. Baehring, Pfarrer, 323. Baer, Clara G., 616. Baeumker, Clemens, 89. Bagdad, the caliphs of, 186. Bailey, Henry T., 455, 458. Bailey, J. E., 509. Bailev, J. M., 715. Bailliart, Z., 245. Baird, A. S., 385. Baker College, 509. Baker, Elizabeth, 325. Baker, I. S., 836. Baker, James II., 87, 90, 118. Baker, Janie R., 325. Baker, Prof., 526. Baker, T. O., 246. Baker, Wm. M., 835. Baker, W. S., 842. Balch, C. H., 591. Balch, Geo.T., 246. Baldwin, Clara E., 325. Baldwin, E. T., 509. Baldwin, Mrs. S., 324. Baldwin, Theron, 833. Ballantine, Wm. G., 92. Ballarat, Victoria, 244. Ballard, Addison, 716. Balliet, T. M., 69, 591, 715, 756. Ballin, Hans, 11. Ballintine, Harriet I., 617. Baltimore, Md., 13, 68, 09, 91, 324, 325, 457, 591, 616, 716. Bamapede, Giacomo Oddo, 383, 399. Bancroft, C. F. P., 177, 180, 196, 207. Bancroft, Hub. H., 13. Bangor, Me., 324. Bangor, Wales, 89. Banker, his view of business colleges, 10. Barbadona, Rafael, 12. Barbari's system of reward and punish- ments, 20. Barcelona, Spain, 90. Bardeen, C. W., 5, 825. Bargiel, Waldemar, 508. Barker, R. J., 527. Barnaby, H. J., 245. Barnard College, 92. Barnard, F. J., 70. Barnard, Henry, 5, 40, 53, 64, 812, 813, 815, 816, 817, 818. Barnard, J. U., 842. Barnardo, T. J., 13. Barnes, Earl, 322, 355, 446, 713, 765, 715.. Barnes, Mrs. M. Sheldon, 90. INDEX. 951 Barnett, P. A., 385. Barra, Dr. F. de la, 12. Barre, Vt., 325. Barrett, A. T., 70. Barriers, artificial, 64. Barron, J. L., 507, 513, 522. Bartholomew, W. H., 177, 178, 192, 224; 241. Barzellotti, Giac, 90. Basal concept, the soul, 679, 693. Basis, aesthetic, of instruction, 10. for life, a kindergarten, 321, 346. for pyschology: child study, 713, 717. of pedagogy : child study, 713, 718. Bast, K., 215. Batavia, N. Y., 325. Bateman, N., 69, 837. Bates College, 681. Bates, Sam. W., 813. Bath, England, 245. Bathgate, W., 245. Battersea (London), England, 385. Battle Creek College, 681. Battle Creek, Mich., 681. Baudrillard, M., 590. Bauer, A., 89. Baylor University, 93. Bayonne, N. J., 69. Beach, Fletcher, 715. Beadle, W. H. H., 386. Beal, A. M., 91. Beale, Miss Dorothea, 13. Bean, C. W., 70. Beardshear, W. M., 526. Bearings, general, of the question of Greek, 137. Beatty, Laura M., 324. Beaunis, Prof., 715. Beaver, Pa., 180. Bechtold, Gregory, 680. Beckner, Wra, 13. Bedford, England, 179. Beebe, Katherine, 323. Beer, Wm., 246. Beethoven, 9. Belfast, Ireland, 90. Belfield, H. H., 589, 591, 605, 836. Belfort, France, 245. Belgium, 12, 60, 89, 244, 384, 456, 590. Belgrade, Servia, 90. Believer, firm, in the old, 20. Beljance, Prof., 175. Bell, A. Graham, 13, 301. Bell Buckle, Tenn., 180. Bell, W. A., 825, 830. Bellevue, Neb., 92. Belmont, Cal., 177, 179. Beloit College, 93, 178, 234, 716. Beloit, Wis., 93, 716. Benedict, Martin G., 386. Benefactors of the public, 165. Benefits of reciprocal relations, 803. Ben Jonson's little Latin and less Greek, 129. Bennet, Chas. A., 590, 614. Benton, Thos. H., 840. Beowulf, 170. Berea College, 91. Berea, Ky., 91. Berea O. 91. Berkeley^'Cal., 90, 590, 616. Berkshire, England, 179. Berlin, Germany, 11, 12, 68, 179, 245, 322, 323, 346. 369, 385, 456, 508, 590, 616, 674. Bermuda, 244. Bernard, Claude, 54. Berne, Switzerland, 179. Berra, Dr. F. A., 13. Berthelot, M., 12. Berthelt, A., 12, 68. Berthuin, M., 590. Besancon, France, 245, 385. Bessonov, M. P., 90. Best, Blanche, 617. Best schools in the world, West Point and Annapolis, 186. Bethel College, 91, 716. Betis, Victor, 179. Betz, Carl, 617. Beust, Friedrich, 323. Bible, 6. Biekmore, A. S., 527. Bicknell, T. W., 246, 814, 815, 820. Biddeford, Me., 246. Biddle University, 92, 681. Biedermann, Prof. , 590. Bier, W., 616. Bierman, E. B., 92. Billing, Dr. H. von, 508. Binet, Alf., 715. Bingham, Robert, 180. Biological and psychological fields, 137. sciences, 127. instruction, 155. Biology, a school of, 107. Bird, Miss T. H., 385. Birmingham, Eng., 68/179, 385. Birmingham, Pa., 180. Bismarck, N. Dak., 69. Bixby, Sophia S. , 325. Black, Dr., 679, 686, 699. Blackboard, 73. Blackman, O., 836. Blackman, Prof., 505, 512, 513. Blacksburg. Va., 527. Blair, Hon. H. W., 14. Blairstown, N. J., 180. Blaisdell, James J., 716. Blake, K. S., 386. Blaker, Mrs. E. A., 324. Blakiston, J. R., 68. Blanchard, Chas. A., 88, 91, 145, 155, 160. Bland, Wm. T., 681. Blanton, J. P., 716. Blanton, L. H., 91. BLisius, Wm., 89. 952 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Blessing, not a, to the public, 165. the greatest, to Chicago, 168. Bliss, Mary E., 325. Block, L. 'J., 715. Blodgett, James H., 835, 837. Blodgett, Sunt., 67. Blomqvist, Miss Elizabeth, 178. Bloomington, 111., 91, 244, 324, 680. Bloomington, Ind., 616, 715. Bloomsburg. Ind., 386. Blow, Miss Susan E., 322. Blunders young teachers make, 191. Bluntschli, F., 13. Board of control, 188. of wardens, 188. of health, 187. of trustees, 192. a, from Oxford and Cambridge, 191. Board of education, 77. of Philadelphia, 67. Boardman, Annie C, 325. Boardman, S. W., 93, 679, 680, 699, 703, 705, 711. Bochum, Germany, 245. Body of thought, 117. of doctrine, 155. Boettcher, Hon., 245. Bogdanov, M. Anatole, 90. Bologna, Italy, 118. Bologna University (Italy), 118. Boltwood, H. L., 177, 191, 205, 209, 241, 246, 837. Bonafede, G. O., 385. Bondy, Helen, 456, 505. Bondy, Ottilie, 323, 366. Bonghi's " Publica Instruzione," 822. Bonham, Tex., 180. Bonis, G. de, 456. Bonn, Germ., 12, 89, 616. Bonnell, W. B., 89. Bonney, Chas. G., Pres. World's Congress Auxiliary, 4, 17, 32, 65. Book of nature, of humanity, and divinity, 48. of science, philosophy, and religion, 48. Bookmakers per se, 41. Books of his own time, 175. Boos-Jegher, Ed., 525, 553, 613. Born preachers, 115. Bosanquet, Bern., 680. Boston College, 91. Boston, Mass., 10, 14, 67, 69, 91, 177, 180, 194, 205, 246, 322, 324, 344, 386, 455, 456. 457, 487, 509, 519, 525, 526, 567, 569. 589, 591, 599, 615, 617, 618, 681, 713. Boston Post, 376. Boston Saturday Evening Press, 376. Boston University, 91, 681. Botany as a study, 6, 177, 196. make room for, 196. Botany in a medical course, 117. Botella, Federico de, 13. Botta, Vincenzio, 14. Boulder, Col., 90, 680. Bounties held in trust, 199. Bourbonnais Grove, 111., 680. Bourne, Alfred, 323. Boutelle, Carrie M., 325. Bouton, Eng., 68. Bowdoin College, 91. Bowen, Courthope, 321, 323. Bower, Lucia M., 323. Bowling-Green, Ky., 91. Box the educational compass, 105. Boyd, Dr. Henry, 13. Boyesen, Hj. Hjorth, 92. Boys and girls receive manual training, 10. with brains, 167. should have same instruction, 590, 606. Brachvogel, Mrs. Liska, 507, 512. Brackett, C. F., 134. Braden, J., 93. Bradford, Eng., 245, 526. Bradley, Miss Amy M., 246. Brainerd, Ezra, 93. Branch, special, of science and art, 27. of learning needing aid, 182. Branches of study in normal schools, 8. in business colleges, 10. essential, 243. Branconi, P. L., 245. Brandenberg, Dr., 12, Bratten, Mrs. F. D. M., 325. Braun, Henry, 617. Braunschweig, Germany, 89, 245, 385. Brazil, 89, 244. Breal, Michel, 12. Breslau, Germany, 12, 68, 89. Bridgeport, Conn., 88. Bridgman, George H., 92. Briggs, Frank O., 246. Briggs, S. A., 835. Bright children, 84. Bright, 0. T., 67, 246. Brightman, Mrs. L. P., 679, 680. Brink, J. Ten, 90. Brinkgreve, J. D., 456. Bristol, Conn., 323. Bristol, Eng., 188, 245, 526. Britton, Edw. E., 180. Brocklesby, John, 815. Brodfiihrer, M., 245. Bronte, Charlotte, 175. Brookings, S. D., 527. Brookline, Mass., 69. Brooklyn, N. Y., 92, 246, 325, 383, 386, 430, 456, 457, 507, 509, 513, 681, 713, 762. Brooks, Angeline, 325. Brooks, Edw.. 69, 384, 451, 713, 772. Brooks, Miss H. E., 321, 386. Brooks, W. M., 91. INDEX. 953 Broomell, J. H., 385. Broughty Ferrv, N. B. (Scot.), 245. Brown, C. G., 385. Brown, Fannie P., 323, 504. Brown, Florence A., 324. Brown, George P., 244, 300, 680, 703, 825, 826, 831, 839. Brown University, 93, 716. Brown. Wm, Letioy, 526. Browne, W. J., 245. Browning is Greek in culture, 128. Browning, Oscar, 321, 385, 824. Brownings, The, 170. Bruce, 0. H., 246. Bruch, Max, 508. Bruges, Belgium, 244. Bruni, Oreste, 385. Brunn, Austria, 178, 323. Brunner, Hon. D. B., 14. Brunswick, Me., 91, 616. Brussels, Belgium, 12, 26, 89, 456, 590. Bruton, Eng.,245. Bryan, Anna E., 324. Bryan, W. L., 715. Bryant, Mrs. S., 90. Bryce, Prof. James, 13, 94. Bryne, P., 385. Brvn Mawr College, 92, 93, 101, 617. Bryn Mawr, Pa., 92, 617. Buchanon, J. L., 70. Buckingham, Miss., 679. Bucksport, Me., 179. Buda, 111., 324. Budapest, Hungary, 13, 179. Buddensieg, Rud., 12. Buehrle, Supt., 67, 69. Buenos Avres, 12, 89, 244, 384. Buffalo, N. Y., 246, 322, 325. Building, separate, for a manual training school, Buisson, B., 4, 12, 39, 53, 178, 217, 243, 262. Buisson, M. F.,415. Bulletin Administratif, 850. Bulletin Administratif du Ministhre de V Instruction Publique, 845. Bulletin Scolaire de V Union Francaise pour le Sauvetage de V Enfance, 850. Biilow, Wm., 245. Bumstead, II or., 91. Bunker Hill Monument, 81. Burbridge, F. W., 385. Burchard, 0. R., 841. . Bureau of Education in each State, 22. Burgauer, David, 323. Burgerstein, Leo, 616. Burgess, Edw., 69. Buriet, M. J. de, 12. Burke, 170. Burleson, R. C, 93. Burlington, Vt., 180, 716. Burney, A. M., 180. Burnham, W. II., 108, 713, 718. Burns, Robert, 115. Burns, Robert, the plowman, 129. Burr, J. D., 681. Burroughs, Geo. S., 91. Burrus, John II., 527. Burt, Miss Mary E., 246. Burton-on-Trent, Eng., 245. Business, and other departments of educa- tion, 803. Business colleges (see Business Education). Business Education, theses on, 10. evolution of business college, 10, 788. advantages of, 10, 791. f graded courses, 10. imitations, 10. counting-room work, 10. art of writing, 10. higher aspects, 10, 796. its value, 10, 805. for the world's charities, 10. demands of communities, 10. shorthand, 10, 798. a merchant's view of, 10. a banker's view of, 10. equipment of teachers, 10. Business man, his needs, 18. Business woman as daughter, wife, mother, and friend, 10. the world's need of, 800. Buss, Miss Frances, 179. Butler, II. E., 681. Butler, Mr., 715. Butler, Nich. Murray, 5. Butler, Win. Allen, 188. Byers, Miss Margaret, 90. Byron, 171. Cabjolsky, G. 245. Cable, Geo. W., 14. Cabrera, Raimundo, 89. Cady, C. B., 508, 520. Cady, Isaac F., 814. Cagliari, Italy, 90. "Cain, a Mystery,'' by Byron> 173. Cairo, Egypt, 245. Calais, Me. 69. Calculus, forgotten, 139. Calder, Rob., 245. Caldwell, Wm., 681. California, 13, 67, 68, 90, 178, 179, 246, 323, 385, 590, 616, 680. California College, 90. California, Pa., 386. Calkin, John B., 384. Calkins, Mary W., 716. Calkins, N. A., 4, 5, 57. Calling, education for, 18. Camberwell, Eng., 245.- Cambridge and Oxford, 37. Cambridge, Eng., 90, 99, 217, 245, 383, 385, 407. Cambridge. Mass., 10, 91, 177, 180, 181, 527, 615, 681. Cambridge University, Eng., 90. Cambridgeport, Mass., 246. 954 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Camerino, Italy, 179. Cameron, H. C, 87, 108. Camp, D. N., 68, 815. Camp, L. I., 590. Campbell, A. H., 386. Campbell, F. J., 385. Campbell, Gabriel, 716. Campbell, J. E., 527. Campos, M. Torres, 90. Canada, physical education in, 11. list of vice-presidents, 12, 68, 89, 178, 244, 323, 384, 456, 508, 680. Candidate for degree of Doctor of Peda- gogy, 384, 436, 438, 444. Candler, W. A., 91. Canfield, James H., 87, 92, 108, 825. Cannell, Mand C, 324. Canon law, 118. Canterbury, Eng., 245. Canton, N. Y., 92, 681. Cantoni, Carlo, 90. Cap and gown, woman stretches out hand for, 22. Capacity and efficiency of German gymna- sia, 186, Capacity of pupils, 195. Cape Colony, education in, 903. Cape Girardeau, Mo., 386. Capen, B. T., 180 Capen, E. H., 91. Cape Town, Cape Colony, 244. Capital University, 0., 681. Capper, Th., 68. Carbo, Alejandro, 384. Carbondale, 111., 385. Cardiff, Wales, 90. Carey, Hon. J. M., 14. Carhart, Jos., 386. Carlin, Regina M., 508, 509, 523. Carlisle, Eng., 245. Carlisle, J. M., 386. Carlson, J. S., 681. Carlstadt, N. J., 325. Carlton, Charles, 180. Carlton College, 90. Carlton, Oliver, 813. Carlyle, 170. Carman, G. N., 177, 179, 190, 193. Carmarthen, Wales, 385. Carmuth, Dr., 385. Carnot, A., 12. Carothers, George R., 591. Carr, Mary E., 617. Carrera, Quintino, 13. Carrington, W. T., 842. Carriot, Eugene, 68. Carter, Hannah J., 456, 495. Carthage College, 91. Carthage, 111., 91. Cartright, A., 245. Cams, Paul, 715. Cary, C. P., 246. Case of Henri Frederic Amiel, 169. Cassel, Germany, 245. Catholic University, 88, 99, 161, 679, 700. Cause of Greek is the cause of pure science, 135. Cautions observed in kindergarten work, 7. Cavanagh, P. V., 92. Caverno, Charles, 680. Cedar Falls, la., 386. Cedar Rapids, la., 91. Celtic element, 170. Cempen's France, 245, 456, 508. Cenlencer, Ad., 89. Censors in examination, 61. Censorship in education, 199. Central Missouri College, 92. Central School Journal, The, 841. Central Tennessee College, 93. Central University of Iowa, 91, 681. Central University of Kentucky, 681. Central Wesleyan University, 681. Centralized power, 77. Centre College, Kentucky, 681. Centres of population, 166. Centuries give weight to degree of B. A., 124. Certificate of aptitude, 417. Certificates of teachers, 7, 42. Cesnola, L. P. di, 457. Chadband, Fanny, 324. Chair of law, first, 147. Chairman General Committee, 20. of Committee of National Educational Association, 25. Chairs, pedagogical, in universities, 414, 422. Chamber of Commerce of New York, 188. Chamberlain, Mary P., 324. Chamberlin, T. C, 88, 91, 141. Chamney, R. M., 385. Champaign, 111., 324. Champ de Mars, buildings of, 23. Champon, M., 244. Chandler, Mary, 325. Changes of text-books in Ontario, 42. in kindergarten plays and games, 321, 328. have taken place, 122. merely prophetic, 199. Chaos, educational, 139. Chapel Hill, N. C, 92, 681. Chapin, J. B., 814. Chaplin, W. S., 92. Chapman, S. I., 681. Character, qualities of, 43. academic, of normal schools, 384, 432. the greatest thing, 168. Characteristic condition of childhood, 322. Characteristics of compositions, 9. of song writers, 9. of movements aiding civilization, 26 of race, 272. of German schools, 186. INDEX. 955 Charities, the world's, business training for, 10. Charles Lamb, quoted, 138. Charles, Laura P., 324. Charleston, S. C, 70, 93, 180. Charlotte, N. C, 92, 681. Charlottesville, Va., 93, 457, 527, 617, 716. Charm for certain minds, 162. Charter given by George II., 147. Chase, AlbroE., 818. Chase, A. P., 179. Chattanooga, Tenn., 70. Chaucer, 170. Chavez, Amado, 69. Check, hold in, 41. Cheltenham, England, 179, 385. Chemistry in secondary schools, 6, 177. practice in, 9. make room for, 196. in rural schools, 244. in a medical course, 117. Chemnitz, Saxony, Germany, 11, 616, 670. Cheney, Francis J., 67, 383, 386, 418. Cheney, Mrs. E. D., 14. Cheney, Wash., 386. Chester, England, 245. Chester, Rebecca C 324. Chevreul, M., 54. Chevrillon, A., 53, 88, 168. Cheyenne. Wyo., 70. Chicago, 111., 1, 13, 16, 21, 26, 67, 69, 81, 91, 108, 147, 168, 177, 178, 179, 190, 191, 192, 208, 224, 246, 321, 322, 324, 327, 346, 455, 456, 491, 497, 507, 509, 512, 513, 519, 589, 591, 604, 616, 681, 713, 715, 798. Chicago Schoolmaster, The, 836. Chicago Teacher, The, 839. Chico, Cal., 385. Childhood epochs of, 28. symbolic stage, 28. characteristic condition of, 322. first two years in, 715, 793. Children their imaginations, 11. their will, 11. their theology, 11, 713, 765. cultivation of self-consciousness, 11. motor ability in, 11. between 6 and 14 years, 243. teaching history to them, 284. of 5 to 10 and 10 to 15 years, 507, 513. music for children, 507, 513. their language, 737. Childs, Chas. W., 385. Child study, original investigation, 8. in experimental psychology, 11, 713, 717. basis for psychological teaching, 11. basis for pedagogy, 11, 713, 718. its aspects, 29. in normal schools, 384, 447. for candidate of P.D., 446. Child study, a plea for, 777, Chili, 12, 68, 591. Chilling enthusiasm, 28. China, 89. Chinese classics, 135. Choice between Latin and modern lan- guages, 178, 234, 235. Chords, vocal, and their strain, 9. Christian men, 145. civilization, 162. religion, philosophy of, 164. Christiania, Norway, 13, 590. Christianity, defects not charged to, 152. brought not a less noble notion of the citizen, 161. Christinger, Jac, 179. Chucarro, D. U., 68. Church, LillieE., 509. Churchill, J. A., 70. Cianelli, P., 92. Cicero's orations, 131. Cincinnati, O., 69, 81, 177, 180, 190, 322, 325, 457, 681. Circle, the golden, of education, 20. of knowledge, 106. Circumstances of individual lives, 191. Cities of 10,000 inhabitants, 79. Citizen, duties of, 244. a higher notion than man, 161. Citizenship as a study, 6, 7. stress laid on, 28. duties of, 43, 273. training for, 278. risen in dignity, 161. large view of, 167. Civic and ethical instruction, 28. life, 143. Civil conditions, 45. law, 51. Civilization, modern, 26. endures, 37. secondary, 134. wider, 134. has expanded, 161. depends on colleges and universities, 164. Claflin University, 93. Claims, high, for course of studies, 27. Clarion, la., 324. Clarion, Pa., 386. Clark, Mrs. A. E. H., 325. Clark, Daisy, 325. Clark, Eliza S., 617. Clark, John S., 457. Clark, Minnie, 325. Clark University, 91, 681, 713, 717, 718. 956 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Clarke, J. E., 457. Clarke, Marv L., 324. Clarke. Marv S., 324. Clarksville, Tenn., 93. Classic music, 9. Classical education, 22. languages, 27. music, 507, 519. Classicists do not deprive the scientists. 197. Classics and science, 121. modern, 127. Classification of normal schools, 8. encyclopedic, 111. Class teachers, their functions in music, 508, 520. Clausen -Kaas, A. v., 245. Claverack, N. Y., 180. Clay modeling of art works, 8. Clergymen, 6. Cleveland, 0., 77, 81, 92, 246, 325, 527, 591. Clinton, Miss., 92. Clinton, N.'Y., 92. Clute, Oscar, 527. Cluysenaer, M., 456. Coburg, Germanv, 245. Cochran, D. II., 92. Cockburn, C. J., 245. Coddington, W. P., 681. Coe College, 91. Coe, Geo. A., 715. Co-education essential, 101. Coesfeld, Germany, 68. Coexistence, human, 49. Coggeshall, W. T„ 828. Cogswell, Francis, 383, 408. Cohn, Ad., 92. Cohn, Dr. Herm.,12. Colbourne, Mrs. R. E., 590. Colburn, Harriet, 616. Colby University, 91. Colchester, Conn., 246. Cole, Alan S., 456. (bier, Geo. P., 716. Coleridge is Greek in sympathy, 128. Colgate University, 92, 180, 716. Collapse of teacher, 74. Collar, Emily, 323. Collar, Wm. C, 180. Collateral works, 126. Collection of treasures of industry, 34. College Courant, The, 820. College de France, 54. College for Training of Teachers in New York, 590. College of Charleston, 93. College of Emporia, 681. College of New Jersey, 92, 617, 681. College of Physicians and Surgeons and Columbia College, 148. College of the City of New York, 716. College Park, Md., 179, 526. College publications, 103. training, 116. graduates, 112. course, the old, 27. fetich, Greek, discovery of, 131. teams, 143. authorities, 146. curriculum, 149. College Review and Educ. Magazine, 816. Colleges, condition of admission, 6. professional preparation of teachers, 8. disprized, 102. their relation to advancement of civili- zation, 161. athletic sports in, 615, 636. Collegeville, Minn., 681. Collegeville, Pa., 681. Collegiate preparatory work, 184. Colmar, Germany, 385. Cologne, Germany, 12, 178. Colorado, 68, 246, 323, 385, 680. Colorado School Journal, 843. Colorado Springs, Col., 90. Colson, C. G., 245. Columbia College, 88, 92, 99, 125, 146, 147, 525, 560, 681. Columbia College and the College of Phy- sicians and Surgeons, 148. Columbia, Mo., 92, 716. Columbia, S. C, 14, 70, 93, 180, 246, 368, 681. Columbian Exposition, 55, 168. Columbian University, Washington, D.C., 179. Columbus, Miss., 591. Columbus, O.. 67, 69, 78, 81, 244, 295, 325, 509, 527, 617, 681, 716. Colvill, J. C, 245. Coman, Katherine, 91. Command, a student's, of French, 174. Commerce, branches relating to, 6. and arts foster science, 198. Commercial interests of business schools, 10. law, 51. Commission of six members in each State, 189. the French, 211. the, of 1584, 185. Commissioner of education W. T. Harris, 4, 5, 25, 26, 37, 41, 65, 83, 87, 106, 168, 176, 181, 192, 207, 249, 251, 525, 526. Committee of National Education Association, 5. on programmes, 27. of organization, 25. on legal education, 50. of arrangement, 65. of resolutions, 88. of one hundred, 97, INDEX. 957 Committee for the protection of the degree of Ph. D., 160. of students, 144. Committeeman subject to local pressure. 80. Committee reports on organization, 714. Common consciousness of unity, 35. Commonplace in philosophy, 151. Common School, The, 841. Common School Advocate, The, 828, 829, 833. Common School Assistant, The, 826. Common School Journal, 812, 832. Common school children, needs and neces- sities of, 21. Common school education, 821. Common schools, 6. Common statute, 50. Communities, their demands in business education, 10. Comparative study, 29. Compass, box the educational, 105. Compayre, G., 12, 16, 39, 41, 53, 118, 178, 713. Competition, keen, 63. ungracious, 107. Composers, classical, 9. library of pieces, 9. Compromise possible, 196. Compton, Elias, 681. Compton, H. W., 591. Compulsory physical education, 11. instruction, 55. attendance, 81, best law in Mass., 81. features of the law, 189. Comte, Auguste, 49. Concentration of universities, 95. Concept of liberal education, 151. basal, of psychology, 693. Conception in rational psychology, 11. of right, 48. Greek and Roman, of the state, 161. erroneous, 165. Concord, Mass., 98. Condillac in his " Langue de Calculs," 169. Condit, Miss Anna, 56. Condition, present, of schools in Uruguay, 58. of American universities, 96. characteristic, of childhood, 7, 322. mental and physical, 322. Conditions of degree Ph. D., 88, 156. special, 244, 301. Condon, Catherine M., 323. Cone, O., 92. Confidence shown by the public, 39. in giving lessons, 72. Conflagration of Chicago, 30. Conflict between capital and labor, 31. irrepressible, 31. Confucius and his educational ideas, 244, 308. and his pedagogic principles, 309. Congratulations of a foreigner, 38. Congress of the United States, 55, 100. national, maintained, 184. Conn, Thomas W., 180. Connecticut, 68, 91, 179, 246, 323, 508, 590, 680. Conquest of forces, 31. Conrad, Dr. Johann, 12. Conscious of needing help, 72. Consciousness, psychology founded on, 11. the study of, 679. Consecutiveness of methods, 50. of teaching, 51. Consent of the American people, 78. Conservatory of Music in Vienna, 509. of Music in Berlin, 508. Considerations formulated by holders of the opposite view, 122. Constituents, the chief, 154. Constitution of mind, 18. federal, 49. adopted, 714. Constitutionally bad spellers, 713, 762. Construction of a programme, 76. Conte, J. Le, 90. Contention, honorable, 52. Continent, Anglo-Saxons in this, 40. Continental Europe, 50. Continuity, importance of, 127. of development, 170. Contradistinction of mind from biological phenomenon, 29. Control of societies, 144. from lowest to highest grade in educa- tion, 181. governmental, 186. Convent education, 879. Convention, the French, of 1793, 186. Conventional and symbolic studies, 7. methods, 28. Conventionalities of life, 321. Conventions of the N. E. A., 31. Convictions, intellectual, 163. Cook, C. C, 715. Cook County, 111., 67. Cook County Normal School, 323, 383, 408. Cook, E., 509. Cook, E. H., 5. Cook, Fayette L., 386. Cook, John W., 383, 385, 836. 958 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Cooke, N. B., 814. Cooley, Thomas M., 133. Cooper, A. J., 179. Cooper, 0. H., 70. Cooper, Sarah B., 321, 336, 590. Cooperation in all departments of civilized life, 18. voluntary, 190. Coordination of studies, 152. Copy art works, 8. Corbett, D., 385. Corbin, Joseph C, 385. Corbin, LydiaA.,324. Corey, W. A., 843. Cork, Ireland, 90. Cornell College, 91. Cornell University, 95, 99, 120, 129, 384, 440, 455, 525, 534, 565, 679, 680, 681, 703. Corps of teachers, 71. Correspondance General de V Instruction Primaire, 847. Corrupt school committee, 80. Corson, O. T., 69. Corstorphine, Scotland, 245. Corthell, W. J., 386. Cortland, N. Y., 67, 383, 386, 418. Coruscation of congresses, 23. Cosmic development, 46. Cossa, Alph., 90. Cost, average, of text-books, 43. Costa, Mrs. Amelia Fern, da, 244. Costa Rica, 12. Coubertin, Pierre de, 11, 89. Cougny, M. , 456. Coulter, J. M., 91. Councill, W. II., 526. Counterpoint, higher science of, 9. Counting-room work, 10. County model schools, 412. Courage to try to carry a point, 79. Course of study in elementary schools, 6, 243. in secondary schools, 6, 177, 184, 193, 221, 234. in normal schools, 8, 383, 428. in language, numbers, geography, history, 28. geometry or algebra, which first ? 178. designed for life, 177. essentials in, 243, 251. of graded systems, 191. carried out with minuteness, 191. outlined, 199. best preparation for life, 193. what is meant by course of study, 193. everything that is taught in school, 193. in music, 507, 513. a shorter, in arts, 589, 597. Courses in English, 122. Courtesies, intercollegiate, 145. Courtesy, 7. Coward, A., 70. Cowhan, J. H.. 383, 385, 401. Coy, E. W., 177, 190, 835. Coy, N. B., 68. Craik, II., 68. Cramming, cruelty of, 18. Crane, T. P., 127. Cravath, E. M., 93. Crawford, R. D., 591. Crawfordsville, Ind., 91. Crefeld, Germany, 179. Criminal idleness, 372. Criminals, their physical training, 11, 615, 646. Cripple our universities and colleges, 167. Cristoforis, M. de, 246. Criterion, fair, of the system, 146. Critic of practice work in normal school, 8. shall he be present ? 8. of school work, 61. Criticism of newspapers, 191. of supervisor, 74. unfriendly to Greek, 137. Croly, D., 385. Crosby, Mary, 324. Crosby, W. E., 841. Cross, Anson K., 456, 504. Crouse, Mrs. J. N., 322, 324. Crowe, Martha F., 91. Crowell, John F., 92. Crozier, Miss, 680, 705. Cry of there being no standard of education, 22. of anger, 45. Cuba, 12, 89, 178. Cuddeback, Elnora, 324. Cultivation of artistic and aesthetic taste, 8. of the human body, 10. of self-consciousness, 11. Culture of music teachers, 9. of heart and hand, 18. prolonged, 19. modern, 127. studies are aided. 198. Cumberland University, 93, 681. Cunningham, D. J., 90. Curricula without Greek, 125. Curriculum of elementary schools, 81. of secondary schools, 8, 196. of normal schools, 8. of the old, 19. of public schools, 262. Curry, Dr. J. L. M., 13. Curtis, Fanniebelle, 323. Curtis, V. G., 69. Curtis, W. W., 180. Curtiss, T. W. T., 815. dishing, Jos. M., 457. Cushing, W. L., 180. Custodians of our schools, 186. of Greek, 141. INDEX. 959 Cutler, R. E., 177, 192, 208. Cutts, U. W., 69. D Dale, Dr., 68. Dana as a geologist, 135. Dana-Hicks, Mary, 456, 487, 504, 505, 591. Dana, James D., 127. Danby, T. W., 245. Danger of confining the course of study, 9. our besetting, 129. along certain lines, 192. of supervision, 191. of confining music to mechanical exer- cises, 507, 513. Daniel Deronda, a scene in, 138. Dan vers, Mass. , 324. Danville, Ky., 681. Dareuth, Great Britain, 715. Dartmouth College, 716. Darwin, appeal to him, 137. Daugherty, Eliza, 324. Daugherty, Mannie, 324. Daughter as business woman, 10. Davidson, Dr., 161. Davidson, Wm. M., 69. Davis, A. J., 386. Davis, B. C, 509. Davis, Buel T., 844. Davis, C. M., 69. Davis, N. J., 180. Davis, Noah K., 716. Davis, Mrs. S. W., 324. Davis, Thos., 814. Dawn of the New Learning, 113. Dawson, Col. N. H. R., 13. Day, L. W., 246. Dayton, 0., 793. Deaf-mute school, 59. Deaf-mutes, their physical training, 11, 616, 674. Deane, Chas. W., 386. Deatrich, Prof., 589. Debatable ground, only methods, 23. Decalogue not novel, 123. Decatur, 111., 69. Decker, W. F., 591. Declaration of Independence, 81. De Coate, Mr., 508, 522. Deer Lodge, Mont., 92. Deficiencies, natural, 20. Definition of education, 21. DeGarmo, Chas., 838. Degraded quarters of large cities, 145. Degree of strain in vocal organs, 9. of B.A., 118, 124, 125. of Doctor of Philosophy, 6, 61, 125, 155, 156. of Doctor of Pedagogy, 384, 434, 436, 438, 440, 444, 446. carried with it associations, 124. of A.B., 122-135. all have one neck, 136, Degree of B.S. and B.A., 140. of variation, 141. of addenda, 142. debased, 156. " in absentia," 158. " honoris causa," 158. granted without residence, 160. if merited, is a credit, 160. of licentiate, 171. Delabarre, Edm. B., 716. Delaunay, M., 178. Delano, 67. Delaware, 69, 91, 179, 323, 509. Delaware College, 91. Delaware, O., 716. Delegation, French, president of, 53. Deliberation and fairness needed, 159. Delon, Chas., 323. Demands, new, with world's industries, 10. of communities in business education, 10. for science, 197. new, upon elementary schools, 589, 594. new, made by industries, 589, 594. Dement, Isaac S., 798. Deming, Isabelle C, 324. Democracy, foundation of, 40. Democratic theory of government, 115. Demonstration not needed, 152. De Munn, N. M., 814. Denison University, 92. Denny, Collins, 681. Denver, Colo., 68, 90, 323, 507, 514. Departmental or special teachers, 7. Department of Liberal Arts, 16, 23. Education, 41, 803. Departments of the International Con- gress : (1) General Congress, 4, 15. (2) School Supervision, 67. (3) Higher Education, 87. (4) Secondary Education, 177. (5) Elementary Education, 243. (6) Kindergarten Instruction, 321. (7) Professional Training of Teachers, 383. (8) Art Instruction, 455. (9) Instruction in Music, 507. (10) Technological Instruction, 525. (11) Industrial and Manual Instruction, 589. (12) Physical Education, 615. (13) Rational Psychology, 679. (14) Experimental Psychology, 713. (15) Business Education, 787. (16) Educational Journalism, 809. De Pauw University, 91, 715. Derivation of English words, 126. Descartes, 185. Des Moines, la., 177, 179, 192, 324, 680. Destiny of the nation, 43. man's eternal, 161. 9G0 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Destiny of the world, 162. Destruction to public instruction, 37. Detail, no man remembers anything in, 139. Details of the Congress, 30. Detroit College, 92. Detroit, Mich., 09, 92, 246, 324, 386, 509, 803. Deutsche Zeitung fur die franzosische Jugend, 849. Deutsche Zeitung fur Franzosen, 849. Develop the whole being, 54. new minds, 106. Development, physical, 9. of motor ability, 11. of latent genius, 18. harmonious, 22. of the race and the child, 322. historical, of normal schools, 383, 415. of art instinct, 466. spiritual, 128. Developments, recent, in educat'^™. 890. Deventer, Netherlands, 246. Devices, successful, of artists, 8. Devitt, Edw. I., 91. Dewey, Melvil, 87, 108, 117. Dibble, Virgil C, 180. Dickens, 175. Dickenson, James C, 244. Dickey, J. E., 680. Dickinson, Charles, 323. Dickinson, J. W., 69. Dickinson, N. Y., 509. Dictionaries, their use, 126. Differences, essential, between primary school and kindergarten, 7. between manual training in primary and grammar schools, 10. Differentiation of studies, 109. inevitable, 196. Difficulties due to indifference, 190. Difficulty, how to adjust it, 117. Diggle, J. R., 68. Dignity of degree maintained, 160. Dilemma in which we are placed, 190. Dillard, James H., 179. Dillenback, J. D., 843. Dimscha, Professor L., 4, 13, 16, 48. Dinwoodie, Mrs. J. S., 507, 512. Diploma, what perfection in teaching required, 8. of high-schools necessary, 79. Director-General of the World's Fair, 25. Discipline to secure moral habits, 6. for the discharge of duties, 18. intellectual, 34. scientific, 109. of youth, 151.! Discover new truths, 106. Discovery of trouble, 72. Discovery and use of truth, 152. Discredit to the institution that confers degrees " in absentia," 160. Discriminations between the universal and particular, 18. Discussions, 77, 82, 108, 117, 135, 145, 154, 159, 190, 205, 217, 221, 234, 241, 257, 272, 300, 342, 405, 432, 442, 462, 466, 472, 495, 504, 512, 514, 519, 521, 549, 565, 582, 586, 597, 604, 660, 686, 692, 699, 703, 705, 711, 729, 750, 760, 771. Discussions and papers of the Congress, 168. Disinterestedness, noble lessons of, 135. Disparagement of the Old Education, 198. Disparaging other nations, 162. Display of industry, skill, and taste, 26. Dissertation involving original work, 156, 157. Distinction between collegiate and uni- versity methods, 6. District of Columbia, 13, 78, 91, 179, 246, 323, 385, 457, 526, 591, 616, 715. District School Journal of Education, 840. District School Journal of the State of New York, 827. Divine authority, 46. persuasiveness, 46. Divinity entering, 27. Division of labor in university, 109. Divoll, Ira, 842. Dix, J. Aug., 69. Doan, R. W., 244. Dobbs Ferry, N. Y., 180. Dobson, W. L., 89. Doctor of Pedagogy, requirements, 8, 384, 434. degree of, 29, 384, 436, 438, 444. Doctor of Philosophy, 156, 159. Doctor of Science and Doctor of Letters, 157. Doctrine, Aristotle's, of a first principle, 11. of evolution, 155. Dodge, Mrs. E. I., 323. Dodge, Miss Grace H., 591. Dodge, W. C, 679. Dogmatic teaching of science, 155. Dogmatism, something larger than, 113. Doherty, J. L., 385. Doherty, Robert, 180. Domain, moral and intellectual, 38. Dominant seventh in education, 713, 720. Donovan, Eliza M., 325. D'Ooge, M. L., 128. Doolittle, Lucy A., 324. Doors, open the, of the universities, 167. Dorpat, Russia, 90. Dorr, Dalton, 457. Dortrecht, Netherlands, 456. Doty, Duane, 832. Dougherty, N. C, 67. Dowden, E., 90. INDEX. 961 Dowling, M. P., 94. Dozier, Cynthia P., 324 Drain, Or., 386. Drake, 0. II., 179. Drake University, 680. Dramatic element of kindergarten songs, 321, 331. Draper, A. S., 67. Drawing as a study, 6, 455. freehand, 7, 456. methods of, 8, 455. from the flat, 8, 455, 456. from models, 8, 456. light and shade, 8. technique of, 8. of art works, 8, 455. cultivating taste, 8. real objects as models, 8. architectural, 9, 27. mechanical, 9, 27. with what should it begin, 455, 491. its aesthetic aim, 455. self-correcting system of, 456. essential in course of study, 243, 251. Drawings, elegant, 73. Dreaming and poetic invention, 714, 730. Dreher, J. D., 93. Dresden, Germany, 12, 68, 245, 616. Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, 456, 495, 589, 805. Drocco, F., 179. Drumcondra, Ireland, 385. Dublin, Ireland, 13, 68, 90, 245, 385. Dubuque, la., 246. Due West, S. C, 93. Dugard, Mile. M., 53, 177, 178, 211. Duisburg, Germany, 245. Duluth, Minn., 324, 507, 512. Duncan. George M., 680. Dundee, Scotland, 90, 179, 526. Dunkirk, N. Y., 325. Dunlap, Mrs. C, 325. Dunlap, Nellie, 323. Dunlop, Douglas, 245. Dunn, Robinson P., 814. Dunnell, Mark H., 817. Dunning, Mrs. F. B., 325. Dunton, Larkin, 386. Dunton, L. M., 93. Duomo of Florence, 23. Dupee, Charles A., 835. Durability of our public schools, 167. Durango, Colo., 246, 323. Durham, N. C, 92. Durkee, Frank W., 617. Dtlsseldorf, Germany, 68, 178, 179. Duties analogous to physicians', 72. of citizenship, 243, 244, 273, 278. of men in society, lo6. and rights, social, 192. of a chairman, 182. Dutton, S. T., 69. Dwelshauvers-Dery, M. V., 89. 61 Dwight, Francis, 827. Dwight, President Timothv, 88, 91, 160. Dyer, Henry, 526. " Dying Swan, The," by Tennyson, 173. Dysinger, Holmes, 91. E Eastburn, Geo., 180. East Dereham, England, 245. Eastern Ohio Teacher, 829. Easthampton, 180. East Lake, Ala., 90. Eastman, Julia A., 180. Easton, Pa., 716. Easton, W., 69. East Saginaw, Mich., 324. East St. Louis, 111., 69. Eaton, Edw. D., 93. Eaton, Jas. F., 93. Eaton, Gen. John, 4, 5, 40, 243, 244, 247, 301. Ebel, Laura, 324. Ecclesiasticism, defects charged to, 152. Eccleston, Sallie C, 323. Echo Nouvelle, 850. Eckels, E. M. D., 385. £cole Maternelle et Enfantine, 848. Ecole normale in Paris, 54. Economic questions, 166. Economical life, 45. Economy and waste, mental, 713, 725. Ecuador, 12, 89, 244. Eddy, II. T., 87, 118. 525, 550, 583. Edgar, Miss Lilian, 89. Edgerly, J. G., 69. Edinboro, Pa., 386. Edinburgh reviewers, 170. Edinburgh, Scotland, 68, 90, 179, 245, 385. Edon, Georges, 178. Education, industrial, 10. self-activity in, 11. rational psychology in, 11. complete and generous, 21. classical, 22. for white and black, 35. advancement made in, 35. studied historically, 35. psychologically, 35. experimentally, 35. legal, 48. juridical, 50. moral, of Confucius, 310. intellectual, of Confucius, 311. physical, of Confucius, 311. of girls, 312. real nature of, 369. medical, 117. supervised, 185. without supervision, 185. in its own locality, 190. theo-centric, 680. self-activity in, 680, 703. dominant seventh in, 713, 720. 962 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Education, in Cape Colony, 903. national, in Scotland, 874. in convents,' 879. of women in New Zealand, 883. Education (monthly magazine), 820. Education Physique, 849. Education Weekly, The, 831, 832, 836. Educational value (see Value). publications, 11. exhibit, 16. methods and ends, 43. journals, 71. system of Sweden, 244. ideas of Confucius, 308. principles of Froebel, 360. practice, 150. work for women, 887. Educational Disseminator, The, 828. Educational journalism, 810. in New England, 811. in New York, 826. in Ohio, 828. in Indiana, 829. in Michigan, 831. in Illinois, 833. in Iowa, 840. in Missouri, 842. in Colorado and Kansas, 843. in France, 845. Educational Notes and Queries, 828. Educational Voice, 840. Educationalist, The, 844. Educationist, The, 830, 831, 844. Educators, eminent, 42. Edwards, Richard, 69, 835. 837, 842. Efficiency of the schools promoted, 42. Egypt, 245. Ehler, Geo. W., 616. Eichhorst, Herm., 90. Eisenach, Germany, 323, 385. Eitner, Dr., 178. Elberfeld, Germany, 179. Elder, E. C.,325. Eldon, James, 386. Eldridge, E. R., 385. Electrical science, 133. Elegance in the use of English, 127. Element, dramatic, of kindergarten songs, 321, 331. utilitarian, 135. Elementary branches, 268. course, essentials in, 266. instruction, 6. theses on elementary instruction, 6. Srogramme, 27. rawing, its Aesthetic aim, 455. Elementary education, subjects of preliminary programme, 6. department of, 243, 247. in England, 870. in Cape Colony, 903. Elementary schools, theses on, 7. preparation of teachers, 8. what branches in, 27. course of study, 243. aspects of curriculum, 243. special work in, 243, 273. Elements, national, 40. additional, 72. particular, 156. Eligible list, approval of, 79. Eliminating the bad, 72. Eliot, Charles W., 91, 189, 195. Eliot, George, 170. Elizabeth, N. J., 69. Elizabethan-Stuart period, 128. Elkader, 111., 324. Ellensburg, Wash., 246. Elliott, C. H. B., 245. Ellis, John M.. 716. Elmira College, 509, 681. Elmira, N. Y., 11, 509, 681. Elston, A. M., 90. Ely, Richard T., 93. Emblem of solidity, 48. Emblematic or symbolic studies, 7. Emergency, how to meet the, 18. Emerson, Alf., 466, 473. Emerson, C. W., 617. Emerson, George B., 813, 819. Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 95, 170. Emery, J. Q.,386. Emigrant vessels, 188. Eminent educators, 42. Emory College, 91, 680. Emphasis laid on discipline of mind, 168. Emporia, Kan., 386, 681. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 45, 824. Encyclopaedia of natural information, 44. of right, 50. of education, 57. studies, 109. End of education, 44. Ende, Prof., 456. Endowment, mental, 20. of universities in Chicago, 30. of a university, 148. Ends, educational, 43, 44. Enebuske, Claes J., 617. Energies, a nation's, 163. unexampled, 184. Energy to cultivate graduate work, 35. Enge, "Switzerland, 246. Engel, Peter, 681. Engineer, process of training an, 526, 569. Engineering, its educational value, 9. as an art, 18. as a calling, 18. value of, 525, 526, 558, 583. INDEX. 963 England, an educational question in, 27. {>opular education in, 28. ist of vice-presidents, 12, 68, 89, 179, 244, 385, 450, 509, 526, 590, 616, 680. higher education, 94. secondary education, 117, 191, 217. high-schools for girls, 178, 225. professional training, 217. Froebel's principles in, 360. methods of training teachers, 383, 401. ■ self-correcting system of drawing, 500. university education for women, 853. elementarv education in, 870. Englewood, *I11., 179, 246, 323. Englewood, N. J., 178, 180, 235. English as a study, 7, 43. the language of the world, 64. literature, 7, 168; uninterrupted, 170. facility, accuracy, and elegance of, 127. process of thought, 170. blood, 170. point of view, 173. experience in providing for parks, etc., 615, 641. orphanage in Bosnia. 900. English, Gertrude C, 456. Enloe, Hon. B. A., 14. Enos, J. L., 840. Enthusiasm of the young child, 28. of those who know Greek, 132. of a body of teachers, 193. Entrance of woman into the educational arena. 22. Enunciation, musical, 9. Epithalamion, by Spenser, 173. Epochs of childhood, 28. Equality, international, 38. Equilaz, Cesar de, 385. Equilibrium, unstable, 166. Equipment of business-college teachers, 10. Equivalent of the German triennium, 157. Era, Gra;co-Roman, 161. Eradicate natural differences, 20. Eras in the history of our country, 166. Enlmann, Carl, 90. Erichsen, John Eric, 89. Erie, Pa., 591. Erlham College, 91. Errors in music, corrections of, 9. serious, 19. in teaching, 72. Erskine College, 93. Espinosa, R., 244. Esprit de corps, 71. Essay, French, by every candidate, 172. Essence of civilization, 163. Essential branches of the elementary course, 6. Essentials in a course of study, 243, 251. what should be added to, 266. Esslingen, Germany, 385. Estimate of man, 163. Ethical and civic instruction, 28. element, 47. questions, 166. Ethics of industrial instruction, 10. in man and education, 47. can we teach it ? 47. Etiquette, social, 7. Eton and Winchester, 37. Eton College, England, 179. Eton, Eng., 179. Eucken, Rud., 89, Eudo, Hidesaburo, 244, 308. Eugene, Or., 681.. Europe, Great Powers of, 30. continental, 50. European and American ways, 48. system, 109. civilization. 139. the semi-barbarous, 152. Evans, John, 509. Evans, Lawton B., 323. Evanston, 111., 13, 91, 177, 191, 205, 241, 246, 323, 616, 715. Evening session, July 25, 16. Eversole, W. S., 180. Evil, most destructive, 76. Evolution of the business college, 10, 788. cosmic, 46. of liberal education, 88, 150. of the school of pedagogy, 425. means something, 154. moral, of the child, 713. "Evolution of Dodd, The," &38. Ewers, Viola M., 324. Ewing, Prof., 526. Exact measurement, value of, 525, 558. Exactness of expression, 135. of thinking, 135. Examination of kindergartner in secondary studies, 7. of teachers, 7, 29. in Sweden, 61. written, 74. prescribed, 185. of 5,000 children, 715, 750. Excellence, artistic, 163. Exception taken to one remark, 192. Excesses of a few, 144. Excusing pupils from music, 508, 522. Executive Committee of the National Ed- ucational Association, 32. Executive heads of institutions, 158. Exercises, mechanical, in music, 9. facilities for out-door exercise, 11. without apparatus, 615, 626. physical, for school, 615,631. 964 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION Exhibit, educational, 16. Exhibition of religious life, 20. Exigencies of instruction, 51. of our occupation, 198. Exner, Sigm., 89. Expansion of our leading institutions, 104. Expense, incredible, 184. Experience in teaching, 8. in providing out-door facilities for exer- cise, 11. with incompetent teachers, 81. personal, 126. in providing parks and gardens, 615, 641, Experimental psychology, investigation in, 8, 383. in education, 11, 444. Expert in technical business, 115. Exponents of theories, 105. Exposition, our beautiful, 39. Expression in singing, 9. musical, 9. artistic, 162. of fullest faith, 167. of thought, subtle and precise, 197. Extempore translation, 174. Extent of observation work, 7. of religion in school, 296. of symbolism, justifiable, 322, 355, 356. External vesture, 163. Eye and ear-mindedness, 715. Eyes, strain of, 7. F Facility in the use of English, 127. Factor, greatest, in New Education, 22. Faculties of the mind, 18. of the universities, 109. in France, 169. Fads and fopperies exorcised, 129. Fair, educational exhibits at the, 24. Fair, Katharine G., 325. Fairbairn, R. B., 92. Fairbury, Neb., 246. Faith, fullest, 167. Fallows, Rt. Rev. Samuel, 4, 20. Fall River, Mass., 177, 190. Familiarize pupils with types of art, 487. Family nurture, 28. Farley, John M., 92. Farm*, W. Va., 527. Farmer, what he needs, 18. Farr, Geo. Henry, 89. Farrand, S. A., 180. Fascination, free from, 162. Fatigati, Alf. Serrano, 616. Fatigue, muscular and nervous, 11. Faunthorpe, J. P., 385. Faust, an occasional look at, 175 Fay, L. E., 457. Fayette, la., 509. Fayette, Mo., 92. Fayetteville, Ark., 526. Fayette ville, N. C, 386. Feasibility of a musical library, 507, 513. Feature, the distinguishing, 118. Features of the svstem in Ontario, 42, 43. Federal Constitution of the U. S., 49. Federation of the United States of Europe, 39. Feeling, right, must be aroused, 321. of teachers of science, 156. Feelings, deep-seated, 65. Fees a temptation to admit incompetence, 117. Fell, Thos., 91. Felmeri, Lajos, 90. Fennessy, D., 91. Fenollosa, E. F., 472. Fernald, M. C, 526. Fernandez, Vict. R. Ventura y, 12. Ferry, Jules, 415. Fett, W. A., 245. Fetter, Geo. W., 386. Fetterolf, A. H., 591. Ficklen, John R., 91. Field, L. M., 245. Fielding, 170. Figueira, Jose H., 68. Financial interests of business schools, 10. Findlay College, 92. Findlay, 0., 92. Finishing school, 177. Finkler, Dr. Dittmar, 4, 12. Finland, Russia, 12, 178, 526. Finley, J. EL, 91. First principle in eleventh book of Aris- totle, 679, 700. First two years of childhood, 715, 773. Fisher, A. B., 245. Fisher, D. W., 88, 91, 160. Fisher, Edw., 509. Fisher, Laura, 324. Fisk, Amy B., 325. Fisk, Franklin W., 91. Fisk University, 93. Fiske, David, 87, 108. Fiske, L. R., 92. Fitch, J. G., 13. Fitch, State Superintendent, 67, 78. Fitchburg, Mass., 69. Fite, Stanislaus, 715. Fitness, professional, 80. Fitting schools for industrial pursuits, 10. private, 185. their main object, 194. Fitz, G. W., 10, 615. Fitzhugh, James S., 325. Fitzpatriek, N. A., 67, 69, 71. Fixing ideas, 73. Flack, A. H., 180. Flagg, Rufus C, 93. Flamand, Ch., 245. Flat, drawing from the, 455, 456. INDEX. 965 Flatbush, N. Y., 325. Flaubert, a novel of, 176. Flensburg, Germany, 245. Fletcher, Dr. R., 527. Flexibility in grading, 84. Flinn, J. W., 681. Flint, Mich., 246. Florence, Ala., 385. Florida, 67, 69, 78, 323, 385, 509. Flowers in the windows, 73- Folly, incredible, 18. Foose, L. 0., 69. Forbes, F. A., 837. Ford, H. A., 831, 832. Forecast and retrospect, 862. Forces of nature, 31. regulating, 184. Forefathers, their expectations, 53. Foreign representatives, 31. tongues, 154. languages, nine years' work, 194. eleven years' work, 195. Form of government, republican, 166. Forms of education, relation to physical training, 11. Forms, tasteful and graceful, 10. Forrest, John, 89. Forster, Miss Aug., 245. Fort Wayne. Ind., 69, 179, 324. Fortier, Alc6e, 91. Foster, A. J., 814. Foster, Miss Alia W., 91. Foster, Ellen Burroughs, 324. Foster, Ida L., 324 Foster, Dr., 679, 700, 703. Fostoria, O., 180. Foundation of Democracy, 40. of law, 51. Fountain of youth, the teacher's profes- sion, 37. Fowle, William C, 812. Fowler, Laura T., 385. Fowre Hymnes, by Spenser, 173. Fox, Arthur, 245. Fort Collins, Colo., 323. Fox, Luther A., 681. Fox, Viola R., 325. Fox, W. F., 70. Fraissenet, M., 245. France, athletic movement, 11. history of educational journalism, 12. names of vice-presidents, 12, 68, 89, 178, 244, 323, 385, 508, 526, 590, 715. an educational question in, 27. popular education in, 28. accustomed to look in, 40. higher education, 94, 95. secondary education for girls, 177, 211, 217. aspects of curriculum in elementary schools, 243, 262. France, school savings-banks in, 244, 287. our friends from, 183. France Enseignante, 848. Frankfurt, Germany, 178. Franklin and Marshall College, 93. Franklin College, 91. Franklin, Mrs. C. Ladd, 91. Franklin, Ind., 91. Franklin, Neb., 180. Fraser, D. D., 244. Fraternities of students, 144. Fraternity, means of, 39. Frazer, Robert, 591. Fredericton, New Brunswick, 12. Fredonia, N. Y., 384, 386, 428. "Freedom spoke and Athens arose," 154. Free-hand drawing, 7. Freeport, 111., 324. Free School Clarion, 828. Free system of public education, 165. Freiberg, Germany, 89. French schools, 10, 43. republic, 53. universities, English literature in, 168 essay, 244. and German at Harvard, 122. German and English, 154. the chief constituents, 154. art of writing, 169. student of literature, 169. eye, its structure, 170. and German minds, 169. schools and specialization, 589, 597. system of manual training, 589, 597. French, F. C, 716. French, Mr., 155. French Protestant College, 91. French, W. M. R. , 455, 456, 497, 504. Frenchmen have respect for German gen- ius, 169. Freshman year, 122. Fricke, Albert, 245, 385. Friend as business woman, 10. Friends, rich, challenged, 167. Friends of Popular Education, Society of, 57. Froebel Association, 323. Froebel's plays and games, 7. substitutions for them, 7. philosophy, 7. Froebelian method, 57. Frost, W. G., 91. Fruit, John P., 716. Fulcomer, Daniel, 384, 422. Fuller, nomer T., 527. Fuller, Susan E., 456, 457, 505. Fullerton, George Stuart, 716. Functions of class teachers, 9, 508, 520. of special music teachers, 9, 508, 520. of state, 23. of life, 49. of a university, 96, 97. 966 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Fundamental principles of art, 10. Furman University, 681. Futrall, T. A., 179. G Gage, Geo. M., 818. Gage, N. P., 246. Gage, Wm. L., 818. Gailor, Thos. F, 93. Gaines, Absalom G., 681. Gaines, H. N„ 69. Galesburg, 111., 69, 91, 323. Gallagher, John, 386. Gallagher, R. E., 796. Gallagher, Wm., 180. Gallatin, Tenn., 180. Gallaudet, Dr. E. M., 13. Gallee, J. H., 90. Gallowav, Miss Janet A., 90. Galopin," Dr., 89. Galveston, Tex., 70. Galvin, 713. Galway, Ireland, 68. Gambier, O., 92, 180. Gamwell, Alb. A., 814. Gand, Belgium, 89. Gap between the people, 166. Garcia, Julio A., 12. Gardiner, H. N., 716. Garfield, 95. Garin, Paul, 590. Garland, L. C, 93. Garlinville, 111., 69. Garman, Charles E., 716. Garmo, Charles de, 93. Garofalo, Raff., 90. Garrett, W. R., 70. Garst, Henry, 681. Gass, Howard A., 842. Gastman, E. A., 69, 837. Gate between training-school and teacher's position, 79. Gates, Geo. A., 91. Gates, M. E., 91. Gates, Pres., 88, 159. Gatherings, large and select, 167. Gaufres, M. J., 178. Gauthiot, M., 178. Gee Long, Victoria, 89. General history, 7. General sessions, 4, 16. second, 34. Generalizing too promptly, 52. Generation, each, of secondary school- masters, 183. Generic facts, 44. Generic mathematical discipline, 152. Generosity for public education, 35. Geneva, Switzerland, 179. Genius that fashioned the treasures of industry, 34. of Dr. Harris, 35 ; loci, 106. artistic, 162. Geniuses, great, of Germany, 169. Genoa, Italy, 323. Geography, methods of teaching, 6. essential in a course of study, 243, 251. Geology as a study, 6. to be a master of, 18. Geometrical forms, 36. Geometry as a study, 6. or algebra, which first? 178, 221. Georgetown, D. C, 323. Georgetown University, 91. Georgia, 13, 69, 91, 179, 246, 323, 509, 526, 680. Gerhard t, L., 385. German, honor of being a, 38. education. 43, 118. essay, 244, 308. and French at Harvard, 122. gymnasium, 136. in French lycees, 169. habits of thought, 169. habits of speech, 169. sentence like a railroad-tunnel, 169. as a scientific instrument, 1 70. is required from French candidates, 170. standard authors, 174. novelists and essayists, 175. Germantown, Pa., 180. Germany, Greek gymnastics in, 11. Eopular and youthful sports in, 11. istory of educational journalism, 12. list of vice-presidents, 12. 68, 89, 178, 244, 323, 385, 456, 508, 590, 616. an educational question in, 27. popular education in, 28. teachers trained in, 60. follow her example, 77. higher education, 94, 95, 137. arboriculture in, 306. kindergarten in, 322. physical training in, 144. our friends from, 183. Germs from other lands, 99. Gettysburg, Pa., 93, 617. Giants, intellectual, 139. Gibbon, 170. Gibbons, Cardinal, 13. Giessen, Germany, 89, 179. Gifts, new, to the educational world, 17. natural, 18. Gifts and occupations in kindergarten, 7. Gilbert, C. B., 67, 81. Gilbert, S. R., 840. Gilke, A. H., 526. Gill, Alb., 245. Gill, Chas. G., 246. Gillett, Miss, 713. Gilman, Arthur, 180. Gilman, D. C, 5, 87, 88, 117, 160, 525, 824. Gilmore, J. H., 681. INDEX. 967 Girard College, Philadelphia, Pa., 591. Girls in France, 177. in England, 178. and boys in manual training, 10. Gladstone's warning, 163. Glamor of martial glory, 162. Glasgow, Scotland, 245, 385, 526, 590. Glass, E. C, 70. Glass, R. C., 681. Glazier, Richard, 456. Gleason, Mrs. Rose, 507, 513. Gleeson, E. J., 681. Globe, our, its atmosphere, 46. Glover, N. L., 507, 512, 514, 519, 522. Gobin, M., 385. God, thanks to, 34. the Creator, 36. his blessing, 37. faith in, 99. Godart, A., 178. Godding, A. W., 814. Godfrey, 111., 179. Goethe and Schiller permeated with Greek, 128 Goetz, Ferd., 616. Goetze, Woldemar, 590. Golden circle of education, 20. Goldsmith, Mrs. A. O., 325. Gondolfo, E., 90. Gonpilliere, Haton de la, 526. Goode, G. Brown, 13. Goodell, H. II., 527. Goodenough, W. S., 455, 504, 591. Goodison, John, 832. Goodman, Jennie, 324. Gordon, I., 245. Gordy, J. P., 829. Gorham, Me., 386. Gorlitz, Germany, 178. Goshorn, A. T., 457. Gothenburg, Sweden, 90, 590. Gottingen, Germany, 178. Goucher, John F., 91. Gould, R. E., 246. Gove, Aaron, 836, 843. Government of, for, and by the people, 31. make it our servant, 189. shall it undertake all education ? 192. Gow, Alex. M., 835. Gower, 174. Gradation of normal and training-schools, 383, 410. Graded courses in business schools, 10. Graded system of schools, 191. Grades of primary schools, 10. of grammar schools, 10. in all, instruction same for boys and girls, 590, 606. Grading and classification, 83. Graduate might not become un-American, 199. Grady, Richard, 591. Graham, James D., 68. Graham, Mary, 716. Graham, Mary 0., 384. Grammar, rhetoric and logic, 152. and lexicon, demand a laboratory, 197. Grammar schools, 60. industrial training in, 10. Granada, Spain, 90. Grandeau, Prof., 307. Grand Rapids, Mich., 324, 383, 422. Grant, Rev. A., 13. Grant, G. M., 12. Grant, Mr., 589. Granville, O., 92. Graves, John J., 245. Graves, S., 179. Graz, Austria, 68, 323, 384. Great Britain, list of vice-presidents, 13, 68, 89, 179, 244, 323, 385, 456, 508, 526, 590, 616, 680, 715. Great masters analyzed, 455, 473. Greatest good to the State, 81. Greek as a study, 6, 54, 126, 127, 128. gymnastics, 11. its educational value, 27, 125. honor of being a, 38. for degree of B.A., 88, 118, 125. indispensable, 124. architecture, 123. originals for purity and taste, 123. philosophy, 119. essential feature of culture, 126. and Roman world, 127. a luxury, 128. its ineffaceable stamp, 128. methods and principles, 128. postulate, 129. reading it at .sight, 130. is a sieve, 135. best presentation of arguments, 135. spirit, 153. antiquity, 153. Greek-letter fraternities, 145. Greek question will never be solved, 137. Greeley, Colo., 385. Greely, Gen. A. W., 6. Green, James M., 386. Green, N., 93. Green Bay, Wis., 93. Greencastle, Ind., 91, 715. Greene, Charles II., 507, 512, 513. Greene, C. M., 841. Greene, J. M., 384, 433. Greene, J. P., 92. Greene, Samuel S., 814. Greensboro, Ala., 90. Greensboro, N. C, 325. Greenville, S. C, 681. Greenwood, Superintendent J. M., 5, 67. Greeting, informal, to Miss Susan E. Blow, 322. 968 INTERNATIONAL CON GUESS OF EDUCATION Greeves, Dr., 385. Gregory, B. C, 69. Gregory, J. M., 832, 837. Greifswald, Germany, 178. Greiner, Philip, 616." Grier, W. M., 93. Griffin, Edward H., 716. Griffith, George. 69. Grigg, Mr., 507, 514, 522. Grigg, Sarah E., 325. Griggs, Edw. H., 715. Grinnell, la., 91, 324, 681. Grinnell, Mrs. K. V., 713. Groneman, F. G. , 246. Groningen, Netherlands, 246. Groot, Dr. D. de, 68. Groton, Mass., 180. Groups of related subjects, 118. of faculties in Prance, 168. Growth, , its periods, 9. of the mind, 29. of Chicago, 30. of a people, 31. of modern scholarship, 120. of the study of modern languages, 121. of public education, 165. Guadeloupe, 244 Guatemala, 13. Guernsey. Teacher, The, 829. Gugler, Jos., 384. Guide of thought and life, 151. Guilhot, S., 508. Gulf, impassable, 181. Gulick, Luther, 615, 617. Gumbinnen, Germany, 245. Gundert, Ernst, 385. Guptill, Fannie S., 383, 386, 391, 591. Gurney, Mary, 178, 224. Gustavus Adolphus College, 681. Gutzmann, A., 11, 616, 674 Guzman, C. E., 13. Gwathmey, J. T., 617. Gyles, May, 324. Gymnasia, capacity and efficiency of, 186. Gymnasium, secondary school, 11. Joachimsthal, 87, 137. or German college, 118. Gymnastics and gymnasium, physical education, 10. training, 146. for educational purposes, 55. Royal Institute in Stockholm, 615, 622. in Saxony, 616, 670. Gymnastique (La) Erangaise, 849. H Haas, Mrs. E. S., 324. Haase, 68. Hackensack, N. J., 246. Hackettstown. N. J., 180. Hackspiel, J. K., 178. Hadley, Hiram, 527. Hagar, D. B., 386. Hagen, Germany, 178. Hailmann, Mrs. Eudora L., 5, 321, 356. Hailmann, W. N., 13, 178, 221, 224, 321, 322, 820. Hairband, Hattie V., 324. Hale, Albert, 180. Hale, Edward, 179. Hale, Edward Everett, 375. Hale, Miss Sarah J., 385. Hale, W. G., 88, 118, 132, 142, 154, 155, 160. Haley, Sam., 245. Halifax, Nova Scotia, 12, 89, 456. Hall, G. Stanley, 5, 11, 384, 433, 713, 715. Hall, Jos., 179. Hall, J. M., 246. Hall, Lucile E., 617. Hall, Winfield S., 617. Hall of Columbus, 15, 16. Hall of Washington, 243. Halle, Germany, 12, 89, 179. Haller, H. F.,'53. Hallucinations of a dream, 24. Halsey, Amelia L., 324. Halsey, W. McD., 180. Ham, Chas. H. , 591. Hamburg, Germanv, 245, 323. Hamilton College, 92. Hamilton, N. Y., 92, 180, 716. Hamilton, Ont., 321, 796. Hamilton, 0., 69. Hamilton, R. I., 246. Hamilton, Thos., 90. Hamline, Minn., 92. Hamline University, 92. Hammerstein, Lillie, 324. Hammond, C, 819. Hammond, J. D., 92. Hampden-Sidney College, 93. Hampden-Sidney, Va., 93. Hampstead, N. W., 616. Hanan, Germany, 68. Hand work, educative value, 322. Handel, 9. Handy, Rev. J. A., 13. Hanks, Bertha F., 324. Hanover College, 91. Hanover, Germany, 89, 178. Hanover, Ind., 91. Hanover, N. H„ 527, 716. Hanslick, Edw., 509. Hanson, James, 245. Hanson, J. H., 179. Ilarborough, England, 245. Hardgrave, W. M., 681. Hardie, Thos., 246. Harlan, D. W., 69. Harlem Branch of Y. M. C. A., 617. Harmony of legal institutions, 50. defect in, 55. between science and profession, 111. in music, 507, 512. Harper, Dr. J. M., 4, 383, 384, 407, 432. INDEX. 969 Harper, Mrs. M. A., 615. Harper, W. R., 88, 91, 160. Harris, E. D., 835. Harris, Dr. W. T., 4, 5. 25, 26, 37. 41, 65, 83, 87, 106, 168, 176, 181, 192, 207, 249, 251, 508, 522, 525, 526, 679, 680, 705. Harrisburg, Pa., 69. Harrison, Caskie, 180. Harrison, Miss EL, 322. Harrison, H. E. B., 245. Harrison, J. A., 93. Harrison, T. F., 57. Harrogate, England, 245. Harrow, England, 179. Harrow School, 179. Hart, Alexis C, 180. Hart, Blanche, 325. Hart, Caroline C, 325. Hart, J. M., 129. Hartford, Conn., 69, 179, 323, 713, 720. Hartmann, Miss Angelika, 322, 323. Hartwell, Edw. M., 5, 10, 615, 618, 714, 739 Hartwig, Th., 178. Harvard University, 10. 91, 96, 99, 112, 122, 125, 185, 199, 615, 681. Harvey, George, 456. Harvey, L.D., 386. Harvey, It., 245. Harvey, Mrs. T. W., 324. Haskell, Miss H. N., 179. Has! am, J. B., 245. Hasting, College of Law, 52. Hatchet, The, 844. Havana, Cuba, 89, 178. Haven, Carolyn T., 325. Haven, E. 0., 832. Haverford College, 93, 617. Haverford, Pa., 93. Havre, Prance, 53, 244, 287, 3X4. Hawaii, 246. Hawley, Mary W., 325. Hawthorne, 170. Hawthorne, Benjamin J., 681. Haydn, 9. Hayes College, Me., 680. Hayes, Benjamin P., 679, 680, 681, 686. Hay ford, E. L., 616. Hayter, E. 11., 245. Ilazzard, Mary M., 324. Heart, culture of, 20. qualities of, 43. Hector, Thomas, 245. Heerwagen, Mrs. L., 509. Heerwart, Miss E., 323. Heidelberg, Germany, 179. Heidelberg University, Germany, 92, 157. Heine, 175. Held, B., 93. Hele-Shaw, H. S., 526. Hellenism in Americanism, 125. is their credo, 138. Helmesberger, Jos., 508. Helsingfors, Finland, 12, 178, 526. Hemenway, Mrs. M., 14. Henderson, George W., 681. Henderson. Thomas J., 842. Hendrix College, 90. Henkle, W. D., 828. Henriques, Mrs. L. M., 509. Henrotin, Mrs. Chas., 4, 22, 525, 551. Heresy,- every sort of, 166. Hermann, J., 616. Hermite, M., 89. Herrera, Felix Martin y, 12. Herrmann, G., 89. Hertel, Franz, 323. Hervey, Alph. B., 92, 713, 737, 739. Hesperian College, 90. Hewett, E. C, 836. Hewit, Aug. F., 700. Heyse, 68. Hibben, J. G., 681. Hicks, G. W., 243, 246, 272. Hicks, Mary Dana, 456, 487, 504, 505, 591. Hiffing's educational works, 63. ' High Harrogate, England, 245. Higher academic degrees of pedagogy, 440. Higher Education, 6. subjects of preliminary programme, 6. the question .of, 27. department congress of, 87, 94. work different from normal school, 384, 430. given to certain elect men, 165. what it is trying to do, 166. violently disrupted, 197. Higher institutions of learning, 18. High-schools, supervision of, 6. manual training in, 10. mechanic art high-schools, 10. none for girls in Sweden, 61. for girls in England-, 178, 225. can they prepare for universities ? 155. Hightstown, N. J., 180. Hill, David J., 716. Hill, H. A., 526. Hill, Judson S., 386. Hill, Junius W., 509. 1 Iillman, Walter, 92. Hillsdale College, 92. Hillsdale, Mich., 92. Hillside, Wis., 325. Hine, C. D., 69. Hine, M. C, 179. Ilinewah, Arnold H., 322. Hinsdale, Dr. B. A., 4, 67, 243, 260. Hints dropped concerning college and university work, 165. Hippauf, Dr., 68. . Hiram College, 92. Hiram, O., 92, 716. His, W., 89. Historical institutions, 88. development of normal schools, 383, 415. 970 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Historical review of gymnastics in Saxony, 616, 670. History in secondary schools, 7. of Sheffield Scientific School, 9. of Turner-bund, 11, 615, 657. of economics, 46. of treatises, 51. teaching it to children, 244, 284. of the country, essential, 243, 251. English, forgotten, 139. of Western culture, 151. and reason, 163, History History of education, investigation in, 8. educational journalism, 12. a study for acquiring degree of P.D., 434. in France and Germany, 186. of physical education in Denmark, 615, 664. Hitchcock, Edw., 617. Hoar, Hon. Geo. P., 14. Hobart, Tasmania, 89. Hobbes, 170. Hobson, E., 385. Hodgins, J. G., 12. Hofer, Amelia, 346, 513, 514, 522. Hofer, Andrea, 826. Hoffmann, Frank S., 681. Hoffmann, Paul, 4, 589, 591, 614. Holbrook, R. H., 829. Holladay, Alex. Q., 527. Holland, F. M., 456, 504. Holland, G. W., 93. Holland, W. J., 93. Holloway, J. L., 842. Holly Springs, Miss., 92, 386. Holmes, Eugene D., 180. Hoist, Prof, von, 94. Holt, H. E., 507, 508, 509, 519, 520, 522. Holy Ghost College, 93. Holyoake, C. G., 590. Holyoke College, 91. Holzmliller, G., 178. Homans, Miss Amy M., 617. Home, a, of art and culture, 168. Honolulu, Hawaii, 246. Honor of being a man, 38. of being an American, 38. " Honorable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay," by Greene, 173. Honorary vice-presidents, 12, 68, 89, 178, 244, 323, 384, 456. Hooper, F. W., 591. Hoosier Schoolmaster, The, 830. Hopkins, Mrs. L. P., 246, 322. Hoppin, J. M., 456. Hornby, J. D., 840. Hornemann, F., 178. Hornsby, Marie C. D., 325. Horobin, John Chas., 245. Hospital Salpetriere, Paris, 715. Hoss, Geo. W., 830, 844. Hostile local influence, 190. Hotchkiss, Mary F., 322, 325. Houghton. Mich., 527. Houston, Tex., 67, 81. Hovev, Chas. E., 834. Howard College, 90, 91. Howard, John, 507, 514, 519, 523. Howard University, 715. Howe, Edw. G., 178, 224. Howe, S. S., 840. Howell, Lvdia G., 841. Howland, Geo., 837. Howley, J. W., 841. How to select and grade physical exercises, 615. 631. Hoyt, D. W., 180. Hoyt, Mrs. J. M., 93. Hoyt, J. W., 93. Hubbard, W. C, 812. Hubrecht, Dr. P. F., 18. Hughes, Mrs. A. M., 5, 321, 323, 326. Hughes, Miss E. P., 16, 60, 217, 383, 407, 385. Hughes, Hugh Price, 13. Hughes, Inspector James L., 5, 11. Hughes, Richard C, 681. Hugo, Victor, 39, 55. Hiding, Ray Greene, 5, 177, 241. Hull, John. 383, 385, 408, 433. Hull, W. N., 246. Human bodv, its cultivation, 10, 615, 623 ills/46. life, 45, 46. learning, 125. Humanistic l subjects, 122. training, 124. eye, blind, 132. Humanity, every one belongs to it, 38. forget it, 38. ideal of, 45. would suffer without Latin, 53. Humboldt, 111., 324. Hume, 170. Hungary, 13, 90, 179, 385. Hunsiker, M.. 590. Hunt, Miss II. E.. 713, 720. Hunter, Thos., 386. Huntington, E. B., 815. Huntington, Ind., 246. Huntington, Wm. E., 681. Huntsville, Ala., 456. Huntsville, Tex., 386. Hiirlimann, I., 323. Hutchinson, Kan., 324. Huttlingen, Switzerland, 179. Hutton, David J., 456. Hutton, F. R, 525, 558. Huxley, 46. Hyde, W. De Witt, 91. "Hydriotaphia," by Sir Thos. Browne, 173. Hygiene of vocal organs, 9, 507, 514. INDEX. 971 " Hymne in Honour of Love and Beauty," by Spenser, 173. Hymns, religious, 9. Hynes, J. J., 245. Hyslop, J. H., 681. I Idaho, 69. Ideal view of normal schools, 384, 422, 451. from the, to the practical, 427. study, 150. scheme, 154. Graeco-Roman, 163. Ideals, present, in educational publications, 11, 810. in journalism, 810. Idleness, prevention of criminal, 372. Ignatius, Chas. Emile, 12. Ignorance a menace, 81. lamentable, 126. Illinois, 13, 32, 69. 88, 91, 179, 246, 323, 385. 509, 591, 616, 680, 715. Illinois College, 715. Illinois Common School Advocate, The, 833. Illinois Normal Department, the, 836. Illinois School Journal, The, 837, 838. Illinois Schoolmaster, 836. Illinois State Normal University, 384. Illinois Teacher, The, 834, 836, 837. Illiterate man, 56. Illumination needed, 28. Illustrations of every occupation, 24. "Imaginary Conversations," by Walter Savage Landor, 173. Imagination of children, 11, 713. Imelmann, Dr., 87, 88, 118, 137. Imparting knowledge, 44. Imperialism surrounded by martial glory, 162. Impertinence to supervise my private school, 192. Importance of aesthetics, 455, 462. Importunities of degree seekers, 160. Improvement, signs of, 6, 142. in the teaching of geography, 6. of teachers, 29. Imre, Prof., 13. Inability of private schools, 186. Inch, J. R., 12. Incident in history of higher education, 199. Incompatible mass of studies, 121. Incompetence, ignorant, 18. Inconvenience caused by multiplication of degrees, 123. India, 68. education of women in, 890. Indian Territory, 324. Indiana, 13, 32, 69, 91, 246, 324, 385, 526, 616, 680, 715. Indiana School Journal, 830. Indiana University, 616, 715. Indianapolis, Ind., 69, 79, 179, 243, 257, 324, 456. Indictment of human nature, 139. Indifference cause of difficulties, 190. Individual teacher's help, 72. instruction, 191. Individualism, intelligent, 184. Individuality, complete, 28. Industrial interests of business schools, 10. needs of localities, 6, 243, 206. products, 10. instruction, 28. life, 45. and manual instruction, 589. pursuits, specialization for, 589, 597. Industrial Art School, Philadelphia, Pa., 591. Industrial instruction, theses on, 10. department congress of, 589. and manual training. 590, 606. Industries, preparation for, 29. of the world make demands, 589, 594. Inevitable result, 124. Infants' vocabularies, 713, 737. Influence, undue, 74. of the city upon Columbia College, 147. of French writers in England, 170. mighty, exerted, 184. hostile, 190. reflex, 192. of the people of the community, 192. man exerts, 198. Ingatestone, England, 245. Ingraham, Dr. Lena V., 10. Ingraham, Prof., 45. Injurious training, 131. Injury to vocal organs, 9. to public institutions, 37. serious, 124. done to Greek, 125. Innocent III., 118. Inspectors, under control of, 41. popular with teachers, 191. not technically called so, 191. Instinct of art, 466. Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm, 615, 662. Institute of Technology, Boston, 91, 99, 589, 526, 569. Institution, a peculiar, 61. "sui generis," 112. Institutions of higher learning have pre- ceded, 165. Instruct is to construct, 55. Instruction in vocal music, 8. 972 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Instruction, technological, 9, 27. industrial, 10, 28. ethical and civic, 28. in elementary branches, 28. public, in Italy, 907. Instructor (The) and School Journal, 840. Instrument for accompanying vocal music, 9. scientific, 170. Integral elements, 162. Integrity, harmonious and synthetic, 110. Intellect training of, 20. astute, of the Jesuits, 185. Intellectual evolution of the child, 713. Intelligence, 839. Intelligence diffused, 55. Intercommunication of studies, 7. Intercourse between nation^, 64. human, Greek as a means of, 137. Interest shown in religious education, 28. in educational things, 32, 34. in secondary education, 181. jealous, 192. Interests, industrial, financial, and commercial, 793. of business schools, 10. of a town or community, 38. of the sciences, 177, 199. blind to their highest, 167. Interference, legislative, 189. Inter- Mountain Educator, 843. Inter-Mountain Practical Educator, 843. International courtesies, 6. point of view, 38. equality, 38. law, 51. review, 846. International Educational Congress, or- ganization of, 25. Intervals, lucid, come to politicians, 189. Invention, poetic and dreaming, 714, 730. Investigation, original, in child study, 8. in history of education, 8. experimental psychology, 8. in literature and history of education, 29. original, 384, 444, 446. and research, 168. Investigator, The, 833. Invite disaster, 74. Iowa, 13, 32, 69. 91, 179, 246, 324, 386, 456, 509, 526. 680, 716. Iowa City, la., 13, 91, 243, 251, 716. Iowa College, 91, 88, 681. Ioiva Instructor, 840. Iowa Journal of Education, 840. Iowa School Journal, 840, 841. Iowa schools, 841. Iowa Teacher, Tlie, 841. Ireland, 13, 68, 179, 244, 385. Ireland, Rev. John, 14. 90. Irrelevancies brought forward, 138. Irvington, Ind., 9i. Irwin, J. S., 69. Isdell, Ida M., 325. Isleworth, England, 245, 385. Israel, 68. Issue, serious educational, 138. Italian, honor of being a, 38. Italy, history of educational journalism. 12. list of vice-presidents, 12, 179, 246, 323, 385, 456, 590. Ithaca, N. Y., 383, 440, 525, 534, 681. Ives, Prof. Halsey C, 5. Ivo, Brother, 681. Jackson, Alfred, 244. Jackson, Miss., 69. Jackson Park, educational exhibits in, 22, 39. Jacksonville, 111., 715. Jacobson, Augustus, 591. Jacoby, Ilerm., 89. Jacou'let, M., 385. Jaeger, 0., 178. Jamaica, West Indies, 68, 243, 246, 272, 385. Jamaica Plain, Mass., 324. James, Edm. J., 93, 838. James, H. A., 179. Jamestown, N. Y., 591. Janssens, Dr. Eug., 12. Japan, 13, 68, 90, 244, 246, 308, 526, 590. Japanese, honor of being a, 38. Jar-z, Dr. K., 68. Jastrow, Jos., 716. Jauker, Karl, 384. Jay Gould and his success, 139. Jebb, 11. C, 90. Jefferson City, Mo., 69, 527. Jena, Germany, 12, 89. Jenkins, William, 4. Jepson, B., 509. Jersey Citv, N. J., 509. Jesse, R. EL, 92. Jesuits, their movements for better schools, 185. their astute intellects, 185. Jilinski, Alex., 179. John, John P. D., 91. Johns Hopkins, 99. Johns Hopkins University, 87, 88, 91, 94, 120, 125, 525, 716. Johnson, A. A., 93. Johnson, Mrs. A. C, 385. Johnson, D. B., 246. Johnson, D. R., 386. Johnson, E., 244. Johnson, H. H., 508, 523. Johnson, Isaac, 179. Johnson, Vt., 386. INDEX. 973 Johnston, James H., 386. Johnston, John, 815. Johnston, W. P., 91. Jolly, William, 245. Jones, Anna T., 325. Jones, Edward N., 386. Jones, Hiram K., 715. Jones, Jane L., 325. Jones, J. Viriana, 90. Jones, L. H., 69, 243, 257. Jones, R. C, 90. Jones, Stephen A., 92. Jordan, C. M., 591. Jordan, D. Starr, 88, 135, 137, 155. Joseph, Frere, Superior-General, 12. Josseraud, M., 12. Jost, M., 68. Journal Anglais, 849. Journal de Eamille ou Livre des Enfants, 851. Journal (Le) de V Enseignement Primaire, 848. Journal des Instituteurs, 847. Journal for Literary Institutions, 812. Journal of Education, The, 68, 819, 831. Journal of Pedagogy , The, 829. Journal of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, 813. Journalism, educational, 12, 810. in New England, 811. its purpose and reward, 825. in New York, 826. in Ohio, 828. in Indiana, 829. in Michigan, 831. in Illinois, 833. in Iowa, 840. in Missouri, 842. in Colorado and Kansas, 843. in Prance, 12, 845. Joynes, Edward S., 180. Judge, legist and lawyer, 49. Judson, H. Pratt, 91. Junge, Pr., 12. Junghenn, Th., 68. Jungk, Miss A., 245. Jurare in verba magistri, 61. K Kaemmel, 0., 178. Kalamazoo College, 92. Kalamazoo, Mich., 92, 324. Kalken, H. van, 590. Kambli, L. W.,323. Kanda, Naiba, 90. Kansas, 13, 69, 324, 386, 591, 881. Kansas City, Kan., 13, 617. Kansas City, Mo., 67. Kansas Educational Journal, 844. Kant, quoted, 150. Kappes, J. H., 508, 520, 521. Karlsruhe, Germanv, 12, 245. Kasson, Frank H.,821. Kattenbusch, Fred., 89. Kazan, Russia, 90. Kean, Jennie E., 325. Keane, John J., 13, 16, 43, 161, 679, 700, 703. Keats, 174. tried to become a Greek, 128. Keelhoff, Adrien, 590. Keenan, Hon. Sir Patrick J., 13. Keller, Helen, 244, 302. Kelley, S. Rosella, 325. Kellogg. Eva D., 821. Kellogg, L. B., 844. Kellogg, Martin, 87, 90, 104. Kellv, Mrs. A. K. Holt, 323. Keltie, T. Scott, 13. Kempin, Mrs. Emilie, 90. Kendrick, A. A., 91. Kennedy, D. A., 180. Kentucky, 13, 91, 324, 386, 526, 681, 716. Kentucky University, 91. Kenyon College, 92. Kenzo, Koyama, 526, 590. Kern, John A., 681. Kerr, D. R., 92. Kerr, John, 68. Kerr, John G., 590. Kershaw, Win., 180. Kessler, Dr., 68. Kessler, J. L., 681. Ketwich, H. D. van, 246. Keystone Normal School, 589. Kharkof, Russia, 90. Kiddle, H., 57. Kiel, Germany, 12, 68. Kilbon, Geo. B., 591. Kilbourn, Geo. B., 589. Kimball, Mrs. A. P., 324. Kimball, J. E.,509. Kimball, Lida M., 325. Kindergarten instruction, 7. adjustment to primary school, 7. characteristics of, 7. should it teach reading and writing ? 7, 321, 327. songs and their dramatic element, 7, 331. organic union with primary school, 7, 321, 336. symbolism, justifiable, 7, 322, 355, 356. training of teachers, 8, 41. a sign of the time, 18. is here to stay, 22. what it attempts, 28. changes in plays and games, 321, 328. songs, 321, 328, 331. in Germany and America, 322. workers abroad, 322. as a basis for life, 322, 346. educative value of hand work, 822. story-telling in, 322, 351. in Austria, 366. teachers of two kinds, 412. Kindergartner, preparation for, 344. 974 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION King, H. C, 681. King, W. P., 91. Kingsley, Rose, 178, 225. Kingston, Jamaica, 246. Kingston, Ont., 680. Kinross, John, 89. Kipling, Rudyai-d, 170. Kirk, Alfred, 836. Kirkland, Miss Cordelia, 177, 211. Kirkland. Thos., 383, 384, 410. Kirkwood, Win. R., 681. Kjennerud, K.,590. Klausenburg, Hungary, 90. Klemm, L. R.. 249. Klockow, Miss Ida II., 245. Knowledge of mind, 18. necessary, 66. provinces of, 105. trustworthy only when balanced, 116. historical and philological, 170. Knox College, 91. Knoxville, Tenn., 325, 681. Knudsen, Dr. D. F., 13. Koacsala, Johan, 179. Kohlrausch, 89. Konigsberg, Germany, 89, 245, 385. Konstmann, F., 245. Kopper, Eleonore, 323. Koran, thought based on the, 135. Kovalevsky, Ergraff de, 13, 244, 304, 589, 604. Krause, Miss Marie, 245. Kreutzer, 9. Kroeger, F., 245. Kroger, Miss Margaret, 323. Krohn. Wm. O., 713, 715, 750. Kiicken, Fr., 9. Kuhlgast, A., 68. Kutz, Mrs. Henrietta, 180. Kynnersley, E. M. Sneyd, 245. Laboratories and libraries, suitable, 160. do not exclude the lexicon, 197. Laboratory work in exact measurement, 9. Labra, Rafael M. de, 13. La Crosse, Wis., 325. Ladd, George T., 5. Ladd, John J., 814. Ladder to the stars, 36. "Lady of Shalott" and other poems, by Tennyson, 174. Lafayette College, 93. 716. Lafayette, Ind., 324, 526. Lage, Miss Bertha v. d., 245. Lagerstedt, Dr. N. G. W., 4, 64, 244, 289. La Grange College, 681. La Grange, Mo., 681. Lahaina, Hawaii, 246. Lake Forest, 111., 91, 680. Lake Forest University, 91, 680. Lake Side, 0., 325. Lambeth, Wm. A., 11, 617, Lambl, H. B., 89. VAmi de VEnfance, 847. Lampertico, Fedele, 13. Lancaster, Pa., 69, 93. Landreth, Olin II., 591. Lane, Superintendent Albert G., 5, 16, 68, 69, 81. Lane, F. R, 179. Lange, Miss Helene, 12. Langland, 170. Langlee, John R., 385. Language versus science, 27. of the world, English, 64. studies, 177, 199. limited, 199. essential in course of study, 243, 251. of children, 737. Languages, time devoted to, 6. essential study, 6. time given to, 177, 196. foreign, at the expense of the classic, 169. studied, mastered, and used, 197. Langworthy, Agnes E., 324. U Annie Cartographique, 849. Lansing, Mich,, 69, 324, 527. Lanterns, magic, in schools, 244. Lanza, G., 526, 569, 582, 586. La Plata, Argentine, 384. La Porte, Ind., 13, 178, 221, 321, 324, 356. Laramie, Wyo., 93. La Rioja, Argentine, 384. Larsen, Joakim, 615, 664. Larsson, Gustaf, 589, 599. Lasar, Sigismund, 509. Las Cruces, N. M., 527. Latchaw, J. R. H., 92. Latent genius stimulated, 20. Latin as a study, 6, 54. its educational value, 27. choice of, 178, 234. or modern language, which first ? 178, 234, 235. grammar and literature, 120. a little, and less Greek, 129. Latin a requisite of B. A., 129. reading it at sight, 130. type of thinkers, 170. preferable, 195. Latin and English High-School in Boston, 194. Launder, Harriet J., 324. Laussedat, le Colonel, 526. Laval, Canada, 385. Lavisse, Ernest, 171. Law, compulsory attendance, 7. as a calling, 18. obedience to, 28. Roman, 50. of general education in Uruguay, 59. students of, 87, INDEX. 975 Law, Mary E., 325. Law schools in the U. S., 49. Lawrence, E. A., 815. Lawrence, Kan., 525, 553. Lawrence, Mr., 507, 514, 520. Lawrence University, 681. Lawrence ville, N. J., 177. Laws of muscular and nervous fatigue, 11. Laws, Miss Annie, 322, 591. Laws, Prof., 679, 680, 686, 699. Laws, S. S., 842. "Lawyer, judge, and legist, 49. Lawyers' agency, 187. Leach, Daniel, 814. Leaders in thought, Dr. Harris, 40. of higher education, 95. upon public questions, 166. Leak, Mrs. M. E., 323. Leander, Chas. W., 509. Learning, the new, 113. Leavell, Rich. M., 681. Leavenworth, A. E., 819. Leavenworth, Kan., 324. Lebanon, Tenn., 93, 681. Lebanon Valley College, 92. LeBeuf, Helen Josslyn, 323. Leblanc, M., 307. IS Echo de I Enseignement Primaire, 848. Leciere, Leon, 89. L'Eeole Francaise, 848. IS Education Chritienne, 848. I? Education Nationale, 848. Lee, B. F., 14. Lee, Josephine P., 323. Lee, S. D., 527. Leeds, England, 245, 591. Leeuwarden, Netherlands, 246. Lefevre, Walter, 681. Legal education in IT. S., 16, 48. science not a collection of terms and codes, 49. philosophy, 49. enactment with regard to degrees, 158. Legard, A. G., 245. ' Le Garde, Miss, 615, 660. Legislation, proper, secured, 190. enforcement of, 190. Legislators, slow, 115. Legist, judge, and lawyer, 49. Leguizamon, H., 384. Lehigh University, 716. Leibold, Anton, 617. Leicester, England, 245. Leipzig, Germany, 89, 178, 323, 590. Leisure for disinterested culture, 138. Leiter, Mrs. P. W., 617. Leland Stanford, Jr., 99. Leland Stanford Jr. University, 10, 67, 90, 120, 322, 355, 446, 615," 713, 715, 765. L' Enseignement Secondaira des Jeunes Filles, 846. Leonard, N. R., 840. Leonard, Tex., 325. Le Roy, J. J., 246. Lerrurier, G., 53. Leslie, James R., 385. Lessing's Laocoon and Dramaturgic, 128. Letters read, 126-135. by Cowper, 173. Levasseur, M. E., 89, 94, 455. Lewis, Dr., 679, 699. Lewis, Elenor H., 324. Lewis, Mrs. M., 325. Lewis, W. H., 842. Lewiston, Me., 509, 681. Lexington, Ky., 91, 324, 526. Lexington, Va., 70, 93, 527, 617, 681. Libbey, C. E., 92. Liberal education, 6, 150. training of teachers, 41. antecedent, 12. how stimulated, 117. culture in many directions, 136. what constitutes a, 150. Liberal Arts Building, 4. Liberality, great, 165. Liberty, Mo., 92, 681. Libraries and museums, 97. Library of pieces of music, 9. Licenses of teachers, 7, 22, 119. Licentiate, candidates for the, 119. in arts, 119. Lick Observatory, 108. Lieber, Francis, 94. Liege (Luttich), Belgium, 89. Lierre, Belgium, 384. Life, its utilitarianism, 110. Light and shade in drawing, 8. Light at the beginning and end, 170. Lightner, J. E., 508, 520, 523. Likenesses among men, 155. Lille, France, 53, 168, 169. Lilley, George, 527. Limitations of the art of painting, 8. of business college instruction, 10. of the special schools, 194. Lincoln, Neb., 69, 92, 325. Lindenau-Leipzig, Germany, 616. Linguistic and literary education, 141. Link between child and university, 22. L'Instituteur, 847. Ulns&ituteur Pratique, 848. U Instruction Primaire, 847. Lion, J. C, 616. Lisbon, Portugal, 13. Lisburn, Ireland, 245. Lists of vice presidents, 12, 68, 89, 178, 244, 323, 384, 456, 526, 590. Liszt, Franz v., 89. Literarg Advertiser and Public School Advocate, 840. Literary degrees, 156. 976 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Literature as a study, 7, 18. English, "168. of kindergarten, 322. classical and ancient, 121. Greek, 139. foreign, 168. Greek and French, 170. broken by long gaps, 170. Little Latin and less Greek, 129. Little, Luella, 679. Little Rock, Ark., 246, 509. Littlefield, George A., 386. Livelihood gained, 112. Livermore, Mrs. Mary, 14. Liverpool, England, 90, 245, 385, 520. Livingston, Ala., 385. Llaberia, Augustin Sarda y, 385. Lloyd, Alf. H., 681. Lloyd, Miss, 713, 772. Local groups of the board, 80. politics, 81. opinion, 143. and national control, 190. Localities, industrial needs of, 243, 266. Lock Haven, Ind., 386. Locke, Josephine C., 456, 491, 591. Lodi, Italy, 179. Loeper-Housselle, Mrs., 12. Logan, J. V., 681. Logan, Utah, 527. Logic leads to conclusions, 1<>3. Log-schools of the seventeenth century, 56. Loizillon, Miss M., 323. Lomax, J., 245. Lombard, Warren P., 11, 615. London, England, 11, 13, 26, 68, 89, 179, 245, 323, 360, 385, 456. 509, 526, 590, 715, 750. Londonderry, Ireland, 179, Long, D. A., 92. Long, E. H., 69. Long Island City, N. Y., 244, 286. Longfellow, 170. Loos, Charles L., 91. Lop-sided, not one-sided, 48. Los Angeles, Cal., 323, 383, 433. Lott, W. II., 509. Loudon, James, 89. Louisiana, 69, 91, 179, 246, 324, 526, 591, 616, 681. Louisville, Ky., 177, 178, 193, 224, 241, 324. Lounsbury, T. R., 132. Lourdelet, Ernest, 178. Love, fired with, 37. Love, James, 842. Love, Mrs., 507, 512, 513. Love, Sam. G., 591. Low, Seth, 88, 146, 160. Lowell, 170. Lowell, Mass., 95, 324. Lower, B. Byron, 69. Lowfield, Keighley, England, 13. Lowrie, Annie, 325. Loy, M., 681. Lozano, D. M. Esperabe, 90. Lucas, Charles, 526. Luckey, W. L., 842. Luminaries in this land, 40. Lummis, Henry. 679, 681, 699. Lund, Sweden, 61. Lundin, Hulda, 590. Luquin, Elise, 590. Luscher, Alb., 179. Luxury, Greek is, 129. Luyssen, M. T., 244. Lycees in France, 169. Lymnn, Miss M. J., 323. Lynchburg, Va., 70. Lynn, Henry, 245. Lyon, France, 245, 590. Lyon, Merrick, 819. Lyons, Rabbi, 713, 772. Lyle, Duncan C, 591. Lyschiske, Miss, 321. Lyte, Principal E. O., 5. M Mabie, Dr. Hamilton W.. 14. MacAlister, James, 5, 456, 504, 589. 805. Macaulay, 170. MacDonald, George, 245. MacGregor, J. G.. 89. Macintyre, Marv E., 323. MacKa'y, A. H., 12. MacKay, J. B. Lillie, 89. Mackenzie, Miss Constance, 321, 325, 331. Mackenzie, Mrs. Eva, 323. Mackenzie. James C, 5, 15, 177, 182, 183, 207, 209, 217, 241. Mackenzie, R. Tait, 11. MacKibben, Stuart, 69. Mackintosh, A., 246. Macnamara, T J., 179. Macon, Ga., 246. MacVicar, Malcom, 384, 430. Madison, Neb., 325. Madison, S. D., 386. Madison, Wis., 93, 325, 716. Madison ville, Ky., 386. Madonna, with purity born in heaven, 36. Madrid, Spain, 13, 68, 179, 385, 616. Magic lanterns in school, 244, 314. Mahonev, Jeremiah, 836. Maiden," J. II., 590. Maine, 69, 91, 179, 246, 324, 386, 509, 526, 616. 681. Maine Journal of Education, The, 818. Maine Teacher, The, 817. Make room for phvsics, botany, and chem- istry, 196. Mallet, John W., 527. Mallow, Ireland, 245. Malloy, W. R., 68. Man who has read Goethe and Lessing, 137. a logical animal, 138. of force, 144. INDEX. 977 Man means more than citizen, 1G1. means more than producer, 163. Management, judicious, 193. Manchester, Alb. J., 814. Manchester, England, 90, 245, 456. Manchester, N. II., 5U9. Manchester, Pa., 78. Manhattan College, 92. Manhattan, Kan., 591. Manhood, higher type of, 144. large view of, 167. Manitoba, Canada, 384. Mankato, Minn., 715. Mankind, happiness of, 66. Mann, B. Pickman, 321. Mann, Horace, 56, 183, 186, 812, 832. Manner, unobtrusive, 74. of influence, 164. Manners and morals taught through short- hand, 10. Manning, Agnes M., 341. Manning, Miss E. A., 323. Mansfield, O., 508, 523, 617. Manual of object lessons, 57. of methods, 57. Manual, The, 841. Manual training, systems of, 10, 589, 604. Swedish or sloyd, 10, 589, 599. Russian, 10, 589, 604. for boys and girls, 10. what grades of primary school, 10. in grammar schools, 10. what branches, 28. special schools for, 53. a separate building for, 193. and instruction, 589. Manual-training school in Chicago, 589, 604. Manuel GdnSral, 847. Manuel Gineral de V Instruction Primaire, 847. Manufacture, branches relating to, 6. Manufacturer, his needs, 18. Manuscript, a student's, rejected, 157. Marae, C. G., 179. Marble, A. P., 243, 268, 591. Marcy, Governor, 188. Marianna, Ark., 179. Marietta College, 92. M arietta, Ga., 179. Marietta, 0., 92. Mark Hopkins, 95, 107. Market, text-books put on the, 42. Marquette College, 681. Marsh, T. P., 92. Marshall, G. E., 841. Marshall, James, 91. Marshall, J. W., 245. Marshall, Mr., 508. 519. Marshall, Mich., 69. 62 Martel, Felix, 090. Martin, Alex., 715. Martin, Eugene, 53, 383, 415, 589. Martin, Mrs. E. H., 67, 89. Martin, P. M., 386. Martin, George H., 246. Martin, John EL, 91. Marvin, P. O., 525, 553. Marwedel, Miss Emma, 322, 372, 590. Maryland, 13, 69, 91, 179, 246, 324, 457, 526, 591, 616, 681, 716. Maryville College, Tenn., 93, 679, 680. Maryville, Tenn., 93. Massachusetts, 14, 55, 69. 91, 179, 246, 324, 386, 457, 509, 527, 591, 616, 681, 716. Massachusetts Common School Journal, The, 812. Massachusetts Teacher, The, 813. Masses, educate them, 43. Massey, John E., 70. Massinger, 174. Masson, L., 526. Masters as perfect as the Greek, 169. great, and their works, 8. Material of instruction, 151. Materials for modeling, 8. Mathematics, time devoted to, 6. applied, 9, 27, 525, 560 ; value of, 560. pure, 27. two years' studv, 195. Mather, William," 590. Mathews, G. I).. 179. Matthews, Elizabeth K., 324. Matthews, James, 245. Matthews, W. S.. 680. Matthias, W., 178. Mauck, Joseph W., 93. Maurelian, Brother, 13. Maximum of individual instruction, 191. of power, 193. Maxwell, Superintendent W. II., 5. May, S. P., 456. Mayfair, 111., 713. Mayfield, W. D., 70. Mayhew, Ira, 8<>3. May hew, Nora D.. 323. Mavnard, Mrs., 679, 086. Mayo, A. D., 246. Mayville, N. D., 386. McAfee, Cleland B., 681. McAfee, L. M., 92. McAndrews, W. A.. 507, 513. Mc Bride. J. M., 527. McCabe John A., 384. McCabe, Lorenzo D., 716. McCabe, W. Gordon, 93. McCarty, H. D., 844. McCosh, Dr. James, 5, 11, 87, 679, 680, 682, 692. McCoy, Lulu, 456. 978 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. McCracken, H. M., 92. MeCulloch, J. F., 92. McCulloch, Miss Mary C, 321, 324. Mc( 'ul loch, K. S., 527. McDermott, P. A., 93. McDonogh, Md., 591. McDowell, Miss, 713. McDowell, W. F., 90. McElrov, E. li., 69. McPadon, 0. E., 509. McGill University Gymnasium, Montreal, Canada. 015, 636. McGregor. Duncan, 386. McGrew, Mrs. C. II. , 323. McGuire, T. II., 456. Mcllvaine, Rich., 93. McKay, Q. W., 843. McKeen, Joseph, 827. McKenzie, Tait. 615, 636. McKnight, II. W., 93. McLellan, Dr. James A., 12. McLouth, Lewis, 527. McMillan, Thos., 92. McMurry, Chas. A., 384, 438. McNair, Anna D., 617. McNaughton, James M., 386. McPherson, Margaret T., 323. Mead, Mrs. E. S., 91. Mead, Edw. D., 14. Mcadville, Pa., 617. Means, educational, 9. and ends, 43, 44. of developing slow pupils, 525, 567. Measurement, exact, in laboratories, 9. scientific, 98. value of exact, 525, 558. Meath, Earl of, 11, 615, 641. Mecca, the mosque at, 36. Mechanical exercises, 9. school, 321. Mechanism, complex, 49. Medical education, 117. faculty in New York, 147. Medical schools, teach physical training, 10. Medicine, as a study, 6. as a calling, 18. students of, 87. Medieval times. 153. Medium of communication with the pub- lic, 158. Meetings, results of, 35. weekly, teachers', 71. principals', 74. Melody, soprano and part singing, 9. Melon, Paul. 526. Melrose. Mass., 14. Members of committee to protect degree of Ph.D., 160. Members of the corporation and trustees, 193. Membership in National Educational Association, 23. ex-officio, 147. Memorial Art Palace, 31, 243, 525. Memory, joyous, 35. improved, 44. Memphis, Tenn., 325. Men and women, sane, rational, and dis- ciplined, 166. Men, competent, 158. Mendelssohn, 9. M., and Niigeli, 507, 513. Mendenhall, Dr. T. C, 13. Menendez, Rodolfo, 246. Mental states, their observation and study, 11. Mental waste and economy, 713, 723. Meny, G. R., 179. Merchant, his view of business colleges, 10. his needs, 19. Mercies, tender, of the select school, 186. Merida de Yucatan, Mexico, 240. Merit, artistic, 9. "Merman, The, and the Mermaid," by Tennyson. 173. Merrell, Edw. H., 716. Men-Mm, A. C., 125. Merrifield, W.. 92. Merrill, Moses, 177, 180, 205. Merrill, P. Freeman, 526. Merwin, J. B., 842. Message, special and personal, 23. Messina, Italy, 90. Mestica. Enrico, 179. Metal, instruction in, 10. Metaphysics, eleventh book of Aristotle's, 11. Method, the historical, 151. of the language teacher, 197. Methodism should not obstruct Christian- ity, 38. Methodist University, 99. Methods, debatable ground, 23. progressive, 43. of teaching history, 284, 383, 399. of fitting symbols to child's comprehen- sion, 322. of training teachers, 383, 401. philo^raphic, 456. Methods of instruction, symbolic, 7. in teaching vocal music, 9. their adaptation, 244, 301. of Confucius, 313. Metzner. Heinrich, 617. •'Meum" and "tuum," 123, 132. Mexico, 90. 246. Meyer-Markau, William, 245. Miami University, 92. INDEX. 979 Michael Angelo, 36. Michalais, M., 321. Miclniud, Gustav, 12. Michigan, 32, 09, 92, 179, 246, 324, 386, 509, 527, 681. Michigan College, 383. Michigan Journal of Education, 832. Michigan School Moderator, 832. Michigan Teacher, 832. Middle High German, a practical study, 138. Middlebury College, 93. Middletown, Conn., 91, 142, 680. Mijares, Mrs. M. del Real y, 68. Milan, Italy, 246. Military school at Woolwich, 186. Mill, John Stuart, 47. Millar, A. C, 90. Millar, John, 4, 68, 383, 405, 455, 466. Miller, C. C, 69. Miller, E. D., 386. Miller, L. W., 455, 457. Millions bestowed on universities, 167. Mills Brothers, 840. Mills, C. T., 90. Mills, J. J., 91. Mills, J. S., 669, 681, 686. Mill, Stuart, 170. Milne, James M., 386. Milne, William J., 386. Milne-Edwards, M., 89. Milton College, 93. Milton, John, 21, 170, 171. Milton, what do with him ? 129. Milton, Wis., 93. Milwaukee, Wis., 70, 325, 351, 386, 681. Mind, knowledge of, 18. transition of, 28. contradistinction from biological phe- nomenon, 29. Minds and intellects of Frenchmen, 169. Minersville, Ga., 178, 223. .Mines, School of, in Columbia College, 525. Min fold, Germany, 323. Mingis, Clara W., 323. Minimum of time, 50. in a secondary school, 195. Ministers' Employment Club, 187. Ministers of education, W. T. Harris, 25. of Russia, 37, 48, 304. of France, 39, 168. G. W. Ross, 40. of Argentine, 57. Ministry of public instruction of Russia, 37, 55. of France, 39. Minneapolis, Minn., 92, 180, 324, 383, 386, 391, 509, 591. Minnesota, 14, 69, 92, 179, 246, 324, 386, 509, 591, 681. Minuteness with which course of study is followed, 191. Miranda, Julian O., 246. Missemer, II. C, 591. Mississippi, 69, 92, 386, 527, 591, 681. Mississippi College, 92. Missouri, 69, 92, 179, 324, 386, 509, 527, 591, 616, 681, 716. Missouri Educator, 842. Missouri Journal of Education, 842. Missouri School Journal, 842. Missouri Teacher, 842. Missouri Teacher, Ttie, 843. 31issouri Valley College, 679. Mitchel, F. Mason, 591. Mitchell, E. C, 91, 324. Mitchell, S. T., 92. Mobile, Ala., 67. Model or training schools, 383, 387. Modeling in clay, 6, 8. in wax, 8. in other materials, 8. Models used in drawing, 8. Modern educator, eminent, 21. Modern languages, choice of, 6. or Latin, which first ? 178, 234, 235. are but gruel by the side of Greek, 134. Modern science a new world, 17. Modifications in the primary school, 7, 321, 342. Mohammedan schools, success of, 186. Mohn, T. N., 92. Molkenboer, W. B. G., 457. Mommsen's charge, 157. Monarchical institutions, 37. Money spent for education, 118. Moniteur de la Ligue Girondine de V Edu- cation Physique, 849. Moniteur des Exercises Physiques, 849. Moniteur du Jeune Age, 848. Monod, M. G., 89. Monopoly intolerant, 188. Monroe, W. S., 67, 178, 217, 826. Monseur, Eugene, 89, 590. Mont, Don Pedro, 12. Montague, A. P., 179. Montana, 92. Montauban, France, 245. Montefiore, Arthur, 590. Montevideo, Uruguav, 13, 57, 68. 179, 246. Montpclier, Vt., 325" Montreal. Can., 178, 385. Montz, Mr., 508, 522. Moore, Anna R. Osborne, 456, 500. Moore, Gordon B„ 681. Moore, Ilobart, 617. Moore. II. K., 385. Moore. Miss M. J., 323. Moore's Hill, Ind., 91. Moral and religious instruction, 6, 18. Moral evolution of the child, 718. Morale of the school, 193. Morality necessary, 66. Morals in elementary schools. 6. 980 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Morals taught through shorthand, 10. part of education, 18. essential in a course of study, 243, 251. Koran, J., 245. Morgan, Mary S., 325. Morgan, T. L., 14. Morgan Park, 111., 179. Morgaiitown, W. Va., 681. Morgenstern, Lina, 323. Morris, John T., 591. Morris, Jos. W., 93. Morris, Rich., 173. Morris, T. Buxton, 245. Morrison, A. J., 246. Morrison, Julia, 324. Morrison, Thos., 385. Morristown, Tenn., 386. Morse, J. H., 180. Morse, S. B., 90. Morton, H., 5. Moscow, Russia, 179. Mosher, Geo. F., 92. Mosher, Miss N., 324. Moss, II. W., 179. Moss, John F.,245. Mosso, Dr. Angelo, 10, 615, 623. Mota, Ignacio Fr. Silveira da, 13. Moten, Lucy E., 385. Mother as business woman, 10. Mothers of universities, 118. Motives of artists, 8. of education, 38. Motor ability in school children, 11. Mount Holyoke College, 617, 716. Mount Pleasant, Mich., 324. Mount Pleasant, Pa., 191. Mount St. Mary's, Md., 681. Mount Union College, 92, 617. Mount Vernon, la., 91. Mountain in the distance, 38. Movements and mental states, 715, 750. Mowry, Hannah D., 325. Mowry, W. A., 243, 246, 273, 811, 814. Mozart, 9. " Much ado about nothing," by Shake- speare, 173. Muddle out of a very plain thing, 47. Muegge, August H.,617. Muench, Hugo, 11, 616. 657. Muhlenberg College, 93, 681. Muir, Sir Win., 90. Muldoon, P. J., 91. Mttller, P., 507, 509, 513. Mtiller, G. E., 178. Mttller, Prof. Max. 13. Mullin, Eldon, 384. Mulock, Wm.,89. Multitude, to guide the, 166. Mumford, Mrs., 67, 82. Muncie, Ind., 5U7, 512. Mundella, Hon. A. J., 13. Munich. Germany, 323. Municipal authority, 177, 183. Mufloz, Jose M., 590. Munston, J. W.,245. Murdock, Amelia, 324. Murfee, E. H., 526. Murphy, John T., 93. Murray, Charlotte L. M., 323. Murray, Dr. David, 14. Murray, Wm., 244. Museum, pedagogical, 53, 59. Music, vocal, 8, 508. learned by rote, 9. part singing, 9. soprano and melody, 9. adapted for children, 9, 507, 513. selection of songs, 9. patriotic airs, 9. popular songs, 9. religious hymns, 9. accompaniment of songs, 9. classic, 9, 517, 519. special teachers, 9. correction of errors, 9. expression in, 9. enunciation, 9. posture of body, 9. pitch, 9. geometry and astronomy, 153. harmony in music, 507, 512. Musical notation, when to be learned, 9, 505, 512. tonic sol-fa, 9, 512, 522. movable do, 9, 512, 522. fixed do, 9, 512, 522. Muskegon, Mich.. 324. Muskogee, Ind. Ter., 324. Myers,' Fla., 323. Myers, F. W. H.,245. Myers, Henry C, 617. Myrberg, O. F.,90. Mythical institution, the old-fashioned college, 36. • N Naas, Sweden, 590. Nftgeli, H. G., 9. Nakabara, Kota, 246. Names of successful candidates published, 159. Nancy, France, 53, 715. Naosuke, Higaki, 246. Naples, Italy, 13, 90, 323. Nash, Laura B., 324. Nashville, Tenn., 70. 93, 325, 386, 507, 509, 512, 591, 617, 081. National Educational Association, 1, 16, 23, 26. elements, 40. Geographic Society, 6, 243. inheritance, 175. ideas, 175. tendencies, 175. personalities, 175. education in Scotland, 874. National Baptist, The, 832. INDEX. 981 National Normal, The, 829. Nations of the earth, 31. of the world, 40. civilized, 43. enlightened, 185. Natural science in secondary schools, 7. its educational value, 9, 27. a course of study for, 380. Natui'e, real, of education, 369. Nature studies, or artes reales, 153. Navy Department, 189. Nebolsine, A. de, 590. Nebraska, 14, 09, 92, 179, 246, 325. Nebulous condition, 47. Necessities in normal schools, 383, 408. Neck, all degrees have one, to be cut off with one stroke, 136. Need, a pedagogical experimental, 11. of schools, 81. Needlework in Stockholm, 911. Needs, industrial, of localities, 6, 243, 266. Neel, M., 245. Neenah, Wis., 70. Neglected children, 244, 315. Negro, educate him, 35. Christianize him. 35. Nestlerode, C. C, 840. Nestlerode, P. M., 840. Netherlands, 13, 68, 90. 179, 246, 385, 456. Neufahrwasser, Germany, 245. Nevada, 92. Newark, Del., 91. Newark, N. J., 180, 325, 386. Newark, O., 508, 519. Newbern, J. W., 843. Newberry College, 93. Newberrv, S. C, 93. Newbold, William R., 681. New Britain, Conn., 68, 323. New Brunswick, Can., 384. New Brunswick, N. Y., 14. Newcomb, George B., 716. Newcombe, Mrs. L. T., 321, 323. New demands upon elementary schools, 589, 594. made by industries, 589, 594. New education, and the old, 18. par excellence, 21. versed in, 198. New England, sons and daughters of, 30. education of, 95. New England Journal of Education, 815, 818. New Gleaner, The. 838. New Hampshire, 14, 179, 191, 509, 527, 716. New Hampshire School Journal, 818. New Haven, Conn., 69, 91, 323, 509, 590, 680. New Haven, Sheffield Scientific School, 9. New Jersev, 69, 92, 179, 182, 246, 325, 386, 509, 616, 681. New learning and new ignorance, 114. Newman, Rev. J. P., 14. New Mexico, 69, 527. New Orleans, La., 69, 91, 179, 246, 324, 526, 591, 616, 681, 791. Newport, R. I., 325. New psychology in normal schools, 713. New South Wales, 244. Newspaper criticism, 191. Newton, N. J., 325. New Ulm, Minn., 246. New York (City), 11, 14, 26, 88, 92, 145, 146, 147, 178, 180, 223, 246, 284, 321, 322, 325, 384, 434, 444, 457, 507, 509, 514, 527, 590, 591, 614, 615, 616, 617, 631, 681, 716. New York (State), 14, 69, 92, 179, 246, 325, 383, 386, 418, 457, 509, 527, 591, 716. New York Journal of Education, 827. New York School Journal, 819. New York State Normal College, 421. New Zealand, 89, 244. 315. women's education in, 883. Niagara Falls, N. Y., 325. Niagara University, 92. Nightingale, A. P., 69. Nineteenth century, civilization of, 40. Nissen, Hartvig, 617. Nix, Rob. L., 246. Noble, P. A., 4. Noble, Harriet, 91. Nokk, Dr., 12. Nomination of teachers, 7, 67, 78. Non-existence of printed books, 119. Non-professional training-schools, 41. Normal, Ala., 526. Normal Exponent, The, 829. Normal Index, The, 835. Normal, 111., 300, 385. Normal Monthly, The, 841. Normal schools, value of practice, 8. for teachers in secondary schools, 8. scholastic instruction, 8. psychological instruction, 8. standards required, 8. and the Turner-bund, 11. psychology in, 11. course of study, 29, 383, 428. training-schools in, 383, 391. how acquire methods, 383, 399. necessities in, 383, 408. gradation of, 383, 410. development in Prance, 383, 415. in the State of New York, 383, 418. sociological view of, 383, 422. their work, 383, 430. the ideal, 384, 451. to supplement the county model school, 413. professional course in, 426. requirements of admission, 426. 982 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Normal schools compared with other professional schools, 424. as university departments, 424. as purely professional schools, 423. new psychology in, 713. Norman conquest, 170. Norse, E. II., 507, 512, 519, 522. North American Turner-bund, history, aims, and achievements, 615, 657. North Carolina. 92, 179, 246, 325, 386, 527, 681. North Dakota, 69, 92, 386, 681. North, the. change in. 35. North Woodbury, Conn., 323. Northampton, England, 245. Northampton, Mass., 14. 91, 180, 716. Northend, Chas., 813. Northern Indiana Teacher, 831. Northfield, Minn., 92. Northrop, B. G., 819. Northrop, Cyrus, 92. Northwest Territory, 66. Northwestern Journal of Education, 841. Northwestern University, 91, 715. law school, 52. Norton, H. B„ 844. Norton, Lena M., 386. Norton. Rich. C, 386. Norwalk, Conn., 179. Norway, 13, 590. Norwich, England, 245. Norwich, N. Y., 325. Noss, Theo. B., 386. Notation, musical, 9, 508, 512, 522. when to be learned, 9. tonic sol-fa, 9. movable and fixed do, 9. Note-book in the hands of supervisor, 74. Notions of civilization and education, 161. Notre Dame, Ind., 715. Novels, English, 175. Nuesch. J., 246. Numbers, essential study, 6, 243, 251. Nunez, Abelardo, 68. Nursery, child in, 22. Nurture, school and family, 28. Nussbaum, Francis P., 681. Nutrix infantia% 152. 0 Oakelev, H. E., 385. Oakland, Cal., 90,590. Obedience to law, 28. Obenchain, Win. A., 4, 91. Oberg, Gulli J., 616. Oberlin College, 92, 681. 716. Oberlin, O., 92, 681, 716. Object, common, 71. Objects, real, used as drawing models, 8. Obligatory courses, 111. Observance of truth, justice, and charitv. 46. Observation and study of mental states, 11, 715, 750. Observation work in normal schools, 7. Obstacles of a large city, 321. Occupation of life, 18. of the hand, 28. his special, 155. Odium under which Greek suffers, 132. Oesterberg, Bergmann, 615. Oesterberg, Mine. Bergmann, 11, 616. Oesterlen, Dr., 178. Offenses, class of, 77. Officers of National Educational Association, 5. the American Association for the Study of Children, 715. Official pampering, 136. Ogborn, Mrs. E. K., 324. Ogden College, 91. Ogden, John, 69. Ohio Common School Director, 828. Ohio Educational Monthly, 828. Ohio River. 66. Ohio School Journal, Tfie, 828. Ohio (State), 14, 69, 92, 179, 246, 325, 457, 509, 527, 590, 616, 681, 716. Ohio State University, 716. Ohio Teacher, The, 828, 829. Ohio Weslevan Universitv, 716. Oklahoma, 325, 527. Olcott, J., 831. Oldeneel, W. J. G. Baron v., 246. Old-fashioned college, 36. Oldfield, Anna, 324. Oldrini, Alex. A., 13. Old world, 66. Oleson, W, B., 246. Olsson, Olof, 91. Olten, Switzerland, 323. Olympia, Wash., 70. Omagh, Ireland, 245. Omaha, Neb., 67, 69, 180, 246, 325. One-horse academy, 191. One kind of child studv. 715. Oneonta, N. Y., 386. One-sided, becoming, by a specialty, 158. Ontario, Canada, 40. 507, 513. Oosterhout, Netherlands, 246. Operations of the mind, 18. Opinion, public, 79. Oporto, Portugal, 90. Opposing forces, in the struggle of man- kind, 31. Opposition develops into alliance, 197. Optimistic view of progress, 146. Oral examination, 157. Orange, N. J., 69, 180. Orangeburg, S. C, 93. Orange City, la., 179. Orchard Lake, Mich., 180. Orcutt, Hiram. 819. "Ordeal of Richard Feverel," by George Meredith, 174. INDEX. 983 Order, rational, 18. prescribed for studies, 193. Ordinance of 1787, 32. Ordway, E. W., 91. Ordway, John M., 525, 554. Oregon, 69, 92, 325, 386, 509, 681. Organic union of kindergarten and primary school, 7, 321, 336. life, 55. Organism, ancient university, 110. ideal, 110. Organization of schools, 29. to determine degrees, 158, 159. of institutions granting degrees, 159. some animate, 183. Organizers of an exhibition, 39. Organs, vocal, their physiology, 9, 514. their hygiene, 9, 514. strain they can bear, 9, 518. Oriental Republic of Uruguay, 58. Origin of law, 50. Original research, 27. investigation, 384, 444, 446. work in dissertations, 156. Originality in investigating, 50. Ormsby, 67. Ormund, G. T., 679, 680, 686, 703, 705. Ornaments of the schoolroom, 60. Orono, Me., 526. Orphanage, English, in Bosnia, 900. Osage Agency, Oklahoma, 325. Osborne, Geo. L., 386. O'Shea, Prof., 715. Oshkosh, Wis., 386. Oskaloosa, la., 324. Osterberg, Edwin, 4, 16, 177, 209. Ostrowo, Germanv, 68. Oswego, N. Y., 383, 387, 447. Oswego State Normal School, 387. Ottawa, Canada, 384, 456, 508. Otterbein University, 92, 681. Ottilie, Mrs. Chas.,*325. Ottin, M., 456. Ouimet, Gedeon, 12. Oulton, William, 245. Our country and village schools, 839. Outcome, no such proportionate, 191. Outfit for citizenship, 165. Outline, a course of study, 199. Out-of-door exercises, 11. Overbeck, G. van, 179. Owatonna, Minn., 324. Owen Sound, Ont.. 244. Oxford and Cambridge, 37. Oxford, England, 13, 89, 99, 118, 680. Oxford, Ga., 91, 680. Oxford, Mass., 509. Oxford, O., 92. Oxford University, England, 118, 680. Packard, S. S., 788. Packer Institute, 713, 762. Padelford, A. J., 69. Paehlmann, Miss M., 245. Page, Anne L., 324. Page, David P., 825. Page, Inman E., 527. Page, James A., 246. Paid teachers in charge of practice school, 8. Painstaking body of men and women, 39. Painting, in schools, 6. limitations of, 8. and sculpture, 456. Palmer, Francis B., 384, 386. 428. Palmer, Frank H., 821. Palmsjren, K. E., 590. Palo Alto, Cal., 10, 90, 616. Panghorn, J. K., 819. Pannell, C.S., 813. Papers presented by : Abercrombie, D.*W., 199. Aldis, Mrs. Stedman, 883. Allen, Jerome, 434. Allievo, Giuseppe, 109. Angell, President James B., 32, 164. Bailey, Henry T., 458. Balliet, Th. M., 756. Bancroft, Charles F. P., 196. Bardeen, C. W., 826. Barnes, Earl, 355, 446, 765. Bass, George F., 829. Beale, Dorothea, 862. Bengough, May, 903. Bomafede, Giacomo 0., 399. Bondy, Helen, 505. Bondy, Ottilia, 366. Bonney, Charles G., 17. Brooks, Edward, 451. Bryan, W. L... 777,779. Buisson, B..39, 262. Burnham, W. II., 718. Carman, G. N., 193. Carter, Hannah J., 495. Cheney, Francis J., 418. Chevrillon, Andre U, 168. Compayre, 53, 845. Cook, John W., 833. Cooper, Sarah B., 336. Cowhan, Joseph II., 401. Dana-Ilicks, Mary, 487. Davenport-Hill, Rosamond, 870. Dement, I. S., 798. Dimscha, 48. Dugard, 211. Eaton, John, 247. Eddy, Henry T., 583. Elder, Constance, 865. Emerson, Alfred, 473. Eudo, Bidesaburo, 308. Fallows, Samuel. 20. Fawcett, Mrs. II., 853. 984 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION Papers presented by : Findley, Sam., 828. Fitz, George W., 626. Fitzpatrick, Fr. A., 71. F. M. L., 879. Ford, Henry A., 831. French, W. M. R., 497. Fulcomer, Daniel, 422. Gallagher, R. E., 796. Gass, II. A., 842. Gilman, Daniel C, 94. Greene, Charles II., 510. Gulick, Lnther, 623. Guptill, Fannie S., 391. Gurney, Mary, 225. Gutzmann, A., 674. Ilailmann, Eudora L., 356. Hale, W. G., 118. Hall, G. Stanley, 717. Harris, W. T., 26. Hartwell, E. M., 618, 739. Henrotin, Mrs. Charles, 22. Hewit, Aug. F., 700. Ilofer, Amelia, 346. Hopkins, Louisa P., 344. Hoppin, J. M., 476. Hotchkiss. Mary T., 351. Howard, John, 514. Hughes. Miss E. P., 217. Hughes, Mrs. Ada M., 326. Hiding, Ray Greene, 181. Hunt, E. Hattie, 720. Button, F. R., 560. Irby, Miss A. T., 900. Jones, L. H., 257. Keane, John J., 43, 161. Kellogg, A. M., 825. Kellogg, Martin, 104. Kingsley, Rose, 225. Kirkland, Thomas, 410. Kovalevskv, Ergraff, 55, 304, 604. Lagerstedt, N. G. W., 289. Lane, Albert G., 30. Lanza, G., 509. Larsen, Joakim, 664. Larsson, Gustaf, 599. Lightner, J. E., 520. Locke, Josephine, 491. Low, Seth, 146. Lundin, Hulda, 911. MacAlister, James, 805. MacDonald, John, 843. MacDonald, Louisa, 887. Mackenzie, Constance, 331. Mackenzie, James C, 183. McCosh, James, 682. Mackenzie, Tait, 636. McMurry, Charles A., 438. MacVicar, Malcom, 430. Mann, B. Pickman, 342. Manning, E. A., 890. Marble, A. P., 268. Martin, Eugene, 415, 597. Marwedel, Emma, 372. Mayer, Alf. M., 558. Papers presented by : Mavhew, Ira, 803. Meath, Earl of, 641. Miller, L. W.,462. Monroe, Will. S., 822. Moore, Annie R. 0., 500. Mosso, Angelo, 623. Mowry, W. A., 811, 273. Muench, Hugo, 657. Ordway, John M., 554. Ormond, G. T., 693. Osterberg, Edw., 60. Packard, S. S., 788. Palmer, Francis B., 428. Patrick, G. T. W., 725. Peabody, MaryH., 284. Peabody, Selim II., 23. Place, C. L., 399. Poesche, Herm., 369. Posse, Baron Nils, 664. Powell, W. B., 606. Putnam, Alice H., 327. Raymond, Paul, 142. Richards, R. H., 567. Ross, G. W., 40. Rossi, Egisto, 907. Rounds, C. C, 810. Royce, Josiah, 687. Ruano, A. Gomez, 56, 58. Runkle, J. D., 592. Sabin, Henry, 840. Schrader, Henrietta, 346. Schurman, J. G., 703. Serruricr, Gust., 287, 314. Shaw, Edw. R., 436. Sheldon, E. A., 387. Shimer, Edgar D., 444. Shirreff, Emily A. E., 360. Shinn, Millicent W., 773. Small, James S., 315. Smith, J. Gardner, 631. Smith, Margaret K.. 447. Smith, W. Wilberforce, 235. Soule, Geo., 791. Spence, Catharine II., 278. Spencer, Sara A., 800. Sproull, William 0., 156. Stevenson, Flora C, 874. Stevenson, Louisa, 877. Stewart, Sarah A., 328. Stimson, J. Ward, 466. Sully, James, 730. Tarbell, B. S., 78. Thiry, J. B, 286. Titchener, E. B., 705. Torngren, L. M., 54, 622. Tracy, F., 737. Walker, Francis A., 528. Walton, George A.. 408. Warner, Francis, 705. West, Andrew F., 150. Wey, Hamilton D., 646. White, E. E., 295. Willetts, Mary, 641. Williams, Lillie A., 781. INDEX. 985 Papers presented by : Williams, S. G., 440. Wilmarth, H. M., 23. Wilson, Woodrow, 112. Wilt, A. D., 793. Wolkonsky, Prince, 37. Wood, T. D., 621. Woodward, C. M., 266. 594. Wyckoff, Adelaide E., 792. Young, Ella P., 83. Zettler, Moritz, 670. Zimmern, Miss, 225. Parallel with practical life, 49. Parallelism between race development and that of the child, 322. Parana, Argentine, 323, 384- Parents unable to decide, 193 Parez, C. H., 245. Parham, R. H., 246. Paris, France, 12, 26, 53, 68, 89, 118, 169, 178, 211, 323, 383, 415, 456, 508, 526, 589, 590. Parish, Ariel, 813. Park College (Mo.), 92, 681. Parker, F. W., 67, 189, 383, 408. Parker, Mrs. A. G., 509. Parkersburg, W. Va., 509. Parkland, Ky., 324. Parks, C. Well man, 92. Parks, gardens, and playgrounds for the poor, 615, 641. Parkville, Mo., 92, 681. Parma, Italy, 90. ^ Parr, S. S., 69. Parsons, David, 246. Parsons, W. Wr., 386. Part singing, when to be learned, 9. Partial question obstruct the view, 38. Participation, university, 67. Parties may come and go, 37. Partisanship and politics, 189. Pasadena, Cal., 90. Pascal in his Provincial Letters, 169. Pascall, Miss, 456, 505. Pass Christian, Miss., 527. Pasteur, 54. Patchogue, N. Y., 325. Paternalism, meddlesome, 184. Pathetic helplessness, to provide against, 18. Patrick. G. T. W., 713, 715, 716, 725. Patrick, J. B., 224. Patrick, J. H., 178. Patriotic airs in school, 9. Patriotism, sentiment of, 7. question of, 164. Patten, President, 88, 146. Pattengill, H. R., 69, 832. Patterson, Calvin, 246. Patterson, James K.. 526. Patton, Francis L., 92, 160. Pauer, I., 13. Paulson, Johajuies, 90. Pauraux, A.. 508. Pavia, Italy, 90. Pawel, Jaro, 11, 616. Pawtucket, R. 1., 180. Pavne, C. H., 88, 146. Payne, D. A., 14. Payne, F. H., 616. Payne, William fl., 386, 832. Peabody, Endicott, 180. Peabody, Miss Mary II., 244, 284. Peabody, Selim H., 4, 16. Peace and war, education that fits for, 21. Peaker, Fred., 245. Pearson, C. W., 178, 234. Peck, John H., 527. Peck, Tracy, 125. Peckham, England, 245. Peckham, Geo. W., 70. Peculiarities of higher education in United States, 48. Pedagogical chairs in a universitv, 414, 422. Pedagogical museum, 53. Pedagogues of Europe, 50. eminent, 52. Pedagogy, university course, 29. in Uruguav, 57. degree of Doctor of, 384, 434, 436, 438, 440. schools of, 414. basis of : child study, 713, 718. Pella, la., 681. Pennsylvania, 14, 69, 92, 179, 246, 325, 386, 45*7, 509, 527, 591, 616, 681, 716. Pennsylvania College, 93. Pennsylvania School Journal, 830. Peoria, 111., 13, 67, 507, 512. Perception in rational psychology, 11. of dimensions, 38. a trained, needed, 117. Perez, Fern. Ferrari, 90. Perfection, physical, 54. in teaching required, 8. fuller and higher, 162. Period, transitional, the present, 141. of primary education, 164. Periodicals, men in charge of, 134. Periods of growth, 9. of character-forming, 81. Perkins, F. B., 815. Perpetua, Sister M., 180. Perpetuitv, hope of, 34. Perrin, Bi, 126. Perrv, Amos, 814. Perry, Jos. E., 180. Perry, Walter S., 457. Personal happiness and self-realization, 198. Personality, charming, 73. I'istdlozziaii. The, 828. 986 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Petermann, Francesca, 323. Peters, Absalom, BIG. Peters, John A., 92. Petersburg, Va., 93, 386. Petzel, Rud., 590. Pfluger, Ed., 89. Pforta, Germany, 179. Phelps, W. P., 827. Phenomena in the intellectual domain, 38. Phenomenon, biological, 29. Philadelphia, Pa., 31, 47, 81, 93, 180, 246, 321, 325, 328, 331, 384, 386, 451, 456, 457, 495, 509, 591, 681, 713, 716, 805. Philbrick, John U., 813, 815. Philips, G. M., 386. Phillips, Wendell, 375. Philographic method, 456. Philology, to be a master of, 18. school of, 107. Philosophic sense, 153. Philosophy, reality iii it, 11, 679, 682. mount up to it, 48. degree of Doctor of, 156. of medicine, mathematics, and jurispru- dence, 111. concerning men, 163. a wrong, 163. of the Christian religion, 164. the true, of education, 197. Physical development in singing, 9. Physical education or training, theses on, 10. in medical schools, 10. physiological aspects, 10. cultivation of human body, 10. unsolved problems, 10. supervision by physicians, 10. in public schools, 11. of deaf-mutes, 11. of criminals, 11. of Turner-bund, 11. physiology of, 11. school gymnastics, 11. Swedish gymnastics, 11. fatigue, muscular and nervous, 11. in the South, 11. in Canada, 11. state legislation for, 11. compulsory, 11. indispensable in ideal education, 16, 55. training in colleges, 144. in Denmark, 615, 664. Physical education, department congress, 615. unsolved problems in, 621. exercises for school, 615, 631. for criminals, 615, 646. of deaf-mutes, 616, 674. principles of, 714, 739. Physical exercises, how to be selected, 11. for developing the body, 55. in colleges, 144. Physical strength and moral control, 144. Physicians to supervise physical training, 10. unlicensed, 185. physicians' bureau, 187. Physics, as a study, 6, 177, 196. make room for, 196. preferable as scientific study, 195. Physiography, 6. Physiological development, 7. Physiology of the vocal organs, 9, 507, 514. for kindergartners, 7. does psychology need it ? 11. in a medical course, 117. needed for psychology, 679, 687. Piano or violin in vocal music, 507, 519. Pickard, J. L., 13, 243, 251, 837. Picket, Alb. and John W., 811. Picture of the state of things, 131. Pictures on the walls, 73. Pieces of music for a school library, 507. 513. Pierce, Edgar, 681. Pierce, Edw. T., 384, 385, 433. Pierce, John D., 831. "Piers the Plowman," by William Lang- land, 173. Pierson, Arthur C, 716. Pillsbury, W. L., 833. Pilot failed to come, 188. service, efficient, 189. Pine Bluff, Ark., 385. Pingree, Miss L. H., 246. Pink gowns for readers of the Anabasis, 136. Pinney, Mr. W. M., 325. Pioneer service in educational movements, 199. Piper, Jonathan, 836, 841. Pitch in vocal music, 9. Pitman, Isaac, 245. Pittsburg, Pa.. 93, 509. Pittsfield, Me., 179. Place, Mrs. C. L., 399. Place and value of kindergarten songs, 321. of education in social organism, 423. Plan of the campaign, 44. of educational gatherings, 182. Plane, a higher, 43. Plato, 21, 171. Plattsburg, N. Y., 386. Plattsville. Wis., 386. Playgrounds for the poor in cities, 615, 641. Plays and games in kindergarten, 328. changes in, 328. Plea for special child study, 777. Plummer, Frank, 177, 179, 192. Poe, Edgar, 170. INDEX. 987 Poesche, Hermann, 369. Poetic invention, 714, 730. Point of view of superintendents on educational jour- nalism, 12. European, 95. Poirier, J., 245. Poitiers, France, 12. Pokorny, Ignaz, 178. Policy, discounting liberal education, 27. governmental, 66. Political science, 107, 108. Politics, local, 81 ; schools should be removed from, 81. Pollock, Louise, 323. Pollock, Mary R., 325. Pollock, Susan P., 323. Poke, H., 385. Polyglot corollary, 154. Polytechnic Institute, 87, 92. Poole, R. B., 179. Poor growing poorer, 167. boys and girls, for, 107. provided with parks, 615, 641. Poor teachers, how improve their work, 67. Pope, 170. Pope, John van S., 68. Pope, S. I)., 12. Pope-Goldsmith school of literature, 129. Popular education abroad, 28. stability of government rests upon, 31. Popular Educator, The, 821. Popular songs in a course in music, 9. Population of Chicago, 30. Port, C. D. du, 245. Port Chester, N. Y., 325. Porter, Annie S., 323. Porter, W. T., 617. Portland, Me., 386. Portland. Ore., 69, 325, 509. Portugal, 13, 90. Portugall, Adela V., 323. Posen, Germany, 245, 385. Position, a dangerous, 166. vindicated, 167. Posse, Baron Nils, 615, 616, 617. Possibilities, individual, 322. Posture, proper, of the bodv, 9. Potsdam, N. Y., 384, 386, 442. Potter, Elisha R., 814. Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 69, 92, 617. Pouillot, I., 245. Poulot, Denis. 590. Povena, Filippo, 90. Powell, W. B., 67, 78, 590, 591, 606, 837. Power, directive, 26. unexampled, 184. left with the people, 193. Powers, administrative and juridical, 49. Powers, James K., 385. Powner, Chas I., 839. Poynter. W. T., 177, 178, 192, 205, 224, 241. Practical, • to, from ideal, 427. physicians, lawyers, and preachers, 113. problem, 154. Practicality in education, 22. Practice in chemistry, 9. in workshops, 9. of granting degrees in absentia, 160. in vogue in Prance, 189. Practice of teaching, how acquired, 7. Practice schools, what preparation for, 7. in normal schools, 8. Practice work in training-schools, 383, 387. Prague, Austria, 89, 178. Prairie Farmer, The, 833. Pratt, F. B., 591. Pratt Institute, in Brooklyn, N. Y., 590. Pratt, I. W., 69. Prejudices shocked, 22. Premium, a degree given is a, 128. Preparation of kindergartners, 7. Preparation for discussions, 26. for kindergartners, 322, 344. Preparatory and college work, 131. Prepare for college. 177. for professional school, 177. pupils for duties of citizenship, 273. Preparing young men and women, 193. for the duties of life, 193. Prerequisite, a university degree, 112. Presbyterianism should not obstruct Chris- tianity, 38. Prescription and tradition, 166. Presentation, best, of the affirmative side of the question of Greek, 135. President of general sessions, 16. of National Educational Association, 30. Press, educational, 12. Presser, Theo., 509. Pressure of the scientific side of curricu- lum, 121. Prestige of the A.B., 128. Preston, J. R., 69. Prettyman, E. B., 69. Prevention of criminal idleness, 372. of stuttering. 714, 739. Preyer, Dr. William, 12. Price of text-books, 42. Pride, take, in their school, 192. Primary education, 821. Primary school, relation with kindergarten, 7. manual training in, 10. modifications in, 321. union with kindergarten, 321, 336, 342. 988 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Primary Teacher, Hie, 820. Primitive truth in rational psychology, 11, 29. Princeton, N. J., 92, 617, 681. Princeton University, 87, 88, 108, 112, 193, 134, 135, 150, 679, 680, 682. Principal must have knowledge of the work in classes, 86. meetings, 74. Principle, regulative, 184. Principles of Froebel in England. 360. learned memoriter, 115. general, of science, 156. soundest, of school-work, 183. of physical training, 714, 739. Prins, M. A., 89. Pritchett, H. C, 386. Private schools, supervision of, 6, 177, 183. license to teach, 22. and endowed, 183. of secondary character, 183. accomplish more, 191. shall they exist ? 192. entirely private, 192. Privilege to know enough, 18. Probation, period of, 41. Probationary service of teachers, 7. Problem, every sort of, 166. confused by circumstances, 196. Problems involved in physical education, 10, 621 ; in university education, 100. of the South, 35. their remedy, 35. of specialization, 87. practical, 154. of secondary education, 181. Process of freeing the child, 321. of thinking different, 169. educational, of training engineers, 526, 569. Processes of mechanic arts, 10. manual, 29. slow and gradual, 122. Products, industrial, 10. Profane hands, to lay hold of, 37. Profession and a hobby, 139. Professional fitness, 80. course in normal schools, 426. studies only, 426. degrees, 112. education, 149. Professional schools, for teachers, 6. prepare students for, 6. and technological, 18. their relation to university, 146. standing by themselves, 148. Professional training of teachers, 7, 28, 41, 383, 428. what degree of, 7. kind of, 7. for secondary schools, 16, 217. Professions, scientific, 9. Professor of Pedagogy, 243. Professors in college separated from sec- ondary teachers, 181. Proficiency in certain branches, 8. certain degrees of, 132. Profit of the study of methods and ends, 43. Programme, preliminary, 6. prepared with care, 35. daily, 74. of the elementary school, 198. Progres (Le) de I ' Enseignement Primaire, 848. Progress, signs of, 143. of our civilization, 168. Progressive methods, 43. Progressive school, the, 829. Promoting classes at long intervals, 85. Propaganda put forth, 199. Proprietors of private schools, 184. Prosperity of our institutions, 81. of our country, 165. Protection, rules for, 159. Protestant Episcopal Church, 99. " Prothalamion." by Spenser, 173. Providence, R. I., 10, 67, 70, 78, 81, 93, 180, 325, 386, 615, 716. Province of Ontario, 41. Provinces of knowledge, 105. Provision for education, 32. singularly worthy of note, 147. Psychological being, 47. tendencies, 47. machine, 47. aspect of exercises without apparatus, 615, 626. Psychological instruction in normal schools, 8. Psychology. (See also Rational Psychol- ogy.) study of, 7. its application, 7. of German gymnastics, 8. founded on consciousness, 11, 679, 687. rational, 11, 679, 693. the new psychology, 11, 713. constitutionally bad spellers, 11. cultivation of self-consciousness, 11. practical, 18. Psychology, experimental, 384, 444, 713. its impregnable principle, 111. of the will, 680, 705. INDEX. 989 Psychology, basis for, 713, 717. Public education in Sweden, 244, 289. policy, a settled, 20. sentiment. 191. high-schools, 190. should have supervision of private schools, 190. instruction in Italy, 907. Public opinion, enlightened, 20, 79. Public policy, a settled, 20. Public School, The, 820. Public School Journal, The, 829. Public schools, compulsory physical education, 11. of Chicago, 21. license to teach, 22. concerned in art study, 455. subjected to supervision, 190. needlework in, 911. Publication of text-books, 42. Publications, educational, 11. of college papers, 103. Pullman, Wash., 527. Punishments and rewards, 20. Pupils should model in clay, 8. slow pupils, 9. Pupils' capacities, 195. Purdue University, 526. Pure mathematics, its educational value, 10. Purinton, D. B , 92. Purpose of man served, 31. of aiding teachers, 72. of religion in school, 296. of technological schools, 525, 534. chief, of English professor, 172. and reward of educational journals, 825. Purser, A., 68. Pursuit of special callings, -18. definite industrial, 589, 597. Putnam, Miss Alice EL, 321, 324, 327. Putnam, Dr. Helen C, 10. Putney, Chas. E., 177, 180, 193. Q Quadrivium of studies, 152. Quakers, our friends, the, 182. Qualifications requisite for teachers in music, 9. of teachers, 73. Quality, inferior, of instruction, 187. Quarles, James A., 681. Quavle, Mrs. O. M., 325. Quebec, Que., 12, 383, 407. Queen's College, Canada, 680. Quellenforscher, instinct of, 126. Question, the Greek, 134. of personal experience only, 137. of morals, 144. Question of supervision, 190. Questions, fundamental, of higher education, 27. in elementary education, 28. for discussion, 29. ethical and economical, 166. political, 166. Quevedo, Man. Ruiz de, 13. Quick, Eob. H., 185, 823. Quincv, 111., 324. Quito, Ecuador, 12, 89, 244. Quota, secondary education contributes, 27. Quotation of Horace Mann, 183. Qvist, Ernst, 526. R Rabanus, Maurus, defined arithmetic, 152- Race characteristics, 6, 243, 272. composite, 22. Racine, 172. Racine, Wis., 70. Radinger, Joh. von, 12. Radley, Jos., 245. Raleigh, N. C, 527. Ramsay, Charles C, 190. Rand, Benjamin. 681. Rand, Th. H., 89. Randolph-Macon College, 70, 93, 681. Range, wide, of possibilities, 198. Rangoon, Burma, 68. Rankin, J. E., 91. Ranks of teachers, 35. of labor, 45. of capital, 45. first among the nations, 53. " Rape of the Lock, The," by Pope, 173. Raphael, 36. Rapiport, Miss Julie, 89. Raschdorff, J. C, 456. Rational order of general knowledge, 18. Rational psychology in education, 11, 679, 693. perception in, 11. conception in, 11. Raub, A. N., 91. Raumer's, von, " Geschichte der Pada- gogik," 822. Rawson, Louise B., 325. Raymond, B. P., 88, 91, 142. Rayson, Amy, 178, 180, 223. Reaction in favor of English, 169. Reading, a conventional study, 7. and writing in kindergarten, 321, 327. Greek and Latin at sight, 130. German and French at sight, 131. and writing, 715. association tracks, 715, 756. Real nature of education, 369. universities, 160. 990 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Reality, its place in philosophy, 11, 679, 082. Reason, clear-sighted, 162. Reatschlous, 11. A., 385. Recitation , excellent, 73. rooms, 193. Rector, Mrs. S. S., 324. Recueil des Lois et Actes de V Instruction Publiqiw, 845. Red gowns for those who have read certain classics, 136. Reduce the people's will to operative forms, 187. Reductio ad absurdum, 141. Reeder, R. R., 839. Reeves, W. P.. 12. "Reflections on the Revolution in France," by Burke, 173. Reform, first steps of, 427. must come piecemeal, 116. Reformer, a, of education, 58. Reforme Unirersitaire, 848. Reforms carried on in Uruguay, 59. Regents of the University of the State of New York, 87, 108. Regular teachers, 6. Regulating price of text-books, 42. Regulation of atldetic sports, 015, 630. Rehmke, Dr., 178. Reid, James, 92. Reid, Maud A.. 324. Reid, W. T., 177, 179. Rein, Dr. William, 12, 89. Rejection of a MS., 157. Relations to instructors, 6. of colleges and universities to progress of civilization, 6, 88, 161. between National Geographical Society and the public schools, 0. reciprocal, of business and other schools, 10. of fatigue to physical education, 11. between educational methods and ends, 16. of Dr. Harris to the National Educa- tional Association, 25. of professional schools to the university, 88, 146. between citizen and man, 162. abstract, 155. with lower institutions, 199. mutual, 199. of business instruction to industrial in- terests, 793. reciprocal, and benefits, 803. Relationship, human, the highest, 161. with God, 162. Relative time due to languages, 196. Religion, as a study, 6, 18. necessary, 66. Religion in school, 244, 295. and poetry of the West, 141. Religious bodies, 100. and moral instruction, 6, 18, 28. Remarks, closing, by President Angel), 10. by Dr. Harris, 10. by C. G. Bonney, 16. Remedy for problems in the South, 35. applied or suggested by superintendents, 72, 74. applied in Cleveland, 81. Remsen, Ira, 91. Remuneration, adequate, for kindergarten work, 322. Renascence, antedating it, 119. Gneco Roman, 128. Rendall, G. II.. 90. Reno, Nev., 92. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, 92. Reorganization, work of, in France, 168. Report of Committee of Arrangements, 26. Representation, technique of, 455. of universities and colleges, 168. Representatives of universities, 32. of French minister of public instruction, 53. of higher education, 159. Representing language and numbers, 28. Reproduction of artists' devices, 8. Republican institutions, 37, 39. form of government, 166. Requirements for normal school diploma. 8. for Doctor of Pedagogy, 8, 384, 438. for entrance to normal schools, 426. Requisites of good teaching, 74. Research, original, 27. scientific, 54. Resolution of thanks, offered by Superintendent Lane, 16. to appoint a committee for the protection of the degree Ph.D., 160. of thanks to kindergarten workers abroad, 322. Resolutions passed by department of higher educa- tion, 88. concerning degrees, 160. concerning the introduction of music, 508. of thanks to the presiding officer, 680. Resources, scientific, 100. Response to remonstrances, 188. INDEX. 991 Responsibility, denied, 157. enlarged, 186. Result, inevitable, 124. the improvement of all our education, 196. Results, brilliant, in the United Slates, 55. of human thought, 1(58. Retention of Greek, 132. -Retire at ten o'clock, 144. Retrospect and forecast, a few words on, 802. Returns made by the college to the com- munity, 199. Reviews, stereotyped, 76. Revival of Greek gymnastics, 11. in the study of psychology, 29. humanistic, 153. Revolution, French, 53. Revue de V Enseignement des Langues Vivantes, 849. Revue (La) de V Enseignement Primaire et de V Enseignement Siipirienr, 848. Revue de Geographie, 849. Revue des Coins et Conferences, 846. Revue Internationale de V Enseignement, 846. Revue Pedagogique, 846. Revue Universitaire, 846. Reward and punishments, 20. of educational journals, 825. Rewards in money, 36. in gratitude, 37. Rexford, E. J., 178. Reynolds, J. H., 526. Reynolds, P. B., 681. Rhoades, C. B., 509. Rhoads, James B., 93. Rhode Island, 67, 70, 81, 93, 179, 325, 380. 716. Rhode Island Educational Magazine and Schoolmaster, 814. Rhode Island Schoolmaster, 814. Ribera, E„ 4, 179. Rice. Mrs. J. P., 507, 512, 521. Rice, Miss R. S., 179. Rice, Rebecca, 715. Rich growing richer. 167. Richards, Chas. R„ 590, 591. Richards, Mrs. Ellen H., 91. Richards, J. II., 91. Richards, M. II., 681. Richards, R. II., 525, 549. Richards, Zalmon, 244, 300. Richardson, Benj. W., 245. Richmond, Alf., 245. Richmond College, 681. Richmond, England, 179. Richmond, Ind., 91. Richmond, Ky., 91, 681. Richmond, Mo., 324. Richmond, Va., 70, 324, 681. Richter, Th., 89. RickoiT, Dr. Andrew J., 5. Ricks, George, 245. Riddell, Phoebe, 324. Riddle, J. II., 179. Rigg, J. II., 385. Right of the child, 81. exercise of duties of citizens, 244. Rights • and duties of citizens, 161. of Greek, 142. of person and property, 184. Rigidity of the graded system, 86. Riley, Arthur D., 450. Riley, B. F., 90. Rilev, E. R., 833. Rinehart. E. E., 509. Ring, political, 81. Rink, C. II., 9. Rio de Janeiro, 89, 244. Rios, F. Giner de los, 179. Ripon College, 93, 710. Ripon, Wis.1, 93, 716. Ripper, W., 89. Rival and opposing schools, 197. Rivalry between nations, 38. Rivard, E. L., 680. River Falls, Wis., 383, 386, 408. Riverside, Cal., 323. Riverside, 111., 324. Roanoke College, 93, 681. Roberts, Chas., 610. Roberts, Chas. G. D., 89. Roberts, R. D., 89. Roberts, T. L., 509. Roberts, W. C, 91. Roberts, W. Rhys, 89. Robertson, 170. Robin, Mile. L., 245, 456. Robin, M., 245. Robins, S. P., 385. Robinson, Alb. R„ 591. Robinson, Emily, 590. Robinson, Ezekiel G., 680. Robinson, W. E., 69. Rochester, N. Y., 325. 386, 681, 716. Rochester University, 716. Rock, Anna J.. 325. Rock, Arrow, 842. Rockaway Beach, 188. Rockefeller, 99. Rockford. 111., 246. Rock Island. 111., 91. Rodgers Park, 111., 324. Rodhe, Eva, 590. Rodney, Miss., 527. Rodriguez. M. V., 178. Roebuck, Mrs. S. E., 325. Rogers, Antoinette, 3^5. Rogers, Arthur C, 245. Rogers, II. W.,91. Rogers, J. Sumner, 180. 992 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Rogers, W. 0., 69. Rolfe, W. J., 91. Roman law. worship of, 50. Romanes, G. J., 89. Rombaut, Eugene. 590. Rome, Italy, 13, 323, 456. Room made for the sciences, 196, 197. Rooper, T. G., 245. Root, Father, 837. Root, F. W., 5. 507, 519. Root, George P., 508, 522. Roots of English words. 126. Roper, Mrs., 507, 513, 519. Rosa, Amaliade, 323. Rose Polytechnic Institute, at Terre Haute, Ind., 520, 583. Ross, G. W., 12. Ross, Henry H., 180. Rossi, Dr. Egisto, 13. Rossini, 9. Rostock, Germany, 89. Rote, by, learning pieces of music, 9. Rothwell, W. R., 681. Rouleau, Th. G., 385, Rounds, C. C, 810. Rounds, Miss, 456. Roustan, Ilonore, 13. Routine, monotonous, 84, Routledge, C. F., 245. Roxboro, N. C, 180. Roxburv, Mass., 180, 591. Roy, Henry F., 509. Roval Central Institute of Gvmnastics, Stockholm, 615, 662. Royal houses, 37. Educational Society of Japan, 244, 308. Central Gymnastic Institute, 10. Institute of Gvmnastics, Stockholm, 615, 622. Royce, Josiah, 679, 687. Royer, John S., 829. Ruano, A. Gomez, 16, 246. Rudiments of manual and art training, 18. Ruffner, W. II.. 70. Rugby, England, 245. Rugg'les, J. W., 509. Ruiz, Jose M. Carbnell y, 89. Rule, external, 47. Rumford, SarahS., 323. Runkle, J. D., 5, 10, 589, 680. Rural schools, theses on, 6. training of teachers. 8. introduce agriculture, 244, 304. Rusil, France, 244. Russel, Mr., 670. Russell, E. H., 386, 713, 715. Russell, II. C, 89. Russell, William, 812. Russellville, Ky., 91, 716. Russia, list of vice-presidents, 13, 90, 179, 590. doing its duty, 40. delegate from, 304. Russia, our friends from, 183. Russian system of manual training, 10, 589, 599. school-shop, 29. honor of being a, 38. Rust, Annie C, 324. Rust, Lawrence, 180. Rutgers College, 92. Rydberg, Victor, 90. Rylance, J. W., 245. R viand, W. S., 91. Sabin, A. R.. 69. 509. Sabin, H., 69. 825. Sabine, Miss Ella, 69. Sachse, Hugo. 89. Sacramento, Cal., 323. Sacrifice for public education, 56. Sadataka, Koba. 246. Sadler, M. EL, 90. Safeguard of the superintendent, 80. Saint Cloud, France, 385. Salamanca. Spain, 118. Salamanca University. Spain, 118. Salazar, Fr. Ignacio. 12. Salem, Mass., 243. 246, 273, 386, 811. Salem, Ore.. 69, 92. Salem, Va., 93. 681. Salisburv. Alb., 386. Salisbury, N. C , 386. Salmon/ Lucy M., 92. Salomon, Otto, 590. Saltburn by the Sea, England, 245. Salter, lie v. M. B., 14. Salt Lake City. Utah, 325. Salvation of art, 20. Samples of sloyd work, 589, 599. Samson, George W., 92. Samuelson, Sir Bernh., 13. Sanborn, J. W., 527. Sande, Mary F. van de, 323. Sanders, D. J., 92. Sanders, Mr., 700. Sanders, Thorn. J.. 92. San Diego, Cal., 323. Sanford, Edm. C, 88, 91, 150. 681. San Francisco, 13, 90, 177, 211, 246, 321, 322, 336, 385. San Jose, Cal., 323, 385. San Jose, Costa Rica, 12. Sanskrit, thought based on, 135. Santa Fe, N. M.. 69. Santiago. Chili, 12. 68, 590. Sarcey, the areh-critic, 171. Sargent, Prof. D. A., 5. Sargent, Dr., 615. Sarmiento, Hon. D. F., 57. Saunders, Rose, 324. Savigny's "Geschichte des Romischen Rechts im Mittelalter," 822. Saville, John W., 591. Saving of time, monev, and force, 41. Savings-banks, school-, 244, 286, 287. Sawyer, Henry E., 818. INDEX. 993 Saxony, school gymnastics in, 11. Scale of the sciences, 155. Scene, a unique, 65. in "Daniel Deronda." 138. Schaeffer, Charles A., 91, 713. Schaeffer, E. M.. G15, 616. Schafer, E. A., 715. Schaffhausen, Switzerland, 246. Schauenburg, E., 179. Scheer, Oscar, 617. Scheme, proposed, a, 155. Schenectady, N. Y., 681. Schepel, Miss Annetta, 322. Schorer, II., 68. Schiller, 175. Schiller, Herm., 179. Schirnier, Dr., 246. Schlee, Dr., 179. Schmidt, Anna, 323. Schmidt, F. A., 616. Schoene, Dr., 456. Scholarship of teachers, equivalent to graduate of high-schools, 79. affected by public games, 146. cannot be hoarded like gold and silver, 165. Scholastic instruction in normal schools, 8. circles, degrees in, 159. Scholasticism, awakened philosophical sense, 153. Scholz, Ed., 12. School, secular, 28. population, 43. gymnastics, 11. savings-banks, 244, 286; same in France, 244, 287. religion in, 244, 295. rural, 304. magic lanterns in, 314. not a workshop, 198. center of intellectual life, 198. School age, 68. School and Home, 843. School Bulletin, The, 827. School Commissioner, The, 833. School district system, old-fashioned, 190. School Friend, The, 828. School of Arts, 147. ' School shop, Russian, 29. School supervision, discussed by Fitz- patrick, 71. School, The, 832. School Visitor, The, 829. Schoolmaster, The, 179, 835. Schoolmaster {!' he) and Academic Journal, 828. Schoolroom, application of psychology in, 7. musical exercises in, 9. Schools, French, 10. Schools for neglected children, 244, 315. rural, 244. magic lanterns in, 314. of pedagogy, 415, 425. under same regulations, 192. not under same conditions, 192. submitting to outside examination, 192. under same management, 191. of Bagdad, Damascus, Cordova, Sala- manca, and Toledo, 186. Schflppa, A., 68. Schornstein, R., 179. Schottmuller, Dr., 179. Schrader, Mrs. Henrietta, 322, 346. Schrader, William, 179. Schreiber, G. L., 455, 472. Schroeder. Rosa, 324. Schubert, 9. Schulze, A., 508. Schulze, G., 179. Schultze, Dr., 385. Schumann, 9. Schumann, Dr., 179. Schurman. J. G., 5, 680, 703. Schuster, TIattie, 324. Schwerin, Germany, 245. Sch wicker, J. H., 179. Science as a study, 7, 20. of law, 49. to take the place of empiricism, 104. pure and professional practice, 111. one year's study in, 195. course of six years, 196. Sciences, theoretical and applied, 155. Scientific education created, 35. professions, 9, 525, 554. resources, 100. disciplines, 110. method, 197. Scientific men will not admit being in fault, 139. Scope of science and art, 18. Scotland, list of vice-presidents, 12, 68, 90, 179, 244, 385, 526, 590. national education in, 874. women students in universities, 877. Scotland Neck, N. C, 180. Scott, Harriet M., 386. Scott, William II., 527. Scougal, A. E , 68, 245. Scovel, S. F., 92. Scranton, Pa., 180. Scretcovics, P., 90. Scrutiny, arguments that will not bear, 138. Scudder, C. 0., 679. Sculpture, studied in schools, 8. and painting, 456. Sczawinska, Comtesse W. v., 90. Seamann, Mrs. J. E., 324. 994 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Seath, John. 178. Seattle, Wash., 70, 180. Seaver, E. P., 67. Secondary education, subjects of preliminary programme, 6. department of , 177, 181. of girls in France, 177, 211. time given to languages, 11)6. language be limited, 109. work different from normal schools, 884, 430. gone through a transition, 181. in Cape Colony, 1)03. Secondary schools, theses on, 6. course of study, 6, 103, 234. preparation of teachers, 8. time given to languages, 106. language studies, 190. professional training for, 217. algebra or geometry, which should come first ? 221. classified, 104. Secondary teachers, separated by a gulf from college teachers, 181. Second-grade teachers, 41. Secret societies, 146. Secretary's report, 4, 15, 67, 87, 177, 243, 321, 383, 455, 507, 525, 580, 615, 679, 713, 787, 800. Secular schools, 28. Security to superintendent's tenure of office, 77. of prosperity, 1G3. See, Camille, 846. Seelye, L. Clark, 01. Seelye, O. C. 70. Seer'ley, II. H., 386. Seip, Theo. L., 03. Seldon, Anna B., 324. Selection of popular songs, 0. Self-activity in education, 11, 680, 703. pure, 20. Self-correcting system of drawing, 456. Self-exaltation, inordinate, 102. Self-interest, immediate, 115. Selleck, Miss, 456, 505. Selma, Ala., 13. Selwyn, E. C, 170. Sense, aesthetic, 29. Sentiment, public, awakened, 160. Separation of church and school, 28. necessary, 120. Series of works of great masters, 8. Serious injury, 124. Serrano, Emilia, 00. Serrurier, Gust., 244, 287, 314. Servia, 00. Seventh, dominant, 713, 720. Severance, Sara L., 325. Sevres, France, 323. Sewall, J. A., 836. Sewall, J. B., 180. Sewall, Mrs. Mary Wright, 179. Sewanee, Tenn.. 03, 716. Sexes in separate institutions, 101. Seymour, T. D., 128. Shafer, Helen A., 01. Shakespeare, 170, 171. appreciated best from the Greek point of view, 120. Shaler, N. S., 527. Shaping international life, 40. Shanghai, China, 89. Sharp, Robert, 01. Sharpless, Isaac, 03. Sharpsburg, Pa., 508, 520. Shattuck, Prof., 525. Shaw, Edvv. K., 884, 430, 715. Shaw, Mrs. Quincv A., 501. Shawan, J. A., 67," 68, 78. Sheats, 67, 60, 78. Sheffield, England, 68, 245. Sheffield Scientific School, 00. 525. Shelby ville, Ky., 177, 17S, 102, 205, 224. Sheldon, E. A., 5, 383, 820. Shell, J. K., 617. Shelley, 170. is out-and-out Greek, 128. Shelton, Henry, 244. Shenton, F. K. I., 500. Shepard, Irwin, 4. 5, 16, 824, 886. Shepherd, II. E., 03. Sherman, Tex., 325. Sherwin, Thos., 813. Sherwood, Jamaica, 385. Shields, Sallie P., 824. Shimer, Edg. D., 246, 384, 444. Shindji, Tsudji, 13. Shinn, Miss Millicent, 715, 778. Shipp, Scott, 527. Shippensburg, Ind., 385. Shirley, Lina G., 324. Shirreff, Emily A. E., 321, 323, 300. Shop work for slow pupils, 9. and drawing, 525, 567. Shorey, Paul, 88, 137, 138, 679, 602. Shorthand instruction, 10. teaching morals and manners through it, 10. ' Shortridge, A. C, 831. Shortridge, Superintendent, 79. Shoup, F. A., 716. Shoup, W. J., 841. Shreveport, La., 324. Shrewsbury, England, 179, 245. Sluiji, Isawa, 246. Shtirtleff College, 91. Sibley College, 525, 565. Sibley, la., 324. Sicke'l, J. F. C, 246. Sidney, 170. Siemering, Dr. R., 456. Sieve, a superb, is Greek, 135. Significance of the new movement, 18, INDEX. 995 Significance of the degree of Ph.D., 122, 160. Signs of the times, 18. of improvement, 142. of progress, 143. Sigwart, Christ, v., 89. Silcher, Fr., 9. Silence, respectful, 138. Siljestran, Per, 64. Silke. Lucy, 456, 504. Sill, J. M.B.,886. Silow, Captain Carl, 11, 616. Silvado. J. B., 244. Silvester, It. W., 179. Silveyra, Luis, 89. Simmons, James, 681. Simpson, Geo., 244. Simpson, John W., 92. Sims J. W., 616. Sinclair, S. B., 323, 713, 772. Sinclair, Wm., 245. Singing, part singing, 9. excusing pupils from, 508, 522. Sion, J., 385. Sioux City, la., 681. Situation, present, of education in France, 16. Skeat, Walter W., 173. Skeleton, damaged, of an ancient form, 153. Skepticism, general, 115. Skill in teaching, 8, 63. technical, 29. in bodying forms of beauty, 162. Skipworth, J. L., 385. Sladc, James P., 69. Slaton, W. F., 69. Slattery, James W., 90. Slocum, A. G., 92. Slocum, W. F., 90. Slow pupils, developing them. 525, 567. Sloyd or Swedish system. 29, 589. 599. Sloyd training-school, Boston, 589, 599. Small, James S., 244, 315. Smart, James II., 526. Smith, Benj.. 715. Smith, C, 179. Smith College, 91, 716. Smith, E. C, 836. Smith, Goldwin, 12. Smith, Holmes, 455. Smith, James, 245. Smith, J. Gardner. 11. 615, 617, 631. Smith, Margaret K., 384, 447. Smith, Mrs. Marv EL, 90. Smith, Miss Nora, 321, 323. Smith, Olive, 325. Smith, Susie T., 324. Smith, Swire, 13. Smith, Walter, 680. Smith, Wm. II.. 838. Smith, W. Wilberforce, 93, 178, 180, 885. Smitz, Dr., 68. Smyth, Anson, 828. Snow, Francis B., 814. Snvder, W. EL, 177, 207. Snyder, X. Y., 385. Social conditions, efforts relating to, 31. Social convulsions in the history of nations, 31. Social organism, place of education in, 423. Social virtues, 244, 278. Societies, secret, 146. Greek letter, 146. Societies of learning, 47. Society for Ethical Culture, the New York, 591. Society of " Friends of Popular Educa- tion," 57. Sociological view of normal schools, 384, 422. Socrates, 20, 44. Soldan, Louis, 713. Solicitude and dread, 167. Solidity, emblem of, 48. Solution of human ills, 46. theoretical, 150. Somerville, J., 244. Somogyi, Geza, 385. Songs in kindergarten, 321, 331. their dramatic element, 7, 321, 331. value a place, 321, 331. Sonneck, II.. 323. Sonnenschein, W. Swan, 323. Soprano, part singing, 9. Sorbonne, 54. Soul as the basal concept, 693. Soule, George, 5, 791. Source, inexhaustible, 56. South, the, physical education in, 11. change in, 35. South Australia, 12, 278. South Bethlehem, Pa., 716. South Braintree, Mass., 180. South Carolina, 14, 70, 93, 179, 246, 386. 681. South Carolina College, 681. South Dakota, 93, 386, 527. South Iladley, Mfiss., 91, 617, 716. Southern University, 526. Souza Lima, A. Jose de, 89. Spain. 13, 68, 179, 385, 616. Spalding, Rev. J. L., 13. Spanker, II. T., 681. Spano, C. Guido P., 12. Sparkes, J. C. L., 526. Spaulding, G. S., 819. Spavd, II., 178, 223. Spearfish, S. D., 386. Special conditions of the child, 244, 301. Special normal schools for primary in- struction, 422. 996 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. Special schools, technical, 10. and schools with special courses, 194. their limitations, 194. Special teachers of vocal music, 9. their functions, 9. Special work, 7, 243, 273. Specialists, courses for, 155. Specialization in industrial pursuits, 10. of activities, 27. excessive, 87. in universities, 109. demands of, 120. with reference to pursuits, 589, 597. Specific error, 72. Specimens of the new education, 21. botanical and geological, 73. of early English, 173. Speer, EL C, 69, 844. Spellers, constitutionally bad, 11, 713, 762. Spence, Miss C. H., 12, 243, 278. Spencer, Herbert, 63, 338. Spencer, John O., 827. Spencer, R. C, 5. Spencer, Sara A., 800. Spenser, 170. Speranza, C, 92. Spirit of the new age, 18. disorderly, 76. the Greek, 138, 153. of Milton's poem, 172. of hard work, 191. of the paper indorsed, 191. of the times, 197. Spiritual development, 128. Spitta, Dr., 508. Spokane Falls, Wash., 507, 509, 513. Spokane, Wash., 93. Spontaneity, excessive, 95. Sports, popular and youthful, 11. athletic, regulation of, 615, 636. Sprague, H. B.. 90. Spring, Edward A., 457. Springfield, Mass., 69, 91, 457, 589, 591, 615, 617, 715, 756. Springfield, O., 325. Sproull, W. O., 87, 92, 108, 156. Sruka, Anton, 508. Stability of this country, 31. Stafford, England, 245. Stagg, A. Alonzo, 616. Stagnation, none allowed, 63. Stahley, Geo. D., 617. Stahr, John S., 93. Staley, Cady, 527. Stamp, ineffaceable, of Greek, 128. Standards required in training teachers, 8. no standard of education, 22. Standards deplorable, 184. each State creates its own, 190. Stanley, A. A., 509. Stanley, Lyulph, 13. State College of Mississippi, 680. State control, schools not under, 18S. State legislation for physical education, 11. State normal school, Trenton, 713. State normal school, Worcester, Mass., 715. State of education in the United States, 139. State Reformatory of New York, Elmira, 617. State supervision of high-schools, 192. State universities, 94, 99. State university of Indiana, 715. State university of Iowa, 713, 715, 725. State university of Minnesota, 92. State university of Missouri, 92. State university of Ohio, 92. Statistics of stutterers, 746-749. Statute, common, 50. Stawell, Victoria, 244. St. Cloud, Minn., 69, 386. Steeg, Jules, 53. Stehle, Bruno, 385. Stengel, Carl v., 89. Stenography in business colleges, 10, 798. and typewriting, 798 Steps, first, to reform, 427. Sterling, Caroline M., 323. Sterling, Theo., 92. Sterrett, J. R. S., SI. St. Etienne, France, 245. Stetson, Albert, 835. Stevens Institute of Technology, at Hobo- ken, N. J., 526, 586. Stevens, Leroy, 191. Stevens, Mrs. M. I., 325. Stewardship, account of, 30. Stewart, J. L., 179. Stewart, N. Coe, 5, 508, 522, 523. Stewart, Miss Sarah A., 321, 325, 328. Stewart, T. N., 245. St. Francis' College. 681. St. Gallen, Switzerland, 323. Stillwater, Oklahoma, 527. Stimson, J. W., 455, 457, 462, 466, 473. Stimulation of liberal education, 151. St. Johnsbury, Vt., 177, 180, 193. St. John's University, 681. St. Lawrence University, 681. St. Louis, Mo., 69, 92, 180, 321, 324, 508, 509, 522, 523, 589, 590, 591, 594, 597, 605, 615, 617, 657, 716. St. Marv's College, 91, 681. St. Marys, Ky., 91. St. Mary's, Md., 91. St. Meinrad's College, 680. St. Meinrad, Ind., 680. Stockholm, Sweden, 11, 54, 90, 244, 590, 615, 662, 911. Stock of words, 127. INDEX. 99? Stockton, Cal., 246, 289. Stockwell, Thos. B., 5, 07, 68, 69, 82, 814. Stoeckmann, Henrietta, 324. St. Olaf College, 92. Stone, A. P., 818. Stone, George B., 830. Stone, J. N., 70. Stoner, Stanley, 716. Stories told in kindergarten, 7, 322, 351. Story, Wm. E., 178, 224. Stott, W. T., 91. Stowell, T. B., 384, 386. 442. St. Paul, Minn., 14, 81, 193, 324, 383, 399. St. Peter, Minn., 681. St. Petersburg, Russia, 13, 16, 48. Straight University, 681. Strain vocal chords will bear, 9. Strassburg, Germany, 12, 89. Straub, S. W., 508, 522. Streams that have fertilized the lower schools, 165. Strength of the teacher, 74. Stress laid on citizenship, 28. Strobel, Pellegrini, 90. Strong, M. Evelyn, 324. Strong, Frank, 69. Strong, James W., 90. Strong, Mrs. N. M., 323. Stronge. S. E., 245. Strongoli, La Principessa, 13. Struggle for self-government, 31. for life, 39, 46. Struggles of the educators in the West, 159. of art schools, 455. Strumpell, Dr. Ludw., 12. Stryker, M. W., 92. St. Stephen's College, 92. Stuart, A. T., 246. Stubbs, Wm. C, 591. Student, The, 831. Student organizations, 94, 144. Students of law, medicine, and theology, 87, 112. American, 142. must find truth and facts, 155. sent over to England, 172. women, in Scotland, 877. Studies of elementary schools, 5-12. of secondary schools, 5-12. of vocal music, 9. technological, 9. comparative, 29. classic and modern, 27. university, 87. differentiation of, 109. in prescribed order, 193. that lie at the basis, 198. Studio of universal encyclopedia, 109. incompatible, 121. Study of great masters, 455, 473. Study of modern languages, 121. a, that is bad, 156. " in absentia." 160. of the dative case, 176. of our language cannot be abridged, 197. of children's theology, 713, 765. of movements and mental states, 715, 750. Studying art, 472. Stuttering, prevention of, 713, 739. Stuttgart, Germany, 12, 178, 119. St. Viateur's College, 680. St. Xavier College, 681. Subject of legislation, branding, 145. Subjects presented in preliminary programme, 6. that have no dogma, 155. taught in technological schools, 525. of higher education assigned to second- ary schools, 196. of secondary education thrown into ele- mentary schools, 196. Subsidy, liberal, by Congress, 55. Substantial progress a sign of the time, 18. Substitute for supervision, 191. Success won by Jay Gould, 139. ten of the sixty -five were a, 191. Sudborough, Grace B., 246. Sudlow, Miss P. W., 840. Suicide, national, 81. Sullivan, Miss, 244, 302. Sullivan, M., 68. Sully, James, 714, 730. Summey, Geo., 93. Sumner, W. G., 91. Sunderland, Mrs. E. R., 713. Super, Chas. W., 92. Superintendent, appointment, 7. tenure of office, 7, 67. of schools, 47. must have been a teacher, 78. Superior, Wis., 325. Supervision of elementary schools, 7, 71. of secondary education, 6, 182. of physical training, 10. of schools, 29. of private schools, 177, 183. of parents, trustees, and the publicj 185. a questionable thing, 191. if had in England, 191. absolutely necessary, 191. made the schools efficient, 193. Supervisor giving lessons, 72. who understands the want, 193. Support of higher education, 167. Surgeon flourishing his knife. 74. Survey of the field of learning, 27. Survival of the fittest, 46. 998 INTERNATIONAL C0N0HE88 OF EDUCATION. Survival of the best, 46. of the meanest, 46. Suspension Bridge, N. Y., 92. Sutcliffe, Superintendent, 68, 88. Sutherland, J. W., 842. Sutto, Luigi, 590. Sutton, W. J., 386. Sutton, W. S., 67. Swain, Geo. F., 525, 554. Swan, Howard. 179. Swan, Rob.. 246. Swarthmore College, 93, 617. Swarthmore, Pa., 93, 617. Sweden, list of vice-presidents, 89, 590, 616. training of teachers, 16, 60. public education in, 289. our friends from, 183. physical education in, 16. Latin and Greek in, 209. Swedish gymnastics, school and military, 11. Swedish system, or sloyd, 589, 599, 604. Sweetser, P. H.,813. Sweevelt, C. van, 590. Swet, Superintendent, 341. Swift, 170. Switzerland, 13, 90, 179, 246, 323, 525, 553. S. W. Presbvterian university, 93. Sydney, Nevv South Wales, 89, 244, 590. Sykes, R., 245. Symbolic stage of childhood, 28. Symbolism, justifiable, 322. in kindergarten, 7, 322, 355, 356. Symbols fitted to child's comprehension, 322. Symes, J. B., 90. Sympathy for the work, 39. the utmost, 193. Symptom, acute, of disease, 116. Synthesis will give culture, 154. Syracuse, N. Y., 67, 681. Syracuse University, 681. System, Froebel's system of drawing, 7. systems of manual training, 10. barbaric, of reward and punishments, 18. generous, of public instruction, 37. designed to suit us, 43. of training teachers in Sweden, 62. of public education in Sweden, 289. European, 109. elective, 122. Systematizing private and endowed schools, 183. Systems, educational, of the past, outgrown, 17. of musical notation. 508. 522. Swedish or Russian, 589, 599, 604. Tabor College, 91, 681. Tabor, la., 91, 681. Tacitus, 172. Tacoma, Va., 591. Tacoma, Wash., 325. Tacubaya, Mexico. 90. Tadashi, N., 68. Tadd, J. L., 466, 591. Taine, in his " Philosophy of Art," 169. Taint of politics, 186. Talbert, M. J.. 814. Talbot, Henry, 455, 462. 466. Talent dies with the discoverer, 183. Tallahassee, Fla„ 69. Tamatsu, Aoki, 246. Tampa, Fla., 323. Taranaki, New Zealand, 244. Tarbell, Superintendent, 67, 70, 78, 82. Tarkio, Mo., 92. Tasmania, 89. Tassis, Cecilia, 323. Taste, artistic, 8. aesthetic, 8. of modern English novel, 175. Tax for public schools, 193. Tavlor, A. R., 386. Taylor, C. E., 92. Taylor, James M., 92. Taylor, J. B., 180. Taylor, J. Orville, 826. Taylor, R. L., 180. Taylor, Sarah McC, 386. Taylor, Vincent A., 14. Teachers, examinations, 7. certificates, 7. licenses, 7. probationary service, 7, university participation, 7, 67. nomination of, 7, 67. appointment of, 7. special teachers, 7. professional training, 7. qualifications of teachers of music, 9. culture of music teachers, 9. their functions, 9. their improvement, 29, 71. good, how procured, 60. to be university men, 61. their transfer, 80. methods of training. 383, 401. of Greek, 140. of secondary schools, 181. embedded in their own districts, 183. secure princely teachers, 187. held accountable for results, 191. get places haphazard, 192. Teachers' bureaus useful, 192. Teachers' institutes, 419. Teacher's Voice, The, 819. Teacher's World, The, 821. Teaching practice, value of, 8. INDEX. 999 Teaching practice, , critic of, 8. length of course, 8. Teaching history to children, 284. Technical instruction. 9. schools, 100, 111, 156. Technical difficulties in art instruction, 8. Technique of representation in drawing, 8, 455. Technological schools, theses on, 9. studies, 9. their accomplishments, 525, 534. Technology, department congress, 27. Tejima, S., 13. Telegrams, 125. Temmermann, M., 384. Tempe, Arizona, 385. Temple, J. S., 843. Tendencies, deteriorating, of public games, 146. Tendency of equality, 38. subjective, 47. internal, 47. of secondary education in France, 169. to take power awav from the people, 192. Tennessee, 14, 70, 93, 179, 325, 386. 509, 591, 616, 681. Tenney, Jonathan, 818. Tennyson, 170. a life-long reader of Greek, 128. Tenure of office of superintendents, 7, 67. Terhune, John, 246. Term of office, 82. Terre Haute, Ind., 69. 87, 386, 525, 526, 550. Territory, Northwest, 66. Tests of a university, 98. Tetlow, John, 180. Texas, 14, 70, 93, 179, 246, 325, 386. 681. Text-books used in Ontario, 41. how prepared there, 41. regulating their price, 42. learned by heart, 155. Thacher, T. A., 815. Thayer, G. F.,813. Theo-centric education, 680. Theocritus imitated, 128. Theological life of a child, 765. Theology in universities, 11. of children, 11, 713, 765. students of, 87. Theoretical training, 18. solution, 150. Theories and their exponents, 105. Theory of the first principles, 700. Thermes, A., 245. Theses of the programme, 6-12. Theses defended publicly, 157. the work of scholars, 175. Thing, a most inspiring, 167. Thiry,J. H., 244, 286. Thomas, Mrs. E. A., 509. Thomas, Miss Marie, 323. Thomas, M. Carev, 93. Thomas, Win. D.", 681. Thomas, Wm. L., 843. Thompson, D'Arcy W.. 90. Thompson, Hugh S., 14. Thompson, J. A.. 92. Thompson, Marian, 324. Thompson. Silv. P., 13. Thompson, W. O., 92. Thomson, 170. Thorden, Dr., 90. Thornton, Wm. M., 93. Thought and feeling. 507, 513. Thoughts of all nations, 22. Three R's, 45. Throop, Frances, 324. Thurber, C. H., 180. Thurston, Brown, 818. Thurston, Rob. II., 525, 534, 551,565. Thwing, Chas. F., 92. Tidioute, Pa., 591. Tierney, John J., 681. Tiffin, O., 92. Tifft, Mrs. L. L., 246. Tillard, J., 245. Tilsit, Germany, 245. Time of youth, 26. given to languages, 177, 196. in university wasted, 137. surrendered, 197. given grudgingly, 197. Tirsow, Alex., 90. Titchener, E. B., 680, 705. Titles, academic, 94. Tobar, Carlos R., 89. Tocqueville, De, 94. Toensfeld, J., 11. Tokyo, Japan, 13, 68, 90, 246, 455, 526, 590. Toledo, la., 91. Toledo, O., 325,591,681. Toudern, Germany, 681. Tongue analogous to Greek, 135. our noble but difficult, 197. Topeka, Kan., 69, 324. Topic of representing language, 28. Topics, specific, 72. Torngren, Dr. L. M., 4, 11, 16, 90, 616, 662. Toronto, Ont, 11, 12, 40, 68, 89, 178. 244, 321, 323, 326, 383. 384, 410, 450, 508. Torrey, II. A. P., 716. Tortori-ken, Japan, 246. Tottenham (London), England, 385. Tousev, Wm. G., 681. Towles, C. M., 681. Town, Amos, 67. Town system of schools, 190. 1000 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION Townsend, II. S., 246. Tracks in reading and writing, 715, 750. Tracy, F., 713, 737. Tracy, J. L., 842. Trainer, John, 839. Trainer, Mrs. J.C., 324. Training of kindergarteners, 7. professional, of teachers, 7. what degree of, 7. kind of, 7. engineers, 10. of teachers in high schools (Sweden), 16. for duties of citizenship, 278. or model schools, 383, 387. of the hand, 18. injurious. 131. for scientific professions, 525, 554. physical, for criminals, 615, 646. physical, for deaf-mutes, 616, 674. of the human body, 615, 623. in commercial college, 791. Training of the hand, a sign of the time, 18. Training-school, English, in Bosnia, 900. Transfer of teachers, 80. Transferring pupils, 86. Transient characteristics of mind, 29. Transition of the mind, 28. Transitory teacher's work, 37. Translation of Greek, 126. extempore, 174. Trautwetter, Katharine, 325. Treat, J. P., 829. Treatise, scientific, 61. Trenton, N. J., 69, 246, 384, 386, 432, 713. Treudly, Superintendent, 713. Tributary to kindergartner's training, 322. Triennium, three years' residence, 156. Trinity College, 92. Tripod, natural, human and divine, 48. Trivium of studies, 152. Trocadero in Jackson Park, 24. Troy, Ala., 323, 385. Troy, N. Y., 92, 527. Trustees, members of the board of, 193. Truth, primitive, 11. its discovery and use, 152. Truths, great, 322. Tiibingen, Germany, 89. Tucson, Arizona, 526. Tufts College, Mass., 91, 617, 681. Tufts, James II., 680. Tufts, J. A.. 180. Tulane University, 69, 91, 179, 525, 526, 554, 616. Tunbridge Wells, England, 225, 245. Tunis, Tunisie, 12, 53. Tupper-Maynard, Mrs., 713. Turin, Italy, 10, 12, 90, 245, 615, 623. Turnbull, W. P., 245. Turner, Isaac J., 617. Turner, II. M., 13. Turner, R. W., 844. Turner-bund, North American, 11, 615, 657. and the normal schools, 11. its history, 657. aims and achievements, 657. Tuscumbia, Ala., 302. Tutors in liigh-schools in Sweden, 62. Tutwiler, Julia S., 385. Tweed, B. P., 246, 813. Twist, fatal, of the thinking faculty, 169. Tyler, Chas. M., 681. Type, universities be of one, 104. of education, 139. Types of great art works, 8. of manhood, 28. of womanhood, 28. of errors, 73. in biology, 153. Typewriting in -business colleges, 10. and stenography, 798. Typical facts, 44. Typical normal school work differing from secondary and higher education, 8. Tyrone, Pa., 325. U Ueberschaer, Max, 245. Uellner, Dr., 179. Uhlig, G., 179. Unconscious of danger, 73. Undergraduate life of American students, 6, 88, 142. examination of, 119. Uniform examinations, 41. Uniformity secured, 383. in Germany, 157. Union of kindergarten and primary school, 321, 336. Union Tedagogique, 850. Union University, 681. United Kingdom, mixed practice in, 183. United States, State legislation for physical education, 11. list of vice-presidents, 13, 68, 90, 179, 246, 323, 385, 457, 509, 526, 590, 616, 680, 715. cities of, 21. scientific education in, 35. public instruction shall endure in, 37. forty-four republics in the, 39. school savings-banks, 244, 280. academic learning in, 129. institutions granting degrees, 159. Unity and peace of mankind, 20. Universal education, 118. Universal Educator, The, 828. Universe, the whole, 176. Universities, 6. American, 95. ' INDEX. 1001 Universities, one type ? 6, 104, 108. European, 51. participation, 7. professional preparation of teachers, 8. of the United States, 51. their condition, 96. relation to advancement of civilization, 161. Scottish, 877. University, division of labor in, 109. different faculties, 109. specialization in, 109. ancient organism, 110. atmosphere, 116. degree a prerequisite, 112. education of women, 853. association of women, 865. education distinguished from collegiate, 97. fellowship, 107. its relation to professional schools, 146. University College, Oxford, 680. University College, London, 715. University departments formed by normal schools, 424. University extension, the new movement, 18. University of Alabama, 52, 90. University of Atlanta, 91. University of California, 52, 87. 104. University of Chicago, 87, 88, 91, 108, 118, 127, 132, 137, 141, 168, 177, 193, 679, 680. University of Cincinnati, 87, 92, 108, 150. University of Colorado, 87, 680. University of Denver, 90. University of France, 118, 119. University of Illinois, 526. University of Iowa, 91, 716. University of Michigan, 11, 87, 92, 128, 133, 164, 243, 260, 680. University of Mississippi, 681. University of Missouri, 679, 716. University of Nebraska, 87, 108. University of North Carolina, 92. University of North Dakota, 92, 681. University of Notre Dame, 715. University of Omaha, 92. University of Oregon, 681. University of Pennsylvania, 93, 99, 681, 716. University of Rochester, 681. University of South Dakota. 93. University of Southern California, 680. University of St. Lawrence, 92. University of Texas, 681. Universitv of the City of New York, 92, 384, 715. University of the Northwest. 681. University of the South, 93, 716. University of Turin, Italy. 87. 615. 62:]. University of Vermont, 716. University of Vienna (Austria), 509. University of Virginia, 617, 716. University of Wisconsin, 93, 716. University of Wooster, 92, 681. University of Wyoming, 93. Cniversitv P. O., Cal., 680. University P. O., Miss., 681. Universitv P. O., N. D., 681. Upper Alton, 111., 91. Uppingham, England, 179. Upsala, Sweden, 61, 90. Upson, Dr. Anson J., 14. Ursinus College, 681. Uruguay, 13, 16, 56. 6^, 179, 246. Uruguayan Horace Mann, 57. Use of magic lanterns, 244, 314. of symbolism in kindergarten, 355. of truth, 152. of instruments in teaching singing, 507, 519. Utah, 325, 527. Utica, N. Y., 69, 325. Utilitarianism of life, 110. Utility, doubtful, 191. Utrecht, Netherlands, 179, 385. Utterings, idealistic, 175. Vacancies, temporarily filled, 8. Vaile, E. O., 826, 839. Valencia, E. C. de. 590. Valencia, Spain, 179. Valparaiso, Ind., 324. Value, educational, of observation work in normal schools, 7. of hand work in kindergarten, 7. of technological studies, 9, 27. of applied mathematics, 9. of engineering, 9, 525, 558. of pure mathematics, 10. of industrial education, 10. of business education, 10. of university extension, 18. of laboratory work, 27. of workshop practice, 27. of manual education, 64. economic, 81. of elementary schools, 244. of social virtues, 278. of kindergarten songs, 321, 331. of handwork, 322. of practice work in training-schools, 383, 387 of Greek, 125. of exact measurements, 525, 558. of applied mathematics, 525, 5"26, 560, 583. coordinate. 198. Vanderbilt University, 93, 617, 681. Vjindewalker, Nina, 325. Vankirk. Mrs. M.S., 325. V.ui Meter, John P., 716. Van Scoy, W. T.. 3SC. Van Winkle, P. J., 386. 1002 INTERNATIONAL CONQRESS OF EDUCATION. Varela, Jos. Peter, progress of education in Uruguay, 16, 56. Varos, Hungary, 179. Vassar College, 92. Vaughan, Mrs. A. K., 324. Vawter, C. E., 591. Vedia, Juan M. de, 244. Vehicle of the noblest literature, 132. Venable, R. A., 92. Venice, the new, 24. Vermilion, S. Dak., 93. Vermont, 93, 179, 325, 386, 716. Vermont Agriculturist, The, 818. Vermont School Journal, The, 818. Vernacular of the time, 24. Versailles, Prance, 245. Veteran educator, 53. Veugh, W. van der, 90. Vicenza, Italy, 13. Vice-presidents, list of, 12, 68, 89, 178, 244, 323, 384. 456, 526. Victoria, British Columbia, 12. Victoria University (England), 95. Victories of science, 198. Vienna, Austria, 11, 12, 89, 323, 366, 384. 456, 505, 590, 616. Vierzon, France, 590. View, a merchant's, of business colleges, 10. the opposite, 122. optimistic, 146. incorrect and injurious, 165. Views of life, 175. Village or town corporation supervision, 192. Villages, in, and in hamlets, 166. Vinck, Emile, 89. Violin or piano in vocal music. 507, 519. Virginia, 14, 70, 93, 324, 325, 386, 457, 527, 591, 616, 681, 716. Virtue, broad domain of, 20. Virtues, social, 244. Visitation by college professors, 189. Visiting teachers, by supervisor, 72. Visitors, the elementary schools have, 191. Visits, formal and informal, 191. occasional, 191. Vocabularies, infants', 713, 737. Vocal music, instruction in, 8. learned by rote, 9. part singing, 9. soprano and melody, 9. selection of songs, 9. adapted for children, 9. patriotic airs, 9. popular songs, 9. religious hymns, 9. its accorftpaniment, 9. classic music, 9. special teachers, fl. correction of errors, 9. Vocal music, expression in, 9. enunciation, 9. proper posture of body, 9. pitch, 9. use of instrument, 507, 519. department of, 507. Vocal organs, their hygiene, 507, 514. Vocation a natural expression, 111). Vogel, Chr., 179. Voices, familiar, 34. Voiron, France, 590. Volkmann, D., 179. Voltaire, 172. Volume, The 848. W Waco, Tex., 14, 93, 325. Waddington, Rich., 245. Wadsworth, Edith J., 325. Wadsworth, M. E., 527. Waetzoldt, Dr. Stephan, 12. Wagner, R., 68. Wagner, Samuel, 457. Wake Forest College, 92. Wake Forest, N. C, 92. Wales, 385. Walbridge, N. H., 832. Walker, Gen. Francis A., 5, 9, 91, 525, 526, 528. Walker, P. R.. 246. Wallace, Hamilton, 246. Wallace, Wm., 680. Walla Walla, Wash., 93. Waller, Jr., D. J., 69. Waller, Frank, 457. Walters, John D., 591. Walton, G. A., 246, 408. Walton, Geo. W., 383. " Wanderjahr," to see the world, 113. Wants of the time, 39. of the community, 191. Ward, A. W., 173. Ward, Mrs. Humphrev, 175. Ward, Phillip, 245. Ward, T. M. D., 13. Wardale, W., 245. Warfield, E. D., 93. Warner, Francis, 11, 715, 750. Warning of wisdom, 45. Warre, Edm., 179. Warren, W. P., 91. Warrensburg, Mo., 386. Warrenton, Mo., 681. Washington and Lee Universitv, 93, 617, 681. Washington, D. C, 13, 14, 88, 100, 179, 244, 246, 300, 321, 323, 342, 385, 456, 457, 526, 590, 591, 606, 616, 679, 700, 715. 800. Washington (State), 70, 93, 179, 246, 325, 386, 509, 527. Washington University (St. Louis), 92, 243, 266, 582, 589, 594, 605, 617, 716. INDEX. 1003 Washington, Va.. 591. Waste, mental, 713, 725. Waterfonl, Ireland, 245. Waterman, R., 525, 551. Walertown, X. Y., 325. Waterville, Me.. 91, 179. Waterville, O., 681. Watson, II. G., 616. Watson, John, 680. Watt, W. E., 507, 512, 513, 519, 522. Wax modeling. 8. Wavland, Francis, 98. Wayland, H. L., 14, 832. Weak teachers, 72. Weakness of childhood, 77. Webb, W. R. J. M., 180. Weber, Carl Maria von, 9. Weed, Charlotte H., 325. Weed, Miss Ella, 92. Wegiminn, Ileinrich, 323. Weimar, Germany, 12. Weir, Edw. E., 681. Welch, Miss E., 90. Welch, J. P., 386. Welcome by Superintendent Lane, 16, 31. sympathetic and cordial, 56. Welfare, general of the U. S., 187. Welldon, J. E. C, 179. Wellesley College, 91, 617. Wellesley College school of music, 509. Wellesley, Mass., 91, 180, 509, 617. Wellington, New Zealand, 12, 456. Wells,!). Franklin, 841. Wells, Mrs. I). B.. 179. Wells, Win. H., 813. Welsh, Mrs. S. L., 324. Wertheimer, J., 526. Wesleyan University, 88, 142, 680. Wesleyan University (111.), 91. West, A. P., 5, 88, 135, 150. 154, 155. West, Mary A., 323, 837. WestChester. Fa., 386. West Point and Annapolis, 186. Wist, the change in, 35. West Virginia, 70, 509, 527, 681. West Virginia University, 681. Westcott, O. S., 837. Western Academician, The, 828. Western college, 91, 681, 699. Western liberal education, 153. Western Maryland College, 616. Western, Mrs., 713. Westernport, Md., 246. Western Reserve School Journal, The, 829. Western Reserve University, 92. Western School Journal, 'the, 28, 844. Western States, 32. Western University of Pennsylvania, 92, 617. Westerville, 0., 92. Westminster, Eng., 385. Westminster, Md., 616. West Newton, Mass., 246. Weston, E. P., 817, 818. Weston, Or., 386. Wey, H. D., 11, 617. Weyer, 0. W., 841. Weyrauch, Dr., 12. Wheatlev. Ella M.. 325. Wheaton College, 88, 135, 145. Wheaton, 111., 91. Wheeling, W. Va.. 67. Wheelock, Carrie M., 325. Wheelock, Lucy, 324. Whig and Democratic party, 166. Whipple, Prof., 88, 135. Whitaker, Geo., 92. White City, an annex to International Congress, 23. White, E. E., 69, 244, 295, 828. White, Emma W., 325. White, II. C, 526. White, Miss II. M., 90. White, John S., 180. White, Jos. E., 180. White, President, 95. White, S. II., 835. White Springs. Fla., 385. Whitehead, Katherine, 325. Whitewater, Wis., 325, 386. Whitford, Wm. C, 93. Whiting, Edith G., 324. Whitlock, Miss Lucy, 322. Whitman as a biologist, 135. Whitman, B. L., 91. Whitman, C. O., 127. Whitman College, 93. Whitman, Mrs. 0. A., 325. Whit more, Eva B., 324. Whitney, C. L., 832. Whitney, Geo. II., 180. Whitney, W. D., 91. Whittier, Frank N.. 616. Wichita, Kan., 324, 509, 681. Wichita University, 681. Wickham, E. C, i79. Wiener, Dr., 12. Wife as business woman, 10. Wiggin, Mrs. Kate D., 321, 322, 325. Wilberforce College, 92. Wilberforce, 0., 14, 92. Wilborn, Miss T., 245. Wilder. W. H., 91. Wiley, Miss, 321. Wilev, W. H., 69. Wilhelm, J. S., 180. Wilkins, Daniel, 834. Wilkinson, A., 456. Will, psychology of, 11. in children. 11. of the people, studied by lawyers, 187. Willamette University, 92. Willard, Miss Frances E., 13. Willard, Samuel, 246, 837, 833. Willard, S. P., 246. Willets, Edwin, 13. Willets, Miss Mary, 615, 641. 1004 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. William Jewell College, 92, 681. Williams College, 617. Williams, G. U., 386. Williams, II. II., 681. Williams. Miss h. A., 713, 715. Williams. Mary, 324. Williams, S. G'., 384, 440. Williams, Talcott, 135. Williamstown, Mass., 617. Williinan. Claudia, 179. Willimantic, Conn., 323. Wills, Miss C. E., 457. Wilma.th. Mrs. II. M.. 4, 13, 23. Wilmington, Del., 69, 179, 323, 509, 615, 641. Wilmington, N. C, 246. Wilson, Baroness lie, 90. Wilson, Miss E. C, 90. Wilson, E. II.. 179. Wilson, F. E., 829. Wilson, Mrs. L. P., 325. Wilson, It. I., 386. Wilson, S. R., 245. Wilson, Woodrow, 87, 112. Wilt. A. D., 793. Wiltse. SaraE., 324. Winchell, Alex., 832. Wine-hell, S. It., 836. Winchester and Eton, 37. Winchester, Ky., 13. Windermere, Eng., 245. Winn, J. B., 246. Winona, Minn., 324, 386. Winship, A. E., 68, 83, 713, 772, 820. Winston. Geo. F., 92. Wisconsin, 32, 70, 93, 325. 386, 681 , 716. Wisconsin State Normal School, 713. Wise, Hon. Geo. I)., 14. Wise, Henry A., 383, 406. Wise, Superintendent, 68. Withdrawal from school, 85. Wolf, Chas. 11., 841. Wolfe, J. 0.. 843. Wolfe, L. E. . 69. Wolkonsky, Prince Serge, 4, 13. Wolverhampton, England, 245. Woman teaching a primary class, 36. ■equal to man, 101. Womanhood, type of, 28. Woman's College of Baltimore, 716. Woman's influence, 22. Women, business, the world's need of, 800. educational work for, 887. and girls in India, 890. in England, 853. their education in New Zealand, 883. Women students in Scottish universities. 877. Women teachers, their univei"sity associa- tion, 865. Wonder, look with, at our secondary schools, 181. Wood, A. P., 840. Wood, De Volson, 526, 586. Wood, instinct ion in, 10. Wood, Miss Ida, 93. Wood. StellaS., 324. Wood, Sir Truman. 16. Wood, T. 1)., 10, 615,616, 621. Woodbridge.W. ('., 812. Woodbury, Prof., 525, 553. Woodland, Cal„ 90. Woodruff, Mamie It., 324. Woodson, Adda. 325. Woodward, C. M.. 243. 266, 526, 582, 586, 589, 591, 594. 597, 605. Woodward. E. K., 842. Woodward, Win., 591. Wood worth, II. B., 681. Wooster, O.. 92, 681. Worcester, Elwood, 716. Worcester, Mass., 11, 91, 177, 178, 180, 199, 207, 224, 243, 268, 383, 3t6, 527, 591, 681. 713, 717, 718. Words of retrospect and forecast, 862. Wordsworth, 170. Wordsworth is Greek in sympathy, 128. Work of poor teachers, 7. in laboratory, 9. which is eternal, 34. in secondary and higher education, 384, 430. Workman, W. G., 508. Workshops, practice in, 9. World's industries make new demands, 589, 594. need of business women, 800. World's International Congress of Educa- tion, 1. secretary, 16. Worms. Germany, 68. Worrall, John M*., 681. Wright, Cornelia It., 325. Wright, John S„ 833. Wright, Ramsey, 89. Writing, a conventional study, 7. beautiful, 73. essential in course of study, 243, 251. and reading in kindergarten, 321, 327. Wundt, W., 680. 705. Wundt, his psychology of the will, 11, 680, 705. Wiirzburg, Germany, 89. Wyatt, II. P., 70. Wyckoff, Miss A. E., 713, 762. Wylie, Mary J. B.. 325. Wyoming, 14, 70, 93. X Xenophon, 21. Xenophon's Hellenica, 131. Yale College, 88, 91. Yale Universitv. 88, 91, 99, 125, 126, 127, 128, 132, 455, 476, 525, 680. INDEX. 1005 Yannev, B. F.. 829. Yarde.'W. B. S., 245. Yatabe, R., 90. Yellow Springs, 0., 92. Tiling, Lorenz, 323. York, England, 245. Yorke, P. C, 90. Young as an astronomer, 135. Ymmg, C. A., 125. Young, C. S., 68. Young, Mrs. Ella F., 83, 246. Young, Geo. C, 509. Youngstown, O., 325. Youth, epochs of, 28. Ypsilanti, Mich., 324, 386. Zeal for the advancement of education, 183. denominational, 186. Zehnder, G., 323. Zettler, Moritz, 11, 616, 670. Ziegler, Dr. Theo., 12. Zimmern, Miss. 177. 178, 191, 225. 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